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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2)
+       A Collection of Miscellaneous Essays and Articles on Art and Literature
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2007 [EBook #21263]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE OLD ROAD, VOL. 2 (OF 2) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Library Edition
+
+  THE COMPLETE WORKS
+
+  OF
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN
+
+  ON THE OLD ROAD
+  VOLUMES I-II
+
+  NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
+  NEW YORK        CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+  ON THE OLD ROAD.
+
+  _A COLLECTION OF
+  MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS AND ARTICLES
+  ON ART AND LITERATURE._
+
+  PUBLISHED 1834-1885.
+
+  VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE
+
+  PICTURE GALLERIES.
+
+    PARLIAMENTARY EVIDENCE:--
+      NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION. 1857                  3
+      SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 1860          25
+      THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION                           50
+    A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY                              71
+
+  MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.
+
+      THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS, VERONA. 1872                    89
+      VERONA AND ITS RIVERS (WITH CATALOGUE). 1870           99
+      CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 1872                     118
+      ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIÆVAL CHRISTENDOM. 1876             121
+      THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 1876                       125
+      THE STUDY OF BEAUTY. 1883                             132
+
+  NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.
+
+      THE COLOR OF THE RHINE. 1834                          141
+      THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC. 1834                        143
+      THE INDURATION OF SANDSTONE. 1836                     145
+      THE TEMPERATURE OF SPRING AND RIVER WATER. 1836.      148
+      METEOROLOGY. 1839                                     153
+      TREE TWIGS. 1861                                      158
+      STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY. 1863                        162
+      INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION AND ANIMATED LIFE. 1871       168
+
+  LITERATURE.
+
+      FICTION--FAIR AND FOUL. 1880-81                       175
+      FAIRY STORIES. 1868                                   290
+
+  ECONOMY.
+
+      HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES. 1873                         299
+      USURY. A REPLY AND A REJOINDER. 1880                  314
+      USURY. A PREFACE. 1885                                340
+
+  THEOLOGY.
+
+      NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS. 1851         347
+      THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH. 1879-81. (Letters
+        and Epilogue.)                                               382
+      THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE. 1873             418
+
+  AN OXFORD LECTURE. 1878                                            429
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  PICTURE GALLERIES:
+
+  _THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION._
+
+
+  A. PARLIAMENTARY EVIDENCE.
+
+      NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION 1857.
+      SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 1860.
+      THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION 1863.
+
+  B. LETTERS ON A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY.
+
+                 (_Art Journal, June and August, 1880._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+THE NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION.[1]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, April 6, 1857._
+
+
+114. _Chairman._ Has your attention been turned to the desirableness of
+uniting sculpture with painting under the same roof?--Yes.
+
+What is your opinion on the subject?--I think it almost essential that
+they should be united, if a National Gallery is to be of service in
+teaching the course of art.
+
+Sculpture of all kinds, or only ancient sculpture?--Of all kinds.
+
+Do you think that the sculpture in the British Museum should be in the
+same building with the pictures in the National Gallery, that is to say,
+making an application of your principle to that particular case?--Yes,
+certainly; I think so for several reasons--chiefly because I think the
+taste of the nation can only be rightly directed by having always
+sculpture and painting visible together. Many of the highest and best
+points of painting, I think, can only be discerned after some discipline
+of the eye by sculpture. That is one very essential reason. I think that
+after looking at sculpture one feels the grace of composition infinitely
+more, and one also feels how that grace of composition was reached by
+the painter.
+
+Do you consider that if works of sculpture and works of painting were
+placed in the same gallery, the same light would be useful for both of
+them?--I understood your question only to refer to their collection
+under the same roof. I should be sorry to see them in the same room.
+
+You would not mix them up in the way in which they are mixed up in the
+Florentine Gallery, for instance?--Not at all. I think, on the contrary,
+that the one diverts the mind from the other, and that, although the one
+is an admirable discipline, you should take some time for the
+examination of sculpture, and pass afterwards into the painting room,
+and so on. You should not be disturbed while looking at paintings by the
+whiteness of the sculpture.
+
+You do not then approve, for example, of the way in which the famous
+room, the Tribune, at Florence, is arranged?--No; I think it is merely
+arranged for show--for showing how many rich things can be got together.
+
+115. _Mr. Cockerell._ Then you do not regard sculpture as a proper
+decorative portion of the National Gallery of Pictures--you do not admit
+the term decoration?--No; I should not use that term of the sculpture
+which it was the object of the gallery to exhibit. It might be added, of
+course, supposing it became a part of the architecture, but not as
+independent--not as a thing to be contemplated separately in the room,
+and not as a part of the room. As a part of the room, of course, modern
+sculpture might be added; but I have never thought that it would be
+necessary.
+
+You do not consider that sculpture would be a repose after contemplating
+painting for some time?--I should not feel it so myself.
+
+116. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of removing the sculpture of
+the British Museum, and of uniting it with the pictures of the National
+Gallery, do you comprehend the whole range of the sculpture in the
+British Museum, commencing with the Egyptian, and going down through its
+regular series of gradation to the decline of the art?--Yes, because my
+great hope respecting the National Gallery is, that it may become a
+perfectly consecutive chronological arrangement, and it seems to me that
+it is one of the chief characteristics of a National Gallery that it
+should be so.
+
+Then you consider that one great excellence of the collection at the
+British Museum is, that it does present that sort of history of the art
+of sculpture?--I consider it rather its weakness that it does not.
+
+Then you would go down further?--I would.
+
+You are perhaps acquainted with the ivories which have been recently
+purchased there?--I am not.
+
+Supposing there were a fine collection of Byzantine ivories, you would
+consider that they were an important link in the general
+history?--Certainly.
+
+Would you unite the whole of that Pagan sculpture with what you call the
+later Christian art of Painting?--I should be glad to see it done--that
+is to say, I should be glad to see the galleries of painting and
+sculpture collaterally placed, and the gallery of sculpture beginning
+with the Pagan art, and proceeding to the Christian art, but not
+necessarily associating the painting with the sculpture of each epoch;
+because the painting is so deficient in many of the periods where the
+sculpture is rich, that you could not carry them on collaterally--you
+must have your painting gallery and your sculpture gallery.
+
+You would be sorry to take any portion of the sculpture from the
+collection in the British Museum, and to associate it with any
+collection of painting?--Yes, I should think it highly inexpedient. My
+whole object would be that it might be associated with a larger
+collection, a collection from other periods, and not be subdivided. And
+it seems to be one of the chief reasons advanced in order to justify
+removing that collection, that it cannot be much more enlarged--that you
+cannot at present put other sculpture with it.
+
+Supposing that the collection of ancient Pagan art could not be united
+with the National Gallery of pictures, with which would you associate
+the mediæval sculpture, supposing we were to retain any considerable
+amount of sculpture?--With the painting.
+
+The mediæval art you would associate with the painting, supposing you
+could not put the whole together?--Yes.
+
+117. _Chairman._ Do you approve of protecting pictures by glass?--Yes,
+in every case. I do not know of what size a pane of glass can be
+manufactured, but I have never seen a picture so large but that I should
+be glad to see it under glass. Even supposing it were possible, which I
+suppose it is not, the great Paul Veronese, in the gallery of the
+Louvre, I think would be more beautiful under glass.
+
+Independently of the preservation?--Independently of the preservation, I
+think it would be more beautiful. It gives an especial delicacy to light
+colors, and does little harm to dark colors--that is, it benefits
+delicate pictures most, and its injury is only to very dark pictures.
+
+Have you ever considered the propriety of covering the sculpture with
+glass?--I have never considered it. I did not know until a very few days
+ago that sculpture was injured by exposure to our climate and our smoke.
+
+_Professor Faraday._ But you would cover the pictures, independently of
+the preservation, you would cover them absolutely for the artistic
+effect, the improvement of the picture?--Not necessarily so, because to
+some persons there might be an objectionable character in having to
+avoid the reflection more scrupulously than otherwise. I should not
+press for it on that head only. The advantage gained is not a great one;
+it is only felt by very delicate eyes. As far as I know, many persons
+would not perceive that there was a difference, and that is caused by
+the very slight color in the glass, which, perhaps, some persons might
+think it expedient to avoid altogether.
+
+Do you put it down to the absolute tint in the glass like a glazing, or
+do you put it down to a sort of reflection? Is the effect referable to
+the color in the glass, or to some kind of optic action, which the most
+transparent glass might produce?--I do not know; but I suppose it to
+be referable to the very slight tint in the glass.
+
+118. _Dean of St. Paul's._ Is it not the case when ladies with very
+brilliant dresses look at pictures through glass, that the reflection of
+the color of their dresses is so strong as greatly to disturb the
+enjoyment and the appreciation of the pictures?--Certainly; but I should
+ask the ladies to stand a little aside, and look at the pictures one by
+one. There is that disadvantage.
+
+I am supposing a crowded room--of course the object of a National
+Gallery is that it should be crowded--that as large a number of the
+public should have access to it as possible--there would of course be
+certain limited hours, and the gallery would be liable to get filled
+with the public in great numbers?--It would be disadvantageous
+certainly, but not so disadvantageous as to balance the much greater
+advantage of preservation. I imagine that, in fact, glass is essential;
+it is not merely an expedient thing, but an essential thing to the
+safety of the pictures for twenty or thirty years.
+
+Do you consider it essential as regards the atmosphere of London, or of
+this country generally?--I speak of London only. I have no experience of
+other parts. But I have this experience in my own collection. I kept my
+pictures for some time without glass, and I found the deterioration
+definite within a very short period--a period of a couple of years.
+
+You mean at Denmark Hill?--Yes; that deterioration on pictures of the
+class I refer to is not to be afterwards remedied--the thing suffers
+forever--you cannot get into the interstices.
+
+_Professor Faraday._ You consider that the picture is permanently
+injured by the dirt?--Yes.
+
+That no cleaning can restore it to what it was?--Nothing can restore it
+to what it was, I think, because the operation of cleaning must scrape
+away some of the grains of paint.
+
+Therefore, if you have two pictures, one in a dirtier place, and one in
+a cleaner place, no attention will put the one in the dirtier place on
+a level with that in the cleaner place?--I think nevermore.
+
+119. _Chairman._ I see that in your "Notes on the Turner Collection,"
+you recommended that the large upright pictures would have great
+advantage in having a room to themselves. Do you mean each of the large
+pictures or a whole collection of large pictures?--Supposing very
+beautiful pictures of a large size (it would depend entirely on the
+value and size of the picture), supposing we ever acquired such large
+pictures as Titian's Assumption, or Raphael's Transfiguration, those
+pictures ought to have a room to themselves, and to have a gallery round
+them.
+
+Do you mean that each of them should have a room?--Yes.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Have you been recently at Dresden?--No, I have
+never been at Dresden.
+
+Then you do not know the position of the Great Holbein and of the
+Madonna de S. Sisto there, which have separate rooms?--No.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ Are you acquainted with the Munich Gallery--No.
+
+Do you know the plans of it?--No.
+
+Then you have not seen, perhaps, the most recent arrangements adopted by
+that learned people, the Germans, with regard to the exhibition of
+pictures?--I have not been into Germany for twenty years.
+
+120. That subject has been handled by them in an original manner, and
+they have constructed galleries at Munich, at Dresden, and I believe at
+St. Petersburg upon a new principle, and a very judicious principle. You
+have not had opportunities of considering that?--No, I have never
+considered that; because I always supposed that there was no difficulty
+in producing a beautiful gallery, or an efficient one. I never thought
+that there could be any question about the form which such a gallery
+should take, or that it was a matter of consideration. The only
+difficulty with me was this--the persuading, or hoping to persuade, a
+nation that if it had pictures at all, it should have those pictures on
+the line of the eye; that it was not well to have a noble picture many
+feet above the eye, merely for the glory of the room. Then I think that
+as soon as you decide that a picture is to be seen, it is easy to find
+out the way of showing it; to say that it should have such and such a
+room, with such and such a light; not a raking light, as I heard Sir
+Charles Eastlake express it the other day, but rather an oblique and
+soft light, and not so near the picture as to catch the eye painfully.
+That may be easily obtained, and I think that all other questions after
+that are subordinate.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Your proposition would require a great extent of
+wall?--An immense extent of wall.
+
+121. _Chairman._ I see you state in the pamphlet to which I have before
+alluded, that it is of the highest importance that the works of each
+master should be kept together. Would not such an arrangement increase
+very much the size of the National Gallery?--I think not, because I have
+only supposed in my plan that, at the utmost, two lines of pictures
+should be admitted on the walls of the room; that being so, you would be
+always able to put all the works of any master together without any
+inconvenience or difficulty in fitting them to the size of the room.
+Supposing that you put the large pictures high on the walls, then it
+might be a question, of course, whether such and such a room or
+compartment of the Gallery would hold the works of a particular master;
+but supposing the pictures were all on a continuous line, you would only
+stop with A and begin with B.
+
+Then you would only have them on one level and one line?--In general;
+that seems to me the common-sense principle.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Then you disapprove of the whole of the European hanging
+of pictures in galleries?--I think it very beautiful sometimes, but not
+to be imitated. It produces most noble rooms. No one can but be
+impressed with the first room at the Louvre, where you have the most
+noble Venetian pictures one mass of fire on the four walls; but then
+none of the details of those pictures can be seen.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ There you have a very fine general effect, but you
+lose the effect of the beauties of each individual picture?--You lose
+all the beauties, all the higher merits; you get merely your general
+idea. It is a perfectly splendid room, of which a great part of the
+impression depends upon the consciousness of the spectator that it is so
+costly.
+
+122. Would you have those galleries in themselves richly decorated?--Not
+richly, but pleasantly.
+
+Brilliantly, but not too brightly?--Not too brightly. I have not gone
+into that question, it being out of my way; but I think, generally, that
+great care should be taken to give a certain splendor--a certain
+gorgeous effect--so that the spectator may feel himself among splendid
+things; so that there shall be no discomfort or meagerness, or want of
+respect for the things which are being shown.
+
+123. _Mr. Richmond._ Then do you think that Art would be more worthily
+treated, and the public taste and artists better served, by having even
+a smaller collection of works so arranged, than by a much larger one
+merely housed and hung four or five deep, as in an auction room?--Yes.
+But you put a difficult choice before me, because I do think it a very
+important thing that we should have many pictures. Totally new results
+might be obtained from a large gallery in which the chronological
+arrangement was perfect, and whose curators prepared for that
+chronological arrangement, by leaving gaps to be filled by future
+acquisition; taking the greatest pains in the selection of the examples,
+that they should be thoroughly characteristic; giving a greater price
+for a picture which was thoroughly characteristic and expressive of the
+habits of a nation; because it appears to me that one of the main uses
+of Art at present is not so much as Art, but as teaching us the feelings
+of nations. History only tells us what they did; Art tells us their
+feelings, and why they did it: whether they were energetic and fiery, or
+whether they were, as in the case of the Dutch, imitating minor things,
+quiet and cold. All those expressions of feeling cannot come out of
+History. Even the contemporary historian does not feel them; he does not
+feel what his nation is; but get the works of the same master together,
+the works of the same nation together, and the works of the same
+century together, and see how the thing will force itself upon
+everyone's observation.
+
+124. Then you would not exclude the genuine work of inferior
+masters?--Not by any means.
+
+You would have the whole as far as you could obtain it?--Yes, as far as
+it was characteristic; but I think you can hardly call an inferior
+master one who does in the best possible way the thing he undertakes to
+do; and I would not take any master who did not in some way excel. For
+instance, I would not take a mere imitator of Cuyp among the Dutch; but
+Cuyp himself has done insuperable things in certain expressions of
+sunlight and repose. Vander Heyden and others may also be mentioned as
+first-rate in inferior lines.
+
+Taking from the rise of art to the time of Raphael, would you in the
+National Gallery include examples of all those masters whose names have
+come down to the most learned of us?--No.
+
+Where would you draw the line, and where would you begin to leave
+out?--I would only draw the line when I was purchasing a picture. I
+think that a person might always spend his money better by making an
+effort to get one noble picture than five or six second or third-rate
+pictures, provided only, that you had examples of the best kind of work
+produced at that time. I would not have second-rate pictures. Multitudes
+of masters among the disciples of Giotto might be named; you might have
+one or two pictures of Giotto, and one or two pictures of the disciples
+of Giotto.
+
+Then you would rather depend upon the beauty of the work itself; if the
+work were beautiful, you would admit it?--Certainly.
+
+But if it were only historically interesting, would you then reject
+it?--Not in the least. I want it historically interesting, but I want as
+good an example as I can have of that particular manner.
+
+Would it not be historically interesting if it were the only picture
+known of that particular master, who was a follower of Giotto? For
+instance, supposing a work of Cennino Cennini were brought to light,
+and had no real merit in it as a work of art, would it not be the duty
+of the authorities of a National Gallery to seize upon that picture, and
+pay perhaps rather a large price for it?--Certainly; all documentary art
+I should include.
+
+Then what would you exclude?--Merely that which is inferior, and not
+documentary; merely another example of the same kind of thing.
+
+Then you would not multiply examples of the same masters if inferior
+men, but you would have one of each. There is no man, I suppose, whose
+memory has come down to us after three or four centuries, but has
+something worth preserving in his work--something peculiar to himself,
+which perhaps no other person has ever done, and you would retain one
+example of such, would you not?--I would, if it was in my power, but I
+would rather with given funds make an effort to get perfect examples.
+
+Then you think that the artistic element should govern the archæological
+in the selection?--Yes, and the archæological in the arrangement.
+
+125. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of arranging the works of one
+master consecutively, would you pay any regard or not to the subjects?
+You must be well aware that many painters, for instance, Correggio, and
+others, painted very incongruous subjects; would you rather keep them
+together than disperse the works of those painters to a certain degree
+according to their subjects?--I would most certainly keep them together.
+I think it an important feature of the master that he did paint
+incongruously, and very possibly the character of each picture would be
+better understood by seeing them together; the relations of each are
+sometimes essential to be seen.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Do you think that the preservation of these works is one
+of the first and most important things to be provided for?--It would be
+so with me in purchasing a picture. I would pay double the price for it
+if I thought it was likely to be destroyed where it was.
+
+In a note you wrote to me the other day, I find this passage: "The Art
+of a nation I think one of the most important points of its history, and
+a part which, if once destroyed, no history will ever supply the place
+of--and the first idea of a National Gallery is, that it should be a
+Library of Art, in which the rudest efforts are, in some cases, hardly
+less important than the noblest." Is that your opinion?--Perfectly. That
+seems somewhat inconsistent with what I have been saying, but I mean
+there, the noblest efforts of the time at which they are produced. I
+would take the greatest pains to get an example of eleventh century
+work, though the painting is perfectly barbarous at that time.
+
+126. You have much to do with the education of the working classes in
+Art. As far as you are able to tell us, what is your experience with
+regard to their liking and disliking in Art--do comparatively uneducated
+persons prefer the Art up to the time of Raphael, or down from the time
+of Raphael?--we will take the Bolognese School, or the early Florentine
+School--which do you think a working man would feel the greatest
+interest in looking at?--I cannot tell you, because my working men would
+not be allowed to look at a Bolognese picture; I teach them so much love
+of detail, that the moment they see a detail carefully drawn, they are
+caught by it. The main thing which has surprised me in dealing with
+these men is the exceeding refinement of their minds--so that in a
+moment I can get carpenters, and smiths, and ordinary workmen, and
+various classes to give me a refinement which I cannot get a young lady
+to give me when I give her a lesson for the first time. Whether it is
+the habit of work which makes them go at it more intensely, or whether
+it is (as I rather think) that, as the feminine mind looks for strength,
+the masculine mind looks for delicacy, and when you take it simply, and
+give it its choice, it will go to the most refined thing, I do not know.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Can you see any perceptible improvement in the
+state of the public mind and taste in that respect since these measures
+have been adopted?--There has not been time to judge of that.
+
+127. Do these persons who are taking an interest in Art come from
+different parts of London?--Yes.
+
+Of course the distance which they would have to come would be of very
+great importance?--Yes.
+
+Therefore one of the great recommendations of a Gallery, if you wish it
+to have an effect upon the public mind in that respect, would be its
+accessibility, both with regard to the time consumed in going there, and
+to the cheapness, as I may call it, of access?--Most certainly.
+
+You would therefore consider that the more central the situation,
+putting all other points out of consideration, the greater advantage it
+would be to the public?--Yes; there is this, however, to be said, that a
+central situation involves the crowding of the room with parties wholly
+uninterested in the matter--a situation more retired will generally be
+serviceable enough for the real student.
+
+Would not that very much depend upon its being in a thoroughfare? There
+might be a central situation which would not be so complete a
+thoroughfare as to tempt persons to go in who were not likely to derive
+advantage from it?--I think that if this gallery were made so large and
+so beautiful as we are proposing, it would be rather a resort, rather a
+lounge every day, and all day long, provided it were accessible.
+
+128. Would not that a good deal depend upon its being in a public
+thoroughfare? If it were in a thoroughfare, a great many persons might
+pass in who would be driven in by accident, or driven in by caprice, if
+they passed it; but if it were at a little distance from a thoroughfare,
+it would be less crowded with those persons who are not likely to derive
+much advantage from it?--Quite so; but there would always be an
+advantage in attracting a crowd; it would always extend its educational
+ability in its being crowded. But it would seem to me that all that is
+necessary for a noble Museum of the best art should be more or less
+removed, and that a collection, solely for the purpose of education, and
+for the purpose of interesting people who do not care much about art,
+should be provided in the very heart of the population, if possible,
+that pictures not of great value, but of sufficient value to interest
+the public, and of merit enough to form the basis of early education,
+and to give examples of all art, should be collected in the popular
+Gallery, but that all the precious things should be removed and put into
+the great Gallery, where they would be safest, irrespectively altogether
+of accessibility.
+
+_Chairman._ Then you would, in fact, have not one but two
+Galleries?--Two only.
+
+129. _Professor Faraday._ And you would seem to desire purposely the
+removal of the true and head Gallery to some distance, so as to prevent
+the great access of persons?--Yes.
+
+Thinking that all those who could make a real use of a Gallery would go
+to that one?--Yes. My opinion in that respect has been altered within
+these few days from the fact having been brought to my knowledge of
+sculpture being much deteriorated by the atmosphere and the total
+impossibility of protecting sculpture. Pictures I do not care about, for
+I can protect them, but not sculpture.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Whence did you derive that knowledge?--I forget
+who told me; it was some authority I thought conclusive, and therefore
+took no special note of.
+
+130. _Chairman._ Do you not consider that it is rather prejudicial to
+art that there should be a Gallery notoriously containing no first-rate
+works of art, but second-rate or third-rate works?--No; I think it
+rather valuable as an expression of the means of education, that there
+should be early lessons in art--that there should be this sort of art
+selected especially for first studies, and also that there should be a
+recognition of the exceeding preciousness of some other art. I think
+that portions of it should be set aside as interesting, but not
+unreplaceable; but that other portions should be set aside as being
+things as to which the function of the nation was, chiefly, to take care
+of those things, not for itself merely, but for all its descendants, and
+setting the example of taking care of them for ever.
+
+You do not think, then, that there would be any danger in the studying
+or the copying of works which notoriously were not the best works?--On
+the contrary, I think it would be better that works not altogether the
+best should be first submitted. I never should think of giving the best
+work myself to a student to copy--it is hopeless; he would not feel its
+beauties--he would merely blunder over it. I am perfectly certain that
+that cannot be serviceable in the particular branch of art which I
+profess, namely, landscape-painting; I know that I must give more or
+less of bad examples.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ But you would admit nothing into this second gallery
+which was not good or true of its kind?--Nothing which was not good or
+true of its kind, but only inferior in value to the others.
+
+And if there were any other works which might be deposited there with
+perfect safety, say precious drawings, which might be protected by
+glass, you would not object to exhibit those to the unselected
+multitude?--Not in the least; I should be very glad to do so, provided I
+could spare them from the grand chronological arrangement.
+
+Do you think that a very interesting supplementary exhibition might be
+got up, say at Trafalgar Square, and retained there?--Yes, and all the
+more useful because you would put few works, and you could make it
+complete in series--and because, on a small scale, you would have the
+entire series. By selecting a few works, you would have an epitome of
+the Grand Gallery, the divisions of the chronology being all within the
+compartment of a wall, which in the great Gallery would be in a separate
+division of the building.
+
+131. _Mr. Cockerell._ Do you contemplate the possibility of excellent
+copies being exhibited of the most excellent works both of sculpture and
+of painting?--I have not contemplated that possibility. I have a great
+horror of copies of any kind, except only of sculpture. I have great
+fear of copies of painting; I think people generally catch the worst
+parts of the painting and leave the best.
+
+But you would select the artist who should make the copy. There are
+persons whose whole talent is concentrated in the power of imitation of
+a given picture, and a great talent it is.--I have never in my life
+seen a good copy of a good picture.
+
+_Chairman._ Have you not seen any of the German copies of some of the
+great Italian masters, which are generally esteemed very admirable
+works?--I have not much studied the works of the copyists; I have not
+observed them much, never having yet found an exception to that rule
+which I have mentioned. When I came across a copyist in the Gallery of
+the Vatican, or in the Gallery at Florence, I had a horror of the
+mischief, and the scandal and the libel upon the master, from the
+supposition that such a thing as that in any way resembled his work, and
+the harm that it would do to the populace among whom it was shown.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ You look upon it as you would upon coining bad money and
+circulating it, doing mischief?--Yes, it is mischievous.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ But you admit engravings--you admit photographs of
+these works, which are imitations in another language?--Yes; in abstract
+terms, they are rather descriptions of the paintings than copies--they
+are rather measures and definitions of them--they are hints and tables
+of the pictures, rather than copies of them; they do not pretend to the
+same excellence in any way.
+
+You speak as a connoisseur; how would the common eye of the public agree
+with you in that opinion?--I think it would not agree with me.
+Nevertheless, if I were taking some of my workmen into the National
+Gallery, I should soon have some hope of making them understand in what
+excellence consisted, if I could point to a genuine work; but I should
+have no such hope if I had only copies of these pictures.
+
+132. Do you hold much to the archæological, chronological, and
+historical series and teaching of pictures?--Yes.
+
+Are you of opinion that that is essential to the creative teaching, with
+reference to our future schools?--No. I should think not essential at
+all. The teaching of the future artist, I should think, might be
+accomplished by very few pictures of the class which that particular
+artist wished to study. I think that the chronological arrangement is
+in no-wise connected with the general efficiency of the gallery as a
+matter of study for the artist, but very much so as a means of study,
+not for persons interested in painting merely, but for those who wish to
+examine the general history of nations; and I think that painting should
+be considered by that class of persons as containing precious evidence.
+It would be part of the philosopher's work to examine the art of a
+nation as well as its poetry.
+
+You consider that art speaks a language and tells a tale which no
+written document can effect?--Yes, and far more precious; the whole soul
+of a nation generally goes with its art. It may be urged by an ambitious
+king to become a warrior nation. It may be trained by a single leader to
+become a _great_ warrior nation, and its character at that time may
+materially depend upon that one man, but in its art all the mind of the
+nation is more or less expressed: it can be said, that was what the
+peasant sought to when he went into the city to the cathedral in the
+morning--that was the sort of book the poor person read or learned
+in--the sort of picture he prayed to. All which involves infinitely more
+important considerations than common history.
+
+133. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of your objections to copies
+of pictures, do you carry that objection to casts of sculpture?--Not at
+all.
+
+Supposing there could be no complete union of the great works of
+sculpture in a country with the great works of painting in that country,
+would you consider that a good selection of casts comprising the great
+remains of sculpture of all ages would be an important addition to a
+public gallery?--I should be very glad to see it.
+
+If you could not have it of originals, you would wish very much to have
+a complete collection of casts, of course selected from all the finest
+sculptures in the world?--Certainly.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Would you do the same with architecture--would you
+collect the remains of architecture, as far as they are to be collected,
+and unite them with sculpture and painting?--I should think that
+architecture consisted, as far as it was portable, very much in
+sculpture. In saying that, I mean, that in the different branches of
+sculpture architecture is involved--that is to say, you would have the
+statues belonging to such and such a division of a building. Then if you
+had casts of those statues, you would necessarily have those casts
+placed exactly in the same position as the original statues--it involves
+the buildings surrounding them and the elevation--it involves the whole
+architecture.
+
+In addition to that, would you have original drawings of architecture,
+and models of great buildings, and photographs, if they could be made
+permanent, of the great buildings as well as the moldings and casts of
+the moldings, and the members as far as you could obtain them?--Quite
+so.
+
+Would you also include, in the National Gallery, what may be called the
+handicraft of a nation--works for domestic use or ornament? For
+instance, we know that there were some salt-cellars designed for one of
+the Popes; would you have those if they came to us?--Everything, pots
+and pans, and salt-cellars, and knives.
+
+You would have everything that had an interesting art element in
+it?--Yes.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ In short, a modern Pompeian Gallery?--Yes; I know
+how much greater extent that involves, but I think that you should
+include all the iron work, and china, and pottery, and so on. I think
+that all works in metal, all works in clay, all works in carved wood,
+should be included. Of course, that involves much. It involves all the
+coins--it involves an immense extent.
+
+134. Supposing it were impossible to concenter in one great museum the
+whole of these things, where should you prefer to draw the line? Would
+you draw the line between what I may call the ancient Pagan world and
+the modern Christian world, and so leave, to what may be called the
+ancient world, all the ancient sculpture, and any fragments of ancient
+painting which there might be--all the vases, all the ancient bronzes,
+and, in short, everything which comes down to a certain period? Do you
+think that that would be the best division, or should you prefer any
+division which takes special arts, and keeps those arts together?--I
+should like the Pagan and Christian division. I think it very essential
+that wherever the sculpture of a nation was, there its iron work should
+be--that wherever its iron work was, there its pottery should be, and so
+on.
+
+And you would keep the mediæval works together, in whatever form those
+mediæval works existed?--Yes; I should not at all feel injured by having
+to take a cab-drive from one century to another century.
+
+Or from the ancient to the modern world?--No.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ If it were found convenient to keep separate the Pagan
+and the Christian art, with which would you associate the mediæval?--By
+"Christian and Pagan Art" I mean, before Christ and after Christ.
+
+Then the mediæval would come with the paintings?--Yes; and also the
+Mahomedan, and all the Pagan art which was after Christ, I should
+associate as part, and a most essential part, because it seems to me
+that the history of Christianity is complicated perpetually with that
+which Christianity was effecting. Therefore, it is a matter of date, not
+of Christianity. Everything before Christ I should be glad to see
+separated, or you may take any other date that you like.
+
+But the inspiration of the two schools--the Pagan and the
+Christian--seems so different, that there would be no great violence
+done to the true theory of a National Gallery in dividing these two,
+would there, if each were made complete in itself?--That is to say,
+taking the spirit of the world after Christianity was in it, and the
+spirit of the world before Christianity was in it.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ The birth of Christ, you say, is the commencement
+of Christian art?--Yes.
+
+Then Christian influence began, and, of course, that would leave a small
+debatable ground, particularly among the ivories for instance, which we
+must settle according to circumstances?--Wide of any debatable ground,
+all the art of a nation which had never heard of Christianity, the
+Hindoo art and so on, would, I suppose, if of the Christian era, go into
+the Christian gallery.
+
+I was speaking rather of the transition period, which, of course, there
+must be?--Yes.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ There must be a distinction between the terms "museum"
+and "gallery." What are the distinctions which you would draw in the
+present case?--I should think "museum" was the right name of the whole
+building. A "gallery" is, I think, merely a room in a museum adapted for
+the exhibition of works in a series, whose effect depends upon their
+collateral showing forth.
+
+135. There are certainly persons who would derive their chief advantage
+from the historical and chronological arrangement which you propose, but
+there are others who look alone for the beautiful, and who say, "I have
+nothing to do with your pedantry. I desire to have the beautiful before
+me. Show me those complete and perfect works which are received and
+known as the works of Phidias and the great Greek masters as far as we
+possess them, and the works of the great Italian painters. I have not
+time, nor does my genius permit that I should trouble myself with those
+details." There is a large class who are guided by those feelings?--And
+I hope who always will be guided by them; but I should consult their
+feelings enough in the setting before them of the most beautiful works
+of art. All that I should beg of them to yield to me would be that they
+should look at Titian only, or at Raphael only, and not wish to have
+Titian and Raphael side by side; and I think I should be able to teach
+them, as a matter of beauty, that they did enjoy Titian and Raphael
+alone better than mingled. Then I would provide them beautiful galleries
+full of the most-noble sculpture. Whenever we come as a country and a
+nation to provide beautiful sculpture, it seems to me that the greatest
+pains should be taken to set it off beautifully. You should have
+beautiful sculpture in the middle of the room, with dark walls round it
+to throw out its profile, and you should have all the arrangements made
+there so as to harmonize with it, and to set forth every line of it. So
+the painting gallery, I think, might be made a glorious thing, if the
+pictures were level, and the architecture above produced unity of
+impression from the beauty and glow of color and the purity of form.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ And you would not exclude a Crevelli because it was
+quaint, or an early master of any school--you would have the infancy,
+the youth, and the age, of each school, would you not?--Certainly.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Of the German as well as the Italian?--Yes.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Spanish, and all the schools?--Certainly.
+
+136. _Mr. Cockerell._ You are quite aware of the great liberality of the
+Government, as we learn from the papers, in a recent instance, namely,
+the purchase of a great Paul Veronese?--I am rejoiced to hear it. If it
+is confirmed, nothing will have given me such pleasure for a long time.
+I think it is the most precious Paul Veronese in the world, as far as
+the completion of the picture goes, and quite a priceless picture.
+
+Can you conceive a Government, or a people, who would countenance so
+expensive a purchase, condescending to take up with the occupation of
+the upper story of some public building, or with an expedient which
+should not be entirely worthy of such a noble Gallery of Pictures?--I do
+not think that they ought to do so; but I do not know how far they will
+be consistent. I certainly think they ought not to put up with any such
+expedient. I am not prepared to say what limits there are to consistency
+or inconsistency.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ I understand you to have given in evidence that you
+think a National Collection should be illustrative of the whole art in
+all its branches?--Certainly.
+
+Not a cabinet of paintings, not a collection of sculptured works, but
+illustrative of the whole art?--Yes.
+
+137. Have you any further remark to offer to the Commissioners?--I wish
+to say one word respecting the question of the restoration of statuary.
+It seems to me a very simple question. Much harm is being at present
+done in Europe by restoration, more harm than was ever done, as far as
+I know, by revolutions or by wars. The French are now doing great harm
+to their cathedrals, under the idea that they are doing good, destroying
+more than all the good they are doing. And all this proceeds from the
+one great mistake of supposing that sculpture can be restored when it is
+injured. I am very much interested by the question which one of the
+Commissioners asked me in that respect; and I would suggest whether it
+does not seem easy to avoid all questions of that kind. If the statue is
+injured, leave it so, but provide a perfect copy of the statue in its
+restored form; offer, if you like, prizes to sculptors for conjectural
+restorations, and choose the most beautiful, but do not touch the
+original work.
+
+138. _Professor Faraday._ You said some time ago that in your own
+attempts to instruct the public there had not been time yet to see
+whether the course taken had produced improvement or not. You see no
+signs at all which lead you to suppose that it will not produce the
+improvement which you desire?--Far from it--I understood the Dean of St.
+Paul's to ask me whether any general effect had been produced upon the
+minds of the public. I have only been teaching a class of about forty
+workmen for a couple of years, after their work--they not always
+attending--and that forty being composed of people passing away and
+coming again; and I do not know what they are now doing; I only see a
+gradual succession of men in my own class. I rather take them in an
+elementary class, and pass them to a master in a higher class. But I
+have the greatest delight in the progress which these men have made, so
+far as I have seen it; and I have not the least doubt that great things
+will be done with respect to them.
+
+_Chairman._ Will you state precisely what position you hold?--I am
+master of the Elementary and Landscape School of Drawing at the Working
+Men's College in Great Ormond Street. My efforts are directed not to
+making a carpenter an artist, but to making him happier as a carpenter.
+
+     NOTE.--The following analysis of the above evidence was
+     given in the Index to the Report (p. 184).--ED.
+
+     114-5-6. Sculpture and painting should be combined under same
+     roof, not in same room.--Sculpture disciplines the eye to
+     appreciate painting.--But, if in same room, disturbs the
+     mind.--Tribune at Florence arranged too much for show--Sculpture
+     not to be regarded as _decorative_ of a room.--National Gallery
+     should include works of all kinds of art _of all ages_, arranged
+     chronologically (_cf._ 132). Mediæval sculpture should go with
+     painting, if it is found impossible to combine art of all ages.
+
+     117-8. Pictures should be protected by glass in every case. It
+     makes them more beautiful, independently of the
+     preservation,--Glass is not merely expedient, but
+     essential.--Pictures are permanently injured by dirt.
+
+     119-20-21. First-rate large pictures should have a room to
+     themselves, and a gallery round them.--Pictures must be hung on a
+     line with the eye.--In one, or at most two, lines.--In the Salon
+     Carre at the Louvre the effect is magnificent, but details of
+     pictures cannot be seen.
+
+     122. Galleries should be decorated not splendidly, but pleasantly.
+
+     123. Great importance of chronological arrangement. Art the truest
+     history (_cf._ 125 and 132).
+
+     124. Best works of inferior artists to be secured.
+
+     125. All the works of a painter, however incongruous their
+     subjects, to be exhibited in juxtaposition.
+
+     126. Love of detail in pictures among workmen.--Great refinement of
+     their perceptions.
+
+     127. Accessibility of new National Gallery.
+
+     128. There should be two galleries--one containing gems, placed in
+     as _safe_ a position as possible; the other containing works good,
+     but inferior to the highest, and located solely with a view to
+     accessibility.
+
+     129. Impossible to protect _sculpture_ from London atmosphere.
+
+     130. Inferior gallery would be useful as an instructor.--In this
+     respect superior to the great gallery.
+
+     131-32. _Copies_ of paintings much to be deprecated.
+
+     133. Good collection of casts a valuable addition to a national
+     gallery.--Also architectural fragments and illustrations.--And
+     everything which involves art.
+
+     134. If it is impossible to combine works of art of all ages, the
+     Pagan and Christian division is the best.--"Christian" art
+     including _all_ art subsequent to the birth of Christ.
+
+     135. Great importance of arranging and setting off sculpture.
+
+     136. Recent purchase by Government of the great Paul Veronese.
+
+     137. "Restoring" abroad.
+
+     138. Witness is Master of the Elementary and Landscape School of
+     Drawing at the Working Men's College in Great Ormond
+     Street.--Progress made by students highly satisfactory.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: This evidence, given by Mr. Ruskin as stated above, is
+reprinted from the Report of the National Gallery Site Commission.
+London: Harrison and Sons. 1857. Pp. 92-7. Questions 2392-2504. The
+Commission consisted of Lord Broughton (chairman), Dean Milman,
+Professor Faraday, Mr. Cockerell, R.A., and Mr. George Richmond, all of
+whom were present on the occasion of Mr. Ruskin giving his
+evidence.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.[2]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Tuesday, March 20, 1860._
+
+
+139. _Chairman._ I believe you have a general acquaintance with
+the leading museums, picture galleries, and institutions in this
+metropolis?--Yes, I know them well.
+
+And especially the pictures?--Yes.
+
+I believe you have also taken much interest in the Working Men's
+College?--Yes, much interest. I have been occupied there as a master for
+about five years.
+
+I believe you conduct a class on two days in the week?--On one day of
+the week only.
+
+You have given a great deal of gratuitous instruction to the working
+classes?--Not so much to the working classes as to the class which
+especially attends the lectures on drawing, but which of course is
+connected with the working classes, and through which I know something
+about them.
+
+140. You are probably able to speak with reference to the hours at which
+it would be most convenient that these institutions should be opened to
+the working classes, so that they might enjoy them?--At all events, I
+can form some opinion about it.
+
+What are the hours which you think would be the most suitable to the
+working classes, or those to whom you have imparted instruction?--They
+would, of course, have in general no hours but in the evening.
+
+Do you think the hours which are now found suitable for mechanics'
+institutes would be suitable for them, that is, from eight till ten, or
+from seven till ten at night?--The earlier the better, I should think;
+that being dependent closely upon the other much more important
+question, how you can prepare the workmen for taking advantage of these
+institutions. The question before us, as a nation, is not, I think, what
+opportunities we shall give to the workmen of instruction, unless we
+enable them to receive it; and all this is connected closely, in my
+mind, with the early closing question, and with the more difficult
+question, issuing out of that, how far you can get the hours of labor
+regulated, and how far you can get the labor during those hours made not
+competitive, and not oppressive to the workmen.
+
+141. Have you found that the instruction which you have been enabled to
+give to the working classes has produced very good results upon them
+already? I ought perhaps hardly to speak of my own particular modes of
+instruction, because their tendency is rather to lead the workman out of
+his class, and I am privately obliged to impress upon my men who come to
+the Working Men's College, not to learn in the hope of being anything
+but working men, but to learn what may be either advantageous for them
+in their work, or make them happy after their work. In my class, they
+are especially tempted to think of rising above their own rank, and
+becoming artists,--becoming something better than workmen, and that
+effect I particularly dread. I want all efforts for bettering the
+workmen to be especially directed in this way: supposing that they are
+to remain in this position forever, that they have not capacity to rise
+above it, and that they are to work as coal miners, or as iron forgers,
+staying as they are; how then you may make them happier and wiser?
+
+I should suppose you would admit that the desire to rise out of a class
+is almost inseparable from the amount of self-improvement that you
+would wish to give them?--I should think not; I think that the moment a
+man desires to rise out of his own class, he does his work badly in it;
+he ought to desire to rise in his own class, and not out of it.
+
+The instruction which you would impart one would suppose would be
+beneficial to the laborer in the class which he is in?--Yes.
+
+142. And that agrees, does it not, with what has been alleged by many
+working men, that they have found in their competition with foreigners
+that a knowledge of art has been most beneficial to them?--Quite so.
+
+I believe many foreigners are now in competition with working men in the
+metropolis, in matters in which art is involved?--I believe there are
+many, and that they are likely still more to increase as the relations
+between the nations become closer.
+
+Is it your opinion that the individual workman who now executes works of
+art in this country is less intellectually fit for his occupation than
+in former days?--Very much so indeed.
+
+Have you not some proofs of that which you can adduce for the benefit of
+the Committee?--I can only make an assertion; I cannot prove it; but I
+assert it with confidence, that no workman, whose mind I have examined,
+is, at present, capable of design in the arts, only of imitation, and of
+exquisite manual execution, such as is unsurpassable by the work of any
+time or any country; manual execution, which, however, being wholly
+mechanical, is always profitless to the man himself, and profitless
+ultimately to those who possess the work.
+
+143. With regard to those institutions in which pictures are exhibited,
+are you satisfied that the utmost facilities are afforded to the public
+compatibly with the expense which is now incurred?--I cannot tell how
+far it would be compatible with the expense, but I think that a very
+little increase of expense might certainly bring about a great increase
+of convenience.
+
+Various plans have been suggested, by different persons, as to an
+improvement in the National Gallery, with regard to the area, and a
+better distribution of the pictures?--Yes.
+
+Are you of opinion that at a very small cost it would be possible to
+increase the area considerably in the case of the National Gallery?--I
+have not examined the question with respect to the area of the National
+Gallery. It depends of course upon questions of rent, and respecting the
+mode in which the building is now constructed, which I have not
+examined; but in general this is true of large buildings, that expense
+wisely directed to giving facilities for seeing the pictures, and not to
+the mere show of the building, would always be productive of far more
+good to the nation, and especially to the lower orders of the nation,
+than expense in any other way directed, with reference to these
+institutions.
+
+144. Some persons have been disposed to doubt whether, if the
+institutions were open at night, gas would be found injurious to the
+pictures; would that be your impression?--I have no doubt that it would
+be injurious to the pictures, if it came in contact with them. It would
+be a matter of great regret to me that valuable pictures should be so
+exhibited. I have hoped that pictures might be placed in a gallery for
+the working classes which would interest them much more than the
+_chefs-d'oeuvre_ of the great masters, and which at the same time
+would not be a great loss to the nation if destroyed.
+
+145. Have you had any experience of the working of the evening openings
+of the South Kensington Museum?--No direct experience, but my impression
+is that the workmen at present being compelled to think always of
+getting as much work done in a day as they can, are generally led in
+these institutions to look to the machinery, or to anything which bears
+upon their trade; it therefore is no rest to them; it may be sometimes,
+when they are allowed to take their families, as they do on certain
+evenings, to the Kensington Museum, that is a great step; but the great
+evil is that the pressure of the work on a man's mind is not removed,
+and that he has not rest enough, thorough rest given him by proper
+explanations of the things he sees; he is not led by a large printed
+explanation beneath the very thing to take a happy and unpainful
+interest in every subject brought before him; he wanders about
+listlessly, and exerts himself to find out things which are not
+sufficiently explained, and gradually he tires of it, and he goes back
+to his home, or to his alehouse, unless he is a very intelligent man.
+
+Would you recommend that some person should follow him through the
+building to explain the details?--No; but I would especially recommend
+that our institutions should be calculated for the help of persons whose
+minds are languid with labor. I find that with ordinary constitutions,
+the labor of a day in England oppresses a man, and breaks him down, and
+it is not refreshment to him to use his mind after that, but it would be
+refreshment to him to have anything read to him, or any amusing thing
+told him, or to have perfect rest; he likes to lie back in his chair at
+his own fireside, and smoke his pipe, rather than enter into a political
+debate, and what we want is an extension of our art institutions, with
+interesting things, teaching a man and amusing him at the same time;
+above all, large printed explanations under every print and every
+picture; and the subjects of the pictures such as they can enjoy.
+
+146. Have you any other suggestion to offer calculated to enlighten the
+Committee on the subject intrusted to them for consideration?--I can
+only say what my own feelings have been as to my men. I have found
+particularly that natural history was delightful to them; I think that
+that has an especial tendency to take their minds off their work, which
+is what I always try to do, not ambitiously, but reposingly. I should
+like to add to what I said about the danger of injury to
+_chefs-d'oeuvre_, that such danger exists, not only as to gas, but
+also the breath, the variation of temperature, the extension of the
+canvases in a different temperature, the extension of the paint upon
+them, and various chemical operations of the human breath, the chance of
+an accidental escape of gas, the circulation of variously damp air
+through the ventilators; all these ought not to be allowed to affect
+the great and unreplaceable works of the best masters; and those works,
+I believe, are wholly valueless to the working classes; their merits are
+wholly imperceptible except to persons who have given many years of
+study to endeavor to qualify themselves to discover them; but what is
+wanting for the working man is historical painting of events noble, and
+bearing upon his own country; the history of his own country well
+represented to him; the natural history of foreign countries well
+represented to him; and domestic pathos brought before him. Nothing
+assists him so much as having the moral disposition developed rather
+than the intellectual after his work; anything that touches his feelings
+is good, and puts new life into him; therefore I want modern pictures,
+if possible, of that class which would ennoble and refine by their
+subjects. I should like prints of all times, engravings of all times;
+those would interest him with their variety of means and subject; and
+natural history of three kinds, namely, shells, birds, and plants; not
+minerals, because a workman cannot study mineralogy at home; but
+whatever town he may be in, he may take some interest in the birds and
+in the plants, or in the sea shells of his own country and coast. I
+should like the commonest of all our plants first, and most fully
+illustrated; the commonest of all our birds, and of our shells, and men
+would be led to take an interest in those things wholly for their
+beauty, and for their separate charm, irrespective of any use that might
+be made of them in the arts. There also ought to be, for the more
+intelligent workman, who really wants to advance himself in his
+business, specimens of the manufactures of all countries, as far as the
+compass of such institutions would allow.
+
+147. You have traveled, I believe, a good deal abroad?--Yes.
+
+And you have seen in many foreign countries that far more interest is
+taken in the improvement of the people in this matter than is taken in
+this country?--Far more.
+
+Do you think that you can trace the good effects which result from that
+mode of treatment?--The circumstances are so different that I do not
+feel able to give evidence of any definite effect from such efforts;
+only, it stands to reason, that it must be so. There are so many
+circumstances at present against us, in England, that we must not be
+sanguine as to too speedy an effect. I believe that one great reason of
+the superiority of foreign countries in manufactures is, that they have
+more beautiful things about them continually, and it is not possible for
+a man who is educated in the streets of our manufacturing towns ever to
+attain that refinement of eye or sense; he cannot do it; and he is
+accustomed in his home to endure that which not the less blunts his
+senses.
+
+The Committee has been informed that with regard to some of our museums,
+particularly the British Museum, they are very much overcharged with
+objects, and I apprehend that the same remark would be true as to some
+of our picture galleries. Are you of opinion that it would be conducive
+to the general elevation of the people in this country if our works of
+art, and objects of interest, were circulated more expeditiously, and
+more conveniently, than at present, throughout the various manufacturing
+districts?--I think that all precious works of art ought to be treated
+with a quite different view, and that they ought to be kept together
+where men whose work is chiefly concerned with art, and where the
+artistically higher classes can take full advantage of them. They ought,
+therefore, to be all together, as in the Louvre at Paris, and as in the
+Uffizii at Florence, everything being illustrative of other things, but
+kept separate from the collections intended for the working classes,
+which may be as valuable as you choose, but they should be usable, and
+above all things so situated that the working classes could get at them
+easily, without keepers to watch what they are about, and have their
+wives and children with them, and be able to get at them freely, so that
+they might look at a thing as their own, not merely as the nation's, but
+as a gift from the nation to them as the working class.
+
+You would cultivate a taste at the impressionable age?--Especially in
+the education of children, that being just the first question, I
+suppose, which lies at the root of all you can do for the workman.
+
+148. With regard to the circulation of pictures and such loans of
+pictures as have heretofore been made in Manchester and elsewhere, are
+you of opinion that, in certain cases, during a part of the year, some
+of our best pictures might be lent for particular periods, to particular
+towns, to be restored in the same condition, so as to give those towns
+an opportunity of forming an opinion upon them, which otherwise they
+would not have?--I would rather keep them all in the metropolis, and
+move them as little as possible when valuable.
+
+_Mr. Slaney._ That would not apply to loans by independent gentlemen who
+were willing to lend their pictures?--I should be very glad if it were
+possible to lend pictures, and send them about. I think it is one of the
+greatest movements in the nation, showing the increasing kindness of the
+upper classes towards the lower, that that has been done; but I think
+nothing can justify the risking of noble pictures by railway, for
+instance; that, of course, is an artist's view of the matter; but I do
+not see that the advantage to be gained would at all correspond with the
+danger of loss which is involved.
+
+149. _Mr. Hanbury._ You mentioned that you thought it was very desirable
+that there should be lectures given to the working classes?--Yes.
+
+Do you think that the duplicate specimens at the British Museum could be
+made available for lectures on natural history, if a part of that
+institution could be arranged for the purpose?--I should think so; but
+it is a question that I have no right to have an opinion upon. Only the
+officers of the institution can say what number of their duplicate
+specimens they could spare.
+
+I put the question to you because I have observed in the British Museum
+that the people took a great interest in the natural history department,
+and, upon one occasion, a friend of mine stopped, and explained some of
+the objects, and at once a very numerous crowd was attracted round him,
+and the officials had to interfere, and told him to move on.--So much
+more depends upon the explanation than on the thing explained, that I
+believe, with very simple collections of very small value, but well
+chosen, and exhibited by a thoroughly intelligent lecturer, you might
+interest the lower classes, and teach them to any extent.
+
+Would it be difficult to find such lecturers as you speak of?--Not in
+time; perhaps at present it would be, because we have got so much in the
+habit of thinking that science consists in language, and in fine words,
+and not in ascertaining the nature of the thing. The workman cannot be
+deceived by fine words; he always wants to know something about the
+thing, and its properties. Many of our lecturers would, I have no doubt,
+be puzzled if they were asked to explain the habits of a common bird.
+
+150. Is there an increasing desire for information and improvement among
+the working classes?--A thirsty desire for it in every direction,
+increasing day by day, and likely to increase; it would grow by what it
+feeds upon.
+
+To what do you attribute this improvement?--Partly to the healthy and
+proper efforts which have been made to elevate the working classes;
+partly, I am sorry to say, to an ambitious desire throughout the nation
+always to get on to a point which it has not yet reached, and which
+makes one man struggle with another in every way. I think that the idea
+that knowledge is power is at the root of the movement among the working
+classes, much more so than in any other.
+
+Do you consider that the distance of our public institutions is a great
+hindrance to the working classes?--Very great indeed.
+
+You would, therefore, probably consider it a boon if another institution
+such as the British Museum could be established in the eastern end of
+the metropolis?--I should be most thankful to see it, especially there.
+
+151. _Mr. Slaney._ I think you stated that you considered, that for the
+working classes it is a great thing to have relaxation of mind after the
+close occupation of the day; that they would embrace an opportunity of
+attending popular lectures on branches of natural history which they
+could comprehend, if they were given to them in plain and simple
+language?--Yes.
+
+For instance, if you were to give a popular lecture upon British birds,
+giving them an explanation of the habits of the various birds, assisted
+by tolerably good plates, or figures describing the different habits of
+migration of those that come to us in spring, remain during the summer,
+and depart in the autumn to distant countries; of those which come in
+the autumn, remain during the winter, and then leave us; of those which
+charm us with their song, and benefit us in various ways; do you think
+that such a lecture would be acceptable to the working classes?--It
+would be just what they would enjoy the most, and what would do them the
+most good.
+
+Do you not think that such lectures might be given without any very
+great cost, by finding persons who would endeavor to make the subjects
+plain and pleasant, not requiring a very expensive apparatus, either of
+figures or of birds, but which might be pointed out to them, and
+explained to them from time to time?--No; I think that no such lectures
+would be of use, unless a permanent means of quiet study were given to
+the men between times. As far as I know, lectures are always entirely
+useless, except as a matter of amusement, unless some opportunity be
+afforded of accurate intermediate study, and although I should deprecate
+the idea, on the one side, of giving the _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of the
+highest masters to the workman for his daily experiments, so I should
+deprecate, on the other, the idea of any economy if I saw a definite
+plan of helping a man in his own times of quiet study.
+
+152. There are some popular works on British birds which the men might
+be referred to, containing accounts of the birds and their habits, which
+might be referred to subsequently?--Yes.
+
+There are several works relating to British birds which are very
+beautifully illustrated, and to those they might be referred; do you not
+think that something might also be done with regard to popular lectures
+upon British plants, and particularly those which are perhaps the most
+common, and only neglected because of their being common; that you might
+point out to them the different soils in which they grow, so that they
+might be able to make excursions to see them in their wild state?--My
+wish is, that in every large manufacturing town there should be a
+perfect collection, at all events of the principal genera of British
+plants and birds, thoroughly well arranged, and a library associated
+with it, containing the best illustrative works on the subject, and that
+from time to time lectures should be given by the leading scientific
+men, which I am sure they would be willing to give if such collections
+were opened to them.
+
+I dare say you know that there is one book upon British birds, which was
+compiled by a gentleman who was in trade, and lived at the corner of St.
+James's Street for many years, which is prized by all who are devoted to
+that study, and which would be easily obtained for the working men. Do
+you not think that this would relax their minds and be beneficial to
+them in many ways, especially if they were able to follow up the
+study?--Yes, in every way.
+
+As to plants, might not they interest their wives as well?--I quite
+believe so.
+
+If such things could be done by subscription in the vicinity of large
+towns, such as Manchester, would they not be very much responded to by
+the grateful feelings of the humbler people, who themselves would
+subscribe probably some trifle?--I think they would be grateful, however
+it were done. But I should like it to be done as an expression of the
+sense of the nation, as doing its duty towards the workmen, rather than
+it should be done as a kind of charity by private subscription.
+
+153. _Sir Robert Peel._ You have been five years connected with the
+Working Men's College?--Yes; I think about that time.
+
+Is the attendance good there?--There is a fair attendance, I believe.
+
+Of the working classes?--Yes; in the other lecture-rooms; not much in
+mine.
+
+Do they go there as they please without going beforehand for
+tickets?--They pass through an introductory examination, which is not
+severe in any way, but merely shows that they are able to take advantage
+of the classes there; of course they pay a certain sum, which is not at
+all, at present, I believe, supporting to the college, for every class,
+just to insure their paying attention to it.
+
+You stated that you did not think lectures would be of any use unless
+there was what you called active intermediate study?--I think not.
+
+What did you mean by active intermediate study? if a man is working
+every day of the week until Saturday afternoon, how could that take
+place?--I think that you could not at all provide lectures once or twice
+a week at the institutions throughout the kingdom. By intermediate
+study, I mean merely that a man should have about him, when he came into
+the room, things that shall tempt him to look at them, and get
+interested in, say in one bird, or in one plant.
+
+While the lecture was going on?--No, that might be given once a
+fortnight, or once a month, but that this intermediate attention should
+be just that which a man is delighted to give to a single plant which he
+cultivates in his own garden, or a single bird which he may happen to
+have obtained; the best of all modes of study.
+
+154. You are in favor of the Early Closing Association?--I will not say
+that I am, because I have not examined their principles. I want to have
+our labor regulated, so that it shall be impossible for men to be so
+entirely crushed in mind and in body as they are by the system of
+competition.
+
+You stated that you would wish the hours during which they would be able
+to enjoy the institutions to be as early as possible?--Yes, certainly.
+
+But it would be impossible to have them earlier than they are now, on
+account of the organization of labor in the country.--I do not know what
+is possible. I do not know what the number of hours necessary for labor
+will ultimately be found to be.
+
+Still you are of opinion that, if there was a half-holiday on the
+Saturday, it would be an advantage to the working classes, and enable
+them to visit and enjoy these institutions?--Certainly.
+
+155. You observed, I think, that there was a thirsty desire on the part
+of the working classes for improvement?--Certainly.
+
+And you also stated that there was a desire on their part to rise in
+that class, but not out of it?--I did not say that they wanted to rise
+in that class; they wish to emerge from it; they wish to become
+something better than workmen, and I want to keep them in that class; I
+want to teach every man to rest contented in his station, and I want all
+people, in all stations, to better and help each other as much as they
+can.
+
+But you never saw a man, did you, who was contented?--Yes, I have seen
+several; nearly all the very good workmen are contented; I find that it
+is only the second-rate workmen who are discontented.
+
+156. Surely competition with foreigners is a great advantage to the
+working classes of this country?--No.
+
+It has been stated that competition is an immense advantage in the
+extension of artistic knowledge among the people of this country, who
+are rapidly stepping on the heels of foreigners?--An acquaintance with
+what foreign nations have accomplished may be very useful to our
+workmen, but a spirit of competition with foreign nations is useful to
+no one.
+
+Will you be good enough to state why?--Every nation has the power of
+producing a certain number of objects of art, or of manufacturing
+productions which are peculiar to it, and which it can produce
+thoroughly well; and, when that is rightly understood, every nation will
+strive to do its own work as well as it can be done, and will desire to
+be supplied, by other nations, with that which they can produce; for
+example, if we tried here in England to produce silk, we might possibly
+grow unhealthy mulberry trees and bring up unhealthy silkworms, but not
+produce good silk. It may be a question how far we should compete with
+foreigners in matters of taste. I think it doubtful, even in that view,
+that we should ever compete with them thoroughly. I find evidence in
+past art, that the French have always had a gift of color, which the
+English never had.
+
+157. You stated that you thought that at very little expense the
+advantages to be derived from our national institutions might be greatly
+increased; will you state why you think very little expense would be
+necessary, and how it should be done?--By extending the space primarily,
+and by adding very cheap but completely illustrative works; by making
+all that such institutions contain thoroughly accessible; and giving, as
+I think I have said before, explanations, especially in a visible form,
+beside the thing to be illustrated, not in a separate form.
+
+But that only would apply to daytime?--To nighttime as well.
+
+But would you not have to introduce a system of lighting?--Yes; a system
+of lighting I should only regret as applied to the great works of art; I
+should think that the brightest system of lighting should be applied,
+especially of an evening, so that such places should be made delightful
+to the workman, and withdraw him from the alehouse and all other evil
+temptation; but I want them rather to be occupied by simple, and more or
+less cheap collections, than by the valuable ones, for fear of fire.
+
+If, at the British Museum, they had printed information upon natural
+history, that, you think, would do great good?--Yes.
+
+158. You stated that you thought there was far more interest taken in
+foreign countries in the intellectual development of the working classes
+than in England?--I answered that question rather rashly. I hardly ever
+see anything of society in foreign countries, and I was thinking, at the
+time, of the great efforts now being made in France, and of the general
+comfort of the institutions that are open.
+
+Not political?--No.
+
+Still you think that there is more interest taken in the intellectual
+development of the working classes in foreign countries than in
+England?--I think so, but I do not trust my own opinion.
+
+I have lived abroad, and I have remarked that there is a natural
+facility in the French people, for instance, in acquiring a knowledge of
+art, and of combination of colors, but I never saw more, but far less
+desire or interest taken in the working classes than in England.--As far
+as relates to their intellectual development, I say yes; but I think
+there is a greater disposition to make them happy, and allow them to
+enjoy their happiness, in ordinary associations, at _fêtes_, and
+everything of that kind, that is amusing or recreative to them.
+
+But that is only on Sundays?--No; on all _fête_ days, and throughout, I
+think you see the working man, with his wife, happier in the gardens or
+in the suburbs of a town, and on the whole in a happier state; there is
+less desire to get as much out of him for the money as they can; less of
+that desire to oppress him and to use him as a machine than there is in
+England. But, observe, I do not lean upon that point; and I do not quite
+see how that bears upon the question, because, whatever interest there
+may be in foreign countries, or in ours, it is not as much as it should
+be in either.
+
+But you were throwing a slur upon the character of the upper classes in
+this country, by insinuating that abroad a great deal more interest was
+taken in the working classes than in England. Now I assert, that quite
+the contrary is the fact.--I should be very sorry to express all the
+feelings that I have respecting the relations between the upper classes
+and the working classes in this country; it is a subject which cannot at
+present be discussed, and one upon which I would decline any further
+examination.
+
+159. You stated that the working men were not so happy in this country
+as they were abroad, pursuing the same occupations?--I should think
+certainly not.
+
+You have been in Switzerland?--Yes.
+
+And at Zurich?--Not lately.
+
+That is the seat of a great linen manufacture?--I have never examined
+the manufactures there, nor have I looked at Switzerland as a
+manufacturing country.
+
+But you stated that there was much more interest taken in the
+intellectual developments of the working classes in foreign countries
+than in England?--Yes; but I was not thinking of Switzerland or of
+Zurich. I was thinking of France, and I was thinking of the working
+classes generally, not specially the manufacturing working classes. I
+used the words "working classes" generally.
+
+Then do you withdraw the expression that you made use of, that in
+foreign countries the upper classes take more interest in the condition
+of the working classes, than they do in England?--I do not withdraw it;
+I only said that it was my impression.
+
+But you cannot establish it?--No.
+
+Therefore it is merely a matter of individual impression?--Entirely so.
+
+You said, I think, that abroad the people enjoy their public
+institutions better, because inspectors do not follow them about?--I did
+not say so. I was asked the question whether I thought teaching should
+be given by persons accompanying the workman about, and I said certainly
+not. I would rather leave him to himself, with such information as
+could be given to him by printed documents.
+
+160. _Mr. Sclater Booth._ With regard to the National Gallery, are you
+aware that there is great pressure and want of space there now, both
+with regard to the room for hanging pictures, and also with reference to
+the crowds of persons who frequent the National Gallery?--I am quite
+sure that if there is not great pressure, there will be soon, owing to
+the number of pictures which are being bought continually.
+
+Do you not think that an extension of the space in the National Gallery
+is a primary consideration, which ought to take precedence of any
+improvement that might be made in the rooms as they are, with a view to
+opening them of an evening?--Most certainly.
+
+That is the first thing, you think, that ought to be done?--Most
+certainly.
+
+When you give your lectures at the Working Men's College, is it your
+habit to refer to special pictures in the National Gallery, or to
+special works of art in the British Museum?--Never; I try to keep
+whatever instruction I give bearing upon what is easily accessible to
+the workman, or what he can see at the moment. I do not count upon his
+having time to go to these institutions; I like to put the thing in his
+hand, and have it about.
+
+Has it never been a stumbling-block in your path that you have found a
+workman unable to compare your lectures with any illustrations that you
+may have referred him to?--I have never prepared my lectures with a view
+to illustrate them by the works of the great masters.
+
+161. You spoke, and very justly, of the importance of fixing on works of
+art printed explanations; are you not aware that that has been done to
+some extent at the Kensington Museum?--Yes.
+
+Do you not think that a great part of the popularity of that institution
+is owing to that circumstance?--I think so, certainly.
+
+On the whole, I gather from your evidence that you are not very sanguine
+as to the beneficial results that would arise from the opening of the
+British Museum and the National Gallery of an evening, as those
+institutions are at present constituted, from a want of space and the
+crowding of the objects there?--Whatever the results might be, from
+opening them, as at present constituted, I think better results might be
+attained by preparing institutions for the workman himself alone.
+
+Do you think that museums of birds and plants, established in various
+parts of the metropolis, illustrated and furnished with pictures of
+domestic interest, and possibly with specimens of manufactures, would be
+more desirable, considering the mode in which the large institutions are
+now seen?--I think in these great institutions attention ought
+specially to be paid to giving perfect security to all the works and
+objects of art which they possess; and to giving convenience to the
+thorough student, whose business lies with those museums; and that
+collections for the amusement and improvement of the working classes
+ought to be entirely separate.
+
+If such institutions as I have described were to be established, you
+would of course desire that they should be opened of an evening, and be
+specially arranged, with a view to evening exhibition?--Certainly.
+
+It has been stated that the taxpayer has a right to have these
+exhibitions opened at hours when the workpeople can go to them, they
+being taxpayers; do not you think that the real interest of the taxpayer
+is, first, to have the pictures as carefully preserved as possible, and
+secondly, that they should be accessible to those whose special
+occupation in life is concerned in their study?--Most certainly.
+
+Is not the interest of the taxpayer reached in this way, rather than by
+any special opportunity being given of visiting at particular
+hours?--Most certainly.
+
+162. _Mr. Kinnaird._ Have you ever turned your attention to any peculiar
+localities, where museums of paintings and shells, and of birds and
+plants, might be opened for the purpose referred to?--Never; I have
+never examined the subject.
+
+Has it ever occurred to you that the Vestry Halls, which have recently
+been erected, and which are lighted, might be so appropriated?--No; I
+have never considered the subject at all.
+
+Supposing that suitable premises could be found, do you not think that
+many people would contribute modern paintings, and engravings, and
+various other objects of interest?--I think it is most probable; in
+fact, I should say certain.
+
+You would view such an attempt with great favor?--Yes; with great
+delight indeed.
+
+You rather look upon it as the duty of the Government to provide such
+institutions for the people?--I feel that very strongly indeed.
+
+Do you not think that the plan which has been adopted at Versailles, of
+having modern history illustrated by paintings, would prove of great
+interest to the people?--I should think it would be an admirable plan in
+every way.
+
+And a very legitimate step to be taken by the Government, for the
+purpose of encouraging art in that way?--Most truly.
+
+Would it have, do you think, an effect in encouraging art in this
+country?--I should think so, certainly.
+
+Whose duty would you consider it to be to superintend the formation of
+such collections? are there any Government officers who are at present
+capable of organizing a staff for employment in local museums that you
+are aware of?--I do not know; I have not examined that subject at all.
+
+163. _Chairman._ The Committee would like to understand you more
+definitely upon the point that has been referred to, as to foreigners
+and Englishmen. I presume that what you wished the Committee to
+understand was, that upon the whole, so far as you have observed, more
+facilities are in point of fact afforded to the working classes, in some
+way or other, abroad than in this country for seeing pictures and
+visiting public institutions?--My answer referred especially to the
+aspect of the working classes as I have watched them in their times of
+recreation; I see them associated with the upper classes, more happily
+for themselves; I see them walking through the Louvre, and walking
+through the gardens of all the great cities of Europe, and apparently
+less ashamed of themselves, and more happily combined with all the upper
+classes of society, than they are here. Here our workmen, somehow, are
+always miserably dressed, and they always keep out of the way, both at
+such institutions and at church. The temper abroad seems to be, while
+there is a sterner separation and a more aristocratic feeling between
+the upper and the lower classes, yet just on that account the workman
+confesses himself for a workman, and is treated with affection. I do not
+say workmen merely, but the lower classes generally, are treated with
+affection, and familiarity, and sympathy by the master or employer,
+which has to me often been very touching in separate eases; and that
+impression being on my mind, I answered, not considering that the
+question was of any importance, hastily; and I am not at present
+prepared to say how far I could, by thinking, justify that impression.
+
+164. _Mr. Kinnaird._ In your experience, in the last few years, have you
+not seen a very marked improvement in the working classes in this
+country in every respect to which you have alluded; take the last twenty
+years, or since you have turned your attention that way?--I have no
+evidence before me in England of that improvement, because I think that
+the struggle for existence becomes every day more severe, and that,
+while greater efforts are made to help the workman, the principles on
+which our commerce is conducted are every day oppressing him, and
+sinking him deeper.
+
+Have you ever visited the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and
+Yorkshire, with a view of ascertaining the state of the people
+there?--Not with a definite view. My own work has nothing to do with
+those subjects; and it is only incidentally, because I gratuitously give
+such instruction as I am able to give at the Working Men's College, that
+I am able to give you any facts on this subject. All the rest that I can
+give is, as Sir Robert Peel accurately expressed it, nothing but
+personal impression.
+
+You admit that the Working Men's College is, after all, a very limited
+sphere?--A very limited sphere.
+
+165. _Sir Robert Peel._ You have stated that, in the Louvre, a working
+man looks at the pictures with a greater degree of self-respect than the
+same classes do in the National Gallery here?--I think so.
+
+You surely never saw a man of the upper class, in England, scorn at a
+working man because he appeared in his working dress in the National
+Gallery in London?--I have certainly seen working men apprehensive of
+such scorn.
+
+_Chairman._ Is it not the fact, that the upper and lower classes
+scarcely ever meet on the same occasions?--I think, if possible, they do
+not.
+
+Is it not the fact that the laboring classes almost invariably cease
+labor at such hours as would prevent them from going to see pictures at
+the time when the upper classes do go?--I meant, before, to signify
+assent to your question, that they do not meet if it can be avoided.
+
+_Sir Robert Peel._ Take the Crystal Palace as an example; do not working
+men and all classes meet there together, and did you ever see a working
+man _gêné_ in the examination of works of art?--I am sure that a working
+man very often would not go where he would like to go.
+
+But you think he would abroad?--I think they would go abroad; I only say
+that I believe such is the fact.
+
+_Mr. Slaney._ Do not you think that the light-hearted temperament of our
+southern neighbors, and the fineness of the climate, which permits them
+to enjoy themselves more in the open air, has something to do with
+it?--I hope that the old name of Merry England may be recovered one of
+these days. I do not think that it is in the disposition of the
+inhabitants to be in the least duller than other people.
+
+_Sir Robert Peel._ When was that designation lost?--I am afraid ever
+since our manufactures have prospered.
+
+_Chairman._ Referring to the Crystal Palace, do you think that that was
+an appropriate instance to put, considering the working man pays for his
+own, and is not ashamed to enjoy his own for his own money?--I have
+never examined the causes of the feeling; it did not appear to me to be
+a matter of great importance what was the state of feeling in foreign
+countries. I felt that it depended upon so many circumstances, that I
+thought it would be a waste of time to trace it.
+
+166. _Sir Robert Peel._ You stated that abroad the working classes were
+much better dressed?--Yes.
+
+Do you think so?--Yes.
+
+Surely they cannot be better dressed than they are in England, for you
+hardly know a working man here from an aristocrat?--It is precisely
+because I do know working men on a Sunday and every other day of the
+week from an aristocrat that I like their dress better in France; it is
+the ordinary dress belonging to their position, and it expresses
+momentarily what they are; it is the blue blouse which hangs freely
+over their frames, keeping them sufficiently protected from cold and
+dust; but here it is a shirt open at the collar, very dirty, very much
+torn, with ragged hair, and a ragged coat, and altogether a dress of
+misery.
+
+You think that they are better dressed abroad because they wear a
+blouse?--Because they wear a costume appropriate to their work.
+
+Are you aware that they make it an invariable custom to leave off the
+blouse on Sundays and on holidays, and that after they have finished
+their work they take off their blouse?--I am not familiar, nor do I
+profess to be familiar, with the customs of the Continent; I am only
+stating my impressions; but I like especially their habit of wearing a
+national costume. I believe the national costume of work in Switzerland
+to be at the root of what prosperity Switzerland yet is retaining. I
+think, for instance, although it may sound rather singular to say so,
+that the pride which the women take in their clean chemise sleeves, is
+one of the healthiest things in Switzerland, and that it is operative in
+every way on the health of the mind and the body, their keeping their
+costume pure, fresh, and beautiful.
+
+You stated that the working classes were better dressed abroad than in
+England?--As far as I know, that is certainly the fact.
+
+Still their better dress consists of a blouse, which they take off when
+they have finished their work?--I bow to your better knowledge of the
+matter.
+
+_Chairman._ Are you aware that a considerable number of the working
+classes are in bed on the Sunday?--Perhaps it is the best place for
+them.
+
+167. _Mr. Kinnaird._ You trace the deterioration in the condition of the
+working classes to the increase of trade and manufactures in this
+country?--To the increase of competitive trades and manufactures.
+
+It is your conviction that we may look upon this vast extension of
+trade, and commerce, and competition, altogether as an evil?--Not on
+the vast extension of trade, but on the vast extension of the struggle
+of man with man, instead of the principle of help of man by man.
+
+_Chairman._ I understood you to say, that you did not object to trade,
+but that you wished each country to produce that which it was best
+fitted to produce, with a view to an interchange of its commodities with
+those of other countries?--Yes.
+
+You did not intend to cast a slur upon the idea of competition?--Yes,
+very distinctly; I intended not only to cast a slur, but to express my
+excessive horror of the principle of competition, in every way; for
+instance, we ought not to try to grow claret here, nor to produce silk;
+we ought to produce coal and iron, and the French should give us wine
+and silk.
+
+You say that, with a view to an interchange of such commodities?--Yes.
+
+Each country producing that which it is best fitted to produce?--Yes, as
+well as it can; not striving to imitate or compete with the productions
+of other countries. Finally, I believe that the way of ascertaining what
+ought to be done for the workman in any position, is for any one of us
+to suppose that he was our own son, and that he was left without any
+parents, and without any help; that there was no chance of his ever
+emerging out of the state in which he was, and then, that what we should
+each of us like to be done for our son, so left, we should strive to do
+for the workman.
+
+     The following analysis of the above evidence was mainly given in
+     the Index to the Report (p. 153).--ED.
+
+     139. Is well acquainted with the museums, picture galleries, etc.,
+     in the metropolis.--Conducts a drawing class at the Working Men's
+     College.
+
+     140. Desirableness of the public institutions being open in the
+     evening (cp. 154, 161).
+
+     141. Remarks relative to the system of teaching expedient for the
+     working classes; system pursued by witness at the Working Men's
+     College.--Workmen to aim at rising in their class, not _out of_ it
+     (cp. 155).
+
+     142. Backward state, intellectually, of the working man of the
+     present time; superiority of the foreigner.
+
+     143. Improvement of the National Gallery suggested (cp. 157, 160).
+
+     144. Inexpediency of submitting valuable ancient pictures to the
+     risk of injury from gas, etc. (cp. 146, 157).
+
+     145. Statement as to the minds of the working classes after their
+     day's labor being too much oppressed to enable them to enjoy or
+     appreciate the public institutions, if merely opened in the
+     evening.
+
+     146. Suggested collection of pictures and prints of a particular
+     character for the inspection of the working classes.--Suggestions
+     with a view to special collections of shells, birds, and plants
+     being prepared for the use of the working classes; system of
+     lectures, of illustration, and of intermediate study necessary in
+     connection with such collections (cp. 151-52).
+
+     147. Statement as to greater interest being taken in France and
+     other foreign countries than in England in the intellectual
+     development of the working classes; examination on this point, and
+     on the effect produced thereby upon the character and demeanor of
+     the working people (cp. 158, 163-64).
+
+     148. Objection to circulating valuable or rare works of art
+     throughout the country, on account of the risk of
+     injury--Disapproval of inspectors, etc., going about with the
+     visitors (cp. 159).--Advantage in the upper classes lending
+     pictures, etc., for public exhibition.
+
+     149. Lectures to working men. Advantage if large printed
+     explanations were placed under every picture (cp. 157, 161).
+
+     150. Great desire among the working classes to acquire knowledge;
+     grounds of such desire (cp. 155).--Great boon if a museum were
+     formed at the east end of London.
+
+     151. Lectures on natural history for working men.
+
+     152. Books available on British birds.
+
+     153. Intermediate study essential to use of Lectures.--Good
+     attendance at Working Men's College.--Terms and conditions of
+     admission to it.
+
+     154. Approval of Saturday half-holiday movement (cp. 140, 161).
+
+     155. See above, s. 142.
+
+     156. Competition in trade and labor regarded by witness as a great
+     evil.
+
+     157. See above, s. 143, 149.
+
+     158-59. Happier condition of lower classes abroad than at home.
+     Their dress also better abroad. 163-64, 166, and see above, s. 142.
+
+     160. See above, s. 143, 149, 157.
+
+     161. See above, s. 149, 154.
+
+     162. Use of existing public buildings for art collections.
+
+     163-64. See above, s. 158-59.
+
+     165. Surely England may one day be Merry England again.--When it
+     ceased to be so.
+
+     166. See above, s. 158-59.
+
+     167. Increase of trade and deteriorated condition of
+     working-classes.--Our duty to them.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Reprinted from "The Report of the Select Committee on
+Public Institutions. _Ordered by_ the House of Commons _to be printed_,
+27 March 1860," pp. 113-123. The following members of the Committee were
+present on the occasion of the above evidence being given: -Sir John
+Trelawny (_Chairman_), Mr. Sclater Booth, Mr. Du Pre, Mr. Kinnaird, Mr.
+Hanbury, Sir Robert Peel, Mr. Slaney, and Mr. John Tollemache.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION.[3]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, June 8th, 1863._
+
+
+168. _Chairman._ You have, no doubt, frequently considered the position
+of the Royal Academy in this country?--Yes.
+
+Is it in all points satisfactory to you?--No, certainly not.
+
+Do you approve, for example, of the plan by which, on a vacancy
+occurring, the Royal Academicians supply that vacancy, or would you wish
+to see that election confided to any other hands?--I should wish to see
+the election confided to other hands. I think that all elections are
+liable to mistake, or mischance, when the electing body elect the
+candidate into them. I rather think that elections are only successful
+where the candidate is elected into a body other than the body of
+electors; but I have not considered the principles of election fully
+enough to be able to give any positive statement of opinion upon that
+matter. I only feel that at present the thing is liable to many errors
+and mischances.
+
+Does it not seem, however, that there are some precedents, such, for
+example, as the Institute of France, in which the body electing to the
+vacancies that occur within it keeps up a very high character, and
+enjoys a great reputation?--There are many such precedents; and, as
+every such body for its own honor must sometimes call upon the most
+intellectual men of the country to join it, I should think that every
+such body must retain a high character where the country itself has a
+proper sense of the worth of its best men; but the system of election
+may be wrong, though the sense of the country may be right; and I think,
+in appealing to a precedent to justify a system, we should estimate
+properly what has been brought about by the feeling of the country. We
+are all, I fancy, too much in the habit of looking to forms as the cause
+of what really is caused by the temper of the nation at the particular
+time, working, through the forms, for good or evil.
+
+If, however, the election of Academicians were to be confided to artists
+who were not already Academicians themselves, would it be easy to meet
+this objection, that they would have in many cases a personal interest
+in the question; that each might be striving for his own admission to
+that distinction; whereas, when the election takes place among those who
+have already attained that distinction, direct personal interest at all
+events is absent?--I should think personal interest would act in a
+certain sense in either case; it would branch into too many subtleties
+of interest to say in what way it would act. I should think that it
+would be more important to the inferior body to decide rightly upon
+those who were to govern them, than to the superior body to decide upon
+those who were to govern other people; and that the superior body would
+therefore generally choose those who were likely to be pleasant to
+themselves;--pleasant, either as companions, or in carrying out a system
+which they chose for their own convenience to adopt; while the inferior
+body would choose men likely to carry out the system that would tend
+most to the general progress of art.
+
+169. As I understand you, though you have a decided opinion that it
+would be better for some other constituent body to elect the members of
+the Royal Academy, you have not a decided opinion as to how that
+constituent body would best be composed?--By no means.
+
+I presume you would wish that constituent body to consist of artists,
+though you are not prepared to say precisely how they should be
+selected?--I should like the constituent body to consist both of artists
+and of the public. I feel great difficulties in offering any suggestion
+as to the manner in which the electors should elect: but I should like
+the public as well as artists to have a voice, so that we might have the
+public feeling brought to bear upon painting as we have now upon music;
+and that the election of those who were to attract the public eye, or
+direct the public mind, should indicate also the will of the public in
+some respects; not that I think that "will" always wise, but I think you
+would then have pointed out in what way those who are teaching the
+public should best regulate the teaching; and also it would give the
+public itself an interest in art, and a sense of responsibility, which
+in the present state of things they never can have.
+
+Will you explain more fully the precedent of music to which you have
+just adverted?--The fame of any great singer or any great musician
+depends upon the public enthusiasm and feeling respecting him. No Royal
+Academy can draw a large audience to the opera by stating that such and
+such a piece of music is good, or that such and such a voice is clear;
+if the public do not feel the voice to be delicious, and if they do not
+like the music, they will not go to hear it. The fame of the musician,
+whether singer, instrumentalist, or composer, is founded mainly upon his
+having produced a strong effect upon the public intellect and
+imagination. I should like that same effect to be produced by painters,
+and to be expressed by the public enthusiasm and approbation; not merely
+by expressions of approbation in conversation, but by the actual voice
+which in the theater is given by the shout and by the clapping of the
+hands. You cannot clap a picture, nor clap a painter at his work, but I
+should like the public in some way to bring their voice to bear upon the
+painter's work.
+
+170. Have you formed any opinion upon the position of the Associates in
+the Royal Academy?--I have thought of it a little, but the present
+system of the Academy is to me so entirely nugatory, it produces so
+little effect in any way (what little effect it does produce being in my
+opinion mischievous), that it has never interested me; and I have felt
+the difficulty so greatly, that I never, till your lordship's letter
+reached me, paid much attention to it. I always thought it would be a
+waste of time to give much time to thinking how it might be altered; so
+that as to the position of Associates I can say little, except that I
+think, in any case, there ought to be some period of probation, and some
+advanced scale of dignity, indicative of the highest attainments in art,
+which should be only given to the oldest and most practiced painters.
+
+From the great knowledge which you possess of British art, looking to
+the most eminent painters, sculptors, and architects at this time,
+should you say that the number of the Royal Academy is sufficient fully
+to represent them, or would you recommend an increase in the present
+number of Academicians?--I have not considered in what proportion the
+Academicianships at present exist. That is rather a question bearing
+upon the degree of dignity which one would be glad to confer. I should
+like the highest dignity to be limited, but I should like the inferior
+dignity corresponding to the Associateship to be given, as the degrees
+are given in the universities, without any limitation of number, to
+those possessing positive attainments and skill. I should think a very
+limited number of Academicianships would always meet all the
+requirements of the highest intellect of the country.
+
+171. Have you formed any opinion upon the expediency of intrusting
+laymen with some share in the management of the affairs of the
+Academy?--No, I have formed no opinion upon that matter. I do not know
+what there is at present to be managed in the Academy. I should think if
+the Academy is to become an available school, laymen cannot be joined in
+the management of that particular department. In matters of revenue, and
+in matters concerning the general interests and dignity of the Academy,
+they might be.
+
+Should you think that non-professional persons would be fitly associated
+with artists in such questions as the selection and hanging of the
+pictures sent in for exhibition?--No, I think not.
+
+Some persons have suggested that the president of the Academy should not
+always nor of necessity be himself an artist; should you approve of any
+system by which a gentleman of high social position, not an artist, was
+placed at the head of such a body as the Academy?--"Of such a body as
+the Academy," if I may be permitted to repeat your words, must of course
+have reference to the constitution to be given to it. As at present
+constituted, I do not know what advantage might or might not be derived
+from such a gentleman being appointed president. As I should like to see
+it constituted, I think he ought to be an artist only.
+
+172. Have you had any reason to observe or to make yourself acquainted
+with the working of the schools of the Royal Academy?--Yes, I have
+observed it. I have not made myself acquainted with the actual methods
+of teaching at present in use, but I know the general effect upon the
+art of the country.
+
+What should you say was that effect?--Nearly nugatory: exceedingly
+painful in this respect, that the teaching of the Academy separates, as
+the whole idea of the country separates, the notion of art-education
+from other education, and when you have made that one fundamental
+mistake, all others follow. You teach a young man to manage his chalk
+and his brush--not always that--but having done that, you suppose you
+have made a painter of him; whereas to educate a painter is the same
+thing as to educate a clergyman or a physician--you must give him a
+liberal education primarily, and that must be connected with the kind of
+learning peculiarly fit for his profession. That error is partly owing
+to our excessively vulgar and excessively shallow English idea that the
+artist's profession is not, and cannot be, a liberal one. We respect a
+physician, and call him a gentleman, because he can give us a purge and
+clean out our stomachs; but we do not call an artist a gentleman, whom
+we expect to invent for us the face of Christ. When we have made that
+primary mistake, all other mistakes in education are trivial in
+comparison. The very notion of an art academy should be, a body of
+teachers of the youth who are to be the guides of the nation through its
+senses; and that is a very important means of guiding it. We have done a
+good deal through dinners, but we may some day do a good deal more
+through pictures.
+
+You would have a more comprehensive system of teaching?--Much more
+comprehensive.
+
+173. Do I rightly understand you that you would wish it to embrace
+branches of liberal education in general, and not be merely confined to
+specific artistic studies?--Certainly. I would have the Academy
+education corresponding wholly to the university education. The schools
+of the country ought to teach the boy the first conditions of
+manipulation. He should come up, I say not at what age, but probably at
+about fourteen or fifteen, to the central university of art, wherever
+that was established; and then, while he was taught to paint and to
+carve and to work in metal--just as in old times he would have been
+taught to manage the sword and lance, they being the principal business
+of his life,--during the years from fifteen to twenty, the chief
+attention of his governors should be to make a gentleman of him in the
+highest sense; and to give him an exceedingly broad and liberal
+education, which should enable him not only to work nobly, but to
+conceive nobly.
+
+174. As to the point, however, of artistic manipulation, is not it the
+fact that many great painters have differed, and do differ, from each
+other, and would it therefore be easy for the Academy to adopt any
+authoritative system of teaching, excluding one mode and acknowledging
+another?--Not easy, but very necessary. There have been many methods;
+but there has never been a case of a great school which did not fix upon
+its method: and there has been no case of a thoroughly great school
+which did not fix upon the right method, as far as circumstances enabled
+it to do so. The meaning of a successful school is, that it has adopted
+a method which it teaches to its young painters, so that right working
+becomes a habit with them; so that with no thought, and no effort, and
+no torment, and no talk about it, they have the habit of doing what
+their school teaches them.
+
+You do not think a system is equally good which leaves to each eminent
+professor, according to the bent of his genius or the result of his
+experience, to instruct young men, the instruction varying with the
+character of each professor?--Great benefit would arise if each
+professor founded his own school, and were interested in his own pupils;
+but, as has been sufficiently illustrated in the schools of Domenichino
+and Guido, there is apt to arise rivalry between the masters, with no
+correlative advantages, unless the masters are all of one mind. And the
+only successful idea of an academy has been where the practice was
+consistent, and where there was no contradiction. Considering the
+knowledge we now have, and the means we now have of comparing all the
+works of the greatest painters, though, as you suggest by your question,
+it is not easy to adopt an authoritative system, yet it is perfectly
+possible. Let us get at the best method and let us teach that. There is
+unquestionably a best way if we can find it; and we have now in England
+the means of finding it out.
+
+The teaching in the Academy is now, under all circumstances, gratuitous;
+would you wish that system to continue, or should you prefer to see a
+system of payment?--I am not prepared to answer that question. It would
+depend upon the sort of system that was adopted and on the kind of
+persons you received into your schools.
+
+175. I presume you would say that in artistic teaching there are some
+points on which there would be common ground, and others upon which
+there must be specific teaching; for instance, in sculpture and painting
+there is a point up to which the proportions of the human figure have to
+be studied, but afterwards there is a divergence between the two arts of
+chiseling marble and laying colors on the canvas?--Certainly. I should
+think all that might be arranged in an Academy system very simply. You
+would have first your teaching of drawing with the soft point; and
+associated with that, chiaroscuro: you would then have the teaching of
+drawing with the hard or black point, involving the teaching of the best
+system of engraving, and all that was necessary to form your school of
+engravers: you would then proceed to metal work; and on working in metal
+you would found your school of sculpture, and on that your school of
+architecture: and finally, and above all, you would have your school of
+painting, including oil painting and fresco painting, and all painting
+in permanent material; (not comprising painting in any material that was
+not permanent:) and with that you would associate your school of
+chemistry, which should teach what was permanent and what was not; which
+school of chemistry should declare authoritatively, with the Academy's
+seal, what colors would stand and what process would secure their
+standing: and should have a sort of Apothecaries' Hall where anybody who
+required them could procure colors in the purest state; all these things
+being organized in one great system, and only possibly right by their
+connection and in their connection.
+
+176. Do you approve of the encouragement which of late years has been
+given to fresco painting, and do you look forward to much extension of
+that branch of art in England?--I found when I was examining the term
+"fresco painting," that it was a wide one, that none of us seemed to
+know quite the limitation or extent of it; and after giving a good deal
+more time to the question I am still less able to answer distinctly on
+an understanding of the term "fresco painting:" but using the term
+"decorative painting, applicable to walls in permanent materials," I
+think it essential that every great school should include as one of its
+main objects the teaching of wall painting in permanent materials, and
+on a large scale.
+
+You think it should form a branch of the system of teaching in the
+Academy?--I think it should form a branch of the teaching in the
+Academy, possibly the principal branch.
+
+Does it so far as you know form a separate branch of teaching in any of
+the foreign academies?--I do not know.
+
+177. Looking generally, and of course without mentioning any names, have
+you in the course of the last few years been generally satisfied with
+the selection of artists into the Royal Academy?--No, certainly not.
+
+Do you think that some artists of merit have been excluded, or that
+artists whom you think not deserving of that honor have been
+elected?--More; that artists not deserving of the honor have been
+elected. I think it does no harm to any promising artist to be left out
+of the Academy, but it does harm to the public sometimes that an
+unpromising artist should be let into it.
+
+You think there have been cases within the last few years in which
+persons, in your judgment, not entitled to that distinction have
+nevertheless been elected?--Certainly.
+
+178. With respect to the selection of pictures for the exhibition, are
+you satisfied in general with that selection, or have you in particular
+instances seen ground to think that it has been injudiciously
+exercised?--In some cases it has been injudiciously exercised, but it is
+a matter of small importance; it causes heartburning probably, but
+little more. If a rejected picture is good, the public will see it some
+day or other, and find out that it is a good picture. I care little
+about what pictures are let in or not, but I do care about seeing the
+pictures that are let in. The main point, which everyone would desire to
+see determined, is how the pictures that are admitted are to be best
+seen. No picture deserving of being seen at all should be so hung as to
+give you any pain or fatigue in seeing it. If you let a picture into the
+room at all, it should not be hung so high as that either the feelings
+of the artist or the neck of the public should be hurt.
+
+179. _Viscount Hardinge._ I gather from your evidence that you would
+wish to see the Royal Academy a sort of central university to which
+young men from other institutions should be sent. Assuming that there
+were difficulties in the way of carrying that out, do you think, under
+the present system, you could exact from young men who are candidates
+for admission into the Royal Academy, some educational test?--Certainly;
+I think much depends upon that. If the system of education which I have
+been endeavoring to point out were adopted, you would have in every one
+of those professions very practiced workmen. You could not have any of
+this education carried out, unless you had thoroughly practiced workmen;
+and you should fix your pass as you fix your university pass, and you
+should pass a man in architecture, sculpture, and painting, because he
+knows his business, and knows as much of any other science as is
+necessary for his profession. You require a piece of work from him, and
+you examine him, and then you pass him,--call him whatever you
+like;--but you say to the public, Here is a workman in this branch who
+will do your work well.
+
+You do not think there would in such a system be any risk of excluding
+men who might hereafter be great men who under such a system might not
+be able to pass?--There are risks in every system, but I think every man
+worth anything would pass. A great many who would be good for nothing
+would pass, but your really great man would assuredly pass.
+
+180. Has it ever struck you that it would be advantageous to art if
+there were at the universities professors of art who might give lectures
+and give instruction to young men who might desire to avail themselves
+of it, as you have lectures on botany and geology?--Yes, assuredly. The
+want of interest on the part of the upper classes in art has been very
+much at the bottom of the abuses which have crept into all systems of
+education connected with it. If the upper classes could only be
+interested in it by being led into it when young, a great improvement
+might be looked for; therefore I feel the expediency of such an addition
+to the education of our universities.
+
+181. Is not that want of refinement which may be observed in many of the
+pictures from time to time exhibited in the Royal Academy to be
+attributed in a great measure to the want of education amongst
+artists?--It is to be attributed to that, and to the necessity which
+artists are under of addressing a low class of spectators: an artist to
+live must catch the public eye. Our upper classes supply a very small
+amount of patronage to artists at present, their main patronage being
+from the manufacturing districts and from the public interested in
+engravings;--an exceedingly wide sphere, but a low sphere,--and you
+catch the eye of that class much more by pictures having reference to
+their amusements than by any noble subject better treated, and the
+better treated it was the less it would interest that class.
+
+Is it not often the case that pictures exhibiting such a want of
+refinement, at the same time fetch large prices amongst what I may call
+the mercantile patrons of art?--Certainly; and, the larger the price,
+the more harm done of course to the school, for that is a form of
+education you cannot resist. Plato said long ago, when you have your
+demagogue against you no human form of education can resist that.
+
+182. _Sir E. Head._ What is your opinion of the present mode of teaching
+in the life school and the painting school, namely, by visitors
+constantly changing?--I should think it mischievous. The unfortunate
+youths, I should imagine, would just get what they could pick up; it
+would be throwing them crumbs very much as you throw bones to the
+animals in the Zoological Gardens.
+
+Do you conceive that anything which can be properly called a school, is
+likely to be formed where the teaching is conducted in that
+way?--Assuredly not.
+
+183. You stated that in the event of the introduction of lay members
+into the Academy, you would not think it desirable that they should take
+part in the selection or hanging of pictures for exhibition. Is not
+there a great distinction between the selection of the pictures and the
+hanging of the pictures, and might not they take part in the one without
+taking part in the other?--I should think hardly. My notion of hanging a
+picture is to put it low enough to be seen. If small it should be placed
+near the eye. Anybody can hang a picture, but the question should be, is
+there good painting enough in this picture to make it acceptable to the
+public, or to make it just to the artist to show it? And none but
+artists can quite judge of the workmanship which should entitle it to
+enter the Academy.
+
+Do you think it depends solely upon the workmanship?--Not by any means
+solely, but I think that is the first point that should be looked to. An
+ill-worked picture ought not to be admitted; let it be exhibited
+elsewhere if you will, but your Academy has no business to let bad work
+pass. If a man cannot carve or paint, though his work may be well
+conceived, do not let his work pass. Unless you require good work in
+your Academy exhibition, you can form no school.
+
+_Mr. Reeve._ Applying the rule you have just laid down, would the effect
+be to exclude a considerable proportion of the works now exhibited in
+the Academy?--Yes; more of the Academicians' than of others.
+
+_Sir E. Head._ Selection now being made by technical artists?--No.
+
+Professional?--Yes.
+
+_Lord Elcho._ Do you think that none but professional artists
+are capable of judging of the actual merit or demerit of a
+painting?--Non-professional persons may offer a very strong opinion upon
+the subject, which may happen to be right,--or which may be wrong.
+
+Your opinion is that the main thing with respect to the exhibition is,
+that the pictures should be seen; that they should not be hung too high
+or too low. That question has been already raised before the Commission,
+and it has been suggested that two feet from the ground should be the
+minimum height for the base of the picture, and some witnesses have said
+that six feet and others eight feet should be the maximum height for the
+base of the picture; what limit would you fix?--I should say that the
+horizontal line in the perspective of the picture ought always to be
+opposite the spectator's eye, no matter what the height may be from the
+floor. If the horizontal line is so placed that it must be above the
+spectator's eye, in consequence of the size of the picture, it cannot
+be helped, but I would always get the horizontal line opposite the eye
+if possible.
+
+184. _Chairman._ Should you concur in the suggestion which a witness has
+made before this Commission, that it would be an improvement, if the
+space admitted of it, that works of sculpture should be intermixed in
+the same apartment with works of painting, instead of being kept as at
+present in separate apartments?--I should think it would be very
+delightful to have some works of sculpture mixed with works of painting;
+that it would make the exhibition more pleasing, and that the eye would
+be rested sometimes by turning from the colors to the marble, and would
+see the colors of the paintings better in return. Sir Joshua Reynolds
+mentions the power which some of the Flemish pictures seemed to derive,
+in his opinion, by looking at them after having consulted his note-book.
+Statuary placed among the pictures would have the same effect. I would
+not have the sculpture that was sent in for the exhibition of the year
+exhibited with the paintings, but I would have works of sculpture placed
+permanently in the painting rooms.
+
+_Lord Elcho._ Supposing there were no works of sculpture available for
+being placed in the rooms permanently, and supposing among the works
+sent in for annual exhibition there were works of a character fit to be
+placed among the paintings, should you see any objection to their being
+so placed?--That would cause an immense amount of useless trouble, and
+perpetual quarrels among the sculptors, as to whose works were entitled
+to be placed in the painting rooms or not.
+
+Are you aware that in the exhibition in Paris in 1855, that was the
+system adopted?--No. If the French adopted it, it was likely to be
+useful, and doubtless they would carry it out very cleverly; but we have
+not the knack of putting the right things in the right places by any
+means.
+
+Did you see our own International Exhibition last year?--No.
+
+Are you aware that a similar system was resorted to in the exhibition of
+pictures there?--I should think in our exhibitions we must put anything
+where it would go, in the sort of way that we manage them.
+
+185. At the present moment there are on the books of the Academy five
+honorary members, who hold certain titular offices, Earl Stanhope being
+antiquary to the Academy, Mr. Grote being professor of ancient history,
+Dean Milman being professor of ancient literature, the Bishop of Oxford
+being chaplain, and Sir Henry Holland being secretary for foreign
+correspondence; these professors never deliver any lectures and have no
+voice whatever in the management, but have mere honorary titular
+distinctions; should you think it desirable that gentlemen of their
+position and character should have a voice in the management of the
+affairs of the Academy?--It would be much more desirable that they
+should give lectures upon the subjects with which they are acquainted. I
+should think Earl Stanhope and all the gentlemen you have mentioned,
+would be much happier in feeling that they were of use in their
+positions; and that if you gave them something to do they would very
+nobly do it. If you give them nothing to do I think they ought not to
+remain in the institution.
+
+186. It has been suggested that the Academy now consisting of forty-two
+might be increased advantageously to fifty professional members,
+architecture, sculpture, and painting being fairly represented, and that
+in addition to those fifty there might be elected or nominated somehow
+or other ten non-professional persons, that is, men taking an interest
+in art, who had a certain position and standing in the country, and who
+might take an active part in the management of the affairs of the
+institution, so tending to bring the Royal Academy and the public
+together?--I do not know enough of society to be able to form an opinion
+upon the subject.
+
+Irrespective of society, as a question of art, you know enough of
+non-professional persons interested in art to judge as to whether the
+infusion of such an element into the Academy might be of advantage to
+the Academy and to art generally?--I think if you educate our upper
+classes to take more interest in art, which implies, of course, to know
+something about it, they might be most efficient members of the
+Academy; but if you leave them, as you leave them now, to the education
+which they get at Oxford and Cambridge, and give them the sort of scorn
+which all the teaching there tends to give, for art and artists, the
+less they have to do with an academy of art the better.
+
+Assuming that, at present, you have not a very great number of those
+persons in the country, do you not think that the mere fact of the
+adoption of such a principle in any reform in the constitution of the
+Academy might have the effect of turning attention more to this matter
+at the Universities, and leading to the very thing which you think so
+desirable?--No, I should think not. It would only at present give the
+impression that the whole system was somewhat artificial, and that it
+was to remain ineffective.
+
+Notwithstanding the neglect of this matter at the Universities, do you
+think, at the present moment, you could not find ten non-professional
+persons, of the character you would think desirable, to add to the
+Academy?--If I may be so impertinent, I may say that you as one of the
+upper classes, and I as a layman in the lower classes, are tolerably
+fair examples of the kind of persons who take an interest in art, and I
+think both of us would do a great deal of mischief if we had much to do
+with the Academy.
+
+187. Assuming those two persons to be appointed lay members, will you
+state in what way you think they would do mischief in the councils of
+the Academy?--We should be disturbing elements, whereas what I should
+try to secure, if I had anything to do with its arrangements, would be
+entire tranquillity, a regular system of tuition in which there should
+be little excitement, and little operation of popular, aristocratic, or
+any other disturbing influence; none of criticism, and therefore none of
+tiresome people like myself;--none of money patronage, or even of
+aristocratic patronage. The whole aim of the teachers should be to
+produce work which could be demonstrably shown to be good and useful,
+and worthy of being bought, or used in any way; and after that the
+whole question of patronage and interest should be settled. The school
+should teach its art-grammar thoroughly in everything, and in every
+material, and should teach it carefully; and that could be done if a
+perfect system were adopted, and above all, if a few thoroughly good
+examples were put before the students. That is a point which I think of
+very great importance. I think it very desirable that grants should be
+made by the Government to obtain for the pupils of the Academy beautiful
+examples of every kind, the very loveliest and best; not too many; and
+that their minds should not be confused by having placed before them
+examples of all schools and times; they are confused enough by what they
+see in the shops, and in the annual exhibitions. Let engraving be taught
+by Marc Antonio and Albert Dürer,--painting by Giorgione, Paul Veronese,
+Titian and Velasquez,--and sculpture by good Greek and selected Roman
+examples, and let there be no question of other schools or their merits.
+Let those things be shown as good and right, and let the student be
+trained in those principles:--if afterwards he strikes out an original
+path, let him; but do not let him torment himself and other people with
+his originalities, till he knows what is right, so far as is known at
+present.
+
+You are opposed, on the whole, to the introduction of the lay
+element?--Yes; but I am not opposed strongly or distinctly to it,
+because I have not knowledge enough of society to know how it would
+work.
+
+Your not being in favor of it results from your belief that the lay
+element that would be useful to the Academy does not at present exist in
+this country; but you think, if it did exist, and if it could be made to
+grow out of our schools and universities by art teaching, it might, with
+advantage to the Academy and to artists, be introduced into the
+Academy?--Yes.
+
+188. Supposing the class of Royal Academicians to be retained, and that
+you had fifty Royal Academicians, should you think it desirable that
+their works should be exhibited by themselves, so that the public might
+see together the works of those considered to be the first artists of
+this country?--Certainly, I should like all pictures to be well seen,
+but I should like one department of the exhibition to be given to the
+Associates or Graduates. I use that term because I suppose those
+Associates to have a degree given them for a certain amount of
+excellence, and any person who had attained that degree should be
+allowed to send in so many pictures. Then the pictures sent in by
+persons who had attained the higher honor of Royal Academician should be
+separately exhibited.
+
+That would act as a stimulus to them to keep up their position and show
+themselves worthy of the honor?--Yes. I do not think they ought to be
+mixed at all as they are now.
+
+189. What is your opinion with reference to the present system of
+traveling studentships?--I think it might be made very useful indeed.
+
+On the one hand it has been suggested that there should be, as is the
+system adopted by the French Academy, a permanent professor at Rome to
+look after the students; on the other hand it has been said that it is
+not desirable, if you have those traveling studentships, that the
+students should go to Rome, that it is better for them to travel, and to
+go to Venice or Lombardy, and to have no fixed school in connection with
+the Academy at Rome. To which of those two systems do you give the
+preference?--I should prefer the latter; if a man goes to travel, he
+ought to travel, and not be plagued with schools.
+
+It has been suggested that fellowships might be given to rising artists,
+pecuniary assistance being attached to those fellowships, the artist
+being required annually to send in some specimen of his work to show
+what he was doing, but it being left optional with him to go abroad or
+to work at home; should you think that would be desirable, or as has
+been suggested in a letter by Mr. Armitage, supposing those fellowships
+to be established for four years, that two of those years should be
+spent abroad and two at home?--Without entering into any detail as to
+whether two years should be spent abroad and two years at home, I feel
+very strongly that one of the most dangerous and retarding influences
+you have operating upon art is the enormous power of money, and the
+chances of entirely winning or entirely losing, that is, of making your
+fortune in a year by a large taking picture, or else starving for ten
+years by very good small ones. The whole life of an artist is a lottery,
+and a very wild lottery, and the best artist is liable to be warped away
+from what he knows is right by the chance of at once making a vast
+fortune by catching the public eye, the public eye being only to be
+caught by bright colors and certain conditions of art not always
+desirable. If, therefore, connected with the Academy schools there could
+be the means of giving a fixed amount of income to certain men, who
+would as a consideration for that income furnish a certain number of
+works that might be agreed upon, or undertake any national work that
+might be agreed upon, that I believe would be the healthiest way in
+which a good painter could be paid. To give him his bread and cheese,
+and so much a day, and say, Here are such and such things we want you to
+do, is, I believe, the healthiest, simplest, and happiest way in which
+great work can be produced. But whether it is compatible with our
+present system I cannot say, nor whether every man would not run away as
+soon as he found he could get two or three thousand pounds by painting a
+catching picture. I think your best men would not.
+
+You would be in favor of those fellowships?--Yes.
+
+190. I gather that you are in favor of the encouragement of mural
+decoration, fresco painting, and so forth. The system that prevails
+abroad, in France, for instance, is for painters to employ pupils to
+work under them. It was in that way that Delaroche painted his hemicycle
+at the Académie des Beaux-Arts, employing four pupils, who worked for
+him, and who from his small sketch drew the full-sized picture on the
+walls, which was subsequently corrected by him. They then colored it up
+to his sketch, after which he shut himself up again, and completed it.
+On the other hand, if you go to the Victoria Gallery in the House of
+Lords, you find Mr. Maclise at work on a space of wall forty-eight feet
+long, painting the Death of Nelson on the deck of the "Victory," every
+figure being life size, the deck of the ship and the ropes and
+everything being the actual size, and you see him painting with his own
+hand each little bit of rope and the minutest detail. Which of the two
+systems do you think is the soundest and most calculated to produce
+great and noble work?--The first is the best for the pupils, the other
+is the best for the public. But unquestionably not only can a great work
+be executed as Mr. Maclise is executing his, but no really great work
+was executed otherwise, for in all mighty work, whether in fresco or
+oil, every touch and hue of color to the last corner has been put on
+lovingly by the painter's own hand, not leaving to a pupil to paint so
+much as a pebble under a horse's foot.
+
+191. Do you believe that most of the works of the great masters in Italy
+were so executed?--No; because the pupils were nearly as mighty as the
+masters. Great men took such an interest in their work, and they were so
+modest and simple that they were repeatedly sacrificing themselves to
+the interests of their religion or of the society they were working for;
+and when a thing was to be done in a certain time it could only be done
+by bringing in aid; but whenever precious work was to be done, then the
+great man said, "Lock me up here by myself, give me a little wine and
+cheese, and come in a month, and I will show you what I have done."
+
+Do you think it desirable that the pupils should be so trained as to be
+capable of assisting great masters in such works?--Assuredly.
+
+     NOTE.--The following analysis of the above evidence was
+     given in the Index to the Report (pp. 139, 140).--ED.
+
+     168-69. The Academy not in all points satisfactory. Would wish to
+     see the Academicians not self-elected.--But by a constituency
+     consisting both of artists and the public.--Public influence to be
+     the same in painting as in music.
+
+     170. As to the Associates: is in favor of some period of
+     probation.--Their class to be unlimited, with a very limited number
+     of Academicians.
+
+     171. Has formed no opinion on the question of introducing laymen
+     into the Academy; in matters of revenue they might be joined with
+     artists, but not in the selection and hanging of pictures: opposed
+     on the whole to their introduction, considering the present state
+     of art education.--As he would like to see the Academy constituted,
+     thinks the president ought to be an artist.
+
+     172. General effect of the Academy's teaching upon the art of the
+     country merely nugatory.--Would have a much more comprehensive
+     system of teaching.
+
+     173. The Academy education to correspond wholly to the University
+     education.
+
+     174. Not easy but very necessary for the Academy to adopt an
+     authoritative system of teaching.
+
+     175. His idea of what the Academy teaching should be; would have a
+     school of chemistry.
+
+     176. The teaching of wall-painting in permanent materials should be
+     a branch, possibly the principal branch.
+
+     177. Not satisfied with the selection of artists to be members of
+     the Academy.
+
+     178. In some cases the selection of pictures has been injudicious,
+     but this a matter of small importance; the main point is how the
+     pictures that are admitted are to be best seen.
+
+     179. In favor of an educational test for candidates for admission
+     into the Academy.
+
+     180. And of professors of art at the Universities.
+
+     181. Causes of the want of refinement observable in many modern
+     pictures; the large prices they fetch harmful.
+
+     182. Teaching by visitors constantly changing mischievous.
+
+     183. How a picture should be hung.--An ill-worked picture ought not
+     to be admitted by the Academy.--Bearing of this last opinion upon
+     the present Exhibition.
+
+     184. Would have works of sculpture placed permanently in the
+     painting-room, but not any of those sent in for the Exhibition of
+     the year.
+
+     185. In favor of the present honorary members being made of use in
+     their positions.
+
+     186. Introduction of laymen into the Academy deprecated under
+     present circumstances, and why.--Present feeling towards art and
+     artists at the Universities.
+
+     187. Desirable that Government grants should be made to obtain for
+     the pupils of the Academy beautiful examples of every kind of art.
+
+     188. In favor of separate exhibitions of the works of Associates
+     (or Graduates) and Academicians.
+
+     189. In favor of art-fellowships, but not of a fixed school in
+     connection with the Academy at Rome.
+
+     190. Comparison of the French, and English systems (as regards
+     assistance from pupils) in the production of great public
+     paintings.
+
+     191. How the works of the Italian masters were executed.--Desirable
+     that pupils should be trained to assist great masters in public
+     works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: Reprinted from "The Report of the Commissioners appointed
+to inquire into the Present Position of the Royal Academy in Relation to
+the Fine Arts." London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1863 (pp. 546-55.
+Questions 5079-5142). The Commission consisted of Earl Stanhope
+(_Chairman_), Viscount Hardinge, Lord Elcho, Sir E. W. Head, Mr. William
+Stirling, Mr. H. D. Seymour, and Mr. Henry Reeve, all of whom, except
+Mr. Seymour, were present at the above sitting.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY:
+
+ITS FUNCTIONS AND ITS FORMATION.[4]
+
+
+  _March 20th, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+192. If I put off writing the paper you asked me for, till I can do it
+conveniently, it may hang fire till this time next year. If you will
+accept a note on the subject now and then, keeping them till there are
+enough to be worth printing, all practical ends may be enough answered,
+and much more quickly.
+
+The first function of a Museum--(for a little while I shall speak of Art
+and Natural History as alike cared for in an ideal one)--is to give
+example of perfect order and perfect elegance, in the true sense of that
+test word, to the disorderly and rude populace. Everything in its _own_
+place, everything looking its best because it is there, nothing crowded,
+nothing unnecessary, nothing puzzling. Therefore, after a room has been
+once arranged, there must be no change in it. For new possessions there
+must be new rooms, and after twenty years' absence--coming back to the
+room in which one learned one's bird or beast alphabet, we should be
+able to show our children the old bird on the old perch in the
+accustomed corner. But--first of all, let the room be beautifully
+complete, _i.e._ complete enough for its proper business.
+
+193. In the British Museum, at the top of the stairs, we encounter in a
+terrific alliance a giraffe, a hippopotamus, and a basking shark. The
+public--young and old--pass with a start and a stare, and remain as wise
+as they were before about all the three creatures. The day before
+yesterday I was standing by the big fish--a father came up to it with
+his little boy. "That's a shark," says he; "it turns on its side when it
+wants to eat you," and so went on--literally as wise as he was before;
+for he had read in a book that sharks turn on their side to bite, and he
+never looked at the ticket, which told him this particular shark only
+ate small fish. Now he never looked at the ticket, because he didn't
+expect to find anything on it except that this was the Sharkogobalus
+Smith-Jonesianius. But if, round the walls of the room, there had been
+all the _well-known_ kinds of shark, going down, in graduated sizes,
+from that basking one to our waggling dog-fish, and if every one of
+these had had a plain English ticket, with ten words of common sense on
+it, saying where and how the beast lived, and a number (unchangeable)
+referring to a properly arranged manual of the shark tribe (sold by the
+Museum publisher, who ought to have his little shop close by the
+porter's lodge), both father and son must have been much below the level
+of average English man and boy in mother wit if they did not go out of
+the room by the door in front of them very distinctly, and--to
+themselves--amazingly, wiser than they had come in by the door behind
+them.
+
+194. If I venture to give instances of fault from the British Museum, it
+is because, on the whole, it is the best-ordered and pleasantest
+institution in all England, and the grandest concentration of the means
+of human knowledge in the world. And I am heartily sorry for the
+break-up of it, and augur no good from any changes of arrangement likely
+to take place in concurrence with Kensington, where, the same day that I
+had been meditating by the old shark, I lost myself in a Cretan
+labyrinth of military ironmongery, advertisements of spring blinds,
+model fish-farming, and plaster bathing nymphs with a year's smut on all
+the noses of them; and had to put myself in charge of a policeman to get
+out again. Ever affectionately yours,
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+  _March 29th, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+195. The only chance of my getting these letters themselves into fairly
+consistent and Museum-like order is by writing a word or two always the
+first thing in the morning till I get them done; so, I shall at least
+remember what I was talking of the day before; but for the rest--I must
+speak of one thing or another as it may come into my head, for there are
+too many to classify without pedantry and loss of time.
+
+My requirement of "elegance" in that last letter contemplates chiefly
+architecture and fittings. These should not only be perfect in
+stateliness, durability, and comfort, but beautiful to the utmost point
+consistent with due subordination to the objects displayed. To enter a
+room in the Louvre is an education in itself; but two steps on the
+filthy floor and under the iron forks, half scaffold, half gallows, of
+the big Norwood glass bazaar, debase mind and eye at once below
+possibility of looking at anything with profit all the day afterwards. I
+have just heard that a French picture dealer is to have charge of the
+picture gallery there, and that the whole interior is to become
+virtually a large café, when--it is hoped--the glass monster may at last
+"pay." Concerning which beautiful consummation of Mr. Dickens's
+"Fairyland" (see my pamphlet[5] on the opening of the so-called
+"palace"), be it here at once noted, that all idea of any "payment," in
+that sense, must be utterly and scornfully abjured on the foundation
+stone of every National or Civic Museum. There must be neither companies
+to fill their own pockets out of it, nor trustees who can cramp the
+management, or interfere with the officering, or shorten the supplies of
+it. Put one man of reputation and sense at its head; give him what staff
+he asks for, and a fixed annual sum for expenditure--specific accounts
+to be printed annually for all the world's seeing--and let him alone.
+The original expenditure for building and fitting must be magnificent,
+and the current expenditure for cleaning and refitting magnanimous; but
+a certain proportion of this current cost should be covered by small
+entrance fees, exacted, not for any miserly helping out of the
+floor-sweepers' salaries, but for the sake of the visitors themselves,
+that the rooms may not be incumbered by the idle, or disgraced by the
+disreputable. You must not make your Museum a refuge against either rain
+or ennui, nor let into perfectly well-furnished, and even, in the true
+sense, palatial, rooms, the utterly squalid and ill-bred portion of the
+people. There should, indeed, be refuges for the poor from rain and
+cold, and decent rooms accessible to indecent persons, if they like to
+go there; but neither of these charities should be part of the function
+of a Civic Museum.
+
+196. Make the entrance fee a silver penny (a silver groat, typically
+representing the father, mother, eldest son, and eldest daughter,
+passing always the total number of any one family), and every person
+admitted, however young, being requested to sign their name, or make
+their mark.
+
+That the entrance money should be always of silver is one of the
+beginnings of education in the place--one of the conditions of its
+"elegance" on the very threshold.
+
+And the institution of silver for bronze in the lower coinage is a part
+of the system of National education which I have been teaching these
+last ten years--a very much deeper and wider one than any that can be
+given in museums--and without which all museums will ultimately be
+vain.--Ever affectionately yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+P.S.--There should be a well-served coffee-room attached to the
+building; but this part of the establishment without any luxury in
+furniture or decoration, and without any cooking apparatus for
+carnivora.
+
+
+  _Easter Monday, 1880._
+
+  DEAR ----,
+
+197. The day is auspicious for the beginning of reflection on the right
+manner of manifestation of all divine things to those who desire to see
+them. For every house of the Muses, where, indeed, they live, is an
+Interpreter's by the wayside, or rather, a place of oracle and
+interpretation in one. And the right function of every museum, to simple
+persons, is the manifestation to them of what is lovely in the life of
+Nature, and heroic in the life of Men.
+
+There are already, you see, some quaint restrictions in that last
+sentence, whereat sundry of our friends will start, and others stop. I
+must stop also, myself, therefore, for a minute or two, to insist on
+them.
+
+198. A Museum, primarily, is to be for _simple_ persons. Children, that
+is to say, and peasants. For your student, your antiquary, or your
+scientific gentleman, there must be separate accommodation, or they must
+be sent elsewhere. The Town Museum is to be for the Town's People, the
+Village Museum for the Villagers. Keep that first principle clear to
+start with. If you want to found an academy of painting in
+Littleborough, or of literature in Squattlesea Mere, you must get your
+advice from somebody else, not me.
+
+199. Secondly. The museum is to manifest to these simple persons the
+beauty and life of all things and creatures in their perfectness. Not
+their modes of corruption, disease, or death. Not even, always, their
+genesis, in the more or less blundering beginnings of it; not even their
+modes of nourishment, if destructive; you must not stuff a blackbird
+pulling up a worm, nor exhibit in a glass case a crocodile crunching a
+baby.
+
+Neither must you ever show bones or guts, or any other charnel-house
+stuff. Teach your children to know the lark's note from the
+nightingale's; the length of their larynxes is their own business, and
+God's.
+
+I cannot enough insist upon this point, nor too solemnly. If you wish
+your children to be surgeons, send them to Surgeons' College; if
+jugglers or necromancers, to Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke; and if
+butchers, to the shambles: but if you want them to lead the calm life of
+country gentlemen and gentlewomen, manservants and maidservants, let
+them seek none of Death's secrets till they die. Ever faithfully and
+affectionately yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _Easter Tuesday, 1880._
+
+  DEAR ----,
+
+200. I must enter to-day somewhat further on the practical, no less than
+emotional, reason for the refusal of anatomical illustrations to the
+general public.
+
+It is difficult enough to get one clear idea into anybody, of any single
+thing. But next to impossible to get _two_ clear ideas into them, of the
+same thing. We have had lions' heads for door-knockers these hundred and
+fifty years, without ever learning so much as what a lion's head is
+like. But with good modern stuffing and fetching, I can manage now to
+make a child really understand something about the beast's look, and his
+mane, and his sullen eyes and brindled lips. But if I'm bothered at the
+same time with a big bony box, that has neither mane, lips, nor eyes,
+and have to explain to the poor wretch of a parish schoolboy how somehow
+this fits on to that, I will be bound that, at a year's end, draw one as
+big as the other, and he won't know a lion's head from a tiger's--nor a
+lion's skull from a rabbit's. Nor is it the parish boy only who suffers.
+The scientific people themselves miss half their points from the habit
+of hacking at things, instead of looking at them. When I gave my lecture
+on the Swallow[6] at Oxford, I challenged every anatomist there to tell
+me the use of his tail (I believe half of them didn't know he had one).
+Not a soul of them could tell me, which I knew beforehand; but I did not
+know, till I had looked well through their books, how they were
+quarreling about his wings! Actually at this moment (Easter Tuesday,
+1880), I don't believe you can find in any scientific book in Europe a
+true account of the way a bird flies--or how a snake serpentines. My
+Swallow lecture was the first bit of clear statement on the one point,
+and when I get my Snake lecture published, you will have the first
+extant bit of clear statement on the other; and that is simply because
+the anatomists can't, for their life, look at a thing till they have
+skinned it.
+
+201. And matters get worse and worse every hour. Yesterday, after
+writing the first leaf of this note, I went into the British Museum, and
+found a nasty skeleton of a lizard, with its under jaw dropped off, on
+the top of a table of butterflies--temporarily of course--but then
+everything has been temporary or temporizing at the British Museum for
+the last half-century; making it always a mere waste and weariness to
+the general public, because, forsooth, it had always to be kept up to
+the last meeting of the Zoological Society, and last edition of the
+_Times_. As if there had not been beasts enough before the Ark to tell
+our children the manners of, on a Sunday afternoon!
+
+202. I had gone into the Museum that day to see the exact form of a
+duck's wing, the examination of a lively young drake's here at Coniston
+having closed in his giving me such a cut on the wrist with it, that I
+could scarcely write all the morning afterwards. Now in the whole bird
+gallery there are only two ducks' wings expanded, and those in different
+positions. Fancy the difference to the mob, and me, if the shells and
+monkey skeletons were taken away from the mid-gallery, and instead,
+three gradated series of birds put down the length of it (or half the
+length--or a quarter would do it--with judgment), showing the
+transition, in length of beak, from bunting to woodcock--in length of
+leg, from swift to stilted plover--and in length of wing, from auk to
+frigate-bird; the wings, all opened, in one specimen of each bird to
+their full sweep, and in another, shown at the limit of the down back
+stroke. For what on earth--or in air--is the use to me of seeing their
+boiled sternums and scalped sinciputs, when I'm never shown either how
+they bear their breasts--or where they carry their heads?
+
+Enough of natural history, you will say! I will come to art in my next
+letter--finishing the ugly subject of this one with a single sentence
+from section ix. of the "Tale of a Tub," commending the context of it to
+my friends of the Royal Academy.
+
+"Last week, I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much
+it altered her person for the worse."--Ever, my dear ----, affectionately
+yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _7th April, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+203. I suppose that proper respect for the great first principles of the
+British Constitution, that every man should do as he pleases, think what
+he likes, and see everything that can be seen for money, will make most
+of your readers recoil from my first principle of Museum
+arrangement,--that nothing should be let inside the doors that isn't
+good of its sort,--as from an attempt to restore the Papacy, revive the
+Inquisition, and away with everybody to the lowest dungeon of the
+castle moat. They must at their pleasure charge me with these sinister
+views; they will find that there is no dexter view to be had of the
+business, which does not consist primarily in knowing Bad from Good, and
+Right from Wrong. Nor, if they will condescend to begin simply enough,
+and at the bottom of the said business, and let the cobbler judge of the
+crepida, and the potter of the pot, will they find it so supremely
+difficult to establish authorities that shall be trustworthy, and
+judgments that shall be sure.
+
+204. Suppose, for instance, at Leicester, whence came first to us the
+inquiry on such points, one began by setting apart a Hunter's Room, in
+which a series of portraits of their Master's favorites, for the last
+fifty years or so, should be arranged, with certificate from each Squire
+of his satisfaction, to such and such a point, with the portrait of
+Lightfoot, or Lucifer, or Will o' the Wisp; and due notification, for
+perhaps a recreant and degenerate future, of the virtues and perfections
+at this time sought and secured in the English horse. Would not such a
+chamber of chivalry have, in its kind, a quite indisputable authority
+and historical value, not to be shaken by any future impudence or
+infidelity?
+
+Or again in Staffordshire, would it not be easily answered to an honest
+question of what is good and not, in clay or ware, "This will work, and
+that will stand"? and might not a series of the mugs which have been
+matured with discrimination, and of the pots which have been popular in
+use, be so ordered as to display their qualities in a convincing and
+harmonious manner against all gainsayers?
+
+205. Nor is there any mystery of taste, or marvel of skill, concerning
+which you may not get quite easy initiation and safe pilotage for the
+common people, provided you once make them clearly understand that there
+is indeed something to be learned, and something to be admired, in the
+arts, which will need their attention for a time; and cannot be
+explained with a word, nor seen with a wink. And provided also, and with
+still greater decision, you set over them masters, in each branch of
+the arts, who know their own minds in that matter, and are not afraid to
+speak them, nor to say, "We know," when they know, and "We don't know,"
+when they don't.
+
+To which end, the said several branches must be held well apart, and
+dealt with one at a time. Every considerable town ought to have its
+exemplary collections of woodwork, iron-work, and jewelry, attached to
+the schools of their several trades, leaving to be illustrated in its
+public museum, as in an hexagonal bee's cell, the six queenly and
+muse-taught arts of needlework, writing, pottery, sculpture,
+architecture, and painting.
+
+206. For each of these, there should be a separate Tribune or Chamber of
+absolute tribunal, which need not be large--that, so called, of
+Florence, not the size of a railway waiting-room, has actually for the
+last century determined the taste of the European public in two
+arts!--in which the absolute best in each art, so far as attainable by
+the communal pocket, should be authoritatively exhibited, with simple
+statement that it is good, and reason why it is good, and notification
+in what particulars it is unsurpassable, together with some not too
+complex illustrations of the steps by which it has attained to that
+perfection, where these can be traced far back in history.
+
+207. These six Tribunes, or Temples, of Fame, being first set with their
+fixed criteria, there should follow a series of historical galleries,
+showing the rise and fall (if fallen) of the arts in their beautiful
+associations, as practiced in the great cities and by the great nations
+of the world. The history of Egypt, of Persia, of Greece, of Italy, of
+France, and of England, should be given in their arts,--dynasty by
+dynasty and age by age; and for a seventh, a Sunday Room, for the
+history of Christianity in its art, including the farthest range and
+feeblest efforts of it; reserving for this room, also, what power could
+be reached in delineation of the great monasteries and cathedrals which
+were once the glory of all Christian lands.
+
+208. In such a scheme, every form of noble art would take harmonious
+and instructive place, and often very little and disregarded things be
+found to possess unthought-of interest and hidden relative beauty; but
+its efficiency--and in this chiefly let it be commended to the patience
+of your practical readers--would depend, not on its extent, but on its
+strict and precise limitation. The methods of which, if you care to have
+my notions of them, I might perhaps enter into, next month, with some
+illustrative detail.--Ever most truly yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _10th June, 1880._[7]
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+209. I can't give you any talk on detail, yet; but, not to drop a stitch
+in my story, I want to say why I've attached so much importance to
+needlework, and put it in the opening court of the six. You see they are
+progressive, so that I don't quite put needlework on a _level_ with
+painting. But a nation that would learn to "touch" _must_ primarily know
+how to "stitch." I am always busy, for a good part of the day, in my
+wood, and wear out my leathern gloves fast, after once I can wear them
+at all: but that's the precise difficulty of the matter. I get them from
+the shop looking as stout and trim as you please, and half an hour after
+I've got to work they split up the fingers and thumbs like ripe
+horse-chestnut shells, and I find myself with five dangling rags round
+my wrist, and a rotten white thread draggling after me through the wood,
+or tickling my nose, as if Ariadne and Arachne had lost their wits
+together. I go home, invoking the universe against sewing-machines; and
+beg the charity of a sound stitch or two from any of the maids who know
+their woman's art; and thenceforward the life of the glove proper
+begins. Wow, it is not possible for any people that put up with this
+sort of thing, to learn to paint, or do anything else with their fingers
+decently:--only, for the most part they don't think their museums are
+meant to show them how to do anything decently, but rather how to be
+idle, indecently. Which extremely popular and extremely erroneous
+persuasion, if you please, we must get out of our way before going
+further.
+
+210. I owe some apology, by the way, to Mr. Frith, for the way I spoke
+of his picture[8] in my letter to the Leicester committee, not intended
+for publication, though I never write what I would not allow to be
+published, and was glad that they asked leave to print it. It was not I
+who instanced the picture, it had been named in the meeting of the
+committee as the kind of thing that people best like, and I was obliged
+to say _why_ people best liked it:--namely, not for the painting, which
+is good, and worthy their liking, but for the sight of the racecourse
+and its humors. And the reason that such a picture ought not to be in a
+museum, is precisely because in a museum people ought not to fancy
+themselves on a racecourse. If they want to see races, let them go to
+races; and if rogues, to Bridewells. They come to museums to see
+something different from rogues and races.
+
+211. But, to put the matter at once more broadly, and more accurately,
+be it remembered, for sum of all, that a museum is not a theater. Both
+are means of noble education--but you must not mix up the two. Dramatic
+interest is one thing; aesthetic charm another; a pantomime must not
+depend on its fine color, nor a picture on its fine pantomime.
+
+Take a special instance. It is long since I have been so pleased in the
+Royal Academy as I was by Mr. Britton Rivière's "Sympathy." The dog in
+uncaricatured doggedness, divine as Anubis, or the Dog-star; the child
+entirely childish and lovely, the carpet might have been laid by
+Veronese. A most precious picture in itself, yet not one for a museum.
+Everybody would think only of the story in it; everybody be wondering
+what the little girl had done, and how she would be forgiven, and if she
+wasn't, how soon she would stop crying, and give the doggie a kiss, and
+comfort his heart. All which they might study at home among their own
+children and dogs just as well; and should not come to the museum to
+plague the real students there, since there is not anything of especial
+notableness or unrivaled quality in the actual painting.
+
+212. On the other hand, one of the four pictures I chose for permanent
+teaching in Fors was one of a child and a dog. The child is doing
+nothing; neither is the dog. But the dog is absolutely and beyond
+comparison the best painted dog in the world--ancient or modern--on this
+side of it, or at the Antipodes, (so far as I've seen the contents of
+said world). And the child is painted so that child _cannot_ be better
+done. _That_ is a picture for a museum.
+
+Not that dramatic, still less didactic, intention should disqualify a
+work of art for museum purposes. But--broadly--dramatic and didactic art
+should be universally national, the luster of our streets, the treasure
+of our palaces, the pleasure of our homes. Much art that is weak,
+transitory, and rude may thus become helpful to us. But the museum is
+only for what is eternally right, and well done, according to divine law
+and human skill. The least things are to be there--and the greatest--but
+all _good_ with the goodness that makes a child cheerful and an old man
+calm; the simple should go there to learn, and the wise to remember.
+
+213. And now to return to what I meant to be the subject of this
+letter--the arrangement of our first ideal room in such a museum. As I
+think of it, I would fain expand the single room, first asked for, into
+one like Prince Houssain's,--no, Prince Houssain had the flying
+tapestry, and I forget which prince had the elastic palace. But, indeed,
+it must be a lordly chamber which shall be large enough to exhibit the
+true nature of thread and needle--omened in "Thread-needle Street!"
+
+The structure, first of wool and cotton, of fur, and hair, and down, of
+hemp, flax, and silk:--microscope permissible if any cause can be shown
+_why_ wool is soft, and fur fine, and cotton downy, and down downier;
+and how a flax fiber differs from a dandelion stalk, and how the
+substance of a mulberry leaf can become velvet for Queen Victoria's
+crown, and clothing of purple for the housewife of Solomon.
+
+Then the phase of its dyeing. What azures, and emeralds, and Tyrians
+scarlets can be got into fibers of thread.
+
+214. Then the phase of its spinning. The mystery of that divine
+spiral, from finest to firmest, which renders lace possible at
+Valenciennes--anchorage possible, after Trafalgar--if Hardy had but done
+as he was bid.
+
+Then the mystery of weaving. The eternal harmony of warp and woof, of
+all manner of knotting, knitting, and reticulation, the art which makes
+garment possible, woven from the top throughout, draughts of fishes
+possible, miraculous enough in any pilchard or herring shoal, gathered
+into companionable catchableness;--which makes, in fine, so many Nations
+possible, and Saxon and Norman beyond the rest.
+
+215. And finally, the accomplished phase of needlework, the _Acu
+Tetigisti_ of all time, which does, indeed, practically exhibit what
+mediæval theologists vainly tried to conclude inductively--How many
+angels can stand on a needle-point. To show the essential nature of a
+stitch--drawing the separate into the inseparable, from the lowly work
+of duly restricted sutor, and modestly installed cobbler, to the
+needle-Scripture of Matilda, the Queen.
+
+All the acicular Art of Nations, savage and civilized, from Lapland
+boot, letting in no snow-water--to Turkey cushion bossed with pearl--to
+valance of Venice gold in needlework -to the counterpanes and samplers
+of our own lovely ancestresses, imitable, perhaps, once more, with good
+help from Whiteland's College--and Girton.
+
+216. It was but yesterday, my own womankind were in much wholesome and
+sweet excitement delightful to behold, in the practice of some new
+device of remedy for rents (to think how much of evil there is in the
+two senses of that four-lettered word! as in the two methods of
+intonation of its synonym tear!) whereby they might be daintily effaced,
+and with a newness which would never make them worse. The process began
+beautifully, even to my uninformed eyes, in the likeness of herring-bone
+masonry, crimson on white, but it seemed to me marvelous that anything
+should yet be discoverable in needle process, and that of so utilitarian
+character.
+
+All that is reasonable, I say of such work is to be in our first museum
+room. All that Athena and Penelope would approve. Nothing that vanity
+has invented for change, or folly loved for costliness; but all that can
+bring honest pride into homely life, and give security to health--and
+honor to beauty.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: These letters are reprinted from the _Art Journal_ of June
+and August 1880, where they were prefaced with the following note by the
+editor in explanation of their origin:--"We are enabled, through Mr.
+Ruskin's kindness, to publish this month a series of letters to a friend
+upon the functions and formation of a model Museum or Picture Gallery.
+As stated in our last issue the question arose thus:--At the
+distribution of the prizes to the School of Art at Leicester by Mr. J.
+D. Linton and Mr. James Orrock, members of the Institute of Painters in
+Water Colors, the latter, after stating the vital importance of study
+from nothing but the finest models, and expressing his regret that the
+present price of works of Art of the first class rendered their
+attainment by schools almost prohibitory, offered drawings by William
+Hunt and David Cox as a nucleus for a collection. He urged others to
+follow this example, and with so much success that a few days saw a
+large sum and many works of Art promised in aid of a students' gallery.
+The attention of the Leicester Corporation was thereupon drawn to the
+movement, and they at once endeavored to annex the scheme to their
+Museum. Failing in this, they in friendly rivalry subscribed a large sum
+of money, and the question at once arose how best to dispose of it, each
+naturally thinking his own ideas the best. At this juncture Mr. Ruskin's
+aid was invoked by one section of the subscribers, and he replied in a
+letter which, owing to its having been circulated without its context,
+has been open to some misconstruction. As he was only asked, so he only
+advised, what should _not_ be done. However, the letter bore its fruits,
+for both parties have had the attention of the country drawn to their
+proposals, and so are now more diffident how to set about carrying them
+into effect than they were before. Under these circumstances Mr. Ruskin
+has been induced to set out the mode in which he considers an Art Museum
+should be formed."
+
+The letter which was "open to some misconstruction" may be found in
+_Arrows of the Chace_.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Reprinted in vol. i., §§ 253-273.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 6: In 1873. See the second lecture of _Love's
+Meinie_.--ED..]
+
+[Footnote 7: _Art Journal_, August, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The "Derby Day." See _Arrows of the Chase_.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.
+
+
+  THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS, VERONA. 1872.
+
+  VERONA AND ITS RIVERS (WITH CATALOGUE). 1870.
+
+  CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 1872.
+
+  ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIÆVAL CHRISTENDOM. 1876.
+
+  THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 1876.
+
+  THE STUDY OF BEAUTY. 1883.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS IN THE CHURCH OF ST. ANASTASIA, VERONA.[9]
+
+
+217. The tomb of Federigo and Nicola Cavalli is in the southernmost
+chapel of the five which form the east end of the church of St.
+Anastasia at Verona.
+
+The traveler in Italy is so often called upon to admire what he cannot
+enjoy, that it must relieve the mind of any reader intending to visit
+Verona to be assured that this church deserves nothing but extraordinary
+praise; it has, however, some characters which a quarter of an hour's
+attention will make both interesting and instructive, and which I will
+note briefly before giving an account of the Cavalli chapel. This church
+"would, if the font were finished, probably be the most perfect specimen
+in existence of the style to which it belongs," says a critic quoted in
+"Murray's Guide." The conjecture is a bold one, for the font is not only
+unfinished, and for the most part a black mass of ragged brickwork, but
+the portion pretending to completion is in three styles; approaches
+excellence only in one of them; and in that the success is limited to
+the sides of the single entrance door. The flanks and vaults of this
+porch, indeed, deserve our almost unqualified admiration for their
+beautiful polychrome masonry. They are built of large masses of green
+serpentine alternating with red and white marble, and the joints are so
+delicate and firm that a casual spectator might pass the gate with
+contempt, thinking the stone was painted.
+
+218. The capitals on these two sides, the carved central shaft, and the
+horizontal lintel of this door are also excellent examples of Veronese
+thirteenth century sculpture, and have merits of a high order, but of
+which the general observer cannot be cognizant. I do not mean, in
+saying this, to extol them greatly; the best art is pleasing to all, and
+its virtue, or a portion of its virtue, instantly manifest. But there
+are some good qualities in every earnest work which can only be
+ascertained by attention; and in saying that a casual observer cannot
+see the good qualities in early Veronese sculpture, I mean that it
+possesses none but these, nor of these many.
+
+219. Yet it is worth a minute's delay to observe how much the sculpture
+has counted on attention. In later work, figures of the size of life, or
+multitudinous small ones, please, if they do not interest, the spectator
+who can spare them a momentary glance. But all the figures on this door
+are diminutive, and project so slightly from the stone as scarcely to
+catch the eye; there are none in the sides and none in the vault of the
+gate, and it is only by deliberate examination that we find the faith
+which is to be preached in the church, and the honor of its preacher,
+conclusively engraved on the lintel and door-post. The spiral flutings
+of the central shaft are uninterrupted, so as to form a slight recess
+for the figure of St. Dominic, with, I believe, St. Peter Martyr and St.
+Thomas Aquinas, one on each side with the symbols of the sun and moon.
+At the end of the lintel, on the left, is St. Anastasia; on the right,
+St. Catherine (of Siena); in the center, on the projecting capital, the
+Madonna; and on the lintel, the story of Christ, in the four passages of
+the Annunciation, Nativity, Crucifixion, and Resurrection.
+
+220. This is the only part of the front of the church which is certainly
+part of the first structure in 1260. The two statues of St. Anastasia
+and St. Catherine are so roughly joined to the lateral capitals as to
+induce a suspicion that even these latter and the beautiful polychrome
+vault are of later work, not, however, later than 1300. The two pointed
+arches which divide the tympanum are assuredly subsequent, and the
+fresco which occupies it is a bad work of the end of the fourteenth
+century; and the marble frieze and foundations of the front are at least
+not earlier than 1426.
+
+Of this portion of the building the foundation is noble, and its color
+beautifully disposed, but the sculpture of the paneling is poor, and of
+no interest or value.
+
+221. On entering the church, and turning immediately to the left, there
+will be seen on the inner side of the external wall a tomb under a
+boldly trefoiled canopy. It is a sarcophagus with a recumbent figure on
+it, which is the only work of art in the church deserving serious
+attention. It is the tomb of Gerard Bolderius "sui temporis physicorum
+principi," says his epitaph,[10] not, as far as I can discover, untruly.
+On the front of the sarcophagus is the semi-figure of Christ rising from
+the tomb, used generally at the period for the type of resurrection,
+between the Virgin and St. John; and two shields, bearing, one the
+fleur-de-lys, the other an eagle. The recumbent figure is entirely
+simple and right in treatment, sculptured without ostentation of skill
+or exaggeration of sentiment, by a true artist, who endeavors only to
+give the dead due honor, and his own art subordinate and modest scope.
+
+This monument, being the best in St. Anastasia, is, by the usual spite
+of fortune, placed where it is quite invisible except on bright days. On
+the opposite side of the church, the first monument on the right, well
+lighted by the tall western window, should be looked at next to the
+physician's; for as that is the best, this is essentially the worst,
+piece of sculptured art in the building; a series of academy studies in
+marble, well executed, but without either taste or invention, and
+necessarily without meaning, the monument having been erected to a
+person whose only claim to one was his having stolen money enough to pay
+for it before he died. It is one of the first pieces extant of entirely
+mechanical art workmanship, done for money; and the perfection of its
+details may justify me in directing special attention to it.
+
+222. There are no other monuments, still less pictures, in the body of
+the church deserving notice. The general effect of the interior is
+impressive, owing partly to the boldness and simplicity of the pillars
+which sustain the roof; partly to the darkness which involves them:
+these Dominican churches being, in fact, little more than vast halls for
+preaching in, and depending little on decoration, and not at all on
+light. But the sublimity of shadow soon fails when it has nothing
+interesting to shade; and the chapel or monuments which, opposite each
+interval between the pillars, fill the sides of the aisles, possess no
+interest except in their arabesques of cinque-cento sculpture, of which
+far better examples may be seen elsewhere; while the differences in
+their ages, styles, and purposes hinder them from attaining any unity of
+decorative effect, and break the unity of the church almost as fatally,
+though not as ignobly, as the incoherent fillings of the aisles at
+Westminster. The Cavalli chapel itself, though well deserving the
+illustration which the Arundel Society has bestowed upon it, is filled
+with a medley of tombs and frescoes of different dates, partly
+superseding, none illustrating, each other, and instructive mainly as
+showing the unfortunate results of freedom and "private enterprise" in
+matters of art, as compared with the submission to the design of one
+ruling mind which is the glory of all the chapels in Italy where the art
+is entirely noble.
+
+223. Instructive, thus, at least, even if seen hastily; much better
+teaching may be had even from the unharmonious work, if we give time and
+thought to it. The upper fresco on the north wall, representing the
+Baptism of Christ, has no beauty, and little merit as art; yet the
+manner of its demerit is interesting. St. John kneels to baptize. This
+variation from the received treatment, in which he stands above the
+Christ, is enough in itself to show that the poor Veronese painter had
+some intelligence of his subject; and the quaint and haggard figure,
+grim-featured, with its black hair rising in separate locks like a crown
+of thorns, is a curious intermediate type between the grotesque
+conception which we find in earlier art (or, for instance, on the coins
+of Florence) and the beautiful, yet always melancholy and severe figures
+of St. John painted by Cima da Conegliano at Venice. With this stern
+figure, in raiment of camel's hair, compare the Magdalen in the frescoes
+at the side of the altar, who is veiled from head to foot with her own,
+and sustained by six angels, being the type of repentance from the
+passions, as St. John of resistance to them. Both symbols are, to us, to
+say the very least, without charm, and to very few without offense; yet
+consider how much nobler the temper of the people must have been who
+could take pleasure in art so gloomy and unadorned, than that of the
+populace of to-day, which must be caught with bright colors and excited
+by popular sentiment.
+
+224. Both these frescoes, with the others on the north wall of the
+chapel, and Madonna between four saints on the south side, by the
+Cavalli tomb, are evidently of fourteenth century work, none of it good,
+but characteristic; and the last-named work (seen in the plate) is so
+graceful as to be quite worth some separate illustration. But the one
+above it is earlier, and of considerable historical interest. It was
+discovered with the other paintings surrounding the tomb, about the year
+1838, when Persico published his work, "Verona, e la sua Provincia," in
+which he says (p. 13), "levatane l'antica incrostatura, tornarono a vita
+novella."
+
+It would have been more serviceable to us if we could have known the
+date of the rough cast, than of its removal; the period of entire
+contempt for ancient art being a subject of much interest in the
+ecclesiastical history of Italy. But the tomb itself was an
+incrustation, having been raised with much rudeness and carelessness
+amidst the earlier art which recorded the first rise of the Cavalli
+family.
+
+225. It will be seen by reference to the plate that the frescoes round
+the tomb have no symmetrical relation to it. They are all of earlier
+date, and by better artists. The tomb itself is roughly carved, and
+coarsely painted, by men who were not trying to do their best, and could
+not have done anything very well, even if they had tried: it is an
+entirely commonplace and dull work, though of a good school, and has
+been raised against the highest fresco with a strange disregard of the
+merit of the work itself, and of its historical value to the family.
+This fresco is attributable by Persico to Giotto, but is, I believe,
+nothing more than an interesting example of the earnest work of his
+time, and has no quality on which I care to enlarge; nor is it
+ascertainable who the three knights are whom it commemorates, unless
+some evidence be found of the date of the painting, and there is, yet,
+none but that of its manner. But they are all three Cavallis, and I
+believe them to represent the three first founders of the family,
+Giovanni, "che fioriva intorno al 1274," his son Nicola (1297), and
+grandson Federigo, who was Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers in
+1331, and by whom I suppose the fresco to have been commanded. The
+Cavallis came first from Germany into the service of the Visconti of
+Milan, as condottieri, thence passing into the service of the Scaligers.
+Whether I am right in this conjecture or not, we have, at all events,
+record in this chapel of seven knights of the family, of whom two are
+named on the sarcophagus, of which the inscription (on the projecting
+ledge under the recumbent figure) is:--
+
+     S. (Sepulchrum) nobilis et egregii viri Federici et egregii et
+     strenui viri domini Nicolai de Cavalis suorunique heredum, qui
+     spiritum redidit astris Ano Dni MCCCLXXXX.
+
+Of which, I think, the force may be best given thus in modern terms:--
+
+"The tomb of the noble and distinguished Herr Frederic, and of the
+distinguished and energetic Herr the Lord Nicholas of the house of the
+Horse, and of their heirs, who gave back his soul to the stars in the
+year of our Lord 1390."
+
+226. This Frederic and Nicolas Cavalli were the brothers of the Jacopo
+Cavalli who is buried at Venice, and who, by a singular fatality, was
+enrolled among the Venetian nobles of the senate in the year in which
+his brother died at Verona (for I assume the "spiritum redidit" to be
+said of the first-named brother). Jacopo married Constance della Scala,
+of Verona, and had five sons, of whom one, Giorgio, Conte di Schio,
+plotted, after the fall of the Scaligers, for their restoration to power
+in Verona, and was exiled, by decree of the Council of Ten, to Candia,
+where he died. From another son, Conrad, are descended the Cavallis of
+Venice, whose palace has been the principal material from which recent
+searchers for the picturesque in Venice compose pictures of the Grand
+Canal. It forms the square mass of architecture on the left, in the
+continually repeated view of the Church of the Salute seen from the
+steps of the Academy.
+
+The genealogy of the family, from the thirteenth century, when they
+first appeared in Italy, to the founder of this Venetian lordship, had
+better be set before the reader in one view.[11]
+
+                      GIOVANNI,
+     Condottiere in service of the Visconti, 1274.
+                         |
+                       NICOLA,
+                Condottiere, 1297.
+                         |
+                      FEDERICO,
+     Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers, 1331.
+                         |
+                       CONRADO,
+                Condottiere, 1350.
+                         |
+          |--------------+-------------|
+       FEDERIGO,         JACOPO,        NICOLA,
+                         |
+    |---------+----------+----------+----------|
+  NICOLA,   GIOVANNI,     CONRADO,    FEDERIGO,    GIORGIO.
+               Founds Venetian family.
+
+227. Now, as above stated, I believe that the fresco of the three
+knights was commanded by the Podesta of Vicenza, on his receiving that
+authority from the Scaligers in 1331, and that it represents Giovanni,
+Nicola, and himself; while the tomb of Federigo and Nicola would be
+ordered by the Venetian Cavallis, and completed without much care for
+the record of the rise of the family at Verona.
+
+Whether my identification of the figures seen kneeling in the fresco be
+correct or not, the representation of these three Cavalli knights to the
+Madonna, each interceded for by his patron saint, will be found to
+receive a peculiar significance if the reader care to review the
+circumstances influencing the relation of the German chivalry to the
+power of the Church in the very year when Giovanni Cavalli entered the
+ranks of the Visconti.
+
+228. For the three preceding centuries, Milan, the oldest archbishopric
+of Lombardy, had been the central point at which the collision between
+the secular and ecclesiastical power took place in Europe. The Guelph
+and Ghibelline naturally met and warred throughout the plain of
+Lombardy; but the intense civic stubbornness and courage of the Milanese
+population formed a kind of rock in their tide-way, where the quarrel of
+burgher with noble confused itself with, embittered, and brought again
+and again to trial by battle, that of pope with emperor. In 1035 their
+warrior archbishop, heading their revolt against Conrad of Franconia,
+organized the first disciplined resistance of foot-soldiers to cavalry
+by his invention and decoration of the Carroccio; and the contest was
+only closed, after the rebuilding of the walls of ruined Milan, by the
+wandering of Barbarossa, his army scattered, through the maize fields,
+which the traveler now listlessly crosses at speed in the train between
+Milan and Arona, little noting the name of the small station, "Legnano,"
+where the fortune of the Lombard republic finally prevailed. But it was
+only by the death of Frederick II. that the supremacy of the Church was
+secured; and when Innocent IV., who had written, on hearing of that
+death, to his Sicilian clergy, in words of blasphemous exultation,
+entered Milan, on his journey from Lyons to Perugia, the road, for ten
+miles before he reached the gates, was lined by the entire population of
+the city, drawn forth in enthusiastic welcome; as they had invented a
+sacred car for the advance of their standard in battle, they invented
+some similar honor for the head of their Church as the harbinger of
+peace: under a canopy of silk, borne by the first gentlemen of Milan,
+the Pope received the hosannas of a people who had driven into shameful
+flight their Caesar-king; and it is not uninteresting for the English
+traveler to remember, as he walks through the vast arcades of shops, in
+the form of a cross, by which the Milanese of to-day express their
+triumph in liberation from Teutonic rule, that the "Baldacchino" of all
+mediæval religious ceremony owed its origin to the taste of the
+milliners of Milan, as the safety of the best knights in European battle
+rested on the faithful craftsmanship of her armorers.
+
+229. But at the date when the Cavalli entered the service of the great
+Milanese family, the state of parties within the walls had singularly
+changed. Three years previously (1271) Charles of Anjou had drawn
+together the remnants of the army of his dead brother, had confiscated
+to his own use the goods of the crusading knights whose vessels had been
+wrecked on the coast of Sicily, and called the pontifical court to
+Viterbo, to elect a pope who might confirm his dominion over the
+kingdoms of Sicily and Jerusalem.
+
+On the deliberations of the Cardinals at Viterbo depended the fates of
+Italy and the Northern Empire. They chose Tebaldo Visconti, then a monk
+in pilgrimage at Jerusalem. But, before that election was accomplished,
+one of the candidates for the Northern Empire had involuntarily
+withdrawn his claim; Guy de Montfort had murdered, at the altar foot,
+the English Count of Cornwall, to avenge his father, Simon de Montfort,
+killed at Evesham. The death of the English king of the Romans left the
+throne of Germany vacant. Tebaldo had returned from Jerusalem with no
+personal ambition, but having at heart only the restoration of Greece to
+Europe, and the preaching of a new crusade in Syria. A general council
+was convoked by him at Lyons, with this object; but before anything
+could be accomplished in the conclave, it was necessary to balance the
+overwhelming power of Charles of Anjou, and the Visconti (Gregory X.)
+ratified, in 1273, the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg.
+
+230. But Charles of Anjou owed his throne, in reality, to the assistance
+of the Milanese. Their popular leader, Napoleone della Torre, had
+facilitated his passage through Lombardy, which otherwise must have been
+arrested by the Ghibelline states; and in the year in which the Visconti
+pope had appointed the council at Lyons, the Visconti archbishop of
+Milan was heading the exiled nobles in vain attempts to recover their
+supremacy over the popular party. The new Emperor Rudolph not only sent
+a representative to the council, but a German contingent to aid the
+exiled archbishop. The popular leader was defeated, and confined in an
+iron cage, in the year 1274, and the first entrance of the Cavalli into
+the Italian armies is thus contemporary with the conclusive triumph of
+the northern monarchic over the republican power, or, more literally, of
+the wandering rider, Eques, or Ritter, living by pillage, over the
+sedentary burgher, living by art, and hale peasant, living by labor. The
+essential nature of the struggle is curiously indicated in relation to
+this monument by the two facts that the revolt of the Milanese burghers,
+headed by their archbishop, began by a gentleman's killing an
+importunate creditor, and that, at Venice, the principal circumstance
+recorded of Jacopo Cavalli (see my notice of his tomb in the "Stones of
+Venice," Vol. III. ch. ii. § 69) is his refusal to assault Feltre,
+because the senate would not grant him the pillage of the town. The
+reader may follow out, according to his disposition, what thoughts the
+fresco of the three kneeling knights, each with his helmet-crest, in the
+shape of a horse's head, thrown back from his shoulders, may suggest to
+him on review of these passages of history: one thought only I must
+guard him against, strictly; namely, that a condottiere's religion must
+necessarily have been false or hypocritical. The folly of nations is in
+nothing more manifest than in their placid reconciliation of noble
+creeds with base practices. But the reconciliation, in the fourteenth as
+in the nineteenth century, was usually foolish only, not insincere.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 9: Published by the Arundel Society (1872), together with a
+chromo-lithograph after a drawing by Herr Gnauth.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 10:
+
+  D.M.
+  Gerardo Bolderio
+  sui temporis
+  Physicorum Principi
+  Franciscus et
+  Matthaeus Nepotes
+  P.P.]
+
+[Footnote 11: I am indebted for this genealogy to the research and to
+the courtesy of Mr. J. Stefani. The help given me by other Venetian
+friends, especially Mr. Rawdon Brown, dates from many years back in
+matters of this kind.]
+
+
+
+
+VERONA AND ITS RIVERS.[12]
+
+
+231. The discourse began with a description of the scenery of the
+eastern approach to Verona, with special remarks upon its magnificent
+fortifications, consisting of a steep ditch, some thirty feet deep by
+sixty or eighty wide, cut out of the solid rock, and the precipice-like
+wall above, with towers crested with forked battlements set along it at
+due intervals. The rock is a soft and crumbling limestone, containing
+"fossil creatures still so like the creatures they were once, that there
+it first occurred to the human brain to imagine that the buried shapes
+were not mockeries of life, but had indeed once lived; and, under those
+white banks by the roadside, was born, like a poor Italian gypsy, the
+modern science of geology." ... "The wall was chiefly built, the moat
+entirely excavated, by Can Grande della Scala; and it represents
+typically the form, of defense which rendered it possible for the life
+and the arts of citizens to be preserved and practiced in an age of
+habitual war. Not only so, but it is the wall of the actual city which
+headed the great Lombard league, which was the beginner of personal and
+independent power in the Italian nation, and the first banner-bearer,
+therefore, of all that has been vitally independent in religion and in
+art throughout the entire Christian world to this day." At the upper
+angle of the wall, looking down the northern descent, is seen a great
+round tower at the foot of it, not forked in battlements, but with
+embrasures for guns. "The battlemented wall was the cradle of civic
+life. That low circular tower is the cradle of modern war and of all its
+desolation. It is the first European tower for artillery; the beginning
+of fortification against gunpowder--the beginning, that is to say, of
+the end of _all_ fortification."
+
+232. After noticing the beautiful vegetation of the district, Mr. Ruskin
+described the view from the promontory or spur, about ten miles long, of
+which the last rock dies into the plain at the eastern gate of Verona.
+"This promontory," he said, "is one of the sides of the great gate out
+of Germany into Italy, through which the Goths always entered, cloven up
+to Innspruck by the Inn, and down to Verona by the Adige. And by this
+gate not only the Gothic armies came, but after the Italian nation is
+formed, the current of northern life enters still into its heart through
+the mountain artery, as constantly and strongly as the cold waves of the
+Adige itself." ... "The rock of this promontory hardens as we trace it
+back to the Alps, first into a limestone having knots of splendid brown
+jasper in it as our chalk has flints, and in a few miles more into true
+marble, colored by iron into a glowing orange or pale warm red--the
+peach-blossom marble, of which Verona is chiefly built--and then as you
+advance farther into the hills into variegated marbles very rich and
+grotesque in their veinings."
+
+233. After dilating on the magnificent landscape viewed from the top of
+this promontory, embracing the blue plain of Lombardy and its cities"
+Mr. Ruskin said:--
+
+"I do not think that there is any other rock in all the world from which
+the places and monuments of so complex and deep a fragment of the
+history of its ages can be visible as from this piece of crag with its
+blue and prickly weeds. For you have thus beneath you at once the
+birthplaces of Virgil and of Livy--the homes of Dante and Petrarch, and
+the source of the most sweet and pathetic inspiration to your own
+Shakespeare--the spot where the civilization of the Gothic kingdoms was
+founded on the throne of Theodoric; and there whatever was strongest in
+the Italian race redeemed itself into life by its league against
+Barbarossa; the beginning of the revival of natural science and medicine
+in the schools of Padua; the center of Italian chivalry, in the power
+of the Scaligers; of Italian cruelty, in that of Ezzelin; and, lastly,
+the birthplace of the highest art; for among those hills, or by this
+very Adige bank, were born Mantegna, Titian, Correggio, and Veronese."
+
+234. Mr. Ruskin then referred to a series of drawings and photographs
+taken at Verona by himself and his assistants, Mr. Burgess and Mr.
+Bunney, which he had divided into three series, and of which he had
+furnished a number of printed catalogues illustrated with notes.[13]
+
+I. "Lombard, extending to the end of the twelfth century, being the
+expression of the introduction of Christianity into barbaric minds;
+Christianization.
+
+II. "The Gothic period. Dante's time, from 1200 to 1400 (Dante beginning
+his poem exactly in the midst of it, in 1300); the period of vital
+Christianity, and of the development of the laws of chivalry and forms
+of imagination which are founded on Christianity.
+
+III. "The first period of the revival, in which the arts of Greece and
+some of its religion return and join themselves to Christianity; not
+taking away its sincerity or earnestness, but making it poetical instead
+of practical. In the following period even this poetical Christianity
+expired; the arts became devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, and in that
+they persist except where they are saved by a healthy naturalism or
+domesticity.
+
+235. I. "The Lombardic period is one of savage but noble life gradually
+subjected to law. It is the forming of men, not out of clay but wild
+beasts. And art of this period in all countries, including our own
+Norman especially, is, in the inner heart of it, the subjection of
+savage or terrible, or foolish and erring life, to a dominant law. It is
+government and conquest of fearful dreams. There is in it as yet no
+germ of true hope--only the conquest of evil, and the waking from
+darkness and terror. The literature of it is, as in Greece, far in
+advance of art, and is already full of the most tender and impassioned
+beauty, while the art is still grotesque and dreadful; but, however
+wild, it is supreme above all others by its expression of governing law,
+and here at Verona is the very center and utmost reach of that
+expression.
+
+"I know nothing in architecture at once so exquisite and so wild and so
+strange in the expression of self-conquest achieved almost in a dream.
+For observe, these barbaric races, educated in violence--chiefly in war
+and in hunting--cannot feel or see clearly as they are gradually
+civilized whether this element in which they have been brought up is
+evil or not. They _must_ be good soldiers and hunters--that is their
+life; yet they know that killing is evil, and they do not expect to find
+wild beasts in heaven. They have been trained by pain, by violence, by
+hunger and cold. They know there is a good in these things as well as
+evil: they are perpetually hesitating between the one and the other
+thought of them. But one thing they see clearly, that killing and
+hunting, and every form of misery, pleasure, and of passion, must
+somehow at last be subdued by law, which shall bring good out of it all,
+and which they feel more and more constraining them every hour. Now, if
+with this sympathy you look at their dragon and wild beast decoration,
+you will find that it now tells you about these Lombards far more than
+they could know of themselves.... All the actions, and much more the
+arts, of men tell to others, not only what the worker does not know, but
+what he can never know of himself, which you can only recognize by being
+in an element more advanced and wider than his.... In deliberate
+symbolism, the question is always, not what a symbol meant first or
+meant elsewhere, but what it means now and means here. Now, this dragon
+symbol of the Lombard is used of course all over the world; it means
+good here, and evil there; sometimes means nothing; sometimes
+everything. You have always to ask what the man who here uses it means
+by it. Whatever is in his mind, that he is sure partly to express by
+it; nothing else than that can he express by it."
+
+236. II. In the second period Mr. Ruskin said was to be found "the
+highest development of Italian character and chivalry, with an entirely
+believed Christian religion; you get, therefore, joy and courtesy, and
+hope, and a lovely peace in death. And with these you have two fearful
+elements of evil. You have first such confidence in the virtue of the
+creed that men hate and persecute all who do not accept it. And worse
+still, you find such confidence in the power of the creed that men not
+only can do anything that is wrong, and be themselves for a word of
+faith pardoned, but are even sure that after the wrong is done God is
+sure to put it all right again for them, or even make things better than
+they were before. Now, I need not point out to you how the spirit of
+persecution, as well as of vain hope founded on creed only, is mingled
+in every line with the lovely moral teaching of the 'Divina Conmedia,'
+nor need I point out to you how, between the persecution of other
+people's creeds and the absolution of one's own crimes, all Christian
+error is concluded."
+
+In relation to this Mr. Ruskin referred to the history of the founder of
+the power of the Scalas, Mastino, a simple citizen, chosen first to be
+podesta and then captain of Verona, for his justice and sagacity, who,
+although wise and peaceful in his policy, employed the civil power in
+the persecution of heresy, burning above two hundred persons; and he
+also related how Can Signorio della Scala on his death-bed, after giving
+a pious charge to his children, ordered the murder of his
+brother--examples of the boundless possibility of self-deception. One of
+these children killed the other, and was himself driven from the throne,
+so ending the dynasty of the Scalas. Referring to his illustrations, Mr.
+Ruskin pointed out the expressions of hope, in the conquest of death,
+and the rewards of faith, apparent in the art of the time. The Lombard
+architecture expresses the triumph of law over passion, the Christian,
+that of hope over sorrow.
+
+Mr. Ruskin concluded his remarks on this period by commenting on the
+history and the tomb of Can Grande della Scala, a good knight and true,
+as busy and bright a life as is found in the annals of chivalry.
+
+237. III. "The period when classical literature and art were again known
+in Italy, and the painters and sculptors, who had been gaining steadily
+in power for two hundred years--power not of practice merely, but of
+race also--with every circumstance in their favor around them, received
+their finally perfect instruction, both in geometrical science, in that
+of materials, and in the anatomy and action of the human body. Also the
+people about them--the models of their work--had been perfected in
+personal beauty by a chivalric war; in imagination by a transcendental
+philosophy; in practical intellect by stern struggle for civic law; and
+in commerce, not in falsely made or vile or unclean things, but in
+lovely things, beautifully and honestly made. And now, therefore, you
+get out of all the world's long history since it was peopled by men till
+now--you get just fifty years of perfect work. Perfect. It is a strong
+word; it is also a _true_ one. The doing of these fifty years is
+unaccusably Right, as art; what its sentiment may be--whether too great
+or too little, whether superficial or sincere--is another question, but
+as artists' work it admits no conception of anything better.
+
+"It is true that in the following age, founded on the absolutely stern
+rectitude of this, there came a phase of gigantic power and of exquisite
+ease and felicity which possess an awe and a charm of their own. They
+are more inimitable than the work of the perfect school. But they are
+not _perfect_." ...
+
+238. This period Mr. Ruskin named "the 'Time of the Masters,' Fifty
+Years, including Luini, Leonardo, John Bellini, Vitto Carpaccio, Andrea
+Mantegna, Andrea Verrocchio, Cima da Conegliano, Perugino, and in date,
+though only in his earlier life, belonging to the school, Raphael....
+The great fifty years was the prime of life of three men: John Bellini,
+born 1430, died at 90, in 1516; Mantegna, born 1430, died at 76, in
+1506; and Vittor Carpaccio, who died in 1522."
+
+"The object of these masters is wholly different from that of the former
+school. The central Gothic men always want chiefly to impress you with
+the facts of their subject; but the masters of this finished time desire
+only to make everything dainty and delightful. We have not many pictures
+of the class in England, but several have been of late added to the
+National Gallery, and the Perugino there, especially the compartment
+with Raphael and Tobit, and the little St. Jerome by John Bellini, will
+perfectly show you this main character--pictorial perfectness and
+deliciousness--sought before everything else. You will find, if you look
+into that St. Jerome, that everything in it is exquisite, complete, and
+pure; there is not a particle of dust in the cupboards, nor a cloud in
+the air; the wooden shutters are dainty, the candlesticks are dainty,
+the saint's scarlet hat is dainty, and its violet tassel, and its
+ribbon, and his blue cloak and his spare pair of shoes, and his little
+brown partridge--it is all a perfect quintessence of innocent
+luxury--absolute delight, without one drawback in it, nor taint of the
+Devil anywhere." ...
+
+239. After dilating on several other pictures of this class, giving
+evidence of the entire devotion of the artists of the period to their
+art and work, Mr. Ruskin adverted to the second part of his discourse,
+the rivers of Verona. "There is but one river at Verona, nevertheless
+Dante connects its name with that of the Po when he says of the whole of
+Lombardy,--
+
+  'In sul paese, ch' Adice e Po riga,
+  Solea valore e cortesia trovarsi
+  Prima che Federigo avesse briga.'
+
+I want to speak for a minute or two about those great rivers, because in
+the efforts that are now being made to restore some of its commerce to
+Venice precisely the same questions are in course of debate which again
+and again, ever since Venice was a city, have put her senate at
+pause--namely, how to hold in check the continually advancing morass
+formed by the silt brought down by the Alpine rivers. Is it not strange
+that for at least six hundred years the Venetians have been contending
+with those rivers at their _mouths_--that is to say, where their
+strength has become wholly irresistible--and never once thought of
+contending with them at their sources, where their infinitely separated
+streamlets might be, and are meant by Heaven to be, ruled as easily as
+children? And observe how sternly, how constantly the place where they
+are to be governed is marked by the mischief done by their liberty.
+Consider what the advance of the delta of the Po in the Adriatic
+signifies among the Alps. The evil of the delta itself, however great,
+is as nothing in comparison of that which is in its origin.
+
+240. "The gradual destruction of the harborage of Venice, the endless
+cost of delaying it, the malaria of the whole coast down to Ravenna,
+nay, the raising of the bed of the Po, to the imperiling of all
+Lombardy, are but secondary evils. Every acre of that increasing delta
+means _the devastation of part of an Alpine valley, and the loss of so
+much fruitful soil and ministering rain_. Some of you now present must
+have passed this year through the valleys of the Toccia and Ticino. You
+know therefore the devastation that was caused there, as well as in the
+valley of the Rhone, by the great floods of 1868, and that ten years of
+labor, even if the peasantry had still the heart for labor, cannot
+redeem those districts into fertility. What you have there seen on a
+vast scale takes place to a certain extent during every summer
+thunderstorm, and from the ruin of some portion of fruitful land the
+dust descends to increase the marshes of the Po. But observe
+further--whether fed by sudden melting of snow or by storm--every
+destructive rise of the Italian rivers signifies the loss of so much
+power of irrigation on the south side of the Alps. You must all well
+know the look of their chain--seen from Milan or Turin late in
+summer--how little snow is left, except on Monte Rosa, how vast a
+territory of brown mountain-side heated and barren, without rocks, yet
+without forest. There is in that brown-purple zone, and along the
+flanks of every valley that divides it, another Lombardy of cultivable
+land; and every drift of rain that swells the mountain torrents if it
+were caught where it falls is literally rain of gold. We seek gold
+beneath the rocks; and we will not so much as make a trench along the
+hillside to catch it where it falls from heaven, and where, if not so
+caught, it changes into a frantic monster, first ravaging hamlet, hill,
+and plain, then sinking along the shores of Venice into poisoned sleep.
+Think what that belt of the Alps might be--up to four thousand feet
+above the plain--if the system of terraced irrigation which even
+half-savage nations discovered and practiced long ago in China and in
+Borneo, and by which our own engineers have subdued vast districts of
+farthest India, were but in part also practiced here--here, in the
+oldest and proudest center of European arts, where Leonardo da
+Vinci--master among masters--first discerned the laws of the coiling
+clouds and wandering streams, so that to this day his engineering
+remains unbettered by modern science; and yet in this center of all
+human achievements of genius no thought has been taken to receive with
+sacred art these great gifts of quiet snow and flying rain. Think, I
+repeat, what that south slope of the Alps might be: one paradise of
+lovely pasture and avenued forest of chestnut and blossomed trees, with
+cascades docile and innocent as infants, laughing all summer long from
+crag to crag and pool to pool, and the Adige and the Po, the Dora and
+the Ticino, no more defiled, no more alternating between fierce flood
+and venomous languor, but in calm clear currents bearing ships to every
+city and health to every field of all that azure plain of Lombard
+Italy....
+
+241. "It has now become a most grave object with me to get some of the
+great pictures of the Italian schools into England; and that, I think,
+at this time--with good help--might be contrived. Further, without in
+the least urging my plans impatiently on anyone else, I know thoroughly
+that this, which I have said _should_ be done, _can_ be done, for the
+Italian rivers, and that no method of employment of our idle
+able-bodied laborers would be in the end more remunerative, or in the
+beginnings of it more healthful and every way beneficial than, with the
+concurrence of the Italian and Swiss governments, setting them to redeem
+the valleys of the Ticino and the Rhone. And I pray you to think of
+this; for I tell you truly--you who care for Italy--that both her
+passions and her mountain streams are noble; but that her happiness
+depends not on the liberty, but the right government of both."[14]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 12: Report (with extracts) of a paper entitled "A Talk
+respecting Verona and its Rivers," read by Mr. Ruskin at the Weekly
+Evening Meeting of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Feb. 4th,
+1870. See _Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution, vol. vi., p.
+55.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 13: This catalogue (London: Queen Street Printing-Office,
+1870) is printed below, p. 109, § 242 _seqq._--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See _Arrows of the Chace_.]
+
+
+
+
+CATALOGUE.
+
+(_See ante,_ p. 101.--ED.)
+
+_Drawings and Photographs, illustrative of the Architecture of Verona,
+shown at the Royal Institution, Feb. 4th, 1870._
+
+
+SECTION I. NOS. 1 TO 7. LOMBARD.
+
+242. (1.) _Porch of the Church of St. Zeno._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Of the 12th century.
+
+(2.) _Porch of the South Entrance of the Duomo._
+
+     Probably of the 10th or 11th century, and highly remarkable for the
+     wildness of its grotesque or monstrous sculpture, which has been
+     most carefully rendered by the draughts-man, Mr. Bunney.
+
+     It will save space to note that the sketches by my two most
+     skillful and patient helpers, Mr. A. Burgess and Mr. Bunney, will
+     be respectively marked (A) and (B), and my own (R).
+
+(3.) _Porch of the Western Entrance of the Duomo._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Later in date--but still of 12th or very early 13th century.
+     Details of it are given in the next drawings.
+
+243. (4.) _Griffin_ (I keep the intelligible old English spelling),
+     _sustaining the Pillar on the North Side of the Porch seen in No. 3._
+     (R.)
+
+     Painted last summer.
+
+     I engraved his head and breast, seen from the other side, in the
+     plate of "True and False Griffins," in "Modern Painters." Only the
+     back of the head and neck of the small dragon he holds in his
+     fore-claws can be seen from this side.
+
+(5.) _Capital of the Pillar sustained by the Griffin, of which the base
+     is seen in No. 4._ (A.)
+
+     First-rate sculpture of the time, and admirably drawn.
+
+(6.) _Portion of decorative Lombardic molding from the South Side of the
+     Duomo._ (A.)
+
+     Showing the peculiar writhing of the branched tracery with a
+     serpentine flexure--altogether different from the springing lines
+     of Gothic ornament. It would be almost impossible to draw this
+     better; it is much more like the real thing than a cast would be.
+
+(7.) _Lion, with Dragon in its claws, of Lombardic sculpture_ (now built
+     into a wall at Venice); _above it, head of one of the Dogs which
+     support the Tomb of Can Grande, at Verona._ (R.)
+
+     The lion--in its emaciated strength, and the serpent with its vital
+     writhe and deadly reverted bite, are both characteristic of the
+     finest Lombard work. The dog's head is 14th century Gothic--a
+     masterpiece of broad, subtle, easy sculpture, getting expression
+     with every touch, and never losing the least undulation of surface,
+     while it utterly disdains the mere imitation of hair, or attainment
+     of effect by deep cutting.
+
+
+SECTION II. NOS. 8 TO 38. GOTHIC.
+
+244. (8.) _North Porch of the Church of St. Fermo._ 13th century. (B.)
+
+     Mr. Bunney's drawing is so faithful and careful as almost to enable
+     the spectator to imagine himself on the spot. The details of this
+     porch are among the most interesting in the Gothic of Italy, but I
+     was obliged, last year, to be content with this general view, taken
+     in terror of the whole being "restored"; and with the two following
+     drawings.
+
+(9.) _Base of the Central Pillar. North Porch, St. Fermo._ (B.)
+
+     In facsimile, as nearly as possible, and of the real size, to show
+     the perpetual variety in the touch; and in the disposition and size
+     of the masses.
+
+(10.) _Shaft-Capitals of the Interior Arch of the North Porch, St.
+      Fermo._ (B.)
+
+     Contrived so that, while appearing symmetrical, and even
+     monotonous, not one lobe of any of the leaves shall be like
+     another.
+
+     Quite superb in the original, but grievously difficult to draw, and
+     losing, in this sketch, much of their grace.
+
+245. (11.) _Western Door of the Church of St. Anastasia, with the Tomb
+     of the Count of Castelbarco on the left, over the arch._ (Photograph.)
+
+     In the door, its central pillar, carved lintels and encompassing
+     large pointed arch, with its deep moldings and flanking shafts, are
+     of the finest Veronese 13th century work. The two minor pointed
+     arches are of the 14th century. The flanking pilasters, with double
+     panels and garlands above, are the beginning of a façade intended
+     to have been erected in the 15th century.
+
+     The Count of Castelbarco, the Chancellor of Can Grande della Scala,
+     died about the year 1330, and his tomb cannot be much later in
+     date.
+
+     The details of this group of buildings are illustrated under the
+     numbers next in series.
+
+(12.) _Pillars and Lintels of the Western Door of St. Anastasia._
+     (Photograph.)
+
+     The sculpture of the lintel is first notable for its concise and
+     intense story of the Life of Christ.
+
+  1. The Annunciation. (Both Virgin and Angel kneeling.)
+
+  2. The Nativity.
+
+  3. The Epiphany. (Chosen as a sign of life giver to the
+     Gentiles.)
+
+  4. Christ bearing His Cross. (Chosen as a sign of His
+     personal life in its entirety.)
+
+  5. The Crucifixion.
+
+  6. The Resurrection.
+
+     Secondly. As sculpture, this lintel shows all the principal
+     features of the characteristic 13th century design of Verona.
+
+     Diminutive and stunted figures; the heads ugly in features, stern
+     in expression; but the drapery exquisitely disposed in minute but
+     not deep-cut folds.
+
+(13.) _The Angels on the left hand of the subject of the Resurrection in
+      No. 12._ (A.)
+
+     Drawn of its actual size, excellently.
+
+     The appearance of fusion and softness in the contours is not caused
+     by time, but is intentional, and reached by great skill in the
+     sculptor, faithfully rendered in the drawing.
+
+(14.) _Sketch of the Capital of the Central Pillar in No. 12._ (R.)
+
+     (With slight notes of a 16th century bracket of a street balcony on
+     each side.)
+
+     Drawn to show the fine curvatures and softness of treatment in
+     Veronese sculpture of widely separated periods.
+
+246. (15.) _Unfinished Sketch of the Castelbarco Tomb, seen from one of
+     the windows of the Hotel of the "Two Towers."_ (R.)
+
+     That inn was itself one of the palaces of the Scaligers; and the
+     traveler should endeavor always to imagine the effect of the little
+     Square of Sta. Anastasia when the range of its buildings was
+     complete; the Castelbarco Tomb on one side, this Gothic palace on
+     the other, and the great door of the church between. The masonry of
+     the canopy of this tomb was so locked and dove-tailed that it stood
+     balanced almost without cement; but of late, owing to the
+     permission given to heavily loaded carts to pass continually under
+     the archway, the stones were so loosened by the vibration that the
+     old roof became unsafe, and was removed, and a fine smooth one of
+     trimly cut white stone substituted, while I was painting the rest
+     of the tomb, against time. Hence the unfinished condition of my
+     sketch the last that can ever be taken of the tomb as it was built.
+
+(16.) _The Castelbarco Tomb, seen laterally._ (B.)
+
+     A most careful drawing, leaving little to be desired in realization
+     of the subject. It is taken so near the tomb as to make the
+     perspective awkward, but I liked this quaint view better than more
+     distant ones.
+
+     The drawing of the archway, and of the dark gray and red masonry of
+     the tomb is very beautiful.
+
+247. (17.) _Lion with Hind in its Claws._ (A.)
+
+     The support of the sarcophagus, under the feet of the recumbent
+     figure in the Castelbarco Tomb.
+
+(18.) _Lion with Dragon in its claws._ (A.)
+
+     The support of the sarcophagus at the head of the figure.
+
+(19.) _St. Luke._ (A.)
+
+     Sculpture of one of the four small panels at the angles of the
+     sarcophagus in the Castelbarco Tomb. I engraved the St. Mark for
+     the illustration of noble grotesque in the "Stones of Venice." But
+     this drawing more perfectly renders the stern touch of the old
+     sculptor.
+
+(20.) _Two of the Spurs of the bases of the Nave Pillars in the Church
+      of St. Anastasia._ (A.)
+
+     Of the real size. Not generally seen in the darkness of the Church,
+     and very fine in their rough way.
+
+248. (21.) _Tomb of Can Grande, general view._ (R.)
+
+     Put together some time since, from Photograph and Sketches taken in
+     the year 1852; and inaccurate, but useful in giving a general idea.
+
+(22.) _Tomb of Can Grande._ (R.)
+
+     Sketch made carefully on the spot last year. The sarcophagus
+     unfinished; the details of it would not go into so small a space.
+
+(23.) _The Sarcophagus and recumbent Statue of Can Grande, drawn
+      separately._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched on the spot last year. Almost a faultless type of powerful
+     and solemn Gothic sculpture. (Can Grande died in 1329.)
+
+(24.) _The Two Dogs._ (R.)
+
+     The kneeling Madonna and sculpture of right hand upper panel of the
+     Sarcophagus of Can Grande.
+
+     The drawing of the panel is of real size, representing the Knight
+     at the Battle of Vicenza.
+
+(25.) _The Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Can Grande._ (A.)
+
+     Of its real size, admirably drawn, and quite showing the softness
+     and Correggio-like touch of its leafage, and its symmetrical
+     formality of design, while the flow of every leaf is changeful.
+
+249. (26.) _Study of the Sarcophagus of the Tomb of Mastino II.,
+     Verona._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1852.
+
+(27.) _Head of the recumbent Statue of Mastino II._ (A.)
+
+     Beautifully drawn by Mr. Burgess.
+
+     Can Mastino II. had three daughters:--Madonna Beatrice (called
+     afterwards "the Queen," for having "tutte le grazie che i cieli
+     ponno concedere a femina," and always simply called by historians
+     Lady "Reina" della Scala), Madonna Alta-luna, and Madonna Verde.
+     Lady Reina married Bernabó Visconti, Duke of Milan; Lady Alta-luna,
+     Louis of Brandebourg; and Lady Verde, Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua.
+     Their father died of "Sovereign melancholy" in 1350, being
+     forty-three years old.
+
+(28.) _Part of Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Mastino II._ (A.)
+
+     One of the most beautiful Gothic cornices in Italy; its effect
+     being obtained with extreme simplicity of execution out of two
+     ridges of marble, each cut first into one united sharp edge all
+     along, and then drilled through, and modeled into leaf and flower.
+
+(29.) _Sketch, real size, of the pattern incised and painted on the
+      drapery of the Tomb of Can Mastino II._ (R.)
+
+     It is worth notice for the variety of its pattern; observe, the
+     floral fillings of spaces resemble each other, but are never the
+     same. There is no end, when one begins drawing detail of this kind
+     carefully. Slight as it is, the sketch gives some idea of the easy
+     flow of the stone drapery, and of the care taken by the sculptor to
+     paint his pattern _as if_ it were bent at the apparent fold.
+
+250. (30.) _Tomb of Can Signorio della Scala._
+
+     Samuel Prout's sketch on the spot; (afterwards lithographed by him
+     in his "Sketches in France and Italy";) quite admirable in feeling,
+     composition, and concise abstraction of essential character.
+
+     The family palace of the Scaligers, in which Dante was received, is
+     seen behind it.
+
+(31.) _A single niche and part of the iron-work of the Tomb of Can
+      Signorio._ (R.)
+
+     As seen from the palace of the Scaligers; the remains of another
+     house of the same family are seen in the little street beyond.
+
+(32.) _Study of details of the top of the Tomb of Can Signorio._ (R.)
+
+     Needing more work than I had time for, and quite spoiled by hurry;
+     but interesting in pieces here and there; look, for instance, at
+     the varied size and design of the crockets; and beauty of the
+     cornices.
+
+(33.) _Bracket under Sarcophagus of Giovanni della Scala._ (A.)
+
+     Characteristic of the finest later treatment of flowing foliage.
+
+251. (34.) _Part of the front of the Ducal Palace, Venice._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched, in 1852, by measurement, with extreme care; and showing
+     the sharp window traceries, which are rarely seen in Photographs.
+
+(35.) _Angle of the Ducal Palace, looking Seaward from the Piazzetta._
+      (R.)
+
+     Sketched last year, (restorations being threatened) merely to show
+     the way in which the light is let through the edges of the angle by
+     penetration of the upper capital, and of the foliage in the
+     sculpture below; so that the mass may not come unbroken against the
+     sky.
+
+(36.) _Photograph of the Angle Capital of Upper Arcade seen in No. 34._
+
+     Showing the pierced portions, and their treatment.
+
+(37-38.) _Capitals of the Upper Arcade._
+
+     Showing the grandest treatment of architectural foliage attained by
+     the 14th century masters; massive for all purposes of support;
+     exquisitely soft and refined in contour, and faultlessly composed.
+
+
+SECTION III. TIME OF "THE MASTERS."
+
+252. (39.) _Study of the top of the Pilaster next the Castelbarco Tomb._
+     (R.)
+
+     The wild fig leaves are unfinished; for my assistant having
+     unfortunately shown his solicitude for their preservation too
+     energetically to some street boys who were throwing stones at them,
+     they got a ladder, and rooted them up the same night. The purple
+     and fine-grained white marbles of the pilaster are entirely
+     uninjured in surface by three hundred years' exposure. The coarse
+     white marble above has moldered, and is gray with lichens.
+
+(40.) _Study of the base of the same Pilaster, and connected Facade._
+      (R.)
+
+     Showing the effect of differently colored marbles arranged in
+     carefully inequal masses.
+
+253. (41.) _Interior Court of the Ducal Palace of Venice, with Giant's
+     Stair._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1841, and perhaps giving some characters which more
+     finished drawing would lose.
+
+(42.) _The Piazza d' Erbe, Verona._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1841, showing general effect and pretty grouping of the
+     later Veronese buildings.
+
+(43.) _Piazza de' Signori, Verona._
+
+     Sketched last year. Note the bill advertising Victor Hugo's "Homme
+     qui rit," pasted on the wall of the palace.
+
+     The great tower is of the Gothic time. Note its noble sweep of
+     delicately ascending curves sloped inwards.
+
+(44.) _Gate of Ruined School of St. John, Venice._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Exquisite in floral sculpture, and finish of style.
+
+(45.) _Hawthorn Leaves, from the base of Pilaster, in the Church of St.
+      Maria dé Miracoli, Venice._ (R.)
+
+     In the finest style of floral sculpture. It cannot be surpassed for
+     perfectness of treatment; especially for the obtaining of life and
+     softness, by broad surfaces and fine grouping.
+
+(46.) _Basrelief from one of the Inner Doors of the Ducal Palace._
+
+     Very noble, and typical of the pure style.
+
+(47.) _St. John Baptist and other Saints._ (Cima da Conegliano.)
+
+     Consummate work; but the photograph, though well taken, darkens it
+     terribly.
+
+(48.) _Meeting of Joachim and Anna._ (Vettor Carpaccio.) (Photograph.)
+
+(49.) _Madonna and Saints._ (John Bellini.) Portrait. (Mantegna.)
+     (Photographs.)
+
+(50.) _Madonna._ (John Bellini.)
+
+     With Raphael's "Della Seggiola." Showing the first transition from
+     the style of the "Masters" to that of modern times.
+
+     _The Photographs in the above series are all from the Pictures
+     themselves._
+
+
+
+
+CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM.[15]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+254. The writer of this book has long been my friend, and in the early
+days of friendship was my disciple.
+
+But, of late, I have been his; for he has devoted himself earnestly to
+the study of forms of Christian Art which I had little opportunity of
+examining, and has been animated in that study by a brightness of
+enthusiasm which has been long impossible to me. Knowing this, and that
+he was able perfectly to fill what must otherwise have been a rudely
+bridged chasm in my teaching at Oxford, I begged him to give these
+lectures, and to arrange them for press. And this he has done to please
+me; and now that he has done it, I am, in one sense, anything but
+pleased: for I like his writing better than my own, and am more jealous
+of it than I thought it was in me to be of any good work--how much less
+of my friend's! I console myself by reflecting, or at least repeating to
+myself and endeavoring to think, that he could not have found out all
+this if I had not shown him the way. But most deeply and seriously I am
+thankful for such help, in a work far too great for my present strength;
+help all the more precious because my friend can bring to the
+investigation of early Christian Art, and its influence, the integrity
+and calmness of the faith in which it was wrought, happier than I in
+having been a personal comforter and helper of men, fulfilling his life
+in daily and unquestionable duty; while I have been, perhaps wrongly,
+always hesitatingly, persuading myself that it was my duty to do the
+things which pleased me.
+
+255. Also, it has been necessary to much of my analytical work that I
+should regard the art of every nation as much as possible from their own
+natural point of view; and I have striven so earnestly to realize belief
+which I supposed to be false, and sentiment which was foreign to my
+temper, that at last I scarcely know how far I think with other people's
+minds, and see with anyone's eyes but my own. Even the effort to recover
+my temporarily waived conviction occasionally fails; and what was once
+secured to me becomes theoretical like the rest.
+
+But my old scholar has been protected by his definitely directed life
+from the temptations of this speculative equity; and I believe his
+writings to contain the truest expression yet given in England of the
+feelings with which a Christian gentleman of sense and learning should
+regard the art produced in ancient days, by the dawn of the faiths which
+still guide his conduct and secure his peace.
+
+256. On all the general principles of Art, Mr. Tyrwhitt and I are
+absolutely at one; but he has often the better of me in his acute
+personal knowledge of men and their ways. When we differ in our thoughts
+of things, it is because we know them on contrary sides; and often his
+side is that most naturally seen, and which it is most desirable to see.
+There is one important matter, for instance, on which we are thus
+apparently at issue, and yet are not so in reality. These lectures show,
+throughout, the most beautiful and just reverence for Michael Angelo,
+and are of especial value in their account of him; while the last
+lecture on Sculpture,[16] which I gave at Oxford, is entirely devoted to
+examining the modes in which his genius failed, and perverted that of
+other men. But Michael Angelo is great enough to make praise and blame
+alike necessary, and alike inadequate, in any true record of him. My
+friend sees him as a traveler sees from a distance some noble mountain
+range, obscure in golden clouds and purple shade; and I see him as a
+sullen miner would the same mountains, wandering among their precipices
+through chill of storm and snow, and discerning that their strength was
+perilous and their substance sterile. Both of us see truly, both
+partially; the complete truth is the witness of both.
+
+257. The notices of Holbein, and the English whom he painted (see
+especially the sketch of Sir Thomas Wyatt in the sixth lecture), are to
+my mind of singular value, and the tenor of the book throughout, as far
+as I can judge--for, as I said, much of it treats of subjects with which
+I am unfamiliar--so sound, and the feeling in it so warm and true, and
+true in the warmth of it, that it refreshes me like the sight of the
+things themselves it speaks of. New and vivid sight of them it will give
+to many readers; and to all who will regard my commendation I commend
+it; asking those who have hitherto credited my teaching to read these
+lectures as they would my own; and trusting that others, who have
+doubted me, will see reason to put faith in my friend.
+
+  PISA, _30th April, 1872._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 15: Preface to the above-named book, by the Rev. St. John
+Tyrwhitt. London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1872.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See Mr. Ruskin's pamphlet on "The Relation of Michael
+Angelo to Tintoret," being (although separately printed) the seventh
+lecture of the course (1872) published as _Aratra Pentelici_--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIÆVAL CHRISTENDOM.[17]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+258. The number of British and American travelers who take unaffected
+interest in the early art of Europe is already large, and is daily
+increasing; daily also, as I thankfully perceive, feeling themselves
+more and more in need of a guidebook containing as much trustworthy
+indication as they can use of what they may most rationally spend their
+time in examining. The books of reference published by Mr. Murray,
+though of extreme value to travelers, who make it their object to see
+(in his, and their, sense of the word) whatever is to be seen, are of
+none whatever, or may perhaps be considered, justly, as even of quite
+the reverse of value, to travelers who wish to see only what they may in
+simplicity understand, and with pleasure remember; while the histories
+of art, and biographies of artists, to which the more earnest student in
+his novitiate must have recourse, are at once so voluminous, so vague,
+and so contradictory, that I cannot myself conceive his deriving any
+other benefit from their study than a deep conviction of the difficulty
+of the subject, and of the incertitude of human opinions.
+
+259. It seemed to me, on reading the essays collected in this volume, as
+they appeared in the periodical[18] for which they were written, that
+the author not only possessed herself a very true discernment of the
+qualities in mediæval art which were justly deserving of praise, but had
+unusually clear understanding of the degree in which she might expect to
+cultivate such discernment in the general mind of polite travelers; nor
+have I less admired her aptitude in collation of essentially
+illustrative facts, so as to bring the history of a very widely
+contemplative range of art into tenable compass and very graceful and
+serviceable form. Her reading, indeed, has been, with respect to many
+very interesting periods of religious workmanship, much more extensive
+than my own; and when I consented to edit the volume of collected
+papers, it was not without the assurance of considerable advantage to
+myself during the labor of revising them.
+
+260. The revision, however, I am sorry to say, has been interrupted and
+imperfect, very necessarily the last from the ignorance I have just
+confessed of more than one segment of the great illuminated field of
+early religious art, to which the writer most wisely has directed equal
+and symmetrical attention, and interrupted partly under extreme pressure
+of other occupation, and partly in very fear of being tempted to oppress
+the serenity of the general prospect, which I think these essays are
+eminently calculated to open before an ingenious reader, with the stormy
+chiaroscuro of my own preference and reprobation. I leave the work,
+therefore, absolutely Miss Owen's, with occasional note of remonstrance,
+but without retouch, though it must be distinctly understood that when I
+allow my name to stand as the editor of a book, it is in no mere
+compliment (if my editorship could indeed be held as such) to the genius
+or merit of the author; but it means that I hold myself entirely
+responsible, in main points, for the accuracy of the views advanced, and
+that I wish the work to be received, by those who have confidence in my
+former teaching, as an extension and application of the parts of it
+which I have felt to be incomplete.
+
+     OXFORD, _November 27, 1875._
+
+     NOTE.--The "notes of remonstrance" or approbation
+     scattered through the volume are not numerous. They are given
+     below, preceded in each case by the (italicized) statement or
+     expression: giving rise to them:--
+
+     (1) P. 73. "_The peculiar characteristic of the Byzantine churches
+     is the dome._" "Form derived first from the Catacombs. See Lord
+     Lindsay."
+
+     (2) P. 89. "_The octagon baptistry at Florence, ascribed to Lombard
+     kings...._" "No; it is Etruscan work of pure descent."
+
+     (3) _Id._ "_S. Michele, of Pavia, pure Lombard of seventh century,
+     rebuilt in tenth._" "Churches were often rebuilt with their
+     original sculptures. I believe many in this church to be Lombard.
+     See next page."
+
+     (4) P. 95. "_The revolution begun by Rafaelle has ended in the
+     vulgar painting, the sentimental prints, and the colored
+     statuettes, which have made the religious art of the nineteenth
+     century a by-word for its feebleness on the one side, its
+     superstition on the other._" "Excellent; but my good scholar has
+     not distinguished vulgar from non-vulgar naturalism. Perhaps she
+     will as I read on."
+
+     [Compare the last note in the book, pp. 487-8, where Miss Owen's
+     statement that "_the cause of Rafaelle's popularity ... has been
+     that predominance of exaggerated dramatic representation, which in
+     his pictures is visible above all moral and spiritual qualities,_"
+     is noted to be "Intensely and accurately true."]
+
+     (5) P. 108. "_It may be ... it is scarcely credible._" "What does
+     it matter what may be or what is scarcely credible? I hope the
+     reader will consider what a waste of time the thinking of things is
+     when we can never rightly know them."
+
+     (6) P. 109. On the statement that "_no vital school of art has ever
+     existed save as the expression of the vital and unquestioned faith
+     of a people,_" followed by some remarks on external helps to
+     devotion, there is a note at the word "people." "Down to this line
+     this page is unquestionably and entirely true. I do not answer for
+     the rest of the clause, but do not dispute it."
+
+     (7) P. 113. _S. Michele at Lucca._ "The church is now only a modern
+     architect's copy."
+
+     (8) P. 129. "_There is a good model of this pulpit_" (Niccola's in
+     the Pisan Baptistry) "_in the Kensington Museum, through which we
+     may learn much of the rise of Gothic sculpture._" "You cannot do
+     anything of the kind. Pisan sculpture can only be studied in the
+     original marble; half its virtue is in the chiseling."
+
+     (9) P. 136. "_S. Donato's shrine_" (by Giovanni Picano) "_in Arezzo
+     Cathedral is one of the finest monuments of the Pisan school._"
+     "No. He tried to be too fine, and overdid it. The work is merely
+     accumulated commonplace."
+
+     (10) P. 170. On Giotto drawing without compasses a circle with a
+     crayon, "_not a brush, with which, as Professor Ruskin explained,
+     the feat would have been impossible. See 'Giotto and his Works in
+     Padua.'_" "Don't; but practice with a camel's-hair brush till you
+     can do it. I knew nothing of brush-work proper when I wrote that
+     essay on Padua."
+
+     (11) P. 179. In the first of the bas-reliefs of Giotto's tower at
+     Florence, "_Noah lies asleep, or, as Professor Ruskin maintains,
+     drunk._" "I don't 'maintain' anything of the sort; I _know_ it. He
+     is as drunk as a man can be, and the expression of drunkenness
+     given with deliberate and intense skill, as on the angle of the
+     Ducal Palace at Venice."
+
+     (12) P. 179. On Giotto's "_astronomy, figured by an old man_" on
+     the same tower. "Above which are seen, by the astronomy of his
+     heart, the heavenly host represented above the stars."
+
+     (13) P. 190. "_The Loggia dei Langi_" (at Florence) ... "_the round
+     arches, new to those times ... See Vasari._" "Vasari is an ass with
+     precious things in his panniers; but you must not ask his opinion
+     on any matter. The round arches new to those times had been the
+     universal structure form in all Italy, Roman or Lombard, feebly and
+     reluctantly pointed in the thirteenth century, and occasionally, as
+     in the Campo Santo of Pisa, and Orcagna's own Or San Michele,
+     standing within three hundred yards of the Loggia arches 'new to
+     those times,' filled with tracery, itself composed of intersecting
+     round arches. Now, it does not matter two soldi to the history of
+     art who _built_, but who designed and carved the Loggia. It is out
+     and out the grandest in Italy, and its archaic virtues themselves
+     are impracticable and inconceivable. I don't vouch for its being
+     Orcagna's, nor do I vouch for the Campo Santo frescoes being his. I
+     have never specially studied him; nor do I know what men of might
+     there were to work with or after him. But I know the Loggia to be
+     mighty architecture of Orcagna's style and time, and the Last
+     Judgment and Triumph of Death in the Campo Santo to be the sternest
+     lessons written on the walls of Tuscany, and worth more study alone
+     than English travelers usually give to Pisa, Lucca, Pistoja, and
+     Florence altogether."
+
+     (14) P. 468. "_The Gothic style for churches never took root in
+     Venice._" "Not quite correct. The Ducal Palace traceries are shown
+     in the 'Stones of Venice' (vol. ii.) to have been founded on those
+     of the Frari."
+
+     (15) P. 471. Mantegna. "_No feeling had he for vital beauty of
+     human face, or the lower creatures of the earth._" To this Miss
+     Owen adds in a note, "Professor Ruskin reminds me to notice here,
+     in qualification, Mantegna's power of painting inanimate forms, as,
+     _e. g._, in the trees and leaves of his Madonna of the National
+     Gallery. 'He is,' says Professor Ruskin, 'the most wonderful
+     leaf-painter of Lombardy.'"
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 17: Preface to the above-named book by Miss A. C. Owen, edited
+by Mr. Ruskin. London: Mozley & Smith, 1876.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 18: _The Monthly Packet._--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT.[19]
+
+A PROTEST.
+
+
+261. The evidence collected in the following pages, in support of their
+pleading, is so complete, and the summary of his cause given with so
+temperate mastery by Mr. Somervell, that I find nothing to add in
+circumstance, and little to re-enforce in argument. And I have less
+heart to the writing even of what brief preface so good work might by
+its author's courtesy be permitted to receive from me, occupied as I so
+long have been in efforts tending in the same direction, because, on
+that very account, I am far less interested than my friend in this local
+and limited resistance to the elsewhere fatally victorious current of
+modern folly, cruelty, and ruin. When the frenzy of avarice is daily
+drowning our sailors, suffocating our miners, poisoning our children,
+and blasting the cultivable surface of England into a treeless waste of
+ashes,[20] what does it really matter whether a flock of sheep, more or
+less, be driven from the slopes of Helvellyn, or the little pool of
+Thirlmere filled with shale, or a few wild blossoms of St. John's vale
+lost to the coronal of English spring? Little to anyone; and--let me say
+this, at least, in the outset of all saying--_nothing_ to _me_. No one
+need charge me with selfishness in any word or action for defense of
+these mossy hills. I do not move, with such small activity as I have yet
+shown in the business, because I live at Coniston (where no sound of the
+iron wheels by Dunmail Raise can reach me), nor because I can find no
+other place to remember Wordsworth by, than the daffodil margin of his
+little Rydal marsh. What thoughts and work are yet before me, such as he
+taught, must be independent of any narrow associations. All my own dear
+mountain grounds and treasure-cities, Chamouni, Interlachen, Lucerne,
+Geneva, Venice, are long ago destroyed by the European populace; and
+now, for my own part, I don't care what more they do; they may drain
+Loch Katrine, drink Loch Lomond, and blow all Wales and Cumberland into
+a heap of slate shingle; the world is wide enough yet to find me some
+refuge during the days appointed for me to stay in it. But it is no less
+my duty, in the cause of those to whom the sweet landscapes of England
+are yet precious, and to whom they may yet teach what they taught me, in
+early boyhood, and would still if I had it now to learn,--it is my duty
+to plead with what earnestness I may, that these sacred sibylline books
+may be redeemed from perishing.
+
+262. But again, I am checked, because I don't know how to speak to the
+persons who _need_ to be spoken to in this matter.
+
+Suppose I were sitting, where still, in much-changed Oxford, I am happy
+to find myself, in one of the little latticed cells of the Bodleian
+Library, and my kind and much-loved friend, Mr. Coxe, were to come to me
+with news that it was proposed to send nine hundred excursionists
+through the library every day, in three parties of three hundred each;
+that it was intended they should elevate their minds by reading all the
+books they could lay hold of while they stayed;--and that practically
+scientific persons accompanying them were to look out for and burn all
+the manuscripts that had any gold in their illuminations, that the said
+gold might be made of practical service; but that he, Mr. Coxe, could
+not, for his part, sympathize with the movement, and hoped I would write
+something in deprecation of it! As I should then feel, I feel now, at
+Mr. Somervell's request that I would write him a preface in defense of
+Helvellyn. What could I say for Mr. Coxe? Of course, that nine hundred
+people should see the library daily, instead of one, is only fair to the
+nine hundred, and if there is gold in the books, is it not public
+property? If there is copper or slate in Helvellyn, shall not the public
+burn or hammer it out--and they say they will, of course--in spite of
+us? What does it signify to _them_ how we poor old quiet readers in this
+mountain library feel? True, we know well enough,--what the nine hundred
+excursionist scholars don't--that the library can't be read quite
+through in a quarter of an hour; also, that there is a pleasure in real
+reading, quite different from that of turning pages; and that gold in a
+missal, or slate in a crag, may be more precious than in a bank or a
+chimney-pot. But how are these practical people to credit us,--these,
+who cannot read, nor ever will; and who have been taught that nothing is
+virtuous but care for their bellies, and nothing useful but what goes
+into them?
+
+263. Whether to be credited or not, the real facts of the matter, made
+clear as they are in the following pages, can be briefly stated for the
+consideration of any candid person.
+
+The arguments in favor of the new railway are in the main four, and may
+be thus answered.
+
+1. "There are mineral treasures in the district capable of development."
+
+_Answer._ It is a wicked fiction, got up by whosoever has got it up,
+simply to cheat shareholders. Every lead and copper vein in Cumberland
+has been known for centuries; the copper of Coniston does not pay; and
+there is none so rich in Helvellyn. And the main central volcanic rocks,
+through which the track lies, produce neither slate nor hematite, while
+there is enough of them at Llanberis and Dalton to roof and iron-grate
+all England into one vast Bedlam, if it honestly perceives itself in
+need of that accommodation.
+
+2. "The scenery must be made accessible to the public."
+
+_Answer._ It is more than accessible already; the public are pitched
+into it head-foremost, and necessarily miss two-thirds of it. The Lake
+scenery really begins, on the south, at Lancaster, where the Cumberland
+hills are seen over Morecambe Bay; on the north, at Carlisle, where the
+moors of Skiddaw are seen over the rich plains between them and the
+Solway. No one who loves mountains would lose a step of the approach,
+from these distances, on either side. But the stupid herds of modern
+tourists let themselves be emptied, like coals from a sack, at
+Windermere and Keswick. Having got there, what the new railway has to do
+is to shovel those who have come to Keswick to Windermere, and to shovel
+those who have come to Windermere to Keswick. And what then?
+
+3. "But cheap and swift transit is necessary for the working population,
+who otherwise could not see the scenery at all."
+
+_Answer._ After all your shrieking about what the operatives spend in
+drink, can't you teach them to save enough out of their year's wages to
+pay for a chaise and pony for a day, to drive Missis and the Baby that
+pleasant twenty miles, stopping when they like, to unpack the basket on
+a mossy bank? If they can't enjoy the scenery that way, they can't any
+way; and all that your railroad company can do for them is only to open
+taverns and skittle grounds round Grasmere, which will soon, then, be
+nothing but a pool of drainage, with a beach of broken gingerbeer
+bottles; and their minds will be no more improved by contemplating the
+scenery of such a lake than of Blackpool.
+
+4. What else is to be said? I protest I can find nothing, unless that
+engineers and contractors must live. Let them live, but in a more useful
+and honorable way than by keeping Old Bartholomew Fair under Helvellyn,
+and making a steam merry-go-round of the lake country.
+
+There are roads to be mended, where the parish will not mend them,
+harbors of refuge needed, where our deck-loaded ships are in helpless
+danger; get your commissions and dividends where you know that work is
+needed, not where the best you can do is to persuade pleasure-seekers
+into giddier idleness.
+
+264. The arguments brought forward by the promoters of the railway may
+thus be summarily answered. Of those urged in the following pamphlet in
+defense of the country as it is, I care only myself to direct the
+reader's attention to one (see pp. 27, 28), the certainty, namely, of
+the deterioration of moral character in the inhabitants of every
+district penetrated by a railway. Where there is little moral character
+to be lost, this argument has small weight. But the Border peasantry of
+Scotland and England, painted with absolute fidelity by Scott and
+Wordsworth (for leading types out of this exhaustless portraiture, I may
+name Dandie Dinmont and Michael), are hitherto a scarcely injured race,
+whose strength and virtue yet survive to represent the body and soul of
+England before her days of mechanical decrepitude and commercial
+dishonor. There are men working in my own fields who might have fought
+with Henry the Fifth at Agincourt without being discerned from among his
+knights; I can take my tradesmen's word for a thousand pounds; my garden
+gate opens on the latch to the public road, by day and night, without
+fear of any foot entering but my own, and my girl-guests may wander by
+road, or moorland, or through every bosky dell of this wild wood, free
+as the heather bees or squirrels.
+
+What effect, on the character of such a population, will be produced by
+the influx of that of the suburbs of our manufacturing towns, there is
+evidence enough, if the reader cares to ascertain the facts, in every
+newspaper on his morning table.
+
+265. And now one final word concerning the proposed beneficial effect on
+the minds of those whom you send to corrupt us.
+
+I have said I take no selfish interest in this resistance to the
+railroad. But I do take an unselfish one. It is precisely because I
+passionately wish to improve the minds of the populace, and because I am
+spending my own mind, strength, and fortune, wholly on that object, that
+I don't want to let them see Helvellyn while they are drunk. I suppose
+few men now living have so earnestly felt--none certainly have so
+earnestly declared--that the beauty of nature is the blessedest and most
+necessary of lessons for men; and that all other efforts in education
+are futile till you have taught your people to love fields, birds, and
+flowers. Come then, my benevolent friends, join with me in that
+teaching. I have been at it all my life, and without pride, do solemnly
+assure you that I know how it is to be managed. I cannot indeed tell
+you, in this short preface, how, completely, to fulfill so glorious a
+task. But I can tell you clearly, instantly, and emphatically, in what
+temper you must set about it. _Here_ are you, a Christian, a gentleman,
+and a trained scholar; _there_ is your subject of education--a Godless
+clown, in helpless ignorance. You can present no more blessed offering
+to God than that human creature, raised into faith, gentleness, and the
+knowledge of the works of his Lord. But observe this--you must not hope
+to make so noble an offering to God of that which doth cost you nothing!
+You must be resolved to labor, and to lose, yourself, before you can
+rescue this overlabored lost sheep, and offer it alive to its Master. If
+then, my benevolent friend, you are prepared to take out your two pence,
+and to give them to the hosts here in Cumberland, saying--"Take care of
+him, and whatsoever thou spendest more, I will repay thee when I come to
+Cumberland myself," on _these_ terms--oh my benevolent friends, I am
+with you, hand and glove, in every effort you wish to make for the
+enlightenment of poor men's eyes. But if your motive is, on the
+contrary, to put two pence into your own purse, stolen between the
+Jerusalem and Jericho of Keswick and Ambleside, out of the poor drunken
+traveler's pocket;--if your real object, in your charitable offering,
+is, not even to lend unto the Lord by _giving_ to the poor, but to lend
+unto the Lord by making a dividend out of the poor;--then, my pious
+friends, enthusiastic Ananias, pitiful Judas, and sanctified Korah, I
+will do my best in God's name, to stay your hands, and stop your
+tongues.
+
+BRANTWOOD, _22nd June, 1876._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 19: Preface to a pamphlet (1876) entitled "A Protest against
+the Extension of Railways in the Lake District," compiled by Robert
+Somervell (Windermere, J. Garnett; London, Simpkin, Marshall & Co.). The
+pamphlet also contained a printed announcement as follows:--"The author
+of 'Modern Painters' earnestly requests all persons who may have taken
+interest in his writings, or who have any personal regard for him, to
+assist him now in the circulation of the inclosed paper, drawn up by his
+friend Mr. Somervell, for the defense of the Lake District of England,
+and to press the appeal, so justly and temperately made in it, on the
+attention of their personal friends."--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See--the illustration being coincidently given as I
+correct this page for press--the description of the horrible service,
+and history of the fatal explosion of dynamite, on the once lovely
+estates of the Duke of Hamilton, in the _Hamilton Advertiser_ of 10th
+and 17th June.]
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDY OF BEAUTY AND ART IN LARGE TOWNS.[21]
+
+
+266. I have been asked by Mr. Horsfall to write a few words of
+introduction to the following papers. The trust is a frank one, for our
+friendship has been long and intimate enough to assure their author that
+my feelings and even practical convictions in many respects differ from
+his, and in some, relating especially to the subjects here treated of,
+are even opposed to his; so that my private letters (which, to speak
+truth, he never attends to a word of) are little more than a series of
+exhortations to him to sing--once for all--the beautiful Cavalier ditty
+of "Farewell, Manchester," and pour the dew of his artistic benevolence
+on less recusant ground. Nevertheless, as assuredly he knows much more
+of his own town than I do, and as his mind is evidently made up to do
+the best he can for it, the only thing left for me to do is to help him
+all I can in the hard task he has set himself, or, if I can't help, at
+least to bear witness to the goodness of the seed he has set himself to
+sow among thorns. For, indeed, the principles on which he is working are
+altogether true and sound; and the definitions and defense of them, in
+this pamphlet, are among the most important pieces of Art teaching which
+I have ever met with in recent English literature; in past
+Art-literature there cannot of course be anything parallel to them,
+since the difficulties to be met and mischiefs to be dealt with are
+wholly of to-day. And in all the practical suggestions and
+recommendations given in the following pages I not only concur, but am
+myself much aided as I read them in the giving form to my own plans for
+the museum at Sheffield; nor do I doubt that they will at once commend
+themselves to every intelligent and candid reader. But, to my own mind,
+the statements of principle on which these recommendations are based are
+far the more valuable part of the writings, for these are true and
+serviceable for all time, and in all places; while in simplicity and
+lucidity they are far beyond any usually to be found in essays on Art,
+and the political significance of the laws thus defined is really, I
+believe, here for the first time rightly grasped and illustrated.
+
+267. Of these, however, the one whose root is deepest and range widest
+will be denied by many readers, and doubted by others, so that it may be
+well to say a word or two farther in its interpretation and defense--the
+saying, namely, that "faith cannot dwell in hideous towns," and that
+"familiarity with beauty is a most powerful aid to belief." This is a
+curious saying, in front of the fact that the primary force of
+infidelity in the Renaissance times was its pursuit of carnal beauty,
+and that nowadays (at least, so far as my own experience reaches) more
+faith may be found in the back streets of most cities than in the fine
+ones. Nevertheless the saying is wholly true, first, because carnal
+beauty is not true beauty; secondly, because, rightly judged, the fine
+streets of most modern towns are more hideous than the back ones;
+lastly--and this is the point on which I must enlarge--because
+universally the first condition to the believing there is Order in
+Heaven is the Sight of Order upon Earth; Order, that is to say, not the
+result of physical law, but of some spiritual power prevailing over it,
+as, to take instances from my own old and favorite subject, the ordering
+of the clouds in a beautiful sunset, which corresponds to a painter's
+invention of them, or the ordering of the colors on a bird's wing, or of
+the radiations of a crystal of hoarfrost or of sapphire, concerning any
+of which matters men, so called of science, are necessarily and forever
+silent, because the distribution of colors in spectra and the relation
+of planes in crystals are final and causeless facts, _orders_, that is
+to say, not _laws_. And more than this, the infidel temper which is
+incapable of perceiving this spiritual beauty has an instant and
+constant tendency to delight in the reverse of it, so that practically
+its investigation is always, by preference, of forms of death or disease
+and every state of disorder and dissolution, the affectionate analysis
+of vice in modern novels being a part of the same science. And, to keep
+to my own special field of study--the order of clouds,--there is a
+grotesquely notable example of the connection between infidelity and the
+sense of ugliness in a paper in the last _Contemporary Review_, in which
+an able writer, who signs Vernon Lee, but whose personal view or purpose
+remains to the close of the essay inscrutable, has rendered with
+considerable acuteness and animation the course of a dialogue between
+one of the common modern men about town who are the parasites of their
+own cigars and two more or less weak and foolish friends of hesitatingly
+adverse instincts: the three of them, however, practically assuming
+their own wisdom to be the highest yet attained by the human race; and
+their own diversion on the mountainous heights of it being by the aspect
+of a so-called "preposterous" sunset, described in the following
+terms:--
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A brilliant light, which seemed to sink out of the landscape all its
+reds and yellows, and with them all life; bleaching the yellowing
+cornfields and brown heath; but burnishing into demoniac[22] energy of
+color the pastures and oak woods, brilliant against the dark sky, as if
+filled with green fire.
+
+Along the roadside the poppies, which an ordinary sunset makes flame,
+were quite extinguished, like burnt-out embers; the yellow hearts of the
+daisies were quite lost, merged into their shining white petals. And,
+striking against the windows of the old black and white checkered farm
+(a ghastly skeleton in this light), it made them not flare, nay, not
+redden in the faintest degree, but reflect a brilliant speck of white
+light. Everything was unsubstantial, yet not as in a mist, nay, rather
+substantial, but flat, as if cut out of paper and pasted on the black
+branches and green leaves, the livid, glaring houses, with roofs of
+dead, scarce perceptible rod (as when an iron turning white-hot from
+red-hot in the stithy grows also dull and dim).
+
+"It looks like the eve of the coming of Antichrist, as described in
+mediæval hymns," remarked Vere: "the sun, before setting nevermore to
+rise, sucking all life out of the earth, leaving it but a mound of livid
+cinders, barren and crumbling, through which the buried nations will
+easily break their way when they rise."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As I have above said, I do not discern the purpose of the writer of this
+paper; but it would be impossible to illustrate more clearly this
+chronic insanity of infidel thought which makes all nature spectral;
+while, with exactly correspondent and reflective power, whatever _is_
+dreadful or disordered in external things reproduces itself in disease
+of the human mind affected by them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+268. The correspondent relations of beauty to morality are illustrated
+in the following pages in a way which leaves little to be desired, and
+scarcely any room for dissent; but I have marked for my own future
+reference the following passages, of which I think it will further the
+usefulness of the book that the reader should initially observe the
+contents and connection.[23]
+
+1 (p. 15, line 6--10). Our idea of beauty in all things depends on what
+we believe they ought to be and do.
+
+2 (p. 17, line 8--17). Pleasure is most to be found in safe and pure
+ways, and the greatest happiness of life is to have a great many
+_little_ happinesses.
+
+3 (p. 24, line 10--30). The wonder and sorrow that in a country
+possessing an Established Church, no book exists which can be put into
+the hands of youth to show them the best things that can be done in
+life, and prevent their wasting it.
+
+4 (p. 28, line 21--36). There is every reason to believe that
+susceptibility to beauty can be gained through proper training in
+childhood by almost everyone.
+
+5 (p. 29, line 33--35). But if we are to attain to either a higher
+morality or a strong love of beauty, such attainment must be the result
+of a strenuous effort and a strong will.
+
+6 (p. 41, line 16--22). Rightness of form and aspect must first be shown
+to the people in things which interest them, and about the rightness of
+appearance in which it is possible for them to care a great deal.
+
+7 (p. 42, line 1--10). And, therefore, rightness of appearance of the
+bodies, and the houses, and the actions of the people of these large
+towns, is of more importance than rightness of appearance in what is
+usually called art, and pictures of noble action and passion and of
+beautiful scenery are of far greater value than art in things which
+cannot deeply affect human thought and feeling.
+
+The practical suggestions which, deduced from these principles, occupy
+the greater part of Mr. Horsfall's second paper, exhibit an untried
+group of resources in education; and it will be to myself the best
+encouragement in whatever it has been my hope to institute of Art School
+at Oxford if the central influence of the University may be found
+capable of extension by such means, in methods promoting the general
+happiness of the people of England.
+
+BRANTWOOD, _28th June, 1883._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 21: Introduction by Mr. Ruskin to a pamphlet entitled "The
+Study of Beauty and Art in Large Towns, two papers by T. C. Horsfall"
+(London, Macmillan & Co., 1883). The first of the two papers was
+originally read at the Congress at Nottingham of the Social Science
+Association, and the second at the Manchester Field Naturalists'
+Society.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 22: See "Art of England."]
+
+[Footnote 23: The passages referred to are as follows:--
+
+1. "Our idea of what beauty is in human being's, in pictures, in houses,
+in chairs, in animals, in cities, in everything, in short, which we know
+to have a use, in the main depends on what we believe that human beings,
+pictures, and the rest ought to be and do.
+
+2. "Every bank in every country lane, every bush, every tree, the sky by
+day and by night, every aspect of nature, is full of beautiful form or
+color, or of both, for those whose eyes and hearts and brains have been
+opened to perceive beauty. Richter has somewhere said that man's
+_greatest_ defect is that he has such a lot of _small_ ones. With equal
+truth it may be said that the greatest happiness man can have is to have
+a great many little happinesses, and therefore a strong love of beauty,
+which enables almost every square inch of unspoiled country to give us
+pleasant sensations, is one of the best possessions we can have.
+
+3. "It must be evident to everyone who watches life carefully that
+hardly anyone reaches the objects which all should live for who does not
+strive to reach them, and that at present not one person in a hundred so
+much as knows what are the objects which should be sought in life. It is
+astounding, therefore, that in a country which possesses an Established
+Church, richly endowed universities, and even several professors of
+education, no book exists which can be put into the hands of every
+intelligent youth, and of every intelligent father and mother, showing
+what our wisest and best men believe are the best things which can be
+done in life, and what is the kind of training which makes the doing of
+these things most easy. It is often said that each of us can profit only
+by his own experience, but no one believes that. No one can see how many
+well-meaning persons mistake means for ends and drift into error and
+sin, simply because neither they nor their parents have known what
+course should be steered, and what equipment is needed, in the voyage of
+life,--no one can see this and doubt that a 'guidebook to life,'
+containing the results of the comparison of the experiences of even
+half-a-dozen able and sincere men, would save countless people from
+wasting their lives as most lives are now wasted.
+
+4. "That which is true with regard to music is true with regard to
+beauty of form and color. Because a great many grown-up people, in spite
+of great efforts, find it impossible to sing correctly or even to
+perceive any pleasantness in music, it used to be commonly supposed that
+a great many people are born without the power of gaining love of, and
+skill in, music. Now it is known that it is a question of early
+training, that in every thousand children there are very few,--not, I
+believe, on an average, more than two or three,--who cannot gain the
+power of singing correctly and of enjoying music, if they are taught
+well in childhood while their nervous system can still easily form
+habits and has not yet formed the habit of being insensible to
+differences of sound.
+
+"There is every reason to believe that susceptibility to beauty of form
+and color can also be gained through proper training in childhood by
+almost everyone.
+
+5. "In such circumstances as ours there is no such thing as 'a _wise_
+passiveness.' If we are to attain to a high morality or to strong love
+of beauty, attainment must be the result of strenuous effort, of strong
+will.
+
+6. "The principle I refer to is, that, as art is the giving of right or
+beautiful form, or of beautiful or right appearance, if we desire to
+make people take keen interest in art, if we desire to make them love
+good art, we must show it them when applied to things which themselves
+are very interesting to them, and about the rightness of appearance of
+which it is therefore possible for them to care a great deal.
+
+7. "Success in bringing the influence of art to bear on the masses of
+the population in large towns, or on any set of people who have to earn
+their bread and have not time to acquire an unhealthy appetite for
+nonsense verses or nonsense pictures, will certainly only be attained by
+persons who know that art is important just in proportion to the
+importance of that which it clothes, and who themselves feel that
+rightness of appearance of the bodies, and the houses, and the actions,
+in short of the whole life, of the population of those large towns which
+are now, or threaten soon to be, 'England,' is of far greater importance
+than rightness of appearance in all that which is usually called 'art,'
+and who feel, to speak of only the fine arts, that rightness of
+appearance in pictures of noble action and passion, and of beautiful
+scenery, love of which is almost a necessary of mental health, is of far
+greater importance than art can be in things which cannot deeply affect
+human thought and feeling."--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.
+
+THE COLOR OF THE RHINE. 1834.
+
+THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC. 1834.
+
+THE INDURATION OF SANDSTONE. 1836.
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF SPRING AND RIVER WATER. 1836.
+
+METEOROLOGY. 1839.
+
+ *       *       *
+
+TREE TWIGS. 1861.
+
+STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY. 1863.
+
+INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION AND ANIMATED LIFE. 1871.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INQUIRIES ON THE CAUSES OF THE COLOR OF THE WATER OF THE RHINE.[24]
+
+
+269. I do not think the causes of the color of transparent water have
+been sufficiently ascertained. I do not mean that effect of color which
+is simply optical, as the color of the sea, which is regulated by the
+sky above or the state of the atmosphere, but I mean the settled color
+of transparent water, which has, when analyzed, been found pure. Now,
+copper will tinge water green, and that very strongly; but water thus
+impregnated will not be transparent, and will deposit the copper it
+holds in solution upon any piece of iron which may be thrown into it.
+There is a lake in a defile on the northwest flank of Snowdon, which is
+supplied by a stream which previously passes over several veins of
+copper; this lake is, of course, of a bright verdigris green, but it is
+not transparent. Now the coloring effect, of which I speak, is well seen
+in the water of the Rhone and Rhine. The former of these rivers, when it
+enters the Lake of Geneva, after having received the torrents descending
+from the mountains of the Valais, is fouled with mud, or white with the
+calcareous matter which it holds in solution. Having deposited this in
+the Lake Leman[25] (thereby gradually forming an immense delta), it
+issues from the lake perfectly pure, and flows through the streets of
+Geneva so transparent, that the bottom can be seen twenty feet below the
+surface, jet so blue, that you might imagine it to be a solution of
+indigo. In like manner, the Rhine, after purifying itself in the Lake of
+Constance, flows forth, colored of a clear green, and this under all
+circumstances and in all weathers. It is sometimes said that this arises
+from the torrents which supply these rivers generally flowing from the
+glaciers, the green and blue color of which may have given rise to this
+opinion; but the color of the ice is purely optical, as the fragments
+detached from the mass appear white. Perhaps some correspondent can
+afford me information on the subject.
+
+  J. R.[26]
+
+_March, 1834._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 24: From London's _Magazine of Natural History_ (London,
+Longmans & Co., 1834), vol. vii., No. 41, pp. 438-9, being its author's
+earliest contribution to literature.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 25: This lake, however, if the poet have spoken truly, is not
+very feculent:--
+
+  "Lake Leman woos me with its crystal face,
+  The mirror where the stars and mountains view
+  The stillness of their aspect in each trace
+  Its clear depth yields of their far height and hue."
+
+BYRON.]
+
+[Footnote 26: In the number of the magazine in which this note appeared
+was an article by "E. L." on the perforation of a leaden pipe by rats,
+upon which, in a subsequent number (Vol. vii., p. 592), J. R. notes as
+follows: "E. S. has been, surely, too inattentive to proportions: there
+is an inconsistency in the dimensions of a leaden pipe about 1-1/4 in. in
+external diameter, with a bore of about 3/4 in. in diameter; thus leaving
+a solid circumference of metal varying from 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. in
+thickness.--_J. R._, _Sept. 1834._"--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC, AND ON SOME
+INSTANCES OF TWISTED STRATA OBSERVABLE IN SWITZERLAND.[27]
+
+
+270. The granite ranges of Mont Blanc are as interesting to the
+geologist as they are to the painter. The granite is dark red, often
+inclosing veins of quartz, crystallized and compact, and likewise
+well-formed crystals of schorl. The average elevation of its range of
+peaks, which extends from Mont Blanc to the Tète Noire, is about 12,000
+English feet above the level of the sea. [The highest culminating point
+is 15,744 feet.] The Aiguille de Servoz, and that of Dru, are excellent
+examples of the pyramidal and spiratory formation which these granite
+ranges in general assume. They rise out of immense fields of snow, but,
+being themselves too steep for snow to rest upon, form red, bare, and
+inaccessible peaks, which even the chamois scarcely dares to climb.
+Their bases appear sometimes abutted (if I may so speak) by mica slate,
+which forms the southeast side of the Valley of Chamonix, whose flanks,
+if intersected, might appear as (in _fig._ 72), _a_, granite, forming on
+the one side (B) the Mont Blanc, on the other (C) the Mont Breven; _b_,
+mica slate resting on the base of Mont Blanc, and which contains
+amianthus and quartz, in which capillary crystals of titanium occur;
+_c_, calcareous rock; _d_, alluvium, forming the Valley of Chamonix. I
+should have mentioned that the granite appears to contain a small
+quantity of gold, as that metal is found among the granite débris and
+siliceous sand of the river Arve [_Bakewell_, i. 375]; and I have two
+or three specimens in which chlorite (both compact and in minute
+crystals) occupies the place of mica.
+
+  J. R.
+
+_March_, 1834.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+With this paper were printed some observations on it by the Rev. W. B.
+Clarke, after which (p. 648) appears the following note by J. R.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+271. "TWISTED STRATA.--The contortions of the limestone at the
+fall of the Nant d'Arpenaz, on the road from Geneva to Chamonix, are
+somewhat remarkable. The rock is a hard dark brown limestone, forming
+part of a range of secondary cliffs, which rise from 500 feet to 1000
+feet above the defile which they border. The base itself is about 800
+feet high. The strata bend very regularly except at _e_ and _f_,[28]
+where they appear to have been fractured.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_To what Properties in Nature is it owing that the Stones in Buildings,
+formed originally of the frailest Materials, gradually become indurated
+by Exposure to the Atmosphere and by Age, and stand the Wear and Tear of
+Time and Weather every bit as well, in some instances much better, than
+the hardest and most compact Limestones and Granite?_[29]
+
+272. In addition to the fact mentioned by Mr. Hunter[30] relative to the
+induration of soft sandstone, I would adduce an excellent example of the
+same effect in the cathedral of Basle, in Switzerland. The cathedral is
+wholly built of a soft coarse-grained sandstone, of so deep a red as to
+resemble long-burned brick. The numerous and delicate ornaments and fine
+tracery on the exterior are in a state of excellent preservation, and
+present none of the moldering appearance so common in old cathedrals
+that are built of stone which, when quarried, was much harder than this
+sandstone. The pavement in the interior is composed of the same
+material; and, as almost every slab is a tomb, it is charged with the
+arms, names, and often statues in low relief, of those who lie below,
+delicately sculptured in the soft material. Yet, though these sculptures
+have been worn for ages by the feet of multitudes, they are very little
+injured; they still stand out in bold and distinct relief: not an
+illegible letter, not an untraceable ornament is to be found; and it is
+said, and I believe with truth, that they have now grown so hard as not
+to be in the least degree farther worn by the continual tread of
+thousands; and that the longer the stone is exposed to the air, the
+harder it becomes. The cathedral was built in 1019.
+
+273. The causes of the different effects of air on stone must be
+numerous, and the investigation of them excessively difficult. With
+regard, first, to rocks _en masse_, if their structure be crystalline,
+or their composition argillaceous, the effect of the air will, I think,
+ordinarily, be found injurious. Thus, in granite, which has a kind of
+parallelogrammatic cleavage, water introduces itself into the fissures,
+and the result, in a sharp frost, will be a disintegration of the rocks
+_en masse_; and, if the felspar be predominant in the composition of the
+granite, it will be subject to a rapid decomposition. The morvine of
+some of the Chamouni and Allée Blanche glaciers is composed of a white
+granite, being chiefly composed of quartz and felspar, with a little
+chlorite. The sand and gravel at the edge of these glaciers appears far
+more the result of decomposition than attrition. All finely foliated
+rocks, slates, etc., are liable to injury from frost or wet weather. The
+road of the Simplon, on the Italian side, is in some parts dangerous in,
+or after, wet weather, on account of the rocks of slate continually
+falling from the overhanging mountains above; this, however, is mere
+disintegration, not decomposition. Not so with the breccias of Central
+Switzerland. The rock of Righi is composed of pebbles of different
+kinds, joined by a red argillaceous gluten. When this rock has not been
+exposed to the air, it is very hard: you may almost as easily break the
+pebbles as detach them from their matrix; but, when exposed for a few
+years to wind and weather, the matrix becomes soft, and the pebbles may
+be easily detached. I was struck with the difference between this rock
+and a breccia at Epinal, in France, where the matrix was a red
+sandstone, like that of the cathedral at Basle. Here, though the rock
+had every appearance of having been long exposed to the air, it was as
+hard as iron; and it was utterly impossible to detach any of the pebbles
+from the bed: it was difficult even to break the rock at all. I cannot
+positively state that the gluten in these sandstones is calcareous, but
+I suppose it to have been so. Compact calcareous rock, as far as I
+remember, appears to be subject to no injury from the weather. Many
+churches in Italy, and almost the whole cities of Venice and Genoa, are
+built of very fine marble; and the perfection of the delicate carvings,
+however aged, is most remarkable. I remember a church, near Pavia,
+coated with the finest and most expensive marbles; a range of
+beautifully sculptured medallions running round its base, though old,
+were as distinct and fine in their execution as if they had just come
+out of the sculptor's studio. If, therefore, the gluten of the sandstone
+be either calcareous or siliceous, it will naturally produce the effect
+above alluded to, though it is certainly singular that the stone should
+be soft when first quarried. Sandstone is a rock in which you seldom see
+many cracks or fissures in the strata: they are generally continuous and
+solid. Now, there may be a certain degree of density in the mass, which
+could not be increased without producing, as in granite, fissures
+running through it: the particles may be supposed to be held in a
+certain degree of tension, and there may be a tendency to what the
+French call _assaissement_ (I do not know the English term), which is,
+nevertheless, resisted by the stone _en masse_; and a quantity of water
+may likewise be held, not in a state of chemical combination, but in one
+of close mixture with the rock. On being broken or quarried, the
+_assaissement_ may take place, the particles of stone may draw closer
+together, the attraction become stronger; and, on the exposure to the
+air, the water, however intimately combined, will, in a process of
+years, be driven off, occasioning the consolidation of the calcareous,
+and the near approach of the siliceous, particles, and a consequent
+gradual induration of the whole body of the stone. I offer this
+supposition with all diffidence; there may be many other causes, which
+cannot be developed until proper experiments have been made. It would be
+interesting to ascertain the relative hardness of different specimens of
+sandstone, taken from different depths in a bed, the surface of which
+was exposed to the air, as of specimens exposed to the air for different
+lengths of time.
+
+  J. R.
+
+HERNE HILL, _July 25, 1836._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 27: London's _Magazine of Natural History_, Vol. vii., pp.
+644-5. The note was illustrated by engravings from two sketches by the
+author of the Aiguille de Servoz and of the Aiguille Dru, and by a
+diagram explanatory of its last sentence but one.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 28: "A small neat copy of a sketch carefully taken on the
+spot," which, according to the editor of the magazine, accompanied this
+communication, was not, however, published. See the magazine.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Loudon's _Magazine of Natural History_, Vol. ix., No. 65,
+pp. 488-90.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 30: The question here discussed was originally asked in the
+magazine (Vol. ix., pp. 379-80) by Mr. W. Perceval Hunter with reference
+to the condition of Bodiam Castle, in Sussex.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAUSES WHICH OCCASION THE VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE
+BETWEEN SPRING AND RIVER WATER.--BY J. R.[31]
+
+
+274. The difference in temperature between river and spring water, which
+gives rise to the query of your correspondent Indigena (p. 491),[32] may
+be the result of many causes, the principal of which is, however,
+without doubt, the interior heat of the earth. It is a well known fact,
+that this heat increases in a considerable ratio as we descend, making a
+difference of several degrees between the temperature of the earth at
+its surface and at depths of 500 or 600 feet; raising, of course, the
+temperature of all springs which have their source at even moderate
+depths, and entirely securing them from the effects of frost, which, it
+is well known, cannot penetrate the earth to a greater depth than 3 or 4
+ft.
+
+275. Many instances might be given of the strong effect of this interior
+heat. The glaciers of the Alps, for instance, frequently cover an extent
+of three or four square leagues, with a mass of ice 400, 500, or even
+600 feet deep, thus entirely preventing the access of exterior heat to
+the soil; yet the radiation of heat from the ground itself is so
+powerful as to dissolve the ice very rapidly, and to occasion streams of
+no inconsiderable size beneath the ice, whose temperature, in summer,
+is, I believe, as far as can be ascertained, not many degrees below that
+of streams exposed to the air; and the radiation of heat from the water
+of these streams forms vaults under the ice, which are frequently 40 ft.
+or 50 ft. above the water; and which are formed, as a glance will show,
+not by the force of the stream, which would only tear itself a broken
+cave sufficient for its passage, but by the heat which radiates from it,
+and gives the arch its immense height, and beautifully regular form.
+
+These streams continue to flow in winter as well as in summer, although
+in less quantity; and it is this process which chiefly prevents the
+glacier from increasing in size; for the melting at the surface is, in
+comparison, very inconsiderable, even in summer, the wind being cold,
+the sun having little power, and slight frosts being frequent during the
+night. It is also this melting beneath the ice (subglacial, suppose we
+call it) which loosens the ice from the ground, and occasions, or rather
+permits, the perpetual downward movement, with which
+
+  "The glacier's cold and restless mass
+  Moves onward day by day."
+
+276. But more forcible and striking evidence is afforded by experiments
+made in mines of great depth. Between 60 ft. and 80 ft. down, the
+temperature of the earth is, I believe, the same at all times and in all
+places; and below this depth it gradually increases. Near Bex, in the
+Valais, there is a perpendicular shaft 677 ft. deep, or about 732 ft.
+English, with water at the bottom, the temperature of which was
+ascertained by Saussure. He does not tell us whether he used Réaumur's
+or the centesimal thermometer; but the result of his experiment was
+this:--In a lateral gallery, connected with the main shaft, but
+deserted, and, therefore, unaffected by breath or the heat of lamps, at
+321 ft. 10 in. below the surface, the temperature of the water and the
+air was exactly the same, 11-1/2°; or, if the centesimal thermometer was
+used, 52-4/5 Fahr.; if Réaumur's, 57-7/8 Fahr.
+
+277. In another gallery, 564 feet below the surface, the water and air
+had likewise the same temperature, 12-1/2°, either 54-4/5 or 6O-1/4
+Fahr. The water at the bottom, 677 feet, was 14°, 57-1/2 or 63-1/4 Fahr.
+The ratio in which the heat increases, therefore, increased as we
+descend, since a difference of 113 feet between the depth of the bottom
+of the shaft and the lowest gallery makes a greater difference in
+temperature than the difference of 243 feet between the lowest and upper
+gallery. This heat is the more striking when it is considered that the
+water is impregnated with salt; indeed, Saussure appears inclined to
+consider it accidental, perhaps occasioned by the combustion of pyrites,
+or other causes in the interior of the mountain ("Voyages dans les
+Alpes," tom. iv., c. 50). All experiments of this kind, indeed, are
+liable to error, from the frequent occurrence of warm springs, and other
+accidental causes of increase in temperature. The water at the bottom of
+deep lakes is always found several degrees colder than the atmosphere,
+even when the water at the surface is warmer: but that may be accounted
+for by the difference in the specific gravity of water at different
+temperatures; and, as the heat of the sun and atmosphere in summer is
+greater than the mean heat of the earth at moderate depths, the water at
+the bottom, even if it becomes of the same heat with the earth, must be
+colder than that at the surface, which, from its exposure to the sun,
+becomes frequently warmer than the air. The same causes affect the
+temperature of the sea; and the greater saturation of the water below
+with salt renders it yet more susceptible of cold. Under-currents from
+the poles, and the sinking of the water of low temperature, which
+results from the melting of the icebergs which float into warmer
+latitudes, contribute still farther to lower the temperature of the deep
+sea. If, then, the temperature of the sea at great depths is found not
+many degrees lower than that at the surface, it would be a striking
+proof of the effect produced by the heat of the earth; but I am not
+aware of the results of the experiments which have been made on this
+subject.
+
+278. We must, then, rest satisfied with the well-ascertained fact, that
+the temperature of the earth, even at depths of a few feet, never
+descends, in temperate latitudes, to the freezing point; and that at the
+depth of 60 feet it is always the same, in winter much higher, in summer
+considerably lower, than that of the atmosphere. Spring water, then,
+which has its source at a considerable depth, will, when it first rises,
+be of this mean temperature; while, after it has flowed for some
+distance, it becomes of the temperature of the atmosphere, or, in
+summer, even warmer, owing to the action of the sun, both directly and
+reflected or radiated from its bottom. Besides this equable temperature
+in the water itself, spring or well water is usually covered; and, even
+if exposed, if the well is very deep, the water will not freeze, or at
+least very slightly; for frost does not act with its full power, except
+where there is a free circulation of air. In open ponds, wherever bushes
+hang over the water, the ice is weak. Indigena's supposition, that there
+are earthy particles in river water, which render it more susceptible of
+cold than spring water, cannot be true; for then the relative
+temperatures would be the same in winter and in summer, which is not the
+case; and, besides, there are frequently more earthy particles in
+mineral springs, or even common land springs, than in clear river water,
+provided it has not been fouled by extraneous matter; for it has a
+tendency to deposit the earthy particles which it holds in suspension.
+
+279. It is evident, also, that the supposition of Mr. Carr (Vol. v., p.
+395) relative to anchor frosts, that the stones at the bottom acquire a
+greater degree of cold, or, to speak more correctly, lose more heat,
+than the water, is erroneous. J. G. has given the reasons at p. 770; and
+the glaciers of Switzerland afford us an example. When a stone is
+deposited on a glacier of any considerable size, but not larger than 1
+foot or 18 inches in diameter, it becomes penetrated with the heat of
+the sun, melts the ice below it, and sinks into the glacier. But this
+effect does not cease, as might be supposed, when the stone sinks
+beneath the water which it has formed; on the contrary, it continues to
+absorb heat from the rays of the sun, to keep the water above it liquid
+by its radiation, and to sink deeper into the body of the glacier, until
+it gets down beyond the reach of the sun's rays, when the water of the
+well which it has formed is no longer kept liquid, and the stone is
+buried in the ice. In summer, however, the water is kept liquid; and
+circular wells, formed in this manner, are of frequent occurrence on the
+glaciers, sometimes, in the morning, covered by a thin crust of ice.
+
+Thus, the stones at the bottom of streams must tend to raise, rather
+than lower, this temperature. Is it possible that, in the agitation of a
+stream at its bottom, if violent, momentary and minute vacua may be
+formed, tending to increase the intensity of the cold?
+
+HERNE HILL, _Sept. 2, 1836._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 31: London's _Magazine of Natural History_, vol. ix., pp.
+533-536.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 32: The query was as follows:--
+
+_An Inquiry for the Cause of the Difference in Temperature of River
+Water and Spring Water, both in Summer and Winter._--In the summer time
+the river water is much warmer than that from a spring; during the
+severe frosts of winter it is colder; and when the stream is covered
+over with ice, the spring, that is, well or pump water is unaffected by
+frost. Does this difference proceed from the exposure of the surface of
+the river water, in summer, to the sun's direct influence, and, in
+winter, to that of frost; while the well water, being covered, is
+protected from their power? Or is there in river water, from the earthy
+particles it contains, a greater susceptibility of heat and
+cold?--_Indigena_. _April 19, 1836._--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+METEOROLOGY.[33]
+
+
+280. The comparison and estimation of the relative advantages of
+separate departments of science is a task which is always partially
+executed, because it is never entered upon with an unbiased mind; for,
+since it is only the accurate knowledge of a science which can enable us
+to present its beauty, or estimate its utility, the branches of
+knowledge with which we are most familiar will always appear the most
+important. The endeavor, therefore, to judge of the relative _beauty_ or
+_interest_ of the sciences is utterly hopeless. Let the astronomer boast
+of the magnificence of his speculations, the mathematician of the
+immutability of his facts, the chemist of the infinity of his
+combinations, and we will admit that they all have equal ground for
+their enthusiasm. But the highest standard of estimation is that of
+utility. The far greater proportion of mankind, the uninformed, who are
+unable to perceive the beauty of the sciences whose benefits they
+experience, are the true, the just, the only judges of their relative
+importance. It is they who feel what impartial men of learning know,
+that the mass of general knowledge is a perfect and beautiful body,
+among whose members there should be no schism, and whose prosperity must
+always be greatest when none are partially pursued, and none unduly
+rejected. We do not, therefore, advance any proud and unjustifiable
+claims to the superiority of that branch of science for the furtherance
+of which this society has been formed over all others; but we zealously
+come forward to deprecate the apathy with which it has long been
+regarded, to dissipate the prejudices which that apathy alone could have
+engendered, and to vindicate its claims to an honorable and equal
+position among the proud thrones of its sister sciences. We do not bring
+meteorology forward as a pursuit adapted for the occupation of tedious
+leisure, or the amusement of a careless hour. Such qualifications are no
+inducements to its pursuit by men of science and learning, and to these
+alone do we now address ourselves. Neither do we advance it on the
+ground of its interest or beauty, though it is a science possessing both
+in no ordinary degree. As to its beauty, it may be remarked that it is
+not calculated to harden the mind it strengthens, and bind it down to
+the measurement of magnitudes and estimation of quantities, destroying
+all higher feelings, all finer sensibilities: it is not to be learned
+among the gaseous exhalations of the deathful laboratory; it has no
+dwelling in the cold caves of the dark earth; it is not to be followed
+up among the charnel houses of creation. But it is a science of the pure
+air, and of the bright heaven; its thoughts are amidst the loveliness of
+creation; it leads the mind, as well as the eye, to the morning mist,
+and the noonday glory, and the twilight-cloud, to the purple peace of
+the mountain heaven, to the cloudy repose of the green valley; now
+expatiating in the silence of stormless ether, now on the rushing of the
+wings of the wind. It is indeed a knowledge which must be felt to be, in
+its very essence, full of the soul of the beautiful. For its interest,
+it is universal, unabated in every place, and in all time. He, whose
+kingdom is the heaven, can never meet with an uninteresting space, can
+never exhaust the phenomena of an hour; he is in a realm of perpetual
+change, of eternal motion, of infinite mystery. Light and darkness, and
+cold and heat, are to him as friends of familiar countenance, but of
+infinite variety of conversation; and while the geologist yearns for the
+mountain, the botanist for the field, and the mathematician for the
+study, the meteorologist, like a spirit of a higher order than any,
+rejoices in the kingdoms of the air.
+
+281. But, as we before said, it is neither for its interest, nor for its
+beauty, that we recommend the study of meteorology. It involves
+questions of the highest practical importance, and the solution of which
+will be productive of most substantial benefit to those classes who can
+least comprehend the speculations from which these advantages are
+derived. Times and seasons and climates, calms and tempests, clouds and
+winds, whose alternations appear to the inexperienced mind the confused
+consequences of irregular, indefinite, and accidental causes, arrange
+themselves before the meteorologist in beautiful succession of
+undisturbed order, in direct derivation from definite causes; it is for
+him to trace the path of the tempest round the globe, to point out the
+place whence it arose, to foretell the time of its decline, to follow
+the hours around the earth, as she "spins beneath her pyramid of night,"
+to feel the pulses of ocean, to pursue the course of its currents and
+its changes, to measure the power, direction, and duration of mysterious
+and invisible influences, and to assign constant and regular periods to
+the seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and
+night, which we know shall not cease, till the universe be no more. It
+may be thought we are exaggerating the effects of a science which is yet
+in its infancy. But it must be remembered that we are not speaking of
+its attained, but of its attainable power: it is the young Hercules for
+the fostering of whose strength the Meteorological Society has been
+formed.
+
+282. There is one point, it must now be observed, in which the science
+of meteorology differs from all others. A Galileo, or a Newton, by the
+unassisted workings of his solitary mind, may discover the secrets of
+the heavens, and form a new system of astronomy. A Davy in his lonely
+meditations on the crags of Cornwall, or in his solitary laboratory,
+might discover the most sublime mysteries of nature, and trace out the
+most intricate combinations of her elements. But the meteorologist is
+impotent if alone; his observations are useless; for they are made upon
+a point, while the speculations to be derived from them must be on
+space. It is of no avail that he changes his position, ignorant of what
+is passing behind him and before; he desires to estimate the movements
+of space, and can only observe the dancing of atoms; he would calculate
+the currents of the atmosphere of the world, while he only knows the
+direction of a breeze. It is perhaps for this reason that the cause of
+meteorology has hitherto been so slightly supported; no progress can be
+made by the most gigantic efforts of a solitary intellect, and the
+co-operation demanded was difficult to obtain, because it was necessary
+that the individuals should think, observe, and act simultaneously,
+though separated from each other by distances on the greatness of which
+depended the utility of the observations.
+
+283. The Meteorological Society, therefore, has been formed, not for a
+city, nor for a kingdom, but for the world. It wishes to be the central
+point, the moving power of a vast machine, and it feels that unless it
+can be this, it must be powerless; if it cannot do all, it can do
+nothing. It desires to have at its command, at stated periods, perfect
+systems of methodical and simultaneous observations,--it wishes its
+influence and its power to be omnipotent over the globe, so that it may
+be able to know, at any given instant, the state of the atmosphere at
+every point on its surface. Let it not be supposed that this is a
+chimerical imagination, the vain dream of a few philosophical
+enthusiasts. It is co-operation which we now come forward to request, in
+full confidence, that if our efforts are met with a zeal worthy of the
+cause, our associates will be astonished, _individually_, by the result
+of their labors in a body. Let none be discouraged because they are
+alone, or far distant from their associates. What was formerly weakness
+will now have become strength. Let the pastor of the Alps observe the
+variations of his mountain winds; let the voyagers send us notes of the
+changes on the surface of the sea; let the solitary dweller in the
+American prairie observe the passages of the storms, and the variations
+of the climate; and each, who alone would have been powerless, will find
+himself a part of one mighty mind, a ray of light entering into one vast
+eye, a member of a multitudinous power, contributing to the knowledge,
+and aiding the efforts, which will be capable of solving the most deeply
+hidden problems of nature, penetrating into the most occult causes, and
+reducing to principle and order the vast multitude of beautiful and
+wonderful phenomena by which the wisdom and benevolence of the Supreme
+Deity regulates the course of the times and the seasons, robes the globe
+with verdure and fruitfulness, and adapts it to minister to the wants,
+and contribute to the felicity, of the innumerable tribes of animated
+existence.
+
+  OXFORD UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 33: From the "Transactions of the Meteorological Society,"
+Vol. i., pp. 56-9 (London, 1839). The full title of the paper was
+"Remarks on the Present State of Meteorological Science." The Society
+was instituted in 1823, but appears to have published no previous
+transactions.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ON TREE TWIGS.[34]
+
+
+284. The speaker's purpose was to exhibit the development of the common
+forms of branch, in dicotyledonous trees, from the fixed type of the
+annual shoot. Three principal modes of increase and growth might be
+distinguished in all accumulative change, namely:--
+
+1. Simple aggregation, having no periodical or otherwise defined limit,
+and subject only to laws of cohesion and crystallization, as in
+inorganic matter.
+
+2. Addition of similar parts to each other, under some law fixing their
+limits and securing their unity.
+
+3. Enlargement, or systematic change in arrangement, of a typical form,
+as in the growth of the members of an animal.
+
+285. The growth of trees came under the second of these heads. A tree
+did not increase in stem or boughs as the wrist and hand of a child
+increased to the wrist and hand of a man; but it was built up by
+additions of similar parts, as a city is increased by the building of
+new rows of houses.
+
+Any annual shoot was most conveniently to be considered as a single rod,
+which would always grow vertically if possible.
+
+Every such rod or pillar was, in common timber trees, typically either
+polygonal in section, or rectangular.
+
+If polygonal, the leaves were arranged on it in a spiral order, as in
+the elm or oak.
+
+If rectangular, the leaves were arranged on it in pairs, set alternately
+at right angles to each other.
+
+Intermediate forms connected each of these types with those of
+monocotyledonous trees. The structure of the _arbor vitæ_ might be
+considered as typically representing the link between the rectangular
+structure and that of monocotyledons; and that of the pine between the
+polygonal structure and that of monocotyledons.
+
+Every leaf during its vitality secreting carbon from the atmosphere,
+with the elements of water, formed a certain quantity of woody tissue,
+which extended down the outside of the tree to the ground, and farther
+to the extremities of the roots. The mode in which this descending
+masonry was added appeared to depend on the peculiar functions of
+cambium, and (the speaker believed) was as yet unexplained by botanists.
+
+286. Every leaf, besides forming this masonry all down the tree,
+protected a bud at the base of its own stalk. From this bud, unless
+rendered abortive, a new shoot would spring next year. Now, supposing
+that out of the leaf-buds on each shoot of a pentagonal tree, only five
+at its extremity or on its side were permitted to develop themselves,
+even under this limitation the number of shoots developed from a single
+one in the seventh year would be 78,125. The external form of a
+healthily grown tree at any period of its development was therefore
+composed of a mass of sprays, whose vitality was approximately
+distributed over the _surface_ of the tree to an equal depth. The
+branches beneath at once supported, and were fed by, this orbicular
+field, or animated external garment of vegetation, from every several
+leaf of which, as from an innumerable multitude of small green
+fountains, the streams of woody fiber descended, met, and united as
+rivers do, and gathered their full flood into the strength of the stem.
+
+287. The principal errors which had been committed by artists in drawing
+trees had arisen from their regarding the bough as ramifying
+irregularly, and somewhat losing in energy towards the extremity;
+whereas the real boughs threw their whole energy, and multiplied their
+substance, towards the extremities, ranking themselves in more or less
+cup-shaped tiers round the trunk, and forming a compact united surface
+at the exterior of the tree.
+
+288. In the course of arrival at this form, the bough, throughout its
+whole length, showed itself to be influenced by a force like that of an
+animal's instinct. Its minor curves and angles were all subjected to one
+strong ruling tendency and law of advance, dependent partly on the aim
+of every shoot to raise itself upright, partly on the necessity which
+each was under to yield due place to the neighboring leaves, and obtain
+for itself as much light and air as possible. It had indeed been
+ascertained that vegetable tissue was liable to contractions and
+expansion (under fixed mechanical conditions) by light, heat, moisture,
+etc. But vegetable tissue in the living branch did not contract nor
+expand under external influence alone. The principle of life manifested
+itself either by contention with, or felicitous recognition of, external
+force. It accepted with a visible, active, and apparently joyful
+concurrence, the influences which led the bough towards its due place in
+the economy of the tree; and it obeyed reluctantly, partially, and with
+distorted curvatures, those which forced it to violate the typical
+organic form. The attention of painters of foliage had seldom been drawn
+with sufficient accuracy to the lines either of branch curvature, or
+leaf contour, as expressing these subtle laws of incipient volition; but
+the relative merit of the great schools of figure design might, in
+absence of all other evidence, be determined, almost without error, by
+observing the precision of their treatment of leaf curvature. The
+leaf-painting round the head of Ariosto by Titian, in the National
+Gallery, might be instanced.
+
+289. The leaf thus differed from the flower in forming and protecting
+behind it, not only the bud in which was the form of a new shoot like
+itself, but a piece of permanent work, and produced substance, by which
+every following shoot could be placed under different circumstances from
+its predecessor. Every leaf labored to solidify this substance during
+its own life; but the seed left by the flower matured only as the flower
+perished.
+
+This difference in the action and endurance of the flower and leaf had
+been applied by nearly all great nations as a type of the variously
+active and productive states of life among individuals or commonwealths.
+Chaucer's poem of the "Flower and Leaf" is the most definite expression
+of the mediæval feeling in this respect, while the fables of the rape of
+Proserpine and of Apollo and Daphne embody that of the Greeks. There is
+no Greek goddess corresponding to the Flora of the Romans. Their Flora
+is Persephone, "the bringer of death." She plays for a little while in
+the Sicilian fields, gathering flowers, then snatched away by Pluto,
+receives her chief power as she vanishes from our sight, and is crowned
+in the grave. Daphne, on the other hand, is the daughter of one of the
+great Arcadian river gods, and of the earth; she is the type of the
+river mist filling the rocky vales of Arcadia; the sun, pursuing this
+mist from dell to dell, is Apollo pursuing Daphne; where the mist is
+protected from his rays by the rock shadows, the laurel and other
+richest vegetation spring by the river-sides, so that the laurel-leaf
+becomes the type, in the Greek mind, of the beneficent ministry and
+vitality of the rivers and the earth, under the beams of sunshine; and
+therefore it is chosen to form the signet-crown of highest honor for
+gods or men, honor for work born of the strength and dew of the earth
+and informed by the central light of heaven; work living, perennial, and
+beneficent.
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 34: Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see _Proceedings_, vol. iii., pp. 358-60), April 19,
+1861.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ON THE FORMS OF THE STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY.[35]
+
+
+290. The purpose of the discourse was to trace some of the influences
+which have produced the present external forms of the stratified
+mountains of Savoy, and the probable extent and results of the future
+operation of such influences.
+
+The subject was arranged under three heads:--
+
+  I. The Materials of the Savoy Alps.
+  II. The Mode of their Formation.
+  III. The Mode of their subsequent Sculpture.
+
+291. I. _Their Materials._--The investigation was limited to those Alps
+which consist, in whole or in part, either of Jura limestone, of
+Neocomian beds, or of the Hippurite limestone, and include no important
+masses of other formations. All these rocks are marine deposits; and the
+first question to be considered with respect to the development of
+mountains out of them is the kind of change they must undergo in being
+dried. Whether prolonged through vast periods of time, or hastened by
+heat and pressure, the drying and solidification of such rocks involved
+their contraction, and usually, in consequence, their being traversed
+throughout by minute fissures. Under certain conditions of pressure,
+these fissures take the aspect of slaty cleavage; under others, they
+become irregular cracks, dividing all the substance of the stone. If
+these are not filled, the rock would become a mere heap of débris, and
+be incapable of establishing itself in any bold form. This is provided
+against by a metamorphic action, which either arranges the particles of
+the rock, throughout, in new and more crystalline conditions, or else
+causes some of them to separate from the rest, to traverse the body of
+the rock, and arrange themselves in its fissures; thus forming a cement,
+usually of finer and purer substance than the rest of the stone. In
+either case the action tends continually to the purification and
+segregation of the elements of the stone. The energy of such action
+depends on accidental circumstances: first, on the attractions of the
+component elements among themselves; secondly, on every change of
+external temperature and relation. So that mountains are at different
+periods in different stages of health (so to call it) or disease. We
+have mountains of a languid temperament, mountains with checked
+circulations, mountains in nervous fevers, mountains in atrophy and
+decline.
+
+292. This change in the structure of existing rocks is traceable through
+continuous gradations, so that a black mud or calcareous slime is
+imperceptibly modified into a magnificently hard and crystalline
+substance, inclosing nests of beryl, topaz, and sapphire, and veined
+with gold. But it cannot be determined how far, or in what localities,
+these changes are yet arrested; in the plurality of instances they are
+evidently yet in progress. It appears rational to suppose that as each
+rock approaches to its perfect type the change becomes slower; its
+perfection being continually neared, but never reached; its change being
+liable also to interruption or reversal by new geological phenomena. In
+the process of this change, rocks expand or contract; and, in portions,
+their multitudinous fissures give them a ductility or viscosity like
+that of glacier-ice on a larger scale. So that many formations are best
+to be conceived as glaciers, or frozen fields of crag, whose depth is to
+be measured in miles instead of fathoms, whose crevasses are filled with
+solvent flame, with vapor, with gelatinous flint, or with crystallizing
+elements of mingled natures; the whole mass changing its dimensions and
+flowing into new channels, though by gradations which cannot be
+measured, and in periods of time of which human life forms no
+appreciable unit.
+
+293. II. _Formation._--Mountains are to be arranged, with respect to
+their structure, under two great classes--those which are cut out of the
+beds of which they are composed, and those which are formed by the
+convolution or contortion of the beds themselves. The Savoy mountains
+are chiefly of this latter class. When stratified formations are
+contorted, it is usually either by pressure from below, which raises one
+part of the formation above the rest, or by lateral pressure, which
+reduces the whole formation into a series of waves. The ascending
+pressure may be limited in its sphere of operation; the lateral one
+necessarily affects extensive tracts of country, and the eminences it
+produces vanish only by degrees, like the waves left in the wake of a
+ship. The Savoy mountains have undergone both these kinds of violence in
+very complex modes and at different periods, so that it becomes almost
+impossible to trace separately and completely the operation of any given
+force at a given point.
+
+294. The speaker's intention was to have analyzed, as far as possible,
+the action of the forming forces in one wave of simple elevation, the
+Mont Salève, and in another of lateral compression, the Mont Brezon: but
+the investigation of the Mont Salève had presented unexpected
+difficulty. Its façade had been always considered to be formed by
+vertical beds, raised into that position during the tertiary periods;
+the speaker's investigations had, on the contrary, led him to conclude
+that the appearance of vertical beds was owing to a peculiarly sharp and
+distinct cleavage, at right angles with the beds, but nearly parallel to
+their strike, elsewhere similarly manifested in the Jurassic series of
+Savoy, and showing itself on the fronts of most of the precipices formed
+of that rock. The attention of geologists was invited to the
+determination of this question.
+
+The compressed wave of the Brezon, more complex in arrangement, was more
+clearly defined. A section of it was given, showing the reversed
+position of the Hippurite limestone in the summit and lower precipices.
+This limestone wave was shown to be one of a great series, running
+parallel with the Alps, and constituting an undulatory district,
+chiefly composed of chalk beds, separated from the higher limestone
+district of the Jura and Lias by a long trench or moat, filled with
+members of the tertiary series--chiefly nummulite limestones and flysch.
+This trench might be followed from Faverges, at the head of the lake of
+Annecy, across Savoy. It separated Mont Vergi from the Mont Dorons, and
+the Dent d'Oche from the Dent du Midi; then entered Switzerland,
+separating the Moleson from the Diablerets; passed on through the
+districts of Thun and Brientz, and, dividing itself into two, caused the
+zigzagged form of the lake of Lucerne. The principal branch then passed
+between the high Sentis and the Glarnisch, and broke into confusion in
+the Tyrol. On the north side of this trench the chalk beds were often
+vertical, or cast into repeated folds, of which the escarpments were
+mostly turned away from the Alps; but on the south side of the trench,
+the Jurassic, Triassic, and Carboniferous beds, though much distorted,
+showed a prevailing tendency to lean towards the Alps, and turn their
+escarpments to the central chain.
+
+295. Both these systems of mountains are intersected by transverse
+valleys, owing their origin, in the first instance, to a series of
+transverse curvilinear fractures, which affect the forms even of every
+minor ridge, and produce its principal ravines and boldest rocks, even
+where no distinctly excavated valleys exist. Thus, the Mont Vergi and
+the Aiguilles of Salouvre are only fragmentary remains of a range of
+horizontal beds, once continuous, but broken by this transverse system
+of curvilinear cleavage, and worn or weathered into separate summits.
+
+The means of this ultimate sculpture or weathering were lastly to be
+considered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+296. III. _Sculpture._--The final reductions of mountainform are owing
+either to disintegration, or to the action of water, in the condition of
+rain, rivers, or ice, aided by frost and other circumstances of
+temperature and atmosphere.
+
+All important existing forms are owing to disintegration, or the action
+of water. That of ice had been curiously over-rated. As an instrument of
+sculpture, ice is much less powerful than water; the apparently
+energetic effects of it being merely the exponents of disintegration. A
+glacier did not produce its moraine, but sustained and exposed the
+fragments which fell on its surface, pulverizing these by keeping them
+in motion, but producing very unimportant effects on the rock below; the
+roundings and striation produced by ice were superficial; while a
+torrent penetrated into every angle and cranny, undermining and wearing
+continually, and carrying stones, at the lowest estimate, six hundred
+thousand times as fast as the glacier. Had the quantity of rain which
+has fallen on Mont Blanc in the form of snow (and descended in the
+ravines as ice) fallen as rain, and descended in torrents, the ravines
+would have been much deeper than they are now, and the glacier may so
+far be considered as exercising a protective influence. But its power of
+carriage is unlimited, and when masses of earth or rock are once
+loosened, the glacier carries them away, and exposes fresh surfaces.
+Generally, the work of water and ice is in mountain surgery like that of
+lancet and sponge--one for incision, the other for ablution. No
+excavation by ice was possible on a large scale, any more than by a
+stream of honey; and its various actions, with their limitations, were
+only to be understood by keeping always clearly in view the great law of
+its motion as a viscous substance, determined by Professor James Forbes.
+
+297. The existing forms of the Alps are, therefore, traceable chiefly to
+denudation as they rose from the sea, followed by more or less violent
+aqueous action, partly arrested during the glacial periods, while the
+produced diluvium was carried away into the valley of the Rhine or into
+the North Sea. One very important result of denudation had not yet been
+sufficiently regarded; namely, that when portions of a thick bed (as the
+Rudisten-kalk) had been entirely removed, the weight of the remaining
+masses, pressing unequally on the inferior beds, would, when these were
+soft (as the Neocomian marls), press them up into arched conditions,
+like those of the floors of coal-mines in what the miners called
+"creeps." Many anomalous positions of the beds of Spatangenkalk in the
+district of the Lake of Annecy were in all probability owing to this
+cause: they might be studied advantageously in the sloping base of the
+great Rochers de Lanfon, which, disintegrating in curved, nearly
+vertical flakes, each a thousand feet in height, were nevertheless a
+mere outlying remnant of the great horizontal formation of the Parmelan,
+and formed, like it, of very thin horizontal beds of Rudisten-kalk,
+imposed on shaly masses of Neocomian, modified by their pressure. More
+complex forms of harder rock were wrought by the streams and rains into
+fantastic outlines; and the transverse gorges were cut deep where they
+had been first traced by fault or distortion. The analysis of this
+aqueous action would alone require a series of discourses; but the sum
+of the facts was that the best and most interesting portions of the
+mountains were just those which were finally left, the centers and
+joints, as it were, of the Alpine anatomy. Immeasurable periods of time
+would be required to wear these away; and to all appearances, during the
+process of their destruction, others were rising to take their place,
+and forms of perhaps far more nobly organized mountain would witness the
+collateral progress of humanity.
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 35: Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see _Proceedings_, vol. iv., pp. 142-46), June 5,
+1863.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+THE RANGE OF INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION PROPORTIONED TO THE RANK IN
+ANIMATED LIFE.[36]
+
+A THEOREM.
+
+
+298. I suppose this theorem to be a truism; but I venture to state it,
+because it is surely desirable that it should be recognized as an axiom
+by metaphysicians, and practically does not seem to me yet to have been
+so. I say "animated life" because the word "life" by itself might have
+been taken to include that of vegetables; and I say "animated" instead
+of "spiritual" life because the Latin "anima," and pretty Italian
+corruption of it, "alma," involving the new idea of nourishment of the
+body as by the Aliment or Alms of God, seems to me to convey a better
+idea of the existence of conscious creatures than any derivative of
+"spiritus," "pneuma," or "psyche."
+
+I attach, however, a somewhat lower sense to the word "conception" than
+is, I believe, usual with metaphysicians, for, as a painter, I belong to
+a lower rank of animated being than theirs, and can only mean by
+conception what I know of it. A painter never conceives anything
+absolutely, and is indeed incapable of conceiving anything at all,
+except as a phenomenon or sensation, or as the mode or locus of a
+phenomenon or sensation. That which is not an appearance, or a feeling,
+or a mode of one or the other, is to him nothing.
+
+299. For instance, he would deny the definition of the phenomenon which
+he is himself first concerned in producing--a line--as "length without
+breadth." He would say, "That which has no breadth is nothing, and
+nothing cannot be long." He would define a line as a narrow and long
+phenomenon, and a mathematician's idea of it as an idea of the
+direction of such a phenomenon.
+
+The act of conception or imagination with him, therefore, is merely the
+memory, simple or combined, of things that he has seen or felt. He has
+no ray, no incipience of faculty beyond this. No quantity of the
+sternest training in the school of Hegel, would ever enable him to think
+the Absolute. He would persist in an obstinate refusal to use the word
+"think" at all in a transitive sense. He would never, for instance, say,
+"I think the table," but "I think the table is turning," or is not, as
+the case might be. And if he were to be taught in any school whatever to
+conceive a table, his first demand would be that he should be shown one,
+or referred to other things that had the qualities of one in
+illustrative degree.
+
+300. And even respecting the constant methods or laws of phenomena, he
+cannot raise the statement of them into an act of conception. The
+statement that two right lines can never inclose a space merely appears
+to him another form of verbal definition, or, at the grandest, a
+definition in prophetic extent, saying in other words that a line which
+incloses, or ever may inclose, a space, is not, and never will be, a
+right one. He would admit that what he now conceives as two things,
+doubled, would always be what he now conceives as four things. But
+assuming the existence of a world in which, whenever two things were
+actually set in juxtaposition with other two things, they became
+actually three times, or actually five, he supposes that the practice of
+arithmetic, and laws of it, would change in relation to this new
+condition in matter; and he accepts, therefore, the statement that twice
+two are four only as an accident of the existing phenomena of matter.
+
+301. A painter therefore may, I think, be looked upon as only
+representing a high order of sensational creatures, incapable of any but
+physical ideas and impressions; and I continue my paper, therefore, only
+in the name of the docile, and therefore improvable, part of the Brute
+Creation.
+
+And in their name I would suggest that we should be much more docile
+than we are if we were never occupied in efforts to conceive things
+above our natures. To take an instance, in a creature somewhat lower
+than myself. I came by surprise the other day on a cuttle-fish in a pool
+at low tide. On being touched with the point of my umbrella, he first
+filled the pool with ink, and then finding himself still touched in the
+darkness, lost his temper, and attacked the umbrella with much psyche or
+anima, hugging it tightly with all his eight arms, and making efforts,
+like an impetuous baby with a coral, to get it into his mouth. On my
+offering him a finger instead, he sucked that with two or three of his
+arms with an apparently malignant satisfaction, and on being shaken off,
+retired with an air of frantic misanthropy into the cloud of his ink.
+
+302. Now, it seems to me not a little instructive to reflect how
+entirely useless such a manifestation of a superior being was to his
+cuttle-fish mind, and how fortunate it was for his fellow-octopods that
+he had no command of pens as well as ink, nor any disposition to write
+on the nature of umbrellas or of men.
+
+It may be observed, further, that whatever ideas he was able to form
+respecting either were positively false--so contrary to truth as to be
+worse than none, and simply dangerous to himself, so far as he might be
+induced to act upon them--that, namely, an umbrella was an eatable
+thing, or a man a conquerable one, that the individual man who looked at
+him was hostile to him or that his purposes could be interfered with by
+ejection of ink. Every effort made by the fish under these convictions
+was harmful to himself; his only wisdom would have been to lie quietly
+and unreflectively in his pool.
+
+And with us painters also, the only result of any efforts we make to
+acquaint ourselves with the subjects of metaphysical inquiry has been an
+increased sense of the prudence of lying placidly and unreflectively in
+our pools, or at least limiting ourselves to such gentle efforts of
+imagination as may be consistent with the as yet imperfectly developed
+powers, I do not say even of cephalopodic, but of Ascidian nervous
+centers.
+
+303. But it may be easily imagined how pleasantly, to persons thus
+subdued in self-estimation, the hope presents itself which is involved
+in the Darwinian theory, that their pools themselves may be capable of
+indefinite extension, and their natures of indefinite development--the
+hope that our descendants may one day be ashamed of us, and debate the
+question of their parentage with astonishment and disgust.
+
+And it seems to me that the aim of elementary metaphysical study might
+henceforth become more practical than that of any other science. For in
+hitherto taking little cognizance of the limitation of thought by the
+structure of the body, we have surely also lost sight of the power of
+certain modes of thought over the processes of that structure. Taking,
+for instance, the emotion of anger, of which the cephalopoda are indeed
+as capable as we are, but inferior to us in being unable to decide
+whether they do well to be angry or not, I do not think the chemical
+effect of that emotion on the particles of the blood, in decomposing and
+otherwise paralyzing or debilitating them, has been sufficiently
+examined, nor the actual quantity of nervous energy which a fit of anger
+of given violence withdraws from the body and restores to space, neither
+the correlative power of volition in restraining the passion, or in
+directing the choice of salutary thought, as of salutary herbs on
+streams. And even we painters, who dare not call ourselves capable of
+thought, are capable of choice in more or less salutary vision. In the
+degree in which we lose such power of choice in vision, so that the
+spectral phenomena which are the materials of our industry present
+themselves under forms beyond our control, we become insane; and
+although for all our best work a certain degree of this insanity is
+necessary, and the first occurring conceptions are uncommanded, as in
+dreams, we have, when in health, always instantaneous power of accepting
+some, refusing others, perfecting the outlines and colors of those we
+wish to keep, and arranging them in such relations as we choose.
+
+304. And unquestionably the forms of the body which painters
+instinctively recognize as best, and call "beautiful," are so far under
+the command of the plastic force of voluntary thought, that the
+original and future authority of such a plastic force over the whole of
+creation cannot but seem to painters a direct, though not a certain
+influence; and they would at once give their adherence to the statement
+made many years since in his opening lectures in Oxford by the present
+Regius Professor of Medicine (as far as I can recollect approximately,
+in these terms)--that "it is quite as logical, and far more easy, to
+conceive of original anima as adapting itself to forms of substance,
+than of original substance as adapting to itself modes of mind."
+
+305. It is surely, therefore, not too much to expect of future schools
+of metaphysicians that they will direct mankind into methods of thought
+which will be at once happy, unerring, and medicinal, and therefore
+entirely wise; that they will mark the limits beyond which uniformity
+must be dangerous, and speculation vain; and that they will at no
+distant period terminate the acrimony of theologians, and the
+insolences, as well as the sorrows, of groundless faith, by showing that
+it is appointed for us, in common with the rest of the animal creation,
+to live in the midst of an universe the nature of which is as much
+better than we can believe, as it is greater than we can understand.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 36: Contemporary Review, June, 1871.--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+FICTION--FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+(_Nineteenth Century, June, August, Sept., Nov. 1880, and Oct. 1881._)
+
+
+FAIRY STORIES.
+
+(_Preface to "German Popular Stories," 1868._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+
+1.[37]
+
+1. On the first mild--or, at least, the first bright--day of March, in
+this year, I walked through what was once a country lane, between the
+hostelry of the Half-moon at the bottom of Herne Hill, and the secluded
+College of Dulwich.
+
+In my young days, Croxsted Lane was a green byroad traversable for some
+distance by carts; but rarely so traversed, and, for the most part,
+little else than a narrow strip of untilled field, separated by
+blackberry hedges from the better-cared-for meadows on each side of it:
+growing more weeds, therefore, than they, and perhaps in spring a
+primrose or two--white archangel--daisies plenty, and purple thistles in
+autumn. A slender rivulet, boasting little of its brightness, for there
+are no springs at Dulwich, yet fed purely enough by the rain and morning
+dew, here trickled--there loitered--through the long grass beneath the
+hedges, and expanded itself, where it might, into moderately clear and
+deep pools, in which, under their veils of duckweed, a fresh-water shell
+or two, sundry curious little skipping shrimps, any quantity of tadpoles
+in their time, and even sometimes a tittlebat, offered themselves to my
+boyhood's pleased, and not inaccurate, observation. There, my mother and
+I used to gather the first buds of the hawthorn; and there, in after
+years, I used to walk in the summer shadows, as in a place wilder and
+sweeter than our garden, to think over any passage I wanted to make
+better than usual in _Modern Painters_.
+
+So, as aforesaid, on the first kindly day of this year, being thoughtful
+more than usual of those old times, I went to look again at the place.
+
+2. Often, both in those days, and since, I have put myself hard to it,
+vainly, to find words wherewith to tell of beautiful things; but beauty
+has been in the world since the world was made, and human language can
+make a shift, somehow, to give account of it, whereas the peculiar
+forces of devastation induced by modern city life have only entered the
+world lately; and no existing terms of language known to me are enough
+to describe the forms of filth, and modes of ruin, that varied
+themselves along the course of Croxsted Lane. The fields on each side of
+it are now mostly dug up for building, or cut through into gaunt corners
+and nooks of blind ground by the wild crossings and concurrencies of
+three railroads. Half a dozen handfuls of new cottages, with Doric
+doors, are dropped about here and there among the gashed ground: the
+lane itself, now entirely grassless, is a deep-rutted, heavy-hillocked
+cart-road, diverging gatelessly into various brickfields or pieces of
+waste; and bordered on each side by heaps of--Hades only knows
+what!--mixed dust of every unclean thing that can crumble in drought,
+and mildew of every unclean thing that can rot or rust in damp: ashes
+and rags, beer-bottles and old shoes, battered pans, smashed crockery,
+shreds of nameless clothes, door-sweepings, floor-sweepings, kitchen
+garbage, back-garden sewage, old iron, rotten timber jagged with
+out-torn nails, cigar-ends, pipe-bowls, cinders, bones, and ordure,
+indescribable; and, variously kneaded into, sticking to, or fluttering
+foully here and there over all these,--remnants broadcast, of every
+manner of newspaper, advertisement or big-lettered bill, festering and
+flaunting out their last publicity in the pits of stinking dust and
+mortal slime.
+
+3. The lane ends now where its prettiest windings once began; being cut
+off by a cross-road leading out of Dulwich to a minor railway station:
+and on the other side of this road, what was of old the daintiest
+intricacy of its solitude is changed into a straight, and evenly
+macadamized carriage drive between new houses of extreme respectability,
+with good attached gardens and offices--most of these tenements being
+larger--all more pretentious, and many, I imagine, held at greatly
+higher rent than my father's, tenanted for twenty years at Herne Hill.
+And it became matter of curious meditation to me what must here become
+of children resembling my poor little dreamy quondam self in temper, and
+thus brought up at the same distance from London, and in the same or
+better circumstances of worldly fortune; but with only Croxsted Lane in
+its present condition for their country walk. The trimly kept road
+before their doors, such as one used to see in the fashionable suburbs
+of Cheltenham or Leamington, presents nothing to their study but gravel,
+and gas-lamp posts; the modern addition of a vermilion letter-pillar
+contributing indeed to the splendor, but scarcely to the interest of the
+scene; and a child of any sense or fancy would hastily contrive escape
+from such a barren desert of politeness, and betake itself to
+investigation, such as might be feasible, of the natural history of
+Croxsted Lane.
+
+4. But, for its sense or fancy, what food, or stimulus, can it find, in
+that foul causeway of its youthful pilgrimage? What would have happened
+to myself, so directed, I cannot clearly imagine. Possibly, I might have
+got interested in the old iron and wood-shavings; and become an engineer
+or a carpenter: but for the children of to-day, accustomed, from the
+instant they are out of their cradles, to the sight of this infinite
+nastiness, prevailing as a fixed condition of the universe, over the
+face of nature, and accompanying all the operations of industrious man,
+what is to be the scholastic issue? unless, indeed, the thrill of
+scientific vanity in the primary analysis of some unheard-of process of
+corruption--or the reward of microscopic research in the sight of worms
+with more legs, and acari of more curious generation than ever vivified
+the more simply smelling plasma of antiquity.
+
+One result of such elementary education is, however, already certain;
+namely, that the pleasure which we may conceive taken by the children of
+the coming time, in the analysis of physical corruption, guides, into
+fields more dangerous and desolate, the expatiation of an imaginative
+literature: and that the reactions of moral disease upon itself, and
+the conditions of languidly monstrous character developed in an
+atmosphere of low vitality, have become the most valued material of
+modern fiction, and the most eagerly discussed texts of modern
+philosophy.
+
+5. The many concurrent reasons for this mischief may, I believe, be
+massed under a few general heads.[38]
+
+I. There is first the hot fermentation and unwholesome secrecy of the
+population crowded into large cities, each mote in the misery lighter,
+as an individual soul, than a dead leaf, but becoming oppressive and
+infectious each to his neighbor, in the smoking mass of decay. The
+resulting modes of mental ruin and distress are continually new; and in
+a certain sense, worth study in their monstrosity: they have accordingly
+developed a corresponding science of fiction, concerned mainly with the
+description of such forms of disease, like the botany of leaf-lichens.
+
+In De Balzac's story of _Father Goriot_, a grocer makes a large fortune,
+of which he spends on himself as much as may keep him alive; and on his
+two daughters, all that can promote their pleasures or their pride. He
+marries them to men of rank, supplies their secret expenses, and
+provides for his favorite a separate and clandestine establishment with
+her lover. On his death-bed, he sends for this favorite daughter, who
+wishes to come, and hesitates for a quarter of an hour between doing so,
+and going to a ball at which it has been for the last month her chief
+ambition to be seen. She finally goes to the ball.
+
+The story is, of course, one of which the violent contrasts and spectral
+catastrophe could only take place, or be conceived, in a large city. A
+village grocer cannot make a large fortune, cannot marry his daughters
+to titled squires, and cannot die without having his children brought to
+him, if in the neighborhood, by fear of village gossip, if for no better
+cause.
+
+6. II. But a much more profound feeling than this mere curiosity of
+science in morbid phenomena is concerned in the production of the
+carefulest forms of modern fiction. The disgrace and grief resulting
+from the mere trampling pressure and electric friction of town life,
+become to the sufferers peculiarly mysterious in their undeservedness,
+and frightful in their inevitableness. The power of all surroundings
+over them for evil; the incapacity of their own minds to refuse the
+pollution, and of their own wills to oppose the weight, of the
+staggering mass that chokes and crushes them into perdition, brings
+every law of healthy existence into question with them, and every
+alleged method of help and hope into doubt. Indignation, without any
+calming faith in justice, and self-contempt, without any curative
+self-reproach, dull the intelligence, and degrade the conscience, into
+sullen incredulity of all sunshine outside the dunghill, or breeze
+beyond the wafting of its impurity; and at last a philosophy develops
+itself, partly satiric, partly consolatory, concerned only with the
+regenerative vigor of manure, and the necessary obscurities of fimetic
+Providence; showing how everybody's fault is somebody else's, how
+infection has no law, digestion no will, and profitable dirt no
+dishonor.
+
+And thus an elaborate and ingenious scholasticism, in what may be called
+the Divinity of Decomposition, has established itself in connection with
+the more recent forms of romance, giving them at once a complacent tone
+of clerical dignity, and an agreeable dash of heretical impudence; while
+the inculcated doctrine has the double advantage of needing no laborious
+scholarship for its foundation, and no painful self-denial for its
+practice.
+
+7. III. The monotony of life in the central streets of any great modern
+city, but especially in those of London, where every emotion intended to
+be derived by men from the sight of nature, or the sense of art, is
+forbidden forever, leaves the craving of the heart for a sincere, yet
+changeful, interest, to be fed from one source only. Under natural
+conditions the degree of mental excitement necessary to bodily health is
+provided by the course of the seasons, and the various skill and
+fortune of agriculture. In the country every morning of the year brings
+with it a new aspect of springing or fading nature; a new duty to be
+fulfilled upon earth, and a new promise or warning in heaven. No day is
+without its innocent hope, its special prudence, its kindly gift, and
+its sublime danger; and in every process of wise husbandry, and every
+effort of contending or remedial courage, the wholesome passions, pride,
+and bodily power of the laborer are excited and exerted in happiest
+unison. The companionship of domestic, the care of serviceable, animals,
+soften and enlarge his life with lowly charities, and discipline him in
+familiar wisdoms and unboastful fortitudes; while the divine laws of
+seedtime which cannot be recalled, harvest which cannot be hastened, and
+winter in which no man can work, compel the impatiences and coveting of
+his heart into labor too submissive to be anxious, and rest too sweet to
+be wanton. What thought can enough comprehend the contrast between such
+life, and that in streets where summer and winter are only alternations
+of heat and cold; where snow never fell white, nor sunshine clear; where
+the ground is only a pavement, and the sky no more than the glass roof
+of an arcade; where the utmost power of a storm is to choke the gutters,
+and the finest magic of spring, to change mud into dust: where--chief
+and most fatal difference in state--there is no interest of occupation
+for any of the inhabitants but the routine of counter or desk within
+doors, and the effort to pass each other without collision outside; so
+that from morning to evening the only possible variation of the monotony
+of the hours, and lightening of the penalty of existence, must be some
+kind of mischief, limited, unless by more than ordinary godsend of
+fatality, to the fall of a horse, or the slitting of a pocket?
+
+8. I said that under these laws of inanition, the craving of the human
+heart for some kind of excitement could be supplied from _one_ source
+only. It might have been thought by any other than a sternly tentative
+philosopher, that the denial of their natural food to human feelings
+would have provoked a reactionary desire for it; and that the
+dreariness of the street would have been gilded by dreams of pastoral
+felicity. Experience has shown the fact to be otherwise; the thoroughly
+trained Londoner can enjoy no other excitement than that to which he has
+been accustomed, but asks for _that_ in continually more ardent or more
+virulent concentration; and the ultimate power of fiction to entertain
+him is by varying to his fancy the modes, and defining for his dullness
+the horrors, of Death. In the single novel of "Bleak House" there are
+nine deaths (or left for death's, in the drop scene) carefully wrought
+out or led up to, either by way of pleasing surprise, as the baby's at
+the brick-maker's, or finished in their threatenings and sufferings,
+with as much enjoyment as can be contrived in the anticipation, and as
+much pathology as can be concentrated in the description. Under the
+following varieties of method:--
+
+  One by assassination               Mr. Tulkinghorn.
+  One by starvation, with phthisis   Joe.
+  One by chagrin                     Richard.
+  One by spontaneous combustion      Mr. Krook.
+  One by sorrow                      Lady Dedlock's lover.
+  One by remorse                     Lady Dedlock.
+  One by insanity                    Miss Flite.
+  One by paralysis                   Sir Leicester.
+
+Besides the baby, by fever, and a lively young Frenchwoman left to be
+hanged.
+
+And all this, observe, not in a tragic, adventurous, or military story,
+but merely as the further enlivenment of a narrative intended to be
+amusing; and as a properly representative average of the statistics of
+civilian mortality in the center of London.
+
+9. Observe further, and chiefly. It is not the mere number of deaths
+(which, if we count the odd troopers in the last scene, is exceeded in
+"Old Mortality," and reached, within one or two, both in "Waverley" and
+"Guy Mannering") that marks the peculiar tone of the modern novel. It is
+the fact that all these deaths, but one, are of inoffensive, or at least
+in the world's estimate, respectable persons; and that they are all
+grotesquely either violent or miserable, purporting thus to illustrate
+the modern theology that the appointed destiny of a large average of our
+population is to die like rats in a drain, either by trap or poison.
+Not, indeed, that a lawyer in full practice can be usually supposed as
+faultless in the eye of Heaven as a dove or a woodcock; but it is not,
+in former divinities, thought the will of Providence that he should be
+dropped by a shot from a client behind his fire-screen, and retrieved in
+the morning by his housemaid under the chandelier. Neither is Lady
+Dedlock less reprehensible in her conduct than many women of fashion
+have been and will be: but it would not therefore have been thought
+poetically just, in old-fashioned morality, that she should be found by
+her daughter lying dead, with her face in the mud of a St. Giles's
+churchyard.
+
+10. In the work of the great masters death is always either heroic,
+deserved, or quiet and natural (unless their purpose be totally and
+deeply tragic, when collateral meaner death is permitted, like that of
+Polonius or Roderigo). In "Old Mortality," four of the deaths,
+Bothwell's, Ensign Grahame's, Macbriar's, and Evandale's, are
+magnificently heroic; Burley's and Oliphant's long deserved, and swift;
+the troopers', met in the discharge of their military duty, and the old
+miser's as gentle as the passing of a cloud, and almost beautiful in its
+last words of--now unselfish--care.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Ailie" (he aye ca'd me Ailie, we were auld acquaintance), "Ailie, take
+ye care and hand the gear weel thegither; for the name of Morton of
+Milnwood's gane out like the last sough of an auld sang." And sae he
+fell out o' ae dwam into another, and ne'er spak a word mair, unless it
+something we you'dna mak out, about a dipped candle being gude eneugh
+to see to dee wi'. He cou'd ne'er bide to see a molded ane, and there
+was ane, by ill luck, on the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In "Guy Mannering," the murder, though unpremeditated, of a single
+person, (himself not entirely innocent, but at least by heartlessness in
+a cruel function earning his fate,) is avenged to the uttermost on all
+the men conscious of the crime; Mr. Bertram's death, like that of his
+wife, brief in pain, and each told in the space of half a dozen lines;
+and that of the heroine of the tale, self-devoted, heroic in the
+highest, and happy.
+
+Nor is it ever to be forgotten, in the comparison of Scott's with
+inferior work, that his own splendid powers were, even in early life,
+tainted, and in his latter years destroyed, by modern conditions of
+commercial excitement, then first, but rapidly, developing themselves.
+There are parts even in his best novels colored to meet tastes which he
+despised; and many pages written in his later ones to lengthen his
+article for the indiscriminate market.
+
+11. But there was one weakness of which his healthy mind remained
+incapable to the last. In modern stories prepared for more refined or
+fastidious audiences than those of Dickens, the funereal excitement is
+obtained, for the most part, not by the infliction of violent or
+disgusting death; but in the suspense, the pathos, and the more or less
+by all felt, and recognized, mortal phenomena of the sick-room. The
+temptation, to weak writers, of this order of subject is especially
+great, because the study of it from the living--or dying--model is so
+easy, and to many has been the most impressive part of their own
+personal experience; while, if the description be given even with
+mediocre accuracy, a very large section of readers will admire its
+truth, and cherish its melancholy. Few authors of second or third rate
+genius can either record or invent a probable conversation in ordinary
+life; but few, on the other hand, are so destitute of observant faculty
+as to be unable to chronicle the broken syllables and languid movements
+of an invalid. The easily rendered, and too surely recognized, image of
+familiar suffering is felt at once to be real where all else had been
+false; and the historian of the gestures of fever and words of delirium
+can count on the applause of a gratified audience as surely as the
+dramatist who introduces on the stage of his flagging action a carriage
+that can be driven or a fountain that will flow. But the masters of
+strong imagination disdain such work, and those of deep sensibility
+shrink from it.[39] Only under conditions of personal weakness,
+presently to be noted, would Scott comply with the cravings of his lower
+audience in scenes of terror like the death of Front-de-Boeuf. But he
+never once withdrew the sacred curtain of the sick-chamber, nor
+permitted the disgrace of wanton tears round the humiliation of
+strength, or the wreck of beauty.
+
+12. IV. No exception to this law of reverence will be found in the
+scenes in Coeur de Lion's illness introductory to the principal
+incident in the "Talisman." An inferior writer would have made the king
+charge in imagination at the head of his chivalry, or wander in dreams
+by the brooks of Aquitaine; but Scott allows us to learn no more
+startling symptoms of the king's malady than that he was restless and
+impatient, and could not wear his armor. Nor is any bodily weakness, or
+crisis of danger, permitted to disturb for an instant the royalty of
+intelligence and heart in which he examines, trusts and obeys the
+physician whom his attendants fear.
+
+Yet the choice of the main subject in this story and its companion--the
+trial, to a point of utter torture, of knightly faith, and several
+passages in the conduct of both, more especially the exaggerated scenes
+in the House of Baldringham, and hermitage of Engedi, are signs of the
+gradual decline in force of intellect and soul which those who love
+Scott best have done him the worst injustice in their endeavors to
+disguise or deny. The mean anxieties, moral humiliations, and
+mercilessly demanded brain-toil, which killed him, show their sepulchral
+grasp for many and many a year before their final victory; and the
+states of more or less dulled, distorted, and polluted imagination which
+culminate in "Castle Dangerous" cast a Stygian hue over "St. Ronan's
+Well," "The Fair Maid of Perth," and "Anne of Geierstein," which lowers
+them, the first altogether, the other two at frequent intervals, into
+fellowship with the normal disease which festers throughout the whole
+body of our lower fictitious literature.
+
+13. Fictitious! I use the ambiguous word deliberately; for it is
+impossible to distinguish in these tales of the prison-house how far
+their vice and gloom are thrown into their manufacture only to meet a
+vile demand, and how far they are an integral condition of thought in
+the minds of men trained from their youth up in the knowledge of
+Londinian and Parisian misery. The speciality of the plague is a delight
+in the exposition of the relations between guilt and decrepitude; and I
+call the results of it literature "of the prison-house," because the
+thwarted habits of body and mind, which are the punishment of reckless
+crowding in cities, become, in the issue of that punishment, frightful
+subjects of exclusive interest to themselves; and the art of fiction in
+which they finally delight is only the more studied arrangement and
+illustration, by colored fire-lights, of the daily bulletins of their
+own wretchedness, in the prison calendar, the police news, and the
+hospital report.
+
+14. The reader will perhaps be surprised at my separating the greatest
+work of Dickens, "Oliver Twist," with honor, from the loathsome mass to
+which it typically belongs. That book is an earnest and uncaricatured
+record of states of criminal life, written with didactic purpose, full
+of the gravest instruction, nor destitute of pathetic studies of noble
+passion. Even the "Mysteries of Paris" and Gaboriau's "Crime d'Orcival"
+are raised, by their definiteness of historical intention and
+forewarning anxiety, far above the level of their order, and may be
+accepted as photographic evidence of an otherwise incredible
+civilization, corrupted in the infernal fact of it, down to the genesis
+of such figures as the Vicomte d'Orcival, the Stabber,[40] the Skeleton,
+and the She-wolf. But the effectual head of the whole cretinous school
+is the renowned novel in which the hunchbacked lover watches the
+execution of his mistress from the tower of Notre-Dame; and its strength
+passes gradually away into the anatomical preparations, for the general
+market, of novels like "Poor Miss Finch," in which the heroine is blind,
+the hero epileptic, and the obnoxious brother is found dead with his
+hands dropped off, in the Arctic regions.[41]
+
+15. This literature of the Prison-house, understanding by the word not
+only the cell of Newgate, but also and even more definitely the cell of
+the Hôtel-Dieu, the Hôpital des Fous, and the grated corridor with the
+dripping slabs of the Morgue, having its central root thus in the Ile de
+Paris--or historically and pre-eminently the "Cité de Paris"--is, when
+understood deeply, the precise counter-corruption of the religion of the
+Sainte Chapelle, just as the worst forms of bodily and mental ruin are
+the corruption of love. I have therefore called it "Fiction mécroyante,"
+with literal accuracy and precision: according to the explanation of the
+word, which the reader may find in any good French dictionary,[42] and
+round its Arctic pole in the Morgue, he may gather into one Caina of
+gelid putrescence the entire product of modern infidel imagination,
+amusing itself with destruction of the body, and busying itself with
+aberration of the mind.
+
+16. Aberration, palsy, or plague, observe, as distinguished from normal
+evil, just as the venom of rabies or cholera differs from that of a wasp
+or a viper. The life of the insect and serpent deserves, or at least
+permits, our thoughts; not so the stages of agony in the fury-driven
+hound. There is some excuse, indeed, for the pathologic labor of the
+modern novelist in the fact that he cannot easily, in a city population,
+find a healthy mind to vivisect: but the greater part of such amateur
+surgery is the struggle, in an epoch of wild literary competition, to
+obtain novelty of material. The varieties of aspect and color in healthy
+fruit, be it sweet or sour, may be within certain limits described
+exhaustively. Not so the blotches of its conceivable blight: and while
+the symmetries of integral human character can only be traced by
+harmonious and tender skill, like the branches of a living tree, the
+faults and gaps of one gnawed away by corroding accident can be shuffled
+into senseless change like the wards of a Chubb lock.
+
+17. V. It is needless to insist on the vast field for this dice-cast or
+card-dealt calamity which opens itself in the ignorance, money-interest,
+and mean passion, of city marriage. Peasants know each other as
+children--meet, as they grow up in testing labor; and if a stout
+farmer's son marries a handless girl, it is his own fault. Also in the
+patrician families of the field, the young people know what they are
+doing, and marry a neighboring estate, or a covetable title, with some
+conception of the responsibilities they undertake. But even among these,
+their season in the confused metropolis creates licentious and
+fortuitous temptation before unknown; and in the lower middle orders, an
+entirely new kingdom of discomfort and disgrace has been preached to
+them in the doctrines of unbridled pleasure which are merely an apology
+for their peculiar forms of ill-breeding. It is quite curious how often
+the catastrophe, or the leading interest, of a modern novel, turns upon
+the want, both in maid and bachelor, of the common self-command which
+was taught to their grandmothers and grandfathers as the first element
+of ordinarily decent behavior. Rashly inquiring the other day the plot
+of a modern story[43] from a female friend, I elicited, after some
+hesitation, that it hinged mainly on the young people's "forgetting
+themselves in a boat;" and I perceive it to be accepted as nearly an
+axiom in the code of modern civic chivalry that the strength of amiable
+sentiment is proved by our incapacity on proper occasions to express,
+and on improper ones to control it. The pride of a gentleman of the old
+school used to be in his power of saying what he meant, and being silent
+when he ought (not to speak of the higher nobleness which bestowed love
+where it was honorable, and reverence where it was due); but the
+automatic amours and involuntary proposals of recent romance acknowledge
+little further law of morality than the instinct of an insect, or the
+effervescence of a chemical mixture.
+
+18. There is a pretty little story of Alfred de Musset's--"La Mouche,"
+which, if the reader cares to glance at it, will save me further trouble
+in explaining the disciplinarian authority of mere old-fashioned
+politeness, as in some sort protective of higher things. It describes,
+with much grace and precision, a state of society by no means
+pre-eminently virtuous, or enthusiastically heroic; in which many people
+do extremely wrong, and none sublimely right. But as there are heights
+of which the achievement is unattempted, there are abysses to which fall
+is barred; neither accident nor temptation will make any of the
+principal personages swerve from an adopted resolution, or violate an
+accepted principle of honor; people are expected as a matter of course
+to speak with propriety on occasion, and to wait with patience when they
+are bid: those who do wrong, admit it; those who do right don't boast of
+it; everybody knows his own mind, and everybody has good manners.
+
+19. Nor must it be forgotten that in the worst days of the
+self-indulgence which destroyed the aristocracies of Europe, their
+vices, however licentious, were never, in the fatal modern sense,
+"unprincipled." The vainest believed in virtue; the vilest respected it.
+"Chaque chose avait son nom,"[44] and the severest of English moralists
+recognizes the accurate wit, the lofty intellect, and the unfretted
+benevolence, which redeemed from vitiated surroundings the circle of
+d'Alembert and Marmontel.[45]
+
+I have said, with too slight praise, that the vainest, in those days,
+"believed" in virtue. Beautiful and heroic examples of it were always
+before them; nor was it without the secret significance attaching to
+what may seem the least accidents in the work of a master, that Scott
+gave to both his heroines of the age of revolution in England the name
+of the queen of the highest order of English chivalry.[46]
+
+20. It is to say little for the types of youth and maid which alone
+Scott felt it a joy to imagine, or thought it honorable to portray, that
+they act and feel in a sphere where they are never for an instant
+liable to any of the weaknesses which disturb the calm, or shake the
+resolution, of chastity and courage in a modern novel. Scott lived in a
+country and time, when, from highest to lowest, but chiefly in that
+dignified and nobly severe[47] middle class to which he himself
+belonged, a habit of serene and stainless thought was as natural to the
+people as their mountain air. Women like Rose Bradwardine and Ailie
+Dinmont were the grace and guard of almost every household (God be
+praised that the race of them is not yet extinct, for all that Mall or
+Boulevard can do), and it has perhaps escaped the notice of even
+attentive readers that the comparatively uninteresting character of Sir
+Walter's heroes had always been studied among a class of youths who were
+simply incapable of doing anything seriously wrong; and could only be
+embarrassed by the consequences of their levity or imprudence.
+
+21. But there is another difference in the woof of a Waverley novel from
+the cobweb of a modern one, which depends on Scott's larger view of
+human life. Marriage is by no means, in his conception of man and woman,
+the most important business of their existence;[48] nor love the only
+reward to be proposed to their virtue or exertion. It is not in his
+reading of the laws of Providence a necessity that virtue should, either
+by love or any other external blessing, be rewarded at all;[49] and
+marriage is in all cases thought of as a constituent of the happiness of
+life, but not as its only interest, still less its only aim. And upon
+analyzing with some care the motives of his principal stories, we shall
+often find that the love in them is merely a light by which the sterner
+features of character are to be irradiated, and that the marriage of the
+hero is as subordinate to the main bent of the story as Henry the
+Fifth's courtship of Katherine is to the battle of Agincourt. Nay, the
+fortunes of the person who is nominally the subject of the tale are
+often little more than a background on which grander figures are to be
+drawn, and deeper fates forthshadowed. The judgments between the faith
+and chivalry of Scotland at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge owe little of
+their interest in the mind of a sensible reader to the fact that the
+captain of the Popinjay is carried a prisoner to one battle, and returns
+a prisoner from the other: and Scott himself, while he watches the white
+sail that bears Queen Mary for the last time from her native land, very
+nearly forgets to finish his novel, or to tell us--and with small sense
+of any consolation to be had out of that minor circumstance,--that
+"Roland and Catherine were united, spite of their differing faiths."
+
+22. Neither let it be thought for an instant that the slight, and
+sometimes scornful, glance with which Scott passes over scenes which a
+novelist of our own day would have analyzed with the airs of a
+philosopher, and painted with the curiosity of a gossip, indicates any
+absence in his heart of sympathy with the great and sacred elements of
+personal happiness. An era like ours, which has with diligence and
+ostentation swept its heart clear of all the passions once known as
+loyalty, patriotism, and piety, necessarily magnifies the apparent force
+of the one remaining sentiment which sighs through the barren chambers,
+or clings inextricably round the chasms of ruin; nor can it but regard
+with awe the unconquerable spirit which still tempts or betrays the
+sagacities of selfishness into error or frenzy which is believed to be
+love.
+
+That Scott was never himself, in the sense of the phrase as employed by
+lovers of the Parisian school, "ivre d'amour," may be admitted without
+prejudice to his sensibility,[50] and that he never knew "l'amor che
+move 'l sol e l'altre stelle," was the chief, though unrecognized,
+calamity of his deeply checkered life. But the reader of honor and
+feeling will not therefore suppose that the love which Miss Vernon
+sacrifices, stooping for an instant from her horse, is of less noble
+stamp, or less enduring faith, than that which troubles and degrades the
+whole existence of Consuelo; or that the affection of Jeanie Deans for
+the companion of her childhood, drawn like a field of soft blue heaven
+beyond the cloudy wrack of her sorrow, is less fully in possession of
+her soul than the hesitating and self-reproachful impulses under which a
+modern heroine forgets herself in a boat, or compromises herself in the
+cool of the evening.
+
+23. I do not wish to return over the waste ground we have traversed,
+comparing, point by point, Scott's manner with those of Bermondsey and
+the Faubourgs; but it may be, perhaps, interesting at this moment to
+examine, with illustration from those Waverley novels which have so
+lately _re_tracted the attention of a fair and gentle public,[51] the
+universal conditions of "style," rightly so called, which are in all
+ages, and above all local currents or wavering tides of temporary
+manners, pillars of what is forever strong, and models of what is
+forever fair.
+
+But I must first define, and that within strict horizon, the works of
+Scott, in which his perfect mind may be known, and his chosen ways
+understood.
+
+His great works of prose fiction, excepting only the first half-volume
+of "Waverley," were all written in twelve years, 1814-26 (of his own age
+forty-three to fifty-five), the actual time employed in their
+composition being not more than a couple of months out of each year; and
+during that time only the morning hours and spare minutes during the
+professional day. "Though the first volume of 'Waverley' was begun long
+ago, and actually lost for a time, yet the other two were begun and
+finished between the 4th of June and the 1st of July, during all which I
+attended my duty in court, and proceeded without loss of time or
+hindrance of business."[52]
+
+Few of the maxims for the enforcement of which, in "Modern Painters,"
+long ago, I got the general character of a lover of paradox, are more
+singular, or more sure, than the statement, apparently so encouraging to
+the idle, that if a great thing can be done at all, it can be done
+easily. But it is that kind of ease with which a tree blossoms after
+long years of gathered strength, and all Scott's great writings were the
+recreations of a mind confirmed in dutiful labor, and rich with organic
+gathering of boundless resource.
+
+Omitting from our count the two minor and ill-finished sketches of the
+"Black Dwarf" and "Legend of Montrose," and, for a reason presently to
+be noticed, the unhappy "St. Ronan's," the memorable romances of Scott
+are eighteen, falling into three distinct groups, containing six each.
+
+24. The first group is distinguished from the other two by characters of
+strength and felicity which never more appeared after Scott was struck
+down by his terrific illness in 1819. It includes "Waverley," "Guy
+Mannering," "The Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old Mortality," and "The Heart
+of Midlothian."
+
+The composition of these occupied the mornings of his happiest days,
+between the ages of forty-three and forty-eight. On the 8th of April,
+1819 (he was forty-eight on the preceding 15th of August), he began for
+the first time to dictate--being unable for the exertion of
+writing--"The Bride of Lammermuir," "the affectionate Laidlaw beseeching
+him to stop dictating when his audible suffering filled every pause.
+'Nay, Willie,' he answered, 'only see that the doors are fast. I would
+fain keep all the cry as well as all the wool to ourselves; but as for
+giving over work, that can only be when I am in woolen.'"[53] From this
+time forward the brightness of joy and sincerity of inevitable humor,
+which perfected the imagery of the earlier novels, are wholly absent,
+except in the two short intervals of health unaccountably restored, in
+which he wrote "Redgauntlet" and "Nigel."
+
+It is strange, but only a part of the general simplicity of Scott's
+genius, that these revivals of earlier power were unconscious, and that
+the time of extreme weakness in which he wrote "St. Ronan's Well," was
+that in which he first asserted his own restoration.
+
+25. It is also a deeply interesting characteristic of his noble nature
+that he never gains anything by sickness; the whole man breathes or
+faints as one creature: the ache that stiffens a limb chills his heart,
+and every pang of his stomach paralyzes the brain. It is not so with
+inferior minds, in the workings of which it is often impossible to
+distinguish native from narcotic fancy, and the throbs of conscience
+from those of indigestion. Whether in exaltation or languor, the colors
+of mind are always morbid which gleam on the sea for the "Ancient
+Mariner," and through the casements on "St. Agnes' Eve"; but Scott is at
+once blinded and stultified by sickness; never has a fit of the cramp
+without spoiling a chapter, and is perhaps the only author of vivid
+imagination who never wrote a foolish word but when he was ill.
+
+It remains only to be noticed on this point that any strong natural
+excitement, affecting the deeper springs of his heart, would at once
+restore his intellectual powers to their fullness, and that, far towards
+their sunset: but that the strong will on which he prided himself,
+though it could trample upon pain, silence grief, and compel industry,
+never could warm his imagination, or clear the judgment in his darker
+hours.
+
+I believe that this power of the heart over the intellect is common to
+all great men: but what the special character of emotion was, that alone
+could lift Scott above the power of death, I am about to ask the
+reader, in a little while, to observe with joyful care.
+
+26. The first series of romances then, above-named, are all that exhibit
+the emphasis of his unharmed faculties. The second group, composed in
+the three years subsequent to illness all but mortal, bear every one of
+them more or less the seal of it.
+
+They consist of the "Bride of Lammermuir," "Ivanhoe," the "Monastery,"
+the "Abbot," "Kenilworth," and the "Pirate."[54] The marks of broken
+health on all these are essentially twofold--prevailing melancholy, and
+fantastic improbability. Three of the tales are agonizingly tragic, the
+"Abbot" scarcely less so in its main event, and "Ivanhoe" deeply wounded
+through all its bright panoply; while even in that most powerful of the
+series the impossible archeries and ax-strokes, the incredibly opportune
+appearances of Locksley, the death of Ulrica, and the resuscitation of
+Athelstane, are partly boyish, partly feverish. Caleb in the "Bride,"
+Triptolemus and Halcro in the "Pirate," are all laborious, and the first
+incongruous; half a volume of the "Abbot" is spent in extremely dull
+detail of Roland's relations with his fellow-servants and his mistress,
+which have nothing whatever to do with the future story; and the lady of
+Avenel herself disappears after the first volume, "like a snaw-wreath
+when it's thaw, Jeanie." The public has for itself pronounced on the
+"Monastery," though as much too harshly as it has foolishly praised the
+horrors of "Ravenswood" and the nonsense of "Ivanhoe"; because the
+modern public finds in the torture and adventure of these, the kind of
+excitement which it seeks at an opera, while it has no sympathy whatever
+with the pastoral happiness of Glendearg, or with the lingering
+simplicities of superstition which give historical likelihood to the
+legend of the White Lady.
+
+But both this despised tale and its sequel have Scott's heart in them.
+The first was begun to refresh himself in the intervals of artificial
+labor on "Ivanhoe." "It was a relief," he said, "to interlay the scenery
+most familiar to me[55] with the strange world for which I had to draw
+so much on imagination." Through all the closing scenes of the second he
+is raised to his own true level by his love for the queen. And within
+the code of Scott's work to which I am about to appeal for illustration
+of his essential powers, I accept the "Monastery" and "Abbot," and
+reject from it the remaining four of this group.
+
+27. The last series contains two quite noble ones, "Redgauntlet" and
+"Nigel"; two of very high value, "Durward" and "Woodstock"; the slovenly
+and diffuse "Peveril," written for the trade;[56] the sickly "Tales of
+the Crusaders," and the entirely broken and diseased "St. Ronan's Well."
+This last I throw out of count altogether, and of the rest, accept only
+the four first named as sound work; so that the list of the novels in
+which I propose to examine his methods and ideal standards, reduces
+itself to these following twelve (named in order of production):
+"Waverley," "Guy Mannering," the "Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old
+Mortality," the "Heart of Midlothian," the "Monastery," the "Abbot,"
+"Redgauntlet," the "Fortunes of Nigel," "Quentin Durward," and
+"Woodstock."[57]
+
+28. It is, however, too late to enter on my subject in this article,
+which I may fitly close by pointing out some of the merely verbal
+characteristics of his style, illustrative in little ways of the
+questions we have been examining, and chiefly of the one which may be
+most embarrassing to many readers, the difference, namely, between
+character and disease.
+
+One quite distinctive charm in the Waverleys is their modified use of
+the Scottish dialect; but it has not generally been observed, either by
+their imitators, or the authors of different taste who have written for
+a later public, that there is a difference between the dialect of a
+language, and its corruption.
+
+A dialect is formed in any district where there are persons of
+intelligence enough to use the language itself in all its fineness and
+force, but under the particular conditions of life, climate, and temper,
+which introduce words peculiar to the scenery, forms of word and idioms
+of sentence peculiar to the race, and pronunciations indicative of their
+character and disposition.
+
+Thus "burn" (of a streamlet) is a word possible only in a country where
+there are brightly running waters, "lassie," a word possible only where
+girls are as free as the rivulets, and "auld," a form of the southern
+"old," adopted by a race of finer musical ear than the English.
+
+On the contrary, mere deteriorations, or coarse, stridulent, and, in the
+ordinary sense of the phrase, "broad" forms of utterance, are not
+dialects at all, having nothing dialectic in them; and all phrases
+developed in states of rude employment, and restricted intercourse, are
+injurious to the tone and narrowing to the power of the language they
+affect. Mere breadth of accent does not spoil a dialect as long as the
+speakers are men of varied idea and good intelligence; but the moment
+the life is contracted by mining, millwork, or any oppressive and
+monotonous labor, the accents and phrases become debased. It is part of
+the popular folly of the day to find pleasure in trying to write and
+spell these abortive, crippled, and more or less brutal forms of human
+speech.
+
+29. Abortive, crippled, or brutal, are however not necessarily
+"corrupted" dialects. Corrupt language is that gathered by ignorance,
+invented by vice, misused by insensibility, or minced and mouthed by
+affectation, especially in the attempt to deal with words of which only
+half the meaning is understood or half the sound heard. Mrs. Gamp's
+"aperiently so"--and the "underminded" with primal sense of undermine,
+of--I forget which gossip, in the "Mill on the Floss," are master-and
+mistress-pieces in this latter kind. Mrs. Malaprop's "allegories on the
+banks of the Nile" are in somewhat higher order of mistake: Mrs. Tabitha
+Bramble's ignorance is vulgarized by her selfishness, and Winifred
+Jenkins' by her conceit. The "wot" of Noah Claypole, and the other
+degradations of cockneyism (Sam Weller and his father are in nothing
+more admirable than in the power of heart and sense that can purify even
+these); the "trewth" of Mr. Chadband, and "natur" of Mr. Squeers, are
+examples of the corruption of words by insensibility: the use of the
+word "bloody" in modern low English is a deeper corruption, not altering
+the form of the word, but defiling the thought in it.
+
+Thus much being understood, I shall proceed to examine thoroughly a
+fragment of Scott's Lowland Scottish dialect; not choosing it of the
+most beautiful kind; on the contrary, it shall be a piece reaching as
+low down as he ever allows Scotch to go--it is perhaps the only unfair
+patriotism in him, that if ever he wants a word or two of really
+villainous slang, he gives it in English or Dutch--not Scotch.
+
+I had intended in the close of this paper to analyze and compare the
+characters of Andrew Fairservice and Richie Moniplies, for examples, the
+former of innate evil, unaffected by external influences, and
+undiseased, but distinct from natural goodness as a nettle is distinct
+from balm or lavender; and the latter of innate goodness, contracted and
+pinched by circumstance, but still undiseased, as an oak-leaf crisped by
+frost, not by the worm. This, with much else in my mind, I must put off;
+but the careful study of one sentence of Andrew's will give us a good
+deal to think of.
+
+30. I take his account of the rescue of Glasgow Cathedral at the time of
+the Reformation.
+
+     Ah! it's a brave kirk--nane o' yere whigmaleeries an curliewurlies
+     and opensteek hems about it--a' solid, weel-jointed mason-wark,
+     that will stand as lang as the warld, keep hands and gunpowther aff
+     it. It had amaist a douncome lang syne at the Reformation, when
+     they pu'd doun the kirks of St. Andrews and Perth, and thereawa',
+     to cleanse them o' Papery, and idolatry, and image-worship, and
+     surplices, and sic-like rags o' the muckle hure that sitteth on
+     seven hills, as if ane wasna braid eneugh for her auld hinder end.
+     Sae the commons o' Renfrew, and o' the Barony, and the Gorbals, and
+     a' about, they behoved to come into Glasgow ae fair morning, to try
+     their hand on purging the High Kirk o' Popish nicknackets. But the
+     townsmen o' Glasgow, they were feared their auld edifice might slip
+     the girths in gaun through siccan rough physic, sae they rang the
+     common bell, and assembled the train-bands wi' took o' drum. By
+     good luck, the worthy James Rabat was Dean o' Guild that year--(and
+     a gude mason he was himsell, made him the keener to keep up the
+     auld bigging), and the trades assembled, and offered downright
+     battle to the commons, rather than their kirk should coup the
+     crans, as others had done elsewhere. It wasna for luve o'
+     Paperie--na, na!--nane could ever say that o' the trades o'
+     Glasgow--Sae they sune came to an agreement to take a' the
+     idolatrous statues of sants (sorrow be on them!) out o' their
+     neuks--And sae the bits o' stane idols were broken in pieces by
+     Scripture warrant, and flung into the Molendinar burn, and the auld
+     kirk stood as crouse as a cat when the flaes are kaimed aff her,
+     and a'body was alike pleased. And I hae heard wise folk say, that
+     if the same had been done in ilka kirk in Scotland, the Reform wad
+     just hae been as pure as it is e'en now, and we wad hae mair
+     Christianlike kirks; for I hae been sae lang in England, that
+     naething will drived out o' my head, that the dog-kennel at
+     Osbaldistone-Hall is better than mony a house o' God in Scotland.
+
+31. Now this sentence is in the first place a piece of Scottish
+history of quite inestimable and concentrated value. Andrew's temperament
+is the type of a vast class of Scottish--shall we call it
+"_sow_-thistlian"--mind, which necessarily takes the view of either Pope
+or saint that the thistle in Lebanon took of the cedar or lilies in
+Lebanon; and the entire force of the passions which, in the Scottish
+revolution, foretold and forearmed the French one, is told in this one
+paragraph; the coarseness of it, observe, being admitted, not for the
+sake of the laugh, any more than an onion in broth merely for its
+flavor, but for the meat of it; the inherent constancy of that
+coarseness being a fact in this order of mind, and an essential part of
+the history to be told.
+
+Secondly, observe that this speech, in the religious passion of it, such
+as there may be, is entirely sincere. Andrew is a thief, a liar, a
+coward, and, in the Fair service from which he takes his name, a
+hypocrite; but in the form of prejudice, which is all that his mind is
+capable of in the place of religion, he is entirely sincere. He does not
+in the least pretend detestation of image worship to please his master,
+or anyone else; he honestly scorns the "carnal morality[58] as dowd and
+fusionless as rue-leaves at Yule" of the sermon in the upper cathedral;
+and when wrapt in critical attention to the "real savor o' doctrine" in
+the crypt, so completely forgets the hypocrisy of his fair service as
+to return his master's attempt to disturb him with hard punches of the
+elbow.
+
+Thirdly. He is a man of no mean sagacity, quite up to the average
+standard of Scottish common sense, not a low one; and, though incapable
+of understanding any manner of lofty thought or passion, is a shrewd
+measurer of weaknesses, and not without a spark or two of kindly
+feeling. See first his sketch of his master's character to Mr.
+Hammorgaw, beginning: "He's no a'thegither sae void o' sense, neither";
+and then the close of the dialogue: "But the lad's no a bad lad after
+a', and he needs some careful body to look after him."
+
+Fourthly. He is a good workman; knows his own business well, and can
+judge of other craft, if sound, or otherwise.
+
+All these four qualities of him must be known before we can understand
+this single speech. Keeping them in mind, I take it up, word by word.
+
+32. You observe, in the outset, Scott makes no attempt whatever to
+indicate accents or modes of pronunciation by changed spelling, unless
+the word becomes a quite definitely new, and securely writable one. The
+Scottish way of pronouncing "James," for instance, is entirely peculiar,
+and extremely pleasant to the ear. But it is so, just because it does
+_not_ change the word into Jeems, nor into Jims, nor into Jawms. A
+modern writer of dialects would think it amusing to use one or other of
+these ugly spellings. But Scott writes the name in pure English, knowing
+that a Scots reader will speak it rightly, and an English one be wise in
+letting it alone. On the other hand he writes "weel" for "well," because
+that word is complete in its change, and may be very closely expressed
+by the double _e_. The ambiguous _u_'s in "gude" and "sune" are
+admitted, because far liker the sound than the double _o_ would be, and
+that in "hure," for grace' sake, to soften the word; so also "flaes" for
+"fleas." "Mony" for "many" is again positively right in sound, and
+"neuk" differs from our "nook" in sense, and is not the same word at
+all, as we shall presently see.
+
+Secondly, observe, not a word is corrupted in any indecent haste,
+slowness, slovenliness, or incapacity of pronunciation. There is no
+lisping, drawling, slobbering, or snuffling: the speech is as clear as a
+bell and as keen as an arrow: and its elisions and contractions are
+either melodious, ("na," for "not,"--"pu'd," for "pulled,") or as normal
+as in a Latin verse. The long words are delivered without the slightest
+bungling; and "bigging" finished to its last _g_.
+
+33. I take the important words now in their places.
+
+_Brave._ The old English sense of the word in "to go brave," retained,
+expressing Andrew's sincere and respectful admiration. Had he meant to
+insinuate a hint of the church's being too fine, he would have said
+"braw."
+
+_Kirk._ This is of course just as pure and unprovincial a word as
+"Kirche," or "église."
+
+_Whigmaleerie._ I cannot get at the root of this word, but it is one
+showing that the speaker is not bound by classic rules, but will use any
+syllables that will enrich his meaning. "Nipperty-tipperty" (of his
+master's "poetry-nonsense") is another word of the same class.
+"Curliewurlie" is of course just as pure as Shakespeare's "Hurlyburly."
+But see first suggestion of the idea to Scott at Blair-Adam (L. vi.
+264).
+
+_Opensteek hems._ More description, or better, of the later Gothic
+cannot be put into four syllables. "Steek," melodious for stitch, has a
+combined sense of closing or fastening. And note that the later Gothic
+being precisely what Scott knew best (in Melrose) and liked best, it is,
+here as elsewhere, quite as much himself[59] as Frank, that he is
+laughing at, when he laughs _with_ Andrew, whose "opensteek hems" are
+only a ruder metaphor for his own "willow-wreaths changed to stone."
+
+_Gunpowther._ "-Ther" is a lingering vestige of the French "-dre."
+
+_Syne._ One of the melodious and mysterious Scottish words which have
+partly the sound of wind and stream in them, and partly the range of
+softened idea which is like a distance of blue hills over border land
+("far in the distant Cheviot's blue"). Perhaps even the least
+sympathetic "Englisher" might recognize this, if he heard "Old Long
+Since" vocally substituted for the Scottish words to the air. I do not
+know the root; but the word's proper meaning is not "since," but before
+or after an interval of some duration, "as weel sune as syne." "But
+first on Sawnie gies a ca', Syne, bauldly in she enters."
+
+_Behoved_ (_to come_). A rich word, with peculiar idiom, always used
+more or less ironically of anything done under a partly mistaken and
+partly pretended notion of duty.
+
+_Siccan._ Far prettier, and fuller in meaning than "such." It contains
+an added sense of wonder; and means properly "so great" or "so unusual."
+
+_Took_ (_o' drum_). Classical "tuck" from Italian "toccata," the
+preluding "touch" or flourish, on any instrument (but see Johnson under
+word "tucket," quoting "Othello"). The deeper Scottish vowels are used
+here to mark the deeper sound of the bass drum, as in more solemn
+warning.
+
+_Bigging._ The only word in all the sentence of which the Scottish form
+is less melodious than the English, "and what for no," seeing that
+Scottish architecture is mostly little beyond Bessie Bell's and Mary
+Gray's? "They biggit a bow're by yon burnside, and theekit it ow're wi'
+rashes." But it is pure Anglo-Saxon in roots; see glossary to
+Fairbairn's edition of the Douglas "Virgil," 1710.
+
+_Coup._ Another of the much-embracing words; short for "upset," but with
+a sense of awkwardness as the inherent cause of fall; compare Richie
+Moniplies (also for sense of "behoved"): "Ae auld hirplin deevil of a
+potter behoved just to step in my way, and offer me a pig (earthen
+pot--etym. dub.), as he said 'just to put my Scotch ointment in'; and I
+gave him a push, as but natural, and the tottering deevil coupit owre
+amang his own pigs, and damaged a score of them." So also Dandie Dinmont
+in the postchaise: "'Od! I hope they'll no coup us."
+
+_The Crans._ Idiomatic; root unknown to me, but it means in this use,
+fall total, and without recovery.[60]
+
+_Molendinar._ From "molendinum," the grinding-place. I do not know if
+actually the local name,[61] or Scott's invention. Compare Sir Piercie's
+"Molinaras." But at all events used here with by-sense of degradation of
+the formerly idle saints to grind at the mill.
+
+_Crouse._ Courageous, softened with a sense of comfort.
+
+_Ilka._ Again a word with azure distance, including the whole sense of
+"each" and "every." The reader must carefully and reverently distinguish
+these comprehensive words, which gather two or more perfectly understood
+meanings into one _chord_ of meaning, and are harmonies more than words,
+from the above-noted blunders between two half-hit meanings, struck as a
+bad piano-player strikes the edge of another note. In English we have
+fewer of these combined thoughts; so that Shakespeare rather plays with
+the distinct lights of his words, than melts them into one. So again
+Bishop Douglas spells, and doubtless spoke, the word "rose,"
+differently, according to his purpose; if as the chief or governing
+ruler of flowers, "rois," but if only in her own beauty, rose.
+
+_Christianlike._ The sense of the decency and order proper to
+Christianity is stronger in Scotland than in any other country, and the
+word "Christian" more distinctly opposed to "beast." Hence the
+back-handed cut at the English for their over-pious care of dogs.
+
+34. I am a little surprised myself at the length to which this
+examination of one small piece of Sir Walter's first-rate work has
+carried us, but here I must end for this time, trusting, if the Editor
+of the _Nineteenth Century_ permit me, yet to trespass, perhaps more
+than once, on his readers' patience; but, at all events, to examine in a
+following paper the technical characteristics of Scott's own style, both
+in prose and verse, together with Byron's, as opposed to our fashionably
+recent dialects and rhythms; the essential virtues of language, in both
+the masters of the old school, hinging ultimately, little as it might be
+thought, on certain unalterable views of theirs concerning the code
+called "of the Ten Commandments," wholly at variance with the dogmas of
+automatic morality which, summed again by the witches' line, "Fair is
+foul, and foul is fair," hover through the fog and filthy air of our
+prosperous England.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 37: _Nineteenth Century_, June, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 38: See _Time and Tide_, § 72.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Nell, in the "Old Curiosity Shop," was simply killed for
+the market, as a butcher kills a lamb (see Forster's "Life,") and Paul
+was written under the same conditions of illness which affected Scott--a
+part of the ominous palsies, grasping alike author and subject both in
+"Dombey" and "Little Dorrit."]
+
+[Footnote 40: "Chourineur" not striking with dagger-point, but ripping
+with knife-edge. Yet I do him, and La Louve, injustice in classing them
+with the two others; they are put together only as parts in the same
+phantasm. Compare with La Louve, the strength of wild virtue in the
+"Louvécienne" (Lucienne) of Gaboriau--she, province-born and bred; and
+opposed to Parisian civilization in the character of her seamstress
+friend. "De ce Paris, où elle était née, elle savait tout--elle
+connaissait tout. Rien ne l'étonnait, nul ne l'intimidait. Sa science
+des détails matériels de l'existence était inconcevable. Impossible de
+la duper!--Eh bien! cette fille si laborieuse et si économe n'avait même
+pas la plus vague notion des sentiments qui sont l'honneur de la femme.
+Je n'avais pas idée d'une si complète absence de sens moral; d'une si
+inconscience dépravation, d'une impudence si effrontément
+naïve."--"L'Argent des autres," vol. i. p. 358.]
+
+[Footnote 41: The reader who cares to seek it may easily find medical
+evidence of the physical effects of certain states of brain disease in
+producing especially images of truncated and Hermes-like deformity,
+complicated with grossness. Horace, in the "Epodes," scoffs at it, but
+not without horror. Luca Signorelli and Raphael in their arabesques are
+deeply struck by it: Dürer, defying and playing with it alternately, is
+almost beaten down again and again in the distorted faces, hewing
+halberts, and suspended satyrs of his arabesques round the polyglot
+Lord's Prayer; it takes entire possession of Balzac in the "Contes
+Drolatiques"; it struck Scott in the earliest days of his childish
+"visions" intensified by the ax-stroke murder of his grand aunt (L. i.
+142, and see close of this note). It chose for him the subject of the
+"Heart of Midlothian," and produced afterwards all the recurrent ideas
+of executions, tainting "Nigel," almost spoiling "Quentin
+Durward"--utterly the "Fair Maid of Perth": and culminating in "Bizarro"
+(L. x. 149). It suggested all the deaths by falling, or sinking, as in
+delirious sleep--Kennedy, Eveline Neville (nearly repeated in Clara
+Mowbray), Amy Robsart, the Master of Ravenswood in the quicksand,
+Morris, and Corporal Grace-be-here--compare the dream of Gride, in
+"Nicholas Nickleby," and Dickens's own last words, _on the ground_ (so
+also, in my own inflammation of the brain, two years ago, I dreamed that
+I fell through the earth and came out on the other side). In its
+grotesque and distorting power, it produced all the figures of the Lay
+Goblin, Pacolet, Flibbertigibbet, Cockledemoy, Geoffrey Hudson, Fenella,
+and Nectabanus; in Dickens it in like manner gives Quilp, Krook, Smike,
+Smallweed, Miss Mowcher, and the dwarfs and wax-work of Nell's caravan;
+and runs entirely wild in "Barnaby Budge," where, with a corps de drame
+composed of one idiot, two madmen, a gentleman-fool who is also a
+villain, a shop-boy fool who is also a blackguard, a hangman, a
+shriveled virago, and a doll in ribbons--carrying this company through
+riot and fire, till he hangs the hangman, one of the madmen, his mother,
+and the idiot, runs the gentleman-fool through in a bloody duel, and
+burns and crushes the shop-boy fool into shapelessness, he cannot yet be
+content without shooting the spare lover's leg off, and marrying him to
+the doll in a wooden one; the shapeless shop-boy being finally also
+married in _two_ wooden ones. It is this mutilation, observe, which is
+the very sign manual of the plague; joined, in the artistic forms of it,
+with a love of thorniness--(in their mystic root, the truncation of the
+limbless serpent and the spines of the dragon's wing. Compare "Modern
+Painters," vol. iv., "Chapter on the Mountain Gloom," s. 19); and in
+_all_ forms of it, with petrifaction or loss of power by cold in the
+blood, whence the last Darwinian process of the witches' charm--"cool it
+with a baboon's _blood, then_ the charm is firm and good." The two
+frescoes in the colossal handbills which have lately decorated the
+streets of London (the baboon with the mirror, and the Maskelyne and
+Cooke decapitation) are the final English forms of Raphael's arabesque
+under this influence; and it is well worth while to get the number for
+the week ending April 3, 1880, of "Young Folks--a magazine of
+instructive and entertaining literature for boys and girls of all ages,"
+containing "A Sequel to Desdichado" (the modern development of Ivanhoe),
+in which a quite monumental example of the kind of art in question will
+be found as a leading illustration of this characteristic sentence,
+"See, good Cerberus," said Sir Rupert, "_my hand has been struck off.
+You must make me a hand of iron, one with springs in it, so that I can
+make it grasp a dagger_." The text is also, as it professes to be,
+instructive; being the ultimate degeneration of what I have above called
+the "folly" of "Ivanhoe"; for the folly begets folly down, and down; and
+whatever Scott and Turner did wrong has thousands of imitators--their
+wisdom none will so much as hear, how much less follow!
+
+In both of the Masters, it is always to be remembered that the evil and
+good are alike conditions of literal _vision_: and therefore also,
+inseparably connected with the state of the health. I believe the first
+elements of all Scott's errors were in the milk of his consumptive
+nurse, which all but killed him as an infant (L. i. 19)--and was without
+doubt the cause of the teething fever that ended in his lameness (L. i.
+20). Then came (if the reader cares to know what I mean by "Fors," let
+him read the page carefully) the fearful accidents to his only sister,
+and her death (L. i. 17); then the madness of his nurse, who planned his
+own murder (21), then the stories continually told him of the executions
+at Carlisle (24), his aunt's husband having seen them; issuing, he
+himself scarcely knows how, in the unaccountable terror that came upon
+him at the sight of statuary (31)--especially Jacob's ladder; then the
+murder of Mrs. Swinton, and finally the nearly fatal bursting of the
+blood vessel at Kelso, with the succeeding nervous illness
+(65-67)--solaced, while he was being "bled and blistered till he had
+scarcely a pulse left," by that history of the Knights of Malta--fondly
+dwelt on and realized by actual modeling of their fortress, which
+returned to his mind for the theme of its last effort in passing away.]
+
+[Footnote 42: "Se dit par dénigrement, d'un chrétien qui ne croit pas
+les dogmes de sa religion."--Fleming, vol. ii. p. 659.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The novel alluded to is "The Mill on the Floss." See
+below, p. 272, § 108.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 44: "A son nom," properly. The sentence is one of Victor
+Cherbuliez's, in "Prosper Randoce," which is full of other valuable
+ones. See the old nurse's "ici bas les choses vont de travers, comme un
+chien qui va à vêpres," p. 93; and compare Prosper's treasures, "la
+petite Vénus, et le petit Christ d'ivoire," p. 121; also Madame
+Brehanne's request for the divertissement of "quelque belle batterie à
+coups de couteau" with Didier's answer. "Hélas! madame, vous jouez de
+malheur, ici dans la Drôme, l'on se massacre aussi peu que possible," p.
+33.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Edgeworth's "Tales," (Hunter, 1827), "Harrington and
+Ormond," vol. iii. p. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Alice of Salisbury, Alice Lee, Alice Bridgnorth.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Scott's father was habitually ascetic. "I have heard his
+son tell that it was common with him, if any one observed that the soup
+was good, to taste it again, and say, 'Yes--it is too good, bairns,' and
+dash a tumbler of cold water into his plate."--Lockhart's "Life" (Black,
+Edinburgh, 1869), vol. i. p. 312. In other places I refer to this book
+in the simple form of "L."]
+
+[Footnote 48: A young lady sang to me, just before I copied out this
+page for press, a Miss Somebody's "great song," "Live, and Love, and
+Die." Had it been written for nothing better than silkworms, it should
+at least have added--Spin.]
+
+[Footnote 49: See passage of introduction to "Ivanhoe," wisely quoted in
+L. vi. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 50: See below, note, p. 199, on the conclusion of
+"Woodstock."]
+
+[Footnote 51: The reference is to a series of "Waverley Tableaux" given
+in London shortly before the publication of this paper.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 52: L. iv. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 53: L. vi. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 54: "One other such novel, and there's an end; but who can
+last forever? who ever lasted so long?"--Sydney Smith (of the _Pirate_)
+to Jeffrey, December 30, 1821. (_Letters_, vol. ii. p. 223.)]
+
+[Footnote 55: L. vi. p. 188. Compare the description of Fairy Dean, vii.
+192.]
+
+[Footnote 56: All, alas! were now in a great measure so written.
+"Ivanhoe," "The Monastery," "The Abbot," and "Kenilworth" were all
+published between December 1819 and January 1821, Constable & Co. giving
+five thousand guineas for the remaining copyright of them, Scott
+clearing ten thousand before the bargain was completed; and before the
+"Fortunes of Nigel" issued from the press Scott had exchanged
+instruments and received his bookseller's bills for no less than four
+"works of fiction," not one of them otherwise described in the deeds of
+agreement, to be produced in unbroken succession, _each of them to fill
+up at least three volumes, but with proper saving clauses as to increase
+of copy money in case any of them should run to four_; and within two
+years all this anticipation had been wiped off by "Peveril of the Peak,"
+"Quentin Durward," "St. Ronan's Well," and "Redgauntlet."]
+
+[Footnote 57: "Woodstock" was finished 26th March, 1826. He knew then of
+his ruin; and wrote in bitterness, but not in weakness. The closing
+pages are the most beautiful of the book. But a month afterwards Lady
+Scott died; and he never wrote glad word more.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Compare Mr. Spurgeon's not unfrequent orations on the same
+subject.]
+
+[Footnote 59: There are three definite and intentional portraits of
+himself, in the novels, each giving a separate part of himself: Mr.
+Oldbuck, Frank Osbaldistone, and Alan Fairford.]
+
+[Footnote 60: See note, p. 224.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Andrew knows Latin, and might have coined the word in his
+conceit; but, writing to a kind friend in Glasgow, I find the brook was
+called "Molyndona" even before the building of the Subdean Mill in 1446.
+See also account of the locality in Mr. George's admirable volume, "Old
+Glasgow," pp. 129, 149, etc. The Protestantism of Glasgow, since
+throwing that powder of saints into her brook Kidron, has presented it
+with other pious offerings; and my friend goes on to say that the brook,
+once famed for the purity of its waters (much used for bleaching), "has
+for nearly a hundred years been a crawling stream of loathsomeness. It
+is now bricked over, and a carriage-way made on the top of it;
+underneath the foul mess still passes through the heart of the city,
+till it falls into the Clyde close to the harbor."]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.[62]
+
+II.
+
+
+35. _"He hated greetings in the market-place_, and there were generally
+loiterers in the streets to persecute him _either about the events of
+the day_, or about some petty pieces of business."
+
+These lines, which the reader will find near the beginning of the
+sixteenth chapter of the first volume of the "Antiquary," contain two
+indications of the old man's character, which, receiving the ideal of
+him as a portrait of Scott himself, are of extreme interest to me. They
+mean essentially that neither Monkbarns nor Scott had any mind to be
+called of men, Rabbi, in mere hearing of the mob; and especially that
+they hated to be drawn back out of their far-away thoughts, or forward
+out of their long-ago thoughts, by any manner of "daily" news, whether
+printed or gabbled. Of which two vital characteristics, deeper in both
+men, (for I must always speak of Scott's creations as if they were as
+real as himself,) than any of their superficial vanities, or passing
+enthusiasms, I have to speak more at another time. I quote the passage
+just now, because there was one piece of the daily news of the year 1815
+which did extremely interest Scott, and materially direct the labor of
+the latter part of his life; nor is there any piece of history in this
+whole nineteenth century quite so pregnant with various instruction as
+the study of the reasons which influenced Scott and Byron in their
+opposite views of the glories of the battle of Waterloo.
+
+36. But I quote it for another reason also. The principal greeting which
+Mr. Oldbuck on this occasion receives in the market-place, being
+compared with the speech of Andrew Fairservice, examined in my first
+paper, will furnish me with the text of what I have mainly to say in the
+present one.
+
+     "'Mr. Oldbuck,' said the town-clerk (a more important person, who
+     came in front and ventured to stop the old gentleman), 'the
+     provost, understanding you were in town, begs on no account that
+     you'll quit it without seeing him; he wants to speak to ye about
+     bringing the water frae the Fairwell spring through a part o' your
+     lands.'
+
+     "'What the deuce!--have they nobody's land but mine to cut and
+     carve on?--I won't consent, tell them.'
+
+     "'And the provost,' said the clerk, going on, without noticing the
+     rebuff, 'and the council, wad be agreeable that you should hae the
+     auld stanes at Donagild's Chapel, that ye was wussing to hae.'
+
+     "'Eh?--what?--Oho! that's another story--Well, well, I'll call upon
+     the provost, and we'll talk about it.'
+
+     "'But ye maun speak your mind on't forthwith, Monkbarns, if ye want
+     the stanes; for Deacon Harlewalls thinks the carved through-stanes
+     might be put with advantage on the front of the new council
+     house--that is, the twa cross-legged figures that the callants used
+     to ca' Robbin and Bobbin, ane on ilka door-cheek; and the other
+     stane, that they ca'd Ailie Dailie, abune the door. It will be very
+     tastefu', the Deacon says, and just in the style of modern Gothic.'
+
+     "'Good Lord deliver me from this Gothic generation!' exclaimed the
+     Antiquary,--'a monument of a knight-templar on each side of a
+     Grecian porch, and a Madonna on the top of it!--_O crimini!_--Well,
+     tell the provost I wish to have the stones, and we'll not differ
+     about the water-course.--It's lucky I happened to come this way
+     to-day.'
+
+     "They parted mutually satisfied; but the wily clerk had most reason
+     to exult in the dexterity he had displayed, since the whole
+     proposal of an exchange between the monuments (which the council
+     had determined to remove as a nuisance, because they encroached
+     three feet upon the public road) and the privilege of conveying the
+     water to the burgh, through the estate of Monkbarns, was an idea
+     which had originated with himself upon the pressure of the moment."
+
+37. In this single page of Scott, will the reader please note the kind
+of prophetic instinct with which the great men of every age mark and
+forecast its destinies? The water from the Fairwell is the future
+Thirlmere carried to Manchester; the "auld stanes"[63] at Donagild's
+Chapel, removed as a _nuisance_, foretell the necessary view taken by
+modern cockneyism, Liberalism, and progress, of all things that remind
+them of the noble dead, of their fathers' fame, or of their own duty;
+and the public road becomes their idol, instead of the saint's shrine.
+Finally, the roguery of the entire transaction--the mean man seeing the
+weakness of the honorable, and "besting" him--in modern slang, in the
+manner and at the pace of modern trade--"on the pressure of the moment."
+
+But neither are these things what I have at present quoted the passage
+for.
+
+I quote it, that we may consider how much wonderful and various history
+is gathered in the fact recorded for us in this piece of entirely fair
+fiction, that in the Scottish borough of Fairport (Montrose, really), in
+the year 17--of Christ, the knowledge given by the pastors and teachers
+provided for its children by enlightened Scottish Protestantism, of
+their fathers' history, and the origin of their religion, had resulted
+in this substance and sum;--that the statues of two crusading knights
+had become, to their children, Bobbin and Bobbin; and the statue of the
+Madonna, Ailie Dailie.
+
+A marvelous piece of history, truly: and far too comprehensive for
+general comment here. Only one small piece of it I must carry forward
+the readers' thoughts upon.
+
+38. The pastors and teachers aforesaid, (represented typically in
+another part of this errorless book by Mr. Blattergowl,) are not,
+whatever else they may have to answer for, answerable for these names.
+The names are of the children's own choosing and bestowing, but not of
+the children's own inventing. "Robin" is a classically endearing
+cognomen, recording the _errant_ heroism of old days--the name of the
+Bruce and of Rob Roy. "Bobbin" is a poetical and symmetrical fulfillment
+and adornment of the original phrase. "Ailie" is the last echo of "Ave,"
+changed into the softest Scottish Christian name familiar to the
+children, itself the beautiful feminine form of royal "Louis"; the
+"Dailie" again symmetrically added for kinder and more musical
+endearment. The last vestiges, you see, of honor for the heroism and
+religion of their ancestors, lingering on the lips of babes and
+sucklings.
+
+But what is the meaning of this necessity the children find themselves
+under of completing the nomenclature rhythmically and rhymingly? Note
+first the difference carefully, and the attainment of both qualities by
+the couplets in question. Rhythm is the syllabic and quantitative
+measure of the words, in which Robin both in weight and time, balances
+Bobbin; and Dailie holds level scale with Ailie. But rhyme is the added
+correspondence of sound; unknown and undesired, so far as we can learn,
+by the Greek Orpheus, but absolutely essential to, and, as special
+virtue, becoming titular of, the Scottish Thomas.
+
+39. The "Ryme,"[64] you may at first fancy, is the especially childish
+part of the work. Not so. It is the especially chivalric and Christian
+part of it. It characterizes the Christian chant or canticle, as a
+higher thing than a Greek ode, melos, or hymnos, or than a Latin carmen.
+
+Think of it; for this again is wonderful! That these children of
+Montrose should have an element of music in their souls which Homer had
+not,--which a melos of David the Prophet and King had not,--which
+Orpheus and Amphion had not,--which Apollo's unrymed oracles became mute
+at the sound of.
+
+A strange new equity this,--melodious justice and judgment, as it
+were,--in all words spoken solemnly and ritualistically by Christian
+human creatures;--Robin and Bobbin--by the Crusader's tomb, up to "Dies
+iræ, dies illa," at judgment of the crusading soul.
+
+You have to understand this most deeply of all Christian minstrels, from
+first to last; that they are more musical, because more joyful, than any
+others on earth: ethereal minstrels, pilgrims of the sky, true to the
+kindred points of heaven and home; their joy essentially the sky-lark's,
+in light, in purity; but, with their human eyes, looking for the
+glorious appearing of something in the sky, which the bird cannot.
+
+This it is that changes Etruscan murmur into Terza rima--Horatian Latin
+into Provençal troubadour's melody; not, because less artful, less wise.
+
+40. Here is a little bit, for instance, of French ryming just before
+Chaucer's time--near enough to our own French to be intelligible to us
+yet.
+
+  "O quant très-glorieuse vie,
+  Quant cil qui tout peut et maistrie,
+  Veult esprouver pour nécessaire,
+  Ne pour quant il ne blasma mie
+  La vie de Marthe sa mie:
+  Mais il lui donna exemplaire
+  D'autrement vivre, et de bien plaire
+  A Dieu; et plut de bien à faire:
+  Pour se conclut-il que Marie
+  Qui estoit à ses piedz sans braire,
+  Et pensoit d'entendre et de taire,
+  Estleut la plus saine partie.
+
+  La meilleur partie esleut-elle
+  Et la plus saine et la plus belle,
+  Qui jà ne luy sera ostée
+  Car par vérité se fut celle
+  Qui fut tousjours fresche et nouvelle,
+  D'aymer Dieu et d'en estre aymée;
+  Car jusqu'au cueur fut entamée,
+  Et si ardamment enflamée,
+  Que tousjours ardoit I'estincelle;
+  Par quoi elle fut visitée
+  Et de Dieu premier confortée;
+  Car charité est trop ysnelle."
+
+41. The only law of _meter_, observed in this song, is that each line
+shall be octosyllabic:
+
+  Qui fut | tousjours | fresche et | nouvelle,
+  D'autre | ment vi | vret de | bien (ben) plaire
+  Et pen | soit den | tendret | de taire.
+
+But the reader must note that words which were two-syllabled in Latin
+mostly remain yet so in the French.
+
+  La _vi_ | _e_ de | Marthe | sa mie,
+
+although _mie_, which is pet language, loving abbreviation of _amica_
+through _amie_, remains monosyllabic. But _vie_ elides its _e_ before a
+vowel:
+
+  Car Mar- | the me | nait vie | active
+  Et Ma- | ri-e | contemp | lative;
+
+and custom endures many exceptions. Thus _Marie_ may be three-syllabled,
+as above, or answer to _mie_ as a dissyllable; but _vierge_ is always, I
+think, dissyllabic, _vier-ge_, with even stronger accent on the _-ge_,
+for the Latin _-go_.
+
+Then, secondly, of quantity, there is scarcely any fixed law. The meters
+may be timed as the minstrel chooses--fast or slow--and the iambic
+current checked in reverted eddy, as the words chance to come.
+
+But, thirdly, there is to be rich ryming and chiming, no matter how
+simply got, so only that the words jingle and tingle together with due
+art of interlacing and answering in different parts of the stanza,
+correspondent to the involutions of tracery and illumination. The whole
+twelve-line stanza is thus constructed with two rymes only, six of each,
+thus arranged:
+
+  A A B | A A B | B B A | B B A |
+
+dividing the verse thus into four measures, reversed in ascent and
+descent, or _descant_ more properly; and doubtless with correspondent
+phases in the voice-given, and duly accompanying, or following, music;
+Thomas the Rymer's own precept, that "tong is chefe in mynstrelsye,"
+being always kept faithfully in mind.[65]
+
+42. Here then you have a sufficient example of the pure chant of the
+Christian ages; which is always at heart joyful, and divides itself into
+the four great forms; Song of Praise, Song of Prayer, Song of Love, and
+Song of Battle; praise, however, being the keynote of passion through
+all the four forms; according to the first law which I have already
+given in the "Laws of Fésole"; "all great Art is Praise," of which the
+contrary is also true, all foul or miscreant Art is accusation, [Greek:
+diabolê]: "She gave me of the tree and I did eat" being an entirely
+museless expression on Adam's part, the briefly essential contrary of
+Love-song.
+
+With these four perfect forms of Christian chant, of which we may take
+for pure examples the "Te Deum," the "Te Lucis Ante," the "Amor che
+nella mente,"[66] and the "Chant de Roland," are mingled songs of
+mourning, of Pagan origin (whether Greek or Danish), holding grasp still
+of the races that have once learned them, in times of suffering and
+sorrow; and songs of Christian humiliation or grief, regarding chiefly
+the sufferings of Christ, or the conditions of our own sin: while
+through the entire system of these musical complaints are interwoven
+moralities, instructions, and related histories, in illustration of
+both, passing into Epic and Romantic verse, which gradually, as the
+forms and learnings of society increase, becomes less joyful, and more
+didactic, or satiric, until the last echoes of Christian joy and melody
+vanish in the "Vanity of human wishes."
+
+43. And here I must pause for a minute or two to separate the different
+branches of our inquiry clearly from one another. For one thing, the
+reader must please put for the present out of his head all thought of
+the progress of "civilization"--that is to say, broadly, of the
+substitution of wigs for hair, gas for candles, and steam for legs. This
+is an entirely distinct matter from the phases of policy and religion.
+It has nothing to do with the British Constitution, or the French
+Revolution, or the unification of Italy. There are, indeed, certain
+subtle relations between the state of mind, for instance, in Venice,
+which makes her prefer a steamer to a gondola, and that which makes her
+prefer a gazetteer to a duke; but these relations are not at all to be
+dealt with until we solemnly understand that whether men shall be
+Christians and poets, or infidels and dunces, does not depend on the way
+they cut their hair, tie their breeches, or light their fires. Dr.
+Johnson might have worn his wig in fullness conforming to his dignity,
+without therefore coming to the conclusion that human wishes were vain;
+nor is Queen Antoinette's civilized hair-powder, as opposed to Queen
+Bertha's savagely loose hair, the cause of Antoinette's laying her head
+at last in scaffold dust, but Bertha in a pilgrim-haunted tomb.
+
+44. Again, I have just now used the words "poet" and "dunce," meaning
+the degree of each quality possible to average human nature. Men are
+eternally divided into the two classes of poet (believer, maker, and
+praiser) and dunce (or unbeliever, unmaker, and dispraiser). And in
+process of ages they have the power of making faithful and formative
+creatures of themselves, or unfaithful and _de_-formative. And this
+distinction between the creatures who, blessing, are blessed, and
+evermore _benedicti_, and the creatures who, cursing, are cursed, and
+evermore maledicti, is one going through all humanity; antediluvian in
+Cain and Abel, diluvian in Ham and Shem. And the question for the public
+of any given period is not whether they are a constitutional or
+unconstitutional vulgus, but whether they are a benignant or malignant
+vulgus. So also, whether it is indeed the gods who have given any
+gentleman the grace to despise the rabble, depends wholly on whether it
+is indeed the rabble, or he, who are the malignant persons.
+
+45. But yet again. This difference between the persons to whom Heaven,
+according to Orpheus, has granted "the hour of delight,"[67] and those
+whom it has condemned to the hour of detestableness, being, as I have
+just said, of all times and nations,--it is an interior and more
+delicate difference which we are examining in the gift of _Christian_ as
+distinguished from unchristian, song. Orpheus, Pindar, and Horace are
+indeed distinct from the prosaic rabble, as the bird from the snake; but
+between Orpheus and Palestrina, Horace and Sidney, there is another
+division, and a new power of music and song given to the humanity which
+has hope of the Resurrection.
+
+_This_ is the root of all life and all rightness in Christian harmony,
+whether of word or instrument; and so literally, that in precise manner
+as this hope disappears, the power of song is taken away, and taken away
+utterly. "When the Christian falls back out of the bright hope of the
+Resurrection, even the Orpheus song is forbidden him. Not to have known
+the hope is blameless: one may sing, unknowing, as the swan, or
+Philomela. But to have known and fall away from it, and to declare that
+the human wishes, which are summed in that one--"Thy kingdom come"--are
+vain! The Fates ordain there shall be no singing after that denial.
+
+46. For observe this, and earnestly. The old Orphic song, with its dim
+hope of yet once more Eurydice,--the Philomela song--granted after the
+cruel silence,--the Halcyon song--with its fifteen days of peace, were
+all sad, or joyful only in some vague vision of conquest over death. But
+the Johnsonian vanity of wishes is on the whole satisfactory to
+Johnson--accepted with gentlemanly resignation by Pope--triumphantly and
+with bray of penny trumpets and blowing of steam-whistles, proclaimed
+for the glorious discovery of the civilized ages, by Mrs. Barbauld, Miss
+Edgeworth, Adam Smith, and Co. There is no God, but have we not invented
+gunpowder?--who wants a God, with that in his pocket?[68] There is no
+Resurrection, neither angel nor spirit; but have we not paper and pens,
+and cannot every blockhead print his opinions, and the Day of Judgment
+become Republican, with everybody for a judge, and the flat of the
+universe for the throne? There is no law, but only gravitation and
+congelation, and we are stuck together in an everlasting hail, and
+melted together in everlasting mud, and great was the day in which our
+worships were born. And there is no gospel, but only, whatever we've
+got, to get more, and, wherever we are, to go somewhere else. And are
+not these discoveries, to be sung of, and drummed of, and fiddled of,
+and generally made melodiously indubitable in the eighteenth century
+song of praise?
+
+47. The Fates will not have it so. No word of song is possible, in that
+century, to mortal lips. Only polished versification, sententious
+pentameter and hexameter, until, having turned out its toes long enough
+without dancing, and pattered with its lips long enough without piping,
+suddenly Astræa returns to the earth, and a Day of Judgment of a sort,
+and there bursts out a song at last again, a most curtly melodious
+triplet of Amphisbænic ryme, "_Ça ira_."
+
+Amphisbænic, fanged in each ryme with fire, and obeying Ercildoune's
+precept, "Tong is chefe of mynstrelsye," to the syllable.--Don
+Giovanni's hitherto fondly chanted "Andiam, andiam," become
+suddenly impersonal and prophetic: IT shall go, and you also. A
+cry--before it is a song, then song and accompaniment
+together--perfectly done; and the march "towards the field of Mars. The
+two hundred and fifty thousand--they to the sound of stringed
+music--preceded by young girls with tricolor streamers, they have
+shouldered soldierwise their shovels and picks, and with one throat are
+singing _Ça ira_."[69]
+
+Through all the springtime of 1790, from Brittany to Burgundy, on most
+plains of France, under most city walls, there march and
+constitutionally wheel to the Ça-iraing mood of fife and drum--our clear
+glancing phalanxes;--the song of the two hundred and fifty thousand,
+virgin-led, is in the long light of July. Nevertheless, another song is
+yet needed, for phalanx, and for maid. For, two springs and summers
+having gone--amphisbænic,--on the 28th of August, 1792, "Dumouriez rode
+from the camp of Maulde, eastwards to _Sedan_."[70]
+
+48. "And Longwi has fallen basely, and Brunswick and the Prussian king
+will beleaguer Verdun, and Clairfait and the Austrians press deeper in
+over the northern marches, Cimmerian Europe behind. And on that same
+night Dumouriez assembles council of war at his lodgings in Sedan.
+Prussians here, Austrians there, triumphant both. With broad highway to
+Paris and little hindrance--_we_ scattered, helpless here and
+there--what to advise?" The generals advise retreating, and retreating
+till Paris be sacked at the latest day possible. Dumouriez, silent,
+dismisses _them_,--keeps only, with a sign, Thouvenot. Silent thus, when
+needful, yet having voice, it appears, of what musicians call tenor
+quality, of a rare kind. Rubini-esque, even, but scarcely producible to
+the fastidious ears at opera. The seizure of the forest of Argonne
+follows--the cannonade of Valmy. The Prussians do not march on Paris
+_this_ time, the autumnal hours of fate pass on--_ça ira_--and on the
+6th of November, Dumouriez meets the Austrians also. "Dumouriez
+wide-winged, they wide-winged--at and around Jemappes, its green heights
+fringed and maned with red fire. And Dumouriez is swept back on this
+wing and swept back on that, and is like to be swept back utterly, when
+he rushes up in person, speaks a prompt word or two, and then, with
+clear tenor-pipe, uplifts the hymn of the Marseillaise, ten thousand
+tenor or bass pipes joining, or say some forty thousand in all, for
+every heart leaps up at the sound; and so, with rhythmic march melody,
+they rally, they advance, they rush death-defying, and like the fire
+whirlwind sweep all manner of Austrians from the scene of action." Thus,
+through the lips of Dumouriez, sings Tyrtæus, Rouget de Lisle.[71] "Aux
+armes--marchons." Iambic measure with a witness! in what wide strophe
+here beginning--in what unthought-of antistrophe returning to that
+council chamber in Sedan!
+
+49. While these two great songs were thus being composed, and sung, and
+danced to in cometary cycle, by the French nation, here in our less
+giddy island there rose, amidst hours of business in Scotland and of
+idleness in England, three troubadours of quite different temper.
+Different also themselves, but not opponent; forming a perfect chord,
+and adverse all the three of them alike to the French musicians, in this
+main point--that while the _Ca ira_ and Marseillaise were essentially
+songs of blame and wrath, the British bards wrote, virtually, always
+songs of praise, though by no means psalmody in the ancient keys. On the
+contrary, all the three are alike moved by a singular antipathy to the
+priests, and are pointed at with fear and indignation by the pietists,
+of their day;--not without latent cause. For they are all of them, with
+the most loving service, servants of that world which the Puritan and
+monk alike despised; and, in the triple chord of their song, could not
+but appear to the religious persons around them as respectively and
+specifically the praisers--Scott of the world, Burns of the flesh, and
+Byron of the devil.
+
+To contend with this carnal orchestra, the religious world, having long
+ago rejected its Catholic Psalms as antiquated and unscientific, and
+finding its Puritan melodies sunk into faint jar and twangle from their
+native trumpet-tone, had nothing to oppose but the innocent, rather than
+religious, verses of the school recognized as that of the English Lakes;
+very creditable to them; domestic at once and refined; observing the
+errors of the world outside of the Lakes with a pitying and tender
+indignation, and arriving in lacustrine seclusion at many valuable
+principles of philosophy, as pure as the tarns of their mountains, and
+of corresponding depth.[72]
+
+50. I have lately seen, and with extreme pleasure, Mr. Matthew Arnold's
+arrangement of Wordsworth's poems; and read with sincere interest his
+high estimate of them. But a great poet's work never needs arrangement
+by other hands; and though it is very proper that Silver How should
+clearly understand and brightly praise its fraternal Rydal Mount, we
+must not forget that, over yonder, are the Andes, all the while.
+
+Wordsworth's rank and scale among poets were determined by himself, in a
+single exclamation:
+
+  "What was the great Parnassus' self to thee,
+  Mount Skiddaw?"
+
+Answer his question faithfully, and you have the relation between the
+great masters of the Muse's teaching and the pleasant fingerer of his
+pastoral flute among the reeds of Rydal.
+
+Wordsworth is simply a Westmoreland peasant, with considerably less
+shrewdness than most border Englishmen or Scotsmen inherit; and no sense
+of humor: but gifted (in this singularly) with vivid sense of natural
+beauty, and a pretty turn for reflections, not always acute, but, as far
+as they reach, medicinal to the fever of the restless and corrupted life
+around him. Water to parched lips may be better than Samian wine, but do
+not let us therefore confuse the qualities of wine and water. I much
+doubt there being many inglorious Miltons in our country churchyards;
+but I am very sure there are many Wordsworths resting there, who were
+inferior to the renowned one only in caring less to hear themselves
+talk.
+
+With an honest and kindly heart, a stimulating egoism, a wholesome
+contentment in modest circumstances, and such sufficient ease, in that
+accepted state, as permitted the passing of a good deal of time in
+wishing that daisies could see the beauty of their own shadows, and
+other such profitable mental exercises, Wordsworth has left us a series
+of studies of the graceful and happy shepherd life of our lake country,
+which to me personally, for one, are entirely sweet and precious; but
+they are only so as the mirror of an existent reality in many ways more
+beautiful than its picture.
+
+51. But the other day I went for an afternoon's rest into the cottage of
+one of our country people of old statesman class; cottage lying nearly
+midway between two village churches, but more conveniently for downhill
+walk towards one than the other. I found, as the good housewife made tea
+for me, that nevertheless she went up the hill to church. "Why do not
+you go to the nearer church?" I asked. "Don't you like the clergyman?"
+"Oh no, sir," she answered, "it isn't that; but you know I couldn't
+leave my mother." "Your mother! she is buried at H---- then?" "Yes, sir;
+and you know I couldn't go to church anywhere else."
+
+That feelings such as these existed among the peasants, not of
+Cumberland only, but of all the tender earth that gives forth her fruit
+for the living, and receives her dead to peace, might perhaps have been,
+to our great and endless comfort, discovered before now, if Wordsworth
+had been content to tell us what he knew of his own villages and people,
+not as the leader of a new and only correct school of poetry, but simply
+as a country gentleman of sense and feeling, fond of primroses, kind to
+the parish children, and reverent of the spade with which Wilkinson had
+tilled his lands: and I am by no means sure that his influence on the
+stronger minds of his time was anywise hastened or extended by the
+spirit of tunefulness under whose guidance he discovered that heaven
+rymed to seven, and Foy to boy.
+
+52. Tuneful nevertheless at heart, and of the heavenly choir, I gladly
+and frankly acknowledge him; and our English literature enriched with a
+new and a singular virtue in the aërial purity and healthful rightness
+of his quiet song;--but _aërial_ only,--not ethereal; and lowly in its
+privacy of light.
+
+A measured mind, and calm; innocent, unrepentant; helpful to sinless
+creatures and scathless, such of the flock as do not stray. Hopeful at
+least, if not faithful; content with intimations of immortality such as
+may be in skipping of lambs, and laughter of children--incurious to see
+in the hands the print of the Nails.
+
+A gracious and constant mind; as the herbage of its native hills,
+fragrant and pure;--yet, to the sweep and the shadow, the stress and
+distress, of the greater souls of men, as the tufted thyme to the
+laurel wilderness of Tempe,--as the gleaming euphrasy to the dark
+branches of Dodona.
+
+     [I am obliged to defer the main body of this paper to next
+     month,--revises penetrating all too late into my lacustrine
+     seclusion; as chanced also unluckily with the preceding paper, in
+     which the reader will perhaps kindly correct the consequent
+     misprints [now corrected, ED.], p. 203, l. 23, of
+     "scarcely" to "securely," and p. 206, l. 6, "full," with comma to
+     "fall," without one; noticing besides that "Redgauntlet" has been
+     omitted in the list, pp. 198, 199; and that the reference to note
+     should not be at the word "imagination," p. 198, l. 6, but at the
+     word "trade," l. 15. My dear old friend, Dr. John Brown, sends me,
+     from Jamieson's _Dictionary_, the following satisfactory end to one
+     of my difficulties:--"Coup the crans." The language is borrowed
+     from the "cran," or trivet on which small pots are placed in
+     cookery, which is sometimes turned with its feet uppermost by an
+     awkward assistant. Thus it signifies to be _completely_ upset.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 62: August, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 63: The following fragments out of the letters in my own
+possession, written by Scott to the builder of Abbotsford, as the outer
+decorations of the house were in process of completion, will show how
+accurately Scott had pictured himself in Monkbarns.
+
+
+  "ABBOTSFORD: _April_ 21, 1817.
+
+     "DEAR SIR,--Nothing can be more obliging than your
+     attention to the old stones. You have been as true as the sundial
+     itself." [The sundial had just been erected.] "Of the two I would
+     prefer the larger one, as it is to be in front of a parapet quite
+     in the old taste. But in case of accidents it will be safest in
+     your custody till I come to town again on the 12th of May. Your
+     former favors (which were weighty as acceptable) have come safely
+     out here, and will be disposed of with great effect."
+
+
+  "ABBOTSFORD: _July_ 30th.
+
+     "I fancy the Tolbooth still keeps its feet, but, as it must soon
+     descend, I hope you will remember me. I have an important use for
+     the niche above the door; and though many a man has got a niche
+     _in_ the Tolbooth by building, I believe I am the first that ever
+     got a niche out of it on such an occasion. For which I have to
+     thank your kindness, and to remain very much your obliged humble
+     servant,
+
+  "WALTER SCOTT."
+
+
+  "_August 16._
+
+     "MY DEAR SIR,--I trouble you with this [_sic_] few lines
+     to thank you for the very accurate drawings and measurements of the
+     Tolbooth door, and for your kind promise to attend to my interest
+     and that of Abbotsford in the matter of the Thistle and Fleur de
+     Lis. Most of our scutcheons are now mounted, and look very well, as
+     the house is something after the model of an old hall (not a
+     castle), where such things are well in character." [Alas--Sir
+     Walter, Sir Walter!] "I intend the old lion to predominate over a
+     well which the children have christened the Fountain of the Lions.
+     His present den, however, continues to be the hall at Castle
+     Street."
+
+
+  "_September 5._
+
+     "DEAR SIR,--I am greatly obliged to you for securing the
+     stone. I am not sure that I will put up the gate quite in the old
+     form, but I would like to secure the means of doing so. The
+     ornamental stones are now put up, and have a very happy effect. If
+     you will have the kindness to let me know when the Tolbooth door
+     comes down, I will send in my carts for the stones; I have an
+     admirable situation for it. I suppose the door itself" [he means
+     the wooden one] "will be kept for the new jail; if not, and not
+     otherwise wanted, I would esteem it curious to possess it.
+     Certainly I hope so many sore hearts will not pass through the
+     celebrated door when in my possession as heretofore."
+
+
+  "_September 8._
+
+     "I should esteem it very fortunate if I could have the door also,
+     though I suppose it is modern, having been burned down at the time
+     of Porteous-mob.
+
+     "I am very much obliged to the gentlemen who thought these remains
+     of the Heart of Midlothian are not ill bestowed on their intended
+     possessor."]
+
+[Footnote 64: Henceforward, not in affectation, but for the reader's
+better convenience, I shall continue to spell "Ryme" without our wrongly
+added _h_.]
+
+[Footnote 65: L. ii. 278.]
+
+[Footnote 66: "Che nella mente mia _ragiona_." Love--you observe, the
+highest _Reasonableness_, instead of French _ivresse_, or even
+Shakespearian "mere folly"; and Beatrice as the Goddess of Wisdom in
+this third song of the _Convito_, to be compared with the Revolutionary
+Goddess of Reason; remembering of the whole poem chiefly the line:--
+
+  "Costei penso chi che mosso l'universo."
+
+(See Lyell's "Canzoniere," p. 104.)]
+
+[Footnote 67: [Greek: hôran tês térpsios]--Plato, "Laws," ii., Steph.
+669. "Hour" having here nearly the power of "Fate" with added sense of
+being a daughter of Themis.]
+
+[Footnote 68: "Gunpowder is one of the greatest inventions of modern
+times, _and what has given such a superiority to civilized nations over
+barbarous_"! ("Evenings at Home"--fifth evening.) No man can owe more
+than I both to Mrs. Barbauld and Miss Edgeworth; and I only wish that in
+the substance of what they wisely said, they had been more listened to.
+Nevertheless, the germs of all modern conceit and error respecting
+manufacture and industry, as rivals to Art and to Genius, are
+concentrated in "Evenings at Home" and "Harry and Lucy"--being all the
+while themselves works of real genius, and prophetic of things that have
+yet to be learned and fulfilled. See for instance the paper, "Things by
+their Right Names," following the one from which I have just quoted
+("The Ship"), and closing the first volume of the old edition of the
+"Evenings."]
+
+[Footnote 69: Carlyle, "French Revolution" (Chapman, 1869), vol. ii. p.
+70; conf. p. 25, and the _Ça ira_ at Arras, vol. iii. p. 276.]
+
+[Footnote 70: _Ibid._ iii. 26.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Carlyle, "French Revolution," iii. 106, the last sentence
+altered in a word or two.]
+
+[Footnote 72: I have been greatly disappointed, in taking soundings of
+our most majestic mountain pools, to find them, in no case, verge on the
+unfathomable.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+III.[73]
+
+[BYRON]
+
+  "Parching summer hath no warrant
+    To consume this crystal well;
+  Rains, that make each brook a torrent,
+    Neither sully it, nor swell."
+
+
+53. So was it year by year, among the unthought-of hills. Little Duddon
+and child Rotha ran clear and glad; and laughed from ledge to pool, and
+opened from pool to mere, translucent, through endless days of peace.
+
+But eastward, between her orchard plains, Loire locked her embracing
+dead in silent sands; dark with blood rolled Iser; glacial-pale,
+Beresina-Lethe, by whose shore the weary hearts forgot their people, and
+their father's house.
+
+Nor unsullied, Tiber; nor unswoln, Arno and Aufidus; and Euroclydon high
+on Helle's wave; meantime, let our happy piety glorify the garden rocks
+with snowdrop circlet, and breathe the spirit of Paradise, where life is
+wise and innocent.
+
+Maps many have we, nowadays clear in display of earth constituent, air
+current, and ocean tide. Shall we ever engrave the map of meaner
+research, whose shadings shall content themselves in the task of showing
+the depth, or drought,--the calm, or trouble, of Human Compassion?
+
+54. For this is indeed all that is noble in the life of Man, and the
+source of all that is noble in the speech of Man. Had it narrowed itself
+then, in those days, out of all the world, into this peninsula between
+Cockermouth and Shap?
+
+Not altogether so; but indeed the _Vocal_ piety seemed conclusively to
+have retired (or excursed?) into that mossy hermitage, above Little
+Langdale. The _Un_vocal piety, with the uncomplaining sorrow, of Man,
+may have a somewhat wider range, for aught we know: but history
+disregards those items; and of firmly proclaimed and sweetly canorous
+religion, there really seemed at that juncture none to be reckoned upon,
+east of Ingleborough, or north of Criffel. Only under Furness Fells, or
+by Bolton Priory, it seems we can still write Ecclesiastical Sonnets,
+stanzas on the force of Prayer, Odes to Duty, and complimentary
+addresses to the Deity upon His endurance for adoration. Far otherwise,
+over yonder, by Spezzia Bay, and Ravenna Pineta, and in ravines of
+Hartz. There, the softest voices speak the wildest words; and Keats
+discourses of Endymion, Shelley of Demogorgon, Goethe of Lucifer, and
+Burger of the Resurrection of Death unto Death--while even Puritan
+Scotland and Episcopal Anglia produce for us only these three minstrels
+of doubtful tone, who show but small respect for the "unco guid," put
+but limited faith in gifted Gilfillan, and translate with unflinching
+frankness the _Morgante Maggiore_.[74]
+
+55. Dismal the aspect of the spiritual world, or at least the sound of
+it, might well seem to the eyes and ears of Saints (such as we had) of
+the period--dismal in angels' eyes also assuredly! Yet is it possible
+that the dismalness in angelic sight may be otherwise quartered, as it
+were, from the way of mortal heraldry; and that seen, and heard, of
+angels,--again I say--hesitatingly--_is_ it possible that the goodness
+of the Unco Guid, and the gift of Gilfillan, and the word of Mr.
+Blattergowl, may severally not have been the goodness of God, the gift
+of God, nor the word of God: but that in the much blotted and broken
+efforts at goodness, and in the careless gift which they themselves
+despised,[75] and in the sweet ryme and murmur of their unpurposed
+words, the Spirit of the Lord had, indeed, wandering, as in chaos days
+on lightless waters, gone forth in the hearts and from the lips of those
+other three strange prophets, even though they ate forbidden bread by
+the altar of the poured-out ashes, and even though the wild beast of the
+desert found them, and slew.
+
+This, at least, I know, that it had been well for England, though all
+her other prophets, of the Press, the Parliament, the Doctor's chair,
+and the Bishop's throne, had fallen silent; so only that she had been
+able to understand with her heart here and there the simplest line of
+these, her despised.
+
+56. I take one at mere chance:
+
+  "Who thinks of self, when gazing on the sky?"[76]
+
+Well, I don't know; Mr. Wordsworth certainly did, and observed, with
+truth, that its clouds took a sober coloring in consequence of his
+experiences. It is much if, indeed, this sadness be unselfish, and our
+eyes _have_ kept loving watch o'er Man's Mortality. I have found it
+difficult to make anyone nowadays believe that such sobriety can be; and
+that Turner saw deeper crimson than others in the clouds of Goldau. But
+that any should yet think the clouds brightened by Man's _Im_mortality
+instead of dulled by his death,--and, gazing on the sky, look for the
+day when every eye must gaze also--for behold, He cometh with
+clouds--this it is no more possible for Christian England to apprehend,
+however exhorted by her gifted and guid.
+
+57. "But Byron was not thinking of such things!"--He, the reprobate! how
+should such as he think of Christ?
+
+Perhaps not wholly as you or I think of Him. Take, at chance, another
+line or two, to try:
+
+  "Carnage (so Wordsworth tells you) is God's daughter;[77]
+  If he speak truth, she is Christ's sister, and
+  Just now, behaved as in the Holy Land."
+
+Blasphemy, cry you, good reader? Are you sure you understand it? The
+first line I gave you was easy Byron--almost shallow Byron--these are of
+the man in his depth, and you will not fathom them, like a tarn--nor in
+a hurry.
+
+"Just now behaved as in the Holy Land." How _did_ Carnage behave in the
+Holy Land then? You have all been greatly questioning, of late, whether
+the sun, which you find to be now going out, ever stood still. Did you
+in any lagging minute, on those scientific occasions, chance to reflect
+what he was bid stand still _for_? or if not--will you please look--and
+what also, going forth again as a strong man to run his course, he saw,
+rejoicing?
+
+"Then Joshua passed from Makkedah unto Libnah--and fought against
+Libnah. And the Lord delivered it and the king thereof into the hand of
+Israel, and he smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls
+that were therein." And from Lachish to Eglon, and from Eglon to
+Kirjath-Arba, and Sarah's grave in the Amorites' land, "and Joshua smote
+all the country of the hills and of the south--and of the vale and of
+the springs, and all their kings: he left none remaining, but utterly
+destroyed all that breathed--as the Lord God of Israel commanded."
+
+58. Thus, "it is written": though you perhaps do not so often hear
+_these_ texts preached from, as certain others about taking away the
+sins of the world. I wonder how the world would like to part with them!
+hitherto it has always preferred parting first with its life--and God
+has taken it at its word. But Death is not _His_ Begotten Son, for all
+that; nor is the death of the innocent in battle carnage His "instrument
+for working out a pure intent" as Mr. Wordsworth puts it; but Man's
+instrument for working out an impure one, as Byron would have you to
+know. Theology perhaps less orthodox, but certainly more
+reverent;--neither is the Woolwich Infant a Child of God; neither does
+the iron-clad "Thunderer" utter thunders of God--which facts if you had
+had the grace or sense to learn from Byron, instead of accusing him of
+blasphemy, it had been better at this day for _you_, and for many a
+savage soul also, by Euxine shore, and in Zulu and Afghan lands.
+
+59. It was neither, however, for the theology, nor the use, of these
+lines that I quoted them; but to note this main point of Byron's own
+character. He was the first great Englishman who felt the cruelty of
+war, and, in its cruelty, the shame. Its guilt had been known to George
+Fox--its folly shown practically by Penn. But the _compassion_ of the
+pious world had still for the most part been shown only in keeping its
+stock of Barabbases unhanged if possible: and, till Byron came, neither
+Kunersdorf, Eylau, nor Waterloo, had taught the pity and the pride of
+men that
+
+  "The drying up a single tear has more
+  Of honest fame than shedding seas of gore."[78]
+
+Such pacific verse would not indeed have been acceptable to the
+Edinburgh volunteers on Portobello sands. But Byron can write a battle
+song too, when it is _his_ cue to fight. If you look at the introduction
+to the "Isles of Greece," namely the 85th and 86th stanzas of the 3rd
+canto of "Don Juan,"--you will find--what will you _not_ find, if only
+you understand them! "He" in the first line, remember, means the typical
+modern poet.
+
+  "Thus usually, when he was asked to sing,
+    He gave the different nations something national.
+  'Twas all the same to him--'God save the King'
+    Or 'Ca ira' according to the fashion all;
+  His muse made increment of anything
+    From the high lyric down to the low rational:
+  If Pindar sang horse-races, what should hinder
+    Himself from being as pliable as Pindar?
+
+  In France, for instance, he would write a chanson;
+    In England a six-canto quarto tale;
+  In Spain, he'd make a ballad or romance on
+    The last war--much the same in Portugal;
+  In Germany, the Pegasus he'd prance on
+    Would be old Goethe's--(see what says de Staël)
+  In Italy, he'd ape the 'Trecentisti';
+  In Greece, he'd sing some sort of hymn like this t'ye."
+
+60. Note first here, as we did in Scott, the concentrating and
+foretelling power. The "God Save the Queen" in England, fallen hollow
+now, as the "Ca ira" in France--not a man in France knowing where either
+France or "that" (whatever "that" may be) is going to; nor the Queen of
+England daring, for her life, to ask the tiniest Englishman to do a
+single thing he doesn't like;--nor any salvation, either of Queen or
+Realm, being any more possible to God, unless under the direction of the
+Royal Society: then, note the estimate of height and depth in poetry,
+swept in an instant, "high lyric to low rational." Pindar to Pope
+(knowing Pope's height, too, all the while, no man better); then, the
+poetic power of France--resumed in a word--Béranger; then the cut at
+Marmion, entirely deserved, as we shall see, yet kindly given, for
+everything he names in these two stanzas is the best of its kind; then
+'Romance in Spain on--the _last_ war, (_present_ war not being to
+Spanish poetical taste,) then, Goethe the real heart of all Germany, and
+last, the aping of the Trecentisti which has since consummated itself in
+Pre-Raphaelitism! that also being the best thing Italy has done through
+England, whether in Rossetti's "blessed damozels" or Burne Jones's "days
+of creation." Lastly comes the mock at himself--the modern English
+Greek--(followed up by the "degenerate into hands like mine" in the song
+itself); and then--to amazement, forth he thunders in his
+Achilles-voice. We have had one line of him in his clearness--five of
+him in his depth--sixteen of him in his play. Hear now but these, out of
+his whole heart:--
+
+  "What,--silent yet? and silent _all_?
+    Ah no, the voices of the dead
+  Sound like a distant torrent's fall,
+    And answer, 'Let _one_ living head,
+  But one, arise--we come--we come:'
+  --'Tis but the living who are dumb."
+
+Resurrection, this, you see like Bürger's; but not of death unto death.
+
+61. "Sound like a distant torrent's fall." I said the _whole_ heart of
+Byron was in this passage. First its compassion, then its indignation,
+and the third element, not yet examined, that love of the beauty of this
+world in which the three--unholy--children, of its Fiery Furnace were
+like to each other; but Byron the widest-hearted. Scott and Burns love
+Scotland more than Nature itself: for Burns the moon must rise over
+Cumnock Hills,--for Scott, the Rymer's glen divide the Eildons; but,
+for Byron, Loch-na-Gar _with Ida_, looks o'er Troy, and the soft murmurs
+of the Dee and the Bruar change into voices of the dead on distant
+Marathon.
+
+Yet take the parallel from Scott, by a field of homelier rest:--
+
+  "And silence aids--though the steep hills
+  Send to the lake a thousand rills;
+  In summer tide, so soft they weep,
+  The sound but lulls the ear asleep;
+  Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,
+  So stilly is the solitude.
+
+  Nought living meets the eye or ear,
+  But well I ween the dead are near;
+  For though, in feudal strife, a foe
+  Hath laid our Lady's Chapel low,
+  Yet still beneath the hallowed soil,
+  The peasant rests him from his toil,
+  And, dying, bids his bones be laid
+  Where erst his simple fathers prayed."
+
+And last take the same note of sorrow--with Burns's finger on the fall
+of it:
+
+  "Mourn, ilka grove the cushat kens,
+  Ye hazly shaws and briery dens,
+  Ye burnies, wimplin' down your glens
+                Wi' toddlin' din,
+  Or foamin' strang wi' hasty stens
+                Frae lin to lin."
+
+62. As you read, one after another, these fragments of chant by the
+great masters, does not a sense come upon you of some element in their
+passion, no less than in their sound, different, specifically, from that
+of "Parching summer hath no warrant"? Is it more profane, think you--or
+more tender--nay, perhaps, in the core of it, more true?
+
+For instance, when we are told that
+
+      "Wharfe, as he moved along,
+  To matins joined a mournful voice,"
+
+is this disposition of the river's mind to pensive psalmody quite
+logically accounted for by the previous statement, (itself by no means
+rythmically dulcet,) that
+
+  "The boy is in the arms of Wharfe,
+  And strangled by a merciless force"?
+
+Or, when we are led into the improving reflection,
+
+  "How sweet were leisure, could it yield no more
+  Than 'mid this wave-washed churchyard to recline,
+  From pastoral graves extracting thoughts divine!"
+
+--is the divinity of the extract assured to us by its being made at
+leisure, and in a reclining attitude--as compared with the meditations
+of otherwise active men, in an erect one? Or are we perchance, many of
+us, still erring somewhat in our notions alike of Divinity and
+Humanity,--poetical extraction, and moral position?
+
+63. On the chance of its being so, might I ask hearing for just a few
+words more of the school of Belial?
+
+Their occasion, it must be confessed, is a quite unjustifiable one. Some
+very wicked people--mutineers, in fact--have retired, misanthropically,
+into an unfrequented part of the country, and there find themselves safe
+indeed, but extremely thirsty. Whereupon Byron thus gives them to drink:
+
+  "A little stream came tumbling from the height
+  And straggling into ocean as it might.
+  Its bounding crystal frolicked in the ray
+  And gushed from cliff to crag with saltless spray,
+  Close on the wild wide ocean,--yet as pure
+  And fresh as Innocence; and more secure.
+  Its silver torrent glittered o'er the deep
+  As the shy chamois' eye o'erlooks the steep,
+  While, far below, the vast and sullen swell
+  Of ocean's Alpine azure rose and fell."[79]
+
+Now, I beg, with such authority as an old workman may take concerning
+his trade, having also looked at a waterfall or two in my time, and not
+unfrequently at a wave, to assure the reader that here is entirely
+first-rate literary work. Though Lucifer himself had written it, the
+thing is itself good, and not only so, but unsurpassedly good, the
+closing line being probably the best concerning the sea yet written by
+the race of the sea-kings.
+
+64. But Lucifer himself _could_ not have written it; neither any servant
+of Lucifer. I do not doubt but that most readers were surprised at my
+saying, in the close of my first paper, that Byron's "style" depended in
+any wise on his views respecting the Ten Commandments. That so
+all-important a thing as "style" should depend in the least upon so
+ridiculous a thing as moral sense: or that Allegra's father, watching
+her drive by in Count G.'s coach and six, had any remnant of so
+ridiculous a thing to guide,--or check,--his poetical passion, may alike
+seem more than questionable to the liberal and chaste philosophy of the
+existing British public. But, first of all, putting the question of who
+writes or speaks aside, do you, good reader, _know_ good "style" when
+you get it? Can you say, of half a dozen given lines taken anywhere out
+of a novel, or poem, or play, That is good, essentially, in style, or
+bad, essentially? and can you say why such half-dozen lines are good, or
+bad?
+
+65. I imagine that in most cases, the reply would be given with
+hesitation, yet if you will give me a little patience, and take some
+accurate pains, I can show you the main tests of style in the space of a
+couple of pages.
+
+I take two examples of absolutely perfect, and in manner highest, _i.
+e._, kingly, and heroic, style: the first example in expression of
+anger, the second of love.
+
+  (1)
+
+  "We are glad the Dauphin is so pleasant with us,
+  His present, and your pains, we thank you for.
+  When we have match'd our rackets to these balls,
+  We will in France, by God's grace, play a set
+  Shall strike his father's crown into the hazard."
+
+  (2)
+
+  "My gracious Silence, hail!
+  Would'st thou have laughed, had I come coffin'd home
+  That weep'st to see me triumph? Ah, my dear,
+  Such eyes the widows in Corioli wear
+  And mothers that lack sons."
+
+66. Let us note, point by point, the conditions of greatness common to
+both these passages, so opposite in temper.
+
+A. Absolute command over all passion, however intense; this the
+first-of-first conditions, (see the King's own sentence just before, "We
+are no tyrant, but a Christian King, Unto _whose grace_ our passion is
+as subject As are our wretches fettered in our prisons"); and with this
+self-command, the supremely surveying grasp of every thought that is to
+be uttered, before its utterance; so that each may come in its exact
+place, time, and connection. The slightest hurry, the misplacing of a
+word, or the unnecessary accent on a syllable, would destroy the "style"
+in an instant.
+
+B. Choice of the fewest and simplest words that can be found in the
+compass of the language, to express the thing meant: these few words
+being also arranged in the most straightforward and intelligible way;
+allowing inversion only when the subject can be made primary without
+obscurity: (thus, "his present, and your pains, we thank you for" is
+better than "we thank you for his present and your pains," because the
+Dauphin's gift is by courtesy put before the Ambassador's pains; but
+"when to these balls our rackets we have matched" would have spoiled the
+style in a moment, because--I was going to have said, ball and racket
+are of equal rank, and therefore only the natural order proper; but also
+here the natural order is the desired one, the English racket to have
+precedence of the French ball). In the fourth line the "in France" comes
+first, as announcing the most important resolution of action; the "by
+God's grace" next, as the only condition rendering resolution possible;
+the detail of issue follows with the strictest limit in the final word.
+The King does not say "danger," far less "dishonor," but "hazard" only;
+of _that_ he is, humanly speaking, sure.
+
+67. C. Perfectly emphatic and clear utterance of the chosen words;
+slowly in the degree of their importance, with omission however of every
+word not absolutely required; and natural use of the familiar
+contractions of final dissyllable. Thus "play a set shall strike" is
+better than "play a set _that_ shall strike," and "match'd" is kingly
+short--no necessity of meter could have excused "matched" instead. On
+the contrary, the three first words, "We are glad," would have been
+spoken by the king more slowly and fully than any other syllables in the
+whole passage, first pronouncing the kingly "we" at its proudest, and
+then the "are" as a continuous state, and then the "glad," as the exact
+contrary of what the ambassadors expected him to be.[80]
+
+D. Absolute spontaneity in doing all this, easily and necessarily as the
+heart beats. The king _cannot_ speak otherwise than he does--nor the
+hero. The words not merely come to them, but are compelled to them. Even
+lisping numbers "come," but mighty numbers are ordained, and inspired.
+
+E. Melody in the words, changeable with their passion, fitted to it
+exactly, and the utmost of which the language is capable--the melody in
+prose being Eolian and variable--in verse, nobler by submitting itself
+to stricter law. I will enlarge upon this point presently.
+
+F. Utmost spiritual contents in the words; so that each carries not only
+its instant meaning, but a cloudy companionship of higher or darker
+meaning according to the passion--nearly always indicated by metaphor:
+"play a set"--sometimes by abstraction--(thus in the second passage
+"silence" for silent one) sometimes by description instead of direct
+epithet ("coffined" for dead) but always indicative of there being more
+in the speaker's mind than he has said, or than he can say, full though
+his saying be. On the quantity of this attendant fullness depends the
+majesty of style; that is to say, virtually, on the quantity of
+contained thought in briefest words, such thought being primarily loving
+and true: and this the sum of all--that nothing can be well said, but
+with truth, nor beautifully, but by love.
+
+68. These are the essential conditions of noble speech in prose and
+verse alike, but the adoption of the form of verse, and especially rymed
+verse, means the addition to all these qualities of one more; of music,
+that is to say, not Eolian merely, but Apolline; a construction or
+architecture of words fitted and befitting, under external laws of time
+and harmony.
+
+When Byron says "rhyme is of the rude,"[81] he means that Burns needs
+it,--while Henry the Fifth does not, nor Plato, nor Isaiah--yet in this
+need of it by the simple, it becomes all the more religious: and thus
+the loveliest pieces of Christian language are all in ryme--the best of
+Dante, Chaucer, Douglas, Shakespeare, Spenser, and Sidney.
+
+69. I am not now able to keep abreast with the tide of modern
+scholarship; (nor, to say the truth, do I make the effort, the first
+edge of its waves being mostly muddy, and apt to make a shallow sweep of
+the shore refuse:) so that I have no better book of reference by me than
+the confused essay on the antiquity of ryme at the end of Turner's
+"Anglo-Saxons." I cannot however conceive a more interesting piece of
+work, if not yet done, than the collection of sifted earliest fragments
+known of rymed song in European languages. Of Eastern I know nothing;
+but, this side Hellespont, the substance of the matter is all given in
+King Canute's impromptu
+
+  "Gaily" (or is it sweetly?--I forget which, and it's no matter)
+      "sang the monks of Ely,
+  As Knut the king came sailing by;"
+
+much to be noted by any who make their religion lugubrious, and their
+Sunday the eclipse of the week. And observe further, that if Milton does
+not ryme, it is because his faculty of Song was concerning Loss,
+chiefly; and he has little more than faculty of Croak, concerning Gain;
+while Dante, though modern readers never go further with him than into
+the Pit, is stayed only by Casella in the ascent to the Rose of Heaven.
+So, Gibbon can write in _his_ manner the Fall of Rome; but Virgil, in
+_his_ manner, the rise of it; and finally Douglas, in _his_ manner,
+bursts into such rymed passion of praise both of Rome and Virgil, as
+befits a Christian Bishop, and a good subject of the Holy See.
+
+  "Master of Masters--sweet source, and springing well,
+  Wide where over all rings thy heavenly bell;
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Why should I then with dull forehead and vain,
+  With rude ingene, and barane, emptive brain,
+  With bad harsh speech, and lewit barbare tongue
+  Presume to write, where thy sweet bell is rung,
+  Or counterfeit thy precious wordis dear?
+  Na, na--not so; but kneel when I them hear.
+  But farther more--and lower to descend
+  Forgive me, Virgil, if I thee offend
+  Pardon thy scolar, suffer him to ryme
+  Since _thou_ wast but ane mortal man sometime."
+
+"Before honor is humility." Does not clearer light come for you on that
+law after reading these nobly pious words? And note you _whose_
+humility? How is it that the sound of the bell comes so instinctively
+into his chiming verse? This gentle singer is the son of--Archibald
+Bell-the-Cat!
+
+70. And now perhaps you can read with right sympathy the scene in
+"Marmion" between his father and King James.
+
+  "His hand the monarch sudden took--
+  'Now, by the Bruce's soul,
+  Angus, my hasty speech forgive,
+  For sure as doth his spirit live
+  As he said of the Douglas old
+  I well may say of you,--
+  That never king did subject hold,
+  In speech more free, in war more bold,
+  More tender and more true:'
+  And while the king his hand did strain
+  The old man's tears fell down like rain."
+
+I believe the most infidel of scholastic readers can scarcely but
+perceive the relation between the sweetness, simplicity, and melody of
+expression in these passages, and the gentleness of the passions they
+express, while men who are not scholastic, and yet are true scholars,
+will recognize further in them that the simplicity of the educated is
+lovelier than the simplicity of the rude. Hear next a piece of Spenser's
+teaching how rudeness itself may become more beautiful even by its
+mistakes, if the mistakes are made lovingly.
+
+  "Ye shepherds' daughters that dwell on the green,
+    Hye you there apace;
+  Let none come there but that virgins been
+    To adorn her grace:
+  And when you come, whereas she in place,
+  See that your rudeness do not you disgrace;
+    Bind your fillets fast,
+    And gird in your waste,
+  For more fineness, with a taudry lace.
+
+  Bring hither the pink and purple cullumbine
+    With gylliflowers;
+  Bring coronatiöns, and sops in wine,
+    Worn of paramours;
+  Strow me the ground with daffadowndillies
+  And cowslips, and kingcups, and loved lilies;
+    The pretty paunce
+    And the chevisaunce
+  Shall match with the fair flowre-delice."[82]
+
+71. Two short pieces more only of master song, and we have enough to
+test all by.
+
+  (1)
+
+   "No more, no more, since thou art dead,
+   Shall we e'er bring coy brides to bed,
+   No more, at yearly festivals,
+             We cowslip balls
+   Or chains of columbines shall make,
+   For this or that occasion's sake.
+   No, no! our maiden pleasures be
+   Wrapt in thy winding-sheet with thee."[83]
+
+  (2)
+
+   "Death is now the phoenix nest,
+   And the turtle's loyal breast
+   To eternity doth rest.
+   Truth may seem, but cannot be;
+   Beauty brag, but 'tis not she:
+   Truth and beauty buried be."[84]
+
+72. If now, with the echo of these perfect verses in your mind, you turn
+to Byron, and glance over, or recall to memory, enough of him to give
+means of exact comparison, you will, or should, recognize these
+following kinds of mischief in him. First, if anyone offends him--as for
+instance Mr. Southey, or Lord Elgin--"his manners have not that repose
+that marks the caste," etc. _This_ defect in his Lordship's style, being
+myself scrupulously and even painfully reserved in the use of
+vituperative language, I need not say how deeply I deplore.[85]
+
+Secondly. In the best and most violet-bedded bits of his work there is
+yet, as compared with Elizabethan and earlier verse, a strange taint; an
+indefinable--evening flavor of Covent Garden, as it were;--not to say,
+escape of gas in the Strand. That is simply what it proclaims
+itself--London air. If he had lived all his life in Green-head Ghyll,
+things would of course have been different. But it was his fate to come
+to town--modern town--like Michael's son; and modern London (and Venice)
+are answerable for the state of their drains, not Byron.
+
+Thirdly. His melancholy is without any relief whatsoever; his jest
+sadder than his earnest; while, in Elizabethan work, all lament is full
+of hope, and all pain of balsam.
+
+Of this evil he has himself told you the cause in a single line
+prophetic of all things since and now. "Where _he_ gazed, a gloom
+pervaded space."[86]
+
+So that, for instance, while Mr. Wordsworth, on a visit to town, being
+an exemplary early riser, could walk, felicitous, on Westminster Bridge,
+remarking how the city now did like a garment wear the beauty of the
+morning; Byron, rising somewhat later, contemplated only the garment
+which the beauty of the morning had by that time received for wear from
+the city: and again, while Mr. Wordsworth, in irrepressible religious
+rapture, calls God to witness that the houses seem asleep, Byron, lame
+demon as he was, flying smoke-drifted, unroofs the houses at a glance,
+and sees what the mighty cockney heart of them contains in the still
+lying of it, and will stir up to purpose in the waking business of it,
+
+  "The sordor of civilization, mixed
+  With all the passions which Man's fall hath fixed."[87]
+
+73. Fourthly, with this steadiness of bitter melancholy, there is joined
+a sense of the material beauty, both of inanimate nature, the lower
+animals, and human beings, which in the iridescence, color-depth, and
+morbid (I use the word deliberately) mystery and softness of it,--with
+other qualities indescribable by any single words, and only to be
+analyzed by extreme care,--is found, to the full, only in five men that
+I know of in modern times; namely, Rousseau, Shelley, Byron, Turner, and
+myself,--differing totally and throughout the entire group of us, from
+the delight in clear-struck beauty of Angelico and the Trecentisti; and
+separated, much more singularly, from the cheerful joys of Chaucer,
+Shakespeare, and Scott, by its unaccountable affection for "Rokkes blak"
+and other forms of terror and power, such as those of the ice-oceans,
+which to Shakespeare were only Alpine rheum; and the Via Malas and
+Diabolic Bridges which Dante would have condemned none but lost souls to
+climb, or cross;--all this love of impending mountains, coiled
+thunder-clouds, and dangerous sea, being joined in us with a sulky,
+almost ferine, love of retreat in valleys of Charmettes, gulfs of
+Spezzia, ravines of Olympus, low lodgings in Chelsea, and close
+brushwood at Coniston.
+
+74. And, lastly, also in the whole group of us, glows volcanic instinct
+of Astræan justice returning not to, but up out of, the earth, which
+will not at all suffer us to rest any more in Pope's serene "whatever
+is, is right"; but holds, on the contrary, profound conviction that
+about ninety-nine hundredths of whatever at present is, is wrong:
+conviction making four of us, according to our several manners, leaders
+of revolution for the poor, and declarers of political doctrine
+monstrous to the ears of mercenary mankind; and driving the fifth, less
+sanguine, into mere painted-melody of lament over the fallacy of Hope
+and the implacableness of Fate.
+
+In Byron the indignation, the sorrow, and the effort are joined to the
+death: and they are the parts of his nature (as of mine also in its
+feebler terms), which the selfishly comfortable public have, literally,
+no conception of whatever; and from which the piously sentimental
+public, offering up daily the pure oblation of divine tranquillity,
+shrink with anathema not unembittered by alarm.
+
+75. Concerning which matters I hope to speak further and with more
+precise illustration in my next paper; but, seeing that this present one
+has been hitherto somewhat somber, and perhaps, to gentle readers, not a
+little discomposing, I will conclude it with a piece of light biographic
+study, necessary to my plan, and as conveniently admissible in this
+place as afterwards;--namely, the account of the manner in which
+Scott--whom we shall always find, as aforesaid, to be in salient and
+palpable elements of character, of the World, worldly, as Burns is of
+the Flesh, fleshly, and Byron of the Deuce, damnable,--spent his Sunday.
+
+76. As usual, from Lockhart's farrago we cannot find out the first thing
+we want to know,--whether Scott worked after his week-day custom, on the
+Sunday morning. But, I gather, not; at all events his household and his
+cattle rested (L. iii. 108). I imagine he walked out into his woods, or
+read quietly in his study. Immediately after breakfast, whoever was in
+the house, "Ladies and gentlemen, I shall read prayers at eleven, when
+I expect you all to attend" (vii. 306). Question of college and other
+externally unanimous prayer settled for us very briefly: "if you have no
+faith, have at least manners." He read the Church of England service,
+lessons and all, the latter, if interesting, eloquently (_ibid._). After
+the service, one of Jeremy Taylor's sermons (vi. 188). After sermon, if
+the weather was fine, walk with his family, dogs included and guests, to
+_cold_ picnic (iii. 109), followed by short extempore biblical
+novelettes; for he had his Bible, the Old Testament especially, by
+heart, it having been his mother's last gift to him (vi. 174). These
+lessons to his children in Bible history were always given, whether
+there was picnic or not. For the rest of the afternoon he took his
+pleasure in the woods with Tom Purdie, who also always appeared at his
+master's elbow on Sunday after dinner was over, and drank long life to
+the laird and his lady and all the good company, in a quaigh of whisky
+or a tumbler of wine, according to his fancy (vi. 195). Whatever might
+happen on the other evenings of the week, Scott always dined at home on
+Sunday; and with old friends: never, unless inevitably, receiving any
+person with whom he stood on ceremony (v. 335). He came into the room
+rubbing his hands like a boy arriving at home for the holidays, his
+Peppers and Mustards gamboling about him, "and even the stately Maida
+grinning and wagging his tail with sympathy." For the usquebaugh of the
+less honored week-days, at the Sunday board he circulated the champagne
+briskly during dinner, and considered a pint of claret each man's fair
+share afterwards (v. 339). In the evening, music being to the Scottish
+worldly mind indecorous, he read aloud some favorite author, for the
+amusement or edification of his little circle. Shakespeare it might be,
+or Dryden,--Johnson, or Joanna Baillie,--Crabbe, or Wordsworth. But in
+those days "Byron was pouring out his spirit fresh and full, and if a
+new piece from _his_ hand had appeared, it was _sure to be read by Scott
+the Sunday evening afterwards_; and that with such delighted emphasis
+as showed how completely the elder bard had kept up his enthusiasm for
+poetry at pitch of youth, and all his admiration of genius, free, pure,
+and unstained by the least drop of literary jealousy" (v. 341).
+
+77. With such necessary and easily imaginable varieties as chanced in
+having Dandie Dinmont or Captain Brown for guests at Abbotsford, or
+Colonel Mannering, Counselor Pleydell, and Dr. Robertson in Castle
+Street, such was Scott's habitual Sabbath: a day, we perceive, of eating
+the fat, (_dinner_, presumably not cold, being a work of necessity and
+mercy--thou also, even thou, Saint Thomas of Turnbull, hast thine!) and
+drinking the sweet, abundant in the manner of Mr. Southey's cataract of
+Lodore,--"Here it comes, sparkling." A day bestrewn with coronatiöns and
+sops in wine; deep in libations to good hope and fond memory; a day of
+rest to beast, and mirth to man, (as also to sympathetic beasts that can
+be merry,) and concluding itself in an Orphic hour of delight,
+signifying peace on Tweedside, and goodwill to men, there or far
+away;--always excepting the French, and Boney.
+
+"Yes, and see what it all came to in the end."
+
+Not so, dark-virulent Minos-Mucklewrath; the end came of quite other
+things; of _these_, came such length of days and peace as Scott had in
+his Fatherland, and such immortality as he has in all lands.
+
+78. Nathless, firm, though deeply courteous, rebuke, for his sometimes
+overmuch lightmindedness, was administered to him by the more grave and
+thoughtful Byron. For the Lord Abbot of Newstead knew his Bible by heart
+as well as Scott, though it had never been given him by his mother as
+her dearest possession. Knew it, and what was more, had thought of it,
+and sought in it what Scott had never cared to think, nor been fain to
+seek.
+
+And loving Scott well, and always doing him every possible pleasure in
+the way he sees to be most agreeable to him--as, for instance,
+remembering with precision, and writing down the very next morning,
+every blessed word that the Prince Regent had been pleased to say of
+him before courtly audience,--he yet conceived that such cheap ryming as
+his own "Bride of Abydos," for instance, which he had written from
+beginning to end in four days, or even the traveling reflections of
+Harold and Juan on men and women, were scarcely steady enough Sunday
+afternoon's reading for a patriarch-Merlin like Scott. So he dedicates
+to him a work of a truly religious tendency, on which for his own part
+he has done his best,--the drama of "Cain." Of which dedication the
+virtual significance to Sir Walter might be translated thus. Dearest and
+last of Border soothsayers, thou hast indeed told us of Black Dwarfs,
+and of White Maidens, also of Gray Friars, and Green Fairies; also of
+sacred hollies by the well, and haunted crooks in the glen. But of the
+bushes that the black dogs rend in the woods of Phlegethon; and of the
+crooks in the glen, and the bickerings of the burnie where ghosts meet
+the mightiest of us; and of the black misanthrope, who is by no means
+yet a dwarfed one, and concerning whom wiser creatures than Hobbie
+Elliot may tremblingly ask "Gude guide us, what's yon?" hast thou yet
+known, seeing that thou hast yet told, _nothing_.
+
+Scott may perhaps have his answer. We shall in good time hear.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 73: September, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 74: "It must be put by the original, stanza for stanza, and
+verse for verse; and you will see what was permitted in a Catholic
+country and a bigoted age to Churchmen, on the score of Religion--and so
+tell those buffoons who accuse me of attacking the Liturgy.
+
+"I write in the greatest haste, it being the hour of the Corso, and I
+must go and buffoon with the rest. My daughter Allegra is just gone with
+the Countess G. in Count G.'s coach and six. Our old Cardinal is dead,
+and the new one not appointed yet--but the masquing goes on the same."
+(Letter to Murray, 355th in Moore, dated Ravenna, Feb. 7, 1820.) "A
+dreadfully moral place, for you must not look at anybody's wife, except
+your neighbor's."]
+
+[Footnote 75: See quoted _infra_ the mock, by Byron, of himself and all
+other modern poets, "Juan," canto iii. stanza 80, and compare canto xiv.
+stanza 8. In reference of future quotations the first numeral will stand
+always for canto; the second for stanza; the third, if necessary, for
+line.]
+
+[Footnote 76: "Island," ii. 16, where see context.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Juan," viii. 5; but, by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says "instrument,"--not "daughter." Your Lordship had better
+have said "Infant" and taken the Woolwich authorities to witness: only
+Infant would not have rymed.]
+
+[Footnote 78: "Juan," viii. 3; compare 14, and 63, with all its lovely
+context 61-68: then 82, and afterwards slowly and with thorough
+attention, the Devil's speech, beginning, "Yes, Sir, you forget" in
+scene 2 of "The Deformed Transformed": then Sardanapalus's, act i. scene
+2, beginning, "he is gone, and on his finger bears my signet," and
+finally the "Vision of Judgment," stanzas 3 to 5.]
+
+[Footnote 79: "Island," iii. 3, and compare, of shore surf, the "slings
+its high flakes, shivered into sleet" of stanza 7.]
+
+[Footnote 80: A modern editor--of whom I will not use the expressions
+which occur to me--finding the "we" a redundant syllable in the iambic
+line, prints, "we're." It is a little thing--but I do not recollect, in
+the forty years of my literary experience, any piece of editor's retouch
+quite so base. But I don't read the new editions much: that must be
+allowed for.]
+
+[Footnote 81: "Island," ii. 5. I was going to say, "Look to the
+context," but am fain to give it here; for the stanza, learned by heart,
+ought to be our school-introduction to the literature of the world.
+
+  "Such was this ditty of Tradition's days,
+  Which to the dead a lingering fame conveys
+  In song, where fame as yet hath left no sign
+  Beyond the sound whose charm is half divine;
+  Which leaves no record to the skeptic eye,
+  But yields young history all to harmony;
+  A boy Achilles, with the centaur's lyre
+  In hand, to teach him to surpass his sire.
+  For one long-cherish'd ballad's simple stave,
+  Rung from the rock, or mingled with the wave,
+  Or from the bubbling streamlet's grassy side,
+  Or gathering mountain echoes as they glide,
+  Hath greater power o'er each true heart and ear,
+  Than all the columns Conquest's minions rear;
+  Invites, when hieroglyphics are a theme
+  For sages' labors or the student's dream;
+  Attracts, when History's volumes are a toil--
+  The first, the freshest bud of Feeling's soil,
+  Such was this rude rhyme--rhyme is of the rude,
+  But such inspired the Norseman's solitude,
+  Who came and conquer'd; such, wherever rise
+  Lands which no foes destroy or civilize,
+  Exist; and what can our accomplish'd art
+  Of verse do more than reach the awaken'd heart?"]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Shepherd's Calendar." "Coronatiön," loyal-pastoral for
+Carnation; "sops in wine," jolly-pastoral for double pink; "paunce,"
+thoughtless pastoral for pansy; "chevisaunce," I don't know (not in
+Gerarde); "flowre-delice"--pronounce dellice--half made up of "delicate"
+and "delicious."]
+
+[Footnote 83: Herrick, "Dirge for Jephthah's Daughter."]
+
+[Footnote 84: "Passionate Pilgrim."]
+
+[Footnote 85: In this point compare the "Curse of Minerva" with the
+"Tears of the Muses."]
+
+[Footnote 86: "He,"--Lucifer; ("Vision of Judgment," 24). It is
+precisely because Byron was _not_ his servant, that he could see the
+gloom. To the Devil's true servants, their Master's presence brings both
+cheerfulness and prosperity; with a delightful sense of their own wisdom
+and virtue; and of the "progress" of things in general:--in smooth sea
+and fair weather,--and with no need either of helm touch, or oar toil:
+as when once one is well within the edge of Maelstrom.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "Island," ii. 4; perfectly orthodox theology, you observe;
+no denial of the fall,--nor substitution of Bacterian birth for it. Nay,
+nearly Evangelical theology, in contempt for the human heart; but with
+deeper than Evangelical humility, acknowledging also what is sordid in
+its civilization.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+IV.[88]
+
+
+79. I fear the editor of the _Nineteenth Century_ will get little thanks
+from his readers for allowing so much space in closely successive
+numbers to my talk of old-fashioned men and things. I have nevertheless
+asked his indulgence, this time, for a note or two concerning yet older
+fashions, in order to bring into sharper clearness the leading outlines
+of literary fact, which I ventured only in my last paper to secure in
+_silhouette_, obscurely asserting itself against the limelight of recent
+moral creed, and fiction manufacture.
+
+The Bishop of Manchester, on the occasion of the great Wordsworthian
+movement in that city for the enlargement, adornment, and sale of
+Thirlmere, observed, in his advocacy of these operations, that very few
+people, he supposed, had ever seen Tairlmere. His Lordship might have
+supposed, with greater felicity, that very few people had ever read
+Wordsworth. My own experience in that matter is that the amiable persons
+who call themselves "Wordsworthian" have read--usually a long time
+ago--"Lucy Gray," "The April Mornings," a picked sonnet or two, and the
+"Ode on the Intimations," which last they seem generally to be under the
+impression that nobody else has ever met with: and my further experience
+of these sentimental students is, that they are seldom inclined to put
+in practice a single syllable of the advice tendered them by their model
+poet.
+
+Now, as I happen myself to have used Wordsworth as a daily text-book
+from youth to age, and have lived, moreover, in all essential points
+according to the tenor of his teaching, it was matter of some
+mortification to me, when, at Oxford, I tried to get the memory of Mr.
+Wilkinson's spade honored by some practical spadework at Ferry Hincksey,
+to find that no other tutor in Oxford could see the slightest good or
+meaning in what I was about; and that although my friend Professor
+Rolleston occasionally sought the shades of our Rydalian laurels with
+expressions of admiration, his professorial manner of "from pastoral
+graves extracting thoughts divine" was to fill the Oxford Museum with
+the scabbed skulls of plague-struck cretins.
+
+80. I therefore respectfully venture to intimate to my bucolic friends,
+that I know, more vitally by far than they, what _is_ in Wordsworth, and
+what is not. Any man who chooses to live by his precepts will thankfully
+find in them a beauty and rightness, (_exquisite_ rightness I called it,
+in "Sesame and Lilies,") which will preserve him alike from mean
+pleasure, vain hope, and guilty deed: so that he will neither mourn at
+the gate of the fields which with covetous spirit he sold, nor drink of
+the waters which with yet more covetous spirit he stole, nor devour the
+bread of the poor in secret, nor set on his guest-table the poor man's
+lamb:--in all these homely virtues and assured justices let him be
+Wordsworth's true disciple; and he will then be able with equanimity to
+hear it said, when there is need to say so, that his excellent master
+often wrote verses that were not musical, and sometimes expressed
+opinions that were not profound.
+
+And the need to say so becomes imperative when the unfinished verse, and
+uncorrected fancy, are advanced by the affection of his disciples into
+places of authority where they give countenance to the popular national
+prejudices from the infection of which, in most cases, they themselves
+sprang.
+
+81. Take, for example, the following three and a half lines of the 38th
+Ecclesiastical Sonnet:--
+
+  "Amazement strikes the crowd; while many turn
+  Their eyes away in sorrow, others burn
+  With scorn, invoking a vindictive ban
+  From outraged Nature."
+
+The first quite evident character of these lines is that they are
+extremely bad iambics,--as ill-constructed as they are unmelodious; the
+turning and burning being at the wrong ends of them, and the ends
+themselves put just when the sentence is in its middle.
+
+But a graver fault of these three and a half lines is that the
+amazement, the turning, the burning, and the banning, are all alike
+fictitious; and foul-fictitious, calumniously conceived no less than
+falsely. Not one of the spectators of the scene referred to was in
+reality amazed--not one contemptuous, not one maledictory. It is only
+our gentle minstrel of the meres who sits in the seat of the
+scornful--only the hermit of Rydal Mount who invokes the malison of
+Nature.
+
+What the scene verily was, and how witnessed, it will not take long to
+tell; nor will the tale be useless: but I must first refer the reader to
+a period preceding, by nearly a century, the great symbolic action under
+the porch of St. Mark's.
+
+82. The Protestant ecclesiastic, and infidel historian, who delight to
+prop their pride, or edge their malice, in unveiling the corruption
+through which Christianity has passed, should study in every fragment of
+authentic record which the fury of their age has left, the lives of the
+three queens of the Priesthood, Theodora, Marozia, and Matilda, and the
+foundation of the merciless power of the Popes, by the monk Hildebrand.
+And if there be any of us who would satisfy with nobler food than the
+catastrophes of the stage, the awe at what is marvelous in human sorrow
+which makes sacred the fountain of tears in authentic tragedy, let them
+follow, pace by pace, and pang by pang, the humiliation of the fourth
+Henry at Canossa, and his death in the church he had built to the Virgin
+at Spire.
+
+His antagonist, Hildebrand, died twenty years before him; captive to the
+Normans in Salerno, having seen the Rome in which he had proclaimed his
+princedom over all the earth, laid in her last ruin; and forever. Rome
+herself, since her desolation by Guiscard, has been only a grave and a
+wilderness[89]--what _we_ call Rome, is a mere colony of the stranger
+in her "Field of Mars." This destruction of Rome by the Normans is
+accurately and utterly the end of her Capitoline and wolf-suckled power;
+and from that day her Leonine or Christian power takes its throne in the
+Leonine city, sanctified in tradition by its prayer of safety for the
+Saxon Borgo, in which the childhood of our own Alfred had been trained.
+
+And from this date forward, (recollected broadly as 1090, the year of
+the birth of St. Bernard,) no longer oppressed by the remnants of Roman
+death,--Christian faith, chivalry, and art possess the world, and
+recreate it, through the space of four hundred years--the twelfth,
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
+
+And, necessarily, in the first of these centuries comes the main debate
+between the powers of Monk and Knight which was reconciled in this scene
+under the porch of St. Mark's.
+
+83. That debate was brought to its crisis and issue by the birth of the
+new third elemental force of the State--the Citizen. Sismondi's
+republican enthusiasm does not permit him to recognize the essential
+character of this power. He speaks always of the Republics and the
+liberties of Italy, as if a craftsman differed from a knight only in
+political privileges, and as if his special virtue consisted in
+rendering obedience to no master. But the strength of the great cities
+of Italy was no more republican than that of her monasteries, or
+fortresses. The Craftsman of Milan, Sailor of Pisa, and Merchant of
+Venice are all of them essentially different persons from the soldier
+and the anchorite:--but the city, under the banner of its _caroccio_,
+and the command of its _podesta_, was disciplined far more strictly than
+any wandering military squadron by its leader, or any lower order of
+monks under their abbot. In the founding of civic constitutions, the
+Lord of the city is usually its Bishop:--and it is curious to hear the
+republican historian--who, however in judgment blind, is never in heart
+uncandid, prepare to close his record of the ten years' war of Como with
+Milan, with this summary of distress to the heroic mountaineers--that
+"they had lost their Bishop Guido, who was their soul."
+
+84. I perceive for quite one of the most hopeless of the many
+difficulties which Modernism finds, and will find, insuperable either by
+steam or dynamite, that of either wedging or welding into its own
+cast-iron head, any conception of a king, monk, or townsman of the
+twelfth and two succeeding centuries. And yet no syllable of the
+utterance, no fragment of the arts of the middle ages, far less any
+motive of their deeds, can be read even in the letter--how much less
+judged in spirit--unless, first of all, we can somewhat imagine all
+these three Living souls.
+
+First, a king who was the best knight in his kingdom, and on whose own
+swordstrokes hung the fate of Christendom. A king such as Henry the
+Fowler, the first and third Edwards of England, the Bruce of Scotland,
+and this Frederic the First of Germany.
+
+Secondly, a monk who had been trained from youth in greater hardship
+than any soldier, and had learned at last to desire no other life than
+one of hardship;--a man believing in his own and his fellows'
+immortality, in the aiding powers of angels, and the eternal presence of
+God; versed in all the science, graceful in all the literature,
+cognizant of all the policy of his age; and fearless of any created
+thing, on the earth or under it.
+
+And, lastly, a craftsman absolutely master of his craft, and taking such
+pride in the exercise of it as all healthy souls take in putting forth
+their personal powers: proud also of his city and his people; enriching,
+year by year, their streets with loftier buildings, their treasuries
+with rarer possession; and bequeathing his hereditary art to a line of
+successive masters, by whose tact of race, and honor of effort, the
+essential skills of metal-work in gold and steel, of pottery,
+glass-painting, woodwork, and weaving, were carried to a perfectness
+never to be surpassed; and of which our utmost modern hope is to produce
+a not instantly detected imitation.
+
+These three kinds of persons, I repeat, we have to conceive before we
+can understand any single event of the Middle Ages. For all that is
+enduring in them was done by men such as these. History, indeed, records
+twenty undoings for one deed, twenty desolations for one redemption; and
+thinks the fool and villain potent as the wise and true. But Nature and
+her laws recognize only the noble: generations of the cruel pass like
+the darkness of locust plagues; while one loving and brave heart
+establishes a nation.
+
+85. I give the character of Barbarossa in the words of Sismondi, a man
+sparing in the praise of emperors:--
+
+"The death of Frederic was mourned even by the cities which so long had
+been the objects of his hostility, and the victims of his vengeance. All
+the Lombards--even the Milanese--acknowledged his rare courage, his
+constancy in misfortune--his generosity in conquest.
+
+"An intimate conviction of the justice of his cause had often rendered
+him cruel, even to ferocity, against those who still resisted; but after
+victory he took vengeance only on senseless walls; and irritated as he
+had been by the people of Milan, Crema, and Tortona, and whatever blood
+he had shed during battle, he never sullied his triumph by odious
+punishments. In spite of the treason which he on one occasion used
+against Alessandria, his promises were in general respected; and when,
+after the peace of Constance, the towns which had been most inveterately
+hostile to him received him within their walls, they had no need to
+guard against any attempt on his part to suppress the privileges he had
+once recognized."
+
+My own estimate of Frederic's character would be scarcely so favorable;
+it is the only point of history on which I have doubted the authority
+even of my own master, Carlyle. But I am concerned here only with the
+actualities of his wars in Italy, with the people of her cities, and the
+head of her religion.
+
+86. Frederic of Suabia, direct heir of the Ghibelline rights, while
+nearly related by blood to the Guelph houses of Bavaria and Saxony, was
+elected emperor almost in the exact middle of the twelfth century
+(1152). He was called into Italy by the voices of Italians. The then
+Pope, Eugenius III., invoked his aid against the Roman people under
+Arnold of Brescia. The people of Lodi prayed his protection against the
+tyrannies of Milan.
+
+Frederic entered the plain of Verona in 1154, by the valley of the
+Adige,--ravaged the territory of Milan,--pillaged and burned Tortona,
+Asti, and Chieri,--kept his Christmas at Novara; marched on
+Rome,--delivered up Arnold to the Pope[90] (who, instantly killing him,
+ended for that time Protestant reforms in Italy)--destroyed Spoleto; and
+returned by Verona, having scorched his path through Italy like a level
+thunderbolt along the ground.
+
+Three years afterwards, Adrian died; and, chiefly, by the love and will
+of the Roman people, Roland of Siena was raised to the Papal throne,
+under the name of Alexander III. The conclave of cardinals chose another
+Pope, Victor III.; Frederic on his second invasion of Italy (1158)
+summoned both elected heads of the Church to receive judgment of their
+claims before _him_.
+
+The Cardinals' Pope, Victor, obeyed. The people's Alexander, refused;
+answering that the successor of St. Peter submitted himself to the
+judgment neither of emperors nor councils.
+
+The spirit of modern prelacy may perhaps have rendered it impossible for
+an English churchman to conceive this answer as other than that of
+insolence and hypocrisy. But a faithful Pope, and worthy of his throne,
+could answer no otherwise. Frederic of course at once confirmed the
+claims of his rival; the German bishops and Italian cardinals in council
+at Pavia joined their powers to the Emperor's and Alexander, driven from
+Rome, wandered--unsubdued in soul--from city to city, taking refuge at
+last in France.
+
+87. Meantime, in 1159, Frederic took and destroyed Crema, having first
+bound its hostages to his machines of war. In 1161, Milan submitted to
+his mercy, and he decreed that her name should perish. Only a few
+pillars of a Roman temple, and the church of St. Ambrose, remain to us
+of the ancient city. Warned by her destruction, Verona, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, and Venice, joined in the vow--called of the Lombard League--to
+reduce the Emperor's power within its just limits. And, in 1164,
+Alexander, under the protection of Louis VII. of France and Henry II. of
+England, returned to Rome, and was received at Ostia by its senate,
+clergy, and people.
+
+Three years afterwards, Frederic again swept down on the Campagna;
+attacked the Leonine city, where the basilica of the Vatican, changed
+into a fortress, and held by the Pope's guard, resisted his assault
+until, by the Emperor's order, fire was set to the Church of St. Mary of
+Pity.
+
+The Leonine city was taken; the Pope retired to the Coliseum, whence,
+uttering once again his fixed defiance of the Emperor, but fearing
+treachery, he fled in disguise down the Tiber to the sea, and sought
+asylum at Benevento.
+
+The German army encamped round Rome in August of 1166, with the sign
+before their eyes of the ruins of the church of Our Lady of Pity. The
+marsh-fever struck them--killed the Emperor's cousin, Frederic of
+Rothenburg, the Duke of Bavaria, the Archbishop of Cologne, the Bishops
+of Liége, Spire, Ratisbonne, and Verden, and two thousand knights; the
+common dead were uncounted. The Emperor gathered the wreck of his army
+together, retreated on Lombardy, quartered his soldiery at Pavia, and
+escaped in secret over the Mont Cenis with thirty knights.
+
+88. No places of strength remained to him south of the Alps but Pavia
+and Montferrat; and to hold these in check, and command the plains of
+Piedmont, the Lombard League built the fortress city, which, from the
+Pope who had maintained through all adversity the authority of his
+throne and the cause of the Italian people, they named "Alessandria."
+
+Against this bulwark the Emperor, still indomitable, dashed with his
+utmost regathered strength after eight years of pause, and in the temper
+in which men set their souls on a single stake. All had been lost in
+his last war, except his honor--in this, he lost his honor also.
+Whatever may be the just estimate of the other elements of his
+character, he is unquestionably, among the knights of his time, notable
+in impiety. In the battle of Cassano, he broke through the Milanese
+vanguard to their _caroccio_, and struck down with his own hand its
+golden crucifix;--two years afterwards its cross and standard were bowed
+before him--and in vain.[91] He fearlessly claims for himself right of
+decision between contending popes, and camps against the rightful one on
+the ashes of the Church of the Virgin.
+
+Foiled in his first assault on Alessandria, detained before it through
+the inundations of the winter, and threatened by the army of the League
+in the spring, he announced a truce to the besieged, that they might
+keep Good Friday. Then violating alike the day's sanctity and his own
+oath, he attacked the trusting city through a secretly completed mine.
+And, for a second time, the verdict of God went forth against him. Every
+man who had obtained entrance within the city was slain or cast from its
+ramparts;--the Alessandrines threw all their gates open--fell, with the
+broken fugitives, on the investing troops, scattered them in disorder,
+and burned their towers of attack. The Emperor gathered their remains
+into Pavia on Easter Sunday,--spared in his defeat by the army of the
+League.
+
+89. And yet, once more, he brought his cause to combat-trial.
+Temporizing at Lodi with the Pope's legates, he assembled, under the
+Archbishops of Magdebourg and Cologne, and the chief prelates and
+princes of Germany, a seventh army; brought it down to Como across the
+Splügen, put himself there at its head, and in the early spring of 1176,
+the fifteenth year since he had decreed the effacing of the name of
+Milan, was met at Legnano by the specter of Milan.
+
+Risen from her grave, she led the Lombard League in this final battle.
+Three hundred of her nobles guarded her _caroccio_; nine hundred of her
+knights bound themselves--under the name of the Cohort of Death--to win
+for her, or to die.
+
+The field of battle is in the midst of the plain, now covered with maize
+and mulberry trees, from which the traveler, entering Italy by the Lago
+Maggiore, sees first the unbroken snows of the Rosa behind him and the
+white pinnacles of Milan Cathedral in the south. The Emperor, as was his
+wont, himself led his charging chivalry. The Milanese knelt as it
+came;--prayed aloud to God, St. Peter, and St. Ambrose--then advanced
+round their _caroccio_ on foot. The Emperor's charge broke through their
+ranks nearly up to their standard--then the Cohort of Death rode against
+him.
+
+90. And all his battle changed before them into flight. For the first
+time in stricken field, the imperial standard fell, and was taken. The
+Milanese followed the broken host until their swords were weary; and the
+Emperor, struck fighting from his horse, was left, lost among the dead.
+The Empress, whose mercy to Milan he had forbidden, already wore
+mourning for him in Pavia, when her husband came, solitary and
+suppliant, to its gate.
+
+The lesson at last sufficed; and Barbarossa sent his heretic bishops to
+ask forgiveness of the Pope, and peace from the Lombards.
+
+Pardon and peace were granted--without conditions. "Cæsar's successor"
+had been the blight of Italy for a quarter of a century; he had ravaged
+her harvests, burnt her cities, decimated her children with famine, her
+young men with the sword; and, seven times over, in renewed invasion,
+sought to establish dominion over her, from the Alps to the rock of
+Scylla.
+
+She asked of him no restitution;--coveted no province--demanded no
+fortress, of his land. Neither coward nor robber, she disdained alike
+guard and gain upon her frontiers: she counted no compensation for her
+sorrow; and set no price upon the souls of her dead. She stood in the
+porch of her brightest temple--between the blue plains of her earth and
+sea, and, in the person of her spiritual father, gave her enemy pardon.
+
+"Black demons hovering o'er his mitered head," think you, gentle
+sonneteer of the daffodil-marsh? And have Barbarossa's race been taught
+of better angels how to bear themselves to a conquered emperor,--or
+England, by braver and more generous impulses, how to protect his exiled
+son?
+
+The fall of Venice, since that day, was measured by Byron in a single
+line:
+
+  "An Emperor tramples where an emperor knelt."
+
+But what words shall measure the darker humiliation of the German
+pillaging his helpless enemy and England leaving her ally under the
+savage's spear?
+
+91. With the clews now given, and an hour or two's additional reading of
+any standard historian he pleases, the reader may judge on secure
+grounds whether the truce of Venice and peace of Constance were of the
+Devil's making: whereof whatever he may ultimately feel or affirm, this
+at least he will please note for positive, that Mr. Wordsworth, having
+no shadow of doubt of the complete wisdom of every idea that comes into
+his own head, writes down in dogmatic sonnet his first impression of
+black instrumentality in the business; so that his innocent readers,
+taking him for their sole master, far from caring to inquire into the
+thing more deeply, may remain even unconscious that it is disputable,
+and forever incapable of conceiving either a Catholic's feeling, or a
+careful historian's hesitation, touching the centrally momentous crisis
+of power in all the Middle Ages! Whereas Byron, knowing the history
+thoroughly, and judging of Catholicism with an honest and open heart,
+ventures to assert nothing that admits of debate, either concerning
+human motives or angelic presences; but binds into one line of massive
+melody the unerringly counted sum of Venetian majesty and shame.
+
+92. In a future paper, I propose examining his method of dealing with
+the debate, itself on a higher issue: and will therefore close the
+present one by trampling a few of the briers and thorns of popular
+offense out of our way.
+
+The common counts against Byron are in the main, three.
+
+I. That he confessed--in some sort, even proclaimed defiantly (which is
+a proud man's natural manner of confession)[92]--the naughtiness of his
+life.
+
+The hypocrisy[93] even of Pall Mall and Petit Trianon does not, I
+assume, and dares not, go so far as to condemn the naughtiness itself?
+And that he _did_ confess it, is precisely the reason for reading him by
+his own motto "Trust Byron." You always may; and the common
+smooth-countenanced man of the world is guiltier in the precise measure
+of your higher esteem for him.
+
+II. That he wrote about pretty things which ought never to be heard of.
+
+In the presence of the exact proprieties of modern Fiction, Art, and
+Drama, I am shy of touching on the question of what should be mentioned,
+and seen--and should not. All that I care to say, here, is that Byron
+tells you of realities, and that their being pretty ones is, to my
+mind,--at the first (literally) blush, of the matter, rather in his
+favor. If however you have imagined that he means you to think Dudu as
+pretty as Myrrha,[94] or even Haidee, whether in full dress or none, as
+pretty as Marina, it is your fault, not his.
+
+93. III. That he blasphemed God and the King.
+
+Before replying to this count, I must ask the reader's patience in a
+piece of very serious work, the ascertainment of the real and full
+meaning of the word Blasphemy. It signifies simply "Harmful
+speaking"--Male-diction--or shortly "Blame"; and may be committed as
+much against a child or a dog, if you _desire_ to hurt them, as against
+the Deity. And it is, in its original use, accurately opposed to another
+Greek word, "Euphemy," which means a reverent and loving manner of
+benediction--fallen entirely into disuse in modern sentiment and
+language.
+
+Now the compass and character of essential Male-diction, so-called in
+Latin, or Blasphemy, so-called in Greek, may, I think, be best explained
+to the general reader by an instance in a very little thing, first
+translating the short pieces of Plato which best show the meaning of the
+word in codes of Greek morality.
+
+     "These are the things then" (the true order of the Sun, Moon, and
+     Planets), "oh my friends, of which I desire that all our citizens
+     and youths should learn at least so much concerning the Gods of
+     Heaven, as not to blaspheme concerning them, but to eupheme
+     reverently, both in sacrificing, and in every prayer they
+     pray."--Laws, VII. Steph. 821.
+
+     "And through the whole of life, beyond all other need for it, there
+     is need of Euphemy from a man to his parents, for there is no
+     heavier punishment than that of light and winged words," (to
+     _them_)? "for Nemesis, the angel of Divine Recompense, has been
+     throned Bishop over all men who sin in such manner."--IV. Steph.
+     717.
+
+The word which I have translated "recompense" is more strictly that
+"heavenly Justice"--the proper Light of the World, from which nothing
+can be hidden, and by which all who will may walk securely; whence the
+mystic answer of Ulysses to his son, as Athena, herself invisible, walks
+with them, filling the chamber of the house with light, "This is the
+justice of the Gods who possess Olympus." See the context in reference
+to which Plato quotes the line.--Laws, X. Steph. 904. The little story
+that I have to tell is significant chiefly in connection with the second
+passage of Plato above quoted.
+
+94. I have elsewhere mentioned that I was a homebred boy, and that as my
+mother diligently and scrupulously taught me my Bible and Latin Grammar,
+so my father fondly and devotedly taught me my Scott, my Pope, and my
+Byron.[95] The Latin grammar out of which my mother taught me was the
+11th edition of Alexander Adam's--(Edinb.: Bell and Bradfute,
+1823)--namely, that Alexander Adam, Rector of Edinburgh High School,
+into whose upper class Scott passed in October 1782, and who--previous
+masters having found nothing noticeable in the heavy-looking lad--_did_
+find sterling qualities in him, and "would constantly refer to him for
+dates, and particulars of battles, and other remarkable events alluded
+to in Horace, or _whatever other authors the boys were reading_; and
+called him the historian of his class" (L. i. 126). _That_ Alex. Adam,
+also, who, himself a loving historian, remembered the fate of every boy
+at his school during the fifty years he had headed it, and whose last
+words--"It grows dark, the boys may dismiss," gave to Scott's heart the
+vision and the audit of the death of Elspeth of the Craigburn-foot.
+
+Strangely, in opening the old volume at this moment (I would not give it
+for an illuminated missal) I find, in its article on Prosody, some
+things extremely useful to me, which I have been hunting for in vain
+through Zumpt and Matthiæ. In all rational respects I believe it to be
+the best Latin Grammar that has yet been written.
+
+When my mother had carried me through it as far as the syntax, it was
+thought desirable that I should be put under a master: and the master
+chosen was a deeply and deservedly honored clergyman, the Rev. Thomas
+Dale, mentioned in Mr. Holbeach's article, "The New Fiction,"
+(_Contemporary Review_ for February of this year), together with Mr.
+Melville, who was our pastor after Mr. Dale went to St. Pancras.
+
+95. On the first day when I went to take my seat in Mr. Dale's
+schoolroom, I carried my old grammar to him, in a modest pride,
+expecting some encouragement and honor for the accuracy with which I
+could repeat, on demand, some hundred and sixty close-printed pages of
+it.
+
+But Mr. Dale threw it back to me with a fierce bang upon his desk,
+saying (with accent and look of seven-times-heated scorn), "That's a
+_Scotch_ thing."
+
+Now, my father being Scotch, and an Edinburgh High School boy, and my
+mother having labored in that book with me since I could read, and all
+my happiest holiday time having been spent on the North Inch of Perth,
+these four words, with the action accompanying them, contained as much
+insult, pain, and loosening of my respect for my parents, love of my
+father's country, and honor for its worthies, as it was possible to
+compress into four syllables and an ill-mannered gesture. Which were
+therefore pure, double-edged and point-envenomed blasphemy. For to make
+a boy despise his mother's care, is the straightest way to make him also
+despise his Redeemer's voice; and to make him scorn his father and his
+father's house, the straightest way to make him deny his God, and his
+God's Heaven.
+
+96. I speak, observe, in this instance, only of the actual words and
+their effect; not of the feeling in the speaker's mind, which was almost
+playful, though his words, tainted with extremity of pride, were such
+light ones as men shall give account of at the Day of Judgment. The real
+sin of blasphemy is not in the saying, nor even in the thinking; but in
+the wishing which is father to thought and word: and the nature of it is
+simply in wishing evil to anything; for as the quality of Mercy is not
+strained, so neither that of Blasphemy, the one distilling from the
+clouds of Heaven, the other from the steam of the Pit. He that is unjust
+in little is unjust in much, he that is malignant to the least is to the
+greatest, he who hates the earth which is God's footstool, hates yet
+more Heaven which is God's throne, and Him that sitteth thereon.
+Finally, therefore, blasphemy is wishing ill to _any_ thing; and its
+outcome is in Vanni Fucci's extreme "ill manners"--wishing ill to God.
+
+On the contrary, Euphemy is wishing well to everything, and its outcome
+is in Burns' extreme "good manners," wishing well to--
+
+  "Ah! wad ye tak a thought, and men'!"
+
+That is the supreme of Euphemy.
+
+97. Fix then, first in your minds, that the sin of malediction, whether
+Shimei's individual, or John Bull's national, is in the vulgar
+malignity, not in the vulgar diction, and then note further that the
+"phemy" or "fame" of the two words, blasphemy and euphemy, signifies
+broadly the bearing of _false_ witness _against_ one's neighbor in the
+one case, and of _true_ witness _for_ him in the other: so that while
+the peculiar province of the blasphemer is to throw firelight on the
+evil in good persons, the province of the euphuist (I must use the word
+inaccurately for want of a better) is to throw sunlight on the good in
+bad ones; such, for instance, as Bertram, Meg Merrilies, Rob Roy, Robin
+Hood, and the general run of Corsairs, Giaours, Turks, Jews, Infidels,
+and Heretics; nay, even sisters of Rahab, and daughters of Moab and
+Ammon; and at last the whole spiritual race of him to whom it was said,
+"If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted?"
+
+98. And being thus brought back to our actual subject, I purpose, after
+a few more summary notes on the luster of the electrotype language of
+modern passion, to examine what facts or probabilities lie at the root
+both of Goethe's and Byron's imagination of that contest between the
+powers of Good and Evil, of which the Scriptural account appears to Mr.
+Huxley so inconsistent with the recognized laws of political economy;
+and has been, by the cowardice of our old translators, so maimed of its
+vitality, that the frank Greek assertion of St. Michael's not daring to
+blaspheme the devil,[96] is tenfold more mischievously deadened and
+caricatured by their periphrasis of "durst not bring against him a
+railing accusation," than by Byron's apparently--and only
+apparently--less reverent description of the manner of angelic encounter
+for an inferior ruler of the people.
+
+          "Between His Darkness and His Brightness
+  There passed a mutual glance of great politeness."
+
+  PARIS, _September 20, 1880._
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+99. I am myself extremely grateful, nor doubt a like feeling in most of
+my readers, both for the information contained in the first of the two
+following letters; and the correction of references in the second, of
+which, however, I have omitted some closing sentences which the writer
+will, I think, see to have been unnecessary.[97]
+
+
+  NORTH STREET, WIRKSWORTH:
+  _August 2, 1880._
+
+DEAR SIR,--When reading your interesting article in the June
+number of the _Nineteenth Century_, and your quotation from Walter
+Scott, I was struck with the great similarity between some of the Scotch
+words and my native tongue (Norwegian). _Whigmaleerie_, as to the
+derivation of which you seem to be in some perplexity, is in Norwegian
+_Vægmaleri_. _Væg_, pronounced "Vegg," signifying wall, and Maleri
+"picture," pronounced almost the same as in Scotch, and derived from _at
+male_, to paint. Siccan is in Danish _sikken_, used more about something
+comical than great, and scarcely belonging to the written language, in
+which _slig_, such, and _slig en_, such a one, would be the equivalent.
+I need not remark that as to the written language Danish and Norwegian
+is the same, only the dialects differ.
+
+Having been told by some English friends that this explanation would
+perhaps not be without interest to yourself, I take the liberty of
+writing this letter. I remain yours respectfully,
+
+  THEA BERG.
+
+
+  INNER TEMPLE: _September 9, 1880._
+
+SIR,--In your last article on Fiction, Foul and Fair
+(_Nineteenth Century_, September 1880) you have the following note:
+
+"Juan viii. 5" (it ought to be 9) "but by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says 'instrument' not 'daughter.'"
+
+Now in Murray's edition of Byron, 1837, octavo, his Lordship's quotation
+is as follows:--
+
+  "But thy most dreaded instrument
+  In working out a pure intent
+  Is man arranged for mutual slaughter;
+  Yea, Carnage is thy daughter."
+
+And his Lordship refers you to "Wordsworth's Thanksgiving Ode."
+
+I have no early edition of Wordsworth. In Moxon's, 1844, no such lines
+appear in the Thanksgiving Ode, but in the ode dated 1815, and printed
+immediately before it, the following lines occur.
+
+  "But man is thy most awful instrument
+  In working out a pure intent."
+
+It is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that Wordsworth altered
+the lines after "Don Juan" was written. I am, with great respect, your
+obedient servant,
+
+  RALPH THICKNESSE.
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN, Esq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 88: November, 1880.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 89: "Childe Harold," iv. 79; compare "Adonais," and Sismondi,
+vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Adrian the Fourth. Eugenius died in the previous year.]
+
+[Footnote 91: "All the multitudes threw themselves on their knees,
+praying mercy in the name of the crosses they bore: the Count of
+Blandrata took a cross from the enemies with whom he had served, and
+fell at the foot of the throne, praying for mercy to them. All the court
+and the witnessing army were in tears--the Emperor alone showed no sign
+of emotion. Distrusting his wife's sensibility, he had forbidden her
+presence at the ceremony; the Milanese, unable to approach her, threw
+towards her windows the crosses they carried, to plead for
+them."--Sismondi (French edition), vol. i. p. 378.]
+
+[Footnote 92: The most noble and tender confession is in Allegra's
+epitaph, "I shall go to her, but she shall not return to me."]
+
+[Footnote 93: Hypocrisy is too good a word for either Pall Mall or
+Trianon, being justly applied (as always in the New Testament), only to
+men whose false religion has become earnest, and a part of their being:
+so that they compass heaven and earth to make a proselyte. There is no
+relation between minds of this order and those of common rogues. Neither
+Tartuffe nor Joseph Surface are hypocrites--they are simply impostors:
+but many of the most earnest preachers in all existing churches are
+hypocrites in the highest; and the Tartuffe-Squiredom and Joseph
+Surface-Masterhood of our virtuous England which build churches and pay
+priests to keep their peasants and hands peaceable, so that rents and
+per cents may be spent, unnoticed, in the debaucheries of the
+metropolis, are darker forms of imposture than either heaven or earth
+have yet been compassed by; and what they are to end in, heaven and
+earth only know. Compare again, "Island," ii. 4, "the prayers of Abel
+linked to deeds of Cain," and "Juan," viii. 25, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Perhaps some even of the attentive readers of Byron may
+not have observed the choice of the three names--Myrrha (bitter
+incense), Marina (sea lady), Angiolina (little angel)--in relation to
+the plots of the three plays.]
+
+[Footnote 95: I shall have lost my wits very finally when I forget the
+first time that I pleased my father with a couplet of English verse
+(after many a year of trials); and the radiant joy on his face as he
+declared, reading it aloud to my mother with emphasis half choked by
+tears,--that "it was as fine as anything that Pope or Byron ever
+wrote!"]
+
+[Footnote 96: Of our tingle-tangle-titmouse disputes in Parliament like
+Robins in a bush, but not a Robin in all the house knowing his great A,
+hear again Plato: "But they, for ever so little a quarrel, uttering much
+voice, blaspheming, speak evil one of another,--and it is not becoming
+that in a city of well-ordered persons, such things should be--no;
+nothing of them nohow nowhere,--and let this be the one law for all--let
+nobody speak mischief of anybody ([Greek: Mêdena kakêgoreitô
+mêdeis])."--Laws, book ii. s. 935; and compare Book iv. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 97: A paragraph beginning "I find press corrections always
+irksome work, and in my last paper trust the reader's kindness to make
+some corrections in the preceding paper," is here omitted, and the
+corrections made.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+V.[98]
+
+THE TWO SERVANTS.
+
+
+100. I have assumed throughout these papers, that everybody knew what
+Fiction meant; as Mr. Mill assumed in his Political Economy, that
+everybody knew what wealth meant. The assumption was convenient to Mr.
+Mill, and persisted in: but, for my own part, I am not in the habit of
+talking, even so long as I have done in this instance, without making
+sure that the reader knows what I am talking about; and it is high time
+that we should be agreed upon the primary notion of what Fiction is.
+
+A feigned, fictitious, artificial, supernatural,
+put-together-out-of-one's-head, thing. All this it must be, to begin
+with. The best type of it being the most practically fictile--a Greek
+vase. A thing which has two sides to be seen, two handles to be carried
+by, and a bottom to stand on, and a top to be poured out of, this, every
+right fiction _is_, whatever else it may be. Planned rigorously, rounded
+smoothly, balanced symmetrically, handled handily, lipped softly for
+pouring out oil and wine. Painted daintily at last with images of
+eternal things--
+
+  Forever shalt thou love, and she be fair.
+
+101. Quite a different thing from a "cast,"--this work of clay in the
+hands of the potter, as it seemed good to the potter to make it. Very
+interesting, a cast from life may perhaps be; more interesting, to some
+people perhaps, a cast from death;--most modern novels are like
+specimens from Lyme Regis, impressions of skeletons in mud.
+
+"Planned rigorously"--I press the conditions again one by one--it must
+be, as ever Memphian labyrinth or Norman fortress. Intricacy full of
+delicate surprise; covered way in secrecy of accurate purposes, not a
+stone useless, nor a word nor an incident thrown away.
+
+"Rounded smoothly"--the wheel of Fortune revolving with it in unfelt
+swiftness; like the world, its story rising like the dawn, closing like
+the sunset, with its own sweet light for every hour.
+
+"Balanced symmetrically"--having its two sides clearly separate, its war
+of good and evil rightly divided. Its figures moving in majestic law of
+light and shade.
+
+"Handled handily"--so that, being careful and gentle, you can take easy
+grasp of it and all that it contains; a thing given into your hand
+henceforth to have and to hold. Comprehensible, not a mass that both
+your arms cannot get round; tenable, not a confused pebble heap of which
+you can only lift one pebble at a time.
+
+"Lipped softly"--full of kindness and comfort: the Keats line indeed the
+perpetual message of it--"For ever shalt thou love, and she be fair."
+All beautiful fiction is of the Madonna, whether the Virgin of Athens or
+of Judah--Pan-Athenaic always.
+
+And all foul fiction is _leze majesté_ to the Madonna and to womanhood.
+For indeed the great fiction of every human life is the shaping of its
+Love, with due prudence, due imagination, due persistence and perfection
+from the beginning of its story to the end; for every human soul, its
+Palladium. And it follows that all right imaginative work is beautiful,
+which is a practical and brief law concerning it. All frightful things
+are either foolish, or sick, visits of frenzy, or pollutions of plague.
+
+102. Taking thus the Greek vase at its best time, for the symbol of fair
+fiction: of foul, you may find in the great entrance-room of the Louvre,
+filled with the luxurious _orfèvrerie_ of the sixteenth century, types
+perfect and innumerable: Satyrs carved in serpentine, Gorgons platted in
+gold, Furies with eyes of ruby, Scyllas with scales of pearl; infinitely
+worthless toil, infinitely witless wickedness; pleasure satiated into
+idiocy, passion provoked into madness, no object of thought, or sight,
+or fancy, but horror, mutilation, distortion, corruption, agony of war,
+insolence of disgrace, and misery of Death.
+
+It is true that the ease with which a serpent, or something that will be
+understood for one, can be chased or wrought in metal, and the small
+workmanly skill required to image a satyr's hoof and horns, as compared
+to that needed for a human foot or forehead, have greatly influenced the
+choice of subject by incompetent smiths; and in like manner, the
+prevalence of such vicious or ugly story in the mass of modern
+literature is not so much a sign of the lasciviousness of the age, as of
+its stupidity, though each react on the other, and the vapor of the
+sulphurous pool becomes at last so diffused in the atmosphere of our
+cities, that whom it cannot corrupt, it will at least stultify.
+
+103. Yesterday, the last of August, came to me from the Fine Art
+Society, a series of twenty black and white scrabbles[99] of which I am
+informed in an eloquent preface that the author was a Michael Angelo of
+the glebe, and that his shepherds and his herdswomen are akin in dignity
+and grandeur to the prophets and Sibyls of the Sistine.
+
+Glancing through the series of these stupendous productions, I find one
+peculiarly characteristic and expressive of modern picture-making and
+novel-writing,--called "Hauling" or more definitely "Paysan rentrant du
+Fumier," which represents a man's back, or at least the back of his
+waistcoat and trousers, and hat, in full light, and a small blot where
+his face should be, with a small scratch where its nose should be,
+elongated into one representing a chink of timber in the background.
+
+Examining the volume farther, in the hope of discovering some trace of
+reasonable motive for the publication of these works by the Society, I
+perceive that this Michael Angelo of the glebe had indeed natural
+faculty of no mean order in him, and that the woeful history of his life
+contains very curious lessons respecting the modern conditions of
+Imagination and Art.
+
+104. I find in the first place, that he was a Breton peasant; his
+grandmother's godson, baptized in good hope, and christened Jean, after
+his father, and François after the Saint of Assisi, his godmother's
+patron. It was under her care and guidance and those of his uncle, the
+Abbé Charles, that he was reared; and the dignified and laborious
+earnestness of these governors of his was a chief influence in his life,
+and a distinguishing feature in his character. The Millet family led an
+existence almost patriarchal in its unalterable simplicity and
+diligence; and the boy grew up in an environment of toil, sincerity and
+devoutness. He was fostered upon the Bible, and the great book of
+nature.... When he woke, it was to the lowing of cattle and the song of
+birds; he was at play all day, among "the sights and sounds of the open
+landscape; and he slept with the murmur of the spinning-wheel in his
+ears, and the memory of the evening prayer in his heart.... He learned
+Latin from the parish priest, and from his uncle Charles; and he soon
+came to be a student of Virgil, and while yet young in his teens began
+to follow his father out into the fields, and thenceforward, as became
+the eldest boy in a large family, worked hard at grafting and plowing,
+sowing and reaping, scything and shearing and planting, and all the many
+duties of husbandmen. Meanwhile, he had taken to drawing ... copied
+everything he saw, and produced not only studies but compositions also;
+until at last his father was moved to take him away from farming, and
+have him taught painting."
+
+105. Now all this is related concerning the lad's early life by the
+prefatory and commenting author, as if expecting the general reader to
+admit that there had been some advantage for him in this manner of
+education:--that simplicity and devoutness are wholesome states of mind;
+that parish curés and uncle Abbés are not betrayers or devourers of
+youthful innocence--that there is profitable reading in the Bible, and
+something agreeably soothing--if not otherwise useful--in the sound of
+evening prayer. I may observe also in passing, that his education, thus
+far, is precisely what, for the last ten years, I have been describing
+as the most desirable for all persons intending to lead an honest and
+Christian life: (my recommendation that peasants should learn Latin
+having been, some four or five years ago, the subject of much merriment
+in the pages of _Judy_ and other such nurses of divine wisdom in the
+public mind.) It however having been determined by the boy's father that
+he should be a painter, and that art being unknown to the Abbé Charles
+and the village Curé (in which manner of ignorance, if the infallible
+Pope did but know it, he and his _now_ artless shepherds stand at a
+fatal disadvantage in the world as compared with monks who could
+illuminate with color as well as word)--the simple young soul is sent
+for the exalting and finishing of its artistic faculties to Paris.
+
+106. "Wherein," observers my prefatory author, "the romantic movement
+was in the full tide of prosperity."
+
+Hugo had written "Notre Dame," and Musset had published "Rolla" and the
+"Nuits"; Balzac the "Lys dans la Vallée"; Gautier the "Comédie de la
+Mort"; Georges Sand "Léone Léonie"; and a score of wild and eloquent
+novels more; and under the instruction of these romantic authors, his
+landlady, to whom he had intrusted the few francs he possessed, to dole
+out to him as he needed, fell in love with him, and finding he could
+not, or would not, respond to her advances, confiscated the whole
+deposit, and left him penniless. The preface goes on to tell us how, not
+feeling himself in harmony with these forms of Romanticism, he takes to
+the study of the Infinite, and Michael Angelo; how he learned to paint
+the Heroic Nude; how he mixed up for imitation the manners of Rubens,
+Ribera, Mantegna, and Correggio; how he struggled all his life with
+neglect, and endured with his family every agony of poverty; owed his
+butcher and his grocer, was exposed to endless worry and annoyance from
+writs and executions; and when first his grandmother died, and then his
+mother, neither death-bed was able to raise the money that would have
+carried him from Barbizon to Gruchy.
+
+The work now laid before the public by the Fine Art Society is to be
+considered, therefore--whatever its merits or defects may be--as an
+expression of the influence of the Infinite and Michael Angelo on a mind
+innocently prepared for their reception. And in another place I may take
+occasion to point out the peculiar adaptability of modern etching to the
+expression of the Infinite, by the multitude of scratches it can put on
+a surface without representing anything in particular; and to
+illustration of the majesty of Michael Angelo by preference of the backs
+and legs of people to their faces.
+
+107. But I refer to the book in this paper, partly indeed because my
+mind is full of its sorrow, and I may not be able to find another
+opportunity of saying so; but chiefly, because the author of the preface
+has summed the principal authors of depraved Fiction in a single
+sentence; and I want the reader to ask himself why, among all the forms
+of the picturesque which were suggested by this body of literary
+leaders, none were acceptable by, none helpful to, the mind of a youth
+trained in purity and faith.
+
+He will find, if he reflect, that it is not in romantic, or any other
+healthy aim, that the school detaches itself from those called sometimes
+by recent writers "classical"; but first by Infidelity, and an absence
+of the religious element so total that at last it passes into the hatred
+of priesthood which has become characteristic of Republicanism; and
+secondly, by the taint and leprosy of animal passion idealized as a
+governing power of humanity, or at least used as the chief element of
+interest in the conduct of its histories. It is with the _Sin_ of Master
+Anthony that Georges Sand (who is the best of them) overshadows the
+entire course of a novel meant to recommend simplicity of life--and by
+the weakness of Consuelo that the same authoress thinks it natural to
+set off the splendor of the most exalted musical genius.
+
+I am not able to judge of the degree of moral purpose, or conviction,
+with which any of the novelists wrote. But I am able to say with
+certainty that, whatever their purpose, their method is mistaken, and
+that no good is ever done to society by the pictorial representation of
+its diseases.
+
+108. All healthy and helpful literature sets simple bars between right
+and wrong; assumes the possibility, in men and women, of having healthy
+minds in healthy bodies, and loses no time in the diagnosis of fever or
+dyspepsia in either; least of all in the particular kind of fever which
+signifies the ungoverned excess of any appetite or passion. The
+"dullness" which many modern readers inevitably feel, and some modern
+blockheads think it creditable to allege, in Scott, consists not a
+little in his absolute purity from every loathsome element or excitement
+of the lower passions; so that people who live habitually in Satyric or
+hircine conditions of thought find him as insipid as they would a
+picture of Angelico's. The accurate and trenchant separation between him
+and the common railroad-station novelist is that, in his total method of
+conception, only lofty character is worth describing at all; and it
+becomes interesting, not by its faults, but by the difficulties and
+accidents of the fortune through which it passes, while, in the railway
+novel, interest is obtained with the vulgar reader for the vilest
+character, because the author describes carefully to his recognition the
+blotches, burrs and pimples in which the paltry nature resembles his
+own. The "Mill on the Floss" is perhaps the most striking instance
+extant of this study of cutaneous disease. There is not a single person
+in the book of the smallest importance to anybody in the world but
+themselves, or whose qualities deserved so much as a line of printer's
+type in their description. There is no girl alive, fairly clever, half
+educated, and unluckily related, whose life has not at least as much in
+it as Maggie's, to be described and to be pitied. Tom is a clumsy and
+cruel lout, with the making of better things in him (and the same may be
+said of nearly every Englishman at present smoking and elbowing his way
+through the ugly world his blunders have contributed to the making of);
+while the rest of the characters are simply the sweepings out of a
+Pentonville omnibus.[100]
+
+109. And it is very necessary that we should distinguish this
+essentially Cockney literature, developed only in the London suburbs,
+and feeding the demand of the rows of similar brick houses, which branch
+in devouring cancer round every manufacturing town,--from the really
+romantic literature of France. Georges Sand is often immoral; but she is
+always beautiful, and in the characteristic novel I have named, "Le
+Péché de Mons. Antoine," the five principal characters, the old Cavalier
+Marquis,--the Carpenter,--M. de Chateaubrun,--Gilberte,--and the really
+passionate and generous lover, are all as heroic and radiantly ideal as
+Scott's Colonel Mannering, Catherine Seyton, and Roland Graeme; while
+the landscape is rich and true with the emotion of years of life passed
+in glens of Norman granite and beside bays of Italian sea. But in the
+English Cockney school, which consummates itself in George Eliot, the
+personages are picked up from behind the counter and out of the gutter;
+and the landscape, by excursion train to Gravesend, with return ticket
+for the City-road.
+
+110. But the second reason for the dullness of Scott to the uneducated
+or miseducated reader lies far deeper; and its analysis is related to
+the most subtle questions in the Arts of Design.
+
+The mixed gayety and gloom in the plan of any modern novel fairly clever
+in the make of it, may be likened, almost with precision, to the
+patchwork of a Harlequin's dress, well spangled; a pretty thing enough,
+if the human form beneath it be graceful and active. Few personages on
+the stage are more delightful to me than a good Harlequin; also, if I
+chance to have nothing better to do, I can still read my Georges Sand or
+Alfred de Musset with much contentment, if only the story end well.
+
+But we must not dress Cordelia or Rosalind in robes of triangular
+patches, covered with spangles, by way of making the _coup d'oeil_ of
+them less dull; and so the story-telling of Scott is like the robe of
+the Sistine Zipporah--embroidered only on the edges with gold and blue,
+and the embroidery involving a legend written in mystic letters.
+
+And the interest and joy which he intends his reader to find in his
+tale, are in taking up the golden thread here and there in its intended
+recurrence--and following, as it rises again and again, his melody
+through the disciplined and unaccented march of the fugue.
+
+111. Thus the entire charm and meaning of the story of the Monastery
+depend on the degree of sympathy with which we compare the first and
+last incidents of the appearance of a character, whom perhaps not one in
+twenty readers would remember as belonging to the dramatis
+personæ--Stawarth Bolton.
+
+Childless, he assures safety in the first scene of the opening tale to
+the widow of Glendinning and her two children--the elder boy challenging
+him at the moment, "I will war on thee to the death, when I can draw my
+father's sword." In virtually the last scene, the grown youth, now in
+command of a small company of spearmen in the Regent Murray's service,
+is on foot, in the first pause after the battle at Kennaquhair, beside
+the dead bodies of Julian Avenel and Christie, and the dying
+Catherine.[101]
+
+Glendinning forgot for a moment his own situation and duties, and was
+first recalled to them by a trampling of horse, and the cry of St.
+George for England, which the English soldiers still continued to use.
+His handful of men, for most of the stragglers had waited for Murray's
+coming up, remained on horseback, holding their lances upright, having
+no command either to submit or resist.
+
+"There stands our captain," said one of them, as a strong party of
+English came up, the vanguard of Foster's troop.
+
+"Your captain! with his sword sheathed, and on foot in the presence of
+his enemy? a raw soldier, I warrant him," said the English leader. "So!
+ho! young man, is your dream out, and will you now answer me if you will
+fight or fly?"
+
+"Neither," answered Halbert Glendinning, with great tranquillity.
+
+"Then throw down thy sword and yield thee," answered the Englishman.
+
+"Not till I can help myself no otherwise," said Halbert, with the same
+moderation of tone and manner.
+
+"Art thou for thine own hand, friend, or to whom dost thou owe service?"
+demanded the English captain.
+
+"To the noble Earl of Murray."
+
+"Then thou servest," said the Southron, "the most disloyal nobleman who
+breathes--false both to England and Scotland."
+
+"Thou liest," said Glendinning, regardless of all consequences.
+
+"Ha! art thou so hot now, and wert so cold but a minute since? I lie, do
+I? Wilt thou do battle with me on that quarrel?"
+
+"With one to one, one to two, or two to five, as you list," said Halbert
+Glendinning; "grant me but a fair field."
+
+"That thou shalt have. Stand back, my mates," said the brave
+Englishman. "If I fall, give him fair play, and let him go off free with
+his people."
+
+"Long life to the noble captain!" cried the soldiers, as impatient to
+see the duel as if it had been a bull.
+
+"He will have a short life of it, though," said the sergeant, "if he, an
+old man of sixty, is to fight for any reason, or for no reason, with
+every man he meets, and especially the young fellows he might be father
+to. And here comes the warden, besides, to see the sword-play."
+
+In fact, Sir John Foster came up with a considerable body of his
+horsemen, just as his captain, whose age rendered him unequal to the
+combat with so strong and active a youth as Glendinning, lost his
+sword.[102]
+
+"Take it up for shame, old Stawarth Bolton," said the English warden;
+"and thou, young man, get you gone to your own friends, and loiter not
+here."
+
+Notwithstanding this peremptory order, Halbert Glendinning could not
+help stopping to cast a look upon the unfortunate Catherine, who lay
+insensible of the danger and of the trampling of so many horses around
+her--insensible, as the second glance assured him, of all and forever.
+Glendinning almost rejoiced when he saw that the last misery of life was
+over, and that the hoofs of the war-horses, amongst which he was
+compelled to leave her, could only injure and deface a senseless corpse.
+He caught the infant from her arms, half ashamed of the shout of
+laughter which rose on all sides, at seeing an armed man in such a
+situation assume such an unwonted and inconvenient burden.
+
+"Shoulder your infant!" cried a harquebusier.
+
+"Port your infant!" said a pikeman.
+
+"Peace, ye brutes!" said Stawarth Bolton, "and respect humanity in
+others, if you have none yourselves. I pardon the lad having done some
+discredit to my gray hairs, when I see him take care of that helpless
+creature, which ye would have trampled upon as if ye had been littered
+of bitch-wolves, not born of women."
+
+The infant thus saved is the heir of Avenel, and the intricacy and
+fateful bearing of every incident and word in the scene, knitting into
+one central moment all the clews to the plot of two romances, as the
+rich boss of a Gothic vault gathers the shaft moldings of it, can only
+be felt by an entirely attentive reader; just as (to follow out the
+likeness on Scott's own ground) the willow-wreaths changed to stone of
+Melrose tracery can only be caught in their plighting by the keenest
+eyes. The meshes are again gathered by the master's own hand when the
+child now in Halbert's arms, twenty years hence, stoops over him to
+unlace his helmet, as the fallen knight lies senseless on the field of
+Carberry Hill.[103]
+
+112. But there is another, and a still more hidden method in Scott's
+designing of story, in which, taking extreme pains, he counts on much
+sympathy from the reader, and can assuredly find none in a modern
+student. The moral purpose of the whole, which he asserted in the
+preface to the first edition of Waverley, was involved always with the
+minutest study of the effects of true and false religion on the
+conduct;--which subject being always touched with his utmost lightness
+of hand and stealthiness of art, and founded on a knowledge of the
+Scotch character and the human heart, such as no other living man
+possessed, his purpose often escapes first observation as completely as
+the inner feelings of living people do; and I am myself amazed, as I
+take any single piece of his work up for examination, to find how many
+of its points I had before missed or disregarded.
+
+113. The groups of personages whose conduct in the Scott romance is
+definitely affected by religious conviction, may be arranged broadly, as
+those of the actual world, under these following heads:
+
+1. The lowest group consists of persons who, believing in the general
+truths of Evangelical religion, accommodate them to their passions, and
+are capable, by gradual increase in depravity, of any crime or violence.
+I am not going to include these in our present study. Trumbull ("Red
+Gauntlet"), Trusty Tomkyns ("Woodstock"), Burley ("Old Mortality"), are
+three of the principal types.
+
+2. The next rank above these consists of men who believe firmly and
+truly enough to be restrained from any conduct which they clearly
+recognize as criminal, but whose natural selfishness renders them
+incapable of understanding the morality of the Bible above a certain
+point; and whose imperfect powers of thought leave them liable in many
+directions to the warping of self-interest or of small temptations.
+
+Fairservice. Blattergowl. Kettledrummle. Gifted Gilfillan.
+
+3. The third order consists of men naturally just and honest, but with
+little sympathy and much pride, in whom their religion, while in the
+depth of it supporting their best virtues, brings out on the surface all
+their worst faults, and makes them censorious, tiresome, and often
+fearfully mischievous.
+
+Richie Moniplies. Davie Deans. Mause Hedrigg.
+
+4. The enthusiastic type, leading to missionary effort, often to
+martyrdom.
+
+Warden, in "Monastery." Colonel Gardiner. Ephraim Macbriar. Joshua
+Geddes.
+
+5. Highest type, fulfilling daily duty; always gentle, entirely firm,
+the comfort and strength of all around them; merciful to every human
+fault, and submissive without anger to every human oppression.
+
+Rachel Geddes. Jeanie Deans. Bessie Maclure, in "Old Mortality"--the
+Queen of all.
+
+114. In the present paper, I ask the reader's patience only with my
+fulfillment of a promise long since made, to mark the opposition of the
+effects of an entirely similar religious faith in two men of inferior
+position, representing in perfectness the commonest types in Scotland
+of the second and third order of religionists here distinguished, Andrew
+Fairservice ("Rob Roy"), and Richie Moniplies ("Nigel").
+
+The names of both the men imply deceitfulness of one kind or
+another--Fairservice, as serving fairly only in pretense; Moniplies, as
+having many windings, turns, and ways of escape. Scott's names are
+themselves so Moniplied that they need as much following out as
+Shakespeare's; and as their roots are pure Scotch, and few people have a
+good Scottish glossary beside them, or would use it if they had, the
+novels are usually read without any turning of the first keys to them. I
+did not myself know till very lately the root of Dandie Dinmont's
+name--"Dinmont," a two-year-old sheep; still less that of Moniplies,
+which I had been always content to take Master George Heriot's rendering
+of: "This fellow is not ill-named--he has more plies than one in his
+cloak." ("Nigel," i. 72.) In its first sense, it is the Scotch word for
+tripe, Moniplies being a butcher's son.
+
+115. Cunning, then, they both are, in a high degree--but Fairservice
+only for himself, Moniplies for himself and his friend; or, in grave
+business, even for his friend first. But it is one of Scott's first
+principles of moral law that cunning never shall succeed, unless
+definitely employed _against an enemy_ by a person whose essential
+character is wholly frank and true; as by Roland against Lady Lochleven,
+or Mysie Happer against Dan of the Howlet-hirst; but consistent cunning
+in the character always fails: Scott allows no Ulyssean hero.
+
+Therefore the cunning of Fairservice fails always, and totally; but that
+of Moniplies precisely according to the degree of its selfishness:
+wholly, in the affair of the petition--("I am sure I had a' the right
+and a' the risk," i. 73)--partially, in that of the carcanet. This he
+himself at last recognizes with complacency:--
+
+"I think you might have left me," says Nigel in their parting scene (i.
+286), "to act according to my own judgment."
+
+"Mickle better not," answered Richie; "mickle better not. We are a'
+frail creatures, and can judge better for ilk ither than in our own
+cases. And for me--even myself--I have always observed myself to be much
+more prudential in what I have done in your lordship's behalf, than even
+in what I have been able to transact for my own interest--whilk last, I
+have, indeed, always postponed, as in duty I ought."
+
+"I do believe thou hast," answered Lord Nigel, "having ever found thee
+true and faithful."
+
+And his final success is entirely owing to his courage and fidelity, not
+to his cunning.
+
+To this subtlety both the men join considerable power of penetration
+into the weaknesses of character; but Fairservice only sees the
+surface-failings, and has no respect for any kind of nobleness; while
+Richie watches the gradual lowering of his master's character and
+reputation with earnest sorrow.
+
+     "My lord," said Richie, "to be round with you, the grace of God is
+     better than gold pieces, and, if they were my last words," he said,
+     raising his voice, "I would say you are misled, and are forsaking
+     the paths your honorable father trode in; and what is more, you are
+     going--still under correction--to the devil with a dishclout, for
+     ye are laughed at by them that lead you into these disordered
+     bypaths" (i. 282).
+
+116. In the third place, note that the penetration of
+Moniplies,--though, as aforesaid, more into faults than virtues,--being
+yet founded on the truth of his own nature, is undeceivable. No rogue
+can escape him for an instant; and he sees through all the machinations
+of Lord Glenvarloch's enemies from the first; while Fairservice, shrewd
+enough in detecting the follies of good people, is quite helpless before
+knaves, and is deceived three times over by his own chosen
+friends--first by the lawyer's clerk, Touthope (ii. 21), then by the
+hypocrite MacVittie, and finally by his true blue Presbyterian friend
+Laurie.
+
+In these first elements of character the men are thus broadly
+distinguished; but in the next, requiring analysis, the differences are
+much more subtle. Both of them have, in nearly equal degree, the
+peculiar love of doing or saying what is provoking, by an exact
+contrariety to the wishes of the person they are dealing with, which is
+a fault inherent in the rough side of uneducated Scottish character; but
+in Andrew, the habit is checked by his self-interest, so that it is only
+behind his master's back that we hear his opinion of him; and only when
+he has lost his temper that the inherent provocativeness comes out--(see
+the dark ride into Scotland).
+
+On the contrary, Moniplies never speaks but in praise of his _absent_
+master; but exults in mortifying him in direct colloquy: yet never
+indulges this amiable disposition except with a really kind purpose, and
+entirely knowing what he is about. Fairservice, on the other hand,
+gradually falls into an unconscious fatality of varied blunder and
+provocation; and at last causes the entire catastrophe of the story by
+bringing in the candles when he has been ordered to stay downstairs.
+
+117. We have next to remember that with Scott, Truth and Courage are
+one. He somewhat overvalued _animal_ courage--holding it the basis of
+all other virtue--in his own words, "Without courage there can be no
+truth, and without truth no virtue." He would, however, sometimes allow
+his villains to possess the basis, without the super-structure, and thus
+Rashleigh, Dalgarno, Balfour, Varney, and other men of that stamp are to
+be carefully distinguished from his erring _heroes_, Marmion, Bertram,
+Christie of the Clinthill, or Nanty Ewart, in whom loyalty is always the
+real strength of the character, and the faults of life are owing to
+temporary passion or evil fate. Scott differs in this standard of
+heroism materially from Byron,[104] in whose eyes mere courage, with
+strong affections, are enough for admiration: while Bertram, and even
+Marmion, though loyal to his country, are meant only to be pitied--not
+honored. But neither Scott nor Byron will ever allow any grain of mercy
+to a coward; and the final difference, therefore, between Fairservice
+and Moniplies, which decides their fate in Scott's hands, is that
+between their courage and cowardice. Fairservice is driven out at the
+kitchen door, never to be heard of more, while Richie rises into Sir
+Richie of Castle-Collop--the reader may perhaps at the moment think by
+too careless grace on the King's part; which, indeed, Scott in some
+measure meant;--but the grotesqueness and often evasiveness of Richie's
+common manner make us forget how surely his bitter word is backed by his
+ready blow, when need is. His first introduction to us (i. 33), is
+because his quick temper overcomes his caution,--
+
+     "I thought to mysel', 'Ye are owre mony for me to mell with; but
+     let me catch ye in Barford's Park, or at the fit of the vennel, I
+     could gar some of ye sing another sang.' Sae, ae auld hirpling
+     deevil of a potter behoved just to step in my way and offer me a
+     pig, as he said, just to pit my Scotch ointment in, and _I gave him
+     a push, as but natural_, and the tottering deevil couped owre amang
+     his ain pigs, and damaged a score of them. And then the
+     reird[105] raise"--
+
+while in the close of the events (ii. 365), he wins his wife by a piece
+of hand-to-hand fighting, of the value of which his cool and stern
+estimate, in answer to the gay Templar, is one of the great sentences
+marking Scott's undercurrent of two feelings about war, in spite of his
+love of its heroism.
+
+"Bravo, Richie," cried Lowestoffe, "why, man, there lies Sin struck down
+like an ox, and Iniquity's throat cut like a calf."
+
+"I know not why you should upbraid me with my upbringing, Master
+Lowestoffe," answered Richie, with great composure; "but I can tell you,
+the shambles is not a bad place for training one to this work."
+
+
+118. These then being the radical conditions of native character in the
+two men, wholly irrespective of their religious persuasion, we have to
+note what form their Presbyterian faith takes in each, and what effect
+it has on their consciences.
+
+In Richie, it has little to do; his conscience being, in the deep of it,
+frank and clear. His religion commands him nothing which he is not at
+once ready to do, or has not habitually done; and it forbids him nothing
+which he is unwilling to forego. He pleads no pardon from it for known
+faults; he seeks no evasions in the letter of it for violations of its
+spirit. We are scarcely therefore aware of its vital power in him,
+unless at moments of very grave feeling and its necessary expression.
+
+     "Wherefore, as the letter will not avail you with him to whom it is
+     directed, you may believe that Heaven hath sent it to _me_, who
+     have a special regard for the writer--have besides, as much mercy
+     and honesty within me as man can weel mak' his bread with, and am
+     willing to aid any distressed creature, that is my friend's
+     friend."
+
+So, again, in the deep feeling which rebukes his master's careless ruin
+of the poor apprentice--
+
+     "I say, then, as I am a true man, when I saw that puir creature
+     come through the ha' at that ordinary, whilk is accurst (Heaven
+     forgive me for swearing) of God and man, with his teeth set, and
+     his hands clenched, and his bonnet drawn over his brows...." He
+     stopped a moment, and looked fixedly in his master's face.
+
+--and again in saving the poor lad himself when he takes the street to
+his last destruction "with burning heart and bloodshot eye":
+
+     "Why do you stop my way?" he said fiercely.
+
+     "Because it is a bad one, Master Jenkin," said Richie.
+
+     "Nay, never start about it, man; you see you are known.
+     Alack-a-day! that an honest man's son should live to start at
+     hearing himself called by his own name."
+
+     "I pray you in good fashion to let me go," said Jenkin. "I am in
+     the humor to be dangerous to myself, or to anyone."
+
+     "I will abide the risk," said the Scot, "if you will but come with
+     me. You are the very lad in the world whom I most wish to
+     meet."[106]
+
+     "And you," answered Vincent, "or any of your beggarly countrymen,
+     are the last sight I should ever wish to see. You Scots are ever
+     fair and false."
+
+     "As to our poverty, friend," replied Richie, "that is as Heaven
+     pleases; but touching our falsity, I'll prove to you that a
+     Scotsman bears as leal and true a heart to his friend as ever beat
+     in an English doublet."
+
+119. In these, and other such passages, it will be felt that I have done
+Richie some injustice in classing him among the religionists who have
+little sympathy! For all real distress, his compassion is instant; but
+his doctrinal religion becomes immediately to him a cause of failure in
+charity.
+
+     "Yon divine has another air from powerful Master Rollock, and Mess
+     David Black of North Leith, and sic like. Alack-a-day, wha can ken,
+     if it please your lordship, whether sic prayers as the Southrons
+     read out of their auld blethering black mess-book there, may not be
+     as powerful to invite fiends, as a right red-het prayer warm from
+     the heart may be powerful to drive them away; even as the evil
+     spirit was driven by the smell of the fish's liver from the bridal
+     chamber of Sara, the daughter of Raguel!"
+
+The scene in which this speech occurs is one of Scott's most finished
+pieces, showing with supreme art how far the weakness of Richie's
+superstitious formality is increased by his being at the time partially
+drunk!
+
+It is on the other hand to be noted to his credit, for an earnest and
+searching Bible-reader, that he quotes the Apocrypha. Not so gifted
+Gilfillan,--
+
+     "But if your honor wad consider the case of Tobit--!"
+
+     "Tobit!" exclaimed Gilfillan with great heat; "Tobit and his dog
+     baith are altogether heathenish and apocryphal, and none but a
+     prelatist or a papist would draw them into question. I doubt I hae
+     been mista'en in you, friend."
+
+Gilfillan and Fairservice are exactly alike, and both are distinguished
+from Moniplies in their scornfully exclusive dogmatism, which is indeed
+the distinctive plague-spot of the lower evangelical sect everywhere,
+and the worst blight of the narrow natures, capable of its zealous
+profession. In Blattergowl, on the contrary, as his name implies, the
+_doctrinal_ teaching has become mere Blather, Blatter, or patter--a
+string of commonplaces spoken habitually in performance of his clerical
+function, but with no personal or sectarian interest in them on his
+part.
+
+"He said fine things on the duty o' resignation to the will of God--that
+did he"; but his own mind is fixed under ordinary circumstances only on
+the income and privilege of his position. Scott however indicates this
+without severity as one of the weaknesses of an established church, to
+the general principle of which, as to all other established and
+monarchic law, he is wholly submissive, and usually affectionate (see
+the description of Colonel Mannering's Edinburgh Sunday), so that
+Blattergowl, _out of the pulpit_, does not fail in his serious pastoral
+duty, but gives real comfort by his presence and exhortation in the
+cottage of the Mucklebackits.
+
+On the other hand, to all kinds of Independents and Nonconformists
+(unless of Roderick Dhu type) Scott is adverse with all his powers; and
+accordingly, Andrew and Gilfillan are much more sternly and scornfully
+drawn than Blattergowl.
+
+120. In all the three, however, the reader must not for an instant
+suspect what is commonly called "hypocrisy." Their religion is no
+assumed mask or advanced pretense. It is in all a confirmed and intimate
+faith, mischievous by its error, in proportion to its sincerity (compare
+"Ariadne Florentina," paragraph 87), and although by his cowardice,
+petty larceny,[107] and low cunning, Fairservice is absolutely separated
+into a different class of men from Moniplies--in his fixed religious
+principle and primary conception of moral conduct, he is exactly like
+him. Thus when, in an agony of terror, he speaks for once to his master
+with entire sincerity, one might for a moment think it was a lecture by
+Moniplies to Nigel.
+
+     "O, Maister Frank, a' your uncle's follies and your cousin's
+     fliskies, were nothing to this! Drink clean cap-out, like Sir
+     Hildebrand; begin the blessed morning with brandy-taps like Squire
+     Percy; rin wud among the lasses like Squire John; gamble like
+     Richard; win souls to the Pope and the deevil, like Rashleigh;
+     rive, rant, _break the Sabbath_, and do the Pope's bidding, like
+     them a' put thegither--but merciful Providence! tak' care o' your
+     young bluid, and gang na near Rob Roy."
+
+I said, one might for a moment think it was a Moniplies' lecture to
+Nigel. But not for two moments, if we indeed can think at all. We could
+not find a passage more concentrated in expression of Andrew's total
+character; nor more characteristic of Scott in the calculated precision
+and deliberate appliance of every word.
+
+121. Observe first, Richie's rebuke, quoted above, fastens Nigel's mind
+instantly on the _nobleness_ of his father. But Andrew's to Frank
+fastens as instantly on the _follies_ of his uncle and cousins.
+
+Secondly, the sum of Andrew's lesson is--"do anything that is rascally,
+if only you save your skin." But Richie's is summed in "the grace of God
+is better than gold pieces."
+
+Thirdly, Richie takes little note of creeds, except when he is drunk,
+but looks to conduct always; while Andrew clinches his catalogue of
+wrong with "doing the Pope's bidding" and Sabbath-breaking; these
+definitions of the unpardonable being the worst absurdity of all Scotch
+wickedness to this hour--everything being forgiven to people who go to
+church on Sunday, and curse the Pope. Scott never loses sight of this
+marvelous plague-spot of Presbyterian religion, and the last words of
+Andrew Fairservice are:--
+
+     "The villain Laurie! to betray an auld friend that sang aff the
+     same psalm-book wi' him _every Sabbath_ for twenty years,"
+
+and the tragedy of these last words of his, and of his expulsion from
+his former happy home--"a jargonelle pear-tree at one end of the
+cottage, a rivulet and flower plot of a rood in extent in front, a
+kitchen garden behind, and a paddock for a cow" (viii. 6, of the 1830
+edition) can only be understood by the reading of the chapter he quotes
+on that last Sabbath evening he passes in it--the 5th of Nehemiah.
+
+122. For--and I must again and again point out this to the modern
+reader, who, living in a world of affectation, suspects "hypocrisy" in
+every creature he sees--the very plague of this lower evangelical piety
+is that it is _not_ hypocrisy; that Andrew and Laurie _do_ both expect
+to get the grace of God by singing psalms on Sunday, whatever rascality
+they practice during the week. In the modern popular drama of
+"School,"[108] the only religious figure is a dirty and malicious usher
+who appears first reading Hervey's "Meditations," and throws away the
+book as soon as he is out of sight of the company. But when Andrew is
+found by Frank "perched up like a statue by a range of beehives in an
+attitude of devout contemplation, with one eye watching the motions of
+the little irritable citizens, and the other fixed on a book of
+devotion," you will please observe, suspicious reader, that the devout
+gardener has no expectation whatever of Frank's approach, nor has he any
+design upon him, nor is he reading or attitudinizing for effect of any
+kind on any person. He is following his own ordinary customs, and his
+book of devotion has been already so well used that "much attrition had
+deprived it of its corners, and worn it into an oval shape"; its
+attractiveness to Andrew being twofold--the first, that it contains
+doctrine to his mind; the second, that such sound doctrine is set forth
+under figures properly belonging to his craft. "I was e'en taking a
+spell o' worthy Mess John Quackleben's 'Flower of a Sweet Savour sown on
+the Middenstead of this World'" (note in passing Scott's easy, instant,
+exquisite invention of the name of author and title of book); and it is
+a question of very curious interest how far these sweet "spells" in
+Quackleben, and the like religious exercises of a nature compatible with
+worldly business (compare Luckie Macleary, "with eyes employed on
+Boston's 'Crook in the Lot,' while her ideas were engaged in summing up
+the reckoning"--Waverley, i. 112)--do indeed modify in Scotland the
+national character for the better or the worse; or, not materially
+altering, do at least solemnize and confirm it in what good it may be
+capable of. My own Scottish nurse described in "Fors Clavigera" for
+April, 1873, would, I doubt not, have been as faithful and affectionate
+without her little library of Puritan theology; nor were her minor
+faults, so far as I could see, abated by its exhortations; but I cannot
+but believe that her uncomplaining endurance of most painful disease,
+and steadiness of temper under not unfrequent misapprehension by those
+whom she best loved and served, were in great degree aided by so much of
+Christian faith and hope as she had succeeded in obtaining, with little
+talk about it.
+
+123. I knew however in my earlier days a right old Covenanter in my
+Scottish aunt's house, of whom, with Mause Hedrigg and David Deans, I
+may be able perhaps to speak further in my next paper.[109] But I can
+only now write carefully of what bears on my immediate work: and must
+ask the reader's indulgence for the hasty throwing together of materials
+intended, before my illness last spring, to have been far more
+thoroughly handled. The friends who are fearful for my reputation as an
+"écrivain" will perhaps kindly recollect that a sentence of "Modern
+Painters" was often written four or five times over in my own hand, and
+tried in every word for perhaps an hour--perhaps a forenoon--before it
+was passed for the printer. I rarely now fix my mind on a sentence, or a
+thought, for five minutes in the quiet of morning, but a telegram comes
+announcing that somebody or other will do themselves the pleasure of
+calling at eleven o'clock, and that there's two shillings to pay.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: October 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 99: "Jean François Millet." Twenty Etching's and Woodcuts
+reproduced in Facsimile, and Biographical Notice by William Ernest
+Henley. London, 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 100: I am sorry to find that my former allusion to the boating
+expedition in this novel has been misconstrued by a young authoress of
+promise into disparagement of her own work; not supposing it possible
+that I could only have been forced to look at George Eliot's by a
+friend's imperfect account of it.]
+
+[Footnote 101: I am ashamed to exemplify the miserable work of "review"
+by mangling and mumbling this noble closing chapter of the "Monastery,"
+but I cannot show the web of work without unweaving it.]
+
+[Footnote 102: With ludicrously fatal retouch in the later edition "was
+deprived of" his sword.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Again I am obliged, by review necessity, to omit half the
+points of the scene.]
+
+[Footnote 104: I must deeply and earnestly express my thanks to my
+friend Mr. Hale White for his vindication of Goethe's real opinion of
+Byron from the mangled representation of it by Mr. Matthew Arnold
+(_Contemporary Review_, August, 1881).]
+
+[Footnote 105: "Reirde, rerde, Anglo-Saxon reord, lingua, sermo, clamor,
+shouting" (Douglas glossary). No Scottish sentence in the Scott novels
+should be passed without examining every word in it, his dialect, as
+already noticed, being always pure and classic in the highest degree,
+and his meaning always the fuller, the further it is traced.]
+
+[Footnote 106: The reader must observe that in quoting Scott for
+illustration of particular points I am obliged sometimes to alter the
+succession and omit much of the context of the pieces I want, for Scott
+never lets you see his hand, nor get at his points without remembering
+and comparing far-away pieces carefully. To collect the evidence of any
+one phase of character, is like pulling up the detached roots of a
+creeper.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Note the "wee business of my ain," i. 213.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Its "hero" is a tall youth with handsome calves to his
+legs, who shoots a bull with a fowling-piece, eats a large lunch, thinks
+it witty to call Othello a "nigger," and, having nothing to live on, and
+being capable of doing nothing for his living, establishes himself in
+lunches and cigars forever, by marrying a girl with a fortune. The
+heroine is an amiable governess, who, for the general encouragement of
+virtue in governesses, is rewarded by marrying a lord.]
+
+[Footnote 109: The present paper was, however, the last.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FAIRY STORIES.[110]
+
+
+124. Long since, longer ago than the opening of some fairy tales, I was
+asked by the publisher who has been rash enough, at my request, to
+reprint these my favorite old stories in their earliest English form, to
+set down for him my reasons for preferring them to the more polished
+legends, moral and satiric, which are now, with rich adornment of every
+page by very admirable art, presented to the acceptance of the Nursery.
+
+But it seemed to me to matter so little to the majestic independence of
+the child-public, who, beside themselves, liked, or who disliked, what
+they pronounced entertaining, that it is only on strict claims of a
+promise unwarily given that I venture on the impertinence of eulogy; and
+my reluctance is the greater, because there is in fact nothing very
+notable in these tales, unless it be their freedom from faults which for
+some time have been held to be quite the reverse of faults by the
+majority of readers.
+
+125. In the best stories recently written for the young, there is a
+taint which it is not easy to define, but which inevitably follows on
+the author's addressing himself to children bred in schoolrooms and
+drawing-rooms, instead of fields and woods--children whose favorite
+amusements are premature imitations of the vanities of elder people, and
+whose conceptions of beauty are dependent partly on costliness of dress.
+The fairies who interfere in the fortunes of these little ones are apt
+to be resplendent chiefly in millinery and satin slippers, and appalling
+more by their airs than their enchantments.
+
+The fine satire which, gleaming through every playful word, renders some
+of these recent stories as attractive to the old as to the young, seems
+to me no less to unfit them for their proper function. Children should
+laugh, but not mock; and when they laugh, it should not be at the
+weaknesses and the faults of others. They should be taught, as far as
+they are permitted to concern themselves with the characters of those
+around them, to seek faithfully for good, not to lie in wait maliciously
+to make themselves merry with evil: they should be too painfully
+sensitive to wrong to smile at it; and too modest to constitute
+themselves its judges.
+
+126. With these minor errors a far graver one is involved. As the
+simplicity of the sense of beauty has been lost in recent tales for
+children, so also the simplicity of their conception of love. That word
+which, in the heart of a child, should represent the most constant and
+vital part of its being; which ought to be the sign of the most solemn
+thoughts that inform its awakening soul and, in one wide mystery of pure
+sunrise, should flood the zenith of its heaven, and gleam on the dew at
+its feet; this word, which should be consecrated on its lips, together
+with the Name which it may not take in vain, and whose meaning should
+soften and animate every emotion through which the inferior things and
+the feeble creatures, set beneath it in its narrow world, are revealed
+to its curiosity or companionship; this word, in modern child-story, is
+too often restrained and darkened into the hieroglyph of an evil
+mystery, troubling the sweet peace of youth with premature gleams of
+uncomprehended passion, and flitting shadows of unrecognized sin.
+
+These great faults in the spirit of recent child-fiction are connected
+with a parallel folly of purpose. Parents who are too indolent and
+self-indulgent to form their children's characters by wholesome
+discipline, or in their own habits and principles of life are conscious
+of setting before them no faultless example, vainly endeavor to
+substitute the persuasive influence of moral precept, intruded in the
+guise of amusement, for the strength of moral habit compelled by
+righteous authority:--vainly think to inform the heart of infancy with
+deliberative wisdom, while they abdicate the guardianship of its
+unquestioning innocence; and warp into the agonies of an immature
+philosophy of conscience the once fearless strength of its unsullied and
+unhesitating virtue.
+
+127. A child should not need to choose between right and wrong. It
+should not be capable of wrong; it should not conceive of wrong.
+Obedient, as bark to helm, not by sudden strain or effort, but in the
+freedom of its bright course of constant life; true, with an
+undistinguished, praiseless, unboastful truth, in a crystalline
+household world of truth; gentle, through daily entreatings of
+gentleness, and honorable trusts, and pretty prides of child-fellowship
+in offices of good; strong, not in bitter and doubtful contest with
+temptation, but in peace of heart, and armor of habitual right, from
+which temptation falls like thawing hail; self-commanding, not in sick
+restraint of mean appetites and covetous thoughts, but in vital joy of
+unluxurious life, and contentment in narrow possession, wisely esteemed.
+
+Children so trained have no need of moral fairy tales; but they will
+find in the apparently vain and fitful courses of any tradition of old
+time, honestly delivered to them, a teaching for which no other can be
+substituted, and of which the power cannot be measured; animating for
+them the material world with inextinguishable life, fortifying them
+against the glacial cold of selfish science, and preparing them
+submissively, and with no bitterness of astonishment, to behold, in
+later years, the mystery--divinely appointed to remain such to all human
+thought--of the fates that happen alike to the evil and the good.
+
+128. And the effect of the endeavor to make stories moral upon the
+literary merit of the work itself, is as harmful as the motive of the
+effort is false. For every fairy tale worth recording at all is the
+remnant of a tradition possessing true historical value;--historical, at
+least in so far as it has naturally arisen out of the mind of a people
+under special circumstances, and risen not without meaning, nor removed
+altogether from their sphere of religious faith. It sustains afterwards
+natural changes from the sincere action of the fear or fancy of
+successive generations; it takes new color from their manner of life,
+and new form from their changing moral tempers. As long as these changes
+are natural and effortless, accidental and inevitable, the story remains
+essentially true, altering its form, indeed, like a flying cloud, but
+remaining a sign of the sky; a shadowy image, as truly a part of the
+great firmament of the human mind as the light of reason which it seems
+to interrupt. But the fair deceit and innocent error of it cannot be
+interpreted nor restrained by a willful purpose, and all additions to it
+by act do but defile, as the shepherd disturbs the flakes of morning
+mist with smoke from his fire of dead leaves.
+
+129. There is also a deeper collateral mischief in this indulgence of
+licentious change and retouching of stories to suit particular tastes,
+or inculcate favorite doctrines. It directly destroys the child's power
+of rendering any such belief as it would otherwise have been in his
+nature to give to an imaginative vision. How far it is expedient to
+occupy his mind with ideal forms at all may be questionable to many,
+though not to me; but it is quite beyond question that if we do allow of
+the fictitious representation, that representation should be calm and
+complete, possessed to the full, and read down its utmost depth. The
+little reader's attention should never be confused or disturbed, whether
+he is possessing himself of fairy tale or history. Let him know his
+fairy tale accurately, and have perfect joy or awe in the conception of
+it as if it were real; thus he will always be exercising his power of
+grasping realities: but a confused, careless, or discrediting tenure of
+the fiction will lead to as confused and careless reading of fact. Let
+the circumstances of both be strictly perceived and long dwelt upon, and
+let the child's own mind develop fruit of thought from both. It is of
+the greatest importance early to secure this habit of contemplation, and
+therefore it is a grave error, either to multiply unnecessarily, or to
+illustrate with extravagant richness, the incidents presented to the
+imagination. It should multiply and illustrate them for itself; and, if
+the intellect is of any real value, there will be a mystery and
+wonderfulness in its own dreams which would only be thwarted by external
+illustration. Yet I do not bring forward the text or the etchings in
+this volume as examples of what either ought to be in works of the kind:
+they are in many respects common, imperfect, vulgar; but their vulgarity
+is of a wholesome and harmless kind. It is not, for instance, graceful
+English, to say that a thought "popped into Catherine's head"; but it
+nevertheless is far better, as an initiation into literary style, that a
+child should be told this than that "a subject attracted Catherine's
+attention." And in genuine forms of minor tradition, a rude and more or
+less illiterate tone will always be discernible; for all the best fairy
+tales have owed their birth, and the greater part of their power, to
+narrowness of social circumstances; they belonged properly to districts
+in which walled cities are surrounded by bright and unblemished country,
+and in which a healthy and bustling town life, not highly refined, is
+relieved by, and contrasted with, the calm enchantment of pastoral and
+woodland scenery, either under humble cultivation by peasant masters, or
+left in its natural solitude. Under conditions of this kind the
+imagination is enough excited to invent instinctively (and rejoice in
+the invention of) spiritual forms of wildness and beauty, while yet it
+is restrained and made cheerful by the familiar accidents and relations
+of town life, mingling always in its fancy humorous and vulgar
+circumstances with pathetic ones, and never so much impressed with its
+supernatural fantasies as to be in danger of retaining them as any part
+of its religious faith. The good spirit descends gradually from an
+angel into a fairy, and the demon shrinks into a playful grotesque of
+diminutive malevolence, while yet both keep an accredited and vital
+influence upon the character and mind. But the language in which such
+ideas will be usually clothed, must necessarily partake of their
+narrowness; and art is systematically incognizant of them, having only
+strength under the conditions which awake them to express itself in an
+irregular and gross grotesque, fit only for external architectural
+decoration.
+
+130. The illustrations of this volume are almost the only exceptions I
+know to the general rule. They are of quite sterling and admirable art,
+in a class precisely parallel in elevation to the character of the tales
+which they illustrate; and the original etchings, as I have before said
+in the Appendix to my "Elements of Drawing," were quite unrivaled in
+masterfulness of touch since Rembrandt (in some qualities of delineation
+unrivaled even by him). These copies have been so carefully executed,
+that at first I was deceived by them, and supposed them to be late
+impressions from the plates (and what is more, I believe the master
+himself was deceived by them, and supposed them to be his own); and
+although on careful comparison with the first proofs they will be found
+no exception to the terrible law that literal repetition of entirely
+fine work shall be, even to the hand that produced it,--much more to any
+other,--forever impossible, they still represent, with sufficient
+fidelity to be in the highest degree instructive, the harmonious light
+and shade, the manly simplicity of execution, and the easy, unincumbered
+fancy, of designs which belonged to the best period of Cruikshank's
+genius. To make somewhat enlarged copies of them, looking at them
+through a magnifying glass, and never putting two lines where Cruikshank
+has put only one, would be an exercise in decision and severe drawing
+which would leave afterwards little to be learnt in schools, I would
+gladly also say much in their praise as imaginative designs; but the
+power of genuine imaginative work, and its difference from that which is
+compounded and patched together from borrowed sources, is of all
+qualities of art the most difficult to explain; and I must be content
+with the simple assertions of it.
+
+And so I trust the good old book, and the honest work that adorns it, to
+such favor as they may find with children of open hearts and lowly
+lives.
+
+  DENMARK HILL, _Easter_, 1868.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 110: This paper forms the introduction to a volume entitled
+"German Popular Stories, with Illustrations after the original designs
+of George Cruikshank, edited by Edgar Taylor, with Introduction by John
+Ruskin, M.A." London: Chatto and Windus, 1868. The book is a reprint of
+Mr. Edgar Taylor's original (1823) selections of the "Hausmärchen," or
+"German Popular Stories" of the Brothers Grimm. The original selections
+were in two octavo volumes; the reprint in one of smaller size, it being
+(the publisher states in his preface) "Mr. Ruskin's wish that the new
+edition should appeal to young readers rather than to adults."--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ECONOMY.
+
+
+HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, May_ 1873.)
+
+
+USURY. A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, February_ 1880.)
+
+
+USURY. A PREFACE.
+
+(_Pamphlet_, 1885.)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.[111]
+
+
+131. In the March number of the _Contemporary Review_ appeared two
+papers,[112] by writers of reputation, which I cannot but hope their
+authors will perceive upon reflection to have involved errors only the
+more grave in that they have become, of late, in the minds of nearly all
+public men, facile and familiar. I have, therefore, requested the
+editor's permission to offer some reply to both of these essays, their
+subjects being intimately connected.
+
+The first of which I speak was Mr. Herbert Spencer's, which appeared
+under the title of "The Bias of Patriotism." But the real subject of the
+paper (discussed in its special extent, with singular care and equity)
+was only the bias of National vanity; and the debate was opened by this
+very curious sentence,--"Patriotism is nationally, that which Egoism is
+individually."
+
+Mr. Spencer would not, I think, himself accept this statement, if put
+into the clear form, "What is Egoism in one man, is Patriotism in two or
+more, and the vice of an individual, the virtue of a multitude."[113]
+But it is strange,--however strictly Mr. Spencer may of late have
+confined his attention to metaphysical or scientific subjects,
+disregarding the language of historical or imaginative literature--it
+is strange, I repeat, that so careful a student should be unaware that
+the term "patriotism" cannot, in classical usage, be extended to the
+action of a multitude. No writer of authority ever speaks of a nation as
+having felt, or acted, patriotically. Patriotism is, by definition, a
+virtue of individuals; and so far from being in those individuals a mode
+of egoism, it is precisely in the sacrifice of their egoism that it
+consists. It is the temper of mind which determines them to defer their
+own interests to those of their country.
+
+132. Supposing it possible for any parallel sentiment to animate a
+nation as one body, it could have reference only to the position it held
+among other families of the world. The name of the emotion would then be
+properly "Cosmism," and would signify the resolution of such a people to
+sacrifice its own special interests to those of Mankind. Cosmism
+hitherto has indeed generally asserted itself only in the desire of the
+Cosmic nation that all others should adopt its theological opinions, and
+permit it to adopt their personal property; but Patriotism has truly
+existed, and even as a dominant feeling, in the minds of many persons
+who have been greatly influential on the fates of their races, and that
+one of our leading philosophers should be unconscious of the nature of
+this sentiment, and ignorant of its political power, is to be noted as
+painfully characteristic of the present state of England itself.
+
+It does not indeed follow that a feeling of which we are unaware is
+necessarily extinguished in us; and the faculties of perception and
+analysis are always so paralyzed by the lingual ingenuities of logic
+that it is impossible to say, of any professed logician, whether he may
+not yet be acting under the real force of ideas of which he has lost
+both the consciousness and conception. No man who has once entangled
+himself in what Mr. Spencer defines, farther on, as the "science of the
+relations implied by the conclusions, exclusions, and overlappings of
+classes," can be expected during the rest of his life to perceive more
+of any one thing than that it is included, excluded, or overlapped by
+something else; which is in itself a sufficiently confused state of
+mind, and especially harmful in that it permits us to avoid considering
+whether our intellectual linen is itself clean, while we concern
+ourselves only to ascertain whether it is included, excluded, or
+overlapped by our coat collar. But it is a grave phenomenon of the time
+that patriotism--of all others--should be the sentiment which an English
+logician is not only unable to define, but attempts to define as its
+precise contrary. In every epoch of decline, men even of high
+intellectual energy have been swept down in the diluvium of public life,
+and the crystalline edges of their minds worn away by friction with
+blunted ones; but I had not believed that the whole weight of the
+depraved mob of modern England, though they have become incapable alike
+of fidelity to their own country, and alliance with any other, could so
+far have perplexed one of our exactest students as to make him confuse
+heroism with conceit, and the loves of country and of home with the
+iniquities of selfishness. Can it be only a quarter of a century since
+the Last Minstrel died--and have we already answered his "Lives there a
+man?" with the calm assertion that there live no other than such; and
+that the "wretch concentered all in self "is the "Patriot" of our
+generation?
+
+133. Be it so. Let it even be admitted that egoism is the only power
+conceivable by a modern metaphysician to be the spring of mental energy;
+just as chemical excitement may be the only power traceable by the
+modern physician as the source of muscular energy. And still Mr.
+Spencer's subsequent analysis is inaccurate, and unscholarly. For egoism
+does not necessarily imply either misapprehension or mismeasurement.
+There are modes of the love of our country which are definitely selfish,
+as a cat's of the hearthrug, yet entirely balanced and calm in judicial
+faculty; passions which determine conduct, but have no influence on
+opinion. For instance, I have bought for my own exclusive gratification,
+the cottage in which I am writing, near the lake-beach on which I used
+to play when I was seven years old. Were I a public-spirited scientific
+person, or a benevolently pious one, I should doubtless, instead, be
+surveying the geographical relations of the Mountains of the Moon, or
+translating the Athanasian Creed into Tartar-Chinese. But I hate the
+very name of the public, and labor under no oppressive anxiety either
+for the advancement of science, or the salvation of mankind. I therefore
+prefer amusing myself with the lake-pebbles, of which I know nothing but
+that they are pretty; and conversing with people whom I can understand
+without pains, and who, so far from needing to be converted, seem to me
+on the whole better than myself. This is moral egoism, but it is not
+intellectual error. I never form, much less express, any opinion as to
+the relative beauties of Yewdale crag and the Mountains of the Moon; nor
+do I please myself by contemplating, in any exaggerated light, the
+spiritual advantages which I possess in my familiarity with the
+Thirty-nine Articles. I know the height of my neighboring mountains to a
+foot; and the extent of my real possessions, theological and material,
+to an article. Patriotic egoism attaches me to the one; personal egoism
+satisfies me in the other; and the calm selfishness with which Nature
+has blessed all her unphilosophical creatures, blinds me to the
+attractions--as to the faults--of things with which I have no concern,
+and saves me at once from the folly of contempt, and the discomfort of
+envy. I might have written, as accurately, "The discomfort of contempt";
+for indeed the forms of petulant rivalry and self-assertion which Mr.
+Spencer assumes to be developments of egoism, are merely its diseases;
+(taking the word "disease" in its most literal meaning). A man of sense
+is more an egoist in modesty than a blockhead is in boasting; and it is
+neither pride nor self-respect, but only ignorance and ill-breeding,
+that either disguise the facts of life, or violate its courtesies.
+
+134. It will not, I trust, be thought violation of courtesy to a writer
+of Mr. Spencer's extending influence, if I urge on his attention the
+danger under which metaphysicians are always placed of supposing that
+the investigation of the processes of thought will enable them to
+distinguish its forms. 'As well might the chemist, who had exhaustively
+examined the conditions of vitreous fusion, imagine himself therefore
+qualified to number or class the vases bent by the breath of Venice. Mr.
+Spencer has determined, I believe, to the satisfaction of his readers,
+in what manner thoughts and feelings are constructed; it is time for him
+now to observe the results of the construction, whether native to his
+own mind, or discoverable in other intellectual territories. Patriotism
+is, however, perhaps the last emotion he can now conveniently study in
+England, for the temper which crowns the joy of life with the sweetness
+and decorum of death can scarcely be manifested clearly in a country
+which is fast rendering herself one whose peace is pollution, and whose
+battle, crime; within whose confines it is loathsome to live, and in
+whose cause it is disgraceful to die.
+
+135. The chief causes of her degradation were defended, with delicate
+apology, in the second paper to which I have above referred; the
+modification by Mr. W. R. Greg of a letter which he had addressed, on
+the subject of luxurious expenditure and its economical results, to the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_; and which Mr. Greg states to have given rise in
+that journal to a controversy in which four or five combatants took
+part, the looseness of whose notions induced him to express his own more
+coherent ones in the _Contemporary Review_.[114]
+
+I am sorry to find that Mr. Greg looked upon my own poor part in that
+correspondence as controversial. I merely asked him a question which he
+declared to be insidious and irrelevant (not considering that if it were
+the one, it could not be the other), and I stated a few facts respecting
+which no controversy was possible, and which Mr. Greg, in his own terms,
+"sedulously abstained" from noticing.
+
+But Mr. Greg felt my question to be insidious because it made him partly
+conscious that he had only examined one half of the subject he was
+discussing, and even that half without precision.
+
+Mr. Goldwin Smith had spoken of a rich man as consuming the means of
+living of the poor. Mr. Greg, in reply, pointed out how beneficially the
+rich man spent what he had got. Upon which I ventured to inquire "how he
+got it"; which is indeed precisely the first of all questions to be
+asked when the economical relations of any man with his neighbor are to
+be examined.
+
+Dick Turpin is blamed--suppose--by some plain-minded person for
+consuming the means of other people's living. "Nay," says Dick to the
+plain-minded person, "observe how beneficently and pleasantly I spend
+whatever I get!"
+
+"Yes, Dick," persists the plain-minded person; "but how do you get it?"
+
+"The question," says Dick, "is insidious and irrelevant."
+
+Do not let it be supposed that I mean to assert any irregularity or
+impropriety in Dick's profession--I merely assert the necessity for Mr.
+Greg's examination, if he would be master of his subject, of the manner
+of Gain in every case, as well as the manner of Expenditure. Such
+accounts must always be accurately rendered in a well-regulated society.
+
+     136. "Le lieutenant adressa la parole au capitaine, et lui dit
+     qu'il venait d'enlever ces mannequins, remplis de sucre, de
+     cannelle, d'amandes, et de raisins sees, à un épicier de Bénavente.
+     Après qu'il eut rendu compte de son expédition au bureau, les
+     dépouilles de l'épicier furent portées dans l'office. Alors il ne
+     fut plus question que de se réjouir; je débutai par le buffet, que
+     je parai de plusieurs bouteilles de ce bon vin que le Seigneur
+     Rolando m'avoit vanté."
+
+Mr. Greg strictly confines himself to an examination of the benefits
+conferred on the public by this so agreeable festivity; but he must not
+be surprised or indignant that some inquiry should be made as to the
+resulting condition of the épicier de Bénavente.
+
+And it is all the more necessary that such inquiry be instituted when
+the captain of the expedition is a minion, not of the moon, but of the
+sun; and dazzling, therefore, to all beholders. "It is heaven which
+dictates what I ought to do upon this occasion,"[115] says Henry of
+Navarre; "my retreat out of this city,[116] before I have made myself
+master of it, will be the retreat of my soul out of my body."
+"Accordingly all the quarter which still held out, we forced," says M.
+de Rosny, "after which the inhabitants, finding themselves no longer
+able to resist, laid down their arms, and the city was given up to
+plunder. My good fortune threw a small iron chest in my way, in which I
+found about four thousand gold crowns."
+
+I cannot doubt that the Baron's expenditure of this sum would be in the
+highest degree advantageous to France and to the Protestant religion.
+But complete economical science must study the effect of its abstraction
+on the immediate prosperity of the town of Cahors; and even beyond
+this--the mode of its former acquisition by the town itself, which
+perhaps, in the economies of the nether world, may have delegated some
+of its citizens to the seventh circle.[117]
+
+137. And the most curious points in the partiality of modern economical
+science are that while it always waives this question of ways and means
+with respect to rich persons, it studiously pushes it in the case of
+poor ones; and while it asserts the consumption of such an article of
+luxury as wine (to take that which Mr. Greg himself instances) to be
+economically expedient, when the wine is drunk by persons who are not
+thirsty, it asserts the same consumption to be altogether inexpedient,
+when the privilege is extended to those who are. Thus Mr. Greg
+dismisses, in one place, with compassionate disdain, the extremely
+vulgar notion "that a man who drinks a bottle of champagne worth five
+shillings, while his neighbor is in want of actual food, is in some way
+wronging his neighbor"; and yet Mr. Greg himself, elsewhere,[118]
+evidently remains under the equally vulgar impression that the
+twenty-four millions of such thirstier persons who spend fifteen per
+cent of their incomes in drink and tobacco, are wronging their neighbors
+by that expenditure.
+
+138. It cannot, surely, be the difference in degree of refinement
+between malt liquor and champagne which causes Mr. Greg's undefined
+sensation of moral delinquency and economical error in the one case, and
+of none in the other; if that be all, I can relieve him from his
+embarrassment by putting the cases in more parallel form. A clergyman
+writes to me, in distress of mind, because the able-bodied laborers who
+come begging to him in winter, drink port wine out of buckets in summer.
+Of course Mr. Greg's logical mind will at once admit (as a consequence
+of his own very just _argumentum ad hominem_ in a previous page[119])
+that the consumption of port wine out of buckets must be as much a
+benefit to society in general as the consumption of champagne out of
+bottles; and yet, curiously enough, I am certain he will feel my
+question, "Where does the drinker get the means for his drinking?" more
+relevant in the case of the imbibers of port than in that of the
+imbibers of champagne. And although Mr. Greg proceeds, with that lofty
+contempt for the dictates of nature and Christianity which radical
+economists cannot but feel, to observe that "while the natural man and
+the Christian would have the champagne drinker forego his bottle, and
+give the value of it to the famishing wretch beside him, the radical
+economist would condemn such behavior as distinctly criminal and
+pernicious," he would scarcely, I think, carry out with the same
+triumphant confidence the conclusions of the unnatural man and the
+anti-christian, with respect to the laborer as well as the idler; and
+declare that while the extremely simple persons who still believe in the
+laws of nature, and the mercy of God, would have the port-drinker forego
+his bucket, and give the value of it to the famishing wife and child
+beside him, "the radical economist would condemn such behavior as
+distinctly criminal and pernicious."
+
+Mr. Greg has it indeed in his power to reply that it is proper to
+economize for the sake of one's own wife and children, but not for the
+sake of anybody else's. But since, according to another exponent of the
+principles of Radical Economy, in the _Cornhill Magazine_,[120] a
+well-conducted agricultural laborer must not marry till he is
+forty-five, his economies, if any, in early life, must be as offensive
+to Mr. Greg on the score of their abstract humanity, as those of the
+richest bachelor about town.
+
+139. There is another short sentence in this same page, of which it is
+difficult to overrate the accidental significance.
+
+"The superficial observer," says Mr. Greg, "recollects a text which he
+heard in his youth, but of which he never considered the precise
+applicability--'He that hath two coats, let him impart to him that hath
+none.'"
+
+The assumptions that no educated Englishman can ever have heard that
+text except in his youth, and that those who are old enough to remember
+having heard it, "never considered its precise applicability," are
+surely rash, in the treatment of a scientific subject. I can assure Mr.
+Greg that a few gray-headed votaries of the creed of Christendom still
+read--though perhaps under their breath--the words which early
+associations have made precious to them; and that in the bygone days,
+when that Sermon on the Mount was still listened to with respect by many
+not illiterate persons, its meaning was not only considered, but very
+deliberately acted upon. Even the readers of the _Contemporary Review_
+may perhaps have some pleasure in retreating from the sunshine of
+contemporary science, for a few quiet moments, into the shadows of that
+of the past, and hearing in the following extracts from two letters of
+Scott's (the first describing the manner of life of his mother, whose
+death it announces to a friend, the second, anticipating the verdict of
+the future on the management of his estate by a Scottish nobleman) what
+relations between rich and poor were possible, when philosophers had not
+yet even lisped in the sweet numbers of Radical Sociology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+140. "She was a strict economist, which she said, enabled her to be
+liberal; out of her little income of about £300 a year she bestowed at
+least a third in well-chosen charities, and with the rest, lived like a
+gentlewoman, and even with hospitality more general than seemed to suit
+her age; yet I could never prevail on her to accept of any assistance.
+You cannot conceive how affecting it was to me to see the little
+preparations of presents which she had assorted for the New Year, for
+she was a great observer of the old fashions of her period--and to think
+that the kind heart was cold which delighted in all these arts of kindly
+affection."
+
+141. "The Duke is one of those retired and high-spirited men who will
+never be known until the world asks what became of the huge oak that
+grew on the brow of the hill, and sheltered such an extent of ground.
+During the late distress, though his own immense rents remained in
+arrears, and though I know he was pinched for money, as all men were,
+but more especially the possessors of entailed estates, he absented
+himself from London in order to pay, with ease to himself, the laborers
+employed on his various estates. These amounted (for I have often seen
+the roll and helped to check it) to nine hundred and fifty men, working
+at day wages, each of whom on a moderate average might maintain three
+persons, since the single men have mothers, sisters, and aged or very
+young relations to protect and assist. Indeed it is wonderful how much
+even a small sum, comparatively, will do in supporting the Scottish
+laborer, who in his natural state is perhaps one of the best, most
+intelligent, and kind-hearted of human beings; and in truth I have
+limited my other habits of expense very much since I fell into the habit
+of employing mine honest people. I wish you could have seen about a
+hundred children, being almost entirely supported by their fathers' or
+brothers' labor, come down yesterday to dance to the pipes, and get a
+piece of cake and bannock, and pence apiece (no very deadly largess) in
+honor of hogmanay. I declare to you, my dear friend, that when I thought
+the poor fellows, who kept these children so neat, and well taught, and
+well behaved, were slaving the whole day for eighteen pence or twenty
+pence at most, I was ashamed of their gratitude, and of their becks and
+bows. But after all, one does what one can, and it is better twenty
+families should be comfortable according to their wishes and habits,
+than that half that number should be raised above their situation."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+142. I must pray Mr. Greg farther to observe, if he has condescended to
+glance at these remains of almost prehistoric thought, that although the
+modern philosopher will never have reason to blush for any man's
+gratitude, and has totally abandoned the romantic idea of making even so
+much as one family comfortable according to their wishes and habits, the
+alternative suggested by Scott, that half "the number should be raised
+above their situation" may become a very inconvenient one if the
+doctrines of Modern Equality and competition should render the other
+half desirous of parallel promotion.
+
+143. It is now just sixteen years since Mr. Greg's present philosophy of
+Expenditure was expressed with great precision by the Common Councilmen
+of New York, in their report on the commercial crisis of 1857, in the
+following terms:--[121]
+
+     "Another erroneous idea is that luxurious living, extravagant
+     dressing, splendid turn-outs and fine houses, are the cause of
+     distress to a nation, No more erroneous impression could exist.
+     Every extravagance that the man of 100.000 or 1,000,000 dollars
+     indulges in, adds to the means, the support, the wealth of ten or a
+     hundred who had little or nothing else but their labor, their
+     intellect, or their taste. If a man of 1,000,000 dollars spends
+     principal and interest in ten years, and finds himself beggared at
+     the end of that time, he has actually made a hundred who have
+     catered to his extravagance, employers or employed, so much richer
+     by the division of his wealth. He may be ruined, but the nation is
+     better off and richer, for one hundred minds and hands, with 10,000
+     dollars apiece, are far more productive than one with the whole."
+
+Now that is precisely the view also taken of the matter by a large
+number of Radical Economists in England as well as America; only they
+feel that the time, however short, which the rich gentleman takes to
+divide his property among them in his own way, is practically wasted;
+and even worse, because the methods which the gentleman himself is
+likely to adopt for the depression of his fortune will not, in all
+probability, be conducive to the elevation of his character. It appears,
+therefore, on moral as well as economical grounds, desirable that the
+division and distribution should at once be summarily effected; and the
+only point still open to discussion in the views of the Common
+Councilmen is to what degree of minuteness they would think it advisable
+to carry the subsequent subdivision.
+
+144. I do not suppose, however, that this is the conclusion which Mr.
+Greg is desirous that the general Anti-Christian public should adopt;
+and in that case, as I see by his paper in the last number of the
+_Contemporary_,[122] that he considers the Christian life itself
+virtually impossible, may I recommend his examination of the manners of
+the Pre-Christian? For I can certify him that this important subject,
+of which he has only himself imperfectly investigated one side, had been
+thoroughly investigated on all sides, at least seven hundred years
+before Christ; and from that day to this, all men of wit, sense, and
+feeling have held precisely the same views on the subjects of economy
+and charity, in all nations under the sun. It is of no consequence
+whether Mr. Greg chooses the experience of Boeotia, Lombardy, or
+Yorkshire, nor whether he studies the relation of work to-day or under
+Hesiod, Virgil, or Sydney Smith. But it is desirable that at least he
+should acquaint himself with the opinions of some such persons, as well
+as with those of the Common Councilmen of New York; for though a man of
+superior sagacity may be pardoned for thinking, with the friends of Job,
+that Wisdom will die with him, it can only be through neglect of the
+existing opportunities of general culture that he remains distinctly
+under the impression that she was born with him.
+
+145. It may perhaps be well that in conclusion, I should state briefly
+the causes and terms of the economical crisis of our own day, which has
+been the subject of the debate between Mr. Goldwin Smith and Mr. Greg.
+
+No man ever became, or can become, largely rich merely by labor and
+economy.[123] All large fortunes (putting treasure-trove and gambling
+out of consideration) are founded either on occupation of land, usury,
+or taxation of labor. Whether openly or occultly, the landlord,
+money-lender, and capitalist employer, gather into their possession a
+certain quantity of the means of existence which other people produce by
+the labor of their hands. The effect of this impost upon the condition
+of life of the tenant, borrower, and workman, is the first point to be
+studied;--the results, that is to say, of the mode in which Captain
+Roland fills his purse.
+
+Secondly, we have to study the effects of the mode in which Captain
+Roland empties his purse. The landlord, usurer, or labor-master, does
+not, and cannot, himself consume all the means of life he collects. He
+gives them to other persons, whom he employs for his own behoof--growers
+of champagne, jockeys, footmen, jewelers, builders, painters, musicians,
+and the like. The division of the labor of these persons from the
+production of food to the production of articles of luxury is very
+frequently, and at the present day, very grievously the cause of famine.
+But when the luxuries are produced, it becomes a quite separate question
+who is to have them, and whether the landlord and capitalist are
+entirely to monopolize the music, the painting, the architecture, the
+hand-service, the horse-service, and the sparkling champagne of the
+world.
+
+146. And it is gradually, in these days, becoming manifest to the
+tenants, borrowers, and laborers, that instead of paying these large
+sums into the hands of the landlords, lenders, and employers, for them
+to purchase music, painting, etc., with, the tenants, borrowers, and
+workers had better buy a little music and painting for themselves. That,
+for instance, instead of the capitalist-employer paying three hundred
+pounds for a full-length portrait of himself, in the attitude of
+investing his capital, the united workmen had better themselves pay the
+three hundred pounds into the hands of the ingenious artist, for a
+painting in the antiquated manner of Leonardo or Raphael, of some
+subject more religiously or historically interesting to them; and placed
+where they can always see it. And again instead of paying three hundred
+pounds to the obliging landlord, for him to buy a box at the opera with,
+whence to study the refinements of music and dancing, the tenants are
+beginning to think that they may as well keep their rents to themselves,
+and therewith pay some Wandering Willie to fiddle at their own doors, or
+bid some gray-haired minstrel
+
+  "Tune, to please a peasant's ear,
+  The harp a king had loved to hear."
+
+And similarly the dwellers in the hut of the field and garret of the
+city are beginning to think that instead of paying half a crown for the
+loan of half a fire-place, they had better keep their half-crown in
+their pockets till they can buy for themselves a whole one.
+
+147. These are the views which are gaining ground among the poor; and it
+is entirely vain to endeavor to repress them by equivocations. They are
+founded on eternal laws; and although their recognition will long be
+refused, and their promulgation, resisted as it will be, partly by
+force, partly by falsehood, can only be through incalculable confusion
+and misery, recognized they must be eventually; and with these three
+ultimate results:--that the usurer's trade will be abolished
+utterly,--that the employer will be paid justly for his superintendence
+of labor, but not for his capital, and the landlord paid for his
+superintendence of the cultivation of land, when he is able to direct it
+wisely: that both he, and the employer of mechanical labor, will be
+recognized as beloved masters, if they deserve love, and as noble guides
+when they are capable of giving discreet guidance; but neither will be
+permitted to establish themselves any more as senseless conduits through
+which the strength and riches of their native land are to be poured into
+the cup of the fornication of its capital.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 111: _Contemporary Review_, May 1873.]
+
+[Footnote 112: These were, first, Mr. Herbert Spencer's "Bias of
+Patriotism," being the ninth chapter of his "Study of Sociology," first
+published in the _Contemporary Review_; and, secondly, Mr. W. R. Greg's
+"What is culpable luxury?" See below, p. 303, § 135.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 113: I take due note that Mr. Spencer partly means by his
+adverbial sentence that Patriotism is individual Egoism, expecting its
+own central benefit through the Nation's circumferent benefit, as
+through a funnel: but, throughout, Mr. Spencer confuses this sentiment,
+which he calls "reflex egoism," with the action of "corporate
+conscience."]
+
+[Footnote 114: See the letters on "How the Rich Spend their Money"
+(reprinted from the _Pall Mall_) in "Arrows of the Chace," vol. ii.,
+where the origin of the discussion is explained.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 115: I use the current English of Mrs. Lennox's translation,
+but Henry's real saying was (see the first--green leaf--edition of
+Sully), "It is written above what is to happen to me on every occasion."
+"Toute occasion" becomes "cette occasion" in the subsequent editions,
+and finally "what is to happen to me" (ce que doit être fait de moi)
+becomes "what I ought to do" in the English.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Cahors. See the "Memoirs of the Duke of Sully," Book 1.
+(Bohn's 1856 Edition, vol. i., pp. 118-9.)--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Where violence and brutality are punished. See Dante's
+"Inferno," Canto xii.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See the _Contemporary Review_ at pp. 618 and
+624.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Viz.:--That if the expenditure of an income of £30,000 a
+year upon luxuries is to rob the poor, so _pro tanto_ is the expenditure
+of so much of an income of £300 as is spent on anything beyond "the
+simplest necessaries of life."--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Referring to two anonymous articles on "The Agricultural
+Laborer," in the _Cornhill Magazine_, vol. 27, Jan. and June 1873, pp.
+215 and 307.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 121: See the Times of November 23rd of that year.]
+
+[Footnote 122: "Is a Christian life feasible in these
+days?"--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 123: See _Munera Pulveris_, § 139: "No man can become largely
+rich by his personal will.... It is only by the discovery of some method
+of taxing the labor of others that he can become opulent." And see also
+_Time and Tide_, § 81.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+USURY.[124]
+
+A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.
+
+
+148. I have been honored by the receipt of a letter from the Bishop of
+Manchester, which, with his Lordship's permission, I have requested the
+editor of the _Contemporary Review_ to place before the large circle of
+his readers, with a brief accompanying statement of the circumstances by
+which the letter has been called forth, and such imperfect reply as it
+is in my power without delay to render.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  MANCHESTER, _December_ 8, 1879.
+
+DEAR SIR,--In a letter from yourself to the Rev. F. A.
+Malleson,[125] published in the _Contemporary Review_ of the current
+month, I observe the following passage:--"I have never yet heard so much
+as _one_ (preacher) heartily proclaiming against all those 'deceivers
+with vain words,' that no 'covetous person, which is an idolater, hath
+_any_ inheritance in the Kingdom of Christ and of God;' and on myself
+personally and publicly challenging the Bishops of England generally,
+and by name the Bishop of Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was
+not, according to the will of God, I have received no answer from any
+one of them." I confess, for myself, that until I saw this passage in
+print a few days ago, I was unaware of the existence of such challenge,
+and therefore I could not answer it. It appears to have been delivered
+(A) in No. 82 of a series of letters which, under the title of _Fors
+Clavigera_, you have for some time been addressing to the working
+classes of England, but which, from the peculiar mode of their
+publication, are not easily accessible to the general reader and which I
+have only caught a glimpse of, on the library-table of the Athenæum
+Club, on the rare occasions when I am able to use my privileges as a
+member of that Society. I have no idea why I had the honor of being
+specially mentioned by name (B); but I beg to assure you that my silence
+did not arise from any discourtesy towards my challenger, nor from that
+discretion which, some people may think, is usually the better part of
+episcopal valor, and which consists in ignoring inconvenient questions
+from a sense of inability to answer them; but simply from the fact that
+I was not conscious that your lance had touched my shield.
+
+149. The question you have asked is just one of those to which
+Aristotle's wise caution applies: "We must distinguish and define such
+words, if we would know how far, and in what sense, the opposite views
+are true" (_Eth. Nic._, ix, c. viii. § 3). What do you mean by "usury"?
+(C) Do you comprehend under it _any_ payment of money as interest for
+the use of borrowed capital? or only exorbitant, inequitable, grinding
+interest, such as the money-lender, Fufidius, extorted?
+
+  Quinas hic capiti mercedes exsecat, atque
+  Quanto perditior quisque est, tanto acrius urget:
+  Nomina sectatur modo sumta veste virili
+  Sub patribus duris tironum. Maxime, quis non,
+  Jupiter, exclamat, simul atque audivit?
+
+  --_Hor. Sat._ i. 2, 14-18.
+
+Usury, in itself, is a purely neutral word, carrying with it, in its
+primary meaning, neither praise nor blame; and a "usurer" is defined in
+our dictionaries as "a person accustomed to lend money and take interest
+for it"--which is the ordinary function of a banker, without whose
+help great commercial undertakings could not be carried out; though it
+is obvious how easily the word may pass into a term of reproach, so that
+to have been "called a usurer" was one of the bitter memories that
+rankled most in Shylock's catalogue of his wrongs.
+
+150. I do not believe that anything has done more harm to the practical
+efficacy of religions sanctions than the extravagant attempts that are
+frequently made to impose them in cases which they never originally
+contemplated, or to read into "ordinances," evidently "imposed for a
+time"--[Greek: dikaiômata mechri kairou] (Heb. ix. 10)--a law of
+eternal and immutable obligation. Just as we are told (D) not to expect
+to find in the Bible a scheme of physical science, so I do not expect to
+find there a scheme of political economy. What I do expect to find, in
+relation to my duty to my neighbor, are those unalterable principles of
+equity, fairness, truthfulness, honesty (E), which are the indispensable
+bases of civil society. I am sure I have no need to remind you that,
+while a Jew was forbidden by his law to take usury--_i.e._, interest for
+the loan of money--from his brother, if he were waxen poor and fallen
+into decay with him, and this generous provision was extended even to
+strangers and sojourners in the land (Lev. xxv. 35-38), and the
+interesting story in Nehemiah (v. 1-13), tells us how this principle was
+recognized in the latest days of the commonwealth--still in that old law
+there is no denunciation of usury in general, and it was expressly
+permitted in the case of ordinary strangers[126] (Deut. xxiii. 20).
+
+It seems to me plain also that our Blessed Lord's precept about
+"lending, hoping for nothing again" (Luke vi. 35), has the same, or a
+similar, class of circumstances in view, and was intended simply to
+govern a Christian man's conduct to the poor and needy, and "such as
+have no helper," and cannot, without a violent twist (F), be construed
+into a general law determining forever and in all cases the legitimate
+use of capital. Indeed, on another occasion, and in a very memorable
+parable, the great Founder of Christianity recognizes, and impliedly
+sanctions, the practice of lending money at interest. "Thou oughtest,"
+says the master, addressing his unprofitable servant, "thou
+oughtest"--[Greek: edei se]--"to have put my money to the exchangers;
+and then, at my coming, I should have received mine own _with usury_."
+
+151. "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." (G) But who is the
+[Greek: pleonektês]? Not the man who may happen to have money out on
+loan at a fair rate of interest; but, as Liddell and Scott give the
+meaning of the word, "one who has or claims _more than his share_;
+hence, greedy, grasping, selfish." Of such men, whose affections are
+wholly set on things of the earth, and who are not very scrupulous how
+they gratify them, it may, perhaps, not improperly be said (H) that they
+"have no inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God." But here,
+again, it would be a manifest "wresting" of the words to make them apply
+to a case which we have no proof that the Apostle had in contemplation
+when he uttered them. Rapacity, greed of gain, harsh and oppressive
+dealing, taking unfair advantage of our own superior knowledge and
+another's ignorance, shutting up the bowels of compassion towards a
+brother who we see has need--all these and the like things are forbidden
+by the very spirit of Christianity, and are manifestly "_not_ according
+to the will of God," for they are all of them forms of injustice or
+wrong. But money may be lent at interest without one of these bad
+passions being brought in to play, and in these cases I confess my
+inability to see where, either in terms or in spirit, such use of money
+is condemned either by the Christian code of charity, or by that natural
+law of conscience which we are told (I) is written on the hearts of men.
+
+152. Let me take two or three simple instances by way of illustration.
+The following has happened to myself. All my life through--from the time
+when my income was not a tenth part of what it is now--I have felt it a
+duty, while endeavoring to discharge all proper claims, to live within
+that income, so to adjust my expenditure to it that there should be a
+margin on the right side. This margin, of course, accumulated, and
+reached in time, say, £1000. Just then, say, the London and
+North-Western Railway Company proposed to issue Debenture Stock,
+bearing four per cent. interest, for the purpose of extending the
+communications, and so increasing the wealth, of the country. Whom in
+the world am I injuring--what conceivable wrong am I doing--where or how
+am I thwarting "the Will of God"--if I let the Company have my £1000,
+and have been receiving from them £40 a year for the use of it ever
+since? Unless the money had been forthcoming from some quarter or other,
+a work which was absolutely necessary for the prosperity of the nation,
+and which finds remunerative employment (K) for an immense number of
+Englishmen, enabling them to bring up their families in respectability
+and comfort, would never have been accomplished. Will you tell me that
+this method of carrying out great commercial enterprises, sanctioned by
+experience (L) as the most, if not the only, practicable one, is "not
+according to the Will of God"?
+
+153. Take another instance. In Lancashire a large number of cotton mills
+have been erected on the joint-stock principle with limited liability.
+The thing has been pushed too far probably, and at one time there was a
+good deal of unwholesome speculation in floating companies. But that is
+not the question before us; and the enterprises gave working men an
+opportunity of investing their savings, which was a great stimulus to
+thrift, and, so far, an advantage to the country. In a mill, which it
+would perhaps cost £50,000 to build and fit with machinery, the
+subscribed capital, which would be entitled to a division of profits
+after all other demands had been satisfied, would not amount probably to
+more than £20,000. The rest would be borrowed at rates of interest
+varying according to the conditions of the market. You surely would not
+maintain that those who lent their money for such a purpose, and were
+content with 5 or 6 per cent, for the use of it, thus enabling, in good
+times, the shareholders to realize 20 or 25 per cent, on their
+subscribed capital, were doing wrong either to the shareholders or
+anyone else, or could in any sense be charged with acting "not according
+to the will of God"?
+
+154. Take yet one case more. A farmer asks his landlord to drain his
+land. "Gladly," says his squire, "if you will pay me five per cent on
+the outlay." In other words, "if you will let me share the increased
+profits to this extent." The bargain is agreeable to both sides; the
+productiveness of the land is largely increased; who is wronged? Surely
+such a transaction could not fairly be described as "not according to
+the will of God"; surely, unless the commerce and productive industries
+of the country are to be destroyed, and, with the destruction, its
+population is to be reduced to what it was in the days of Elizabeth,
+these and similar transactions--which can be kept entirely clear of the
+sin of covetousness, and rest upon the well-understood basis of mutual
+advantage, each and all being gainers by them--are not only legitimate,
+but inevitable (M). And now that I have taken up your challenge, and, so
+far as my ability goes, answered it, may I, without staying to inquire
+how far your charge against the clergy can be substantiated, that they
+"generally patronize and encourage all the iniquity of the world by
+steadily preaching away the penalties of it" (N), be at least allowed to
+demur to your wholesale denunciation of the great cities of the earth,
+which you say "have become loathsome centers of fornication and
+covetousness, the smoke of their sin going up into the face of Heaven,
+like the furnace of Sodom, and the pollution of it rotting and raging
+through the bones and souls of the peasant people round them, as if they
+were each a volcano, whose ashes brake out in blains upon man and
+beast."[127] Surely, Sir, your righteous indignation at evil has caused
+you to overcharge your language. No one can have lived in a great city,
+as I have for the last ten years, without being aware of its sins and
+its pollutions. But unless you can prevent the aggregation of human
+beings into great cities, these are evils which must necessarily exist;
+at any rate, which always have existed. The great cities of to-day are
+not worse than great cities always have been (O). In one capital
+respect, I believe they are better. There is an increasing number of
+their citizens who are aware of these evils, and who are trying their
+best, with the help of God, to remedy them. In Sodom there was but one
+righteous man who "vexed his soul" at the unlawful deeds that he
+witnessed day by day, on every side; and he, apparently, did no more
+than vex his soul. In Manchester, the men and women, of all ranks and
+persuasions, who are actively engaging in some Christian or
+philanthropic work, to battle against these gigantic evils, are to be
+reckoned by hundreds. Nowhere have I seen more conspicuous instances of
+Christian effort, and of single-hearted devotion to the highest
+interests of mankind. And though, no doubt, if these efforts were better
+organized, more might be achieved, and elements, which one could wish
+absent, sometimes mingle with and mar the work, still a great city, even
+"with the smoke of its sin going up into the face of Heaven," is the
+noblest field of the noblest virtues, because it gives the amplest scope
+for the most varied exercise of them.
+
+If you will teach us clergy how better to discharge our office as
+ministers of a Kingdom of Truth and Righteousness, we shall all owe you
+a deep debt of gratitude; which no one will be more forward to
+acknowledge than, my dear Sir, yours faithfully and with much respect,
+
+  J. MANCHESTER.
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN, Esq.
+
+155. The foregoing letter, to which I would fain have given my undivided
+and unwearied attention, reached my hands, as will be seen by its date,
+only in the close of the year, when my general correspondence always far
+overpasses my powers of dealing with it, and my strength--such as now is
+left me--had been spent, nearly to lowest ebb, in totally unexpected
+business arising out of the threatened mischief at Venice. But I am
+content that such fragmentary reply as, under this pressure, has been
+possible to me, should close the debate as far as I am myself concerned.
+The question at issue is not one of private interpretation; and the
+interests concerned are too vast to allow its decision to be long
+delayed.
+
+The Bishop will, I trust, not attribute to disrespect the mode of reply
+in the form of notes attached to special passages, indicated by
+inserted letters, which was adopted in _Fors Clavigera_ in all cases of
+important correspondence, as more clearly defining the several points
+under debate.
+
+156. (A) "The challenge appears to have been delivered." May I
+respectfully express my regret that your lordship should not have read
+the letter you have honored me by answering. The number of _Fors_
+referred to does not deliver--it only reiterates--the challenge given in
+the _Fors_ for January 1st, 1875, with reference to the prayer "Have
+mercy upon all Jews, Turks, infidels, and heretics, and so fetch them
+home, blessed Lord, to Thy flock, that they may be saved among the
+remnant of the true Israelites," in these following terms: "Who _are_
+the true Israelites, my Lord of Manchester, on your Exchange? Do they
+stretch their cloth, like other people?--have they any underhand
+dealings with the liable-to-be-damned false Israelites--Rothschilds and
+the like? or are they duly solicitous about those wanderers' souls? and
+how often, on the average, do your Manchester clergy preach from the
+delicious parable, savoriest of all Scripture to rogues (at least since
+the eleventh century, when I find it to have been specially headed with
+golden title in my best Greek MS.) of the Pharisee and Publican,--and
+how often, on the average, from those objectionable First and Fifteenth
+Psalms?"
+
+(B) "I have no idea why I had the honor of being specially mentioned by
+name." By diocese, my Lord; not name, please observe; and for this very
+simple reason: that I have already fairly accurate knowledge of the
+divinity of the old schools of Canterbury, York, and Oxford; but I
+looked to your Lordship as the authoritative exponent of the more
+advanced divinity of the school of Manchester, with which I am not yet
+familiar.
+
+157. (C) "What do you mean by usury?" What _I_ mean by that word, my
+Lord, is surely of no consequence to anyone but my few readers, and
+fewer disciples. What David and his Son meant by it I have prayed your
+Lordship to tell your flock, in the name of the Church which dictates
+daily to them the songs of the one, and professes to interpret to them
+the commands of the other.
+
+And although I can easily conceive that a Bishop at the court of the
+Third Richard might have paused in reply to a too curious layman's
+question of what was meant by "Murder"; and can also conceive a Bishop
+at the court of the Second Charles hesitating as to the significance of
+the word "Adultery"; and farther, in the present climacteric of the
+British Constitution, an elder of the Church of Glasgow debating within
+himself whether the Commandment which was severely prohibitory of Theft
+might not be mildly permissive of Misappropriation;--at no time, nor
+under any conditions, can I conceive any question existing as to the
+meaning of the words [Greek: tokos], _foenus_; _usura_, or usury: and
+I trust that your Lordship will at once acquit me of wishing to attach
+any other significance to the word than that which it was to the full
+intended to convey on every occasion of its use by Moses, by David, by
+Christ, and by the Doctors of the Christian Church, down to the
+seventeenth century.
+
+Nor, even since that date, although the commercial phrase "interest" has
+been adopted in order to distinguish an open and unoppressive rate of
+usury from a surreptitious and tyrannical one, has the debate of
+lawfulness or unlawfulness ever turned seriously on that distinction. It
+is neither justified by its defenders only in its mildness, nor
+condemned by its accusers only in its severity. Usury in any degree is
+asserted by the Doctors of the early Church to be sinful, just as theft
+and adultery are asserted to be sinful, though neither may have been
+accompanied with violence; and although the theft may have been on the
+most splendid scale, and the fornication of the most courtly refinement.
+
+So also, in modern days, though the voice of the Bank of England in
+Parliament declares a loan without interest to be a monster,[128] and a
+loan made below the current rate of interest, a monster in its degree,
+the increase of dividends above that current rate is not, as far as I
+am aware, shunned by shareholders with an equally religious horror.
+
+158. But--this strange question being asked--I give its simple and broad
+answer in the words of Christ: "The taking up that thou layedst not
+down;"--or, in explained and literal terms, usury is any money paid, or
+other advantage given, for the loan of anything which is restored to its
+possessor uninjured and undiminished. For simplest instance, taking a
+cabman the other day on a long drive, I lent him a shilling to get his
+dinner. If I had kept thirteen pence out of his fare, the odd penny
+would have been usury.
+
+Or again. I lent one of my servants, a few years ago, eleven hundred
+pounds, to build a house with, and stock its ground. After some years he
+paid me the eleven hundred pounds back. If I had taken eleven hundred
+pounds and a penny, the extra penny would have been usury.
+
+I do not know whether by the phrase, presently after used by your
+Lordship, "religious sanctions," I am to understand the Law of God which
+David loved, and Christ fulfilled, or whether the splendor, the
+commercial prosperity, and the familiar acquaintance with all the
+secrets of science and treasures of art, which we admire in the City of
+Manchester, must in your Lordship's view be considered as "cases" which
+the intelligence of the Divine Lawgiver could not have originally
+contemplated. Without attempting to disguise the narrowness of the
+horizon grasped by the glance of the Lord from Sinai, nor the
+inconvenience of the commandments which Christ has directed those who
+love Him to keep, am I too troublesome or too exigent in asking from one
+of those whom the Holy Ghost has made our overseers, at least a distinct
+chart of the Old World as contemplated by the Almighty; and a clear
+definition of even the inappropriate tenor of the orders of Christ: if
+only that the modern scientific Churchman may triumph more securely in
+the circumference of his heavenly vision, and accept more gratefully the
+glorious liberty of the free-thinking children of God?
+
+159. To take a definite, and not impertinent, instance, I observe in
+the continuing portion of your letter that your Lordship recognizes in
+Christ Himself, as doubtless all other human perfections, so also the
+perfection of an usurer; and that, confidently expecting one day to hear
+from His lips the convicting sentence, "Thou knewest that I was an
+austere man," your Lordship prepares for yourself, by the disposition of
+your capital no less than of your talents, a better answer than the
+barren, "Behold, there thou hast that is thine!" I would only observe in
+reply, that although the conception of the Good Shepherd, which in your
+Lordship's language is "implied" in this parable, may indeed be less
+that of one who lays down his life for his sheep, than of one who takes
+up his money for them, the passages of our Master's instruction, of
+which the meaning is not implicit, but explicit, are perhaps those which
+His simpler disciples will be safer in following. Of which I find, early
+in His teaching, this, almost, as it were, in words of one syllable:
+"Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee
+turn not thou away."
+
+There is nothing more "implied" in this sentence than the probable
+disposition to turn away, which might be the first impulse in the mind
+of a Christian asked to lend for nothing, as distinguished from the
+disciple of the Manchester school, whose principal care is rather to
+find, than to avoid, the enthusiastic and enterprising "him that would
+borrow of thee." We of the older tradition, my Lord, think that
+prudence, no less than charity, forbids the provocation or temptation of
+others into the state of debt, which some time or other we might be
+called upon, not only to allow the payment of without usury, but even
+altogether to forgive.
+
+160. (D) "Just as we are told." Where, my Lord, and by whom? It is
+possible that some of the schemers in physical science, of whom, only a
+few days since, I heard one of the leading doctors explain to a pleased
+audience that serpents once had legs, and had dropped them off in the
+process of development, may have advised the modern disciple of progress
+of a new meaning in the simple phrase, "upon thy belly shalt thou go";
+and that the wisdom of the serpent may henceforth consist, for true
+believers of the scientific Gospel, in the providing of meats for that
+spiritual organ of motion. It is doubtless also true that we shall look
+vainly among the sayings of Solomon for any expression of the opinions
+of Mr. John Stuart Mill; but at least this much of Natural science,
+enough for our highest need, we may find in the Scriptures--that by the
+Word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the
+breath of His mouth;--and this much of Political, that the Blessing of
+the Lord, _it_ maketh rich--and He addeth no sorrow with it.
+
+(E) "What I do expect to find." Has your Lordship _no_ expectations
+loftier than these, from severer scrutiny of the Gospel? As for
+instance, of some ordinance of Love, built on the foundation of Honesty?
+
+161. (F) "Cannot without a violent twist." I have never myself found any
+person sincerely desirous of obeying the Word of the Lord, who had the
+least wish, or occasion, to twist it; nay, even those who study it only
+that they may discover methods of pardonable disobedience, recognize the
+unturnable edge of its sword--and in the worst extremity of their need,
+strive not to avert, but to evade. The utmost deceivableness of
+unrighteousness cannot deceive itself into satisfactory
+misinterpretation; it is reduced always to a tremulous omission of the
+texts it is resolved to disobey. But a little while since, I heard an
+entirely well-meaning clergyman, taken by surprise in the course of
+family worship in the house of a wealthy friend, and finding himself
+under the painful necessity of reading the fifteenth Psalm, omit the
+first sentence of the closing verse. I chanced afterwards to have an
+opportunity of asking him why he had done so, and received for answer,
+that the lowliness of Christian attainment was not yet "up" to that
+verse. The harmonies of iniquity are thus curiously perfect:--the
+economies of spiritual nourishment approve the same methods of
+adulteration which are found profitable in the carnal; until the prudent
+pastor follows the example of the well-instructed dairyman; and
+provides for his new-born babes the _in_sincere Milk of the Word, that
+they may _not_ grow thereby.
+
+162. (G) "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." Am I to
+understand your Lordship as considering this undeniable denunciation an
+original and peculiar view taken by the least of the Apostles--perhaps,
+in this particular opinion, not worthy to be called an Apostle? The
+traditions of my earlier days were wont to refer me to an earlier source
+of the idea; which does not, however, appear to have occurred to your
+Lordship's mind--else the reference to the authority of Liddell and
+Scott, for the significance of the noun [Greek: pleonektês], ought to
+have been made also for that of the verb [Greek: epithumeô] And your
+Lordship's frankness in referring me to the instances of your own
+practice in the disposal of your income, must plead my excuse for what
+might have otherwise seemed impertinent--in noting that the
+blamelessness of episcopal character, even by that least of the
+Apostles, required in his first Epistle to Timothy, consists not merely
+in contentment with an episcopal share of Church property, but in being
+in no respect either [Greek: aischrokordês]--a taker of gain in a base
+or vulgar manner, or [Greek: philarguros]--a "lover of silver," this
+latter word being the common and proper word for covetous, in the
+Gospels and Epistles; as of the Pharisees in Luke xvi. 14; and
+associated with the other characters of men in perilous times, 2 Timothy
+iii. 2, and its relative noun [Greek: philarguria, given in sum for the
+root of _all_ evil in 2 Timothy vi. 10, while even the authority of
+Liddell and Scott in the interpretation of [Greek: pleonexia] itself as
+only the desire of getting more than our share, may perhaps be bettered
+by the authority of the teacher, who, declining the appeal made to him
+as an equitable [Greek: meristês] (Luke xii. 14-46), tells his disciples
+to beware of coveteousness, simply as the desire of getting more than we
+have got. "For a man's life consisteth not in the _abundance_ of the
+things which he possesseth."
+
+163. Believe me, my Lord, it is not without some difficulty that I check
+my natural impulse to follow you, as a scholar, into the interesting
+analysis of the distinctions which may be drawn between Rapacity and
+Acquisitiveness; between the Avarice, or the prudent care, of
+possession; between the greed, and the modest expectation, of gain;
+between the love of money, which is the root of all evil; and the
+commercial spirit, which is in England held to be the fountain of all
+good. These delicate adjustments of the balance, by which we strive to
+weigh to a grain the relative quantities of devotion which we may render
+in the service of Mammon and of God, are wholly of recent invention and
+application; nor have they the slightest bearing, either on the
+spiritual purport of the final commandment of the Decalogue, or on the
+distinctness of the subsequent prohibition of practical usury.
+
+It must be remembered, also, how difficult it has become to define the
+term "filthy" with precision, in the present state, moral and physical,
+of the English atmosphere; and still more so, to judge how far, in that
+healthy element, a moderate and delicately sanctified appetite for gold
+may be developed into livelier qualms of hunger for righteousness. It
+may be matter of private opinion how far the lucre derived by your
+Lordship from commission on the fares and refreshments of the passengers
+by the North-Western may be odoriferous or precious, in the same sense
+as the ointment on the head of Aaron; or how far that received by the
+Primate of England in royalties on the circulation of improving
+literature[129] may enrich--as with perfumes out of broken
+alabaster--the empyreal air of Addington. But the higher class of
+laborers in the Lord's vineyard might surely, with true grace, receive,
+from the last unto the first, the reflected instruction so often given
+by the first unto the last, "Be content with your wages."
+
+(H) "It may, perhaps, not improperly be said," The Bible Society will
+doubtless in future gratefully prefix this guarantee to their
+publications.
+
+(I) "Which we are told." Can we then no more find for ourselves this
+writing on our hearts--or has it ceased to be legible?
+
+164. (K) "Remunerative employment." I cannot easily express the
+astonishment with which I find a man of your Lordship's intelligence
+taking up the common phrase of "giving employment," as if, indeed, labor
+were the best gift which the rich could bestow on the poor. Of course,
+every idle vagabond, be he rich or poor, "gives employment" to some
+otherwise enough burdened wretch, to provide his dinner and clothes for
+him; and every vicious vagabond, in the destructive power of his vice,
+gives sorrowful occupation to the energies of resisting and renovating
+virtue. The idle child who litters its nursery and tears its frock,
+gives employment to the housemaid and seamstress; the idle woman, who
+litters her drawing-room with trinkets, and is ashamed to be seen twice
+in the same dress, is, in your Lordship's view, the enlightened
+supporter of the arts and manufactures of her country. At the close of
+your letter, my Lord, you, though in measured terms, indignantly dissent
+from my statement of the power of great cities for evil, and indeed I
+have perhaps been led, by my prolonged study of the causes of the Fall
+of Venice, into clearer recognition of some of these urban influences
+than may have been possible to your Lordship in the center of the
+virtues and proprieties which have been blessed by Providence in the
+rise of Manchester. But the Scriptural symbol of the power of temptation
+in the hand of the spiritual Babylon--"all kings have been drunk with
+the wine of her Fornication"--is perfectly literal in its exposition of
+the special influence of cities over a vicious, that is to say, a
+declining, people. They are the foci of its fornication, and the
+practical meaning is that the lords of the soil take the food and labor
+of the peasants, who are their slaves, and spend them especially in
+forms of luxury perfected by the definitely so-called "women of the
+_town_" who, whether East-cheap Doll, or West--much the reverse of
+cheap--Nell, are, both in the color which they give to the Arts, and in
+the tone which they give to the Manners, of the State, a literal plague,
+pestilence and burden to it, quite otherwise malignant and maleficent
+than the poor country lassie who loses her snood among the heather. And
+when, at last, _real_ political economy shall exhibit the exact sources
+and consequences of the expenditure of the great capitals of
+civilization on their own indulgences, your Lordship will be furnished,
+in the statistics of their most splendid and most impious pleasure, with
+record of precisely the largest existing source of "remunerative
+employment"--(if _that_ were all the poor had to ask for), next after
+the preparation and practice of war. I believe it is, indeed, probable
+that "facility of intercourse" gives the next largest quantity of
+occupation; and, as your Lordship rightly observes, to most respectable
+persons. And if the entire population of Manchester lost the use of its
+legs, your Lordship would similarly have the satisfaction of observing,
+and might share in the profits of providing, the needful machinery of
+porterage and stretchers. But observe, my Lord--and observe as a final
+and inevitable truth--that whether you lend your money to provide an
+invalided population with crutches, stretchers, hearses, or the railroad
+accommodation which is so often synonymous with the three, the _tax on
+the use_ of these, which constitutes the shareholder's dividend, is a
+permanent burden upon them, exacted by avarice, and by no means an aid
+granted by benevolence.
+
+165. (L) "Sanctioned by experience." The experience of twenty-three
+years, my Lord, and with the following result:--
+
+"We have now had an opportunity of practically testing the theory. Not
+more than seventeen" (now twenty-three--I quote from a letter dated
+1875) "years have passed since" (by the final abolition of the Usury
+laws) "all restraint was removed from the growth of what Lord Coke calls
+'this pestilent weed,'" and we see Bacon's words verified--"the rich
+becoming richer, and the poor poorer, throughout the civilized world."
+Letter from Mr. R. Sillar, quoted in _Fors Clavigera_, No. 43.
+
+(M) "Inevitable." Neither "impossible" nor "inevitable" were words of
+old Christian Faith. But see the closing paragraph of my letter.
+
+(N) Before you call on me to substantiate this charge, my Lord, I
+should like to insert after the words, "steadily preaching," the phrase,
+"and politely explaining"--with the Pauline qualification, "whether by
+word, or our epistle."
+
+166. (O) "The great cities of to-day are not worse than great cities
+always have been," I do not remember having said that they were, my
+Lord; I have never anticipated for Manchester a worse fate than that of
+Sardis or Sodom; nor have I yet observed any so mighty works shown forth
+in her by her ministers, as to make her impenitence less pardonable than
+that of Sidon or Tyre. But I used the particular expression which your
+Lordship supposes me to have overcharged in righteous indignation, "a
+boil breaking forth with blains on man and beast," because that
+particular plague was the one which Moses was ordered, in the Eternal
+Wisdom, to connect with the ashes of the Furnace--literally, no less
+than spiritually, when he brought the Israelites forth out of Egypt,
+_from the midst of the Furnace of Iron_. How literally, no less than in
+faith and hope, the smoke of "the great city, which spiritually is
+called Sodom and Egypt," has poisoned the earth, the waters, and the
+living creatures, flocks and herds, and the babes that know not their
+right hand from their left--neither Memphis, Gomorrah, nor Cahors are
+themselves likely to recognize: but, as I pause in front of the
+infinitude of the evil that I cannot find so much as thought to
+follow--how much less words to speak!--a letter is brought to me which
+gives what perhaps may be more impressive in its single and historical
+example, than all the general evidence gathered already in the pages of
+_Fors Clavigera_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+167. "I could never understand formerly what you meant about usury, and
+about its being wrong to take interest. I said, truly, then that I
+'trusted you,' meaning I knew that in such matters you did not
+'opine'--and that innumerable things were within your horizon which had
+no place within mine.
+
+"But as I did not understand I could only watch and ponder. Gradually I
+came to see a little--as when I read current facts about India--about
+almost every country, and about our own trade, etc. Then (one of several
+circumstances that could be seen more closely) among my mother's kindred
+in the north, I watched the ruin of two lives. They began married life
+together, with good prospects and sufficient means, in a lovely little
+nest among the hills, beyond the Rochdale smoke. Soon this became too
+narrow. 'A splendid trade,' more mills, frequent changes into even finer
+dwellings, luxurious living, ostentation, extravagance, increasing year
+by year, all, as now appears, made possible by usury--borrowed capital.
+The wife was laid in her grave lately, and her friends are _thankful_.
+The husband, with ruin threatening his affairs, is in a worse, and
+living, grave of evil habits."
+
+     "These are some of the loopholes through which light has fallen
+     upon your words, giving them a new meaning, and making me wonder
+     how I could have missed seeing it from the first. Once alive to it,
+     I recognize the evil on all sides, and how we are entangled by it;
+     and though I am still puzzled at one or two points, I am very clear
+     about the principle--that usury is a deadly thing,"
+
+Yes; and deadly always with the vilest forms of destruction both to soul
+and body.
+
+168. It happens strangely, my Lord, that although throughout the seven
+volumes of _Fors Clavigera_, I never have set down a sentence without
+chastising it first into terms which could be _literally_ as well as in
+their widest bearing justified against all controversy, you could
+perhaps not have found in the whole book, had your Lordship read it for
+the purpose, any saying quite so literally and terrifically demonstrable
+as this which you have chanced to select for attack. For, in the first
+place, of all the calamities which in their apparently merciless
+infliction paralyzed the wavering faith of mediæval Christendom, the
+"boil breaking forth into blains," in the black plagues of Florence and
+London, was the fatalest messenger of the fiends: and, in the second
+place, the broad result of the Missionary labors of the cities of
+Madrid, Paris, and London, for the salvation of the wild tribes of the
+New World, since the vaunted discovery of it, may be summed in the stem
+sentence--Death, by drunkenness and smallpox.
+
+The beneficent influence of recent commercial enterprise in the
+communication of such divine grace, and divine blessing (not to speak of
+other more dreadful and shameful conditions of disease), may be studied
+to best advantage in the history of the two great French and English
+Companies, who have enjoyed the monopoly of clothing the nakedness of
+the Old World with coats of skins from the New.
+
+The charter of the English one, obtained from the Crown in 1670, was in
+the language of modern Liberalism--" wonderfully liberal,"[130]
+comprising not only the grant of the exclusive trade, but also of full
+territorial possession, to all perpetuity, of the vast lands within the
+watershed of Hudson's Bay. The Company at once established some forts
+along the shores of the great inland sea from which it derived its name,
+and opened a very lucrative trade with the Indians, _so that it never
+ceased paying rich dividends_ to the fortunate shareholders, until
+towards the close of the last century.
+
+Up to this time, with the exception of the voyage of discovery which
+Herne (1770-71) made under its auspices to the mouth of the Coppermine
+River, it had done but little for the promotion of geographical
+discovery in its vast territory.
+
+169. Meanwhile, the Canadian (French) fur traders had become so hateful
+to the Indians, that these savages formed a conspiracy for their total
+extirpation. _Fortunately for the white men_, the smallpox broke out
+about this time among the redskins, and swept them away as the fire
+consumes the parched grass of the prairies. Their unburied corpses were
+torn by the wolves and wild dogs, and the survivors were too weak and
+dispirited to be able to undertake anything against the foreign
+intruders. The Canadian fur traders now also saw the necessity of
+combining their efforts for their mutual benefit, instead of ruining
+each other by an insane competition; and consequently formed in 1783 a
+society which, under the name of the North-West Company of Canada,
+ruled over the whole continent from the Canadian lakes to the Rocky
+Mountains, and in 1806 it even crossed the barrier and established its
+forts on the northern tributaries of the Columbia river. To the north it
+likewise extended its operations, encroaching more and more upon the
+privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company, which, roused to energy, now
+also pushed on its posts further and further into the interior, and
+established, in 1812, a colony on the Red River to the south of Winnipeg
+Lake, thus driving, as it were, a sharp thorn into the side of its
+rival. But a power like the North-West Company, which had no less than
+50 agents, 70 interpreters, and 1120 "voyageurs" in its pay, and whose
+chief managers used to appear at their annual meetings at Fort William,
+on the banks of Lake Superior, with all the pomp and pride of feudal
+barons, was not inclined to tolerate this encroachment; and thus, after
+many quarrels, a regular war broke out between the two parties, which,
+after two years' duration, led to the expulsion of the Red River
+colonists, and the murder of their governor Semple. This event took
+place in the year 1816, and is but one episode of the bloody feuds which
+continued to reign between the two rival Companies until 1821.
+
+170. The dissension's of the fur traders had most deplorable
+consequences for the redskins; for both Companies, to swell the number
+of their adherents, lavishly distributed spirituous liquors--a
+temptation which no Indian can resist. The whole of the meeting-grounds
+of the Saskatchewan and Athabasca were but one scene of revelry and
+bloodshed. Already decimated by the smallpox, the Indians now became the
+victims of drunkenness and discord, and it was to be feared that if the
+war and its consequent demoralization continued, the most important
+tribes would soon be utterly swept away.
+
+At length wisdom prevailed over passion, and the enemies came to a
+resolution which, if taken from the very beginning, would have saved
+them both a great deal of treasure and many crimes. Instead of
+continuing to swing the tomahawk, they now smoked the calumet, and
+amalgamated in 1821, under the name of "Hudson's Bay Company," and
+under the wing of the Charter.
+
+The British Government, as a dowry to the impoverished couple, presented
+them with a license of exclusive trade throughout the whole of that
+territory which, under the name of the "Hudson's Bay and North-West
+territories," extends from Labrador to the Pacific, and from the Red
+River to the Polar Ocean.
+
+171. Such, my Lord, have been the triumphs of the modern Evangel of
+Usury, Competition, and Private Enterprise, in a perfectly clear
+instance of their action, chosen I hope with sufficient candor, since
+"History," says Professor Hind, "does not furnish another example of an
+association of private individuals exerting a powerful influence over so
+large an extent of the earth's surface and administering their affairs
+with such consummate skill, and unwavering devotion to the original
+objects of their incorporation."
+
+That original object being, of course, that poor naked America, having
+yet in a manner two coats, might be induced by these Christian merchants
+to give to him that had none?
+
+In like manner, may any Christian householder, who has two houses or
+perchance two parks, ever be induced to give to him that hath none? My
+temper and my courtesy scarcely serve me, my Lord, to reply to your
+assertion of the "inevitableness" that, while half of Great Britain is
+laid out in hunting-grounds for sport more savage than the Indians, the
+poor of our cities must be swept into incestuous heaps; or into dens and
+caves which are only tombs disquieted, so changing the whiteness of
+Jewish sepulchers into the blackness of Christian ones, in which the
+hearts of the rich and the homes of the poor are alike as graves that
+appear not;--only their murmur, that sayeth "it is not enough," sounds
+deeper beneath us every hour; nay, the whole earth, and not only the
+cities of it, sends forth that ghastly cry; and her fruitful plains have
+become slime-pits, and her fair estuaries, gulfs of death; for _us_, the
+Mountain of the Lord has become only Golgotha, and the sound of the new
+song before the Throne is drowned in the rolling death-rattle of the
+nations, "Oh Christ; where is thy victory?"
+
+These are thy glorious works, Mammon parent of Good,--and this the true
+debate, my Lord of Manchester, between the two Angels of your
+Church,--whether the "Dreamland" of its souls be now, or
+hereafter,--now, the firelight in the cave, or hereafter, the sunlight
+of Heaven.
+
+172. How, my Lord, am I to receive, or reply to, the narrow concessions
+of your closing sentence? The Spirit of Truth was breathed even from the
+Athenian Acropolis, and the Law of Justice thundered even from the
+Cretan Sinai; but for _us_, He who said, "I am the Truth," said also, "I
+am the Way, and the Life;" and for _us_, He who reasoned of
+Righteousness, reasoned also of Temperance and Judgment to come. Is this
+the sincere milk of the Word, which takes the hope from the Person of
+Christ, and the fear from the charge of His apostle, and forbids to
+English heroism the perilous vision of Immortality? God be with you, my
+Lord, and exalt your teaching to that quality of Mercy which, distilling
+as the rain from Heaven--not strained as through channels from a sullen
+reservoir-may soften the hearts of your people to receive the New
+Commandment, that they Love one another. So, round the cathedral of your
+city, shall the merchant's law be just, and his weights true; the table
+of the money-changer not overthrown, and the bench of the money-lender
+unbroken.
+
+And to as many as walk according to this rule, Peace shall be on them,
+and Mercy, and upon the Israel of God.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+173. With the preceding letter must assuredly end--for the present, if
+not forever--my own notes on a subject of which my strength no longer
+serves me to endure the stress and sorrow; but I may possibly be able to
+collect, eventually, into more close form, the already manifold and
+sufficient references scattered through _Fors Clavigera_: and perhaps to
+reprint for the St. George's Guild the admirable compendium of British
+ecclesiastical and lay authority on the subject, collected by John
+Blaxton, preacher of God's Word at Osmington in Dorsetshire, printed by
+John Norton under the title of "The English Usurer," and sold by Francis
+Bowman, in Oxford, 1631. A still more precious record of the fierce
+struggle of usury into life among Christians, and of the resistance to
+it by Venice and her "Anthony,"[131] will be found in the dialogue
+"della Usura," of Messer Speron Sperone (Aldus, in Vinegia, MDXIII.),
+followed by the dialogue "del Cathaio," between "Portia, sola, e
+fanciulla, fame, e cibo, vita, e morte, di ciascuno che la conosce," and
+her lover Moresini, which is the source of all that is loveliest in the
+_Merchant of Venice_. Readers who seek more modern and more scientific
+instruction may consult the able abstract of the triumph of usury, drawn
+up by Dr. Andrew Dickson White, President of Cornell University ("The
+Warfare of Science," H. S. King & Co., 1877), in which the victory of
+the great modern scientific principle, that two and two make five, is
+traced exultingly to the final overthrow of St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome,
+St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, Luther, and Bossuet, by "the
+establishment of the Torlonia family in Rome." A better collection of
+the most crushing evidence cannot be found than this, furnished by an
+adversary; a less petulant and pompous, but more earnest voice from
+America, "Usury the Giant Sin of the Age," by Edward Palmer (Perth
+Amboys, 1865), should be read together with it. In the meantime, the
+substance of the teaching of the _former_ Church of England, in the
+great sermon against usury of Bishop Jewell, may perhaps not uselessly
+occupy one additional page of the _Contemporary Review_:--
+
+174. "Usury is a kind of lending of money, or corne, or oyle, or wine,
+or of any other thing, wherein, upon covenant and bargaine, we receive
+againe the whole principall which we delivered, and somewhat more, for
+the use and occupying of the same; as if I lend 100 pound, and for it
+covenant to receive 105 pound, or any other summe, greater then was the
+summe which I did lend: this is that which we call usury: such a kind of
+bargaining as no good man, or godly man ever used. Such a kind of
+bargaining as all men that ever feared God's judgments have alwaies
+abhorred and condemned. It is filthy gaines, and a worke of darkenesse,
+it is a monster in nature: the overthrow of mighty kingdoms, the
+destruction of flourishing States, the decay of wealthy cities, the
+plagues of the world, and the misery of the people: it is theft, it is
+the murthering of our brethren, its the curse of God, and the curse of
+the people. This is Usury. By these signes and tokens you may know it.
+For wheresoever it raigneth all those mischiefes ensue.
+
+"Whence springeth usury? Soone shewed. Even thence whence theft, murder,
+adultery, the plagues, and destruction of the people doe spring. All
+these are the workes of the divell, and the workes of the flesh. Christ
+telleth the Pharisees, You are of your father the divell, and the lusts
+of your father you will doe. Even so may it truely be sayd to the
+usurer, Thou art of thy father the divell, and the lusts of thy father
+thou wilt doe, and therefore thou hast pleasure in his workes. The
+divell entered into the heart of Judas, and put in him this greedinesse,
+and covetousnesse of game, for which he was content to sell his master.
+Judas's heart was the shop, the divell was the foreman to worke in it.
+They that will be rich fall into tentation and snares, and into many
+foolish and noysome lusts, which drowne men in perdition and
+destruction. For the desire of money is the roote of all evil. And St.
+John saith, Whosoever committeth sinne is of the Divell, 1 Joh. 3-8.
+Thus we see that the divell is the planter, and the father of usury.
+
+"What are the fruits of usury? A. 1. It dissolveth the knot and
+fellowship of mankind. 2. It hardeneth man's heart. 3. It maketh men
+unnaturall, and bereaveth them of charity, and love to their dearest
+friends. 4. It breedeth misery and provoketh the wrath of God from
+heaven. 5. It consumeth rich men, it eateth up the poore, it maketh
+bankrupts, and undoeth many householders. 6. The poore occupiers are
+driven to flee, their wives are left alone, their children are
+hopelesse, and driven to beg their bread, through the unmercifull
+dealing of the covetous usurer.
+
+175. "He that is an usurer, wisheth that all others may lacke and come
+to him and borrow of him; that all others may lose, so that he may have
+gaine. Therefore our old forefathers so much abhorred this trade, that
+they thought an usurer unworthy to live in the company of Christian men.
+They suffered not an usurer to be witnesse in matters of Law. They
+suffer him not to make a Testament, and to bestow his goods by will.
+When an usurer dyed, they would not suffer him to be buried in places
+appointed for the buriall of Christians. So highly did they mislike this
+unmercifull spoyling and deceiving our brethren.
+
+"But what speak I of the ancient Fathers of the Church? There was never
+any religion, nor sect, nor state, nor degree, nor profession of men,
+but they have disliked it. Philosophers, Greekes, Latins, lawyers,
+divines, Catholikes, heretics; all tongues and nations have ever thought
+an usurer as dangerous as a theefe. The very sense of nature proves it
+to be so. If the stones could speak they would say as much. But some
+will say all kindes of usury are not forbidden. There may be cases where
+usury may stand with reason and equity, and herein they say so much as
+by wit may be devised to paint out a foule and ugly idoll, and to shadow
+themselves in manifest and open wickednesse. Whatsoever God sayeth, yet
+this or this kind of usury, say they, which is done in this or this
+sort, is not forbidden. It proffiteth the Commonwealth, it relieveth
+great numbers, the poore should otherwise perish, none would lend them.
+By like good reason, there are some that defend theft and murder; they
+say, there may be some case where it is lawful to kill or to steale;
+for God willed the Hebrews to rob the Ægyptians, and Abraham to kill his
+owne sonne Isaac. In these cases the robbery and the killing of his
+sonne were lawfull. So say they. Even so by the like reason doe some of
+our countrymen maintayne concubines, curtizans, and brothel-houses, and
+stand in defence of open stewes. They are (say they) for the benefit of
+the country, they keepe men from more dangerous inconveniences; take
+them away, it will be worse. Although God say, there shall be no whore
+of the daughters of Israel, neither shall there be a whorekeeper of the
+sonnes of Israel: yet these men say all manner of whoredom is not
+forbidden. In these and these cases it is not amisse to alow it."
+
+     "As Samuel sayd to Saul, so may we say to the usurer, Thou hast
+     devised cases and colours to hide thy shame, but what regard hath
+     God to thy cases? What careth He for thy reasons? the Lord would
+     have more pleasure, if when thou heareth His voyce thou wouldest
+     obey Him. For what is thy device against the counsell, and
+     ordinance of God? What bold presumption is it for a mortall man to
+     controule the commandments of immortall God? And to weigh his
+     heavenly wisdome in the ballance of humane foolishnesse? When God
+     sayth, Thou shalt not take usury, what creature of God art thou
+     which canst take usury? When God maketh it unlawfull, what art
+     thou, oh man, that sayst, it is lawfull? This is a token of a
+     desperate mind. It is found true in thee, that Paul sayd, the love
+     of money is the root of all ill. Thou art so given over unto the
+     wicked Mammon, that thou carest not to doe the will of God."
+
+Thus far, the theology of Old England. Let it close with the calm law,
+spoken four hundred years before Christ, [Greek: a mê katethou, mê anelê].
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 124: _Contemporary Review_, February 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 125: See below (p. 393, § 236), in the eighth letter on the
+Lord's Prayer.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 126: In Proverbs xxviii. 8, "usury" is coupled with "unjust
+gain," and a pitiless spirit towards the poor, which shows in what sense
+the word is to be understood there, and in such other passages as Ps.
+xv. 5 and Ezek. xviii. 8, 9.]
+
+[Footnote 127: See post, p. 394, § 237.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Speech of Mr. J. C. Hubbard, M.P. for London, reported in
+_Standard_ of 26th July, 1879.]
+
+[Footnote 129: See the Articles of Association of the East Surrey Hall,
+Museum, and Library Company. (_Fors Clavigera_, Letter lxx.)]
+
+[Footnote 130: "The Polar World," p. 342, Longmans, 1874.]
+
+[Footnote 131:
+
+  "The dearest friend to me, the kindest man,
+  The best conditioned and unwearied spirit,
+  In doing courtesies; and one in whom
+  _The ancient Roman honor more appears,
+  Than any that draws breath in Italy._"
+
+This is the Shakespearian description of that Anthony, whom the modern
+British public, with its new critical lights, calls a "sentimentalist
+and speculator!"--holding Shylock to be the real hero, and innocent
+victim of the drama.]
+
+
+
+
+USURY.[132]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+176. In the wise, practical, and affectionate sermon, given from St.
+Mary's pulpit last autumn to the youth of Oxford, by the good Bishop of
+Carlisle, his Lordship took occasion to warn his eagerly attentive
+audience, with deep earnestness, against the crime of debt; dwelling
+with powerful invective on the cruelty and selfishness with which, too
+often, the son wasted in his follies the fruits of his father's labor,
+or the means of his family's subsistence; and involved himself in
+embarrassments which, said the Bishop, "I have again and again known to
+cause the misery of all subsequent life."
+
+The sin was charged, the appeal pressed, only on the preacher's
+undergraduate hearers. Beneath the gallery, the Heads of Houses sate,
+remorseless; nor from the pulpit was a single hint permitted that any
+measures could be rationally taken for the protection, no less than the
+warning, of the youth under their care. No such suggestion would have
+been received, if even understood, by any English congregation of this
+time;--a strange and perilous time, in which the greatest commercial
+people of the world have been brought to think Usury the most honorable
+and fruitful branch, or rather perennial stem, of commercial industry.
+
+177. But whose the fault that English congregations are in this temper,
+and this ignorance? The saying of mine,[133] which the author of this
+book quotes in the close of his introduction, was written by me with a
+meaning altogether opposite, and far more forcible, than that which it
+might seem to bear to a careless interpreter.[134] In the present state
+of popular revolt against all conception and manner of authority, but
+more especially spiritual authority, the sentence reads as if it were
+written by an adversary of the Church,--a hater of its Prelacy,--an
+advocate of universal liberty of thought and license of crime: whereas
+the sentence is really written in the conviction (I might say knowledge,
+if I spoke without deference to the reader's incredulity) that the
+Pastoral Office must forever be the highest, for good or evil, in every
+Christian land; and that when _it_ fails in vigilance, faith, or
+courage, the sheep _must_ be scattered, and neither King nor law avail
+any more to protect them against the fury of their own passions, nor any
+human sagacity against the deception of their own hearts.
+
+178. Since, however, these things are instantly so, and the Bishops of
+England have now with one accord consented to become merely the highly
+salaried vergers of her Cathedrals, taking care that the choristers do
+not play at leapfrog in the Churchyard, that the Precincts are elegantly
+iron-railed from the profane parts of the town, and that the doors of
+the building be duly locked, so that nobody may pray in it at
+improper times,--these things being so, may we not turn to the
+"every-man-his-own-Bishop" party, with its Bible Society, Missionary
+zeal, and right of infallible private interpretation, to ask at least
+for some small exposition to the inhabitants of their own country, of
+those Scriptures which they are so fain to put in the possession of
+others; and this the rather, because the popular familiar version of the
+New Testament among us, unwritten, seems to be now the exact contrary of
+that which we were once taught to be of Divine authority.
+
+179. I place, side by side, the ancient and modern versions of the seven
+verses of the New Testament which were the beginning, and are indeed the
+heads, of all the teaching of Christ:--
+
+  _Ancient._
+
+  Blessed are the Poor in
+  Spirit, for their's is the
+  kingdom of Heaven.
+
+  Blessed are they that mourn,
+  for they shall be comforted.
+
+  Blessed are the meek, for
+  they shall inherit the
+  earth.
+
+  Blessed are they which do
+  hunger for righteousness,
+  for they shall be filled.
+
+  Blessed are the merciful, for
+  they shall obtain mercy.
+
+  Blessed are the pure in heart,
+  for they shall see God.
+
+  Blessed are the Peacemakers,
+  for they shall be called the
+  children of God.
+
+
+  _Modern._
+
+  Blessed are the Rich in
+  Flesh, for their's is the
+  kingdom of Earth.
+
+  Blessed are they that are
+  merry, and laugh the last.
+
+  Blessed are the proud, in that
+  they _have_ inherited the
+  earth.
+
+  Blessed are they which hunger
+  for unrighteousness, in
+  that they shall divide its
+  mammon.
+
+  Blessed are the merciless, for
+  they shall obtain money.
+
+  Blessed are the foul in heart,
+  for they shall see no God.
+
+  Blessed are the War-makers,
+  for they shall be adored by
+  the children of men.
+
+180. Who are the true "Makers of War," the promoters and supports of it,
+I showed long since in the note to the brief sentence of "Unto this
+last." "It is entirely capitalists' (_i.e._, Usurers') wealth[135] which
+supports unjust Wars." But to what extent the adoration of the Usurer,
+and the slavery consequent upon it, has perverted the soul or bound the
+hands of every man in Europe, I will let the reader hear, from authority
+he will less doubt than mine:--
+
+"Financiers are the mischievous feudalism of the 19th century. A handful
+of men have invented distant, seductive loans, have introduced national
+debts in countries happily ignorant of them, have advanced money to
+unsophisticated Powers on ruinous terms, and then, by appealing to small
+investors all over the world, got rid of the bonds. Furthermore, with
+the difference between the advances and the sale of bonds, they caused a
+fall in the securities which they had issued, and, having sold at 80,
+they bought back at 10, taking advantage of the public panic. Again,
+with the money thus obtained, they bought up consciences, where
+consciences are marketable, and under the pretense of providing the
+country thus traded upon with new means of communication, they passed
+money into their own coffers. They have had pupils, imitators, and
+plagiarists; and at the present moment, under different names, the
+financiers rule the world, are a sore of society, and form one of the
+chief causes of modern crises.
+
+"Unlike the Nile, wherever they pass they render the soil dry and
+barren. The treasures of the world flow into their cellars, and there
+remain. They spend one-tenth of their revenues; the remaining
+nine-tenths they hoard and divert from circulation. They distribute
+favors, and are great political leaders. They have not assumed the place
+of the old nobility, but have taken the latter into their service.
+Princes are their chamberlains, dukes open their doors, and marquises
+act as their equerries when they deign to ride.
+
+"These new grandees canter on their splendid Arabs along Rotten Ron, the
+Bois de Boulogne, the Prospect, the Prater, or Unter den Linden. The
+shopkeepers, and all who save money, bow low to these men, who represent
+their savings, which they will never again see under any other form.
+Proof against sarcasms, sure of the respect of the Continental Press,
+protecting each other with a sort of freemasonry, the financiers dictate
+laws, determine the fate of nations, and render the cleverest political
+combinations abortive. They are everywhere received and listened to, and
+all the Cabinets feel their influence. Governments watch them with
+uneasiness, and even the Iron Chancellor has his gilded Egeria, who
+reports to him the wishes of this the sole modern Autocrat"--_Letter
+from Paris Correspondent_, "_Times_," _30th January_, 1885.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+181. But to this statement, I must add the one made to § 149 (see note)
+of "Munera Pulveris," that if we could trace the innermost of all causes
+of modern war, they would be found, not in the avarice or ambition, but
+the idleness of the upper classes. "They have nothing to do but to teach
+the peasantry to kill each other"--while that the peasantry are thus
+teachable, is further again dependent on their not having been educated
+primarily in the common law of justice. See again "Munera Pulveris,"
+Appendix I.: "Precisely according to the number of just men in a nation
+is their power of avoiding either intestine or foreign war."
+
+I rejoice to see my old friend Mr. Sillar gathering finally together the
+evidence he has so industriously collected on the guilt of usury, and
+supporting it by the always impressive language of symbolical art;[136]
+for indeed I had myself no idea, till I read the connected statement
+which these pictures illustrate, how steadily the system of
+money-lending had gained on the nation, and how fatally every hand and
+foot was now entangled by it. Yet in commending the study of this book
+to every virtuous and patriotic Englishman, I must firmly remind the
+reader, that all these sins and errors are only the branches from one
+root of bitterness--mortal Pride. For this we gather, for this we war,
+for this we die--here and hereafter; while all the while the Wisdom
+which is from above stands vainly teaching us the way to Earthly Riches
+and to Heavenly Peace, "What doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but
+to do justice, to love mercy, and to walk _humbly_ with thy God?"
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _7th March_, 1885.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 132: Introduction to a pamphlet entitled "Usury and the
+English Bishops," or more fully, "Usury, its pernicious effects on
+English agriculture and commerce: An allegory dedicated without
+permission to the Bishops of Manchester, Peterborough and Rochester"
+(London: A. Southey, 146, Fenchurch Street, 1885). By R. J. Sillar. (See
+_Fors Clavigera_, vol. v. Letter 56.)--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 133: "Everything evil in Europe is primarily the fault of her
+Bishops."]
+
+[Footnote 134: "I knew, in using it, perfectly well what you meant."
+(Note by Mr. Sillar.)]
+
+[Footnote 135: "Cash," I should have said, in accuracy--not "wealth."]
+
+[Footnote 136: Mr. Sillar's pamphlet consists of a collection of
+paragraphs, all condemnatory of usury, from the writings of the English
+bishops, from the sixteenth century down to the present time; and is
+illustrated by five emblematic woodcuts representing an oak tree
+(English commerce) gradually overgrown and destroyed by an ivy-plant
+(usury).--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THEOLOGY.
+
+
+NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.
+
+(Pamphlet, 1851.)
+
+
+THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.
+
+(_Letters and Epilogue_, 1879-1881.)
+
+
+THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, March_ 1873.)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.[137]
+
+
+PREFACE (CALLED "ADVERTISEMENT") TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+_Many persons will probably find fault with me for publishing opinions
+which are not new: but I shall bear this blame contentedly, believing
+that opinions on this subject could hardly be just if they were not 1800
+years old. Others will blame me for making proposals which are
+altogether new: to whom I would answer, that things in these days seem
+not so far right but that they may be mended. And others will simply
+call the opinions false and the proposals foolish--to whose goodwill, if
+they take it in hand to contradict me, I must leave what I have
+written--having no purpose of being drawn, at present, into religious
+controversy. If, however, any should admit the truth, but regret the
+tone of what I have said, lean only pray them to consider how much less
+harm is done in the world by ungraceful boldness, than by untimely
+fear._
+
+  DENMARK HILL,
+
+  _February, 1851._
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND (1851) EDITION.
+
+_Since the publication of these Notes, I have received many letters upon
+the affairs of the Church, from persons of nearly every denomination of
+Christians; for all these letters I am grateful, and in many of them I
+have found valuable information, or suggestion: but I have not leisure
+at present to follow out the subject farther; and no reason has been
+shown me for modifying or altering any part of the text as it stands. It
+is republished, therefore, without change or addition_.
+
+_I must, however, especially thank one of my correspondents for sending
+me a pamphlet, called "Sectarianism, the Bane of Religion and the
+Church,"[138] which I would recommend, in the strongest terms, to the
+reading of all who regard the cause of Christ; and, for help in reading
+the Scriptures, I would name also the short and admirable arrangement of
+parallel passages relating to the offices of the clergy, called "The
+Testimony of Scripture concerning the Christian Ministry."_[139]
+
+
+PREFACE TO THIRD (CALLED SECOND) EDITION.
+
+_I have only to add to this first preface, that the boldness of the
+pamphlet,--ungraceful enough, it must be admitted,--has done no one any
+harm, that I know of; but on the contrary, some definite good, as far as
+I can judge; and that I republish the whole now, letter for letter, as
+originally printed, believing it likely to be still serviceable, and, on
+the ground it takes for argument, (Scriptural authority,)
+incontrovertible as far as it reaches; though it amazes me to find on
+re-reading it, that, so late as 1851, I had only got the length of
+perceiving the schism between sects of Protestants to be criminal, and
+ridiculous, while I still supposed the schism between Protestants and
+Catholics to be virtuous and sublime._
+
+_The most valuable part of the whole is the analysis of governments, §§
+213-15; the passages on Church discipline, §§ 204-5, being also
+anticipatory of much that I have to say in Fors, where I hope to
+re-assert the substance of this pamphlet on wider grounds, and with more
+modesty._
+
+  BRANTWOOD,
+
+  _3rd August, 1875._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 137: This pamphlet was originally published in 1851, under the
+title of "Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds," by John Ruskin,
+M.A., author of the "Seven Lamps of Architecture," etc. (Smith, Elder, &
+Co.). A second edition, with an additional preface, followed in the same
+year, after which the pamphlet remained out of print till 1875, when it
+was reprinted in a third, erroneously called a second, edition (George
+Allen, Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent).--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 138: London: 1846. Nisbet & Co., Berners Street.]
+
+[Footnote 139: London: 1847. T. K. Campbell, 1, Warwick Square.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTES,
+
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+182. The following remarks were intended to form part of the appendix to
+an essay on Architecture: but it seemed to me, when I had put them into
+order, that they might be useful to persons who would not care to
+possess the work to which I proposed to attach them: I publish them,
+therefore, in a separate form; but I have not time to give them more
+consistency than they would have had in the subordinate position
+originally intended for them. I do not profess to teach Divinity, and I
+pray the reader to understand this, and to pardon the slightness and
+insufficiency of notes set down with no more intention of connected
+treatment of their subject than might regulate an accidental
+conversation. Some of them are simply copied from my private diary;
+others are detached statements of facts, which seem to me significative
+or valuable, without comment; all are written in haste, and in the
+intervals of occupation with an entirely different subject. It may be
+asked of me, whether I hold it right to speak thus hastily and
+insufficiently respecting the matter in question? Yes. I hold it right
+to _speak_ hastily; not to _think_ hastily. I have not thought hastily
+of these things; and, besides, the haste of speech is confessed, that
+the reader may think of me only as talking to him, and saying, as
+shortly and simply as I can, things which, if he esteem them foolish or
+idle, he is welcome to cast aside; but which, in very truth, I cannot
+help saying at this time.
+
+183. The passages in the essay which required notes, described the
+repression of the political power of the Venetian Clergy by the Venetian
+Senate; and it became necessary for me--in supporting an assertion made
+in the course of the inquiry, that the idea of separation of Church and
+State was both vain and impious--to limit the sense in which it seemed
+to me that the word "Church" should be understood, and to note one or
+two consequences which would result from the acceptance of such
+limitation. This I may as well do in a separate paper, readable by any
+person interested in the subject; for it is high time that _some_
+definition of the word should be agreed upon. I do not mean a definition
+involving the doctrine of this or that division of Christians, but
+limiting, in a manner understood by all of them, the sense in which the
+_word_ should thenceforward be used. There is grievous inconvenience in
+the present state of things. For instance, in a sermon lately published
+at Oxford, by an anti-Tractarian divine, I find this sentence,--"It is
+clearly within the province of the State to establish a national
+_church_, or _external institution of certain forms of worship_." Now
+suppose one were to take this interpretation of the word "Church," given
+by an Oxford divine, and substitute it for the simple word in some Bible
+texts, as, for instance, "Unto the angel of the external institution of
+certain forms of worship of Ephesus, write," etc. Or, "Salute the
+brethren which are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the external
+institution of certain forms of worship which is in his house,"--what
+awkward results we should have, here and there! Now I do not say it is
+possible for men to agree with each other in their religious _opinions_,
+but it is certainly possible for them to agree with each other upon
+their religious _expressions_; and when a word occurs in the Bible a
+hundred and fourteen times, it is surely not asking too much of
+contending divines to let it stand in the sense in which it there
+occurs; and when they want an expression of something for which it does
+_not_ stand in the Bible, to use some other word. There is no compromise
+of religious opinion in this; it is simply proper respect for the
+Queen's English.
+
+184. The word occurs in the New Testament, as I said, a hundred and
+fourteen times.[140] In every one of those occurrences, it bears one
+and the same grand sense: that of a congregation or assembly of men. But
+it bears this sense under four different modifications, giving four
+separate meanings to the word. These are--
+
+I. The entire Multitude of the Elect; otherwise called the Body of
+Christ; and sometimes the Bride, the Lamb's Wife; including the Faithful
+in all ages;--Adam, and the children of Adam yet unborn.
+
+In this sense it is used in Ephesians v. 25, 27, 32; Colossians i. 18;
+and several other passages.
+
+II. The entire multitude of professing believers in Christ, existing on
+earth at a given moment; including false brethren, wolves in sheep's
+clothing, goats and tares, as well as sheep and wheat, and other forms
+of bad fish with good in the net.
+
+In this sense it is used in 1 Cor. x. 32, xv. 9; Galatians i. 13; 1 Tim.
+iii. 5, etc.
+
+III. The multitude of professed believers, living in a certain city,
+place, or house. This is the most frequent sense in which the word
+occurs, as in Acts vii. 38, xiii. 1; 1 Cor. i. 2, xvi. 19, etc.
+
+IV. Any assembly of men: as in Acts xix. 32, 41.
+
+185. That in a hundred and twelve out of the hundred and fourteen texts,
+the word bears some one of these four meanings, is indisputable.[141]
+But there are two texts in which, if the word had alone occurred, its
+meaning might have been doubtful. These are Matt. xvi. 18, and xviii.
+17.
+
+The absurdity of founding any doctrine upon the inexpressibly minute
+possibility that, in these two texts, the word might have been used with
+a different meaning from that which it bore in all the others, coupled
+with the assumption that the meaning was this or that, is self-evident:
+it is not so much a religious error as a philological solecism;
+unparalleled, so far as I know, in any other science but that of
+divinity.
+
+Nor is it ever, I think, committed with open front by Protestants. No
+English divine, asked in a straightforward manner for a Scriptural
+definition of "the Church," would, I suppose, be bold enough to answer
+"the Clergy." Nor is there any harm in the common use of the word, so
+only that it be distinctly understood to be not the Scriptural one; and
+therefore to be unfit for substitution in a Scriptural text. There is no
+harm in a man's talking of his son's "going into the Church; "meaning
+that he is going to take orders: but there is much harm in his supposing
+this a Scriptural use of the word, and therefore, that when Christ said,
+"Tell it to the Church," He might possibly have meant, "Tell it to the
+Clergy."
+
+186. It is time to put an end to the chance of such misunderstanding.
+Let it but be declared plainly by all men, when they begin to state
+their opinions on matters ecclesiastical, that they will use the word
+"Church" in one sense or the other;--that they will accept the sense in
+which it is used by the Apostles, or that they deny this sense, and
+propose a new definition of their own. We shall then know what we are
+about with them--we may perhaps grant them their new use of the term,
+and argue with them on that understanding; so only that they will not
+pretend to make use of Scriptural authority, while they refuse to employ
+Scriptural language. This, however, it is not my purpose to do at
+present. I desire only to address those who are willing to accept the
+Apostolic sense of the word Church; and with them, I would endeavor
+shortly to ascertain what consequences must follow from an acceptance of
+that Apostolic sense, and what must be our first and most necessary
+conclusions from the common language of Scripture[142] respecting these
+following points:--
+
+  (1) The distinctive characters of the Church,
+  (2) The Authority of the Church.
+  (3) The Authority of the Clergy over the Church.
+  (4) The Connection of the Church with the State.
+
+187. These are four separate subjects of question; but we shall not have
+to put these questions in succession with each of the four Scriptural
+meanings of the word Church, for evidently its second and third meaning
+may be considered together, as merely expressing the general or
+particular conditions of the Visible Church, and the fourth
+signification is entirely independent of all questions of a religious
+kind. So that we shall only put the above inquiries successively
+respecting the Invisible and Visible Church; and as the two last--of
+authority of Clergy, and connection with State--can evidently only have
+reference to the Visible Church, we shall have, in all, these six
+questions to consider:--
+
+  (1) The distinctive characters of the Invisible Church.
+  (2) The distinctive characters of the Visible Church.
+  (3) The Authority of the Invisible Church.
+  (4) The Authority of the Visible Church,
+  (5) The Authority of Clergy over the Visible Church.
+  (6) The Connection of the Visible Church with the State.
+
+188. (1) What are the distinctive characters of the Invisible Church?
+That is to say, What is it which makes a person a member of this Church,
+and how is he to be known for such? Wide question--if we had to take
+cognizance of all that has been written respecting it, remarkable as it
+has been always for quantity rather than carefulness, and full of
+confusion between Visible and Invisible: even the Article of the Church
+of England being ambiguous in its first clause: "The _Visible_ Church is
+a congregation of Faithful men." As if ever it had been possible, except
+for God, to see Faith, or to know a Faithful man by sight! And there is
+little else written on this question, without some such quick confusion
+of the Visible and Invisible Church;--needless and unaccountable
+confusion. For evidently, the Church which is composed of Faithful men
+is the one true, indivisible, and indiscernible Church, built on the
+foundation of Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+chief corner-stone. It includes all who have ever fallen asleep in
+Christ, and all yet unborn, who are to be saved in Him: its Body is as
+yet imperfect; it will not be perfected till the last saved human spirit
+is gathered to its God.
+
+A man becomes a member of this Church only by believing in Christ with
+all his heart; nor is he positively recognizable for a member of it,
+when he has become so, by any one but God, not even by himself.
+Nevertheless, there are certain signs by which Christ's sheep may be
+guessed at. Not by their being in any definite Fold--for many are lost
+sheep at times; but by their sheeplike behavior; and a great many are
+indeed sheep, which, on the far mountain side, in their peacefulness, we
+take for stones. To themselves, the best proof of their being Christ's
+sheep is to find themselves on Christ's shoulders; and, between them,
+there are certain sympathies (expressed in the Apostles' Creed by the
+term "communion of Saints"), by which they may in a sort recognize each
+other, and so become verily visible to each other for mutual comfort.
+
+189. (2) The Limits of the Visible Church, or of the Church in the
+Second Scriptural Sense, are not so easy to define: they are awkward
+questions, these, of stake-nets. It has been ingeniously and plausibly
+endeavored to make Baptism a sign of admission into the Visible Church:
+but absurdly enough; for we know that half the baptized people in the
+world are very visible rogues, believing neither in God nor devil; and
+it is flat blasphemy to call these Visible Christians; we also know that
+the Holy Ghost was sometimes given before Baptism,[143] and it would be
+absurdity to call a man, on whom the Holy Ghost had fallen, an Invisible
+Christian. The only rational distinction is that which practically,
+though not professedly, we always assume. If we hear a man profess
+himself a believer in God and in Christ, and detect him in no glaring
+and willful violation of God's law, we speak of him as a Christian; and,
+on the other hand, if we hear him or see him denying Christ, either in
+his words or conduct, we tacitly assume him not to be a Christian. A
+mawkish charity prevents us from outspeaking in this matter, and from
+earnestly endeavoring to discern who are Christians and who are not; and
+this I hold[144] to be one of the chief sins of the Church in the
+present day; for thus wicked men are put to no shame; and better men are
+encouraged in their failings, or caused to hesitate in their virtues, by
+the example of those whom, in false charity, they choose to call
+Christians. Now, it being granted that it is impossible to know,
+determinedly, who are Christians indeed, that is no reason for utter
+negligence in separating the nominal, apparent, or possible Christian,
+from the professed Pagan or enemy of God. We spend much time in arguing
+about efficacy of sacraments and such other mysteries; but we do not act
+upon the very certain tests which are clear and visible. We know that
+Christ's people are not thieves--not liars--not busybodies--not
+dishonest--not avaricious--not wasteful--not cruel. Let us then get
+ourselves well clear of thieves--liars--wasteful people--avaricious
+people--cheating people--people who do not pay their debts. Let us
+assure them that they, at least, do not belong to the Visible Church;
+and having thus got that Church into decent shape and cohesion, it will
+be time to think of drawing the stake-nets closer.
+
+I hold it for a law, palpable to common sense, and which nothing but the
+cowardice and faithlessness of the Church prevents it from putting in
+practice, that the conviction of any dishonorable conduct or willful
+crime, of any fraud, falsehood, cruelty, or violence, should be ground
+for the excommunication of any man:--for his publicly declared
+separation from the acknowledged body of the Visible Church: and that he
+should not be received again therein without public confession of his
+crime and declaration of his repentance. If this were vigorously
+enforced, we should soon have greater purity of life in the world, and
+fewer discussions about high and low churches. But before we can obtain
+any idea of the manner in which such law could be enforced, we have to
+consider the second respecting the Authority of the Church. Now
+authority is twofold: to declare doctrine, and to enforce discipline;
+and we have to inquire, therefore, in each kind,--
+
+190. (3) What is the authority of the Invisible Church? Evidently, in
+matters of doctrine, all members of the Invisible Church must have been,
+and must ever be, at the time of their deaths, right in the points
+essential to Salvation. But, (A), we cannot tell who _are_ members of
+the Invisible Church.
+
+(B) We cannot collect evidence from death-beds in a clearly stated form.
+
+(C) We can collect evidence, in any form, only from some one or two out
+of every sealed thousand of the Invisible Church. Elijah thought he was
+alone in Israel; and yet there were seven thousand invisible ones around
+him. Grant that we had Elijah's intelligence; and we could only
+calculate on collecting one seven-thousandth part of the evidence or
+opinions of the part of the Invisible Church living on earth at a given
+moment: that is to say, the seven-millionth or trillionth of its
+collective evidence. It is very clear, therefore, we cannot hope to get
+rid of the contradictory opinions, and keep the consistent ones, by a
+general equation. But, it has been said, these are no contradictory
+opinions; the Church is infallible. There was some talk about the
+infallibility of the Church, if I recollect right, in that letter of Mr.
+Bennett's to the Bishop of London. If any Church is infallible, it is
+assuredly the Invisible Church, or Body of Christ: and infallible in the
+main sense it must of course be by its definition. An Elect person must
+be saved, and therefore cannot eventually be deceived on essential
+points: so that Christ says of the deception of such, "If it were
+_possible_" implying it to be impossible. Therefore, as we said, if one
+could get rid of the variable opinions of the members of the Invisible
+Church, the constant opinions would assuredly be authoritative: but, for
+the three reasons above stated, we cannot get at their constant
+opinions: and as for the feelings and thoughts which they daily
+experience or express, the question of Infallibility -which is practical
+only in this bearing--is soon settled. Observe, St. Paul, and the rest
+of the Apostles, write nearly all their epistles to the Invisible
+Church:--those epistles are headed,--Romans, "To the beloved of God,
+called to be saints; "1 Corinthians, "To them that are sanctified in
+Christ Jesus; "2 Corinthians, "To the saints in all Achaia;" Ephesians,
+"To the saints which are at Ephesus, and to the faithful in Christ
+Jesus; "Philippians, "To all the saints which are at Philippi;
+"Colossians, "To the saints and faithful brethren which are at Colosse;"
+1 and 2 Thessalonians, "To the Church of the Thessalonians, which is
+in God the Father, and the Lord Jesus; "1 and 2 Timothy, "To his own son
+in the faith; "Titus, to the same; 1 Peter, "To the Strangers, Elect
+according to the foreknowledge of God;" 2 Peter, "To them that have
+obtained like precious faith with us; " 2 John, "To the Elect lady; "
+Jude, " To them that are sanctified by God the Father, and preserved in
+Jesus Christ, and called."
+
+191. There are thus fifteen epistles, expressly directed to the members
+of the Invisible Church. Philemon and Hebrews, and 1 and 3 John, are
+evidently also so written, though not so expressly inscribed. That of
+James, and that to the Galatians, are as evidently to the Visible
+Church: the one being general, and the other to persons "removed from
+Him that called them." Missing out, therefore, these two epistles, but
+including Christ's words to His disciples, we find in the Scriptural
+addresses to members of the Invisible Church, fourteen, if not more,
+direct injunctions "not to be deceived."[145] So much for the
+"Infallibility of the Church."
+
+Now, one could put up with Puseyism more patiently, if its fallacies
+arose merely from peculiar temperaments yielding to peculiar
+temptations. But its bold refusals to read plain English; its elaborate
+adjustments of tight bandages over its own eyes, as wholesome
+preparation for a walk among traps and pitfalls; its daring trustfulness
+in its own clairvoyance all the time, and declarations that every pit it
+falls into is a seventh heaven; and that it is pleasant and profitable
+to break its legs;--with all this it is difficult to have patience. One
+thinks of the highwayman with his eyes shut in the "Arabian Nights"; and
+wonders whether any kind of scourging would prevail upon the Anglican
+highwayman to open "first one and then the other."
+
+192. (4) So much, then, I repeat, for the infallibility of the
+_In_visible Church, and for its consequent authority. Now, if we want to
+ascertain what infallibility and authority there is in the Visible
+Church, we have to alloy the small wisdom and the light weight of
+Invisible Christians, with the large percentage of the false wisdom and
+contrary weight of Undetected Anti-Christians. Which alloy makes up the
+current coin of opinions in the Visible Church, having such value as we
+may choose--its nature being properly assayed--to attach to it.
+
+There is, therefore, in matters of doctrine, _no such thing_ as the
+Authority of the Church. We might as well talk of the authority of a
+morning cloud. There may be light _in_ it, but the light is not of it;
+and it diminishes the light that it gets; and lets less of it through
+than it receives, Christ being its sun. Or, we might as well talk of the
+authority of a flock of sheep--for the Church is a body to be taught and
+fed, not to teach and feed: and of all sheep that are fed on the earth,
+Christ's Sheep are the most simple, (the children of this generation are
+wiser): always losing themselves; doing little else in this world _but_
+lose themselves;--never finding themselves; always found by Some One
+else; getting perpetually into sloughs, and snows, and bramble thickets,
+like to die there, but for their Shepherd, who is forever finding them
+and bearing them back, with torn fleeces and eyes full of fear.
+
+193. This, then, being the No-Authority of the Church in matter of
+Doctrine, what Authority has it in matters of Discipline?
+
+Much, every way. The sheep have natural and wholesome power (however far
+scattered they may be from their proper fold) of getting together in
+orderly knots; following each other on trodden sheepwalks, and holding
+their heads all one way when they see strange dogs coming; as well as of
+casting out of their company any whom they see reason to suspect of not
+being right sheep, and being among them for no good. All which things
+must be done as the time and place require, and by common consent. A
+path may be good at one time of day which is bad at another, or after a
+change of wind; and a position may be very good for sudden defense,
+which would be very stiff and awkward for feeding in. And common consent
+must often be of such and such a company on this or that hillside, in
+this or that particular danger,--not of all the sheep in the world: and
+the consent may either be literally common, and expressed in assembly,
+or it may be to appoint officers over the rest, with such and such
+trusts of the common authority, to be used for the common advantage.
+Conviction of crimes, and excommunication, for instance, could neither
+be effected except before, or by means of, officers of some appointed
+authority.
+
+194. (5) This then brings us to our fifth question. What is the
+Authority of the Clergy over the Church?
+
+The first clause of the question must evidently be,--Who _are_ the
+Clergy? And it is not easy to answer this without begging the rest of
+the question.
+
+For instance, I think I can hear certain people answering, that the
+Clergy are folk of three kinds;--Bishops, who overlook the Church;
+Priests, who sacrifice for the Church; Deacons, who minister to the
+Church: thus assuming in their answer, that the Church is to be
+sacrificed _for_, and that the people cannot overlook and minister to
+her at the same time;--which is going much too fast. I think, however,
+if we define the Clergy to be the "Spiritual Officers of the
+Church,"--meaning, by Officers, merely People in office,--we shall have
+a title safe enough and general enough to begin with, and corresponding
+too, pretty well, with St. Paul's general expression [Greek:
+proistamenoi], in Rom. xii. 8, and 1 Thess. v. 13.
+
+Now, respecting these Spiritual Officers, or office-bearers, we have to
+inquire, first, What their Office or Authority is, or should be?
+secondly, Who gave, or should give, them that Authority? That is to say,
+first, What is, or should be, the _nature_ of their office? and
+secondly, What the _extent_, or force, of their authority in it? for
+this last depends mainly on its derivation.
+
+195. First, then, What should be the offices, and of what kind should be
+the authority, of the Clergy?
+
+I have hitherto referred to the Bible for an answer to every question. I
+do so again; and, behold, the Bible gives me no answer. I defy you to
+answer me from the Bible. You can only guess, and dimly conjecture, what
+the offices of the Clergy _were_ in the first century. You cannot show
+me a single command as to what they shall be. Strange, this; the Bible
+gives no answer to so apparently important a question! God surely would
+not have left His word without an answer to anything His children ought
+to ask. Surely it must be a ridiculous question--a question we ought
+never to have put, or thought of putting. Let us think of it again a
+little. To be sure,--It _is_ a ridiculous question, and we should be
+ashamed of ourselves for having put it:--What should be the offices of
+the Clergy? That is to say, What are the possible spiritual necessities
+which at any time may arise in the Church, and by what means and men are
+they to be supplied?--evidently an infinite question. Different kinds of
+necessities must be met by different authorities, constituted as the
+necessities arise. Robinson Crusoe, in his island, wants no Bishop, and
+makes a thunderstorm do for an Evangelist. The University of Oxford
+would be ill off without its Bishop; but wants an Evangelist besides;
+and that forthwith. The authority which the Vaudois shepherds need is of
+Barnabas, the Son of Consolation; the authority which the city of London
+needs is of James, the Son of Thunder. Let us then alter the form of our
+question, and put it to the Bible thus: What are the necessities most
+likely to arise in the Church? and may they be best met by different
+men, or in great part by the same men acting in different capacities?
+and are the names attached to their offices of any consequence? Ah, the
+Bible answers now, and that loudly. The Church is built on the
+Foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+corner-stone. Well; we cannot have two foundations, so we can have no
+more Apostles nor Prophets:--then, as for the other needs of the Church
+in its edifying upon this foundation, there are all manner of things to
+be done daily;--rebukes to be given; comfort to be brought; Scripture to
+be explained; warning to be enforced; threatenings to be executed;
+charities to be administered; and the men who do these things are
+called, and call themselves, with absolute indifference, Deacons,
+Bishops, Elders, Evangelists, according to what they are doing at the
+time of speaking. St. Paul almost always calls himself a deacon, St.
+Peter calls himself an elder, 1 Peter v. 1; and Timothy, generally
+understood to be addressed as a bishop, is called a deacon in 1 Tim. iv.
+6--forbidden to rebuke an elder, in v. 1, and exhorted to do the work of
+an evangelist, in 2 Tim. iv. 5. But there is one thing which, as
+officers, or as separate from the rest of the flock, they _never_ call
+themselves,--which it would have been impossible, as so separate, they
+ever _should_ have called themselves; that is--_Priests_.
+
+196. It would have been just as possible for the Clergy of the early
+Church to call themselves Levites, as to call themselves (ex-officio)
+Priests. The whole function of Priesthood was, on Christmas morning, at
+once and forever gathered into His Person who was born at Bethlehem; and
+thenceforward, all who are united with Him, and who with Him make
+sacrifice of themselves; that is to say, all members of the Invisible
+Church become, at the instant of their conversion, Priests; and are so
+called in 1 Peter ii. 5, and Rev. i. 6, and xx. 6, where, observe, there
+is no possibility of limiting the expression to the Clergy; the
+conditions of Priesthood being simply having been loved by Christ, and
+washed in His blood. The blasphemous claim on the part of the Clergy of
+being _more_ Priests than the godly laity--that is to say, of having a
+higher Holiness than the Holiness of being one with Christ,--is
+altogether a Romanist heresy, dragging after it, or having its origin
+in, the other heresies respecting the sacrificial power of the Church
+officer, and his repeating the oblation of Christ, and so having power
+to absolve from sin:--with all the other endless and miserable
+falsehoods of the Papal hierarchy; falsehoods for which, that there
+might be no shadow of excuse, it has been ordained by the Holy Spirit
+that no Christian minister shall once call himself a Priest from one end
+of the New Testament to the other, except together with his flock; and
+so far from the idea of any peculiar sanctification, belonging to the
+Clergy, ever entering the Apostles' minds, we actually find St. Paul
+defending himself against the possible imputation of inferiority: "If
+any man trust to himself that he is Christ's, let him of himself think
+this again, that, as he is Christ's, even so are we Christ's" (2 Cor. x.
+7). As for the unhappy retention of the term Priest in our English
+Prayer-book, so long as it was understood to mean nothing but an upper
+order of Church officer, licensed to tell the congregation from the
+reading-desk, what (for the rest) they might, one would think, have
+known without being told,--that "God pardoneth all them that truly
+repent,"--there was little harm in it; but, now that this order of
+Clergy begins to presume upon a title which, if it mean anything at all,
+is simply short for Presbyter, and has no more to do with the word
+Hiereus than with the word Levite, it is time that some order should be
+taken both with the book and the Clergy. For instance, in that dangerous
+compound of halting poetry with hollow Divinity, called the "Lyra
+Apostolica," we find much versification on the sin of Korah and his
+company: with suggested parallel between the Christian and Levitical
+Churches, and threatening that there are "Judgment Fires, for
+high-voiced Korahs in their day." There are indeed such fires. But when
+Moses said, "a Prophet shall the Lord raise up unto you, like unto me,"
+did he mean the writer who signs [Greek: g] in the "Lyra Apostolica"?
+The office of the Lawgiver and Priest is now forever gathered into One
+Mediator between God and man; and THEY are guilty of the sin of Korah
+who blasphemously would associate themselves in His Mediatorship.
+
+197. As for the passages in the "Ordering of Priests" and "Visitation of
+the Sick" respecting Absolution, they are evidently pure Romanism, and
+might as well not be there, for any practical effect which they have on
+the consciences of the Laity; and had much better not be there, as
+regards their effect on the minds of the Clergy. It is indeed true that
+Christ promised absolving powers to His Apostles: He also promised to
+those who believed, that they should take up serpents; and if they drank
+any deadly thing, it should not hurt them. His words were fulfilled
+literally; but those who would extend their force to beyond the
+Apostolic times, must extend both promises or neither.
+
+Although, however, the Protestant laity do not often admit the absolving
+power of their clergy, they are but too apt to yield, in some sort, to
+the impression of their greater sanctification; and from this instantly
+results the unhappy consequence that the sacred character of the Layman
+himself is forgotten, and his own Ministerial duty is neglected. Men
+not in office in the Church suppose themselves, on that ground, in a
+sort unholy; and that, therefore, they may sin with more excuse, and be
+idle or impious with less danger, than the Clergy: especially they
+consider themselves relieved from all ministerial function, and as
+permitted to devote their whole time and energy to the business of this
+world. No mistake can possibly be greater. Every member of the Church is
+equally bound to the service of the Head of the Church; and that service
+is pre-eminently the saving of souls. There is not a moment of a man's
+active life in which he may not be indirectly preaching; and throughout
+a great part of his life he ought to be _directly_ preaching, and
+teaching both strangers and friends; his children, his servants, and all
+who in any way are put under him, being given to him as special objects
+of his ministration. So that the only difference between a Church
+officer and a lay member is either a wider degree of authority given to
+the former, as apparently a wiser and better man, or a special
+appointment to some office more easily discharged by one person than by
+many: as, for instance, the serving of tables by the deacons; the
+authority or appointment being, in either case, commonly signified by a
+marked separation from the rest of the Church, and the privilege or
+power[146] of being maintained by the rest of the Church, without being
+forced to labor with his hands, or incumber himself with any temporal
+concerns.
+
+198. Now, putting out of the question the serving of tables, and other
+such duties, respecting which there is no debate, we shall find the
+offices of the Clergy, whatever names we may choose to give to those who
+discharge them, falling mainly into two great heads:--Teaching;
+including doctrine, warning, and comfort: Discipline; including reproof
+and direct administration of punishment. Either of which functions would
+naturally become vested in single persons, to the exclusion of others,
+as a mere matter of convenience: whether those persons were wiser and
+better than others or not; and respecting each of which, and the
+authority required for its fitting discharge, a short inquiry must be
+separately made.
+
+199. I. Teaching.--It appears natural and wise that certain men should
+be set apart from the rest of the Church that they may make Theology the
+study of their lives: and that they should be thereto instructed
+specially in the Hebrew and Greek tongues; and have entire leisure
+granted them for the study of the Scriptures, and for obtaining general
+knowledge of the grounds of Faith, and best modes of its defense against
+all heretics: and it seems evidently right, also, that with this
+Scholastic duty should be joined the Pastoral duty of constant
+visitation and exhortation to the people; for, clearly, the Bible, and
+the truths of Divinity in general, can only be understood rightly in
+their practical application; and clearly, also, a man spending his time
+constantly in spiritual ministrations, must be better able, on any given
+occasion, to deal powerfully with the human heart than one unpracticed
+in such matters. The unity of Knowledge and Love, both devoted
+altogether to the service of Christ and His Church, marks the true
+Christian Minister; who, I believe, whenever he has existed, has never
+failed to receive due and fitting reverence from all men,--of whatever
+character or opinion; and I believe that if all those who profess to be
+such were such indeed, there would never be question of their authority
+more.
+
+200. But, whatever influence they may have over the Church, their
+authority never supersedes that of either the intellect or the
+conscience of the simplest of its lay members. They can assist those
+members in the search for truth, or comfort their over-worn and doubtful
+minds; they can even assure them that they are in the way of truth, or
+that pardon is within their reach: but they can neither manifest the
+truth, nor grant the pardon. Truth is to be discovered, and Pardon to be
+won, for every man by himself. This is evident from innumerable texts of
+Scripture, but chiefly from those which exhort every man to seek after
+Truth, and which connect knowing with doing. We are to seek after
+knowledge as silver, and search for her as for hid treasures; therefore,
+from every man she must be naturally hid, and the discovery of her is
+to be the reward only of personal search. The kingdom of God is as
+treasure hid in a field; and of those who profess to help us to seek for
+it, we are not to put confidence in those who say,--Here is the
+treasure, we have found it, and have it, and will give you some of it;
+but in those who say,--We think that is a good place to dig, and you
+will dig most easily in such and such a way.
+
+201. Farther, it has been promised that if such earnest search be made,
+Truth shall be discovered: as much truth, that is, as is necessary for
+the person seeking. These, therefore, I hold, for two fundamental
+principles of religion,--that, without seeking, truth cannot be known at
+all; and that, by seeking, it may be discovered by the simplest. I say,
+without seeking it cannot be known at all. It can neither be declared
+from pulpits, nor set down in Articles, nor in anywise "prepared and
+sold" in packages, ready for use. Truth must be ground for every man by
+himself out of its husk, with such help as he can get, indeed, but not
+without stern labor of his own. In what science is knowledge to be had
+cheap? or truth to be told over a velvet cushion, in half an hour's talk
+every seventh day? Can you learn chemistry so?--zoology?--anatomy? and
+do you expect to penetrate the secret of all secrets, and to know that
+whose price is above rubies; and of which the depth saith,--It is not in
+me,--in so easy fashion? There are doubts in this matter which evil
+spirits darken with their wings, and that is true of all such doubts
+which we were told long ago--they can "be ended by action alone."[147]
+
+202. As surely as we live, this truth of truths can only so be
+discerned: to those who act on what they know, more shall be revealed;
+and thus, if any man will do His will, he shall know the doctrine
+whether it be of God. Any man,--not the man who has most means of
+knowing, who has the subtlest brains, or sits under the most orthodox
+preacher, or has his library fullest of most orthodox books,--but the
+man who strives to know, who takes God at His word, and sets himself to
+dig up the heavenly mystery, roots and all, before sunset, and the night
+come, when no man can work. Beside such a man, God stands in more and
+more visible presence as he toils, and teaches him that which no
+preacher can teach--no earthly authority gainsay. By such a man, the
+preacher must himself be judged.
+
+203. Doubt you this? There is nothing more certain nor clear throughout
+the Bible: the Apostles themselves appeal constantly to their flocks,
+and actually _claim_ judgment from them, as deserving it, and having a
+right to it, rather than discouraging it. But, first notice the way in
+which the discovery of truth is spoken of in the Old Testament: "Evil
+men understand not judgment; but they that seek the Lord understand all
+things," Proverbs xxviii. 5. God overthroweth, not merely the
+transgressor or the wicked, but even "the words of the transgressor,"
+Proverbs xxii. 12, and "the counsel of the wicked," Job v. 13, xxi. 16;
+observe again, in Proverbs xxiv. 14, "My son, eat thou honey, because it
+is good--so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul, when thou
+hast _found it_, there shall be a reward;" and again, "What man is he
+that feareth the Lord? him shall He teach in the way that He shall
+choose;" so Job xxxii. 8, and multitudes of places more; and then, with
+all these places, which express the definite and personal operation of
+the Spirit of God on every one of His people, compare the place in
+Isaiah, which speaks of the contrary of this human teaching: a passage
+which seems as if it had been written for this very day and hour.
+"Because their fear towards me is taught by the _precept of men_;
+therefore, behold, the wisdom of their wise men shall perish, and the
+understanding of their prudent men shall be hid" (xxix. 13,14). Then
+take the New Testament, and observe how St. Paul himself speaks of the
+Romans, even as hardly needing his epistle, but able to admonish one
+another: "_Nevertheless, brethren, I have written the more boldly unto
+you in some sort, as putting you in mind_" (xv. 15). Anyone, we should
+have thought, might have done as much as this, and yet St. Paul
+increases the modesty of it as he goes on; for he claims the right of
+doing as much as this, only "because of the grace given to me of God,
+that I should be the minister of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles." Then
+compare 2 Cor. v. 11, where he appeals to the consciences of the people
+for the manifestation of his having done his duty; and observe in verse
+21 of that, and I of the next chapter, the "pray" and "beseech," not
+"command"; and again in chapter vi. verse 4, "approving ourselves as the
+ministers of God." But the most remarkable passage of all is 2 Cor. iii.
+1, whence it appears that the churches were actually in the habit of
+giving letters of recommendation to their ministers; and St. Paul
+dispenses with such letters, not by virtue of his Apostolic authority,
+but because the power of his preaching was enough manifested in the
+Corinthians themselves. And these passages are all the more forcible,
+because if in any of them St. Paul had claimed absolute authority over
+the Church as a teacher, it was no more than we should have expected him
+to claim, nor could his doing so have in anywise justified a successor
+in the same claim. But now that he has not claimed it,--who,
+following him, shall dare to claim it? And the consideration of the
+necessity of joining expressions of the most exemplary humility, which
+were to be the example of succeeding ministers, with such assertion of
+Divine authority as should secure acceptance for the epistle itself in
+the sacred canon, sufficiently accounts for the apparent inconsistencies
+which occur in 2 Thess. iii. 14, and other such texts.
+
+204. So much, then, for the authority of the Clergy in matters of
+Doctrine. Next, what is their authority in matters of Discipline? It
+must evidently be very great, even if it were derived from the people
+alone, and merely vested in the clerical officers as the executors of
+their ecclesiastical judgments, and general overseers of all the Church.
+But granting, as we must presently, the minister to hold office directly
+from God, his authority of discipline becomes very great indeed; how
+great, it seems to me most difficult to determine, because I do not
+understand what St. Paul means by "delivering a man to Satan for the
+destruction of the flesh." Leaving this question, however, as much too
+hard for casual examination, it seems indisputable that the authority of
+the Ministers or court of Ministers should extend to the pronouncing a
+man Excommunicate for certain crimes against the Church, as well as for
+all crimes punishable by ordinary law. There ought, I think, to be an
+ecclesiastical code of laws; and a man ought to have jury trial,
+according to this code, before an ecclesiastical judge; in which, if he
+were found guilty, as of lying, or dishonesty, or cruelty, much more of
+any actually committed violent crime, he should be pronounced
+excommunicate; refused the Sacrament; and have his name written in some
+public place as an excommunicate person until he had publicly confessed
+his sin and besought pardon of God for it. The jury should always be of
+the laity, and no penalty should be enforced in an ecclesiastical court
+except this of excommunication.
+
+205. This proposal may seem strange to many persons; but assuredly this,
+if not much more than this, is commanded in Scripture, first in the
+(much-abused) text, "Tell it unto the Church;" and most clearly in 1
+Cor. v. 11-13; 2 Thess. iii. 6 and 14; 1 Tim. v. 8 and 20; and Titus
+iii. 10; from which passages we also know the two proper degrees of the
+penalty. For Christ says, Let him who refuses to hear the Church, "be
+unto thee as an heathen man and a publican," But Christ ministered to
+the heathen, and sat at meat with the publican; only always with
+declared or implied expression of their inferiority; here, therefore, is
+one degree of excommunication for persons who "offend" their brethren,
+committing some minor fault against them; and who, having been
+pronounced in error by the body of the Church, refuse to confess their
+fault or repair it; who are then to be no longer considered members of
+the Church; and their recovery to the body of it is to be sought exactly
+as it would be in the case of an heathen. But covetous persons, railers,
+extortioners, idolaters, and those guilty of other gross crimes, are to
+be entirely cut off from the company of the believers; and we are not so
+much as to eat with them. This last penalty, however, would require to
+be strictly guarded, that it might not be abused in the infliction of
+it, as it has been by the Romanists. We are not, indeed, to eat with
+them, but we may exercise all Christian charity towards them, and give
+them to eat, if we see them in hunger, as we ought to all our enemies;
+only we are to consider them distinctly as our _enemies_: that is to
+say, enemies of our Master, Christ; and servants of Satan.
+
+206. As for the rank or name of the officers in whom the authorities,
+either of teaching or discipline, are to be vested, they are left
+undetermined by Scripture. I have heard it said by men who know their
+Bible far better than I, that careful examination may detect evidence of
+the existence of three orders of Clergy in the Church. This may be; but
+one thing is very clear, without any laborious examination, that
+"bishop" and "elder" sometimes mean the same thing; as, indisputably, in
+Titus i. 5 and 7, and I Peter v. I and 2, and that the office of the
+bishop or overseer was one of considerably less importance than it is
+with us. This is palpably evident from I Timothy iii., for what divine
+among us, writing of episcopal proprieties, would think of saying that
+bishops "must not be given to wine," must be "no strikers," and must not
+be "novices"? We are not in the habit of making bishops of novices in
+these days; and it would be much better that, like the early Church, we
+sometimes ran the risk of doing so; for the fact is we have not bishops
+enough--by some hundreds. The idea of overseership has been practically
+lost sight of, its fulfillment having gradually become physically
+impossible, for want of more bishops. The duty of a bishop is, without
+doubt, to be accessible to the humblest clergymen of his diocese, and to
+desire very earnestly that all of them should be in the habit of
+referring to him in all cases of difficulty; if they do not do this of
+their own accord, it is evidently his duty to visit them, live with them
+sometimes, and join in their ministrations to their flocks, so as to
+know exactly the capacities and habits of life of each; and if any of
+them complained of this or that difficulty with their congregations, the
+bishop should be ready to go down to help them, preach for them, write
+general epistles to their people, and so on: besides this, he should of
+course be watchful of their errors--ready to hear complaints from their
+congregations of inefficiency or aught else; besides having general
+superintendence of all the charitable institutions and schools in his
+diocese, and good knowledge of whatever was going on in theological
+matters, both all over the kingdom and on the Continent. This is the
+work of a right overseer; and I leave the reader to calculate how many
+additional bishops--and those hard-working men, too--we should need
+to have it done, even decently. Then our present bishops might all
+become archbishops with advantage, and have general authority over the
+rest.[148]
+
+207. As to the mode in which the officers of the Church should be
+elected or appointed, I do not feel it my business to say anything at
+present, nor much respecting the extent of their authority, either over
+each other or over the congregation, this being a most difficult
+question, the right solution of which evidently lies between two most
+dangerous extremes--insubordination and radicalism on one hand, and
+ecclesiastical tyranny and heresy on the other: of the two,
+insubordination is far the least to be dreaded--for this reason, that
+nearly all real Christians are more on the watch against their pride
+than their indolence, and would sooner obey their clergyman, if
+possible, than contend with him; while the very pride they suppose
+conquered often returns masked, and causes them to make a merit of their
+humility and their abstract obedience, however unreasonable: but they
+cannot so easily persuade themselves there is a merit in abstract
+_dis_obedience.
+
+208. Ecclesiastical tyranny has, for the most part, founded itself on
+the idea of Vicarianism, one of the most pestilent of the Romanist
+theories, and most plainly denounced in Scripture. Of this I have a word
+or two to say to the modern "Vicarian." All powers that be are
+unquestionably ordained of God; so that they that resist the Power,
+resist the ordinance of God. Therefore, say some in these offices, We,
+being ordained of God, and having our credentials, and being in the
+English Bible called ambassadors for God, do, in a sort, represent God.
+We are Vicars of Christ, and stand on earth in place of Christ. I have
+heard this said by Protestant clergymen.
+
+209. Now the word ambassador has a peculiar ambiguity about it, owing to
+its use in modern political affairs; and these clergymen assume that the
+word, as used by St. Paul, means an Ambassador Plenipotentiary;
+representative of his King, and capable of acting for his King. What
+right have they to assume that St. Paul meant this? St. Paul never uses
+the word ambassador at all. He says, simply, "We are in embassage from
+Christ; and Christ beseeches you through us." Most true. And let it
+further be granted, that every word that the clergyman speaks is
+literally dictated to him by Christ; that he can make no mistake in
+delivering his message; and that, therefore, it is indeed Christ
+Himself who speaks to us the word of life through the messenger's lips.
+Does, therefore, the messenger represent Christ? Does the channel which
+conveys the waters of the Fountain represent the Fountain itself?
+Suppose, when we went to draw water at a cistern, that all at once the
+Leaden Spout should become animated, and open its mouth and say to us,
+See, I am Vicarious for the Fountain. Whatever respect you show to the
+Fountain, show some part of it to me. Should we not answer the Spout,
+and say, Spout, you were set there for our service, and may be taken
+away and thrown aside[149] if anything goes wrong with you? But the
+Fountain will flow forever.
+
+210. Observe, I do not deny a most solemn authority vested in every
+Christian messenger from God to men. I am prepared to grant this to the
+uttermost; and all that George Herbert says, in the end of "The
+Church-porch," I would enforce, at another time than this, to the
+uttermost. But the Authority is simply that of a King's _Messenger_; not
+of a King's _Representative_. There is a wide difference; all the
+difference between humble service and blasphemous usurpation.
+
+Well, the congregation might ask, grant him a King's messenger in cases
+of doctrine,--in cases of discipline, an officer bearing the King's
+Commission. How far are we to obey him? How far is it lawful to dispute
+his commands?
+
+For, in granting, above, that the Messenger always gave his message
+faithfully, I granted too much to my adversaries, in order that their
+argument might have all the weight it possibly could. The Messengers
+rarely deliver their message faithfully; and sometimes have declared, as
+from the King, messages of their own invention. How far are we, knowing
+them for King's messengers, to believe or obey them?
+
+211. Suppose, for instance, in our English army, on the eve of some
+great battle, one of the colonels were to give his order to his
+regiment: "My men, tie your belts over your eyes, throw down your
+muskets, and follow me as steadily as you can, through this marsh, into
+the middle of the enemy's line," (this being precisely the order issued
+by our Puseyite Church officers). It might be questioned, in the real
+battle, whether it would be better that a regiment should show an
+example of insubordination, or be cut to pieces. But happily in the
+Church there is no such difficulty; for the King is always with His
+army: not only with His army, but at the right hand of every soldier of
+it. Therefore, if any of their colonels give them a strange command, all
+they have to do is to ask the King; and never yet any Christian asked
+guidance of his King, in any difficulty whatsoever, without mental
+reservation or secret resolution, but he had it forthwith. We conclude
+then, finally, that the authority of the Clergy is, in matters of
+discipline, large (being executive, first, of the written laws of God,
+and secondly, of those determined and agreed upon by the body of the
+Church), in matters of doctrine, dependent on their recommending
+themselves to every man's conscience, both as messengers of God, and as
+themselves men of God, perfect, and instructed to good works.[150]
+
+212. (6) The last subject which we had to investigate was, it will be
+remembered, what is usually called the connection of "Church and State."
+But, by our definition of the term Church, throughout the whole of
+Christendom, the Church (or society of professing Christians) _is_ the
+State, and our subject is therefore, properly speaking, the connection
+of lay and clerical officers of the Church; that is to say, the degrees
+in which the civil and ecclesiastical governments ought to interfere
+with or influence each other.
+
+It would of course be vain to attempt a formal inquiry into this
+intricate subject;--I have only a few detached points to notice
+respecting it.
+
+213. There are three degrees or kinds of civil government. The first and
+lowest, executive merely; the government in this sense being simply the
+National Hand, and composed of individuals who administer the laws of
+the nation, and execute its established purposes.
+
+The second kind of government is deliberative; but in its deliberation,
+representative only of the thoughts and will of the people or nation,
+and liable to be deposed the instant it ceases to express those thoughts
+and that will. This, whatever its form, whether centered in a king or in
+any number of men, is properly to be called Democratic. The third and
+highest kind of government is deliberative, not as representative of the
+people, but as chosen to take separate counsel for them, and having
+power committed to it, to enforce upon them whatever resolution it may
+adopt, whether consistent with their will or not. This government is
+properly to be called Monarchical, whatever its form.
+
+214. I see that politicians and writers of history continually run into
+hopeless error, because they confuse the Form of a Government with its
+Nature. A Government may be nominally vested in an individual; and yet
+if that individual be in such fear of those beneath him, that he does
+nothing but what he supposes will be agreeable to them, the Government
+is Democratic; on the other hand, the Government may be vested in a
+deliberative assembly of a thousand men, all having equal authority, and
+all chosen from the lowest ranks of the people; and yet if that assembly
+act independently of the will of the people, and have no fear of them,
+and enforce its determinations upon them, the Government is Monarchical;
+that is to say, the Assembly, acting as One, has power over the Many,
+while in the case of the weak king, the Many have power over the One.
+
+A Monarchical Government, acting for its own interest, instead of the
+people's, is a tyranny. I said the Executive Government was the hand of
+the nation:--the Republican Government is in like manner its tongue.
+The Monarchical Government is its head.
+
+All true and right government is Monarchical, and of the head. What is
+its best form, is a totally different question; but unless it act _for_
+the people, and not as representative of the people, it is no government
+at all; and one of the grossest blockheadisms of the English in the
+present day, is their idea of sending men to Parliament to "represent
+_their_ opinions." Whereas their only true business is to find out the
+wisest men among them, and send them to Parliament to represent their
+_own_ opinions, and act upon them. Of all puppet-shows in the Satanic
+Carnival of the earth, the most contemptible puppet-show is a Parliament
+with a mob pulling the strings.
+
+215. Now, of these three states of Government, it is clear that the
+merely executive can have no proper influence over ecclesiastical
+affairs. But of the other two, the first, being the voice of the people,
+or voice of the Church, must have such influence over the Clergy as is
+properly vested in the body of the Church. The second, which stands in
+the same relation to the people as a father does to his family, will
+have such farther influence over ecclesiastical matters, as a father has
+over the consciences of his adult children. No absolute authority,
+therefore, to enforce their attendance at any particular place of
+worship, or subscription to any particular Creed. But indisputable
+authority to procure for them such religious instruction as he deems
+fittest,[151] and to recommend it to them by every means in his power;
+he not only has authority, but is under obligation to do this, as well
+as to establish such disciplines and forms of worship in his house as he
+deems most convenient for his family: with which they are indeed at
+liberty to refuse compliance, if such disciplines appear to them clearly
+opposed to the law of God; but not without most solemn conviction of
+their being so, nor without deep sorrow to be compelled to such a
+course.
+
+216. But it may be said, the Government of a people never does stand to
+them in the relation of a father to his family. If it do not, it is no
+Government. However grossly it may fail in its duty, and however little
+it may be fitted for its place, if it be a Government at all, it has
+paternal office and relation to the people. I find it written on the one
+hand,--"Honor thy Father; "on the other,--"Honor the King:" on the one
+hand,--"Whoso smiteth his Father, shall be put to death;"[152] on the
+other,--"They that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." Well,
+but, it may be farther argued, the Clergy are in a still more solemn
+sense the Fathers of the People, and the People are their beloved Sons;
+why should not, therefore, the Clergy have the power to govern the civil
+officers?
+
+217. For two very clear reasons.
+
+In all human institutions certain evils are granted, as of necessity;
+and, in organizing such institutions, we must allow for the consequences
+of such evils, and make arrangements such as may best keep them in
+check. Now, in both the civil and ecclesiastical governments there will
+of necessity be a certain number of bad men. The wicked civilian has
+comparatively little interest in overthrowing ecclesiastical authority;
+it is often a useful help to him, and presents in itself little which
+seems covetable. But the wicked ecclesiastical officer has much interest
+in overthrowing the civilian, and getting the political power into his
+own hands. As far as wicked men are concerned, therefore, it is better
+that the State should have power over the Clergy, than the Clergy over
+the State.
+
+Secondly, supposing both the Civil and Ecclesiastical officers to be
+Christians; there is no fear that the civil officer should underrate the
+dignity or shorten the serviceableness of the minister; but there is
+considerable danger that the religious enthusiasm of the minister might
+diminish the serviceableness of the civilian. (The History of Religious
+Enthusiasm should be written by someone who had a life to give to its
+investigation; it is one of the most melancholy pages in human records,
+and one of the most necessary to be studied.) Therefore, as far as good
+men are concerned, it is better the State should have power over the
+Clergy than the Clergy over the State.
+
+218. This we might, it seems to me, conclude by unassisted reason. But
+surely the whole question is, without any need of human reason, decided
+by the history of Israel. If ever a body of Clergy should have received
+independent authority, the Levitical Priesthood should; for they were
+indeed a Priesthood, and more holy than the rest of the nation. But
+Aaron is always subject to Moses. All solemn revelation is made to
+Moses, the civil magistrate, and he actually commands Aaron as to the
+fulfillment of his priestly office, and that in a necessity of life and
+death: "Go, and make an atonement for the people." Nor is anything more
+remarkable throughout the whole of the Jewish history than the perfect
+subjection of the Priestly to the Kingly Authority. Thus Solomon thrusts
+out Abiathar from being priest, I Kings ii. 27; and Jehoahaz administers
+the funds of the Lord's House, 2 Kings xii. 4, though that money was
+actually the Atonement Money, the Hansom for Souls (Exod. xxx. 12).
+
+219. We have, however, also the beautiful instance of Samuel uniting in
+himself the offices of Priest, Prophet, and Judge; nor do I insist on
+any special manner of subjection of Clergy to civil officers, or _vice
+versâ_; but only on the necessity of their perfect unity and influence
+upon each other in every Christian kingdom. Those who endeavor to effect
+the utter separation of ecclesiastical and civil officers, are striving,
+on the one hand, to expose the Clergy to the most grievous and most
+subtle of temptations from their own spiritual enthusiasm and spiritual
+pride; on the other, to deprive the civil officer of all sense of
+religious responsibility, and to introduce the fearful, godless,
+conscienceless, and soulless policy of the Radical and the (so-called)
+Socialist. Whereas, the ideal of all government is the perfect unity of
+the two bodies of officers, each supporting and correcting the other;
+the Clergy having due weight in all the national councils; the civil
+officers having a solemn reverence for God in all their acts; the Clergy
+hallowing all worldly policy by their influence; and the magistracy
+repressing all religious enthusiasm by their practical wisdom. To
+separate the two is to endeavor to separate the daily life of the nation
+from God, and to map out the dominion of the soul into two
+provinces--one of Atheism, the other of Enthusiasm. These, then, were
+the reasons which caused me to speak of the idea of separation of Church
+and State as Fatuity; for what Fatuity can be so great as the not having
+God in our thoughts; and, in any act or office of life, saying in our
+hearts, "There is no God"?
+
+220. Much more I would fain say of these things, but not now: this only
+I must emphatically assert, in conclusion:--That the schism between the
+so-called Evangelical and High Church Parties in Britain, is enough to
+shake many men's faith in the truth or existence of Religion at all. It
+seems to me one of the most disgraceful scenes in Ecclesiastical
+history, that Protestantism should be paralyzed at its very heart by
+jealousies, based on little else than mere difference between high and
+low breeding. For the essential differences in the religious opinions of
+the two parties are sufficiently marked in two men whom we may take as
+the highest representatives of each--George Herbert and John Milton; and
+I do not think there would have been much difficulty in atoning those
+two, if one could have got them together. But the real difficulty,
+nowadays, lies in the sin and folly of both parties; in the
+superciliousness of the one, and the rudeness of the other. Evidently,
+however, the sin lies most at the High Church door, for the Evangelicals
+are much more ready to act with Churchmen than they with the
+Evangelicals; and I believe that this state of things cannot continue
+much longer; and that if the Church of England does not forthwith unite
+with herself the entire Evangelical body, both of England and Scotland,
+and take her stand with them against the Papacy, her hour has struck.
+She cannot any longer serve two masters; nor make courtesies alternately
+to Christ and Antichrist. That she _has_ done this is visible enough by
+the state of Europe at this instant. Three centuries since Luther--three
+hundred years of Protestant knowledge--and the Papacy not yet
+overthrown! Christ's truth still restrained, in narrow dawn, to the
+white cliffs of England and white crests of the Alps;--the morning star
+paused in its course in heaven;--the sun and moon stayed, with Satan
+for their Joshua.
+
+221. But how to unite the two great sects of paralyzed Protestants? By
+keeping simply to Scripture. The members of the Scottish Church have not
+a shadow of excuse for refusing Episcopacy; it has indeed been abused
+among them, grievously abused; but it is in the Bible; and that is all
+they have a right to ask.
+
+They have also no shadow of excuse for refusing to employ a written form
+of prayer. It may not be to their taste--it may not be the way in which
+they like to pray; but it is no question, at present, of likes or
+dislikes, but of duties; and the acceptance of such a form on their part
+would go half-way to reconcile them with their brethren. Let them allege
+such objections as they can reasonably advance against the English form,
+and let these be carefully and humbly weighed by the pastors of both
+churches: some of them ought to be at once forestalled. For the English
+Church, on the other hand, _must_ cut the term Priest entirely out of
+her Prayer-book, and substitute for it that of Minister or Elder; the
+passages respecting Absolution must be thrown out also, except the
+doubtful one in the Morning Service, in which there is no harm; and then
+there would be only the Baptismal question left, which is one of words
+rather than of things, and might easily be settled in Synod, turning the
+refractory Clergy out of their offices, to go to Rome if they chose.
+Then, when the Articles of Faith and form of worship had been agreed
+upon between the English and Scottish Churches, the written forms and
+articles should be carefully translated into the European languages, and
+offered to the acceptance of the Protestant churches on the Continent,
+with earnest entreaty that they would receive them, and due
+entertainment of all such objections as they could reasonably allege;
+and thus the whole body of Protestants, united in one great Fold, would
+indeed go in and out, and find pasture; and the work appointed for them
+would be done quickly, and Antichrist overthrown.
+
+222. Impossible: a thousand times impossible!--I hear it exclaimed
+against me. No--not impossible. Christ does not order impossibilities,
+and He _has_ ordered us to be at peace one with another. Nay, it is
+answered--He came not to send peace, but a sword. Yes, verily: to send a
+sword upon earth, but not within His Church; for to His Church He said,
+"My Peace I leave with you."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 140: I may, perhaps, have missed count of one or two
+occurrences of the word; but not, I think, in any important passages.]
+
+[Footnote 141: The expression "House of God," in 1 Tim. iii. 15, is
+shown to be used of the congregation by 1 Cor. iii. 16, 17.
+
+I have not noticed the word [Greek: kyriakê (oikia)] from which the
+German "Kirche," the English "Church," and the Scotch "Kirk" are
+derived, as it is not used with that signification in the New
+Testament.]
+
+[Footnote 142: Any reference _except_ to Scripture, in notes of this
+kind would, of course, be useless: the argument from, or with, the
+Fathers is not to be compressed into fifty pages. I have something to
+say about Hooker; but I reserve that for another time, not wishing to
+say it hastily, or to leave it without support.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Acts x. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 144: Let not the reader be displeased with me for these short
+and apparently insolent statements of opinion. I am not writing
+insolently, but as shortly and clearly as I can; and when I seriously
+believe a thing, I say so in a few words, leaving the reader to
+determine what my belief is worth. But I do not choose to temper down
+every expression of personal opinion into courteous generalities, and so
+lose space, and time, and intelligibility at once. We are utterly
+oppressed in these days by our courtesies, and considerations, and
+compliances, and proprieties. Forgive me them, this once, or rather let
+us all forgive them to each other, and learn to speak plainly first,
+and, if it may be, gracefully afterwards; and not only to speak, but to
+stand by what we have spoken. One of my Oxford friends heard, the other
+day, that I was employed on these notes, and forthwith wrote to me, in a
+panic, not to put my name to them, for fear I should "compromise
+myself." I think we are most of us compromised to some extent already,
+when England has sent a Roman Catholic minister to the second city in
+Italy, and remains herself for a week without any government, because
+her chief men cannot agree upon the position which a Popish cardinal is
+to have leave to occupy in London.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Matt. xxiv. 4; Mark xiii. 5; Luke xxi. 8; 1 Cor. iii. 18,
+vi. 9, xv. 33; Eph. iv. 14, v. 6; Col. ii. 8; 2 Thess. ii. 3; Heb. iii.
+13; 1 John i. 8, iii. 7; 2 John 7, 8.]
+
+[Footnote 146: [Greek: exousia] in 1 Cor. ix. 12. 2 Thess, iii. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 147: (Carlyle, "Past and Present," chapter xi.) Can anything
+be more striking than the repeated warnings of St. Paul against strife
+of words; and his distinct setting forth of Action as the only true
+means of attaining knowledge of the truth, and the only sign of men's
+possessing the true faith? Compare 1 Timothy vi. 4, 20, (the latter
+verse especially, in connection with the previous three,) and 2 Timothy
+ii. 14, 19, 22, 23, tracing the connection here also; add Titus i. 10,
+14, 16, noting "_in works_ they deny him," and Titus iii. 8, 9, "affirm
+constantly that they be careful to maintain good works; but avoid
+foolish questions;" and finally, 1 Timothy i. 4-7: a passage which seems
+to have been especially written for these times.]
+
+[Footnote 148: I leave, in the main text, the abstract question of the
+fitness of Episcopacy unapproached, not feeling any call to speak of it
+at length at present; all that I feel necessary to be said is, that
+bishops being granted, it is clear that we have too few to do their
+work. But the argument from the practice of the Primitive Church appears
+to me to be of enormous weight,--nor have I ever heard any rational
+plea alleged against Episcopacy, except that, like other things, it is
+capable of abuse, and has sometimes been abused; and as, altogether
+clearly and indisputably, there is described in the Bible an episcopal
+office, distinct from the merely ministerial one; and, apparently, also
+an episcopal officer attached to each church, and distinguished in the
+Revelation as an Angel, I hold the resistance of the Scotch Presbyterian
+Church to Episcopacy to be unscriptural, futile, and schismatic.]
+
+[Footnote 149: "By just judgment be deposed," Art. 26.]
+
+[Footnote 150: The difference between the authority of doctrine and
+discipline is beautifully marked in 2 Timothy ii. 25, and Titus ii.
+12-15. In the first passage, the servant of God, teaching divine
+doctrine, must not strive, but must "in _meekness_ instruct those that
+oppose themselves;" in the second passage, teaching us "that denying
+ungodliness and worldly lusts he _is to live soberly, righteously, and
+godly_ in this _present world_," the minister is to speak, exhort, and
+rebuke with ALL AUTHORITY--both functions being expressed as united in 2
+Timothy iv. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 151: Observe, this and the following conclusions depend
+entirely on the supposition that the Government is part of the Body of
+the Church, and that some pains have been taken to compose it of
+religious and wise men. If we choose, knowingly and deliberately, to
+compose our Parliament, in great part, of infidels and Papists, gamblers
+and debtors, we may well regret its power over the Clerical officer; but
+that we should, at any time, so compose our Parliament, is a sign that
+the Clergy themselves have failed in their duty, and the Church in its
+watchfulness;--thus the evil accumulates in reaction. Whatever I say of
+the responsibility or authority of Government, is therefore to be
+understood only as sequent on what I have said previously of the
+necessity of closely circumscribing the Church, and then composing the
+Civil Government out of the circumscribed Body. Thus, all Papists would
+at once be rendered incapable of share in it being subjected to the
+second or most severe degree of excommunication--first, as idolaters, by
+1 Cor. v. 10; then as covetous and extortioners (selling absolution,) by
+the same text; and, finally, as heretics and maintainers of falsehoods,
+by Titus iii. 10, and 1 Tim. iv. 1.
+
+I do not write this hastily, nor without earnest consideration both, of
+the difficulty and the consequences of such Church Discipline. But
+either the Bible is a superannuated book, and is only to be read as a
+record of past days; or these things follow from it, clearly and
+inevitably. That we live in days when the Bible has become
+impracticable, is (if it be so) the very thing I desire to be
+considered. I am not setting down these plans or schemes as at present
+possible. I do not know how far they are possible; but it seems to me
+that God has plainly commanded them, and that, therefore, their
+impracticability is a thing to be meditated on.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Exod. xxi. 15.]
+
+
+
+
+THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.[153]
+
+LETTERS.
+
+
+I.[154]
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, LANCASHIRE,
+  _20th June, 1879._
+
+223. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I could not at once answer your
+important letter; for, though I felt at once the impossibility of my
+venturing to address such an audience as you proposed, I am unwilling to
+fail in answering to any call relating to matters respecting which my
+feelings have been long in earnest, if in any wise it may be possible
+for me to be of service therein. My health--or want of it--now utterly
+forbids my engagement in any duty involving excitement or acute
+intellectual effort; but I think, before the first Tuesday in August, I
+might be able to write one or two letters to yourself, referring to,
+and more or less completing, some passages already printed in _Fors_ and
+elsewhere, which might, on your reading any portions you thought
+available, become matter of discussion during the meeting at some
+leisure time, after its own main purposes had been answered.
+
+At all events, I will think over what I should like, and be able, to
+represent to such a meeting, and only beg you not to think me insensible
+of the honor done me by your wish, and of the gravity of the trust
+reposed in me.
+
+  Ever most faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  THE REV. F. A. MALLESON.
+
+
+II.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, _23rd June, 1879._
+
+224. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Walking, and talking, are now alike
+impossible to me;[155] my strength is gone for both; nor do I believe
+talking on such matters to be of the least use except to promote,
+between sensible people, kindly feeling and knowledge of each other's
+personal characters. I have every trust in _your_ kindness and truth;
+nor do I fear being myself misunderstood by you; what I may be able to
+put into written form, so as to admit of being laid before your friends
+in council, must be set down without any question of personal
+feeling--as simply as a mathematical question or demonstration.
+
+225. The first exact question which it seems to me such an assembly may
+be earnestly called upon by laymen to solve, is surely axiomatic: the
+definition of themselves as a body, and of their business as such.
+
+Namely: as clergymen of the Church of England, do they consider
+themselves to be so called merely as the attached servants of a
+particular state? Do they, in their quality of guides, hold a position
+similar to that of the guides of Chamouni or Grindelwald, who, being a
+numbered body of examined and trustworthy persons belonging to those
+several villages, have nevertheless no Chamounist or Grindelwaldist
+opinions on the subject of Alpine geography or glacier walking; but are
+prepared to put into practice a common and universal science of Locality
+and Athletics, founded on sure survey and successful practice? Are the
+clergymen of the Ecclesia of England thus simply the attached and
+salaried guides of England and the English, in the way, known of all
+good men, that leadeth unto life?--or are they, on the contrary, a body
+of men holding, or in any legal manner required, or compelled to hold,
+opinions on the subject--say, of the height of the Celestial Mountains,
+the crevasses which go down quickest to the pit, and other cognate
+points of science--differing from, or even contrary to, the tenets of
+the guides of the Church of France, the Church of Italy, and other
+Christian countries?
+
+Is not this the first of all questions which a Clerical Council has to
+answer in open terms?
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+III.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _6th July._
+
+226. My first letter contained a Layman's plea for a clear answer to the
+question, "What is a clergyman of the Church of England?" Supposing the
+answer to this first to be, that the clergy of the Church of England are
+teachers, not of the Gospel to England, but of the Gospel to all
+nations; and not of the Gospel of Luther, nor of the Gospel of
+Augustine, but of the Gospel of Christ,--then the Layman's second
+question would be:
+
+Can this Gospel of Christ be put into such plain words and short terms
+as that a plain man may understand it?--and, if so, would it not be, in
+a quite primal sense, desirable that it should be so, rather than left
+to be gathered out of Thirty-nine Articles, written by no means in
+clear English, and referring, for further explanation of exactly the
+most important point in the whole tenor of their teaching,[156] to a
+"Homily of Justification,"[157] which is not generally in the
+possession, or even probably within the comprehension, of simple
+persons?
+
+  Ever faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+IV.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _8th July._
+
+227. I am so very glad that you approve of the letter plan, as it
+enables me to build up what I would fain try to say, of little stones,
+without lifting too much for my strength at once; and the sense of
+addressing a friend who understands me and sympathizes with me prevents
+my being brought to a stand by continual need for apology, or fear of
+giving offense.
+
+But yet I do not quite see why you should feel my asking for a simple
+and comprehensible statement of the Christian Gospel at starting. Are
+you not bid to go into _all_ the world and preach it to every creature?
+(I should myself think the clergyman most likely to do good who accepted
+the [Greek: pasê thê ktisei] so literally as at least to sympathize with
+St. Francis' sermon to the birds, and to feel that feeding either sheep
+or fowls, or unmuzzling the ox, or keeping the wrens alive in the snow,
+would be received by their Heavenly Feeder as the _perfect_ fulfillment
+of His "Feed my sheep" in the higher sense.)[158]
+
+228. That's all a parenthesis; for although I should think that your
+good company would all agree that kindness to animals was a kind of
+preaching to them, and that hunting and vivisection were a kind of
+blasphemy to them, I want only to put the sterner question before your
+council, _how_ this Gospel is to be preached either [Greek: pantachou]"
+or to "[Greek: panta ta ethnê] if first its preachers have not
+determined quite clearly what it _is_? And might not such definition,
+acceptable to the entire body of the Church of Christ, be arrived at by
+merely explaining, in their completeness and life, the terms of the
+Lord's Prayer--the first words taught to children all over the Christian
+world?
+
+I will try to explain what I mean of its several articles, in following
+letters; and in answer to the question with which you close your last, I
+can only say that you are at perfect liberty to use any, or all, or any
+parts of them, as you think good. Usually, when I am asked if letters of
+mine may be printed, I say: "Assuredly, provided only that you print them
+entire." But in your hands, I withdraw even this condition, and trust
+gladly to your judgment, remaining always
+
+  Faithfully and affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  THE REV. F. A. MALLESON.
+
+
+V.
+
+  [Greek: pater hêmon ho en tois ouranois]
+
+  _Pater noster qui es in cælis._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _10th July._
+
+229. My meaning, in saying that the Lord's Prayer might be made a
+foundation of Gospel-teaching, was not that it contained all that
+Christian ministers have to teach; but that it contains what all
+Christians are agreed upon as first to be taught; and that no good
+parish-working pastor in any district of the world but would be glad to
+take his part in making it clear and living to his congregation.
+
+And the first clause of it, of course rightly explained, gives us the
+ground of what is surely a mighty part of the Gospel--its "first and
+great commandment," namely, that we have a Father whom we _can_ love,
+and are required to love, and to desire to be with Him in Heaven,
+wherever that may be.
+
+And to declare that we have such a loving Father, whose mercy is over
+_all_ His works, and whose will and law is so lovely and lovable that it
+is sweeter than honey, and more precious than gold, to those who can
+"taste" and "see" that the Lord is Good--this, surely, is a most
+pleasant and glorious good message and _spell_ to bring to men--as
+distinguished from the evil message and accursed spell that Satan has
+brought to the nations of the world instead of it, that they have no
+Father, but only "a consuming fire" ready to devour them, unless they
+are delivered from its raging flame by some scheme of pardon for all,
+for which they are to be thankful, not to the Father, but to the Son.
+
+Supposing this first article of the true Gospel agreed to, how would the
+blessing that closes the epistles of that Gospel become intelligible and
+living, instead of dark and dead: "The grace of Christ, and the _love_
+of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost,"--the most _tender_ word
+being that used of the Father?
+
+
+VI.
+
+  [Greek: hagiasthêtô to onoma sou]
+
+  _Sanctificetur nomen tuum._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _12th July, 1879._
+
+230. I wonder how many, even of those who honestly and attentively join
+in our Church services, attach any distinct idea to the second clause of
+the Lord's Prayer, the _first petition_ of it, the first thing that they
+are ordered by Christ to seek of their Father?
+
+Am I unjust in thinking that most of them have little more notion on the
+matter than that God has forbidden "bad language," and wishes them to
+pray that everybody may be respectful to Him?
+
+Is it any otherwise with the Third Commandment? Do not most look on it
+merely in the light of the statute of swearing? and read the words "will
+not hold him guiltless" merely as a passionless intimation that however
+carelessly a man may let out a round oath, there really _is_ something
+wrong in it?
+
+On the other hand, can anything be more tremendous than the words
+themselves--double-negatived:
+
+  [Greek: "ou gar mê katharisê ... kurios"]
+
+For _other_ sins there is washing;--for this, none! the seventh verse,
+Ex. xx., in the Septuagint, marking the real power rather than the
+English, which (I suppose) is literal to the Hebrew.
+
+To my layman's mind, of practical needs in the present state of the
+Church, nothing is so immediate as that of explaining to the
+congregation the meaning of being gathered in His name, and having Him
+in the midst of them; as, on the other hand, of being gathered in
+blasphemy of His name, and having the devil in the midst of
+them--presiding over the prayers which have become an abomination.
+
+231. For the entire body of the texts in the Gospel against hypocrisy
+are one and all nothing but the expansion of the threatening that closes
+the Third Commandment. For as "the name whereby He shall be called is
+THE LORD OUR RIGHTEOUSNESS,"--so the taking that name in vain
+is the sum of "the deceivableness of _un_righteousness in them that
+perish."
+
+Without dwelling on the possibility--which I do not myself, however, for
+a moment doubt--of an honest clergyman's being able actually to prevent
+the entrance among his congregation of persons leading openly wicked
+lives, could any subject be more vital to the purposes of your meetings
+than the difference between the present and the probable state of the
+Christian Church which would result, were it more the effort of zealous
+parish priests, instead of getting wicked _poor_ people to _come_ to
+church, to get wicked rich ones to stay out of it?
+
+Lest, in any discussion of such question, it might be, as it too often
+is, alleged that "the Lord looketh upon the heart," etc., let me be
+permitted to say--with as much positiveness as may express my deepest
+conviction--that, while indeed it is the Lord's business to look upon
+the heart, it is the pastor's to look upon the hands and the lips; and
+that the foulest oaths of the thief and the street-walker are, in the
+ears of God, sinless as the hawk's cry, or the gnat's murmur, compared
+to the responses in the Church service, on the lips of the usurer and
+the adulterer, who have destroyed, not their own souls only, but those
+of the outcast ones whom they have made their victims.
+
+It is for the meeting of clergymen themselves--not for a layman
+addressing them--to ask further, how much the name of God may be taken
+in vain, and profaned instead of hallowed--_in_ the pulpit, as well as
+under it.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+VII
+
+  [Greek: elthetô ê basilheia sou]
+
+  _Adveniat regnum tuum._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _14th July, 1879._
+
+232. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Sincere thanks for both your letters
+and the proofs[159] sent. Your comment and conducting link, when needed,
+will be of the greatest help and value, I am well assured, suggesting
+what you know will be the probable feeling of your hearers, and the
+point that will come into question.
+
+Yes, certainly, that "His" in the fourth line was meant to imply that
+eternal presence of Christ; as in another passage,[160] referring to
+the Creation, "when His right hand strewed the snow on Lebanon, and
+smoothed the slopes of Calvary," but in so far as we dwell on that
+truth, "Hast thou seen _Me_, Philip, and not the Father?"[161] we are
+not teaching the people what is specially the Gospel of _Christ_ as
+having a distinct function--namely, to _serve_ the Father, and do the
+Father's will. And in all His human relations to us, and commands to us,
+it is as the Son of Man, not as the "power of God and wisdom of God,"
+that He acts and speaks. Not as the Power; for _He_ must pray, like one
+of us. Not as the Wisdom; for He must not know "if it be possible" His
+prayer should be heard.
+
+233. And in what I want to say of the third clause of His prayer (_His_,
+not merely as His ordering, but His using), it is especially this
+comparison between _His_ kingdom, and His Father's, that I want to see
+the disciples guarded against. I believe very few, even of the most
+earnest, using that petition, realize that it is the Father's--not the
+Son's--kingdom, that they pray may come,--although the whole prayer is
+foundational on that fact: "_For_ Thine is the kingdom, the power, and
+the glory." And I fancy that the mind of the most faithful Christian is
+quite led away from its proper hope, by dwelling on the reign--or the
+coming again--of Christ; which, indeed, they are to look for, and
+_watch_ for, but not to pray for. Their prayer is to be for the greater
+kingdom to which He, risen and having all His enemies under His feet, is
+to surrender _His_, "that God may be All in All."
+
+And, though the greatest, it is that everlasting kingdom which the
+poorest of us can advance. We cannot hasten Christ's coming. "Of the day
+and hour, knoweth none." But the kingdom of God is as a grain of mustard
+seed:--we can sow of it; it is as a foam-globe of leaven:--we can mingle
+it; and its glory and its joy are that even the birds of the air can
+lodge in the branches thereof.
+
+Forgive me for getting back to my sparrows; but truly, in the present
+state of England, the fowls of the air are the only creatures, tormented
+and murdered as they are, that yet have here and there nests, and peace,
+and joy in the Holy Ghost. And it would be well if many of us, in
+reading that text, "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink," had even
+got so far as to the understanding that it was at least _as much_, and
+that until we had fed the hungry, there was no power in us to inspire
+the unhappy.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+I will write my feeling about the pieces of the Life of Christ you have
+sent me, in a private letter. I may say at once that I am sure it will
+do much good, and will be upright and intelligible, which how few
+religious writings are!
+
+
+VIII.
+
+  [Greek: genêthêtô to thelêma sou hôs en ouranô, kaì epì gês.]
+
+  _Fiat voluntas tua sicut in caelo et in terra._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _9th August, 1879._
+
+234. I was reading the second chapter of Malachi this morning by chance,
+and wondering how many clergymen ever read it, and took to heart the
+"commandment for _them_."
+
+For they are always ready enough to call themselves priests (though they
+know themselves to be nothing of the sort) whenever there is any dignity
+to be got out of the title; but, whenever there is any good, hot
+scolding or unpleasant advice given them by the prophets, in that
+self-assumed character of theirs, they are as ready to quit it as ever
+Dionysus his lion-skin, when he finds the character of Herakles
+inconvenient. "Ye have wearied the Lord with your words" (yes, and some
+of His people, too, in your time): "yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied
+Him? When ye say, Everyone that doeth evil is good in the sight of the
+Lord, and He delighteth in them; or, Where is the God of judgment?"
+
+How many, again and again I wonder, of the lively young ecclesiastics
+supplied to the increasing demand of our west-ends of flourishing Cities
+of the Plain, ever consider what sort of sin it is for which God (unless
+they lay it to heart) will "curse their blessings, and spread dung upon
+their faces," or have understood, even in the dimmest manner, what part
+_they_ had taken, and were taking, in "corrupting the covenant of the
+Lord with Levi, and causing many to stumble at the Law"?
+
+235. Perhaps the most subtle and unconscious way which the religious
+teachers upon whom the ends of the world are come, have done this, is in
+never telling their people the meaning of the clause in the Lord's
+Prayer, which, of all others, their most earnest hearers have oftenest
+on their lips: "Thy will be done." They allow their people to use it as
+if their Father's will were always to kill their babies, or do
+something unpleasant to them, instead of explaining to them that the
+first and intensest article of their Father's will was their own
+sanctification, and following comfort and wealth; and that the one only
+path to national prosperity and to domestic peace was to understand what
+the will of the Lord was, and to do all they could to get it done.
+Whereas one would think, by the tone of the eagerest preachers nowadays,
+that they held their blessed office to be that, not of showing men how
+to do their Father's will on earth, but how to get to heaven without
+doing any of it either here or there!
+
+236. I say, especially, the most eager preachers; for nearly the whole
+Missionary body (with the hottest Evangelistic sect of the English
+Church) is at this moment composed of men who think the Gospel they are
+to carry to mend the world with, forsooth, is that, "If any man sin, he
+hath an Advocate with the Father;" while I have never yet, in my own
+experience, met either with a Missionary or a Town Bishop who so much as
+professed himself "to understand what the will of the Lord" was, far
+less to teach anybody else to do it; and for fifty preachers, yes, and
+fifty hundreds whom I have heard proclaiming the Mediator of the New
+Testament, that "they which were called might receive the promise of
+eternal inheritance," I have never yet heard so much as _one_ heartily
+proclaiming against all those "deceivers with vain words" (Eph. v. 6),
+that "no covetous person which is an idolater hath _any_ inheritance in
+the kingdom of Christ, or of God;" and on myself personally and publicly
+challenging the Bishops of England generally, and by name the Bishop of
+Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was not, according to the will
+of God, I have received no answer from any one of them.[162]
+
+  _13th August._
+
+237. I have allowed myself, in the beginning of this letter, to dwell on
+the equivocal use of the word "Priest" in the English Church (see
+Christopher Harvey, Grosart's edition, p. 38), because the assumption of
+the mediatorial, in defect of the pastoral, office by the clergy fulfill
+itself, naturally and always, in their pretending to absolve the sinner
+from his punishment, instead of purging him from his sin; and
+practically, in their general patronage and encouragement of all the
+iniquity of the world, by steadily preaching away the penalties of it.
+So that the great cities of the earth, which ought to be the places set
+on its hills, with the temple of the Lord in the midst of them, to which
+the tribes should go up,[163]--centers to the Kingdoms and Provinces of
+Honor, Virtue, and the Knowledge of the law of God,--have become,
+instead, loathsome centers of fornication and covetousness--the smoke of
+their sin going up into the face of Heaven like the furnace of Sodom,
+and the pollution of it rotting and raging through the bones and the
+souls of the peasant people round them, as if they were each a volcano
+whose ashes broke out in blains upon man and upon beast.[164]
+
+And in the midst of them, their freshly-set-tip steeples ring the crowd
+to a weekly prayer that the rest of their lives may be pure and holy,
+while they have not the slightest intention of purifying, sanctifying,
+or changing their lives in any the smallest particular; and their clergy
+gather, each into himself, the curious dual power, and Janus-faced
+majesty in mischief, of the prophet that prophesies falsely, and the
+priest that bears rule by his means.
+
+And the people love to have it so.
+
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _12th August._
+
+I am very glad of your little note from Brighton. I thought it needless
+to send the two letters there, which you will find at home; and they
+pretty nearly end all _I_ want to say; for the remaining clauses of the
+prayer touch on things too high for me. But I will send you one
+concluding letter about them.
+
+
+IX.
+
+  [Greek: ton arton êmôn ton epiousion dos hêmin sêmeron.]
+
+  _Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _19th August._
+
+238. I retained the foregoing letter by me till now, lest you should
+think it written in any haste or petulance; but it is every word of it
+deliberate, though expressing the bitterness of twenty years of vain
+sorrow and pleading concerning these things. Nor am I able to write,
+otherwise, anything of the next following clause of the prayer;--for no
+words could be burning enough to tell the evils which have come on the
+world from men's using it thoughtlessly and blasphemously, praying God
+to give them what they are deliberately resolved to steal. For all true
+Christianity is known--as its Master was--in breaking of bread, and all
+false Christianity in stealing it.
+
+Let the clergyman only apply--with impartial and level sweep--to his
+congregation the great pastoral order: "The man that will not work,
+neither should he eat;" and be resolute in requiring each member of his
+flock to tell him _what_--day by day--they do to earn their
+dinners;--and he will find an entirely new view of life and its
+sacraments open upon him and them.
+
+239. For the man who is not--day by day--doing work which will earn his
+dinner, must be stealing his dinner;[165] and the actual fact is that
+the great mass of men, calling themselves Christians, do actually live
+by robbing the poor of their bread, and by no other trade whatsoever:
+and the simple examination of the mode of the produce and consumption of
+European food--who digs for it, and who eats it--will prove that to any
+honest human soul.
+
+Nor is it possible for any Christian Church to exist but in pollutions
+and hypocrisies beyond all words, until the virtues of a life moderate
+in its self-indulgence, and wide in its offices of temporal ministry to
+the poor, are insisted on as the normal conditions in which, only, the
+prayer to God for the harvest of the earth is other than blasphemy.
+
+In the second place. Since in the parable in Luke, the bread asked for
+is shown to be also, and chiefly, the Holy Spirit (Luke xi. 13), and the
+prayer, "Give us each day our daily bread," is, in its fullness, the
+disciples', "Lord, evermore give us _this_ bread,"--the clergyman's
+question to his whole flock, primarily literal: "Children, have ye here
+any meat?" must ultimately be always the greater spiritual one:
+"Children, have ye here any Holy Spirit?" or, "Have ye not heard yet
+whether there _be_ any? and, instead of a Holy Ghost the Lord and Giver
+of Life, do you only believe in an unholy mammon, Lord and Giver of
+Death?"
+
+The opposition between the two Lords has been, and will be as long as
+the world lasts, absolute, irreconcilable, mortal; and the clergyman's
+first message to his people of this day is--if he be faithful--"Choose
+ye this day whom ye will serve."
+
+  Ever faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+X.
+
+  [Greek: kai aphes hêmin ta opheilêmata hêmôn, ôs kai hêmeis aphiemen
+  tois opheiletais hêmôn.]
+
+  _Et dimitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus
+  nostris._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _3rd September._
+
+240. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I have been very long before trying to
+say so much as a word about the sixth clause of the Pater; for whenever
+I began thinking of it, I was stopped by the sorrowful sense of the
+hopeless task you poor clergymen had, nowadays, in recommending and
+teaching people to love their enemies, when their whole energies were
+already devoted to swindling their friends.
+
+But, in any days, past or now, the clause is one of such difficulty,
+that, to understand it, means almost to know the love of God which
+passeth knowledge.
+
+But, at all events, it is surely the pastor's duty to prevent his flock
+from _mis_understanding it; and above all things to keep them from
+supposing that God's forgiveness is to be had simply for the asking, by
+those who "willfully sin after they have received the knowledge of the
+truth."
+
+241. There is one very simple lesson also, needed especially by people
+in circumstances of happy life, which I have never heard fully enforced
+from the pulpit, and which is usually the more lost sight of, because
+the fine and inaccurate word "trespasses" is so often used instead of
+the single and accurate one "debts." Among people well educated and
+happily circumstanced it may easily chance that long periods of their
+lives pass without any such conscious sin as could, on any discovery or
+memory of it, make them cry out, in truth and in pain,--"I have sinned
+against the Lord." But scarcely an hour of their happy days can pass
+over them without leaving--were their hearts open--some evidence written
+there that they have "left undone the things that they ought to have
+done," and giving them bitterer and heavier cause to cry, and cry
+again--forever, in the pure words of their Master's prayer, "Dimitte
+nobis _debita_ nostra."
+
+In connection with the more accurate translation of "debts" rather than
+"trespasses,"[166] it would surely be well to keep constantly in the
+mind of complacent and inoffensive congregations that in Christ's own
+prophecy of the manner of the last judgment, the condemnation is
+pronounced only on the sins of omission: "I was hungry, and ye gave Me
+no meat."
+
+242. But, whatever the manner of sin, by offense or defect, which the
+preacher fears in his people, surely he has of late been wholly remiss
+in compelling their definite recognition of it, in its several and
+personal particulars. Nothing in the various inconsistency of human
+nature is more grotesque than its willingness to be taxed with any
+quantity of sins in the gross, and its resentment at the insinuation of
+having committed the smallest parcel of them in detail. And the English
+Liturgy, evidently drawn up with the amiable intention of making
+religion as pleasant as possible, to a people desirous of saving their
+souls with no great degree of personal inconvenience, is perhaps in no
+point more unwholesomely lenient than in its concession to the popular
+conviction that we may obtain the present advantage, and escape the
+future punishment, of any sort of iniquity, by dexterously concealing
+the manner of it from man, and triumphantly confessing the quantity of
+it to God.
+
+243. Finally, whatever the advantages and decencies of a form of prayer,
+and how wide soever the scope given to its collected passages, it cannot
+be at one and the same time fitted for the use of a body of well-taught
+and experienced Christians, such as should join the services of a Church
+nineteen centuries old,--and adapted to the needs of the timid sinner
+who has that day first entered its porch, or of the remorseful publican
+who has only recently become sensible of his call to a pew.
+
+And surely our clergy need not be surprised at the daily increasing
+distrust in the public mind of the efficacy of Prayer, after having so
+long insisted on their offering supplication, _at least_ every Sunday
+morning at eleven o'clock, that the rest of their lives hereafter might
+be pure and holy, leaving them conscious all the while that they would
+be similarly required to inform the Lord next week, at the same hour,
+that "there was no health in them!"
+
+Among, the much-rebuked follies and abuses of so-called "Ritualism,"
+none that I have heard of are indeed so dangerously and darkly "Ritual"
+as this piece of authorized mockery of the most solemn act of human
+life, and only entrance of eternal life--Repentance.
+
+Believe me, dear Mr. Malleson,
+
+  Ever faithfully and respectfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+XI.
+
+[Greek: kai mê eisenenkês hêmas eis peirasmon, alla rhysai hêmas apo tou
+ponêrou; hoti sou estin hê basileia, kai hê dynamis, kai hê doxa, eis
+tous aiônas. Amên.]
+
+_Et ne nos inducas in tentationem; sed libera nos a malo; quia tuum est
+regnum, potentia, et gloria in sceeula sceculorum. Amen._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _14th September, 1879._
+
+244. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--The gentle words in your last letter
+referring to the difference between yourself and me in the degree of
+hope with which you could regard what could not but appear to the
+general mind Utopian in designs for the action of the Christian Church,
+surely might best be answered by appeal to the consistent tone of the
+prayer we have been examining.
+
+Is not every one of its petitions for a perfect state? and is not this
+last clause of it, of which we are to think to-day--if fully
+understood--a petition not only for the restoration of Paradise, but of
+Paradise in which there shall be no deadly fruit, or, at least, no
+tempter to praise it? And may we not admit that it is probably only for
+want of the earnest use of this last petition that not only the
+preceding ones have become formal with us, but that the private and
+simply restricted prayer for the little things we each severally desire,
+has become by some Christians dreaded and unused, and by others used
+faithlessly, and therefore with disappointment?
+
+245. And is it not for want of this special directness and simplicity of
+petition, and of the sense of its acceptance, that the whole nature of
+prayer has been doubted in our hearts, and disgraced by our lips; that
+we are afraid to ask God's blessing on the earth, when the scientific
+people tell us He has made previous arrangements to curse it; and that,
+instead of obeying, without fear or debate, the plain order, "Ask, and
+ye shall receive, that your joy may be full," we sorrowfully sink back
+into the apology for prayer, that "it is a wholesome exercise, even when
+fruitless," and that we ought piously always to suppose that the text
+really means no more than "Ask, and ye shall _not_ receive, that your
+joy may be _empty_"?
+
+Supposing we were first all of us quite sure that we _had_ prayed,
+honestly, the prayer against temptation, and that we would thankfully be
+refused anything we had set our hearts upon, if indeed God saw that it
+would lead us into evil, might we not have confidence afterwards that He
+in whose hand the king's heart is, as the rivers of water, would turn
+our tiny little hearts also in the way that they should go, and that
+_then_ the special prayer for the joys He taught them to seek would be
+answered to the last syllable, and to overflowing?
+
+246. It is surely scarcely necessary to say, farther, what the holy
+teachers of all nations have invariably concurred in showing,--that
+faithful prayer implies always correlative exertion; and that no man can
+ask honestly or hopefully to be delivered from temptation, unless he has
+himself honestly and firmly determined to do the best he can to keep out
+of it. But, in modern days, the first aim of all Christian parents is to
+place their children in circumstances where the temptations (which they
+are apt to call "opportunities") may be as great and as many as
+possible; where the sight and promise of "all these things" in Satan's
+gift may be brilliantly near; and where the act of "falling down to
+worship me" may be partly concealed by the shelter, and partly excused,
+as involuntary, by the pressure, of the concurrent crowd.
+
+In what respect the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of _them_,
+differ from the Kingdom, the Power, and the Glory, which are God's
+forever, is seldom, as far as I have heard, intelligibly explained from
+the pulpit; and still less the irreconcilable hostility between the two
+royalties and realms asserted in its sternness of decision.
+
+Whether it be, indeed, Utopian to believe that the kingdom we are taught
+to pray for _may_ come--verily come--for the asking, it is surely not
+for man to judge; but it is at least at his choice to resolve that he
+will no longer render obedience, nor ascribe glory and power, to the
+Devil. If he cannot find strength in himself to advance towards Heaven,
+he may at least say to the power of Hell, "Get thee behind me;" and
+staying himself on the testimony of Him who saith, "Surely I come
+quickly," ratify his happy prayer with the faithful "Amen, even so,
+come, Lord Jesus."
+
+  Ever, my dear friend,
+  Believe me affectionately and gratefully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+NOTE.--The following further letters from Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in "Letters to the Clergy."
+
+  _Sept. 13th._
+
+247. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I am so very grateful for your
+proposal to edit the letters without any further reference to me. I
+think that will be exactly the right way; and I believe I can put you at
+real ease in the doing of it, by explaining, as I can in very few words,
+the kind of _carte blanche_ I should rejoicingly give you.
+
+Interrupted to-day! more to-morrow with, I hope, the last letter.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  _14th Sept._
+
+I've nearly done the last letter, but will keep it till to-morrow,
+rather than finish hurriedly, for the first post. Your nice little note
+has just come; and I can only say that you cannot please me better than
+by acting with perfect freedom in all ways; and that I only want to see,
+or reply to, what you wish me for the matter's sake. And surely there is
+no occasion for any thought or waste of type about _me_ personally,
+except only to express your knowledge of my real desire for the health
+and power of the Church, More than this praise you must not give me; for
+I have learned almost everything, I may say, that I know, by my errors.
+
+  I am affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  _17th Oct._
+
+248. I am thankful to see that the letters read clearly and easily, and
+contain all that was in my mind to get said; and nothing can possibly be
+more right in every way than the printing and binding,[167] nor more
+courteous and firm than your preface.
+
+Yes, there _will_ be a chasm to cross--a _tauriformis
+Aufidus_[168]--greater than Rubicon, and the roar of it for many a year
+has been heard in the distance, through the gathering fog on the earth,
+more loudly.
+
+The River of spiritual Death to this world, and entrance to Purgatory in
+the other, come down to us.
+
+When will the feet of the Priests be dipped in the still brim of the
+water? Jordan overflows his banks already.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+When you have put your large edition, with its correspondence, into
+press, I should like to read the sheets as they are issued; and put
+merely letters of reference to be taken up in a short "Epilogue." But I
+don't want to do or say anything more till you have all in perfect
+readiness for publication. I should merely add my reference letters in
+the margin, and the shortest possible notes at the end.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 153: These letters were written by Mr. Ruskin to the Rev. F.
+A. Malleson, Vicar of Broughton-in-Furness, by whom they were read,
+after a few introductory remarks, before the Furness Clerical Society.
+They originated, as may be gathered from the first of them, in a request
+by Mr. Malleson that Mr. Ruskin would address the society on the
+subject. They have been printed in three forms:--(1) in a small pamphlet
+(October 1879) "for private circulation only," among the members of the
+Furness and one or two other clerical societies; (2) in the
+_Contemporary Review_ of December 1879; (3) in a volume (Strahan & Co.,
+1880) entitled "The Lord's Prayer and the Church," and containing also
+various replies to Mr, Ruskin's letters, and an epilogue by way of
+rejoinder by Mr. Ruskin himself. This volume was edited by Mr. Malleson,
+with whose concurrence Mr. Ruskin's contributions to it are reprinted
+here.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Called Letter II. in the Furness pamphlet,--where a note
+is added to the effect that there was a previous unpublished
+letter.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 155: In answer to the proposal of discussing the subject
+during a mountain walk.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 156: Art, xi.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Homily xi. of the Second Table.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 159: See postscript to this letter.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Referring to the closing sentence of the third paragraph
+of the fifth 'ter, which _seemed_ to express what I felt could not be
+Mr. Ruskin's full meaning, I pointed out to him the following sentence
+in "Modern Painters:"--
+
+"When, in the desert, Jesus was girding Himself for the work of life,
+angels of life came and ministered unto Him; now, in the fair world,
+when He is girding Himself for the work of death, the ministrants come
+to Him from the grave; but from the grave conquered. One from the tomb
+under Abarim, which _His_ own hand had sealed long ago; the other from
+the rest which He had entered without seeing corruption."
+
+On this I made a remark somewhat to the following effect: that I felt
+sure Mr. Ruskin regarded the loving work of the Father and of the Son to
+be _equal_ in the forgiveness of sins and redemption of mankind; that
+what is done by the Father is in reality done also by the Son; and that
+it is by a mere accommodation to human infirmity of understanding that
+the doctrine of the Trinity is revealed to us in language, inadequate
+indeed to convey divine truths, but still the only language possible;
+and I asked whether some such feeling was not present in his mind when
+he used the pronoun "His," in the above passage from "Modern Painters,"
+of the Son, where it would be usually understood of the Father; and as a
+corollary, whether, in the letter, he does not himself fully recognize
+the fact of the redemption of the world by the loving self-sacrifice of
+the Son in entire concurrence with the equally loving will of the
+Father. This, as well as I can recollect, is the origin of the passage
+in the second paragraph in the seventh letter.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 161: The "Letters to the Clergy" adds note: "Yet hast thou not
+known Me, Philip? he that hath seen Me hath seen the Father" (John xiv.
+9).--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 162: _Fors Clavigera_, Letter lxxxii. (See _ante_, §
+148.--ED.)]
+
+[Footnote 163: "Bibliotheca Pastorum," Vol. i. "The Economist of
+Xenophon," Pref., p. xii--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 164: See _ante_, p. 319, § 154; p. 330, § 166.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 165: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 166: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 167: Referring to the first edition, printed for private
+circulation.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 168:
+
+  "Sic tauriformis volvitur Aufidus,
+  Qua regna Dauni praefluit Appuli
+    Quum saevit, horrendamque cultis
+     Diluviem meditatur agris."
+
+    --HOR., _Carm._, iv. 14.]
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, _June 1880._
+
+249. MY DEAR MALLESON,--I have glanced at the proofs you send;
+and _can_ do no more than glance, even if it seemed to me desirable that
+I should do more,--which, after said glance, it does in no wise. Let me
+remind you of what it is absolutely necessary that the readers of the
+book should clearly understand--that I wrote these Letters at your
+request, to be read and discussed at the meeting of a private society of
+clergymen. I declined then to be present at the discussion, and I
+decline still. You afterwards asked leave to print the Letters, to which
+I replied that they were yours, for whatever use you saw good to make of
+them: afterwards your plans expanded, while my own notion remained
+precisely what it had been--that the discussion should have been
+private, and kept within the limits of the society, and that its
+conclusions, if any, should have been announced in a few pages of clear
+print, for the parishioners' exclusive reading.
+
+I am, of course, flattered by the wider course you have obtained for the
+Letters, but am not in the slightest degree interested by the debate
+upon them, nor by any religious debates whatever, undertaken without
+serious conviction that there is a jot wrong in matters as they are, or
+serious resolution to make them a tittle better. Which, so far as I can
+read the minds of your correspondents, appears to me the substantial
+state of them.[169]
+
+250. One thing I cannot pass without protest--the quantity of talk about
+the writer of the Letters. What I am, or am not, is of no moment
+whatever to the matters in hand. I observe with comfort, or at least
+with complacency, that on the strength of a couple of hours' talk, at a
+time when I was thinking chiefly of the weatherings of slate you were
+good enough to show me above Goat's Water, you would have ventured to
+baptize me in the little lake--as not a goat, but a sheep. The best I
+can be sure of, myself, is that I am no wolf, and have never aspired to
+the dignity even of a Dog of the Lord.
+
+You told me, if I remember rightly, that one of the members of the
+original meeting denounced me as an arch-heretic[170]--meaning,
+doubtless, an arch-pagan; for a heretic, or sect-maker, is of all terms
+of reproach the last that can be used of me. And I think he should have
+been answered that it was precisely as an arch-pagan that I ventured to
+request a more intelligible and more unanimous account of the Christian
+Gospel from its preachers.
+
+251. If anything in the Letters offended those of you who hold me a
+brother, surely it had been best to tell me between ourselves, or to
+tell it to the Church, or to let me be Anathema Maranatha in peace,--in
+any case, I must at present so abide, correcting only the mistakes about
+myself which have led to graver ones about the things I wanted to speak
+of.[171]
+
+The most singular one, perhaps, in all the Letters is that of Mr.
+Wanstall's, that I do not attach enough weight to antiquity. I have only
+come upon the sentence to-day (29th May), but my reply to it is partly
+written already, with reference to the wishes of some other of your
+correspondents to know more of my reasons for finding fault with the
+English Liturgy.
+
+252. If people are taught to use the Liturgy rightly and reverently, it
+will bring them all good; and for some thirty years of my life I used to
+read it always through to my servant and myself, if we had no Protestant
+church to go to, in Alpine or Italian villages. One can always tacitly
+pray of it what one wants, and let the rest pass. But, as I have grown
+older, and watched the decline in the Christian faith of all nations, I
+have got more and more suspicious of the effect of this particular form
+of words on the truthfulness of the English mind (now fast becoming a
+salt which has lost his savor, and is fit only to be trodden underfoot
+of men). And during the last ten years, in which my position at Oxford
+has compelled me to examine what authority there was for the code of
+prayer, of which the University is now so ashamed that it no more dares
+compel its youths so much as to hear, much less to utter it, I got
+necessarily into the habit of always looking to the original forms of
+the prayers of the fully developed Christian Church. Nor did I think it
+a mere chance which placed in my own possession a manuscript of the
+perfect Church service of the thirteenth century, written by the monks
+of the Sainte Chapelle for St. Louis; together with one of the same
+date, written in England, probably for the Diocese of Lincoln; adding
+some of the Collects, in which it corresponds with St. Louis's, and the
+Latin hymns so much beloved by Dante, with the appointed music for them.
+
+253. And my wonder has been greater every hour, since I examined closely
+the text of these and other early books, that in any state of declining,
+or captive, energy, the Church of England should have contented itself
+with a service which cast out, from beginning to end, all these
+intensely spiritual and passionate utterances of chanted prayer (the
+whole body, that is to say, of the authentic _Christian_ Psalms), and in
+adopting what it timidly preserved of the Collects, mangled or blunted
+them down to the exact degree which would make them either
+unintelligible or inoffensive--so vague that everybody might use them,
+or so pointless that nobody could be offended by them. For a special
+instance: The prayer for "our bishops and curates, and all congregations
+committed to their charge," is, in the Lincoln Service-book, "for our
+bishop, and all congregations committed to _his_ charge." The change
+from singular to plural seems a slight one. But it suffices to take the
+eyes of the people off their own bishop into infinite space; to change a
+prayer which was intended to be uttered in personal anxiety and
+affection, into one for the general good of the Church, of which nobody
+could judge, and for which nobody would particularly care; and, finally,
+to change a prayer to which the answer, if given, would be visible, into
+one of which nobody could tell whether it were answered or not.
+
+254. In the Collects, the change, though verbally slight, is thus
+tremendous in issue. But in the Litany--word and thought go all wild
+together. The first prayer of the Litany in the Lincoln Service-book is
+for the Pope and all ranks beneath him, implying a very noteworthy piece
+of theology--that the Pope might err in religious matters, and that the
+prayer of the humblest servant of God would be useful to him:--"Ut
+Dompnum Apostolicum, et omnes gradus ecclesie in sancta religione
+conservare digneris." Meaning that whatever errors particular persons
+might, and must, fall into, they prayed God to keep the Pope right, and
+the collective testimony and conduct of the ranks below him. Then
+follows the prayer for their own bishop and _his_ flock--then for the
+king and the princes (chief lords), that they (not all nations) might be
+kept in concord--and then for _our_ bishops and abbots,--the Church of
+England proper; every one of these petitions being direct, limited, and
+personally heartfelt;--and then this lovely one for themselves:--
+
+"Ut obsequium servitutis nostre rationabile facias."--"That Thou wouldst
+make the obedience of our service reasonable" ("which is your reasonable
+service").
+
+This glorious prayer is, I believe, accurately an "early English" one.
+It is not in the St. Louis Litany, nor in a later elaborate French
+fourteenth century one; but I find it softened in an Italian MS. of the
+fifteenth century into "ut nosmet ipsos in tuo sancto servitio
+confortare et conservare digneris,"--"that Thou wouldst deign to keep
+and comfort us ourselves in Thy sacred service" (the comfort, observe,
+being here asked for whether reasonable or not!); and in the best and
+fullest French service-book I have, printed at Rouen in 1520, it
+becomes, "ut congregationes omnium sanctorum in tuo sancto servitio
+conservare digneris;" while victory as well as concord is asked for the
+king and the princes,--thus leading the way to that for our own Queen's
+victory over all her enemies, a prayer which might now be advisedly
+altered into one that she--and in her, the monarchy of England--might
+find more fidelity in their friends.
+
+255. I give one more example of the corruption of our Prayer-Book, with
+reference to the objections taken by some of your correspondents to the
+distinction implied in my Letters between the Persons of the Father and
+the Christ.
+
+The "Memoria de Sancta Trinitate," in the St. Louis service-book, runs
+thus:--
+
+"Omnipotens sempiterne Deus, qui dedisti famulis tuis in confessione
+vere fidei eterne Trinitatis gloriam agnoscere, et in potentia
+majestatis adorare unitatem, quesumus ut ejus fidei firmitate ab omnibus
+semper muniemur adversis. Qui vivis et regnas Deus, per omnia secula
+seculorum. Amen."
+
+"Almighty and everlasting God, who has given to Thy servants, in
+confession of true faith to recognize the glory of the Eternal Trinity,
+and in the power of Majesty to pray to the Unity; we ask that by the
+firmness of that faith we may be always defended from all adverse
+things, who livest and reignest God through all ages. Amen."
+
+256. Turning to our Collect, we find we have first slipped in the word
+"us" before "Thy servants," and by that little insertion have slipped in
+the squire and his jockey, and the public-house landlord--and anyone
+else who may chance to have been coaxed, swept, or threatened into
+Church on Trinity Sunday, and required the entire company of them to
+profess themselves servants of God, and believers in the mystery of the
+Trinity. And we think we have done God a service!
+
+"Grace." Not a word about grace in the original. You don't believe by
+having grace, but by having wit.
+
+"To acknowledge." "Agnosco" is to recognize, not to acknowledge. To
+_see_ that there are three lights in a chandelier is a great deal more
+than to acknowledge that they are there.
+
+"To worship." "Adorare" is to pray to, not to worship. You may worship a
+mere magistrate; but you _pray_ to the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
+
+The last sentence in the English is too horribly mutilated to be dealt
+with in any patience. The meaning of the great old collect is that by
+the shield of that faith we may quench all the fiery darts of the devil.
+The English prayer means, if it means anything, "Please keep us in our
+faith without our taking any trouble; and, besides, please don't let us
+lose our money, nor catch cold."
+
+"Who livest and reignest." Right; but how many of any extant or instant
+congregations understand what the two words mean? That God is a living
+God, not a dead Law; and that He is a reigning God, putting wrong things
+to rights, and that, sooner or later, with a strong hand and a rod of
+iron; and not at all with a soft sponge and warm water, washing
+everybody as clean as a baby every Sunday morning, whatever dirty work
+they may have been about all the week.
+
+257. On which latter supposition your modern Liturgy, in so far as it
+has supplemented instead of corrected the old one, has entirely modeled
+itself,--producing in its first address to the congregation before the
+Almighty precisely the faultfulest and foolishest piece of English
+language that I know in the whole compass of English or American
+literature. In the seventeen lines of it (as printed in my
+old-fashioned, large-print Prayer-Book), there are seven times over two
+words for one idea.
+
+  1. Acknowledge and confess.
+
+  2. Sins and wickedness.
+
+  3. Dissemble nor cloke.
+
+  4. Goodness and mercy.
+
+  5. Assemble and meet.
+
+  6. Requisite and necessary.
+
+  7. Pray and beseech.
+
+There is, indeed, a shade of difference in some of these ideas for a
+good scholar, none for a general congregation;[172] and what difference
+they can guess at merely muddles their heads: to acknowledge sin is
+indeed different from confessing it, but it cannot be done at a minute's
+notice; and goodness is a different thing from mercy, but it is by no
+means God's infinite goodness that forgives our badness, but that judges
+it.
+
+258. "The faultfulest," I said, "and the foolishest." After using
+fourteen words where seven would have done, what is it that the whole
+speech gets said with its much speaking? This Morning Service of all
+England begins with the assertion that the Scripture moveth us in sundry
+places to confess our sins before God. _Does_ it so? Have your
+congregations ever been referred to those sundry places? Or do they take
+the assertion on trust, or remain under the impression that, unless with
+the advantage of their own candor, God must remain ill-informed on the
+subject of their sins?
+
+"That we should not dissemble nor cloke them." _Can_ we then? Are these
+grown-up congregations of the enlightened English Church in the
+nineteenth century still so young in their nurseries that the "Thou,
+God, seest me" is still not believed by them if they get under the bed?
+
+259. Let us look up the sundry moving passages referred to.
+
+(I suppose myself a simple lamb of the flock, and only able to use my
+English Bible.)
+
+I find in my concordance (confess and confession together) forty-two
+occurrences of the word. Sixteen of these, including John's confession
+that he was not the Christ, and the confession of the faithful fathers
+that they were pilgrims on the earth, do indeed move us strongly to
+confess Christ before men. Have you ever taught your congregations what
+that confession means? They are ready enough to confess Him in church,
+that is to say, in their own private synagogue. Will they in
+Parliament? Will they in a ballroom? Will they in a shop? Sixteen of the
+texts are to enforce their doing _that_.
+
+The most important one (1 Tim. vi. 13) refers to Christ's own good
+confession, which I suppose was not of His sins, but of His obedience.
+How many of your congregations can make any such kind of confession, or
+wish to make it?
+
+The eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth (1 Kings viii. 33, 2 Chron.
+vi. 26, Heb. xiii. 15) speak of confessing thankfully that God is God
+(and not a putrid plasma nor a theory of development), and the
+twenty-first (Job xl. 14) speaks of God's own confession, that no doubt
+we are the people, and that wisdom shall die with us, and on what
+conditions He will make it.
+
+260. There remains twenty-one texts which do speak of the confession of
+our sins--very moving ones indeed--and Heaven grant that some day the
+British public may be moved by them.
+
+(1.) The first is Lev. v. 5, "He shall confess that he hath sinned _in
+that thing_." And if you can get any soul of your congregation to say he
+has sinned in _any_thing, he may do it in two words for one if he likes,
+and it will yet be good liturgy.
+
+(2.) The second is indeed general--Lev. xvi. 21: the command that the
+whole nation should afflict its soul on the great day of atonement once
+a year. The Church of England, I believe, enjoins no such unpleasant
+ceremony. Her festivals are passed by her people often indeed in the
+extinction of their souls, but by no means in their intentional
+affliction.
+
+(3, 4, 5.) The third, fourth, and fifth (Lev. xxvi. 40, Numb. v. 7,
+Nehem. i. 6) refer all to national humiliation for definite idolatry,
+accompanied with an entire abandonment of that idolatry, and of
+idolatrous persons. How soon _that_ form of confession is likely to find
+a place in the English congregations the defenses of their main idol,
+mammon, in the vilest and cruelest shape of it--usury--with which this
+book has been defiled, show very sufficiently.
+
+261. (6.) The sixth is Psalm xxxii. 5--virtually the whole of that
+psalm, which does, indeed, entirely refer to the greater confession,
+once for all opening the heart to God, which can be by no means done
+fifty-two times a year, and which, once done, puts men into a state in
+which they will never again say there is no health in them; nor that
+their hearts are desperately wicked; but will obey forever the instantly
+following order, "Rejoice in the Lord, ye righteous, and shout for joy,
+all ye that are true of heart."
+
+(7.) The seventh (Acts xxiv. 14) is the one confession in which I can
+myself share:--"After the way which they call heresy, so worship I the
+Lord God of my fathers."
+
+(8.) The eighth (James v. 16) tells us to confess our faults--not to
+God, but "one to another"--a practice not favored by English
+catechumens--(by the way, what _do_ you all mean by "auricular"
+confession--confession that can be heard? and is the Protestant
+pleasanter form one that can't be?)
+
+(9.) The ninth is that passage of St. John (i. 9), the favorite
+evangelical text, which is read and preached by thousands of false
+preachers every day, without once going on to read its great companion,
+"Beloved, if our heart condemn us, God is greater than our heart, and
+knoweth all things; but if our heart condemn us _not_, then have we
+confidence toward God." Make your people understand the second text, and
+they will understand the first. At present you leave them understanding
+neither.
+
+262. And the entire body of the remaining texts is summed in Joshua vii.
+19 and Ezra x. 11, in which, whether it be Achan, with his Babylonish
+garment, or the people of Israel, with their Babylonish lusts, the
+meaning of confession is simply what it is to every brave boy, girl,
+man, and woman, who knows the meaning of the word "honor" before God or
+man--namely, to say what they have done wrong, and to take the
+punishment of it (not to get it blanched over by any means), and to do
+it no more--which is so far from being a tone of mind generally enforced
+either by the English, or any other extant Liturgy, that, though all my
+maids are exceedingly pious, and insist on the privilege of going to
+church as a quite inviolable one, I think it a scarcely to be hoped for
+crown and consummation of virtue in them that they should tell me when
+they have broken a plate; and I should expect to be met only with looks
+of indignation and astonishment if I ventured to ask one of them how she
+had spent her Sunday afternoon.
+
+"Without courage," said Sir Walter Scott, "there is no truth; and
+without truth there is no virtue." The sentence would have been itself
+more true if Sir Walter had written "candor" for "truth," for it is
+possible to be true in insolence, or true in cruelty. But in looking
+back from the ridges of the Hill Difficulty in my own past life, and in
+all the vision that has been given me of the wanderings in the ways of
+others--this, of all principles, has become to me surest--that the first
+virtue to be required of man is frankness of heart and lip: and I
+believe that every youth of sense and honor, putting himself to faithful
+question, would feel that he had the devil for confessor, if he had not
+his father or his friend.
+
+263. That a clergyman should ever be so truly the friend of his
+parishioners as to deserve their confidence from childhood upwards, may
+be flouted as a sentimental ideal; but he is assuredly only their enemy
+in showing his Lutheran detestation of the sale of indulgences by
+broadcasting these gratis from his pulpit.
+
+The inconvenience and unpleasantness of a catechism concerning itself
+with the personal practice as well as the general theory of duty, are
+indeed perfectly conceivable by me: yet I am not convinced that such
+manner of catechism would therefore be less medicinal; and during the
+past ten years it has often been matter of amazed thought with me, while
+our President at Corpus read prayers to the chapel benches, what might
+by this time have been the effect on the learning as well as the creed
+of the University, if, forty years ago, our stern old Dean Gaisford, of
+the House of Christ, instead of sending us to chapel as to the house of
+correction, when we missed a lecture, had inquired, before he allowed us
+to come to chapel at all, whether we were gamblers, harlot-mongers, or
+in concealed and selfish debt.
+
+264. I observe with extreme surprise in the preceding letters the
+unconsciousness of some of your correspondents, that there ever was such
+a thing as discipline in the Christian Church. Indeed, the last
+wholesome instance of it I can remember was when my own great-great
+uncle Maitland lifted Lady ---- from his altar-rails, and led her back to
+her seat before the congregation, when she offered to take the
+Sacrament, being at enmity with her son.[173] But I believe a few hours
+honestly spent by any clergyman on his Church history would show him
+that the Church's confidence in her prayer has been always exactly
+proportionate to the strictness of her discipline; that her present
+fright at being caught praying by a chemist or an electrician, results
+mainly from her having allowed her twos and threes gathered in the name
+of Christ to become sixes and sevens gathered in the name of Belial; and
+that therefore her now needfulest duty is to explain to her stammering
+votaries, extremely doubtful as they are of the effect of their
+supplications either on politics or the weather, that although Elijah
+was a man subject to like passions as we are, he had them better under
+command; and that while the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man
+availeth much, the formal and lukewarm one of an iniquitous man
+availeth--much the other way.
+
+Such an instruction, coupled with due explanation of the nature of
+righteousness and iniquity, directed mainly to those who have the power
+of both in their own hands, being makers of law, and holders of
+property, would, without any further debate, bring about a very singular
+change in the position and respectability of English clergymen.
+
+265. How far they may at present be considered as merely the Squire's
+left hand, bound to know nothing of what he is doing with his right, it
+is for their own consciences to determine.
+
+For instance, a friend wrote to me the other day, "Will you not come
+here? You will see a noble duke destroying a village as old as the
+Conquest, and driving out dozens of families whose names are in Domesday
+Book, because, owing to the neglect of his ancestors and rackrenting for
+a hundred years, the place has fallen out of repair, and the people are
+poor, and may become paupers. A local paper ventured to tell the truth.
+The duke's agent called on the editor, and threatened him with
+destruction if he did not hold his tongue." The noble duke, doubtless,
+has proper Protestant horror of auricular confession. But suppose,
+instead of the local editor, the local parson had ventured to tell the
+truth from his pulpit, and even to intimate to his Grace that he might
+no longer receive the Body and Blood of the Lord at the altar of that
+parish! The parson would scarcely--in these days--have been therefore
+made bonfire of, and had a pretty martyr's memorial by Mr. Scott's
+pupils; but he would have lighted a goodly light, nevertheless, in this
+England of ours, whose pettifogging piety has now neither the courage to
+deny a duke's grace in its church, nor to declare Christ's in its
+Parliament.
+
+266. Lastly. Several of your contributors, I observe, have rashly dipped
+their feet in the brim of the water of that raging question of Usury;
+and I cannot but express my extreme regret that you should yourself have
+yielded to the temptation of expressing opinions which you have had no
+leisure either to sound or to test. My assertion, however, that the
+rich lived mainly by robbing the poor, referred not to Usury, but to
+Rent; and the facts respecting both these methods of extortion are
+perfectly and indubitably ascertainable by any person who himself wishes
+to ascertain them, and is able to take the necessary time and pains. I
+see no sign, throughout the whole of these letters, of any wish
+whatever, on the part of one of their writers, to ascertain the facts,
+but only to defend practices which they hold to be convenient in the
+world, and are afraid to blame in their congregations. Of the
+presumption with which several of the writers utter their notions on the
+subject, I do not think it would be right to speak farther, in an
+epilogue to which there is no reply, in the terms which otherwise would
+have been deserved. In their bearing on other topics, let me earnestly
+thank you (so far as my own feelings may be permitted voice in the
+matter) for the attention with which you have examined, and the courage
+with which you have ratified, or at least endured, letters which
+could not but bear at first the aspect of being written in a
+hostile--sometimes even in a mocking spirit. That aspect is untrue, nor
+am I answerable for it: the things of which I had to speak could not be
+shortly described but in terms which might sound satirical; for all
+error, if frankly shown, is precisely most ridiculous when it is most
+dangerous, and I have written no word which is not chosen as the
+exactest for its occasion, whether it move sigh or smile. In my earlier
+days I wrote much with the desire to please, and the hope of influencing
+the reader. As I grow older and older, I recognize the truth of the
+Preacher's saying, "Desire shall fail, and the mourners go about the
+streets;" and I content myself with saying, to whoso it may concern,
+that the thing is verily thus, whether they will hear or whether they
+will forbear. No man more than I has ever loved the places where God's
+honor dwells, or yielded truer allegiance to the teaching of His evident
+servants. No man at this time grieves more for the danger of the Church
+which supposes him her enemy, while she whispers procrastinating _pax
+vobiscum_ in answer to the spurious kiss of those who would fain toll
+curfew over the last fires of English faith, and watch the sparrow find
+nest where she may lay her young, around the altars of the Lord.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 169: The following extracts from letters of Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in the "Letters to the Clergy":--
+
+"_14th May_, 1880.--My dear Malleson, ... I had never seen _yours_ at
+all when I wrote last. I fell first on ----, whom I read with some
+attention, and commented on with little favor; went on to the next, and
+remained content with that taste till I had done my Scott (_Nineteenth
+Century_).
+
+"I have this morning been reading your own, on which I very earnestly
+congratulate you. God knows it is not because they are friendly or
+complimentary, but because you _do_ see what I mean; and people hardly
+ever do; and I think it needs very considerable power and feeling to
+forgive and understand as you do. You have said everything I want to
+say, and much more, except on the one point of excommunication, which
+will be the chief, almost the only, subject of my final note."
+
+"_16th May._--Yes, the omission of the 'Mr.' meant much change in all my
+feelings towards you and estimates of you; for which change, believe me,
+I am more glad and thankful than I can well tell you.
+
+"J. RUSKIN."]
+
+[Footnote 170: Only a heretic!--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 171: I may perhaps be pardoned for vindicating-at least my
+arithmetic, which, with Bishop Colenso, I rather pride myself upon. One
+of your correspondents greatly doubts my having heard five thousand
+asserters of evangelical principles (Catholic-absolvent or
+Protestant-detergent are virtually the same). I am now sixty years old,
+and for forty-five of them was in church at least once on the
+Sunday,--say once a month also in afternoons,--and you have above three
+thousand church services. When I am abroad I am often in half-a-dozen
+churches in the course of a single day, and never lose a chance of
+listening to anything that is going on. Add the conversations pursued,
+not unearnestly, with every sort of reverend person I can get to talk to
+me--from the Bishop of Strasburg (as good a specimen of a town bishop as
+I have known), with whom I was studying ecstatic paintings in the year
+1850--down to the simplest traveling tinker inclined Gospelwards, whom I
+perceive to be sincere, and your correspondent will perceive that my
+rapid numerical expression must be far beneath the truth. He subjoins
+his more rational doubt of my acquaintance with many town missionaries;
+to which I can only answer, that as I do not live in town, nor set up
+for a missionary myself, my spiritual advantages have certainly not been
+great in that direction. I simply assert that of the few I have
+known,--beginning with Mr. Spurgeon, under whom I sat with much
+edification for a year or two,--I have not known any such teaching as I
+speak of.]
+
+[Footnote 172: The only explanation ever offered for this exuberant
+wordiness is that if worshipers did not understand one term they would
+the other, and in some cases, in the Exhortation and elsewhere, one word
+is of Latin and the other of Saxon derivation.[1] But this is surely a
+very feeble excuse for bad composition. Of a very different kind is that
+beautiful climax which is reached in the three admirably chosen pairs of
+words in the Prayer for the Parliament, "peace and happiness, truth and
+justice, religion and piety."--F. A. M.
+
+(Note 1: The repetition of synonymous terms is of very frequent
+occurrence in sixteenth century writing, as "for ever and aye," "Time
+and the hour run through the roughest day" (_Macbeth_, i. 3).)]
+
+[Footnote 173: In some of the country districts of Scotland the right of
+the Church to interfere with the lives of private individuals is still
+exercised. Only two years ago, a wealthy gentleman farmer was rebuked by
+the "Kirk Session" of the Dissenting Church to which he belonged, for
+infidelity to his wife.
+
+At the Scottish half-yearly Communion the ceremony of "fencing the
+tables" used to be observed; that is, turning away all those whose lives
+were supposed to have made them unfit to receive the Sacrament.]
+
+
+
+
+THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.[174]
+
+
+267. Every age of the world has its own special sins, and special
+simplicities; and among our own most particular humors in both kinds
+must be reckoned the tendency to parade our discoveries of the laws of
+Nature, as if nobody had ever heard of a law of Nature before.
+
+The most curious result of this extremely absurd condition of mind is
+perhaps the alarm of religious persons on subjects of which one would
+have fancied most of the palpable difficulties had been settled before
+the nineteenth century. The theory of prayer, for instance, and of
+Miracles. I noticed a lengthy discussion in the newspapers a month or
+two ago, on the propriety of praying for, or against rain. It had
+suddenly, it seems, occurred to the public mind, and to that of the
+gentlemen who write the theology of the breakfast-table, that rain was
+owing to natural causes; and that it must be unreasonable to expect God
+to supply on our immediate demand what could not be provided but by
+previous evaporation. I noticed farther that this alarming difficulty
+was at least softened to some of our Metropolitan congregations by the
+assurances of their ministers, that, although, since the last lecture by
+Professor Tyndall at the Royal Institution, it had become impossible to
+think of asking God for any temporal blessing, they might still hope
+their applications for spiritual advantages would occasionally be
+successful;--thus implying that though material processes were
+necessarily slow, and the laws of Heaven respecting matter, inviolable,
+mental processes might be instantaneous, and mental laws at any moment
+disregarded by their Institutor: so that the spirit of a man might be
+brought to maturity in a moment, though the resources of Omnipotence
+would be overtaxed, or its consistency abandoned, in the endeavor to
+produce the same result On a greengage.
+
+More logically, though not more wisely, other divines have asserted that
+prayer is medicinally beneficial to ourselves, whether we obtain what we
+ask for or not; and that our moral state is gradually elevated by the
+habit of praying daily that the Kingdom of God may come,--though nothing
+would more astonish us than its coming.
+
+268. With these doubts respecting the possibility or propriety of
+miracle, a more immediate difficulty occurs as to its actual nature or
+definition. What is the quality of any event which may be properly
+called "miraculous"? What are the degrees of wonderfulness?--what the
+surpassing degree of it, which changes the wonder into the sign, or may
+be positively recognized by human intelligence as an interruption,
+instead of a new operation, of those laws of Nature with which, of late,
+we have become so exhaustively acquainted? For my own part, I can only
+say that I am so haunted by doubt of the security of our best knowledge,
+and by discontent in the range of it, that it seems to me contrary to
+modesty, whether in a religious or scientific point of view, to regard
+_any_thing as miraculous. I know so little, and this little I know is so
+inexplicable, that I dare not say anything is wonderful because it is
+strange to me, or not wonderful because it is familiar. I have not the
+slightest idea how I compel my hand to write these words, or my lips to
+read them: and the question which was the thesis of Mr. Ward's very
+interesting paper, "Can Experience prove the Uniformity of Nature?"[175]
+is, in my mind, so assuredly answerable with the negative which the
+writer appeared to desire, that, precisely on that ground, the
+performance of any so-called miracle whatever would be morally
+unimpressive to me. If a second Joshua to-morrow commanded the sun to
+stand still, and it obeyed him; and he therefore claimed deference as a
+miracle-worker, I am afraid I should answer, "What! a miracle that the
+sun stands still?--not at all. I was always expecting it would. The only
+wonder, to me, was its going on."
+
+269. But even assuming the demonstrable uniformity of the laws or
+customs of Nature which are known to us, it remains a difficult question
+what manner of interference with such law or custom we might logically
+hold miraculous, and what, on the contrary, we should treat only as
+proof of the existence of some other law, hitherto undiscovered.
+
+For instance, there is a case authenticated by the signatures of several
+leading physicists in Paris, in which a peasant girl, under certain
+conditions of morbid excitement, was able to move objects at some
+distance from her without touching them. Taking the evidence for what it
+may be worth, the discovery of such a faculty would only, I suppose,
+justify us in concluding that some new vital energy was developing
+itself under the conditions of modern bodily health; and not that any
+interference with the laws of Nature had taken place. Yet the generally
+obstinate refusal of men of science to receive any verbal witness of
+such facts is a proof that they believe them contrary to a code of law
+which is more or less complete in their experience, and altogether
+complete in their conception; and I think it is therefore their province
+to lay down for us the true principle by which we may distinguish the
+miraculous violation of a known law from the sudden manifestation of an
+unknown one.
+
+270. In the meantime, supposing ourselves ever so incapable of defining
+law, or discerning its interruption, we need not therefore lose our
+conception of the one, nor our faith in the other. Some of us may no
+more be able to know a genuine miracle, when we see it, than others to
+know a genuine picture; but the ordinary impulse to regard, therefore,
+all claim to miraculous power as imposture, or self-deception, reminds
+me always of the speech of a French lady to me, whose husband's
+collection of old pictures had brought unexpectedly low prices in the
+auction-room,--"How can you be so senseless," she said, "as to attach
+yourself to the study of an art in which you see that all excellence is
+a mere matter of opinion?" Some of us have thus come to imagine that
+the laws of Nature, as well as those of Art, may be matters of opinion;
+and I recollect an ingenious paper by Mr. Frederic Harrison, some two
+years ago, on the "Subjective Synthesis,"--which, after proving, what
+does not seem to stand in need of so elaborate proof, that we can only
+know, of the universe, what we can see and understand, went on to state
+that the laws of Nature "were not objective realities, any more than
+they were absolute truths."[176] Which decision, it seems to me, is as
+if some modest and rational gnat, who had submitted to the humiliating
+conviction that it could know no more of the world than might be
+traversed by flight, or tasted by puncture, yet, in the course of an
+experiment on a philosopher with its proboscis, hearing him speak of the
+Institutes of Justinian, should observe, on its return to the society of
+gnats, that the Institutes of Justinian were not objective realities,
+any more than they were absolute truths. And, indeed, the careless use
+of the word "Truth" itself, often misleads even the most accurate
+thinkers. A law cannot be spoken of as a truth, either absolute or
+concrete. It is a law of nature, that is to say, of my own particular
+nature, that I fall asleep after dinner, and my confession of this fact
+is a truth; but the bad habit is no more a truth than the statement of
+it is a bad habit.
+
+271. Nevertheless, in spite of the treachery of our conceptions and
+language, and in just conclusion even from our narrow experience, the
+conviction is fastened in our hearts that the habits or laws of Nature
+are more constant than our own and sustained by a firmer Intelligence:
+so that, without in the least claiming the faculty of recognition of
+miracle, we may securely define its essence. The phenomena of the
+universe with which we are acquainted are assumed to be, under general
+conditions, constant, but to be maintained in that constancy by a
+supreme personal Mind; and it is farther supposed that, under
+particular conditions, this ruling Person interrupts the constancy of
+these phenomena, in order to establish a particular relation with
+inferior creatures.
+
+272. It is, indeed, singular how ready the inferior creatures are to
+imagine such a relation, without any very decisive evidence of its
+establishment. The entire question of miracle is involved with that of
+the special providences which are supposed, in some theories of
+religion, sometimes to confound the enemies, and always to protect the
+darlings of God: and in the minds of amiable persons, the natural and
+very justifiable sense of their own importance to the well-being of the
+world may often encourage the pleasant supposition that the Deity,
+however improvident for others, will be provident for _them_. I
+recollect a paper on this subject by Dr. Guthrie, published not long ago
+in some religious periodical, in which the writer mentioned, as a
+strikingly Providential circumstance, the catching of his foot on a
+ledge of rock which averted what might otherwise have been a fatal fall.
+Under the sense of the loss to the cause of religion and the society of
+Edinburgh, which might have been the consequence of the accident, it is
+natural that Dr. Guthrie should refer to it with strongly excited
+devotional feelings: yet, perhaps, with better reason, a junior member
+of the Alpine Club, less secure of the value of his life, would have
+been likely on the same occasion rather to be provoked by his own
+awkwardness, than impressed by the providential structure of the rock.
+At the root of every error on these subjects we may trace either an
+imperfect conception of the universality of Deity, or an exaggerated
+sense of individual importance: and yet it is no less certain that every
+train of thought likely to lead us in a right direction must be founded
+on the acknowledgment that the personality of a Deity who has commanded
+the doing of Justice and the showing of Mercy can be no otherwise
+manifested than in the signal support of causes which are just, and
+favor of persons who are kind. The beautiful tradition of the deaths of
+Cleobis and Bito, indeed, expresses the sense proper to the wisest men,
+that we are unable either to discern or decide for ourselves in what
+the favor of God consists: but the promises of the Christian religion
+imply that its true disciples will be enabled to ask with prudence what
+is to be infallibly granted.
+
+273. And, indeed, the relations between God and His creatures which it
+is the function of miracle to establish, depend far more on the
+correspondence of events with human volition than on the marvelous
+character of the events themselves. These relations are, in the main,
+twofold. Miracles are either to convince, or to assist. We are apt to
+think of them as meant only to establish faith, but many are for mere
+convenience of life. Elisha's making the ax-head swim, and the poisoned
+soup wholesome, were not to convince anybody, but merely to give help in
+the quickest way. Conviction is, indeed, in many of the most interesting
+miracles, quite a secondary end, and often an unattained one. The hungry
+multitude are fed, the ship in danger relieved by sudden calm. The
+disciples disregard the multiplying of the loaves, yet are strongly
+affected by the change in the weather.
+
+But whether for conviction, aid (or aid in the terrific form of
+punishment), the essence of miracle is as the manifestation of a Power
+which can direct or modify the otherwise constant phenomena of Nature;
+and it is, I think, by attaching too great importance to what may be
+termed the missionary work of miracle, instead of what may in
+distinction be called its pastoral work, that many pious persons, no
+less than infidels, are apt to despise, and therefore to deny,
+miraculous power altogether.
+
+274. "We do not need to be convinced," they say, "of the existence of
+God by the capricious exertion of His power. We are satisfied in the
+normal exertion of it; and it is contrary to the idea of His Excellent
+Majesty that there should be any other."
+
+But all arguments and feelings must be distrusted which are founded on
+our own ideas of what it is proper for Deity to do. Nor can I, even
+according to our human modes of judgment, find any impropriety in the
+thought that an energy may be natural without being normal, and Divine
+without being constant. The wise missionary may indeed require no
+miracle to confirm his authority; but the despised pastor may need
+miracle to enforce it, or the compassionate governor to make it
+beneficial. And it is quite possible to conceive of Pastoral Miracle as
+resulting from a power as natural as any other, though not as perpetual.
+The wind bloweth where it listeth, and some of the energies granted to
+men born of the Spirit may be manifested only on certain conditions and
+on rare occasions; and therefore be always wonderful or miraculous,
+though neither disorderly nor unnatural.
+
+Thus St. Paul's argument to Agrippa, "Why should it be thought with you
+a thing impossible that God should raise the dead?" would be suicidal,
+if he meant to appeal to the miracle as a proof of the authority of his
+mission. But, claiming no authority, he announces as a probable and
+acceptable fact the opening of a dispensation in which it was as natural
+for the dead to be raised as for the Gospel to be preached to the poor,
+though both the one and the other were miraculous signs that the Master
+of Nature had come down to be Emmanuel among men, and that no prophet
+was in future to look for another.
+
+We have indeed fallen into a careless habit of using the words
+supernatural and superhuman, as if equivalent. A human act may be
+super-doggish, and a Divine act superhuman, yet all three acts
+absolutely Natural. It is, perhaps, as much the virtue of a Spirit to be
+inconstant as of a poison to be sure, and therefore always impossible to
+weigh the elements of moral force in the balance of an apothecary.
+
+275. It is true that, in any abstract reflection on these things, one is
+instantly brought to pause by questions of the reasonableness, the
+necessity, or the expedient degree of miracle. Christ walks on the
+water, overcoming gravity to that extent. Why not have flown, and
+overcome it altogether? He feeds the multitude by breaking existent
+loaves; why not have commanded the stones into bread? Or, instead of
+miraculously feeding either an assembly or a nation, why not enable
+them, like Himself, miraculously to fast, for the needful time? And in
+generally admitting the theories of pastoral miracle the instant
+question submits itself,--Supposing a nation wisely obedient to divinely
+appointed ministers of a sensible Theocracy, how much would its
+government be miraculously assisted, and how many of its affairs brought
+to miraculous prosperity of issue? Would its enemies be destroyed by
+angels, and its food poured down upon it from the skies, or would the
+supernatural aid be limited to diminishing the numbers of its slain in
+battle,[177] or to conducting its merchant ships safely, or
+instantaneously, to the land whither they would go?
+
+But no progress can be made, and much may be prevented, in the
+examination of any really difficult human problem, by thus approaching
+it on the hypothetical side. Such approach is easy to the foolish,
+pleasant to the proud, and convenient to the malicious, but absolutely
+fruitless of practical result. Our modesty and wisdom consist alike in
+the simple registry of the facts cognizable by us, and our duty, in
+making active use of them for the present, without concerning ourselves
+as to the possibilities of the future. And the two main facts we have to
+deal with are that the historical record of miracle is always of
+inconstant power, and that our own actual energies are inconstant almost
+in exact proportion to their worthiness.
+
+276. First, I say, the history of miracle is of inconstant power. St.
+Paul raises Eutychus from death, and his garments effect miraculous
+cure; yet he leaves Trophimus sick at Miletum, recognizes only the mercy
+of God in the recovery of Epaphroditus, and, like any uninspired
+physician, recommends Timothy wine for his infirmities. And in the
+second place, our own energies are inconstant almost in proportion to
+their nobleness. We breathe with regularity, and can calculate upon the
+strength necessary for common tasks. But the record of our best work,
+and of our happiest moments, is always one of success which we did not
+expect, and of enthusiasm which we could not prolong.
+
+277. And therefore we can only look for an imperfect and interrupted,
+but may surely insist on an occasional, manifestation of miraculous
+credentials by every minister of religion. There is no practical
+difficulty in the discernment of marvel properly to be held superhuman.
+It is indeed frequently alleged by the admirers of scientific discovery
+that many things which were wonderful fifty years ago, have ceased to be
+so now; and I am perfectly ready to concede to them that what they now
+themselves imagine to be admirable, will not in the future be admired.
+But the petty sign, said to have been wrought by the augur Attus before
+Tarquin, would be as impressive at this instant as it was then; while
+the utmost achievements of recent scientific miracle have scarcely yet
+achieved the feeding of Lazarus their beggar, still less the
+resurrection of Lazarus their friend. Our Christian faith, at all
+events, stands or falls by this test. "These signs shall follow them
+that believe," are words which admit neither of qualification nor
+misunderstanding; and it is far less arrogant in any man to look for
+such Divine attestation of his authority as a teacher, than to claim,
+without it, any authority to teach. And assuredly it is no proof of any
+unfitness or unwisdom in such expectations, that, for the last thousand
+years, miraculous powers seem to have been withdrawn from, or at least
+indemonstrably possessed, by a Church which, having been again and again
+warned by its Master that Riches were deadly to Religion, and Love
+essential to it, has nevertheless made wealth the reward of Theological
+learning, and controversy its occupation. There are states of moral
+death no less amazing than physical resurrection; and a church which
+permits its clergy to preach what they have ceased to believe, and its
+people to trust what they refuse to obey, is perhaps more truly
+miraculous in impotence, than it would be miraculous in power, if it
+could move the fatal rocks of California to the Pole, and plant the
+sycamore and the vine between the ridges of the sea.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 174: _Contemporary Review_, March, 1873.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Read at the November meeting of the Metaphysical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 176: I quote from memory but am sure of the purport of the
+sentence, though not of its expression.]
+
+
+[Footnote 177: "And be it death proclaimëd through our host to boast of
+this."--_Henry V._]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+AN OXFORD LECTURE.
+
+(_Nineteenth Century, January 1878._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+AN OXFORD LECTURE.[178]
+
+
+278. I am sure that all in this audience who were present yesterday at
+Dr. Acland's earnest and impressive lecture must have felt how deeply I
+should be moved by his closing reference to the friendship begun in our
+undergraduate days;--of which I will but say that, if it alone were all
+I owed to Oxford, the most gracious kindness of the Alma Mater would in
+that gift have been fulfilled to me.
+
+But his affectionate words, in their very modesty, as if even standing
+on the defense of his profession, the noblest of human occupations! and
+of his science--the most wonderful and awful of human intelligences!
+showed me that I had yet not wholly made clear to you the exactly
+limited measure in which I have ventured to dispute the fitness of
+method of study now assigned to you in this University.
+
+279. Of the dignity of physical science, and of the happiness of those
+who are devoted to it for the healing and the help of mankind, I never
+have meant to utter, and I do not think I _have_ uttered, one irreverent
+word. But against the curiosity of science, leading us to call virtually
+nothing gained but what is new discovery, and to despise every use of
+our knowledge in its acquisition; of the insolence of science, in
+claiming for itself a separate function of that human mind which in its
+perfection is one and indivisible, in the image of its Creator; and of
+the perversion of science, in hoping to discover by the analysis of
+death, what can only be discovered by the worship of life,--of these I
+have spoken, not only with sorrow, but with a fear which every day I
+perceive to be more surely grounded, that such labor, in effacing from
+within you the sense of the presence of God in the garden of the earth,
+may awaken within you the prevailing echo of the first voice of its
+Destroyer, "_Ye_ shall be as gods."
+
+280. To-day I have little enough time to conclude,--none to review--what
+I have endeavored thus to say; but one instance, given me directly in
+conversation after lecture, by one of yourselves, will enable me to
+explain to you precisely what I _mean_.
+
+After last lecture, in which you remember I challenged our physiologists
+to tell me how a bird flies, one of you, whose pardon, if he thinks it
+needful, I ask for this use of his most timely and illustrative
+statement, came to me, saying, "You know the way in which we are shown
+how a bird flies, is, that any one, a dove for instance, is given to us,
+plucked, and partly skinned, and incised at the insertion of the wing
+bone; and then, with a steel point, the ligament of the muscle at the
+shoulder is pulled up, and out, and made distinct from other ligaments,
+and we are told 'that is the way a bird flies,' and on that matter it is
+thought we have been told enough."
+
+I say that this instance given me was timely; I will say more--in the
+choice of this particular bird, providential. Let me take, in their
+order, the two subjects of inquiry and instruction, which are indeed
+offered to us in the aspect and form of that one living creature.
+
+281. Of the splendor of your own true life, you are told, in the words
+which, to-day, let me call, as your Fathers did, words of
+inspiration--"Yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove, that is covered
+with silver wings and her feathers with gold." Of the manifold iris of
+color in the dove's plumage, watched carefully in sunshine as the bird
+moves, I cannot hope to give you any conception by words; but that it is
+the most exquisite, in the modesty of its light, and in the myriad
+mingling of its hue, of all plumage, I may partly prove to you in this
+one fact, that out of all studies of color, the one which I would
+desire most to place within your reach in these schools, is Turner's
+drawing of a dove, done when he was in happy youth at Farnley. But of
+the causes of this color, and of the peculiar subtlety in its
+iridescence, nothing is told you in any scientific book I have ever seen
+on ornithology.
+
+282. Of the power of flight in these wings, and the tender purpose of
+their flight, you hear also in your Fathers' book. To the Church, flying
+from her enemies into desolate wilderness, there were indeed given two
+wings as of a great eagle. But the weary saint of God, looking forward
+to his home in calm of eternal peace, prays rather--"Oh that I had wings
+like a dove, for then should I flee away, and be at rest." And of these
+wings, and this mind of hers, this is what reverent science should teach
+you: first, with what parting of plume, and what soft pressure and
+rhythmic beating of divided air, she reaches that miraculous swiftness
+of undubious motion, compared with which the tempest is slow, and the
+arrow uncertain; and secondly, what clew there is, visible, or
+conceivable to thought of man, by which, to her living conscience and
+errorless pointing of magnetic soul, her distant home is felt afar
+beyond the horizon, and the straight path, through concealing clouds,
+and over trackless lands, made plain to her desire, and her duty, by the
+finger of God.
+
+283. And lastly, since in the tradition of the Old Covenant she was made
+the messenger of forgiveness to those eight souls saved through the
+baptism unto death, and in the Gospel of the New Covenant, under her
+image, was manifested the well-pleasing of God, in the fulfillment of
+all righteousness by His Son in the Baptism unto life,--surely alike all
+Christian people, old and young, should be taught to be gladdened by her
+sweet presence; and in every city and village in Christendom she should
+have such home as in Venice she has had for ages, and be, among the
+sculptured marbles of the temple, the sweetest sculpture; and,
+fluttering at your children's feet, their never-angered friend. And
+surely also, therefore, of the thousand evidences which any carefully
+thoughtful person may see, not only of the ministration of good, but of
+the deceiving and deadly power of the evil angels, there is no one more
+distinct in its gratuitous, and unreconcilable sin, than that this--of
+all the living creatures between earth and sky--should be the one chosen
+to amuse the apathy of our murderous idleness, with skill-less,
+effortless, merciless slaughter.
+
+284. I pass to the direct subject on which I have to speak finally
+to-day;--the reality of that ministration of the good angels, and of
+that real adversity of the principalities and powers of Satan, in which,
+without exception, all earnest Christians have believed, and the
+appearance of which, to the imagination of the greatest and holiest of
+them, has been the root, without exception, of all the greatest art
+produced by the human mind or hand in this world.
+
+That you have at present no art properly so called in England at
+all--whether of painting, sculpture, or architecture[179]--I, for one,
+do not care. In midst of Scottish Lothians, in the days of Scott, there
+was, by how much less art, by so much purer life, than in the midst of
+Italy in the days of Raphael. But that you should have lost, not only
+the skill of Art, but the simplicity of Faith and life, all in one, and
+not only here deface your ancient streets by the Ford of the waters of
+sacred learning, but also deface your ancient hills with guilt of
+mercenary desolation, driving their ancient shepherd life into exile,
+and diverting the waves of their streamlets into the cities which are
+the very centers of pollution, of avarice, and impiety: for this I _do_
+care,--for this you have blamed me for caring, instead of merely trying
+to teach you drawing. I have nevertheless yet done my best to show you
+what real drawing is; and must yet again bear your blame for trying to
+show you, through that, somewhat more.
+
+285. I was asked, as we came out of chapel this morning, by one of the
+Fellows of my college, to say a word to the Undergraduates, about
+Thirlmere. His request, being that of a faithful friend, came to enforce
+on me the connection between this form of spoliation of our native land
+of its running waters, and the gaining disbelief in the power of prayer
+over the distribution of the elements of our bread and water, in rain,
+and sunshine,--seedtime, and harvest. Respecting which, I must ask you
+to think with me to-day what is the meaning of the myth, if you call it
+so, of the great prophet of the Old Testament, who is to be again sent
+before the coming of the day of the Lord. For truly, you will find that
+if any part of your ancient faith be true, it is needful for every soul
+which is to take up its cross, with Christ, to be also first
+transfigured in the light of Christ,--talking with Moses and with Elias.
+
+The contest of Moses is with the temporal servitude,--of Elijah, with
+the spiritual servitude, of the people; and the war of Elijah is with
+their servitude essentially to two Gods, Baal, or the Sun God, in whose
+hand they thought was their life, and Baalzebub--the Fly God,--of
+Corruption, in whose hand they thought was the arbitration of death.
+
+The entire contest is summed in the first assertion by Elijah, of his
+authority as the Servant of God, over those elemental powers by which
+the heart of Man, whether Jew or heathen, was filled with food and
+gladness.
+
+And Elijah the Tishbite; who was of the inhabitants of Gilead, said unto
+Ahab, "As the Lord God of Israel liveth, before whom I stand, there
+shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word."
+
+286. Your modern philosophers have explained to you the absurdity of all
+that: you think? Of all the shallow follies of this age, that
+proclamation of the vanity of prayer for the sunshine and rain; and the
+cowardly equivocations, to meet it, of the clergy who never in their
+lives really prayed for anything, I think, excel. Do these modern
+scientific gentlemen fancy that nobody, before they were born, knew the
+laws of cloud and storm, or that the mighty human souls of former ages,
+who every one of them lived and died by prayer, and in it, did not know
+that in every petition framed on their lips they were asking for what
+was not only fore-ordained, but just as probably fore-_done_? or that
+the mother pausing to pray before she opens the letter from Alma or
+Balaclava, does not know that already he is saved for whom she prays, or
+already lies festering in his shroud? The whole confidence and glory of
+prayer is in its appeal to a Father who knows our necessities before we
+ask, who knows our thoughts before they rise in our hearts, and whose
+decrees, as unalterable in the eternal future as in the eternal past,
+yet in the close verity of visible fact, bend, like reeds, before the
+fore-ordained and faithful prayers of His children.
+
+287. Of Elijah's contest on Carmel with that Sun-power in which,
+literally, you again now are seeking your life, you know the story,
+however little you believe it. But of his contest with the Death-power,
+on the Hill of Samaria, you read less frequently, and more doubtfully.
+
+"Oh, thou Man of God, the King hath said, Come down. And Elijah answered
+and said, If I be a man of God, let fire come down from Heaven, and
+consume thee, and thy fifty."
+
+How monstrous, how revolting, cries your modern religionist, that a
+prophet of the Lord should invoke death on fifty men. And he sits
+himself, enjoying his muffin and _Times_, and contentedly allows the
+slaughter of fifty thousand men, so it be in the interests of England,
+and of his own stock on Exchange.
+
+But note Elijah's message. "Because thou hast sent to inquire of
+Baalzebub the God of Ekron, therefore, thou shalt not go down from the
+bed on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die."
+
+"Because thou hast sent to inquire:" he had not sent to _pray_ to the
+God of Ekron, only to _ask_ of him. The priests of Baal _prayed_ to
+Baal, but Ahaziah only _questions_ the fly-god.
+
+He does not pray "Let me recover," but he asks "_Shall_ I recover of
+this disease?"
+
+The scientific mind again, you perceive,--Sanitary investigation; by
+oracle of the God of Death. Whatever can be produced of disease, by
+flies, by aphides, by lice, by communication of corruption, shall not we
+moderns also wisely inquire, and so recover of our diseases?
+
+All which may, for aught I know, be well; and when I hear of the vine
+disease or potato disease being stayed, I will hope also that plague may
+be, or diphtheria, or aught else of human plague, by due sanitary
+measures.
+
+288. In the meantime, I see that the common cleanliness of the earth and
+its water is despised, as if _it_ were a plague; and after myself
+laboring for three years to purify and protect the source of the
+loveliest stream in the English midlands, the Wandel, I am finally
+beaten, because the road commissioners insist on carrying the road
+washings into it, at its source. But that's nothing. Two years ago, I
+went, for the first time since early youth, to see Scott's country by
+the shores of Yarrow, Teviot, and Gala waters. I will read you once
+again, though you will remember it, his description of one of those
+pools which you are about sanitarily to draw off into your
+engine-boilers, and then I will tell you what I saw myself in that
+sacred country.
+
+  Oft in my mind such thoughts awake,
+  By lone Saint Mary's silent lake;
+  Thou know'st it well,--nor fen, nor sedge,
+  Pollute the pure lake's crystal edge;
+  Abrupt and sheer, the mountains sink
+  At once upon the level brink;
+  And just a trace of silver sand
+  Marks where the water meets the land.
+
+  Far in the mirror, bright and blue,
+  Each hill's huge outline you may view;
+  Shaggy with heath, but lonely, bare,
+  Nor tree, nor bush, nor brake, is there,
+  Save where, of land, yon slender line
+  Bears thwart the lake the scatter'd pine.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  And silence aids--though the steep hills
+  Send to the lake a thousand rills
+  In summer tide, so soft they weep,
+  The sound but lulls the ear asleep;
+  Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,
+  So stilly is the solitude.
+
+  Nought living meets the eye or ear,
+  But well I ween the dead are near;
+  For though, in feudal strife, a foe
+  Hath laid Our Lady's chapel low,
+  Yet still beneath the hallow'd soil,
+  The peasant rests him from his toil,
+  And, dying, bids his bones be laid,
+  Where erst his simple fathers pray'd.
+
+289. What I saw myself, in that fair country, of which the sight remains
+with me, I will next tell you. I saw the Teviot oozing, not flowing,
+between its wooded banks, a mere sluggish injection, among the filthy
+stones, of poisonous pools of scum-covered ink; and in front of Jedburgh
+Abbey, where the foaming river used to dash round the sweet ruins as if
+the rod of Moses had freshly cleft the rock for it, bare and foul
+nakedness of its bed, the whole stream carried to work in the mills, the
+dry stones and crags of it festering unseemly in the evening sun, and
+the carcass of a sheep, brought down in the last flood, lying there in
+the midst of the children at their play, literal and ghastly symbol, in
+the sweetest pastoral country in the world, of the lost sheep of the
+house of Israel.
+
+That is your symbol to-day, of the Lamb as it had been slain; and that
+the work of your prayerless science;--the issues, these, of your
+enlightened teaching, and of all the toils and the deaths of the
+Covenanters on those barren hills, of the prophetic martyrs here in your
+crossing streets, and of the highest, sincerest, simplest patriot of
+Catholic England, Sir Thomas More, within the walls of England's central
+Tower. So is ended, with prayer for the bread of this life, also the
+hope of the life that is to come. Yet I will take leave to show you the
+light of that hope, as it shone on, and guided, the children of the ages
+of faith.
+
+290. Of that legend of St. Ursula which I read to you so lately, you
+remember, I doubt not, that the one great meaning is the victory of her
+faith over all fears of death. It is the laying down of all the joy, of
+all the hope, nay of all the Love, of this life, in the eager
+apprehension of the rejoicing and the love of Eternity. What truth there
+was in such faith I dare not say that I know; but what manner of human
+souls it made, you may for yourselves _see_. Here are enough brought to
+you, of the thoughts of a believing people.[180] This maid in her purity
+is no fable; this is a Venetian maid, as she was seen in the earthly
+dawn, and breathed on by the breeze of her native sea. And here she is
+in her womanhood, in her courage and perfect peace, waiting for her
+death.
+
+I have sent for this drawing for you, from Sheffield, where it is to
+stay, they needing it more than you. It is the best of all that my
+friend did with me at Venice, for St. George, and with St. George's help
+and St. Ursula's. It shows you only a piece of the great picture of the
+martyrdom--nearly all have fallen around the maid, and she kneels with
+her two servant princesses, waiting for her own death. Faithful behind
+their mistress, they wait with her,--not feebler, but less raised in
+thought, as less conceiving their immortal destiny; the one, a gentle
+girl, conceiving not in her quiet heart any horror of death, bows her
+fair head towards the earth, almost with a smile; the other, fearful
+lest her faith should for an instant fail, bursts into passion of prayer
+through burning tears. St. Ursula kneels, as daily she knelt, before the
+altar, giving herself up to God forever.
+
+And so you see her, here in the days of childhood, and here in her
+sacred youth, and here in her perfect womanhood, and here borne to her
+grave.
+
+Such creatures as these _have_ lived--do live yet, thank God, in the
+faith of Christ.
+
+291. You hear it openly said that this, their faith, was a foolish
+dream. Do you choose to find out whether it was or not? You may if you
+will, but you can find it out in one way only.
+
+Take the dilemma in perfect simplicity. Either Christianity is true or
+not. Let us suppose it first one, then the other, and see what follows.
+
+Let it first be supposed untrue. Then rational investigation will in all
+probability discover that untruth; while, on the other hand, irrational
+submission to what we are told may lead us into any form of absurdity or
+insanity; and, as we read history, we shall find that this insanity has
+perverted, as in the Crusades, half the strength of Europe to its ruin,
+and been the source of manifold dissension and misery to society.
+
+Start with the supposition that Christianity is untrue, much more with
+the desire that it should be, and that is the conclusion at which you
+will certainly arrive.
+
+But, on the other hand, let us suppose that it is, or may be, true.
+Then, in order to find out whether it is or not, we must attend to what
+it says of itself. And its first saying is an order to adopt a certain
+line of conduct. _Do_ that first, and you shall know more. Its promise
+is of blessing and of teaching, more than tongue can utter, or mind
+conceive, if you choose to do this; and it refuses to teach or help you
+on any other terms than these.
+
+292. You may think it strange that such a trial is required of you.
+Surely the evidences of our future state might have been granted on
+other terms--nay, a plain account might have been given, with all
+mystery explained away in the clearest language. _Then_, we should have
+believed at once.
+
+Yes, but, as you see and hear, that, if it be our way, is not God's. He
+has chosen to grant knowledge of His truth to us on one condition and no
+other. If we refuse that condition, the rational evidence around us is
+all in proof of our death, and that proof is true, for God also tells
+us that in such refusal we shall die.
+
+You see, therefore, that in either case, be Christianity true or false,
+death is demonstrably certain to us in refusing it. As philosophers, we
+can expect only death, and as unbelievers, we are condemned to it.
+
+There is but one chance of life--in admitting so far the possibility of
+the Christian verity as to try it on its own terms. There is not the
+slightest possibility of finding out whether it be true, or not, first.
+
+"Show me a sign first and I will come," you say. "No," answers God.
+"Come first, then you shall see a sign."
+
+Hard, you think? You will find it is not so, on thinking more. For this,
+which you are commanded, is not a thing unreasonable in itself. So far
+from that, it is merely the wisest thing you could do for your own and
+for others' happiness, if there were no eternal truth to be discovered.
+
+You are called simply to be the servant of Christ, and of other men for
+His sake; that is to say, to hold your life and all its faculties as a
+means of service to your fellows. All you have to do is to be sure it
+_is_ the service you are doing them, and not the service you do
+yourself, which is uppermost in your minds.
+
+293. Now you continually hear appeals to you made in a vague way, which
+you don't know how far you can follow. You shall not say that, to-day; I
+both can and will tell you what Christianity requires of you in simplest
+terms.
+
+Read your Bible as you would any other book--with strictest criticism,
+frankly determining what you think beautiful, and what you think false
+or foolish. But be sure that you try accurately to understand it, and
+transfer its teaching to modern need by putting other names for those
+which have become superseded by time. For instance, in such a passage as
+that which follows and supports the "Lie not one to another" of
+Colossians iii.--"seeing that ye have put on the new man, which is
+renewed in knowledge after the spirit of Him that created him, where"
+(meaning in that great creation where) "there is neither Greek nor Jew,
+circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free." In
+applying that verse to the conduct and speech of modern policy, it falls
+nearly dead, because we suffer ourselves to remain under a vague
+impression--vague, but practically paralyzing,--that though it was very
+necessary to speak the truth in the countries of Scythians and Jews,
+there is no objection to any quantity of lying in managing the affairs
+of Christendom. But now merely substitute modern for ancient names, and
+see what a difference it will make in the force and appeal of the
+passage, "Lie not one to another, brethren, seeing that ye have put off
+the old man, with his deeds, and have put on the new man, which is
+renewed to knowledge," [Greek: eis epignôsin], according to the
+knowledge of Him that created him, in that great creation where there is
+neither Englishman nor German, baptism nor want of baptism, Turk nor
+Russian, slave nor free, but Christ is all, and in all.
+
+294. Read your Bible, then, making it the first morning business of your
+life to understand some piece of it clearly, and your daily business to
+obey of it all that you understand, beginning first with the most human
+and most dear obedience--to your father and mother. Doing all things as
+they would have you do, for the present: if they want you to be
+lawyers--be lawyers; if soldiers--soldiers; if to get on in the
+world--even to get money--do as they wish, and that cheerfully, after
+distinctly explaining to them in what points you wish otherwise. Theirs
+is for the present the voice of God to you.
+
+But, at the same time, be quite clear about your own purpose, and the
+carrying out of that so far as under the conditions of your life you
+can. And any of you who are happy enough to have wise parents will find
+them contented in seeing you do as I now tell you.
+
+295. First cultivate all your personal powers, not competitively, but
+patiently and usefully. You have no business to read in the long
+vacation. Come _here_ to make scholars of yourselves, and go to the
+mountains or the sea to make men of yourselves. Give at least a month in
+each year to rough sailor's work and sea fishing. Don't lounge and
+flirt on the beach, but make yourselves good seamen. Then, on the
+mountains, go and help the shepherd at his work, the wood-men at theirs,
+and learn to know the hills by night and day. If you are staying in
+level country, learn to plow, and whatever else you can that is useful.
+Then here in Oxford, read to the utmost of your power, and practice
+singing, fencing, wrestling, and riding. No rifle practice, and no
+racing--boat or other. Leave the river quiet for the naturalist, the
+angler, and the weary student like me.
+
+You may think all these matters of no consequence to your studies of art
+and divinity; and that I am merely crotchety and absurd. Well, that is
+the way the devil deceives you. It is not the sins which we _feel_
+sinful, by which he catches us; but the apparently healthy ones,--those
+which nevertheless waste the time, harden the heart, concentrate the
+passions on mean objects, and prevent the course of gentle and fruitful
+thought.
+
+296. Having thus cultivated, in the time of your studentship, your
+powers truly to the utmost, then, in your manhood, be resolved they
+shall be spent in the true service of men--not in being ministered unto,
+but in ministering. Begin with the simplest of all ministries--breaking
+of bread to the poor. Think first of that, not of your own pride,
+learning, comfort, prospects in life: nay, not now, once come to
+manhood, may even the obedience to parents check your own conscience of
+what is your Master's work. "Whoso loveth father and mother more than me
+is not worthy of me." Take the perfectly simple words of the Judgment,
+"Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of the least of these, ye did it unto
+me:" but you must _do_ it, not preach it. And you must not be resolved
+that it shall be done only in a gentlemanly manner. Your pride must be
+laid down, as your avarice, and your fear. Whether as fishermen on the
+sea, plowmen on the earth, laborers at the forge, or merchants at the
+shop-counter, you must break and distribute bread to the poor, set down
+in companies--for that also is literally told you--upon the green
+grass, not crushed in heaps under the pavement of cities. Take Christ at
+His literal word, and, so sure as His word is true, He will be known of
+you in breaking of bread. Refuse that servant's duty because it is
+plain,--seek either to serve God, or know Him, in any other way: your
+service will become mockery of Him, and your knowledge darkness. Every
+day your virtues will be used by the evil spirits to conceal, or to make
+respectable, national crime; every day your felicities will become baits
+for the iniquity of others; your heroisms, wreckers' beacons, betraying
+them to destruction; and before your own deceived eyes and wandering
+hearts every false meteor of knowledge will flash, and every perishing
+pleasure glow, to lure you into the gulf of your grave.
+
+297. But obey the word in its simplicity, in wholeness of purpose and
+with serenity of sacrifice, like this of the Venetian maids', and truly
+you shall receive sevenfold into your bosom in this present life, as in
+the world to come, life everlasting. All your knowledge will become to
+you clear and sure, all your footsteps safe; in the present brightness
+of domestic life you will foretaste the joy of Paradise, and to your
+children's children bequeath, not only noble fame, but endless virtue.
+"He shall give his angels charge over you to keep you in all your ways;
+and the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your
+hearts and minds through Christ Jesus."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 178: Left, at the Editor's request, with only some absolutely
+needful clearing of unintelligible sentences, as it was written for free
+delivery. It was the last of a course of twelve given this
+autumn;--refers partly to things already said, partly to drawings on the
+walls; and needs the reader's pardon throughout, for faults and
+abruptness incurable but by re-writing the whole as an essay instead of
+a lecture.--(_Nineteenth Century_, January, 1878.)]
+
+[Footnote 179: Of course, this statement is merely a generalization of
+many made in the preceding lectures, the tenor of which any readers
+acquainted with my recent writings may easily conceive.]
+
+[Footnote 180: The references were to the series of drawings lately
+made, in Venice, for the Oxford and Sheffield schools, from the works of
+Carpaccio, by Mr. Fairfax Murray.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2)
+       A Collection of Miscellaneous Essays and Articles on Art and Literature
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2007 [EBook #21263]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE OLD ROAD, VOL. 2 (OF 2) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+  <h1>THE COMPLETE WORKS<br /></h1>
+
+  <h4>OF<br /></h4>
+
+  <h2>JOHN RUSKIN<br /></h2>
+
+  <h2>ON THE OLD ROAD</h2>
+
+<h4><i>A COLLECTION OF<br />
+  MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS AND ARTICLES<br />
+  ON ART AND LITERATURE.</i></h4>
+
+  <h2>Volumes I-II<br /><br /></h2>
+
+   <h1>Vol. II.</h1>
+
+  <p class="center">NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION<br />
+  NEW YORK&mdash;CHICAGO<br /><br />
+  Published 1834-1885.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS_OF_VOL_II" id="CONTENTS_OF_VOL_II"></a>CONTENTS OF VOL. II.</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><th align='left'>PICTURE GALLERIES.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Parliamentary Evidence:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">National Gallery Site Commission. 1857</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_3'><b>3</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Select Committee on Public Institutions. 1860</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Royal Academy Commission</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A Museum or Picture Gallery</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Cavalli Monuments, Verona. 1872</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Verona and its Rivers (with Catalogue). 1870</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Christian Art and Symbolism. 1872</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Art Schools of Medi&aelig;val Christendom. 1876</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Extension of Railways. 1876</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_125'><b>125</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Study of Beauty. 1883</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_132'><b>132</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Color of the Rhine. 1834</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_141'><b>141</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Strata of Mont Blanc. 1834</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Induration of Sandstone. 1836</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Temperature of Spring and River Water. 1836.</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Meteorology. 1839</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tree Twigs. 1861</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Stratified Alps of Savoy. 1863</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intellectual Conception and Animated Life. 1871</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_168'><b>168</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>LITERATURE.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fiction&mdash;fair and Foul. 1880-81</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_175'><b>175</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fairy Stories. 1868</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>ECONOMY.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Home, and Its Economies. 1873</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Usury. A Reply and a Rejoinder. 1880</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Usury. A Preface. 1885</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_340'><b>340</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>THEOLOGY.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds. 1851</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_347'><b>347</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Lord's Prayer and the Church. 1879-81. (Letters and Epilogue.)</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_382'><b>382</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Nature and Authority of Miracle. 1873</td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_418'><b>418</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align='left'>AN OXFORD LECTURE. 1878</th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_429'><b>429</b></a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+  <h2><br /><br />PICTURE GALLERIES:</h2>
+
+  <h3><i>THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.</i></h3>
+
+
+  <h4>A. PARLIAMENTARY EVIDENCE.<br /><br />
+
+      NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION 1857.<br />
+      SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 1860.<br />
+      THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION 1863.<br /><br />
+
+  B. LETTERS ON A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY.<br /><br />
+
+                 (<i>Art Journal, June and August, 1880.</i>)<br /><br /></h4>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="PICTURE_GALLERIES_THEIR_FUNCTIONS_AND_FORMATION" id="PICTURE_GALLERIES_THEIR_FUNCTIONS_AND_FORMATION"></a>PICTURE GALLERIES&mdash;THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<h4><i>Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, April 6, 1857.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>114. <i>Chairman.</i> Has your attention been turned to the desirableness of
+uniting sculpture with painting under the same roof?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>What is your opinion on the subject?&mdash;I think it almost essential that
+they should be united, if a National Gallery is to be of service in
+teaching the course of art.</p>
+
+<p>Sculpture of all kinds, or only ancient sculpture?&mdash;Of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that the sculpture in the British Museum should be in the
+same building with the pictures in the National Gallery, that is to say,
+making an application of your principle to that particular case?&mdash;Yes,
+certainly; I think so for several reasons&mdash;chiefly because I think the
+taste of the nation can only be rightly directed by having always
+sculpture and painting visible together. Many of the highest and best
+points of painting, I think, can only be discerned after some discipline
+of the eye by sculpture. That is one very essential reason. I think that
+after looking at sculpture one feels the grace of composition infinitely
+more, and one also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> feels how that grace of composition was reached by
+the painter.</p>
+
+<p>Do you consider that if works of sculpture and works of painting were
+placed in the same gallery, the same light would be useful for both of
+them?&mdash;I understood your question only to refer to their collection
+under the same roof. I should be sorry to see them in the same room.</p>
+
+<p>You would not mix them up in the way in which they are mixed up in the
+Florentine Gallery, for instance?&mdash;Not at all. I think, on the contrary,
+that the one diverts the mind from the other, and that, although the one
+is an admirable discipline, you should take some time for the
+examination of sculpture, and pass afterwards into the painting room,
+and so on. You should not be disturbed while looking at paintings by the
+whiteness of the sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>You do not then approve, for example, of the way in which the famous
+room, the Tribune, at Florence, is arranged?&mdash;No; I think it is merely
+arranged for show&mdash;for showing how many rich things can be got together.</p>
+
+<p>115. <i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> Then you do not regard sculpture as a proper
+decorative portion of the National Gallery of Pictures&mdash;you do not admit
+the term decoration?&mdash;No; I should not use that term of the sculpture
+which it was the object of the gallery to exhibit. It might be added, of
+course, supposing it became a part of the architecture, but not as
+independent&mdash;not as a thing to be contemplated separately in the room,
+and not as a part of the room. As a part of the room, of course, modern
+sculpture might be added; but I have never thought that it would be
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>You do not consider that sculpture would be a repose after contemplating
+painting for some time?&mdash;I should not feel it so myself.</p>
+
+<p>116. <i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> When you speak of removing the sculpture of
+the British Museum, and of uniting it with the pictures of the National
+Gallery, do you comprehend the whole range of the sculpture in the
+British Museum, commencing with the Egyptian, and going down through its
+regu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>lar series of gradation to the decline of the art?&mdash;Yes, because my
+great hope respecting the National Gallery is, that it may become a
+perfectly consecutive chronological arrangement, and it seems to me that
+it is one of the chief characteristics of a National Gallery that it
+should be so.</p>
+
+<p>Then you consider that one great excellence of the collection at the
+British Museum is, that it does present that sort of history of the art
+of sculpture?&mdash;I consider it rather its weakness that it does not.</p>
+
+<p>Then you would go down further?&mdash;I would.</p>
+
+<p>You are perhaps acquainted with the ivories which have been recently
+purchased there?&mdash;I am not.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing there were a fine collection of Byzantine ivories, you would
+consider that they were an important link in the general
+history?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>Would you unite the whole of that Pagan sculpture with what you call the
+later Christian art of Painting?&mdash;I should be glad to see it done&mdash;that
+is to say, I should be glad to see the galleries of painting and
+sculpture collaterally placed, and the gallery of sculpture beginning
+with the Pagan art, and proceeding to the Christian art, but not
+necessarily associating the painting with the sculpture of each epoch;
+because the painting is so deficient in many of the periods where the
+sculpture is rich, that you could not carry them on collaterally&mdash;you
+must have your painting gallery and your sculpture gallery.</p>
+
+<p>You would be sorry to take any portion of the sculpture from the
+collection in the British Museum, and to associate it with any
+collection of painting?&mdash;Yes, I should think it highly inexpedient. My
+whole object would be that it might be associated with a larger
+collection, a collection from other periods, and not be subdivided. And
+it seems to be one of the chief reasons advanced in order to justify
+removing that collection, that it cannot be much more enlarged&mdash;that you
+cannot at present put other sculpture with it.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing that the collection of ancient Pagan art could not be united
+with the National Gallery of pictures, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> which would you associate
+the medi&aelig;val sculpture, supposing we were to retain any considerable
+amount of sculpture?&mdash;With the painting.</p>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val art you would associate with the painting, supposing you
+could not put the whole together?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>117. <i>Chairman.</i> Do you approve of protecting pictures by glass?&mdash;Yes,
+in every case. I do not know of what size a pane of glass can be
+manufactured, but I have never seen a picture so large but that I should
+be glad to see it under glass. Even supposing it were possible, which I
+suppose it is not, the great Paul Veronese, in the gallery of the
+Louvre, I think would be more beautiful under glass.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of the preservation?&mdash;Independently of the preservation, I
+think it would be more beautiful. It gives an especial delicacy to light
+colors, and does little harm to dark colors&mdash;that is, it benefits
+delicate pictures most, and its injury is only to very dark pictures.</p>
+
+<p>Have you ever considered the propriety of covering the sculpture with
+glass?&mdash;I have never considered it. I did not know until a very few days
+ago that sculpture was injured by exposure to our climate and our smoke.</p>
+
+<p><i>Professor Faraday.</i> But you would cover the pictures, independently of
+the preservation, you would cover them absolutely for the artistic
+effect, the improvement of the picture?&mdash;Not necessarily so, because to
+some persons there might be an objectionable character in having to
+avoid the reflection more scrupulously than otherwise. I should not
+press for it on that head only. The advantage gained is not a great one;
+it is only felt by very delicate eyes. As far as I know, many persons
+would not perceive that there was a difference, and that is caused by
+the very slight color in the glass, which, perhaps, some persons might
+think it expedient to avoid altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Do you put it down to the absolute tint in the glass like a glazing, or
+do you put it down to a sort of reflection? Is the effect referable to
+the color in the glass, or to some kind of optic action, which the most
+transparent glass might produce?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>&mdash;I do not know; but I suppose it to
+be referable to the very slight tint in the glass.</p>
+
+<p>118. <i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Is it not the case when ladies with very
+brilliant dresses look at pictures through glass, that the reflection of
+the color of their dresses is so strong as greatly to disturb the
+enjoyment and the appreciation of the pictures?&mdash;Certainly; but I should
+ask the ladies to stand a little aside, and look at the pictures one by
+one. There is that disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>I am supposing a crowded room&mdash;of course the object of a National
+Gallery is that it should be crowded&mdash;that as large a number of the
+public should have access to it as possible&mdash;there would of course be
+certain limited hours, and the gallery would be liable to get filled
+with the public in great numbers?&mdash;It would be disadvantageous
+certainly, but not so disadvantageous as to balance the much greater
+advantage of preservation. I imagine that, in fact, glass is essential;
+it is not merely an expedient thing, but an essential thing to the
+safety of the pictures for twenty or thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>Do you consider it essential as regards the atmosphere of London, or of
+this country generally?&mdash;I speak of London only. I have no experience of
+other parts. But I have this experience in my own collection. I kept my
+pictures for some time without glass, and I found the deterioration
+definite within a very short period&mdash;a period of a couple of years.</p>
+
+<p>You mean at Denmark Hill?&mdash;Yes; that deterioration on pictures of the
+class I refer to is not to be afterwards remedied&mdash;the thing suffers
+forever&mdash;you cannot get into the interstices.</p>
+
+<p><i>Professor Faraday.</i> You consider that the picture is permanently
+injured by the dirt?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>That no cleaning can restore it to what it was?&mdash;Nothing can restore it
+to what it was, I think, because the operation of cleaning must scrape
+away some of the grains of paint.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, if you have two pictures, one in a dirtier place, and one in
+a cleaner place, no attention will put the one in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> dirtier place on
+a level with that in the cleaner place?&mdash;I think nevermore.</p>
+
+<p>119. <i>Chairman.</i> I see that in your "Notes on the Turner Collection,"
+you recommended that the large upright pictures would have great
+advantage in having a room to themselves. Do you mean each of the large
+pictures or a whole collection of large pictures?&mdash;Supposing very
+beautiful pictures of a large size (it would depend entirely on the
+value and size of the picture), supposing we ever acquired such large
+pictures as Titian's Assumption, or Raphael's Transfiguration, those
+pictures ought to have a room to themselves, and to have a gallery round
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Do you mean that each of them should have a room?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Have you been recently at Dresden?&mdash;No, I have
+never been at Dresden.</p>
+
+<p>Then you do not know the position of the Great Holbein and of the
+Madonna de S. Sisto there, which have separate rooms?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> Are you acquainted with the Munich Gallery&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Do you know the plans of it?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Then you have not seen, perhaps, the most recent arrangements adopted by
+that learned people, the Germans, with regard to the exhibition of
+pictures?&mdash;I have not been into Germany for twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>120. That subject has been handled by them in an original manner, and
+they have constructed galleries at Munich, at Dresden, and I believe at
+St. Petersburg upon a new principle, and a very judicious principle. You
+have not had opportunities of considering that?&mdash;No, I have never
+considered that; because I always supposed that there was no difficulty
+in producing a beautiful gallery, or an efficient one. I never thought
+that there could be any question about the form which such a gallery
+should take, or that it was a matter of consideration. The only
+difficulty with me was this&mdash;the persuading, or hoping to persuade, a
+nation that if it had pictures at all, it should have those pictures on
+the line of the eye; that it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> not well to have a noble picture many
+feet above the eye, merely for the glory of the room. Then I think that
+as soon as you decide that a picture is to be seen, it is easy to find
+out the way of showing it; to say that it should have such and such a
+room, with such and such a light; not a raking light, as I heard Sir
+Charles Eastlake express it the other day, but rather an oblique and
+soft light, and not so near the picture as to catch the eye painfully.
+That may be easily obtained, and I think that all other questions after
+that are subordinate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Your proposition would require a great extent of
+wall?&mdash;An immense extent of wall.</p>
+
+<p>121. <i>Chairman.</i> I see you state in the pamphlet to which I have before
+alluded, that it is of the highest importance that the works of each
+master should be kept together. Would not such an arrangement increase
+very much the size of the National Gallery?&mdash;I think not, because I have
+only supposed in my plan that, at the utmost, two lines of pictures
+should be admitted on the walls of the room; that being so, you would be
+always able to put all the works of any master together without any
+inconvenience or difficulty in fitting them to the size of the room.
+Supposing that you put the large pictures high on the walls, then it
+might be a question, of course, whether such and such a room or
+compartment of the Gallery would hold the works of a particular master;
+but supposing the pictures were all on a continuous line, you would only
+stop with A and begin with B.</p>
+
+<p>Then you would only have them on one level and one line?&mdash;In general;
+that seems to me the common-sense principle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> Then you disapprove of the whole of the European hanging
+of pictures in galleries?&mdash;I think it very beautiful sometimes, but not
+to be imitated. It produces most noble rooms. No one can but be
+impressed with the first room at the Louvre, where you have the most
+noble Venetian pictures one mass of fire on the four walls; but then
+none of the details of those pictures can be seen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> There you have a very fine general effect, but you
+lose the effect of the beauties of each individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> picture?&mdash;You lose
+all the beauties, all the higher merits; you get merely your general
+idea. It is a perfectly splendid room, of which a great part of the
+impression depends upon the consciousness of the spectator that it is so
+costly.</p>
+
+<p>122. Would you have those galleries in themselves richly decorated?&mdash;Not
+richly, but pleasantly.</p>
+
+<p>Brilliantly, but not too brightly?&mdash;Not too brightly. I have not gone
+into that question, it being out of my way; but I think, generally, that
+great care should be taken to give a certain splendor&mdash;a certain
+gorgeous effect&mdash;so that the spectator may feel himself among splendid
+things; so that there shall be no discomfort or meagerness, or want of
+respect for the things which are being shown.</p>
+
+<p>123. <i>Mr. Richmond.</i> Then do you think that Art would be more worthily
+treated, and the public taste and artists better served, by having even
+a smaller collection of works so arranged, than by a much larger one
+merely housed and hung four or five deep, as in an auction room?&mdash;Yes.
+But you put a difficult choice before me, because I do think it a very
+important thing that we should have many pictures. Totally new results
+might be obtained from a large gallery in which the chronological
+arrangement was perfect, and whose curators prepared for that
+chronological arrangement, by leaving gaps to be filled by future
+acquisition; taking the greatest pains in the selection of the examples,
+that they should be thoroughly characteristic; giving a greater price
+for a picture which was thoroughly characteristic and expressive of the
+habits of a nation; because it appears to me that one of the main uses
+of Art at present is not so much as Art, but as teaching us the feelings
+of nations. History only tells us what they did; Art tells us their
+feelings, and why they did it: whether they were energetic and fiery, or
+whether they were, as in the case of the Dutch, imitating minor things,
+quiet and cold. All those expressions of feeling cannot come out of
+History. Even the contemporary historian does not feel them; he does not
+feel what his nation is; but get the works of the same master together,
+the works of the same nation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> together, and the works of the same
+century together, and see how the thing will force itself upon
+everyone's observation.</p>
+
+<p>124. Then you would not exclude the genuine work of inferior
+masters?&mdash;Not by any means.</p>
+
+<p>You would have the whole as far as you could obtain it?&mdash;Yes, as far as
+it was characteristic; but I think you can hardly call an inferior
+master one who does in the best possible way the thing he undertakes to
+do; and I would not take any master who did not in some way excel. For
+instance, I would not take a mere imitator of Cuyp among the Dutch; but
+Cuyp himself has done insuperable things in certain expressions of
+sunlight and repose. Vander Heyden and others may also be mentioned as
+first-rate in inferior lines.</p>
+
+<p>Taking from the rise of art to the time of Raphael, would you in the
+National Gallery include examples of all those masters whose names have
+come down to the most learned of us?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Where would you draw the line, and where would you begin to leave
+out?&mdash;I would only draw the line when I was purchasing a picture. I
+think that a person might always spend his money better by making an
+effort to get one noble picture than five or six second or third-rate
+pictures, provided only, that you had examples of the best kind of work
+produced at that time. I would not have second-rate pictures. Multitudes
+of masters among the disciples of Giotto might be named; you might have
+one or two pictures of Giotto, and one or two pictures of the disciples
+of Giotto.</p>
+
+<p>Then you would rather depend upon the beauty of the work itself; if the
+work were beautiful, you would admit it?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>But if it were only historically interesting, would you then reject
+it?&mdash;Not in the least. I want it historically interesting, but I want as
+good an example as I can have of that particular manner.</p>
+
+<p>Would it not be historically interesting if it were the only picture
+known of that particular master, who was a follower of Giotto? For
+instance, supposing a work of Cennino Cen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>nini were brought to light,
+and had no real merit in it as a work of art, would it not be the duty
+of the authorities of a National Gallery to seize upon that picture, and
+pay perhaps rather a large price for it?&mdash;Certainly; all documentary art
+I should include.</p>
+
+<p>Then what would you exclude?&mdash;Merely that which is inferior, and not
+documentary; merely another example of the same kind of thing.</p>
+
+<p>Then you would not multiply examples of the same masters if inferior
+men, but you would have one of each. There is no man, I suppose, whose
+memory has come down to us after three or four centuries, but has
+something worth preserving in his work&mdash;something peculiar to himself,
+which perhaps no other person has ever done, and you would retain one
+example of such, would you not?&mdash;I would, if it was in my power, but I
+would rather with given funds make an effort to get perfect examples.</p>
+
+<p>Then you think that the artistic element should govern the arch&aelig;ological
+in the selection?&mdash;Yes, and the arch&aelig;ological in the arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>125. <i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> When you speak of arranging the works of one
+master consecutively, would you pay any regard or not to the subjects?
+You must be well aware that many painters, for instance, Correggio, and
+others, painted very incongruous subjects; would you rather keep them
+together than disperse the works of those painters to a certain degree
+according to their subjects?&mdash;I would most certainly keep them together.
+I think it an important feature of the master that he did paint
+incongruously, and very possibly the character of each picture would be
+better understood by seeing them together; the relations of each are
+sometimes essential to be seen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> Do you think that the preservation of these works is one
+of the first and most important things to be provided for?&mdash;It would be
+so with me in purchasing a picture. I would pay double the price for it
+if I thought it was likely to be destroyed where it was.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a note you wrote to me the other day, I find this passage: "The Art
+of a nation I think one of the most important points of its history, and
+a part which, if once destroyed, no history will ever supply the place
+of&mdash;and the first idea of a National Gallery is, that it should be a
+Library of Art, in which the rudest efforts are, in some cases, hardly
+less important than the noblest." Is that your opinion?&mdash;Perfectly. That
+seems somewhat inconsistent with what I have been saying, but I mean
+there, the noblest efforts of the time at which they are produced. I
+would take the greatest pains to get an example of eleventh century
+work, though the painting is perfectly barbarous at that time.</p>
+
+<p>126. You have much to do with the education of the working classes in
+Art. As far as you are able to tell us, what is your experience with
+regard to their liking and disliking in Art&mdash;do comparatively uneducated
+persons prefer the Art up to the time of Raphael, or down from the time
+of Raphael?&mdash;we will take the Bolognese School, or the early Florentine
+School&mdash;which do you think a working man would feel the greatest
+interest in looking at?&mdash;I cannot tell you, because my working men would
+not be allowed to look at a Bolognese picture; I teach them so much love
+of detail, that the moment they see a detail carefully drawn, they are
+caught by it. The main thing which has surprised me in dealing with
+these men is the exceeding refinement of their minds&mdash;so that in a
+moment I can get carpenters, and smiths, and ordinary workmen, and
+various classes to give me a refinement which I cannot get a young lady
+to give me when I give her a lesson for the first time. Whether it is
+the habit of work which makes them go at it more intensely, or whether
+it is (as I rather think) that, as the feminine mind looks for strength,
+the masculine mind looks for delicacy, and when you take it simply, and
+give it its choice, it will go to the most refined thing, I do not know.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Can you see any perceptible improvement in the
+state of the public mind and taste in that respect since these measures
+have been adopted?&mdash;There has not been time to judge of that.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>127. Do these persons who are taking an interest in Art come from
+different parts of London?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the distance which they would have to come would be of very
+great importance?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore one of the great recommendations of a Gallery, if you wish it
+to have an effect upon the public mind in that respect, would be its
+accessibility, both with regard to the time consumed in going there, and
+to the cheapness, as I may call it, of access?&mdash;Most certainly.</p>
+
+<p>You would therefore consider that the more central the situation,
+putting all other points out of consideration, the greater advantage it
+would be to the public?&mdash;Yes; there is this, however, to be said, that a
+central situation involves the crowding of the room with parties wholly
+uninterested in the matter&mdash;a situation more retired will generally be
+serviceable enough for the real student.</p>
+
+<p>Would not that very much depend upon its being in a thoroughfare? There
+might be a central situation which would not be so complete a
+thoroughfare as to tempt persons to go in who were not likely to derive
+advantage from it?&mdash;I think that if this gallery were made so large and
+so beautiful as we are proposing, it would be rather a resort, rather a
+lounge every day, and all day long, provided it were accessible.</p>
+
+<p>128. Would not that a good deal depend upon its being in a public
+thoroughfare? If it were in a thoroughfare, a great many persons might
+pass in who would be driven in by accident, or driven in by caprice, if
+they passed it; but if it were at a little distance from a thoroughfare,
+it would be less crowded with those persons who are not likely to derive
+much advantage from it?&mdash;Quite so; but there would always be an
+advantage in attracting a crowd; it would always extend its educational
+ability in its being crowded. But it would seem to me that all that is
+necessary for a noble Museum of the best art should be more or less
+removed, and that a collection, solely for the purpose of education, and
+for the purpose of interesting people who do not care much about art,
+should be provided in the very heart of the population, if possible,
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> pictures not of great value, but of sufficient value to interest
+the public, and of merit enough to form the basis of early education,
+and to give examples of all art, should be collected in the popular
+Gallery, but that all the precious things should be removed and put into
+the great Gallery, where they would be safest, irrespectively altogether
+of accessibility.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Then you would, in fact, have not one but two
+Galleries?&mdash;Two only.</p>
+
+<p>129. <i>Professor Faraday.</i> And you would seem to desire purposely the
+removal of the true and head Gallery to some distance, so as to prevent
+the great access of persons?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Thinking that all those who could make a real use of a Gallery would go
+to that one?&mdash;Yes. My opinion in that respect has been altered within
+these few days from the fact having been brought to my knowledge of
+sculpture being much deteriorated by the atmosphere and the total
+impossibility of protecting sculpture. Pictures I do not care about, for
+I can protect them, but not sculpture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Whence did you derive that knowledge?&mdash;I forget
+who told me; it was some authority I thought conclusive, and therefore
+took no special note of.</p>
+
+<p>130. <i>Chairman.</i> Do you not consider that it is rather prejudicial to
+art that there should be a Gallery notoriously containing no first-rate
+works of art, but second-rate or third-rate works?&mdash;No; I think it
+rather valuable as an expression of the means of education, that there
+should be early lessons in art&mdash;that there should be this sort of art
+selected especially for first studies, and also that there should be a
+recognition of the exceeding preciousness of some other art. I think
+that portions of it should be set aside as interesting, but not
+unreplaceable; but that other portions should be set aside as being
+things as to which the function of the nation was, chiefly, to take care
+of those things, not for itself merely, but for all its descendants, and
+setting the example of taking care of them for ever.</p>
+
+<p>You do not think, then, that there would be any danger in the studying
+or the copying of works which notoriously were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> not the best works?&mdash;On
+the contrary, I think it would be better that works not altogether the
+best should be first submitted. I never should think of giving the best
+work myself to a student to copy&mdash;it is hopeless; he would not feel its
+beauties&mdash;he would merely blunder over it. I am perfectly certain that
+that cannot be serviceable in the particular branch of art which I
+profess, namely, landscape-painting; I know that I must give more or
+less of bad examples.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> But you would admit nothing into this second gallery
+which was not good or true of its kind?&mdash;Nothing which was not good or
+true of its kind, but only inferior in value to the others.</p>
+
+<p>And if there were any other works which might be deposited there with
+perfect safety, say precious drawings, which might be protected by
+glass, you would not object to exhibit those to the unselected
+multitude?&mdash;Not in the least; I should be very glad to do so, provided I
+could spare them from the grand chronological arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that a very interesting supplementary exhibition might be
+got up, say at Trafalgar Square, and retained there?&mdash;Yes, and all the
+more useful because you would put few works, and you could make it
+complete in series&mdash;and because, on a small scale, you would have the
+entire series. By selecting a few works, you would have an epitome of
+the Grand Gallery, the divisions of the chronology being all within the
+compartment of a wall, which in the great Gallery would be in a separate
+division of the building.</p>
+
+<p>131. <i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> Do you contemplate the possibility of excellent
+copies being exhibited of the most excellent works both of sculpture and
+of painting?&mdash;I have not contemplated that possibility. I have a great
+horror of copies of any kind, except only of sculpture. I have great
+fear of copies of painting; I think people generally catch the worst
+parts of the painting and leave the best.</p>
+
+<p>But you would select the artist who should make the copy. There are
+persons whose whole talent is concentrated in the power of imitation of
+a given picture, and a great talent it is.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>&mdash;I have never in my life
+seen a good copy of a good picture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Have you not seen any of the German copies of some of the
+great Italian masters, which are generally esteemed very admirable
+works?&mdash;I have not much studied the works of the copyists; I have not
+observed them much, never having yet found an exception to that rule
+which I have mentioned. When I came across a copyist in the Gallery of
+the Vatican, or in the Gallery at Florence, I had a horror of the
+mischief, and the scandal and the libel upon the master, from the
+supposition that such a thing as that in any way resembled his work, and
+the harm that it would do to the populace among whom it was shown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> You look upon it as you would upon coining bad money and
+circulating it, doing mischief?&mdash;Yes, it is mischievous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> But you admit engravings&mdash;you admit photographs of
+these works, which are imitations in another language?&mdash;Yes; in abstract
+terms, they are rather descriptions of the paintings than copies&mdash;they
+are rather measures and definitions of them&mdash;they are hints and tables
+of the pictures, rather than copies of them; they do not pretend to the
+same excellence in any way.</p>
+
+<p>You speak as a connoisseur; how would the common eye of the public agree
+with you in that opinion?&mdash;I think it would not agree with me.
+Nevertheless, if I were taking some of my workmen into the National
+Gallery, I should soon have some hope of making them understand in what
+excellence consisted, if I could point to a genuine work; but I should
+have no such hope if I had only copies of these pictures.</p>
+
+<p>132. Do you hold much to the arch&aelig;ological, chronological, and
+historical series and teaching of pictures?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Are you of opinion that that is essential to the creative teaching, with
+reference to our future schools?&mdash;No. I should think not essential at
+all. The teaching of the future artist, I should think, might be
+accomplished by very few pictures of the class which that particular
+artist wished to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> study. I think that the chronological arrangement is
+in no-wise connected with the general efficiency of the gallery as a
+matter of study for the artist, but very much so as a means of study,
+not for persons interested in painting merely, but for those who wish to
+examine the general history of nations; and I think that painting should
+be considered by that class of persons as containing precious evidence.
+It would be part of the philosopher's work to examine the art of a
+nation as well as its poetry.</p>
+
+<p>You consider that art speaks a language and tells a tale which no
+written document can effect?&mdash;Yes, and far more precious; the whole soul
+of a nation generally goes with its art. It may be urged by an ambitious
+king to become a warrior nation. It may be trained by a single leader to
+become a <i>great</i> warrior nation, and its character at that time may
+materially depend upon that one man, but in its art all the mind of the
+nation is more or less expressed: it can be said, that was what the
+peasant sought to when he went into the city to the cathedral in the
+morning&mdash;that was the sort of book the poor person read or learned
+in&mdash;the sort of picture he prayed to. All which involves infinitely more
+important considerations than common history.</p>
+
+<p>133. <i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> When you speak of your objections to copies
+of pictures, do you carry that objection to casts of sculpture?&mdash;Not at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing there could be no complete union of the great works of
+sculpture in a country with the great works of painting in that country,
+would you consider that a good selection of casts comprising the great
+remains of sculpture of all ages would be an important addition to a
+public gallery?&mdash;I should be very glad to see it.</p>
+
+<p>If you could not have it of originals, you would wish very much to have
+a complete collection of casts, of course selected from all the finest
+sculptures in the world?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> Would you do the same with architecture&mdash;would you
+collect the remains of architecture, as far as they are to be collected,
+and unite them with sculpture and paint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>ing?&mdash;I should think that
+architecture consisted, as far as it was portable, very much in
+sculpture. In saying that, I mean, that in the different branches of
+sculpture architecture is involved&mdash;that is to say, you would have the
+statues belonging to such and such a division of a building. Then if you
+had casts of those statues, you would necessarily have those casts
+placed exactly in the same position as the original statues&mdash;it involves
+the buildings surrounding them and the elevation&mdash;it involves the whole
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to that, would you have original drawings of architecture,
+and models of great buildings, and photographs, if they could be made
+permanent, of the great buildings as well as the moldings and casts of
+the moldings, and the members as far as you could obtain them?&mdash;Quite
+so.</p>
+
+<p>Would you also include, in the National Gallery, what may be called the
+handicraft of a nation&mdash;works for domestic use or ornament? For
+instance, we know that there were some salt-cellars designed for one of
+the Popes; would you have those if they came to us?&mdash;Everything, pots
+and pans, and salt-cellars, and knives.</p>
+
+<p>You would have everything that had an interesting art element in
+it?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> In short, a modern Pompeian Gallery?&mdash;Yes; I know
+how much greater extent that involves, but I think that you should
+include all the iron work, and china, and pottery, and so on. I think
+that all works in metal, all works in clay, all works in carved wood,
+should be included. Of course, that involves much. It involves all the
+coins&mdash;it involves an immense extent.</p>
+
+<p>134. Supposing it were impossible to concenter in one great museum the
+whole of these things, where should you prefer to draw the line? Would
+you draw the line between what I may call the ancient Pagan world and
+the modern Christian world, and so leave, to what may be called the
+ancient world, all the ancient sculpture, and any fragments of ancient
+painting which there might be&mdash;all the vases, all the ancient bronzes,
+and, in short, everything which comes down to a certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> period? Do you
+think that that would be the best division, or should you prefer any
+division which takes special arts, and keeps those arts together?&mdash;I
+should like the Pagan and Christian division. I think it very essential
+that wherever the sculpture of a nation was, there its iron work should
+be&mdash;that wherever its iron work was, there its pottery should be, and so
+on.</p>
+
+<p>And you would keep the medi&aelig;val works together, in whatever form those
+medi&aelig;val works existed?&mdash;Yes; I should not at all feel injured by having
+to take a cab-drive from one century to another century.</p>
+
+<p>Or from the ancient to the modern world?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> If it were found convenient to keep separate the Pagan
+and the Christian art, with which would you associate the medi&aelig;val?&mdash;By
+"Christian and Pagan Art" I mean, before Christ and after Christ.</p>
+
+<p>Then the medi&aelig;val would come with the paintings?&mdash;Yes; and also the
+Mahomedan, and all the Pagan art which was after Christ, I should
+associate as part, and a most essential part, because it seems to me
+that the history of Christianity is complicated perpetually with that
+which Christianity was effecting. Therefore, it is a matter of date, not
+of Christianity. Everything before Christ I should be glad to see
+separated, or you may take any other date that you like.</p>
+
+<p>But the inspiration of the two schools&mdash;the Pagan and the
+Christian&mdash;seems so different, that there would be no great violence
+done to the true theory of a National Gallery in dividing these two,
+would there, if each were made complete in itself?&mdash;That is to say,
+taking the spirit of the world after Christianity was in it, and the
+spirit of the world before Christianity was in it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> The birth of Christ, you say, is the commencement
+of Christian art?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Then Christian influence began, and, of course, that would leave a small
+debatable ground, particularly among the ivories for instance, which we
+must settle according to circumstances?&mdash;Wide of any debatable ground,
+all the art of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> nation which had never heard of Christianity, the
+Hindoo art and so on, would, I suppose, if of the Christian era, go into
+the Christian gallery.</p>
+
+<p>I was speaking rather of the transition period, which, of course, there
+must be?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> There must be a distinction between the terms "museum"
+and "gallery." What are the distinctions which you would draw in the
+present case?&mdash;I should think "museum" was the right name of the whole
+building. A "gallery" is, I think, merely a room in a museum adapted for
+the exhibition of works in a series, whose effect depends upon their
+collateral showing forth.</p>
+
+<p>135. There are certainly persons who would derive their chief advantage
+from the historical and chronological arrangement which you propose, but
+there are others who look alone for the beautiful, and who say, "I have
+nothing to do with your pedantry. I desire to have the beautiful before
+me. Show me those complete and perfect works which are received and
+known as the works of Phidias and the great Greek masters as far as we
+possess them, and the works of the great Italian painters. I have not
+time, nor does my genius permit that I should trouble myself with those
+details." There is a large class who are guided by those feelings?&mdash;And
+I hope who always will be guided by them; but I should consult their
+feelings enough in the setting before them of the most beautiful works
+of art. All that I should beg of them to yield to me would be that they
+should look at Titian only, or at Raphael only, and not wish to have
+Titian and Raphael side by side; and I think I should be able to teach
+them, as a matter of beauty, that they did enjoy Titian and Raphael
+alone better than mingled. Then I would provide them beautiful galleries
+full of the most-noble sculpture. Whenever we come as a country and a
+nation to provide beautiful sculpture, it seems to me that the greatest
+pains should be taken to set it off beautifully. You should have
+beautiful sculpture in the middle of the room, with dark walls round it
+to throw out its profile, and you should have all the arrangements made
+there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> so as to harmonize with it, and to set forth every line of it. So
+the painting gallery, I think, might be made a glorious thing, if the
+pictures were level, and the architecture above produced unity of
+impression from the beauty and glow of color and the purity of form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> And you would not exclude a Crevelli because it was
+quaint, or an early master of any school&mdash;you would have the infancy,
+the youth, and the age, of each school, would you not?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dean of St. Paul's.</i> Of the German as well as the Italian?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> Spanish, and all the schools?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>136. <i>Mr. Cockerell.</i> You are quite aware of the great liberality of the
+Government, as we learn from the papers, in a recent instance, namely,
+the purchase of a great Paul Veronese?&mdash;I am rejoiced to hear it. If it
+is confirmed, nothing will have given me such pleasure for a long time.
+I think it is the most precious Paul Veronese in the world, as far as
+the completion of the picture goes, and quite a priceless picture.</p>
+
+<p>Can you conceive a Government, or a people, who would countenance so
+expensive a purchase, condescending to take up with the occupation of
+the upper story of some public building, or with an expedient which
+should not be entirely worthy of such a noble Gallery of Pictures?&mdash;I do
+not think that they ought to do so; but I do not know how far they will
+be consistent. I certainly think they ought not to put up with any such
+expedient. I am not prepared to say what limits there are to consistency
+or inconsistency.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Richmond.</i> I understand you to have given in evidence that you
+think a National Collection should be illustrative of the whole art in
+all its branches?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>Not a cabinet of paintings, not a collection of sculptured works, but
+illustrative of the whole art?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>137. Have you any further remark to offer to the Commissioners?&mdash;I wish
+to say one word respecting the question of the restoration of statuary.
+It seems to me a very simple question. Much harm is being at present
+done in Europe by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> restoration, more harm than was ever done, as far as
+I know, by revolutions or by wars. The French are now doing great harm
+to their cathedrals, under the idea that they are doing good, destroying
+more than all the good they are doing. And all this proceeds from the
+one great mistake of supposing that sculpture can be restored when it is
+injured. I am very much interested by the question which one of the
+Commissioners asked me in that respect; and I would suggest whether it
+does not seem easy to avoid all questions of that kind. If the statue is
+injured, leave it so, but provide a perfect copy of the statue in its
+restored form; offer, if you like, prizes to sculptors for conjectural
+restorations, and choose the most beautiful, but do not touch the
+original work.</p>
+
+<p>138. <i>Professor Faraday.</i> You said some time ago that in your own
+attempts to instruct the public there had not been time yet to see
+whether the course taken had produced improvement or not. You see no
+signs at all which lead you to suppose that it will not produce the
+improvement which you desire?&mdash;Far from it&mdash;I understood the Dean of St.
+Paul's to ask me whether any general effect had been produced upon the
+minds of the public. I have only been teaching a class of about forty
+workmen for a couple of years, after their work&mdash;they not always
+attending&mdash;and that forty being composed of people passing away and
+coming again; and I do not know what they are now doing; I only see a
+gradual succession of men in my own class. I rather take them in an
+elementary class, and pass them to a master in a higher class. But I
+have the greatest delight in the progress which these men have made, so
+far as I have seen it; and I have not the least doubt that great things
+will be done with respect to them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Will you state precisely what position you hold?&mdash;I am
+master of the Elementary and Landscape School of Drawing at the Working
+Men's College in Great Ormond Street. My efforts are directed not to
+making a carpenter an artist, but to making him happier as a carpenter.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The following analysis of the above evidence was
+given in the Index to the Report (p. 184).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p>
+
+<p>114-5-6. Sculpture and painting should be combined under same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+roof, not in same room.&mdash;Sculpture disciplines the eye to
+appreciate painting.&mdash;But, if in same room, disturbs the
+mind.&mdash;Tribune at Florence arranged too much for show&mdash;Sculpture
+not to be regarded as <i>decorative</i> of a room.&mdash;National Gallery
+should include works of all kinds of art <i>of all ages</i>, arranged
+chronologically (<i>cf.</i> 132). Medi&aelig;val sculpture should go with
+painting, if it is found impossible to combine art of all ages.</p>
+
+<p>117-8. Pictures should be protected by glass in every case. It
+makes them more beautiful, independently of the
+preservation,&mdash;Glass is not merely expedient, but
+essential.&mdash;Pictures are permanently injured by dirt.</p>
+
+<p>119-20-21. First-rate large pictures should have a room to
+themselves, and a gallery round them.&mdash;Pictures must be hung on a
+line with the eye.&mdash;In one, or at most two, lines.&mdash;In the Salon
+Carre at the Louvre the effect is magnificent, but details of
+pictures cannot be seen.</p>
+
+<p>122. Galleries should be decorated not splendidly, but pleasantly.</p>
+
+<p>123. Great importance of chronological arrangement. Art the truest
+history (<i>cf.</i> 125 and 132).</p>
+
+<p>124. Best works of inferior artists to be secured.</p>
+
+<p>125. All the works of a painter, however incongruous their
+subjects, to be exhibited in juxtaposition.</p>
+
+<p>126. Love of detail in pictures among workmen.&mdash;Great refinement of
+their perceptions.</p>
+
+<p>127. Accessibility of new National Gallery.</p>
+
+<p>128. There should be two galleries&mdash;one containing gems, placed in
+as <i>safe</i> a position as possible; the other containing works good,
+but inferior to the highest, and located solely with a view to
+accessibility.</p>
+
+<p>129. Impossible to protect <i>sculpture</i> from London atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>130. Inferior gallery would be useful as an instructor.&mdash;In this
+respect superior to the great gallery.</p>
+
+<p>131-32. <i>Copies</i> of paintings much to be deprecated.</p>
+
+<p>133. Good collection of casts a valuable addition to a national
+gallery.&mdash;Also architectural fragments and illustrations.&mdash;And
+everything which involves art.</p>
+
+<p>134. If it is impossible to combine works of art of all ages, the
+Pagan and Christian division is the best.&mdash;"Christian" art
+including <i>all</i> art subsequent to the birth of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>135. Great importance of arranging and setting off sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>136. Recent purchase by Government of the great Paul Veronese.</p>
+
+<p>137. "Restoring" abroad.</p>
+
+<p>138. Witness is Master of the Elementary and Landscape School of
+Drawing at the Working Men's College in Great Ormond
+Street.&mdash;Progress made by students highly satisfactory.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This evidence, given by Mr. Ruskin as stated above, is
+reprinted from the Report of the National Gallery Site Commission.
+London: Harrison and Sons. 1857. Pp. 92-7. Questions 2392-2504. The
+Commission consisted of Lord Broughton (chairman), Dean Milman,
+Professor Faraday, Mr. Cockerell, R.A., and Mr. George Richmond, all of
+whom were present on the occasion of Mr. Ruskin giving his
+evidence.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PICTURE GALLERIES&mdash;THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.</h2>
+
+<h3>SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h3>
+
+<h4><i>Evidence of John Ruskin, Tuesday, March 20, 1860.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>139. <i>Chairman.</i> I believe you have a general acquaintance with
+the leading museums, picture galleries, and institutions in this
+metropolis?&mdash;Yes, I know them well.</p>
+
+<p>And especially the pictures?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>I believe you have also taken much interest in the Working Men's
+College?&mdash;Yes, much interest. I have been occupied there as a master for
+about five years.</p>
+
+<p>I believe you conduct a class on two days in the week?&mdash;On one day of
+the week only.</p>
+
+<p>You have given a great deal of gratuitous instruction to the working
+classes?&mdash;Not so much to the working classes as to the class which
+especially attends the lectures on drawing, but which of course is
+connected with the working classes, and through which I know something
+about them.</p>
+
+<p>140. You are probably able to speak with reference to the hours at which
+it would be most convenient that these institutions should be opened to
+the working classes, so that they might enjoy them?&mdash;At all events, I
+can form some opinion about it.</p>
+
+<p>What are the hours which you think would be the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> suitable to the
+working classes, or those to whom you have imparted instruction?&mdash;They
+would, of course, have in general no hours but in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think the hours which are now found suitable for mechanics'
+institutes would be suitable for them, that is, from eight till ten, or
+from seven till ten at night?&mdash;The earlier the better, I should think;
+that being dependent closely upon the other much more important
+question, how you can prepare the workmen for taking advantage of these
+institutions. The question before us, as a nation, is not, I think, what
+opportunities we shall give to the workmen of instruction, unless we
+enable them to receive it; and all this is connected closely, in my
+mind, with the early closing question, and with the more difficult
+question, issuing out of that, how far you can get the hours of labor
+regulated, and how far you can get the labor during those hours made not
+competitive, and not oppressive to the workmen.</p>
+
+<p>141. Have you found that the instruction which you have been enabled to
+give to the working classes has produced very good results upon them
+already? I ought perhaps hardly to speak of my own particular modes of
+instruction, because their tendency is rather to lead the workman out of
+his class, and I am privately obliged to impress upon my men who come to
+the Working Men's College, not to learn in the hope of being anything
+but working men, but to learn what may be either advantageous for them
+in their work, or make them happy after their work. In my class, they
+are especially tempted to think of rising above their own rank, and
+becoming artists,&mdash;becoming something better than workmen, and that
+effect I particularly dread. I want all efforts for bettering the
+workmen to be especially directed in this way: supposing that they are
+to remain in this position forever, that they have not capacity to rise
+above it, and that they are to work as coal miners, or as iron forgers,
+staying as they are; how then you may make them happier and wiser?</p>
+
+<p>I should suppose you would admit that the desire to rise out of a class
+is almost inseparable from the amount of self-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>improvement that you
+would wish to give them?&mdash;I should think not; I think that the moment a
+man desires to rise out of his own class, he does his work badly in it;
+he ought to desire to rise in his own class, and not out of it.</p>
+
+<p>The instruction which you would impart one would suppose would be
+beneficial to the laborer in the class which he is in?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>142. And that agrees, does it not, with what has been alleged by many
+working men, that they have found in their competition with foreigners
+that a knowledge of art has been most beneficial to them?&mdash;Quite so.</p>
+
+<p>I believe many foreigners are now in competition with working men in the
+metropolis, in matters in which art is involved?&mdash;I believe there are
+many, and that they are likely still more to increase as the relations
+between the nations become closer.</p>
+
+<p>Is it your opinion that the individual workman who now executes works of
+art in this country is less intellectually fit for his occupation than
+in former days?&mdash;Very much so indeed.</p>
+
+<p>Have you not some proofs of that which you can adduce for the benefit of
+the Committee?&mdash;I can only make an assertion; I cannot prove it; but I
+assert it with confidence, that no workman, whose mind I have examined,
+is, at present, capable of design in the arts, only of imitation, and of
+exquisite manual execution, such as is unsurpassable by the work of any
+time or any country; manual execution, which, however, being wholly
+mechanical, is always profitless to the man himself, and profitless
+ultimately to those who possess the work.</p>
+
+<p>143. With regard to those institutions in which pictures are exhibited,
+are you satisfied that the utmost facilities are afforded to the public
+compatibly with the expense which is now incurred?&mdash;I cannot tell how
+far it would be compatible with the expense, but I think that a very
+little increase of expense might certainly bring about a great increase
+of convenience.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Various plans have been suggested, by different persons, as to an
+improvement in the National Gallery, with regard to the area, and a
+better distribution of the pictures?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Are you of opinion that at a very small cost it would be possible to
+increase the area considerably in the case of the National Gallery?&mdash;I
+have not examined the question with respect to the area of the National
+Gallery. It depends of course upon questions of rent, and respecting the
+mode in which the building is now constructed, which I have not
+examined; but in general this is true of large buildings, that expense
+wisely directed to giving facilities for seeing the pictures, and not to
+the mere show of the building, would always be productive of far more
+good to the nation, and especially to the lower orders of the nation,
+than expense in any other way directed, with reference to these
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>144. Some persons have been disposed to doubt whether, if the
+institutions were open at night, gas would be found injurious to the
+pictures; would that be your impression?&mdash;I have no doubt that it would
+be injurious to the pictures, if it came in contact with them. It would
+be a matter of great regret to me that valuable pictures should be so
+exhibited. I have hoped that pictures might be placed in a gallery for
+the working classes which would interest them much more than the
+<i>chefs-d'&oelig;uvre</i> of the great masters, and which at the same time
+would not be a great loss to the nation if destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>145. Have you had any experience of the working of the evening openings
+of the South Kensington Museum?&mdash;No direct experience, but my impression
+is that the workmen at present being compelled to think always of
+getting as much work done in a day as they can, are generally led in
+these institutions to look to the machinery, or to anything which bears
+upon their trade; it therefore is no rest to them; it may be sometimes,
+when they are allowed to take their families, as they do on certain
+evenings, to the Kensington Museum, that is a great step; but the great
+evil is that the pressure of the work on a man's mind is not removed,
+and that he has not rest enough, thorough rest given him by proper
+explanations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> of the things he sees; he is not led by a large printed
+explanation beneath the very thing to take a happy and unpainful
+interest in every subject brought before him; he wanders about
+listlessly, and exerts himself to find out things which are not
+sufficiently explained, and gradually he tires of it, and he goes back
+to his home, or to his alehouse, unless he is a very intelligent man.</p>
+
+<p>Would you recommend that some person should follow him through the
+building to explain the details?&mdash;No; but I would especially recommend
+that our institutions should be calculated for the help of persons whose
+minds are languid with labor. I find that with ordinary constitutions,
+the labor of a day in England oppresses a man, and breaks him down, and
+it is not refreshment to him to use his mind after that, but it would be
+refreshment to him to have anything read to him, or any amusing thing
+told him, or to have perfect rest; he likes to lie back in his chair at
+his own fireside, and smoke his pipe, rather than enter into a political
+debate, and what we want is an extension of our art institutions, with
+interesting things, teaching a man and amusing him at the same time;
+above all, large printed explanations under every print and every
+picture; and the subjects of the pictures such as they can enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>146. Have you any other suggestion to offer calculated to enlighten the
+Committee on the subject intrusted to them for consideration?&mdash;I can
+only say what my own feelings have been as to my men. I have found
+particularly that natural history was delightful to them; I think that
+that has an especial tendency to take their minds off their work, which
+is what I always try to do, not ambitiously, but reposingly. I should
+like to add to what I said about the danger of injury to
+<i>chefs-d'&oelig;uvre</i>, that such danger exists, not only as to gas, but
+also the breath, the variation of temperature, the extension of the
+canvases in a different temperature, the extension of the paint upon
+them, and various chemical operations of the human breath, the chance of
+an accidental escape of gas, the circulation of variously damp air
+through the ventilators; all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> these ought not to be allowed to affect
+the great and unreplaceable works of the best masters; and those works,
+I believe, are wholly valueless to the working classes; their merits are
+wholly imperceptible except to persons who have given many years of
+study to endeavor to qualify themselves to discover them; but what is
+wanting for the working man is historical painting of events noble, and
+bearing upon his own country; the history of his own country well
+represented to him; the natural history of foreign countries well
+represented to him; and domestic pathos brought before him. Nothing
+assists him so much as having the moral disposition developed rather
+than the intellectual after his work; anything that touches his feelings
+is good, and puts new life into him; therefore I want modern pictures,
+if possible, of that class which would ennoble and refine by their
+subjects. I should like prints of all times, engravings of all times;
+those would interest him with their variety of means and subject; and
+natural history of three kinds, namely, shells, birds, and plants; not
+minerals, because a workman cannot study mineralogy at home; but
+whatever town he may be in, he may take some interest in the birds and
+in the plants, or in the sea shells of his own country and coast. I
+should like the commonest of all our plants first, and most fully
+illustrated; the commonest of all our birds, and of our shells, and men
+would be led to take an interest in those things wholly for their
+beauty, and for their separate charm, irrespective of any use that might
+be made of them in the arts. There also ought to be, for the more
+intelligent workman, who really wants to advance himself in his
+business, specimens of the manufactures of all countries, as far as the
+compass of such institutions would allow.</p>
+
+<p>147. You have traveled, I believe, a good deal abroad?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>And you have seen in many foreign countries that far more interest is
+taken in the improvement of the people in this matter than is taken in
+this country?&mdash;Far more.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that you can trace the good effects which result from that
+mode of treatment?&mdash;The circumstances are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> so different that I do not
+feel able to give evidence of any definite effect from such efforts;
+only, it stands to reason, that it must be so. There are so many
+circumstances at present against us, in England, that we must not be
+sanguine as to too speedy an effect. I believe that one great reason of
+the superiority of foreign countries in manufactures is, that they have
+more beautiful things about them continually, and it is not possible for
+a man who is educated in the streets of our manufacturing towns ever to
+attain that refinement of eye or sense; he cannot do it; and he is
+accustomed in his home to endure that which not the less blunts his
+senses.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee has been informed that with regard to some of our museums,
+particularly the British Museum, they are very much overcharged with
+objects, and I apprehend that the same remark would be true as to some
+of our picture galleries. Are you of opinion that it would be conducive
+to the general elevation of the people in this country if our works of
+art, and objects of interest, were circulated more expeditiously, and
+more conveniently, than at present, throughout the various manufacturing
+districts?&mdash;I think that all precious works of art ought to be treated
+with a quite different view, and that they ought to be kept together
+where men whose work is chiefly concerned with art, and where the
+artistically higher classes can take full advantage of them. They ought,
+therefore, to be all together, as in the Louvre at Paris, and as in the
+Uffizii at Florence, everything being illustrative of other things, but
+kept separate from the collections intended for the working classes,
+which may be as valuable as you choose, but they should be usable, and
+above all things so situated that the working classes could get at them
+easily, without keepers to watch what they are about, and have their
+wives and children with them, and be able to get at them freely, so that
+they might look at a thing as their own, not merely as the nation's, but
+as a gift from the nation to them as the working class.</p>
+
+<p>You would cultivate a taste at the impressionable age?&mdash;Especially in
+the education of children, that being just the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> first question, I
+suppose, which lies at the root of all you can do for the workman.</p>
+
+<p>148. With regard to the circulation of pictures and such loans of
+pictures as have heretofore been made in Manchester and elsewhere, are
+you of opinion that, in certain cases, during a part of the year, some
+of our best pictures might be lent for particular periods, to particular
+towns, to be restored in the same condition, so as to give those towns
+an opportunity of forming an opinion upon them, which otherwise they
+would not have?&mdash;I would rather keep them all in the metropolis, and
+move them as little as possible when valuable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Slaney.</i> That would not apply to loans by independent gentlemen who
+were willing to lend their pictures?&mdash;I should be very glad if it were
+possible to lend pictures, and send them about. I think it is one of the
+greatest movements in the nation, showing the increasing kindness of the
+upper classes towards the lower, that that has been done; but I think
+nothing can justify the risking of noble pictures by railway, for
+instance; that, of course, is an artist's view of the matter; but I do
+not see that the advantage to be gained would at all correspond with the
+danger of loss which is involved.</p>
+
+<p>149. <i>Mr. Hanbury.</i> You mentioned that you thought it was very desirable
+that there should be lectures given to the working classes?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that the duplicate specimens at the British Museum could be
+made available for lectures on natural history, if a part of that
+institution could be arranged for the purpose?&mdash;I should think so; but
+it is a question that I have no right to have an opinion upon. Only the
+officers of the institution can say what number of their duplicate
+specimens they could spare.</p>
+
+<p>I put the question to you because I have observed in the British Museum
+that the people took a great interest in the natural history department,
+and, upon one occasion, a friend of mine stopped, and explained some of
+the objects, and at once a very numerous crowd was attracted round him,
+and the officials had to interfere, and told him to move on.&mdash;So<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> much
+more depends upon the explanation than on the thing explained, that I
+believe, with very simple collections of very small value, but well
+chosen, and exhibited by a thoroughly intelligent lecturer, you might
+interest the lower classes, and teach them to any extent.</p>
+
+<p>Would it be difficult to find such lecturers as you speak of?&mdash;Not in
+time; perhaps at present it would be, because we have got so much in the
+habit of thinking that science consists in language, and in fine words,
+and not in ascertaining the nature of the thing. The workman cannot be
+deceived by fine words; he always wants to know something about the
+thing, and its properties. Many of our lecturers would, I have no doubt,
+be puzzled if they were asked to explain the habits of a common bird.</p>
+
+<p>150. Is there an increasing desire for information and improvement among
+the working classes?&mdash;A thirsty desire for it in every direction,
+increasing day by day, and likely to increase; it would grow by what it
+feeds upon.</p>
+
+<p>To what do you attribute this improvement?&mdash;Partly to the healthy and
+proper efforts which have been made to elevate the working classes;
+partly, I am sorry to say, to an ambitious desire throughout the nation
+always to get on to a point which it has not yet reached, and which
+makes one man struggle with another in every way. I think that the idea
+that knowledge is power is at the root of the movement among the working
+classes, much more so than in any other.</p>
+
+<p>Do you consider that the distance of our public institutions is a great
+hindrance to the working classes?&mdash;Very great indeed.</p>
+
+<p>You would, therefore, probably consider it a boon if another institution
+such as the British Museum could be established in the eastern end of
+the metropolis?&mdash;I should be most thankful to see it, especially there.</p>
+
+<p>151. <i>Mr. Slaney.</i> I think you stated that you considered, that for the
+working classes it is a great thing to have relaxation of mind after the
+close occupation of the day; that they would embrace an opportunity of
+attending popular lectures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> on branches of natural history which they
+could comprehend, if they were given to them in plain and simple
+language?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, if you were to give a popular lecture upon British birds,
+giving them an explanation of the habits of the various birds, assisted
+by tolerably good plates, or figures describing the different habits of
+migration of those that come to us in spring, remain during the summer,
+and depart in the autumn to distant countries; of those which come in
+the autumn, remain during the winter, and then leave us; of those which
+charm us with their song, and benefit us in various ways; do you think
+that such a lecture would be acceptable to the working classes?&mdash;It
+would be just what they would enjoy the most, and what would do them the
+most good.</p>
+
+<p>Do you not think that such lectures might be given without any very
+great cost, by finding persons who would endeavor to make the subjects
+plain and pleasant, not requiring a very expensive apparatus, either of
+figures or of birds, but which might be pointed out to them, and
+explained to them from time to time?&mdash;No; I think that no such lectures
+would be of use, unless a permanent means of quiet study were given to
+the men between times. As far as I know, lectures are always entirely
+useless, except as a matter of amusement, unless some opportunity be
+afforded of accurate intermediate study, and although I should deprecate
+the idea, on the one side, of giving the <i>chefs-d'&oelig;uvre</i> of the
+highest masters to the workman for his daily experiments, so I should
+deprecate, on the other, the idea of any economy if I saw a definite
+plan of helping a man in his own times of quiet study.</p>
+
+<p>152. There are some popular works on British birds which the men might
+be referred to, containing accounts of the birds and their habits, which
+might be referred to subsequently?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>There are several works relating to British birds which are very
+beautifully illustrated, and to those they might be referred; do you not
+think that something might also be done<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> with regard to popular lectures
+upon British plants, and particularly those which are perhaps the most
+common, and only neglected because of their being common; that you might
+point out to them the different soils in which they grow, so that they
+might be able to make excursions to see them in their wild state?&mdash;My
+wish is, that in every large manufacturing town there should be a
+perfect collection, at all events of the principal genera of British
+plants and birds, thoroughly well arranged, and a library associated
+with it, containing the best illustrative works on the subject, and that
+from time to time lectures should be given by the leading scientific
+men, which I am sure they would be willing to give if such collections
+were opened to them.</p>
+
+<p>I dare say you know that there is one book upon British birds, which was
+compiled by a gentleman who was in trade, and lived at the corner of St.
+James's Street for many years, which is prized by all who are devoted to
+that study, and which would be easily obtained for the working men. Do
+you not think that this would relax their minds and be beneficial to
+them in many ways, especially if they were able to follow up the
+study?&mdash;Yes, in every way.</p>
+
+<p>As to plants, might not they interest their wives as well?&mdash;I quite
+believe so.</p>
+
+<p>If such things could be done by subscription in the vicinity of large
+towns, such as Manchester, would they not be very much responded to by
+the grateful feelings of the humbler people, who themselves would
+subscribe probably some trifle?&mdash;I think they would be grateful, however
+it were done. But I should like it to be done as an expression of the
+sense of the nation, as doing its duty towards the workmen, rather than
+it should be done as a kind of charity by private subscription.</p>
+
+<p>153. <i>Sir Robert Peel.</i> You have been five years connected with the
+Working Men's College?&mdash;Yes; I think about that time.</p>
+
+<p>Is the attendance good there?&mdash;There is a fair attendance, I believe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the working classes?&mdash;Yes; in the other lecture-rooms; not much in
+mine.</p>
+
+<p>Do they go there as they please without going beforehand for
+tickets?&mdash;They pass through an introductory examination, which is not
+severe in any way, but merely shows that they are able to take advantage
+of the classes there; of course they pay a certain sum, which is not at
+all, at present, I believe, supporting to the college, for every class,
+just to insure their paying attention to it.</p>
+
+<p>You stated that you did not think lectures would be of any use unless
+there was what you called active intermediate study?&mdash;I think not.</p>
+
+<p>What did you mean by active intermediate study? if a man is working
+every day of the week until Saturday afternoon, how could that take
+place?&mdash;I think that you could not at all provide lectures once or twice
+a week at the institutions throughout the kingdom. By intermediate
+study, I mean merely that a man should have about him, when he came into
+the room, things that shall tempt him to look at them, and get
+interested in, say in one bird, or in one plant.</p>
+
+<p>While the lecture was going on?&mdash;No, that might be given once a
+fortnight, or once a month, but that this intermediate attention should
+be just that which a man is delighted to give to a single plant which he
+cultivates in his own garden, or a single bird which he may happen to
+have obtained; the best of all modes of study.</p>
+
+<p>154. You are in favor of the Early Closing Association?&mdash;I will not say
+that I am, because I have not examined their principles. I want to have
+our labor regulated, so that it shall be impossible for men to be so
+entirely crushed in mind and in body as they are by the system of
+competition.</p>
+
+<p>You stated that you would wish the hours during which they would be able
+to enjoy the institutions to be as early as possible?&mdash;Yes, certainly.</p>
+
+<p>But it would be impossible to have them earlier than they are now, on
+account of the organization of labor in the country.&mdash;I do not know what
+is possible. I do not know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> what the number of hours necessary for labor
+will ultimately be found to be.</p>
+
+<p>Still you are of opinion that, if there was a half-holiday on the
+Saturday, it would be an advantage to the working classes, and enable
+them to visit and enjoy these institutions?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>155. You observed, I think, that there was a thirsty desire on the part
+of the working classes for improvement?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>And you also stated that there was a desire on their part to rise in
+that class, but not out of it?&mdash;I did not say that they wanted to rise
+in that class; they wish to emerge from it; they wish to become
+something better than workmen, and I want to keep them in that class; I
+want to teach every man to rest contented in his station, and I want all
+people, in all stations, to better and help each other as much as they
+can.</p>
+
+<p>But you never saw a man, did you, who was contented?&mdash;Yes, I have seen
+several; nearly all the very good workmen are contented; I find that it
+is only the second-rate workmen who are discontented.</p>
+
+<p>156. Surely competition with foreigners is a great advantage to the
+working classes of this country?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated that competition is an immense advantage in the
+extension of artistic knowledge among the people of this country, who
+are rapidly stepping on the heels of foreigners?&mdash;An acquaintance with
+what foreign nations have accomplished may be very useful to our
+workmen, but a spirit of competition with foreign nations is useful to
+no one.</p>
+
+<p>Will you be good enough to state why?&mdash;Every nation has the power of
+producing a certain number of objects of art, or of manufacturing
+productions which are peculiar to it, and which it can produce
+thoroughly well; and, when that is rightly understood, every nation will
+strive to do its own work as well as it can be done, and will desire to
+be supplied, by other nations, with that which they can produce; for
+example, if we tried here in England to produce silk, we might possibly
+grow unhealthy mulberry trees and bring up unhealthy silk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>worms, but not
+produce good silk. It may be a question how far we should compete with
+foreigners in matters of taste. I think it doubtful, even in that view,
+that we should ever compete with them thoroughly. I find evidence in
+past art, that the French have always had a gift of color, which the
+English never had.</p>
+
+<p>157. You stated that you thought that at very little expense the
+advantages to be derived from our national institutions might be greatly
+increased; will you state why you think very little expense would be
+necessary, and how it should be done?&mdash;By extending the space primarily,
+and by adding very cheap but completely illustrative works; by making
+all that such institutions contain thoroughly accessible; and giving, as
+I think I have said before, explanations, especially in a visible form,
+beside the thing to be illustrated, not in a separate form.</p>
+
+<p>But that only would apply to daytime?&mdash;To nighttime as well.</p>
+
+<p>But would you not have to introduce a system of lighting?&mdash;Yes; a system
+of lighting I should only regret as applied to the great works of art; I
+should think that the brightest system of lighting should be applied,
+especially of an evening, so that such places should be made delightful
+to the workman, and withdraw him from the alehouse and all other evil
+temptation; but I want them rather to be occupied by simple, and more or
+less cheap collections, than by the valuable ones, for fear of fire.</p>
+
+<p>If, at the British Museum, they had printed information upon natural
+history, that, you think, would do great good?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>158. You stated that you thought there was far more interest taken in
+foreign countries in the intellectual development of the working classes
+than in England?&mdash;I answered that question rather rashly. I hardly ever
+see anything of society in foreign countries, and I was thinking, at the
+time, of the great efforts now being made in France, and of the general
+comfort of the institutions that are open.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Not political?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Still you think that there is more interest taken in the intellectual
+development of the working classes in foreign countries than in
+England?&mdash;I think so, but I do not trust my own opinion.</p>
+
+<p>I have lived abroad, and I have remarked that there is a natural
+facility in the French people, for instance, in acquiring a knowledge of
+art, and of combination of colors, but I never saw more, but far less
+desire or interest taken in the working classes than in England.&mdash;As far
+as relates to their intellectual development, I say yes; but I think
+there is a greater disposition to make them happy, and allow them to
+enjoy their happiness, in ordinary associations, at <i>f&ecirc;tes</i>, and
+everything of that kind, that is amusing or recreative to them.</p>
+
+<p>But that is only on Sundays?&mdash;No; on all <i>f&ecirc;te</i> days, and throughout, I
+think you see the working man, with his wife, happier in the gardens or
+in the suburbs of a town, and on the whole in a happier state; there is
+less desire to get as much out of him for the money as they can; less of
+that desire to oppress him and to use him as a machine than there is in
+England. But, observe, I do not lean upon that point; and I do not quite
+see how that bears upon the question, because, whatever interest there
+may be in foreign countries, or in ours, it is not as much as it should
+be in either.</p>
+
+<p>But you were throwing a slur upon the character of the upper classes in
+this country, by insinuating that abroad a great deal more interest was
+taken in the working classes than in England. Now I assert, that quite
+the contrary is the fact.&mdash;I should be very sorry to express all the
+feelings that I have respecting the relations between the upper classes
+and the working classes in this country; it is a subject which cannot at
+present be discussed, and one upon which I would decline any further
+examination.</p>
+
+<p>159. You stated that the working men were not so happy in this country
+as they were abroad, pursuing the same occupations?&mdash;I should think
+certainly not.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>You have been in Switzerland?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>And at Zurich?&mdash;Not lately.</p>
+
+<p>That is the seat of a great linen manufacture?&mdash;I have never examined
+the manufactures there, nor have I looked at Switzerland as a
+manufacturing country.</p>
+
+<p>But you stated that there was much more interest taken in the
+intellectual developments of the working classes in foreign countries
+than in England?&mdash;Yes; but I was not thinking of Switzerland or of
+Zurich. I was thinking of France, and I was thinking of the working
+classes generally, not specially the manufacturing working classes. I
+used the words "working classes" generally.</p>
+
+<p>Then do you withdraw the expression that you made use of, that in
+foreign countries the upper classes take more interest in the condition
+of the working classes, than they do in England?&mdash;I do not withdraw it;
+I only said that it was my impression.</p>
+
+<p>But you cannot establish it?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it is merely a matter of individual impression?&mdash;Entirely so.</p>
+
+<p>You said, I think, that abroad the people enjoy their public
+institutions better, because inspectors do not follow them about?&mdash;I did
+not say so. I was asked the question whether I thought teaching should
+be given by persons accompanying the workman about, and I said certainly
+not. I would rather leave him to himself, with such information as
+could be given to him by printed documents.</p>
+
+<p>160. <i>Mr. Sclater Booth.</i> With regard to the National Gallery, are you
+aware that there is great pressure and want of space there now, both
+with regard to the room for hanging pictures, and also with reference to
+the crowds of persons who frequent the National Gallery?&mdash;I am quite
+sure that if there is not great pressure, there will be soon, owing to
+the number of pictures which are being bought continually.</p>
+
+<p>Do you not think that an extension of the space in the National Gallery
+is a primary consideration, which ought to take precedence of any
+improvement that might be made in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> the rooms as they are, with a view to
+opening them of an evening?&mdash;Most certainly.</p>
+
+<p>That is the first thing, you think, that ought to be done?&mdash;Most
+certainly.</p>
+
+<p>When you give your lectures at the Working Men's College, is it your
+habit to refer to special pictures in the National Gallery, or to
+special works of art in the British Museum?&mdash;Never; I try to keep
+whatever instruction I give bearing upon what is easily accessible to
+the workman, or what he can see at the moment. I do not count upon his
+having time to go to these institutions; I like to put the thing in his
+hand, and have it about.</p>
+
+<p>Has it never been a stumbling-block in your path that you have found a
+workman unable to compare your lectures with any illustrations that you
+may have referred him to?&mdash;I have never prepared my lectures with a view
+to illustrate them by the works of the great masters.</p>
+
+<p>161. You spoke, and very justly, of the importance of fixing on works of
+art printed explanations; are you not aware that that has been done to
+some extent at the Kensington Museum?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Do you not think that a great part of the popularity of that institution
+is owing to that circumstance?&mdash;I think so, certainly.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, I gather from your evidence that you are not very sanguine
+as to the beneficial results that would arise from the opening of the
+British Museum and the National Gallery of an evening, as those
+institutions are at present constituted, from a want of space and the
+crowding of the objects there?&mdash;Whatever the results might be, from
+opening them, as at present constituted, I think better results might be
+attained by preparing institutions for the workman himself alone.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that museums of birds and plants, established in various
+parts of the metropolis, illustrated and furnished with pictures of
+domestic interest, and possibly with specimens of manufactures, would be
+more desirable, considering the mode in which the large institutions are
+now seen?&mdash;I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> think in these great institutions attention ought
+specially to be paid to giving perfect security to all the works and
+objects of art which they possess; and to giving convenience to the
+thorough student, whose business lies with those museums; and that
+collections for the amusement and improvement of the working classes
+ought to be entirely separate.</p>
+
+<p>If such institutions as I have described were to be established, you
+would of course desire that they should be opened of an evening, and be
+specially arranged, with a view to evening exhibition?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated that the taxpayer has a right to have these
+exhibitions opened at hours when the workpeople can go to them, they
+being taxpayers; do not you think that the real interest of the taxpayer
+is, first, to have the pictures as carefully preserved as possible, and
+secondly, that they should be accessible to those whose special
+occupation in life is concerned in their study?&mdash;Most certainly.</p>
+
+<p>Is not the interest of the taxpayer reached in this way, rather than by
+any special opportunity being given of visiting at particular
+hours?&mdash;Most certainly.</p>
+
+<p>162. <i>Mr. Kinnaird.</i> Have you ever turned your attention to any peculiar
+localities, where museums of paintings and shells, and of birds and
+plants, might be opened for the purpose referred to?&mdash;Never; I have
+never examined the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Has it ever occurred to you that the Vestry Halls, which have recently
+been erected, and which are lighted, might be so appropriated?&mdash;No; I
+have never considered the subject at all.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing that suitable premises could be found, do you not think that
+many people would contribute modern paintings, and engravings, and
+various other objects of interest?&mdash;I think it is most probable; in
+fact, I should say certain.</p>
+
+<p>You would view such an attempt with great favor?&mdash;Yes; with great
+delight indeed.</p>
+
+<p>You rather look upon it as the duty of the Government to provide such
+institutions for the people?&mdash;I feel that very strongly indeed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Do you not think that the plan which has been adopted at Versailles, of
+having modern history illustrated by paintings, would prove of great
+interest to the people?&mdash;I should think it would be an admirable plan in
+every way.</p>
+
+<p>And a very legitimate step to be taken by the Government, for the
+purpose of encouraging art in that way?&mdash;Most truly.</p>
+
+<p>Would it have, do you think, an effect in encouraging art in this
+country?&mdash;I should think so, certainly.</p>
+
+<p>Whose duty would you consider it to be to superintend the formation of
+such collections? are there any Government officers who are at present
+capable of organizing a staff for employment in local museums that you
+are aware of?&mdash;I do not know; I have not examined that subject at all.</p>
+
+<p>163. <i>Chairman.</i> The Committee would like to understand you more
+definitely upon the point that has been referred to, as to foreigners
+and Englishmen. I presume that what you wished the Committee to
+understand was, that upon the whole, so far as you have observed, more
+facilities are in point of fact afforded to the working classes, in some
+way or other, abroad than in this country for seeing pictures and
+visiting public institutions?&mdash;My answer referred especially to the
+aspect of the working classes as I have watched them in their times of
+recreation; I see them associated with the upper classes, more happily
+for themselves; I see them walking through the Louvre, and walking
+through the gardens of all the great cities of Europe, and apparently
+less ashamed of themselves, and more happily combined with all the upper
+classes of society, than they are here. Here our workmen, somehow, are
+always miserably dressed, and they always keep out of the way, both at
+such institutions and at church. The temper abroad seems to be, while
+there is a sterner separation and a more aristocratic feeling between
+the upper and the lower classes, yet just on that account the workman
+confesses himself for a workman, and is treated with affection. I do not
+say workmen merely, but the lower classes generally, are treated with
+affection, and familiarity, and sympathy by the master or employer,
+which has to me often been very touching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> in separate eases; and that
+impression being on my mind, I answered, not considering that the
+question was of any importance, hastily; and I am not at present
+prepared to say how far I could, by thinking, justify that impression.</p>
+
+<p>164. <i>Mr. Kinnaird.</i> In your experience, in the last few years, have you
+not seen a very marked improvement in the working classes in this
+country in every respect to which you have alluded; take the last twenty
+years, or since you have turned your attention that way?&mdash;I have no
+evidence before me in England of that improvement, because I think that
+the struggle for existence becomes every day more severe, and that,
+while greater efforts are made to help the workman, the principles on
+which our commerce is conducted are every day oppressing him, and
+sinking him deeper.</p>
+
+<p>Have you ever visited the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and
+Yorkshire, with a view of ascertaining the state of the people
+there?&mdash;Not with a definite view. My own work has nothing to do with
+those subjects; and it is only incidentally, because I gratuitously give
+such instruction as I am able to give at the Working Men's College, that
+I am able to give you any facts on this subject. All the rest that I can
+give is, as Sir Robert Peel accurately expressed it, nothing but
+personal impression.</p>
+
+<p>You admit that the Working Men's College is, after all, a very limited
+sphere?&mdash;A very limited sphere.</p>
+
+<p>165. <i>Sir Robert Peel.</i> You have stated that, in the Louvre, a working
+man looks at the pictures with a greater degree of self-respect than the
+same classes do in the National Gallery here?&mdash;I think so.</p>
+
+<p>You surely never saw a man of the upper class, in England, scorn at a
+working man because he appeared in his working dress in the National
+Gallery in London?&mdash;I have certainly seen working men apprehensive of
+such scorn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Is it not the fact, that the upper and lower classes
+scarcely ever meet on the same occasions?&mdash;I think, if possible, they do
+not.</p>
+
+<p>Is it not the fact that the laboring classes almost invariably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> cease
+labor at such hours as would prevent them from going to see pictures at
+the time when the upper classes do go?&mdash;I meant, before, to signify
+assent to your question, that they do not meet if it can be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir Robert Peel.</i> Take the Crystal Palace as an example; do not working
+men and all classes meet there together, and did you ever see a working
+man <i>g&ecirc;n&eacute;</i> in the examination of works of art?&mdash;I am sure that a working
+man very often would not go where he would like to go.</p>
+
+<p>But you think he would abroad?&mdash;I think they would go abroad; I only say
+that I believe such is the fact.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Slaney.</i> Do not you think that the light-hearted temperament of our
+southern neighbors, and the fineness of the climate, which permits them
+to enjoy themselves more in the open air, has something to do with
+it?&mdash;I hope that the old name of Merry England may be recovered one of
+these days. I do not think that it is in the disposition of the
+inhabitants to be in the least duller than other people.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir Robert Peel.</i> When was that designation lost?&mdash;I am afraid ever
+since our manufactures have prospered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Referring to the Crystal Palace, do you think that that was
+an appropriate instance to put, considering the working man pays for his
+own, and is not ashamed to enjoy his own for his own money?&mdash;I have
+never examined the causes of the feeling; it did not appear to me to be
+a matter of great importance what was the state of feeling in foreign
+countries. I felt that it depended upon so many circumstances, that I
+thought it would be a waste of time to trace it.</p>
+
+<p>166. <i>Sir Robert Peel.</i> You stated that abroad the working classes were
+much better dressed?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think so?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Surely they cannot be better dressed than they are in England, for you
+hardly know a working man here from an aristocrat?&mdash;It is precisely
+because I do know working men on a Sunday and every other day of the
+week from an aristocrat that I like their dress better in France; it is
+the ordinary dress belonging to their position, and it expresses
+momen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>tarily what they are; it is the blue blouse which hangs freely
+over their frames, keeping them sufficiently protected from cold and
+dust; but here it is a shirt open at the collar, very dirty, very much
+torn, with ragged hair, and a ragged coat, and altogether a dress of
+misery.</p>
+
+<p>You think that they are better dressed abroad because they wear a
+blouse?&mdash;Because they wear a costume appropriate to their work.</p>
+
+<p>Are you aware that they make it an invariable custom to leave off the
+blouse on Sundays and on holidays, and that after they have finished
+their work they take off their blouse?&mdash;I am not familiar, nor do I
+profess to be familiar, with the customs of the Continent; I am only
+stating my impressions; but I like especially their habit of wearing a
+national costume. I believe the national costume of work in Switzerland
+to be at the root of what prosperity Switzerland yet is retaining. I
+think, for instance, although it may sound rather singular to say so,
+that the pride which the women take in their clean chemise sleeves, is
+one of the healthiest things in Switzerland, and that it is operative in
+every way on the health of the mind and the body, their keeping their
+costume pure, fresh, and beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>You stated that the working classes were better dressed abroad than in
+England?&mdash;As far as I know, that is certainly the fact.</p>
+
+<p>Still their better dress consists of a blouse, which they take off when
+they have finished their work?&mdash;I bow to your better knowledge of the
+matter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> Are you aware that a considerable number of the working
+classes are in bed on the Sunday?&mdash;Perhaps it is the best place for
+them.</p>
+
+<p>167. <i>Mr. Kinnaird.</i> You trace the deterioration in the condition of the
+working classes to the increase of trade and manufactures in this
+country?&mdash;To the increase of competitive trades and manufactures.</p>
+
+<p>It is your conviction that we may look upon this vast extension of
+trade, and commerce, and competition, altogether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> as an evil?&mdash;Not on
+the vast extension of trade, but on the vast extension of the struggle
+of man with man, instead of the principle of help of man by man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chairman.</i> I understood you to say, that you did not object to trade,
+but that you wished each country to produce that which it was best
+fitted to produce, with a view to an interchange of its commodities with
+those of other countries?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>You did not intend to cast a slur upon the idea of competition?&mdash;Yes,
+very distinctly; I intended not only to cast a slur, but to express my
+excessive horror of the principle of competition, in every way; for
+instance, we ought not to try to grow claret here, nor to produce silk;
+we ought to produce coal and iron, and the French should give us wine
+and silk.</p>
+
+<p>You say that, with a view to an interchange of such commodities?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Each country producing that which it is best fitted to produce?&mdash;Yes, as
+well as it can; not striving to imitate or compete with the productions
+of other countries. Finally, I believe that the way of ascertaining what
+ought to be done for the workman in any position, is for any one of us
+to suppose that he was our own son, and that he was left without any
+parents, and without any help; that there was no chance of his ever
+emerging out of the state in which he was, and then, that what we should
+each of us like to be done for our son, so left, we should strive to do
+for the workman.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The following analysis of the above evidence was mainly given in
+the Index to the Report (p. 153).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p>
+
+<p>139. Is well acquainted with the museums, picture galleries, etc.,
+in the metropolis.&mdash;Conducts a drawing class at the Working Men's
+College.</p>
+
+<p>140. Desirableness of the public institutions being open in the
+evening (cp. 154, 161).</p>
+
+<p>141. Remarks relative to the system of teaching expedient for the
+working classes; system pursued by witness at the Working Men's
+College.&mdash;Workmen to aim at rising in their class, not <i>out of</i> it
+(cp. 155).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>142. Backward state, intellectually, of the working man of the
+present time; superiority of the foreigner.</p>
+
+<p>143. Improvement of the National Gallery suggested (cp. 157, 160).</p>
+
+<p>144. Inexpediency of submitting valuable ancient pictures to the
+risk of injury from gas, etc. (cp. 146, 157).</p>
+
+<p>145. Statement as to the minds of the working classes after their
+day's labor being too much oppressed to enable them to enjoy or
+appreciate the public institutions, if merely opened in the
+evening.</p>
+
+<p>146. Suggested collection of pictures and prints of a particular
+character for the inspection of the working classes.&mdash;Suggestions
+with a view to special collections of shells, birds, and plants
+being prepared for the use of the working classes; system of
+lectures, of illustration, and of intermediate study necessary in
+connection with such collections (cp. 151-52).</p>
+
+<p>147. Statement as to greater interest being taken in France and
+other foreign countries than in England in the intellectual
+development of the working classes; examination on this point, and
+on the effect produced thereby upon the character and demeanor of
+the working people (cp. 158, 163-64).</p>
+
+<p>148. Objection to circulating valuable or rare works of art
+throughout the country, on account of the risk of
+injury&mdash;Disapproval of inspectors, etc., going about with the
+visitors (cp. 159).&mdash;Advantage in the upper classes lending
+pictures, etc., for public exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>149. Lectures to working men. Advantage if large printed
+explanations were placed under every picture (cp. 157, 161).</p>
+
+<p>150. Great desire among the working classes to acquire knowledge;
+grounds of such desire (cp. 155).&mdash;Great boon if a museum were
+formed at the east end of London.</p>
+
+<p>151. Lectures on natural history for working men.</p>
+
+<p>152. Books available on British birds.</p>
+
+<p>153. Intermediate study essential to use of Lectures.&mdash;Good
+attendance at Working Men's College.&mdash;Terms and conditions of
+admission to it.</p>
+
+<p>154. Approval of Saturday half-holiday movement (cp. 140, 161).</p>
+
+<p>155. See above, s. 142.</p>
+
+<p>156. Competition in trade and labor regarded by witness as a great
+evil.</p>
+
+<p>157. See above, s. 143, 149.</p>
+
+<p>158-59. Happier condition of lower classes abroad than at home.
+Their dress also better abroad. 163-64, 166, and see above, s. 142.</p>
+
+<p>160. See above, s. 143, 149, 157.</p>
+
+<p>161. See above, s. 149, 154.</p>
+
+<p>162. Use of existing public buildings for art collections.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>163-64. See above, s. 158-59.</p>
+
+<p>165. Surely England may one day be Merry England again.&mdash;When it
+ceased to be so.</p>
+
+<p>166. See above, s. 158-59.</p>
+
+<p>167. Increase of trade and deteriorated condition of
+working-classes.&mdash;Our duty to them.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Reprinted from "The Report of the Select Committee on
+Public Institutions. <i>Ordered by</i> the House of Commons <i>to be printed</i>,
+27 March 1860," pp. 113-123. The following members of the Committee were
+present on the occasion of the above evidence being given: -Sir John
+Trelawny (<i>Chairman</i>), Mr. Sclater Booth, Mr. Du Pre, Mr. Kinnaird, Mr.
+Hanbury, Sir Robert Peel, Mr. Slaney, and Mr. John
+Tollemache.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PICTURE GALLERIES&mdash;THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></h3>
+
+<h4><i>Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, June 8th, 1863.</i></h4>
+
+
+<p>168. <i>Chairman.</i> You have, no doubt, frequently considered the position
+of the Royal Academy in this country?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>Is it in all points satisfactory to you?&mdash;No, certainly not.</p>
+
+<p>Do you approve, for example, of the plan by which, on a vacancy
+occurring, the Royal Academicians supply that vacancy, or would you wish
+to see that election confided to any other hands?&mdash;I should wish to see
+the election confided to other hands. I think that all elections are
+liable to mistake, or mischance, when the electing body elect the
+candidate into them. I rather think that elections are only successful
+where the candidate is elected into a body other than the body of
+electors; but I have not considered the principles of election fully
+enough to be able to give any positive statement of opinion upon that
+matter. I only feel that at present the thing is liable to many errors
+and mischances.</p>
+
+<p>Does it not seem, however, that there are some precedents, such, for
+example, as the Institute of France, in which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> body electing to the
+vacancies that occur within it keeps up a very high character, and
+enjoys a great reputation?&mdash;There are many such precedents; and, as
+every such body for its own honor must sometimes call upon the most
+intellectual men of the country to join it, I should think that every
+such body must retain a high character where the country itself has a
+proper sense of the worth of its best men; but the system of election
+may be wrong, though the sense of the country may be right; and I think,
+in appealing to a precedent to justify a system, we should estimate
+properly what has been brought about by the feeling of the country. We
+are all, I fancy, too much in the habit of looking to forms as the cause
+of what really is caused by the temper of the nation at the particular
+time, working, through the forms, for good or evil.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the election of Academicians were to be confided to artists
+who were not already Academicians themselves, would it be easy to meet
+this objection, that they would have in many cases a personal interest
+in the question; that each might be striving for his own admission to
+that distinction; whereas, when the election takes place among those who
+have already attained that distinction, direct personal interest at all
+events is absent?&mdash;I should think personal interest would act in a
+certain sense in either case; it would branch into too many subtleties
+of interest to say in what way it would act. I should think that it
+would be more important to the inferior body to decide rightly upon
+those who were to govern them, than to the superior body to decide upon
+those who were to govern other people; and that the superior body would
+therefore generally choose those who were likely to be pleasant to
+themselves;&mdash;pleasant, either as companions, or in carrying out a system
+which they chose for their own convenience to adopt; while the inferior
+body would choose men likely to carry out the system that would tend
+most to the general progress of art.</p>
+
+<p>169. As I understand you, though you have a decided opinion that it
+would be better for some other constituent body to elect the members of
+the Royal Academy, you have not a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> decided opinion as to how that
+constituent body would best be composed?&mdash;By no means.</p>
+
+<p>I presume you would wish that constituent body to consist of artists,
+though you are not prepared to say precisely how they should be
+selected?&mdash;I should like the constituent body to consist both of artists
+and of the public. I feel great difficulties in offering any suggestion
+as to the manner in which the electors should elect: but I should like
+the public as well as artists to have a voice, so that we might have the
+public feeling brought to bear upon painting as we have now upon music;
+and that the election of those who were to attract the public eye, or
+direct the public mind, should indicate also the will of the public in
+some respects; not that I think that "will" always wise, but I think you
+would then have pointed out in what way those who are teaching the
+public should best regulate the teaching; and also it would give the
+public itself an interest in art, and a sense of responsibility, which
+in the present state of things they never can have.</p>
+
+<p>Will you explain more fully the precedent of music to which you have
+just adverted?&mdash;The fame of any great singer or any great musician
+depends upon the public enthusiasm and feeling respecting him. No Royal
+Academy can draw a large audience to the opera by stating that such and
+such a piece of music is good, or that such and such a voice is clear;
+if the public do not feel the voice to be delicious, and if they do not
+like the music, they will not go to hear it. The fame of the musician,
+whether singer, instrumentalist, or composer, is founded mainly upon his
+having produced a strong effect upon the public intellect and
+imagination. I should like that same effect to be produced by painters,
+and to be expressed by the public enthusiasm and approbation; not merely
+by expressions of approbation in conversation, but by the actual voice
+which in the theater is given by the shout and by the clapping of the
+hands. You cannot clap a picture, nor clap a painter at his work, but I
+should like the public in some way to bring their voice to bear upon the
+painter's work.</p>
+
+<p>170. Have you formed any opinion upon the position of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> the Associates in
+the Royal Academy?&mdash;I have thought of it a little, but the present
+system of the Academy is to me so entirely nugatory, it produces so
+little effect in any way (what little effect it does produce being in my
+opinion mischievous), that it has never interested me; and I have felt
+the difficulty so greatly, that I never, till your lordship's letter
+reached me, paid much attention to it. I always thought it would be a
+waste of time to give much time to thinking how it might be altered; so
+that as to the position of Associates I can say little, except that I
+think, in any case, there ought to be some period of probation, and some
+advanced scale of dignity, indicative of the highest attainments in art,
+which should be only given to the oldest and most practiced painters.</p>
+
+<p>From the great knowledge which you possess of British art, looking to
+the most eminent painters, sculptors, and architects at this time,
+should you say that the number of the Royal Academy is sufficient fully
+to represent them, or would you recommend an increase in the present
+number of Academicians?&mdash;I have not considered in what proportion the
+Academicianships at present exist. That is rather a question bearing
+upon the degree of dignity which one would be glad to confer. I should
+like the highest dignity to be limited, but I should like the inferior
+dignity corresponding to the Associateship to be given, as the degrees
+are given in the universities, without any limitation of number, to
+those possessing positive attainments and skill. I should think a very
+limited number of Academicianships would always meet all the
+requirements of the highest intellect of the country.</p>
+
+<p>171. Have you formed any opinion upon the expediency of intrusting
+laymen with some share in the management of the affairs of the
+Academy?&mdash;No, I have formed no opinion upon that matter. I do not know
+what there is at present to be managed in the Academy. I should think if
+the Academy is to become an available school, laymen cannot be joined in
+the management of that particular department. In matters of revenue, and
+in matters concerning the general interests and dignity of the Academy,
+they might be.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Should you think that non-professional persons would be fitly associated
+with artists in such questions as the selection and hanging of the
+pictures sent in for exhibition?&mdash;No, I think not.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons have suggested that the president of the Academy should not
+always nor of necessity be himself an artist; should you approve of any
+system by which a gentleman of high social position, not an artist, was
+placed at the head of such a body as the Academy?&mdash;"Of such a body as
+the Academy," if I may be permitted to repeat your words, must of course
+have reference to the constitution to be given to it. As at present
+constituted, I do not know what advantage might or might not be derived
+from such a gentleman being appointed president. As I should like to see
+it constituted, I think he ought to be an artist only.</p>
+
+<p>172. Have you had any reason to observe or to make yourself acquainted
+with the working of the schools of the Royal Academy?&mdash;Yes, I have
+observed it. I have not made myself acquainted with the actual methods
+of teaching at present in use, but I know the general effect upon the
+art of the country.</p>
+
+<p>What should you say was that effect?&mdash;Nearly nugatory: exceedingly
+painful in this respect, that the teaching of the Academy separates, as
+the whole idea of the country separates, the notion of art-education
+from other education, and when you have made that one fundamental
+mistake, all others follow. You teach a young man to manage his chalk
+and his brush&mdash;not always that&mdash;but having done that, you suppose you
+have made a painter of him; whereas to educate a painter is the same
+thing as to educate a clergyman or a physician&mdash;you must give him a
+liberal education primarily, and that must be connected with the kind of
+learning peculiarly fit for his profession. That error is partly owing
+to our excessively vulgar and excessively shallow English idea that the
+artist's profession is not, and cannot be, a liberal one. We respect a
+physician, and call him a gentleman, because he can give us a purge and
+clean out our stomachs; but we do not call an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> artist a gentleman, whom
+we expect to invent for us the face of Christ. When we have made that
+primary mistake, all other mistakes in education are trivial in
+comparison. The very notion of an art academy should be, a body of
+teachers of the youth who are to be the guides of the nation through its
+senses; and that is a very important means of guiding it. We have done a
+good deal through dinners, but we may some day do a good deal more
+through pictures.</p>
+
+<p>You would have a more comprehensive system of teaching?&mdash;Much more
+comprehensive.</p>
+
+<p>173. Do I rightly understand you that you would wish it to embrace
+branches of liberal education in general, and not be merely confined to
+specific artistic studies?&mdash;Certainly. I would have the Academy
+education corresponding wholly to the university education. The schools
+of the country ought to teach the boy the first conditions of
+manipulation. He should come up, I say not at what age, but probably at
+about fourteen or fifteen, to the central university of art, wherever
+that was established; and then, while he was taught to paint and to
+carve and to work in metal&mdash;just as in old times he would have been
+taught to manage the sword and lance, they being the principal business
+of his life,&mdash;during the years from fifteen to twenty, the chief
+attention of his governors should be to make a gentleman of him in the
+highest sense; and to give him an exceedingly broad and liberal
+education, which should enable him not only to work nobly, but to
+conceive nobly.</p>
+
+<p>174. As to the point, however, of artistic manipulation, is not it the
+fact that many great painters have differed, and do differ, from each
+other, and would it therefore be easy for the Academy to adopt any
+authoritative system of teaching, excluding one mode and acknowledging
+another?&mdash;Not easy, but very necessary. There have been many methods;
+but there has never been a case of a great school which did not fix upon
+its method: and there has been no case of a thoroughly great school
+which did not fix upon the right method, as far as circumstances enabled
+it to do so. The meaning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of a successful school is, that it has adopted
+a method which it teaches to its young painters, so that right working
+becomes a habit with them; so that with no thought, and no effort, and
+no torment, and no talk about it, they have the habit of doing what
+their school teaches them.</p>
+
+<p>You do not think a system is equally good which leaves to each eminent
+professor, according to the bent of his genius or the result of his
+experience, to instruct young men, the instruction varying with the
+character of each professor?&mdash;Great benefit would arise if each
+professor founded his own school, and were interested in his own pupils;
+but, as has been sufficiently illustrated in the schools of Domenichino
+and Guido, there is apt to arise rivalry between the masters, with no
+correlative advantages, unless the masters are all of one mind. And the
+only successful idea of an academy has been where the practice was
+consistent, and where there was no contradiction. Considering the
+knowledge we now have, and the means we now have of comparing all the
+works of the greatest painters, though, as you suggest by your question,
+it is not easy to adopt an authoritative system, yet it is perfectly
+possible. Let us get at the best method and let us teach that. There is
+unquestionably a best way if we can find it; and we have now in England
+the means of finding it out.</p>
+
+<p>The teaching in the Academy is now, under all circumstances, gratuitous;
+would you wish that system to continue, or should you prefer to see a
+system of payment?&mdash;I am not prepared to answer that question. It would
+depend upon the sort of system that was adopted and on the kind of
+persons you received into your schools.</p>
+
+<p>175. I presume you would say that in artistic teaching there are some
+points on which there would be common ground, and others upon which
+there must be specific teaching; for instance, in sculpture and painting
+there is a point up to which the proportions of the human figure have to
+be studied, but afterwards there is a divergence between the two arts of
+chiseling marble and laying colors on the canvas?&mdash;Certainly. I should
+think all that might be arranged in an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> Academy system very simply. You
+would have first your teaching of drawing with the soft point; and
+associated with that, chiaroscuro: you would then have the teaching of
+drawing with the hard or black point, involving the teaching of the best
+system of engraving, and all that was necessary to form your school of
+engravers: you would then proceed to metal work; and on working in metal
+you would found your school of sculpture, and on that your school of
+architecture: and finally, and above all, you would have your school of
+painting, including oil painting and fresco painting, and all painting
+in permanent material; (not comprising painting in any material that was
+not permanent:) and with that you would associate your school of
+chemistry, which should teach what was permanent and what was not; which
+school of chemistry should declare authoritatively, with the Academy's
+seal, what colors would stand and what process would secure their
+standing: and should have a sort of Apothecaries' Hall where anybody who
+required them could procure colors in the purest state; all these things
+being organized in one great system, and only possibly right by their
+connection and in their connection.</p>
+
+<p>176. Do you approve of the encouragement which of late years has been
+given to fresco painting, and do you look forward to much extension of
+that branch of art in England?&mdash;I found when I was examining the term
+"fresco painting," that it was a wide one, that none of us seemed to
+know quite the limitation or extent of it; and after giving a good deal
+more time to the question I am still less able to answer distinctly on
+an understanding of the term "fresco painting:" but using the term
+"decorative painting, applicable to walls in permanent materials," I
+think it essential that every great school should include as one of its
+main objects the teaching of wall painting in permanent materials, and
+on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>You think it should form a branch of the system of teaching in the
+Academy?&mdash;I think it should form a branch of the teaching in the
+Academy, possibly the principal branch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Does it so far as you know form a separate branch of teaching in any of
+the foreign academies?&mdash;I do not know.</p>
+
+<p>177. Looking generally, and of course without mentioning any names, have
+you in the course of the last few years been generally satisfied with
+the selection of artists into the Royal Academy?&mdash;No, certainly not.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think that some artists of merit have been excluded, or that
+artists whom you think not deserving of that honor have been
+elected?&mdash;More; that artists not deserving of the honor have been
+elected. I think it does no harm to any promising artist to be left out
+of the Academy, but it does harm to the public sometimes that an
+unpromising artist should be let into it.</p>
+
+<p>You think there have been cases within the last few years in which
+persons, in your judgment, not entitled to that distinction have
+nevertheless been elected?&mdash;Certainly.</p>
+
+<p>178. With respect to the selection of pictures for the exhibition, are
+you satisfied in general with that selection, or have you in particular
+instances seen ground to think that it has been injudiciously
+exercised?&mdash;In some cases it has been injudiciously exercised, but it is
+a matter of small importance; it causes heartburning probably, but
+little more. If a rejected picture is good, the public will see it some
+day or other, and find out that it is a good picture. I care little
+about what pictures are let in or not, but I do care about seeing the
+pictures that are let in. The main point, which everyone would desire to
+see determined, is how the pictures that are admitted are to be best
+seen. No picture deserving of being seen at all should be so hung as to
+give you any pain or fatigue in seeing it. If you let a picture into the
+room at all, it should not be hung so high as that either the feelings
+of the artist or the neck of the public should be hurt.</p>
+
+<p>179. <i>Viscount Hardinge.</i> I gather from your evidence that you would
+wish to see the Royal Academy a sort of central university to which
+young men from other institutions should be sent. Assuming that there
+were difficulties in the way of carrying that out, do you think, under
+the present system, you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> could exact from young men who are candidates
+for admission into the Royal Academy, some educational test?&mdash;Certainly;
+I think much depends upon that. If the system of education which I have
+been endeavoring to point out were adopted, you would have in every one
+of those professions very practiced workmen. You could not have any of
+this education carried out, unless you had thoroughly practiced workmen;
+and you should fix your pass as you fix your university pass, and you
+should pass a man in architecture, sculpture, and painting, because he
+knows his business, and knows as much of any other science as is
+necessary for his profession. You require a piece of work from him, and
+you examine him, and then you pass him,&mdash;call him whatever you
+like;&mdash;but you say to the public, Here is a workman in this branch who
+will do your work well.</p>
+
+<p>You do not think there would in such a system be any risk of excluding
+men who might hereafter be great men who under such a system might not
+be able to pass?&mdash;There are risks in every system, but I think every man
+worth anything would pass. A great many who would be good for nothing
+would pass, but your really great man would assuredly pass.</p>
+
+<p>180. Has it ever struck you that it would be advantageous to art if
+there were at the universities professors of art who might give lectures
+and give instruction to young men who might desire to avail themselves
+of it, as you have lectures on botany and geology?&mdash;Yes, assuredly. The
+want of interest on the part of the upper classes in art has been very
+much at the bottom of the abuses which have crept into all systems of
+education connected with it. If the upper classes could only be
+interested in it by being led into it when young, a great improvement
+might be looked for; therefore I feel the expediency of such an addition
+to the education of our universities.</p>
+
+<p>181. Is not that want of refinement which may be observed in many of the
+pictures from time to time exhibited in the Royal Academy to be
+attributed in a great measure to the want of education amongst
+artists?&mdash;It is to be attributed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> that, and to the necessity which
+artists are under of addressing a low class of spectators: an artist to
+live must catch the public eye. Our upper classes supply a very small
+amount of patronage to artists at present, their main patronage being
+from the manufacturing districts and from the public interested in
+engravings;&mdash;an exceedingly wide sphere, but a low sphere,&mdash;and you
+catch the eye of that class much more by pictures having reference to
+their amusements than by any noble subject better treated, and the
+better treated it was the less it would interest that class.</p>
+
+<p>Is it not often the case that pictures exhibiting such a want of
+refinement, at the same time fetch large prices amongst what I may call
+the mercantile patrons of art?&mdash;Certainly; and, the larger the price,
+the more harm done of course to the school, for that is a form of
+education you cannot resist. Plato said long ago, when you have your
+demagogue against you no human form of education can resist that.</p>
+
+<p>182. <i>Sir E. Head.</i> What is your opinion of the present mode of teaching
+in the life school and the painting school, namely, by visitors
+constantly changing?&mdash;I should think it mischievous. The unfortunate
+youths, I should imagine, would just get what they could pick up; it
+would be throwing them crumbs very much as you throw bones to the
+animals in the Zoological Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>Do you conceive that anything which can be properly called a school, is
+likely to be formed where the teaching is conducted in that
+way?&mdash;Assuredly not.</p>
+
+<p>183. You stated that in the event of the introduction of lay members
+into the Academy, you would not think it desirable that they should take
+part in the selection or hanging of pictures for exhibition. Is not
+there a great distinction between the selection of the pictures and the
+hanging of the pictures, and might not they take part in the one without
+taking part in the other?&mdash;I should think hardly. My notion of hanging a
+picture is to put it low enough to be seen. If small it should be placed
+near the eye. Anybody can hang a picture, but the question should be, is
+there good painting enough in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> this picture to make it acceptable to the
+public, or to make it just to the artist to show it? And none but
+artists can quite judge of the workmanship which should entitle it to
+enter the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>Do you think it depends solely upon the workmanship?&mdash;Not by any means
+solely, but I think that is the first point that should be looked to. An
+ill-worked picture ought not to be admitted; let it be exhibited
+elsewhere if you will, but your Academy has no business to let bad work
+pass. If a man cannot carve or paint, though his work may be well
+conceived, do not let his work pass. Unless you require good work in
+your Academy exhibition, you can form no school.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Reeve.</i> Applying the rule you have just laid down, would the effect
+be to exclude a considerable proportion of the works now exhibited in
+the Academy?&mdash;Yes; more of the Academicians' than of others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sir E. Head.</i> Selection now being made by technical artists?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Professional?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lord Elcho.</i> Do you think that none but professional artists are
+capable of judging of the actual merit or demerit of a
+painting?&mdash;Non-professional persons may offer a very strong opinion upon
+the subject, which may happen to be right,&mdash;or which may be wrong.</p>
+
+<p>Your opinion is that the main thing with respect to the exhibition is,
+that the pictures should be seen; that they should not be hung too high
+or too low. That question has been already raised before the Commission,
+and it has been suggested that two feet from the ground should be the
+minimum height for the base of the picture, and some witnesses have said
+that six feet and others eight feet should be the maximum height for the
+base of the picture; what limit would you fix?&mdash;I should say that the
+horizontal line in the perspective of the picture ought always to be
+opposite the spectator's eye, no matter what the height may be from the
+floor. If the horizontal line is so placed that it must be above the
+spectator's eye, in consequence of the size of the picture, it cannot
+be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> helped, but I would always get the horizontal line opposite the eye
+if possible.</p>
+
+<p>184. <i>Chairman.</i> Should you concur in the suggestion which a witness has
+made before this Commission, that it would be an improvement, if the
+space admitted of it, that works of sculpture should be intermixed in
+the same apartment with works of painting, instead of being kept as at
+present in separate apartments?&mdash;I should think it would be very
+delightful to have some works of sculpture mixed with works of painting;
+that it would make the exhibition more pleasing, and that the eye would
+be rested sometimes by turning from the colors to the marble, and would
+see the colors of the paintings better in return. Sir Joshua Reynolds
+mentions the power which some of the Flemish pictures seemed to derive,
+in his opinion, by looking at them after having consulted his note-book.
+Statuary placed among the pictures would have the same effect. I would
+not have the sculpture that was sent in for the exhibition of the year
+exhibited with the paintings, but I would have works of sculpture placed
+permanently in the painting rooms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lord Elcho.</i> Supposing there were no works of sculpture available for
+being placed in the rooms permanently, and supposing among the works
+sent in for annual exhibition there were works of a character fit to be
+placed among the paintings, should you see any objection to their being
+so placed?&mdash;That would cause an immense amount of useless trouble, and
+perpetual quarrels among the sculptors, as to whose works were entitled
+to be placed in the painting rooms or not.</p>
+
+<p>Are you aware that in the exhibition in Paris in 1855, that was the
+system adopted?&mdash;No. If the French adopted it, it was likely to be
+useful, and doubtless they would carry it out very cleverly; but we have
+not the knack of putting the right things in the right places by any
+means.</p>
+
+<p>Did you see our own International Exhibition last year?&mdash;No.</p>
+
+<p>Are you aware that a similar system was resorted to in the exhibition of
+pictures there?&mdash;I should think in our exhi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>bitions we must put anything
+where it would go, in the sort of way that we manage them.</p>
+
+<p>185. At the present moment there are on the books of the Academy five
+honorary members, who hold certain titular offices, Earl Stanhope being
+antiquary to the Academy, Mr. Grote being professor of ancient history,
+Dean Milman being professor of ancient literature, the Bishop of Oxford
+being chaplain, and Sir Henry Holland being secretary for foreign
+correspondence; these professors never deliver any lectures and have no
+voice whatever in the management, but have mere honorary titular
+distinctions; should you think it desirable that gentlemen of their
+position and character should have a voice in the management of the
+affairs of the Academy?&mdash;It would be much more desirable that they
+should give lectures upon the subjects with which they are acquainted. I
+should think Earl Stanhope and all the gentlemen you have mentioned,
+would be much happier in feeling that they were of use in their
+positions; and that if you gave them something to do they would very
+nobly do it. If you give them nothing to do I think they ought not to
+remain in the institution.</p>
+
+<p>186. It has been suggested that the Academy now consisting of forty-two
+might be increased advantageously to fifty professional members,
+architecture, sculpture, and painting being fairly represented, and that
+in addition to those fifty there might be elected or nominated somehow
+or other ten non-professional persons, that is, men taking an interest
+in art, who had a certain position and standing in the country, and who
+might take an active part in the management of the affairs of the
+institution, so tending to bring the Royal Academy and the public
+together?&mdash;I do not know enough of society to be able to form an opinion
+upon the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Irrespective of society, as a question of art, you know enough of
+non-professional persons interested in art to judge as to whether the
+infusion of such an element into the Academy might be of advantage to
+the Academy and to art generally?&mdash;I think if you educate our upper
+classes to take more interest in art, which implies, of course, to know
+some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>thing about it, they might be most efficient members of the
+Academy; but if you leave them, as you leave them now, to the education
+which they get at Oxford and Cambridge, and give them the sort of scorn
+which all the teaching there tends to give, for art and artists, the
+less they have to do with an academy of art the better.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming that, at present, you have not a very great number of those
+persons in the country, do you not think that the mere fact of the
+adoption of such a principle in any reform in the constitution of the
+Academy might have the effect of turning attention more to this matter
+at the Universities, and leading to the very thing which you think so
+desirable?&mdash;No, I should think not. It would only at present give the
+impression that the whole system was somewhat artificial, and that it
+was to remain ineffective.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the neglect of this matter at the Universities, do you
+think, at the present moment, you could not find ten non-professional
+persons, of the character you would think desirable, to add to the
+Academy?&mdash;If I may be so impertinent, I may say that you as one of the
+upper classes, and I as a layman in the lower classes, are tolerably
+fair examples of the kind of persons who take an interest in art, and I
+think both of us would do a great deal of mischief if we had much to do
+with the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>187. Assuming those two persons to be appointed lay members, will you
+state in what way you think they would do mischief in the councils of
+the Academy?&mdash;We should be disturbing elements, whereas what I should
+try to secure, if I had anything to do with its arrangements, would be
+entire tranquillity, a regular system of tuition in which there should
+be little excitement, and little operation of popular, aristocratic, or
+any other disturbing influence; none of criticism, and therefore none of
+tiresome people like myself;&mdash;none of money patronage, or even of
+aristocratic patronage. The whole aim of the teachers should be to
+produce work which could be demonstrably shown to be good and useful,
+and worthy of being bought, or used in any way; and after that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+whole question of patronage and interest should be settled. The school
+should teach its art-grammar thoroughly in everything, and in every
+material, and should teach it carefully; and that could be done if a
+perfect system were adopted, and above all, if a few thoroughly good
+examples were put before the students. That is a point which I think of
+very great importance. I think it very desirable that grants should be
+made by the Government to obtain for the pupils of the Academy beautiful
+examples of every kind, the very loveliest and best; not too many; and
+that their minds should not be confused by having placed before them
+examples of all schools and times; they are confused enough by what they
+see in the shops, and in the annual exhibitions. Let engraving be taught
+by Marc Antonio and Albert D&uuml;rer,&mdash;painting by Giorgione, Paul Veronese,
+Titian and Velasquez,&mdash;and sculpture by good Greek and selected Roman
+examples, and let there be no question of other schools or their merits.
+Let those things be shown as good and right, and let the student be
+trained in those principles:&mdash;if afterwards he strikes out an original
+path, let him; but do not let him torment himself and other people with
+his originalities, till he knows what is right, so far as is known at
+present.</p>
+
+<p>You are opposed, on the whole, to the introduction of the lay
+element?&mdash;Yes; but I am not opposed strongly or distinctly to it,
+because I have not knowledge enough of society to know how it would
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Your not being in favor of it results from your belief that the lay
+element that would be useful to the Academy does not at present exist in
+this country; but you think, if it did exist, and if it could be made to
+grow out of our schools and universities by art teaching, it might, with
+advantage to the Academy and to artists, be introduced into the
+Academy?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>188. Supposing the class of Royal Academicians to be retained, and that
+you had fifty Royal Academicians, should you think it desirable that
+their works should be exhibited by themselves, so that the public might
+see together the works of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> those considered to be the first artists of
+this country?&mdash;Certainly, I should like all pictures to be well seen,
+but I should like one department of the exhibition to be given to the
+Associates or Graduates. I use that term because I suppose those
+Associates to have a degree given them for a certain amount of
+excellence, and any person who had attained that degree should be
+allowed to send in so many pictures. Then the pictures sent in by
+persons who had attained the higher honor of Royal Academician should be
+separately exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>That would act as a stimulus to them to keep up their position and show
+themselves worthy of the honor?&mdash;Yes. I do not think they ought to be
+mixed at all as they are now.</p>
+
+<p>189. What is your opinion with reference to the present system of
+traveling studentships?&mdash;I think it might be made very useful indeed.</p>
+
+<p>On the one hand it has been suggested that there should be, as is the
+system adopted by the French Academy, a permanent professor at Rome to
+look after the students; on the other hand it has been said that it is
+not desirable, if you have those traveling studentships, that the
+students should go to Rome, that it is better for them to travel, and to
+go to Venice or Lombardy, and to have no fixed school in connection with
+the Academy at Rome. To which of those two systems do you give the
+preference?&mdash;I should prefer the latter; if a man goes to travel, he
+ought to travel, and not be plagued with schools.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested that fellowships might be given to rising artists,
+pecuniary assistance being attached to those fellowships, the artist
+being required annually to send in some specimen of his work to show
+what he was doing, but it being left optional with him to go abroad or
+to work at home; should you think that would be desirable, or as has
+been suggested in a letter by Mr. Armitage, supposing those fellowships
+to be established for four years, that two of those years should be
+spent abroad and two at home?&mdash;Without entering into any detail as to
+whether two years should be spent abroad and two years at home, I feel
+very strongly that one of the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> dangerous and retarding influences
+you have operating upon art is the enormous power of money, and the
+chances of entirely winning or entirely losing, that is, of making your
+fortune in a year by a large taking picture, or else starving for ten
+years by very good small ones. The whole life of an artist is a lottery,
+and a very wild lottery, and the best artist is liable to be warped away
+from what he knows is right by the chance of at once making a vast
+fortune by catching the public eye, the public eye being only to be
+caught by bright colors and certain conditions of art not always
+desirable. If, therefore, connected with the Academy schools there could
+be the means of giving a fixed amount of income to certain men, who
+would as a consideration for that income furnish a certain number of
+works that might be agreed upon, or undertake any national work that
+might be agreed upon, that I believe would be the healthiest way in
+which a good painter could be paid. To give him his bread and cheese,
+and so much a day, and say, Here are such and such things we want you to
+do, is, I believe, the healthiest, simplest, and happiest way in which
+great work can be produced. But whether it is compatible with our
+present system I cannot say, nor whether every man would not run away as
+soon as he found he could get two or three thousand pounds by painting a
+catching picture. I think your best men would not.</p>
+
+<p>You would be in favor of those fellowships?&mdash;Yes.</p>
+
+<p>190. I gather that you are in favor of the encouragement of mural
+decoration, fresco painting, and so forth. The system that prevails
+abroad, in France, for instance, is for painters to employ pupils to
+work under them. It was in that way that Delaroche painted his hemicycle
+at the Acad&eacute;mie des Beaux-Arts, employing four pupils, who worked for
+him, and who from his small sketch drew the full-sized picture on the
+walls, which was subsequently corrected by him. They then colored it up
+to his sketch, after which he shut himself up again, and completed it.
+On the other hand, if you go to the Victoria Gallery in the House of
+Lords, you find Mr. Maclise at work on a space of wall forty-eight feet
+long, paint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>ing the Death of Nelson on the deck of the "Victory," every
+figure being life size, the deck of the ship and the ropes and
+everything being the actual size, and you see him painting with his own
+hand each little bit of rope and the minutest detail. Which of the two
+systems do you think is the soundest and most calculated to produce
+great and noble work?&mdash;The first is the best for the pupils, the other
+is the best for the public. But unquestionably not only can a great work
+be executed as Mr. Maclise is executing his, but no really great work
+was executed otherwise, for in all mighty work, whether in fresco or
+oil, every touch and hue of color to the last corner has been put on
+lovingly by the painter's own hand, not leaving to a pupil to paint so
+much as a pebble under a horse's foot.</p>
+
+<p>191. Do you believe that most of the works of the great masters in Italy
+were so executed?&mdash;No; because the pupils were nearly as mighty as the
+masters. Great men took such an interest in their work, and they were so
+modest and simple that they were repeatedly sacrificing themselves to
+the interests of their religion or of the society they were working for;
+and when a thing was to be done in a certain time it could only be done
+by bringing in aid; but whenever precious work was to be done, then the
+great man said, "Lock me up here by myself, give me a little wine and
+cheese, and come in a month, and I will show you what I have done."</p>
+
+<p>Do you think it desirable that the pupils should be so trained as to be
+capable of assisting great masters in such works?&mdash;Assuredly.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The following analysis of the above evidence was
+given in the Index to the Report (pp. 139, 140).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p>
+
+<p>168-69. The Academy not in all points satisfactory. Would wish to
+see the Academicians not self-elected.&mdash;But by a constituency
+consisting both of artists and the public.&mdash;Public influence to be
+the same in painting as in music.</p>
+
+<p>170. As to the Associates: is in favor of some period of
+probation.&mdash;Their class to be unlimited, with a very limited number
+of Academicians.</p>
+
+<p>171. Has formed no opinion on the question of introducing lay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>men
+into the Academy; in matters of revenue they might be joined with
+artists, but not in the selection and hanging of pictures: opposed
+on the whole to their introduction, considering the present state
+of art education.&mdash;As he would like to see the Academy constituted,
+thinks the president ought to be an artist.</p>
+
+<p>172. General effect of the Academy's teaching upon the art of the
+country merely nugatory.&mdash;Would have a much more comprehensive
+system of teaching.</p>
+
+<p>173. The Academy education to correspond wholly to the University
+education.</p>
+
+<p>174. Not easy but very necessary for the Academy to adopt an
+authoritative system of teaching.</p>
+
+<p>175. His idea of what the Academy teaching should be; would have a
+school of chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>176. The teaching of wall-painting in permanent materials should be
+a branch, possibly the principal branch.</p>
+
+<p>177. Not satisfied with the selection of artists to be members of
+the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>178. In some cases the selection of pictures has been injudicious,
+but this a matter of small importance; the main point is how the
+pictures that are admitted are to be best seen.</p>
+
+<p>179. In favor of an educational test for candidates for admission
+into the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>180. And of professors of art at the Universities.</p>
+
+<p>181. Causes of the want of refinement observable in many modern
+pictures; the large prices they fetch harmful.</p>
+
+<p>182. Teaching by visitors constantly changing mischievous.</p>
+
+<p>183. How a picture should be hung.&mdash;An ill-worked picture ought not
+to be admitted by the Academy.&mdash;Bearing of this last opinion upon
+the present Exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>184. Would have works of sculpture placed permanently in the
+painting-room, but not any of those sent in for the Exhibition of
+the year.</p>
+
+<p>185. In favor of the present honorary members being made of use in
+their positions.</p>
+
+<p>186. Introduction of laymen into the Academy deprecated under
+present circumstances, and why.&mdash;Present feeling towards art and
+artists at the Universities.</p>
+
+<p>187. Desirable that Government grants should be made to obtain for
+the pupils of the Academy beautiful examples of every kind of art.</p>
+
+<p>188. In favor of separate exhibitions of the works of Associates
+(or Graduates) and Academicians.</p>
+
+<p>189. In favor of art-fellowships, but not of a fixed school in
+connection with the Academy at Rome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>190. Comparison of the French, and English systems (as regards
+assistance from pupils) in the production of great public
+paintings.</p>
+
+<p>191. How the works of the Italian masters were executed.&mdash;Desirable
+that pupils should be trained to assist great masters in public
+works.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Reprinted from "The Report of the Commissioners appointed
+to inquire into the Present Position of the Royal Academy in Relation to
+the Fine Arts." London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1863 (pp. 546-55.
+Questions 5079-5142). The Commission consisted of Earl Stanhope
+(<i>Chairman</i>), Viscount Hardinge, Lord Elcho, Sir E. W. Head, Mr. William
+Stirling, Mr. H. D. Seymour, and Mr. Henry Reeve, all of whom, except
+Mr. Seymour, were present at the above sitting.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="A_MUSEUM_OR_PICTURE_GALLERY" id="A_MUSEUM_OR_PICTURE_GALLERY"></a>A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY:</h2>
+
+<h3>ITS FUNCTIONS AND ITS FORMATION.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p class="author">
+<i>March 20th, 1880.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">My dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>192. If I put off writing the paper you asked me for, till I can do it
+conveniently, it may hang fire till this time next year. If you will
+accept a note on the subject now and then, keeping them till there are
+enough to be worth printing, all practical ends may be enough answered,
+and much more quickly.</p>
+
+<p>The first function of a Museum&mdash;(for a little while I shall speak of Art
+and Natural History as alike cared for in an ideal one)&mdash;is to give
+example of perfect order and perfect elegance, in the true sense of that
+test word, to the disorderly and rude populace. Everything in its <i>own</i>
+place, everything looking its best because it is there, nothing crowded,
+nothing unnecessary, nothing puzzling. Therefore, after a room has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> been
+once arranged, there must be no change in it. For new possessions there
+must be new rooms, and after twenty years' absence&mdash;coming back to the
+room in which one learned one's bird or beast alphabet, we should be
+able to show our children the old bird on the old perch in the
+accustomed corner. But&mdash;first of all, let the room be beautifully
+complete, <i>i.e.</i> complete enough for its proper business.</p>
+
+<p>193. In the British Museum, at the top of the stairs, we encounter in a
+terrific alliance a giraffe, a hippopotamus, and a basking shark. The
+public&mdash;young and old&mdash;pass with a start and a stare, and remain as wise
+as they were before about all the three creatures. The day before
+yesterday I was standing by the big fish&mdash;a father came up to it with
+his little boy. "That's a shark," says he; "it turns on its side when it
+wants to eat you," and so went on&mdash;literally as wise as he was before;
+for he had read in a book that sharks turn on their side to bite, and he
+never looked at the ticket, which told him this particular shark only
+ate small fish. Now he never looked at the ticket, because he didn't
+expect to find anything on it except that this was the Sharkogobalus
+Smith-Jonesianius. But if, round the walls of the room, there had been
+all the <i>well-known</i> kinds of shark, going down, in graduated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> sizes,
+from that basking one to our waggling dog-fish, and if every one of
+these had had a plain English ticket, with ten words of common sense on
+it, saying where and how the beast lived, and a number (unchangeable)
+referring to a properly arranged manual of the shark tribe (sold by the
+Museum publisher, who ought to have his little shop close by the
+porter's lodge), both father and son must have been much below the level
+of average English man and boy in mother wit if they did not go out of
+the room by the door in front of them very distinctly, and&mdash;to
+themselves&mdash;amazingly, wiser than they had come in by the door behind
+them.</p>
+
+<p>194. If I venture to give instances of fault from the British Museum, it
+is because, on the whole, it is the best-ordered and pleasantest
+institution in all England, and the grandest concentration of the means
+of human knowledge in the world. And I am heartily sorry for the
+break-up of it, and augur no good from any changes of arrangement likely
+to take place in concurrence with Kensington, where, the same day that I
+had been meditating by the old shark, I lost myself in a Cretan
+labyrinth of military ironmongery, advertisements of spring blinds,
+model fish-farming, and plaster bathing nymphs with a year's smut on all
+the noses of them; and had to put myself in charge of a policeman to get
+out again. Ever affectionately yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">J. Ruskin</span>.<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="author">
+<i>March 29th, 1880</i>.</p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">My dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>195. The only chance of my getting these letters themselves into fairly
+consistent and Museum-like order is by writing a word or two always the
+first thing in the morning till I get them done; so, I shall at least
+remember what I was talking of the day before; but for the rest&mdash;I must
+speak of one thing or another as it may come into my head, for there are
+too many to classify without pedantry and loss of time.</p>
+
+<p>My requirement of "elegance" in that last letter contemplates chiefly
+architecture and fittings. These should not only be perfect in
+stateliness, durability, and comfort, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> beautiful to the utmost point
+consistent with due subordination to the objects displayed. To enter a
+room in the Louvre is an education in itself; but two steps on the
+filthy floor and under the iron forks, half scaffold, half gallows, of
+the big Norwood glass bazaar, debase mind and eye at once below
+possibility of looking at anything with profit all the day afterwards. I
+have just heard that a French picture dealer is to have charge of the
+picture gallery there, and that the whole interior is to become
+virtually a large caf&eacute;, when&mdash;it is hoped&mdash;the glass monster may at last
+"pay." Concerning which beautiful consummation of Mr. Dickens's
+"Fairyland" (see my pamphlet<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> on the opening of the so-called
+"palace"), be it here at once noted, that all idea of any "payment," in
+that sense, must be utterly and scornfully abjured on the foundation
+stone of every National or Civic Museum. There must be neither companies
+to fill their own pockets out of it, nor trustees who can cramp the
+management, or interfere with the officering, or shorten the supplies of
+it. Put one man of reputation and sense at its head; give him what staff
+he asks for, and a fixed annual sum for expenditure&mdash;specific accounts
+to be printed annually for all the world's seeing&mdash;and let him alone.
+The original expenditure for building and fitting must be magnificent,
+and the current expenditure for cleaning and refitting magnanimous; but
+a certain proportion of this current cost should be covered by small
+entrance fees, exacted, not for any miserly helping out of the
+floor-sweepers' salaries, but for the sake of the visitors themselves,
+that the rooms may not be incumbered by the idle, or disgraced by the
+disreputable. You must not make your Museum a refuge against either rain
+or ennui, nor let into perfectly well-furnished, and even, in the true
+sense, palatial, rooms, the utterly squalid and ill-bred portion of the
+people. There should, indeed, be refuges for the poor from rain and
+cold, and decent rooms accessible to indecent persons, if they like to
+go there; but neither of these charities should be part of the function
+of a Civic Museum.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>196. Make the entrance fee a silver penny (a silver groat, typically
+representing the father, mother, eldest son, and eldest daughter,
+passing always the total number of any one family), and every person
+admitted, however young, being requested to sign their name, or make
+their mark.</p>
+
+<p>That the entrance money should be always of silver is one of the
+beginnings of education in the place&mdash;one of the conditions of its
+"elegance" on the very threshold.</p>
+
+<p>And the institution of silver for bronze in the lower coinage is a part
+of the system of National education which I have been teaching these
+last ten years&mdash;a very much deeper and wider one than any that can be
+given in museums&mdash;and without which all museums will ultimately be
+vain.&mdash;Ever affectionately yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.
+</p>
+
+<p>P.S.&mdash;There should be a well-served coffee-room attached to the
+building; but this part of the establishment without any luxury in
+furniture or decoration, and without any cooking apparatus for
+carnivora.</p>
+
+
+<p class="author"><br /><br />
+<i>Easter Monday, 1880.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>197. The day is auspicious for the beginning of reflection on the right
+manner of manifestation of all divine things to those who desire to see
+them. For every house of the Muses, where, indeed, they live, is an
+Interpreter's by the wayside, or rather, a place of oracle and
+interpretation in one. And the right function of every museum, to simple
+persons, is the manifestation to them of what is lovely in the life of
+Nature, and heroic in the life of Men.</p>
+
+<p>There are already, you see, some quaint restrictions in that last
+sentence, whereat sundry of our friends will start, and others stop. I
+must stop also, myself, therefore, for a minute or two, to insist on
+them.</p>
+
+<p>198. A Museum, primarily, is to be for <i>simple</i> persons. Children, that
+is to say, and peasants. For your student, your antiquary, or your
+scientific gentleman, there must be separate accommodation, or they must
+be sent elsewhere.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> The Town Museum is to be for the Town's People, the
+Village Museum for the Villagers. Keep that first principle clear to
+start with. If you want to found an academy of painting in
+Littleborough, or of literature in Squattlesea Mere, you must get your
+advice from somebody else, not me.</p>
+
+<p>199. Secondly. The museum is to manifest to these simple persons the
+beauty and life of all things and creatures in their perfectness. Not
+their modes of corruption, disease, or death. Not even, always, their
+genesis, in the more or less blundering beginnings of it; not even their
+modes of nourishment, if destructive; you must not stuff a blackbird
+pulling up a worm, nor exhibit in a glass case a crocodile crunching a
+baby.</p>
+
+<p>Neither must you ever show bones or guts, or any other charnel-house
+stuff. Teach your children to know the lark's note from the
+nightingale's; the length of their larynxes is their own business, and
+God's.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot enough insist upon this point, nor too solemnly. If you wish
+your children to be surgeons, send them to Surgeons' College; if
+jugglers or necromancers, to Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke; and if
+butchers, to the shambles: but if you want them to lead the calm life of
+country gentlemen and gentlewomen, manservants and maidservants, let
+them seek none of Death's secrets till they die. Ever faithfully and
+affectionately yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="author">
+<i>Easter Tuesday, 1880.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>200. I must enter to-day somewhat further on the practical, no less than
+emotional, reason for the refusal of anatomical illustrations to the
+general public.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult enough to get one clear idea into anybody, of any single
+thing. But next to impossible to get <i>two</i> clear ideas into them, of the
+same thing. We have had lions' heads for door-knockers these hundred and
+fifty years, without ever learning so much as what a lion's head is
+like. But with good modern stuffing and fetching, I can manage now to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+make a child really understand something about the beast's look, and his
+mane, and his sullen eyes and brindled lips. But if I'm bothered at the
+same time with a big bony box, that has neither mane, lips, nor eyes,
+and have to explain to the poor wretch of a parish schoolboy how somehow
+this fits on to that, I will be bound that, at a year's end, draw one as
+big as the other, and he won't know a lion's head from a tiger's&mdash;nor a
+lion's skull from a rabbit's. Nor is it the parish boy only who suffers.
+The scientific people themselves miss half their points from the habit
+of hacking at things, instead of looking at them. When I gave my lecture
+on the Swallow<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> at Oxford, I challenged every anatomist there to tell
+me the use of his tail (I believe half of them didn't know he had one).
+Not a soul of them could tell me, which I knew beforehand; but I did not
+know, till I had looked well through their books, how they were
+quarreling about his wings! Actually at this moment (Easter Tuesday,
+1880), I don't believe you can find in any scientific book in Europe a
+true account of the way a bird flies&mdash;or how a snake serpentines. My
+Swallow lecture was the first bit of clear statement on the one point,
+and when I get my Snake lecture published, you will have the first
+extant bit of clear statement on the other; and that is simply because
+the anatomists can't, for their life, look at a thing till they have
+skinned it.</p>
+
+<p>201. And matters get worse and worse every hour. Yesterday, after
+writing the first leaf of this note, I went into the British Museum, and
+found a nasty skeleton of a lizard, with its under jaw dropped off, on
+the top of a table of butterflies&mdash;temporarily of course&mdash;but then
+everything has been temporary or temporizing at the British Museum for
+the last half-century; making it always a mere waste and weariness to
+the general public, because, forsooth, it had always to be kept up to
+the last meeting of the Zoological Society, and last edition of the
+<i>Times</i>. As if there had not been beasts enough before the Ark to tell
+our children the manners of, on a Sunday afternoon!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>202. I had gone into the Museum that day to see the exact form of a
+duck's wing, the examination of a lively young drake's here at Coniston
+having closed in his giving me such a cut on the wrist with it, that I
+could scarcely write all the morning afterwards. Now in the whole bird
+gallery there are only two ducks' wings expanded, and those in different
+positions. Fancy the difference to the mob, and me, if the shells and
+monkey skeletons were taken away from the mid-gallery, and instead,
+three gradated series of birds put down the length of it (or half the
+length&mdash;or a quarter would do it&mdash;with judgment), showing the
+transition, in length of beak, from bunting to woodcock&mdash;in length of
+leg, from swift to stilted plover&mdash;and in length of wing, from auk to
+frigate-bird; the wings, all opened, in one specimen of each bird to
+their full sweep, and in another, shown at the limit of the down back
+stroke. For what on earth&mdash;or in air&mdash;is the use to me of seeing their
+boiled sternums and scalped sinciputs, when I'm never shown either how
+they bear their breasts&mdash;or where they carry their heads?</p>
+
+<p>Enough of natural history, you will say! I will come to art in my next
+letter&mdash;finishing the ugly subject of this one with a single sentence
+from section ix. of the "Tale of a Tub," commending the context of it to
+my friends of the Royal Academy.</p>
+
+<p>"Last week, I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much
+it altered her person for the worse."&mdash;Ever, my dear &mdash;&mdash;, affectionately
+yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="author">
+<i>7th April, 1880.</i></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">My Dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>203. I suppose that proper respect for the great first principles of the
+British Constitution, that every man should do as he pleases, think what
+he likes, and see everything that can be seen for money, will make most
+of your readers recoil from my first principle of Museum
+arrangement,&mdash;that nothing should be let inside the doors that isn't
+good of its sort,&mdash;as from an attempt to restore the Papacy, revive the
+Inquisition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> and away with everybody to the lowest dungeon of the
+castle moat. They must at their pleasure charge me with these sinister
+views; they will find that there is no dexter view to be had of the
+business, which does not consist primarily in knowing Bad from Good, and
+Right from Wrong. Nor, if they will condescend to begin simply enough,
+and at the bottom of the said business, and let the cobbler judge of the
+crepida, and the potter of the pot, will they find it so supremely
+difficult to establish authorities that shall be trustworthy, and
+judgments that shall be sure.</p>
+
+<p>204. Suppose, for instance, at Leicester, whence came first to us the
+inquiry on such points, one began by setting apart a Hunter's Room, in
+which a series of portraits of their Master's favorites, for the last
+fifty years or so, should be arranged, with certificate from each Squire
+of his satisfaction, to such and such a point, with the portrait of
+Lightfoot, or Lucifer, or Will o' the Wisp; and due notification, for
+perhaps a recreant and degenerate future, of the virtues and perfections
+at this time sought and secured in the English horse. Would not such a
+chamber of chivalry have, in its kind, a quite indisputable authority
+and historical value, not to be shaken by any future impudence or
+infidelity?</p>
+
+<p>Or again in Staffordshire, would it not be easily answered to an honest
+question of what is good and not, in clay or ware, "This will work, and
+that will stand"? and might not a series of the mugs which have been
+matured with discrimination, and of the pots which have been popular in
+use, be so ordered as to display their qualities in a convincing and
+harmonious manner against all gainsayers?</p>
+
+<p>205. Nor is there any mystery of taste, or marvel of skill, concerning
+which you may not get quite easy initiation and safe pilotage for the
+common people, provided you once make them clearly understand that there
+is indeed something to be learned, and something to be admired, in the
+arts, which will need their attention for a time; and cannot be
+explained with a word, nor seen with a wink. And provided also, and with
+still greater decision, you set over them masters, in each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> branch of
+the arts, who know their own minds in that matter, and are not afraid to
+speak them, nor to say, "We know," when they know, and "We don't know,"
+when they don't.</p>
+
+<p>To which end, the said several branches must be held well apart, and
+dealt with one at a time. Every considerable town ought to have its
+exemplary collections of woodwork, iron-work, and jewelry, attached to
+the schools of their several trades, leaving to be illustrated in its
+public museum, as in an hexagonal bee's cell, the six queenly and
+muse-taught arts of needlework, writing, pottery, sculpture,
+architecture, and painting.</p>
+
+<p>206. For each of these, there should be a separate Tribune or Chamber of
+absolute tribunal, which need not be large&mdash;that, so called, of
+Florence, not the size of a railway waiting-room, has actually for the
+last century determined the taste of the European public in two
+arts!&mdash;in which the absolute best in each art, so far as attainable by
+the communal pocket, should be authoritatively exhibited, with simple
+statement that it is good, and reason why it is good, and notification
+in what particulars it is unsurpassable, together with some not too
+complex illustrations of the steps by which it has attained to that
+perfection, where these can be traced far back in history.</p>
+
+<p>207. These six Tribunes, or Temples, of Fame, being first set with their
+fixed criteria, there should follow a series of historical galleries,
+showing the rise and fall (if fallen) of the arts in their beautiful
+associations, as practiced in the great cities and by the great nations
+of the world. The history of Egypt, of Persia, of Greece, of Italy, of
+France, and of England, should be given in their arts,&mdash;dynasty by
+dynasty and age by age; and for a seventh, a Sunday Room, for the
+history of Christianity in its art, including the farthest range and
+feeblest efforts of it; reserving for this room, also, what power could
+be reached in delineation of the great monasteries and cathedrals which
+were once the glory of all Christian lands.</p>
+
+<p>208. In such a scheme, every form of noble art would take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> harmonious
+and instructive place, and often very little and disregarded things be
+found to possess unthought-of interest and hidden relative beauty; but
+its efficiency&mdash;and in this chiefly let it be commended to the patience
+of your practical readers&mdash;would depend, not on its extent, but on its
+strict and precise limitation. The methods of which, if you care to have
+my notions of them, I might perhaps enter into, next month, with some
+illustrative detail.&mdash;Ever most truly yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="author">
+<i>10th June, 1880.</i><a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">My Dear</span> &mdash;&mdash;,</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>209. I can't give you any talk on detail, yet; but, not to drop a stitch
+in my story, I want to say why I've attached so much importance to
+needlework, and put it in the opening court of the six. You see they are
+progressive, so that I don't quite put needlework on a <i>level</i> with
+painting. But a nation that would learn to "touch" <i>must</i> primarily know
+how to "stitch." I am always busy, for a good part of the day, in my
+wood, and wear out my leathern gloves fast, after once I can wear them
+at all: but that's the precise difficulty of the matter. I get them from
+the shop looking as stout and trim as you please, and half an hour after
+I've got to work they split up the fingers and thumbs like ripe
+horse-chestnut shells, and I find myself with five dangling rags round
+my wrist, and a rotten white thread draggling after me through the wood,
+or tickling my nose, as if Ariadne and Arachne had lost their wits
+together. I go home, invoking the universe against sewing-machines; and
+beg the charity of a sound stitch or two from any of the maids who know
+their woman's art; and thenceforward the life of the glove proper
+begins. Wow, it is not possible for any people that put up with this
+sort of thing, to learn to paint, or do anything else with their fingers
+decently:&mdash;only, for the most part they don't think their museums are
+meant to show them how to do anything decently, but rather how to be
+idle, indecently. Which ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>tremely popular and extremely erroneous
+persuasion, if you please, we must get out of our way before going
+further.</p>
+
+<p>210. I owe some apology, by the way, to Mr. Frith, for the way I spoke
+of his picture<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> in my letter to the Leicester committee, not intended
+for publication, though I never write what I would not allow to be
+published, and was glad that they asked leave to print it. It was not I
+who instanced the picture, it had been named in the meeting of the
+committee as the kind of thing that people best like, and I was obliged
+to say <i>why</i> people best liked it:&mdash;namely, not for the painting, which
+is good, and worthy their liking, but for the sight of the racecourse
+and its humors. And the reason that such a picture ought not to be in a
+museum, is precisely because in a museum people ought not to fancy
+themselves on a racecourse. If they want to see races, let them go to
+races; and if rogues, to Bridewells. They come to museums to see
+something different from rogues and races.</p>
+
+<p>211. But, to put the matter at once more broadly, and more accurately,
+be it remembered, for sum of all, that a museum is not a theater. Both
+are means of noble education&mdash;but you must not mix up the two. Dramatic
+interest is one thing; aesthetic charm another; a pantomime must not
+depend on its fine color, nor a picture on its fine pantomime.</p>
+
+<p>Take a special instance. It is long since I have been so pleased in the
+Royal Academy as I was by Mr. Britton Rivi&egrave;re's "Sympathy." The dog in
+uncaricatured doggedness, divine as Anubis, or the Dog-star; the child
+entirely childish and lovely, the carpet might have been laid by
+Veronese. A most precious picture in itself, yet not one for a museum.
+Everybody would think only of the story in it; everybody be wondering
+what the little girl had done, and how she would be forgiven, and if she
+wasn't, how soon she would stop crying, and give the doggie a kiss, and
+comfort his heart. All which they might study at home among their own
+children and dogs just as well; and should not come to the museum to
+plague the real students there, since there is not anything of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> especial
+notableness or unrivaled quality in the actual painting.</p>
+
+<p>212. On the other hand, one of the four pictures I chose for permanent
+teaching in Fors was one of a child and a dog. The child is doing
+nothing; neither is the dog. But the dog is absolutely and beyond
+comparison the best painted dog in the world&mdash;ancient or modern&mdash;on this
+side of it, or at the Antipodes, (so far as I've seen the contents of
+said world). And the child is painted so that child <i>cannot</i> be better
+done. <i>That</i> is a picture for a museum.</p>
+
+<p>Not that dramatic, still less didactic, intention should disqualify a
+work of art for museum purposes. But&mdash;broadly&mdash;dramatic and didactic art
+should be universally national, the luster of our streets, the treasure
+of our palaces, the pleasure of our homes. Much art that is weak,
+transitory, and rude may thus become helpful to us. But the museum is
+only for what is eternally right, and well done, according to divine law
+and human skill. The least things are to be there&mdash;and the greatest&mdash;but
+all <i>good</i> with the goodness that makes a child cheerful and an old man
+calm; the simple should go there to learn, and the wise to remember.</p>
+
+<p>213. And now to return to what I meant to be the subject of this
+letter&mdash;the arrangement of our first ideal room in such a museum. As I
+think of it, I would fain expand the single room, first asked for, into
+one like Prince Houssain's,&mdash;no, Prince Houssain had the flying
+tapestry, and I forget which prince had the elastic palace. But, indeed,
+it must be a lordly chamber which shall be large enough to exhibit the
+true nature of thread and needle&mdash;omened in "Thread-needle Street!"</p>
+
+<p>The structure, first of wool and cotton, of fur, and hair, and down, of
+hemp, flax, and silk:&mdash;microscope permissible if any cause can be shown
+<i>why</i> wool is soft, and fur fine, and cotton downy, and down downier;
+and how a flax fiber differs from a dandelion stalk, and how the
+substance of a mulberry leaf can become velvet for Queen Victoria's
+crown, and clothing of purple for the housewife of Solomon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then the phase of its dyeing. What azures, and emeralds, and Tyrians
+scarlets can be got into fibers of thread.</p>
+
+<p>214. Then the phase of its spinning. The mystery of that divine spiral,
+from finest to firmest, which renders lace possible at
+Valenciennes&mdash;anchorage possible, after Trafalgar&mdash;if Hardy had but done
+as he was bid.</p>
+
+<p>Then the mystery of weaving. The eternal harmony of warp and woof, of
+all manner of knotting, knitting, and reticulation, the art which makes
+garment possible, woven from the top throughout, draughts of fishes
+possible, miraculous enough in any pilchard or herring shoal, gathered
+into companionable catchableness;&mdash;which makes, in fine, so many Nations
+possible, and Saxon and Norman beyond the rest.</p>
+
+<p>215. And finally, the accomplished phase of needlework, the <i>Acu
+Tetigisti</i> of all time, which does, indeed, practically exhibit what
+medi&aelig;val theologists vainly tried to conclude inductively&mdash;How many
+angels can stand on a needle-point. To show the essential nature of a
+stitch&mdash;drawing the separate into the inseparable, from the lowly work
+of duly restricted sutor, and modestly installed cobbler, to the
+needle-Scripture of Matilda, the Queen.</p>
+
+<p>All the acicular Art of Nations, savage and civilized, from Lapland
+boot, letting in no snow-water&mdash;to Turkey cushion bossed with pearl&mdash;to
+valance of Venice gold in needlework -to the counterpanes and samplers
+of our own lovely ancestresses, imitable, perhaps, once more, with good
+help from Whiteland's College&mdash;and Girton.</p>
+
+<p>216. It was but yesterday, my own womankind were in much wholesome and
+sweet excitement delightful to behold, in the practice of some new
+device of remedy for rents (to think how much of evil there is in the
+two senses of that four-lettered word! as in the two methods of
+intonation of its synonym tear!) whereby they might be daintily effaced,
+and with a newness which would never make them worse. The process began
+beautifully, even to my uninformed eyes, in the likeness of herring-bone
+masonry, crimson on white, but it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> seemed to me marvelous that anything
+should yet be discoverable in needle process, and that of so utilitarian
+character.</p>
+
+<p>All that is reasonable, I say of such work is to be in our first museum
+room. All that Athena and Penelope would approve. Nothing that vanity
+has invented for change, or folly loved for costliness; but all that can
+bring honest pride into homely life, and give security to health&mdash;and
+honor to beauty.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">J. Ruskin.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> These letters are reprinted from the <i>Art Journal</i> of June
+and August 1880, where they were prefaced with the following note by the
+editor in explanation of their origin:&mdash;"We are enabled, through Mr.
+Ruskin's kindness, to publish this month a series of letters to a friend
+upon the functions and formation of a model Museum or Picture Gallery.
+As stated in our last issue the question arose thus:&mdash;At the
+distribution of the prizes to the School of Art at Leicester by Mr. J.
+D. Linton and Mr. James Orrock, members of the Institute of Painters in
+Water Colors, the latter, after stating the vital importance of study
+from nothing but the finest models, and expressing his regret that the
+present price of works of Art of the first class rendered their
+attainment by schools almost prohibitory, offered drawings by William
+Hunt and David Cox as a nucleus for a collection. He urged others to
+follow this example, and with so much success that a few days saw a
+large sum and many works of Art promised in aid of a students' gallery.
+The attention of the Leicester Corporation was thereupon drawn to the
+movement, and they at once endeavored to annex the scheme to their
+Museum. Failing in this, they in friendly rivalry subscribed a large sum
+of money, and the question at once arose how best to dispose of it, each
+naturally thinking his own ideas the best. At this juncture Mr. Ruskin's
+aid was invoked by one section of the subscribers, and he replied in a
+letter which, owing to its having been circulated without its context,
+has been open to some misconstruction. As he was only asked, so he only
+advised, what should <i>not</i> be done. However, the letter bore its fruits,
+for both parties have had the attention of the country drawn to their
+proposals, and so are now more diffident how to set about carrying them
+into effect than they were before. Under these circumstances Mr. Ruskin
+has been induced to set out the mode in which he considers an Art Museum
+should be formed."
+</p><p>
+The letter which was "open to some misconstruction" may be found in
+<i>Arrows of the Chace</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Reprinted in vol. i., &sect;&sect; 253-273.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In 1873. See the second lecture of <i>Love's
+Meinie</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Art Journal</i>, August, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The "Derby Day." See <i>Arrows of the Chase</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="MINOR_WRITINGS_UPON_ART" id="MINOR_WRITINGS_UPON_ART"></a>MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.</h2>
+
+
+
+  <h4>THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS, VERONA. 1872.<br />
+
+  VERONA AND ITS RIVERS (WITH CATALOGUE). 1870.<br />
+
+  CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 1872.<br />
+
+  ART SCHOOLS OF MEDI&AElig;VAL CHRISTENDOM. 1876.<br />
+
+  THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 1876.<br />
+
+  THE STUDY OF BEAUTY. 1883.<br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_CAVALLI_MONUMENTS_IN_THE_CHURCH_OF_ST_ANASTASIA_VERONA9" id="THE_CAVALLI_MONUMENTS_IN_THE_CHURCH_OF_ST_ANASTASIA_VERONA9"></a>THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS IN THE CHURCH OF ST. ANASTASIA, VERONA.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>217. The tomb of Federigo and Nicola Cavalli is in the southernmost
+chapel of the five which form the east end of the church of St.
+Anastasia at Verona.</p>
+
+<p>The traveler in Italy is so often called upon to admire what he cannot
+enjoy, that it must relieve the mind of any reader intending to visit
+Verona to be assured that this church deserves nothing but extraordinary
+praise; it has, however, some characters which a quarter of an hour's
+attention will make both interesting and instructive, and which I will
+note briefly before giving an account of the Cavalli chapel. This church
+"would, if the font were finished, probably be the most perfect specimen
+in existence of the style to which it belongs," says a critic quoted in
+"Murray's Guide." The conjecture is a bold one, for the font is not only
+unfinished, and for the most part a black mass of ragged brickwork, but
+the portion pretending to completion is in three styles; approaches
+excellence only in one of them; and in that the success is limited to
+the sides of the single entrance door. The flanks and vaults of this
+porch, indeed, deserve our almost unqualified admiration for their
+beautiful polychrome masonry. They are built of large masses of green
+serpentine alternating with red and white marble, and the joints are so
+delicate and firm that a casual spectator might pass the gate with
+contempt, thinking the stone was painted.</p>
+
+<p>218. The capitals on these two sides, the carved central shaft, and the
+horizontal lintel of this door are also excellent examples of Veronese
+thirteenth century sculpture, and have merits of a high order, but of
+which the general observer can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>not be cognizant. I do not mean, in
+saying this, to extol them greatly; the best art is pleasing to all, and
+its virtue, or a portion of its virtue, instantly manifest. But there
+are some good qualities in every earnest work which can only be
+ascertained by attention; and in saying that a casual observer cannot
+see the good qualities in early Veronese sculpture, I mean that it
+possesses none but these, nor of these many.</p>
+
+<p>219. Yet it is worth a minute's delay to observe how much the sculpture
+has counted on attention. In later work, figures of the size of life, or
+multitudinous small ones, please, if they do not interest, the spectator
+who can spare them a momentary glance. But all the figures on this door
+are diminutive, and project so slightly from the stone as scarcely to
+catch the eye; there are none in the sides and none in the vault of the
+gate, and it is only by deliberate examination that we find the faith
+which is to be preached in the church, and the honor of its preacher,
+conclusively engraved on the lintel and door-post. The spiral flutings
+of the central shaft are uninterrupted, so as to form a slight recess
+for the figure of St. Dominic, with, I believe, St. Peter Martyr and St.
+Thomas Aquinas, one on each side with the symbols of the sun and moon.
+At the end of the lintel, on the left, is St. Anastasia; on the right,
+St. Catherine (of Siena); in the center, on the projecting capital, the
+Madonna; and on the lintel, the story of Christ, in the four passages of
+the Annunciation, Nativity, Crucifixion, and Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>220. This is the only part of the front of the church which is certainly
+part of the first structure in 1260. The two statues of St. Anastasia
+and St. Catherine are so roughly joined to the lateral capitals as to
+induce a suspicion that even these latter and the beautiful polychrome
+vault are of later work, not, however, later than 1300. The two pointed
+arches which divide the tympanum are assuredly subsequent, and the
+fresco which occupies it is a bad work of the end of the fourteenth
+century; and the marble frieze and foundations of the front are at least
+not earlier than 1426.</p>
+
+<p>Of this portion of the building the foundation is noble, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> its color
+beautifully disposed, but the sculpture of the paneling is poor, and of
+no interest or value.</p>
+
+<p>221. On entering the church, and turning immediately to the left, there
+will be seen on the inner side of the external wall a tomb under a
+boldly trefoiled canopy. It is a sarcophagus with a recumbent figure on
+it, which is the only work of art in the church deserving serious
+attention. It is the tomb of Gerard Bolderius "sui temporis physicorum
+principi," says his epitaph,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> not, as far as I can discover, untruly.
+On the front of the sarcophagus is the semi-figure of Christ rising from
+the tomb, used generally at the period for the type of resurrection,
+between the Virgin and St. John; and two shields, bearing, one the
+fleur-de-lys, the other an eagle. The recumbent figure is entirely
+simple and right in treatment, sculptured without ostentation of skill
+or exaggeration of sentiment, by a true artist, who endeavors only to
+give the dead due honor, and his own art subordinate and modest scope.</p>
+
+<p>This monument, being the best in St. Anastasia, is, by the usual spite
+of fortune, placed where it is quite invisible except on bright days. On
+the opposite side of the church, the first monument on the right, well
+lighted by the tall western window, should be looked at next to the
+physician's; for as that is the best, this is essentially the worst,
+piece of sculptured art in the building; a series of academy studies in
+marble, well executed, but without either taste or invention, and
+necessarily without meaning, the monument having been erected to a
+person whose only claim to one was his having stolen money enough to pay
+for it before he died. It is one of the first pieces extant of entirely
+mechanical art workmanship, done for money; and the perfection of its
+details may justify me in directing special attention to it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>222. There are no other monuments, still less pictures, in the body of
+the church deserving notice. The general effect of the interior is
+impressive, owing partly to the boldness and simplicity of the pillars
+which sustain the roof; partly to the darkness which involves them:
+these Dominican churches being, in fact, little more than vast halls for
+preaching in, and depending little on decoration, and not at all on
+light. But the sublimity of shadow soon fails when it has nothing
+interesting to shade; and the chapel or monuments which, opposite each
+interval between the pillars, fill the sides of the aisles, possess no
+interest except in their arabesques of cinque-cento sculpture, of which
+far better examples may be seen elsewhere; while the differences in
+their ages, styles, and purposes hinder them from attaining any unity of
+decorative effect, and break the unity of the church almost as fatally,
+though not as ignobly, as the incoherent fillings of the aisles at
+Westminster. The Cavalli chapel itself, though well deserving the
+illustration which the Arundel Society has bestowed upon it, is filled
+with a medley of tombs and frescoes of different dates, partly
+superseding, none illustrating, each other, and instructive mainly as
+showing the unfortunate results of freedom and "private enterprise" in
+matters of art, as compared with the submission to the design of one
+ruling mind which is the glory of all the chapels in Italy where the art
+is entirely noble.</p>
+
+<p>223. Instructive, thus, at least, even if seen hastily; much better
+teaching may be had even from the unharmonious work, if we give time and
+thought to it. The upper fresco on the north wall, representing the
+Baptism of Christ, has no beauty, and little merit as art; yet the
+manner of its demerit is interesting. St. John kneels to baptize. This
+variation from the received treatment, in which he stands above the
+Christ, is enough in itself to show that the poor Veronese painter had
+some intelligence of his subject; and the quaint and haggard figure,
+grim-featured, with its black hair rising in separate locks like a crown
+of thorns, is a curious intermediate type between the grotesque
+conception which we find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> in earlier art (or, for instance, on the coins
+of Florence) and the beautiful, yet always melancholy and severe figures
+of St. John painted by Cima da Conegliano at Venice. With this stern
+figure, in raiment of camel's hair, compare the Magdalen in the frescoes
+at the side of the altar, who is veiled from head to foot with her own,
+and sustained by six angels, being the type of repentance from the
+passions, as St. John of resistance to them. Both symbols are, to us, to
+say the very least, without charm, and to very few without offense; yet
+consider how much nobler the temper of the people must have been who
+could take pleasure in art so gloomy and unadorned, than that of the
+populace of to-day, which must be caught with bright colors and excited
+by popular sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>224. Both these frescoes, with the others on the north wall of the
+chapel, and Madonna between four saints on the south side, by the
+Cavalli tomb, are evidently of fourteenth century work, none of it good,
+but characteristic; and the last-named work (seen in the plate) is so
+graceful as to be quite worth some separate illustration. But the one
+above it is earlier, and of considerable historical interest. It was
+discovered with the other paintings surrounding the tomb, about the year
+1838, when Persico published his work, "Verona, e la sua Provincia," in
+which he says (p. 13), "levatane l'antica incrostatura, tornarono a vita
+novella."</p>
+
+<p>It would have been more serviceable to us if we could have known the
+date of the rough cast, than of its removal; the period of entire
+contempt for ancient art being a subject of much interest in the
+ecclesiastical history of Italy. But the tomb itself was an
+incrustation, having been raised with much rudeness and carelessness
+amidst the earlier art which recorded the first rise of the Cavalli
+family.</p>
+
+<p>225. It will be seen by reference to the plate that the frescoes round
+the tomb have no symmetrical relation to it. They are all of earlier
+date, and by better artists. The tomb itself is roughly carved, and
+coarsely painted, by men who were not trying to do their best, and could
+not have done anything very well, even if they had tried: it is an
+entirely commonplace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> and dull work, though of a good school, and has
+been raised against the highest fresco with a strange disregard of the
+merit of the work itself, and of its historical value to the family.
+This fresco is attributable by Persico to Giotto, but is, I believe,
+nothing more than an interesting example of the earnest work of his
+time, and has no quality on which I care to enlarge; nor is it
+ascertainable who the three knights are whom it commemorates, unless
+some evidence be found of the date of the painting, and there is, yet,
+none but that of its manner. But they are all three Cavallis, and I
+believe them to represent the three first founders of the family,
+Giovanni, "che fioriva intorno al 1274," his son Nicola (1297), and
+grandson Federigo, who was Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers in
+1331, and by whom I suppose the fresco to have been commanded. The
+Cavallis came first from Germany into the service of the Visconti of
+Milan, as condottieri, thence passing into the service of the Scaligers.
+Whether I am right in this conjecture or not, we have, at all events,
+record in this chapel of seven knights of the family, of whom two are
+named on the sarcophagus, of which the inscription (on the projecting
+ledge under the recumbent figure) is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>S. (Sepulchrum) nobilis et egregii viri Federici et egregii et
+strenui viri domini Nicolai de Cavalis suorunique heredum, qui
+spiritum redidit astris Ano Dni MCCCLXXXX.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of which, I think, the force may be best given thus in modern terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The tomb of the noble and distinguished Herr Frederic, and of the
+distinguished and energetic Herr the Lord Nicholas of the house of the
+Horse, and of their heirs, who gave back his soul to the stars in the
+year of our Lord 1390."</p>
+
+<p>226. This Frederic and Nicolas Cavalli were the brothers of the Jacopo
+Cavalli who is buried at Venice, and who, by a singular fatality, was
+enrolled among the Venetian nobles of the senate in the year in which
+his brother died at Verona (for I assume the "spiritum redidit" to be
+said of the first-named brother). Jacopo married Constance della Scala,
+of Verona,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> and had five sons, of whom one, Giorgio, Conte di Schio,
+plotted, after the fall of the Scaligers, for their restoration to power
+in Verona, and was exiled, by decree of the Council of Ten, to Candia,
+where he died. From another son, Conrad, are descended the Cavallis of
+Venice, whose palace has been the principal material from which recent
+searchers for the picturesque in Venice compose pictures of the Grand
+Canal. It forms the square mass of architecture on the left, in the
+continually repeated view of the Church of the Salute seen from the
+steps of the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>The genealogy of the family, from the thirteenth century, when they
+first appeared in Italy, to the founder of this Venetian lordship, had
+better be set before the reader in one view.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Founds Venetian family.">
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="5">Giovanni,<br />Condottiere in service of the Visconti, 1274.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="5">|</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="5">Nicola,<br />Condottiere, 1297.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="5">|</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="5">Federico,<br />Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers, 1331.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="5">|</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center" colspan="5">Conrado,<br />Condottiere, 1350.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center">|</td>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+<td colspan="2" align="center">|</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" align="center">Federigo,</td>
+<td align="center">Jacopo,</td>
+<td colspan="2" align="center">Nicola,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+<td align="center">|</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Federigo,</td>
+<td>Giovanni,</td>
+<td>Conrado,</td>
+<td>Federigo,</td>
+<td>Giorgio.</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+               <h4>Founds Venetian family.</h4>
+
+
+<p>227. Now, as above stated, I believe that the fresco of the three
+knights was commanded by the Podesta of Vicenza, on his receiving that
+authority from the Scaligers in 1331, and that it represents Giovanni,
+Nicola, and himself; while the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> tomb of Federigo and Nicola would be
+ordered by the Venetian Cavallis, and completed without much care for
+the record of the rise of the family at Verona.</p>
+
+<p>Whether my identification of the figures seen kneeling in the fresco be
+correct or not, the representation of these three Cavalli knights to the
+Madonna, each interceded for by his patron saint, will be found to
+receive a peculiar significance if the reader care to review the
+circumstances influencing the relation of the German chivalry to the
+power of the Church in the very year when Giovanni Cavalli entered the
+ranks of the Visconti.</p>
+
+<p>228. For the three preceding centuries, Milan, the oldest archbishopric
+of Lombardy, had been the central point at which the collision between
+the secular and ecclesiastical power took place in Europe. The Guelph
+and Ghibelline naturally met and warred throughout the plain of
+Lombardy; but the intense civic stubbornness and courage of the Milanese
+population formed a kind of rock in their tide-way, where the quarrel of
+burgher with noble confused itself with, embittered, and brought again
+and again to trial by battle, that of pope with emperor. In 1035 their
+warrior archbishop, heading their revolt against Conrad of Franconia,
+organized the first disciplined resistance of foot-soldiers to cavalry
+by his invention and decoration of the Carroccio; and the contest was
+only closed, after the rebuilding of the walls of ruined Milan, by the
+wandering of Barbarossa, his army scattered, through the maize fields,
+which the traveler now listlessly crosses at speed in the train between
+Milan and Arona, little noting the name of the small station, "Legnano,"
+where the fortune of the Lombard republic finally prevailed. But it was
+only by the death of Frederick II. that the supremacy of the Church was
+secured; and when Innocent IV., who had written, on hearing of that
+death, to his Sicilian clergy, in words of blasphemous exultation,
+entered Milan, on his journey from Lyons to Perugia, the road, for ten
+miles before he reached the gates, was lined by the entire population of
+the city, drawn forth in enthusiastic welcome; as they had invented a
+sacred car for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> advance of their standard in battle, they invented
+some similar honor for the head of their Church as the harbinger of
+peace: under a canopy of silk, borne by the first gentlemen of Milan,
+the Pope received the hosannas of a people who had driven into shameful
+flight their Caesar-king; and it is not uninteresting for the English
+traveler to remember, as he walks through the vast arcades of shops, in
+the form of a cross, by which the Milanese of to-day express their
+triumph in liberation from Teutonic rule, that the "Baldacchino" of all
+medi&aelig;val religious ceremony owed its origin to the taste of the
+milliners of Milan, as the safety of the best knights in European battle
+rested on the faithful craftsmanship of her armorers.</p>
+
+<p>229. But at the date when the Cavalli entered the service of the great
+Milanese family, the state of parties within the walls had singularly
+changed. Three years previously (1271) Charles of Anjou had drawn
+together the remnants of the army of his dead brother, had confiscated
+to his own use the goods of the crusading knights whose vessels had been
+wrecked on the coast of Sicily, and called the pontifical court to
+Viterbo, to elect a pope who might confirm his dominion over the
+kingdoms of Sicily and Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>On the deliberations of the Cardinals at Viterbo depended the fates of
+Italy and the Northern Empire. They chose Tebaldo Visconti, then a monk
+in pilgrimage at Jerusalem. But, before that election was accomplished,
+one of the candidates for the Northern Empire had involuntarily
+withdrawn his claim; Guy de Montfort had murdered, at the altar foot,
+the English Count of Cornwall, to avenge his father, Simon de Montfort,
+killed at Evesham. The death of the English king of the Romans left the
+throne of Germany vacant. Tebaldo had returned from Jerusalem with no
+personal ambition, but having at heart only the restoration of Greece to
+Europe, and the preaching of a new crusade in Syria. A general council
+was convoked by him at Lyons, with this object; but before anything
+could be accomplished in the conclave, it was necessary to balance the
+overwhelming power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> Charles of Anjou, and the Visconti (Gregory X.)
+ratified, in 1273, the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg.</p>
+
+<p>230. But Charles of Anjou owed his throne, in reality, to the assistance
+of the Milanese. Their popular leader, Napoleone della Torre, had
+facilitated his passage through Lombardy, which otherwise must have been
+arrested by the Ghibelline states; and in the year in which the Visconti
+pope had appointed the council at Lyons, the Visconti archbishop of
+Milan was heading the exiled nobles in vain attempts to recover their
+supremacy over the popular party. The new Emperor Rudolph not only sent
+a representative to the council, but a German contingent to aid the
+exiled archbishop. The popular leader was defeated, and confined in an
+iron cage, in the year 1274, and the first entrance of the Cavalli into
+the Italian armies is thus contemporary with the conclusive triumph of
+the northern monarchic over the republican power, or, more literally, of
+the wandering rider, Eques, or Ritter, living by pillage, over the
+sedentary burgher, living by art, and hale peasant, living by labor. The
+essential nature of the struggle is curiously indicated in relation to
+this monument by the two facts that the revolt of the Milanese burghers,
+headed by their archbishop, began by a gentleman's killing an
+importunate creditor, and that, at Venice, the principal circumstance
+recorded of Jacopo Cavalli (see my notice of his tomb in the "Stones of
+Venice," Vol. III. ch. ii. &sect; 69) is his refusal to assault Feltre,
+because the senate would not grant him the pillage of the town. The
+reader may follow out, according to his disposition, what thoughts the
+fresco of the three kneeling knights, each with his helmet-crest, in the
+shape of a horse's head, thrown back from his shoulders, may suggest to
+him on review of these passages of history: one thought only I must
+guard him against, strictly; namely, that a condottiere's religion must
+necessarily have been false or hypocritical. The folly of nations is in
+nothing more manifest than in their placid reconciliation of noble
+creeds with base practices. But the reconciliation, in the fourteenth as
+in the nineteenth century, was usually foolish only, not insincere.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Published by the Arundel Society (1872), together with a
+chromo-lithograph after a drawing by Herr Gnauth.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">D.M.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gerardo Bolderio</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sui temporis</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physicorum Principi</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Franciscus et</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Matthaeus Nepotes</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">P.P.</span><br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> I am indebted for this genealogy to the research and to
+the courtesy of Mr. J. Stefani. The help given me by other Venetian
+friends, especially Mr. Rawdon Brown, dates from many years back in
+matters of this kind.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VERONA_AND_ITS_RIVERS12" id="VERONA_AND_ITS_RIVERS12"></a>VERONA AND ITS RIVERS.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>231. The discourse began with a description of the scenery of the
+eastern approach to Verona, with special remarks upon its magnificent
+fortifications, consisting of a steep ditch, some thirty feet deep by
+sixty or eighty wide, cut out of the solid rock, and the precipice-like
+wall above, with towers crested with forked battlements set along it at
+due intervals. The rock is a soft and crumbling limestone, containing
+"fossil creatures still so like the creatures they were once, that there
+it first occurred to the human brain to imagine that the buried shapes
+were not mockeries of life, but had indeed once lived; and, under those
+white banks by the roadside, was born, like a poor Italian gypsy, the
+modern science of geology." ... "The wall was chiefly built, the moat
+entirely excavated, by Can Grande della Scala; and it represents
+typically the form, of defense which rendered it possible for the life
+and the arts of citizens to be preserved and practiced in an age of
+habitual war. Not only so, but it is the wall of the actual city which
+headed the great Lombard league, which was the beginner of personal and
+independent power in the Italian nation, and the first banner-bearer,
+therefore, of all that has been vitally independent in religion and in
+art throughout the entire Christian world to this day." At the upper
+angle of the wall, looking down the northern descent, is seen a great
+round tower at the foot of it, not forked in battlements, but with
+embrasures for guns. "The battlemented wall was the cradle of civic
+life. That low circular tower is the cradle of modern war and of all its
+desolation. It is the first European tower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> for artillery; the beginning
+of fortification against gunpowder&mdash;the beginning, that is to say, of
+the end of <i>all</i> fortification."</p>
+
+<p>232. After noticing the beautiful vegetation of the district, Mr. Ruskin
+described the view from the promontory or spur, about ten miles long, of
+which the last rock dies into the plain at the eastern gate of Verona.
+"This promontory," he said, "is one of the sides of the great gate out
+of Germany into Italy, through which the Goths always entered, cloven up
+to Innspruck by the Inn, and down to Verona by the Adige. And by this
+gate not only the Gothic armies came, but after the Italian nation is
+formed, the current of northern life enters still into its heart through
+the mountain artery, as constantly and strongly as the cold waves of the
+Adige itself." ... "The rock of this promontory hardens as we trace it
+back to the Alps, first into a limestone having knots of splendid brown
+jasper in it as our chalk has flints, and in a few miles more into true
+marble, colored by iron into a glowing orange or pale warm red&mdash;the
+peach-blossom marble, of which Verona is chiefly built&mdash;and then as you
+advance farther into the hills into variegated marbles very rich and
+grotesque in their veinings."</p>
+
+<p>233. After dilating on the magnificent landscape viewed from the top of
+this promontory, embracing the blue plain of Lombardy and its cities"
+Mr. Ruskin said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I do not think that there is any other rock in all the world from which
+the places and monuments of so complex and deep a fragment of the
+history of its ages can be visible as from this piece of crag with its
+blue and prickly weeds. For you have thus beneath you at once the
+birthplaces of Virgil and of Livy&mdash;the homes of Dante and Petrarch, and
+the source of the most sweet and pathetic inspiration to your own
+Shakespeare&mdash;the spot where the civilization of the Gothic kingdoms was
+founded on the throne of Theodoric; and there whatever was strongest in
+the Italian race redeemed itself into life by its league against
+Barbarossa; the beginning of the revival of natural science and medicine
+in the schools of Padua; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> center of Italian chivalry, in the power
+of the Scaligers; of Italian cruelty, in that of Ezzelin; and, lastly,
+the birthplace of the highest art; for among those hills, or by this
+very Adige bank, were born Mantegna, Titian, Correggio, and Veronese."</p>
+
+<p>234. Mr. Ruskin then referred to a series of drawings and photographs
+taken at Verona by himself and his assistants, Mr. Burgess and Mr.
+Bunney, which he had divided into three series, and of which he had
+furnished a number of printed catalogues illustrated with notes.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>I. "Lombard, extending to the end of the twelfth century, being the
+expression of the introduction of Christianity into barbaric minds;
+Christianization.</p>
+
+<p>II. "The Gothic period. Dante's time, from 1200 to 1400 (Dante beginning
+his poem exactly in the midst of it, in 1300); the period of vital
+Christianity, and of the development of the laws of chivalry and forms
+of imagination which are founded on Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>III. "The first period of the revival, in which the arts of Greece and
+some of its religion return and join themselves to Christianity; not
+taking away its sincerity or earnestness, but making it poetical instead
+of practical. In the following period even this poetical Christianity
+expired; the arts became devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, and in that
+they persist except where they are saved by a healthy naturalism or
+domesticity.</p>
+
+<p>235. I. "The Lombardic period is one of savage but noble life gradually
+subjected to law. It is the forming of men, not out of clay but wild
+beasts. And art of this period in all countries, including our own
+Norman especially, is, in the inner heart of it, the subjection of
+savage or terrible, or foolish and erring life, to a dominant law. It is
+government and conquest of fearful dreams. There is in it as yet no
+germ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> of true hope&mdash;only the conquest of evil, and the waking from
+darkness and terror. The literature of it is, as in Greece, far in
+advance of art, and is already full of the most tender and impassioned
+beauty, while the art is still grotesque and dreadful; but, however
+wild, it is supreme above all others by its expression of governing law,
+and here at Verona is the very center and utmost reach of that
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>"I know nothing in architecture at once so exquisite and so wild and so
+strange in the expression of self-conquest achieved almost in a dream.
+For observe, these barbaric races, educated in violence&mdash;chiefly in war
+and in hunting&mdash;cannot feel or see clearly as they are gradually
+civilized whether this element in which they have been brought up is
+evil or not. They <i>must</i> be good soldiers and hunters&mdash;that is their
+life; yet they know that killing is evil, and they do not expect to find
+wild beasts in heaven. They have been trained by pain, by violence, by
+hunger and cold. They know there is a good in these things as well as
+evil: they are perpetually hesitating between the one and the other
+thought of them. But one thing they see clearly, that killing and
+hunting, and every form of misery, pleasure, and of passion, must
+somehow at last be subdued by law, which shall bring good out of it all,
+and which they feel more and more constraining them every hour. Now, if
+with this sympathy you look at their dragon and wild beast decoration,
+you will find that it now tells you about these Lombards far more than
+they could know of themselves.... All the actions, and much more the
+arts, of men tell to others, not only what the worker does not know, but
+what he can never know of himself, which you can only recognize by being
+in an element more advanced and wider than his.... In deliberate
+symbolism, the question is always, not what a symbol meant first or
+meant elsewhere, but what it means now and means here. Now, this dragon
+symbol of the Lombard is used of course all over the world; it means
+good here, and evil there; sometimes means nothing; sometimes
+everything. You have always to ask what the man who here uses it means
+by it. Whatever is in his mind, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> he is sure partly to express by
+it; nothing else than that can he express by it."</p>
+
+<p>236. II. In the second period Mr. Ruskin said was to be found "the
+highest development of Italian character and chivalry, with an entirely
+believed Christian religion; you get, therefore, joy and courtesy, and
+hope, and a lovely peace in death. And with these you have two fearful
+elements of evil. You have first such confidence in the virtue of the
+creed that men hate and persecute all who do not accept it. And worse
+still, you find such confidence in the power of the creed that men not
+only can do anything that is wrong, and be themselves for a word of
+faith pardoned, but are even sure that after the wrong is done God is
+sure to put it all right again for them, or even make things better than
+they were before. Now, I need not point out to you how the spirit of
+persecution, as well as of vain hope founded on creed only, is mingled
+in every line with the lovely moral teaching of the 'Divina Conmedia,'
+nor need I point out to you how, between the persecution of other
+people's creeds and the absolution of one's own crimes, all Christian
+error is concluded."</p>
+
+<p>In relation to this Mr. Ruskin referred to the history of the founder of
+the power of the Scalas, Mastino, a simple citizen, chosen first to be
+podesta and then captain of Verona, for his justice and sagacity, who,
+although wise and peaceful in his policy, employed the civil power in
+the persecution of heresy, burning above two hundred persons; and he
+also related how Can Signorio della Scala on his death-bed, after giving
+a pious charge to his children, ordered the murder of his
+brother&mdash;examples of the boundless possibility of self-deception. One of
+these children killed the other, and was himself driven from the throne,
+so ending the dynasty of the Scalas. Referring to his illustrations, Mr.
+Ruskin pointed out the expressions of hope, in the conquest of death,
+and the rewards of faith, apparent in the art of the time. The Lombard
+architecture expresses the triumph of law over passion, the Christian,
+that of hope over sorrow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ruskin concluded his remarks on this period by commenting on the
+history and the tomb of Can Grande della Scala, a good knight and true,
+as busy and bright a life as is found in the annals of chivalry.</p>
+
+<p>237. III. "The period when classical literature and art were again known
+in Italy, and the painters and sculptors, who had been gaining steadily
+in power for two hundred years&mdash;power not of practice merely, but of
+race also&mdash;with every circumstance in their favor around them, received
+their finally perfect instruction, both in geometrical science, in that
+of materials, and in the anatomy and action of the human body. Also the
+people about them&mdash;the models of their work&mdash;had been perfected in
+personal beauty by a chivalric war; in imagination by a transcendental
+philosophy; in practical intellect by stern struggle for civic law; and
+in commerce, not in falsely made or vile or unclean things, but in
+lovely things, beautifully and honestly made. And now, therefore, you
+get out of all the world's long history since it was peopled by men till
+now&mdash;you get just fifty years of perfect work. Perfect. It is a strong
+word; it is also a <i>true</i> one. The doing of these fifty years is
+unaccusably Right, as art; what its sentiment may be&mdash;whether too great
+or too little, whether superficial or sincere&mdash;is another question, but
+as artists' work it admits no conception of anything better.</p>
+
+<p>"It is true that in the following age, founded on the absolutely stern
+rectitude of this, there came a phase of gigantic power and of exquisite
+ease and felicity which possess an awe and a charm of their own. They
+are more inimitable than the work of the perfect school. But they are
+not <i>perfect</i>." ...</p>
+
+<p>238. This period Mr. Ruskin named "the 'Time of the Masters,' Fifty
+Years, including Luini, Leonardo, John Bellini, Vitto Carpaccio, Andrea
+Mantegna, Andrea Verrocchio, Cima da Conegliano, Perugino, and in date,
+though only in his earlier life, belonging to the school, Raphael....
+The great fifty years was the prime of life of three men: John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> Bellini,
+born 1430, died at 90, in 1516; Mantegna, born 1430, died at 76, in
+1506; and Vittor Carpaccio, who died in 1522."</p>
+
+<p>"The object of these masters is wholly different from that of the former
+school. The central Gothic men always want chiefly to impress you with
+the facts of their subject; but the masters of this finished time desire
+only to make everything dainty and delightful. We have not many pictures
+of the class in England, but several have been of late added to the
+National Gallery, and the Perugino there, especially the compartment
+with Raphael and Tobit, and the little St. Jerome by John Bellini, will
+perfectly show you this main character&mdash;pictorial perfectness and
+deliciousness&mdash;sought before everything else. You will find, if you look
+into that St. Jerome, that everything in it is exquisite, complete, and
+pure; there is not a particle of dust in the cupboards, nor a cloud in
+the air; the wooden shutters are dainty, the candlesticks are dainty,
+the saint's scarlet hat is dainty, and its violet tassel, and its
+ribbon, and his blue cloak and his spare pair of shoes, and his little
+brown partridge&mdash;it is all a perfect quintessence of innocent
+luxury&mdash;absolute delight, without one drawback in it, nor taint of the
+Devil anywhere."&nbsp;...</p>
+
+<p>239. After dilating on several other pictures of this class, giving
+evidence of the entire devotion of the artists of the period to their
+art and work, Mr. Ruskin adverted to the second part of his discourse,
+the rivers of Verona. "There is but one river at Verona, nevertheless
+Dante connects its name with that of the Po when he says of the whole of
+Lombardy,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'In sul paese, ch' Adice e Po riga,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Solea valore e cortesia trovarsi</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prima che Federigo avesse briga.'</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I want to speak for a minute or two about those great rivers, because in
+the efforts that are now being made to restore some of its commerce to
+Venice precisely the same questions are in course of debate which again
+and again, ever since Venice was a city, have put her senate at
+pause&mdash;namely, how to hold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> in check the continually advancing morass
+formed by the silt brought down by the Alpine rivers. Is it not strange
+that for at least six hundred years the Venetians have been contending
+with those rivers at their <i>mouths</i>&mdash;that is to say, where their
+strength has become wholly irresistible&mdash;and never once thought of
+contending with them at their sources, where their infinitely separated
+streamlets might be, and are meant by Heaven to be, ruled as easily as
+children? And observe how sternly, how constantly the place where they
+are to be governed is marked by the mischief done by their liberty.
+Consider what the advance of the delta of the Po in the Adriatic
+signifies among the Alps. The evil of the delta itself, however great,
+is as nothing in comparison of that which is in its origin.</p>
+
+<p>240. "The gradual destruction of the harborage of Venice, the endless
+cost of delaying it, the malaria of the whole coast down to Ravenna,
+nay, the raising of the bed of the Po, to the imperiling of all
+Lombardy, are but secondary evils. Every acre of that increasing delta
+means <i>the devastation of part of an Alpine valley, and the loss of so
+much fruitful soil and ministering rain</i>. Some of you now present must
+have passed this year through the valleys of the Toccia and Ticino. You
+know therefore the devastation that was caused there, as well as in the
+valley of the Rhone, by the great floods of 1868, and that ten years of
+labor, even if the peasantry had still the heart for labor, cannot
+redeem those districts into fertility. What you have there seen on a
+vast scale takes place to a certain extent during every summer
+thunderstorm, and from the ruin of some portion of fruitful land the
+dust descends to increase the marshes of the Po. But observe
+further&mdash;whether fed by sudden melting of snow or by storm&mdash;every
+destructive rise of the Italian rivers signifies the loss of so much
+power of irrigation on the south side of the Alps. You must all well
+know the look of their chain&mdash;seen from Milan or Turin late in
+summer&mdash;how little snow is left, except on Monte Rosa, how vast a
+territory of brown mountain-side heated and barren, without rocks, yet
+without forest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> There is in that brown-purple zone, and along the
+flanks of every valley that divides it, another Lombardy of cultivable
+land; and every drift of rain that swells the mountain torrents if it
+were caught where it falls is literally rain of gold. We seek gold
+beneath the rocks; and we will not so much as make a trench along the
+hillside to catch it where it falls from heaven, and where, if not so
+caught, it changes into a frantic monster, first ravaging hamlet, hill,
+and plain, then sinking along the shores of Venice into poisoned sleep.
+Think what that belt of the Alps might be&mdash;up to four thousand feet
+above the plain&mdash;if the system of terraced irrigation which even
+half-savage nations discovered and practiced long ago in China and in
+Borneo, and by which our own engineers have subdued vast districts of
+farthest India, were but in part also practiced here&mdash;here, in the
+oldest and proudest center of European arts, where Leonardo da
+Vinci&mdash;master among masters&mdash;first discerned the laws of the coiling
+clouds and wandering streams, so that to this day his engineering
+remains unbettered by modern science; and yet in this center of all
+human achievements of genius no thought has been taken to receive with
+sacred art these great gifts of quiet snow and flying rain. Think, I
+repeat, what that south slope of the Alps might be: one paradise of
+lovely pasture and avenued forest of chestnut and blossomed trees, with
+cascades docile and innocent as infants, laughing all summer long from
+crag to crag and pool to pool, and the Adige and the Po, the Dora and
+the Ticino, no more defiled, no more alternating between fierce flood
+and venomous languor, but in calm clear currents bearing ships to every
+city and health to every field of all that azure plain of Lombard
+Italy....</p>
+
+<p>241. "It has now become a most grave object with me to get some of the
+great pictures of the Italian schools into England; and that, I think,
+at this time&mdash;with good help&mdash;might be contrived. Further, without in
+the least urging my plans impatiently on anyone else, I know thoroughly
+that this, which I have said <i>should</i> be done, <i>can</i> be done, for the
+Italian rivers, and that no method of employment of our idle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+able-bodied laborers would be in the end more remunerative, or in the
+beginnings of it more healthful and every way beneficial than, with the
+concurrence of the Italian and Swiss governments, setting them to redeem
+the valleys of the Ticino and the Rhone. And I pray you to think of
+this; for I tell you truly&mdash;you who care for Italy&mdash;that both her
+passions and her mountain streams are noble; but that her happiness
+depends not on the liberty, but the right government of both."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Report (with extracts) of a paper entitled "A Talk
+respecting Verona and its Rivers," read by Mr. Ruskin at the Weekly
+Evening Meeting of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Feb. 4th,
+1870. See <i>Proceedings</i> of the Royal Institution, vol. vi., p.
+55.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This catalogue (London: Queen Street Printing-Office,
+1870) is printed below, p. 109, &sect; 242 <i>seqq.</i>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See <i>Arrows of the Chace</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CATALOGUE" id="CATALOGUE"></a>CATALOGUE.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>See ante,</i> p. 101.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Drawings and Photographs, illustrative of the Architecture of Verona,
+shown at the Royal Institution, Feb. 4th, 1870.</i></p>
+
+
+<h4>SECTION I. <span class="smcap">Nos. 1 to 7.</span> LOMBARD.</h4>
+
+<p>242. (1.) <i>Porch of the Church of St. Zeno.</i> (Photograph.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the 12th century.</p></div>
+
+<p>(2.) <i>Porch of the South Entrance of the Duomo.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Probably of the 10th or 11th century, and highly remarkable for the
+wildness of its grotesque or monstrous sculpture, which has been
+most carefully rendered by the draughts-man, Mr. Bunney.</p>
+
+<p>It will save space to note that the sketches by my two most
+skillful and patient helpers, Mr. A. Burgess and Mr. Bunney, will
+be respectively marked (A) and (B), and my own (R).</p></div>
+
+<p>(3.) <i>Porch of the Western Entrance of the Duomo.</i> (Photograph.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Later in date&mdash;but still of 12th or very early 13th century.
+Details of it are given in the next drawings.</p></div>
+
+<p>243. (4.) <i>Griffin</i> (I keep the intelligible old English spelling),
+<i>sustaining the Pillar on the North Side of the Porch seen in No. 3.</i>
+(R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Painted last summer.</p>
+
+<p>I engraved his head and breast, seen from the other side, in the
+plate of "True and False Griffins," in "Modern Painters." Only the
+back of the head and neck of the small dragon he holds in his
+fore-claws can be seen from this side.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(5.) <i>Capital of the Pillar sustained by the Griffin, of which the base
+is seen in No. 4.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>First-rate sculpture of the time, and admirably drawn.</p></div>
+
+<p>(6.) <i>Portion of decorative Lombardic molding from the South Side of the
+Duomo.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Showing the peculiar writhing of the branched tracery with a
+serpentine flexure&mdash;altogether different from the springing lines
+of Gothic ornament. It would be almost impossible to draw this
+better; it is much more like the real thing than a cast would be.</p></div>
+
+<p>(7.) <i>Lion, with Dragon in its claws, of Lombardic sculpture</i> (now built
+into a wall at Venice); <i>above it, head of one of the Dogs which support
+the Tomb of Can Grande, at Verona.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The lion&mdash;in its emaciated strength, and the serpent with its vital
+writhe and deadly reverted bite, are both characteristic of the
+finest Lombard work. The dog's head is 14th century Gothic&mdash;a
+masterpiece of broad, subtle, easy sculpture, getting expression
+with every touch, and never losing the least undulation of surface,
+while it utterly disdains the mere imitation of hair, or attainment
+of effect by deep cutting.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>SECTION II. <span class="smcap">Nos. 8 to 38.</span> GOTHIC.</h4>
+
+<p>244. (8.) <i>North Porch of the Church of St. Fermo.</i> 13th century. (B.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Bunney's drawing is so faithful and careful as almost to enable
+the spectator to imagine himself on the spot. The details of this
+porch are among the most interesting in the Gothic of Italy, but I
+was obliged, last year, to be content with this general view, taken
+in terror of the whole being "restored"; and with the two following
+drawings.</p></div>
+
+<p>(9.) <i>Base of the Central Pillar. North Porch, St. Fermo.</i> (B.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In facsimile, as nearly as possible, and of the real size, to show
+the perpetual variety in the touch; and in the disposition and size
+of the masses.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(10.) <i>Shaft-Capitals of the Interior Arch of the North Porch, St.
+Fermo.</i> (B.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Contrived so that, while appearing symmetrical, and even
+monotonous, not one lobe of any of the leaves shall be like
+another.</p>
+
+<p>Quite superb in the original, but grievously difficult to draw, and
+losing, in this sketch, much of their grace.</p></div>
+
+<p>245. (11.) <i>Western Door of the Church of St. Anastasia, with the Tomb
+of the Count of Castelbarco on the left, over the arch.</i> (Photograph.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the door, its central pillar, carved lintels and encompassing
+large pointed arch, with its deep moldings and flanking shafts, are
+of the finest Veronese 13th century work. The two minor pointed
+arches are of the 14th century. The flanking pilasters, with double
+panels and garlands above, are the beginning of a fa&ccedil;ade intended
+to have been erected in the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Count of Castelbarco, the Chancellor of Can Grande della Scala,
+died about the year 1330, and his tomb cannot be much later in
+date.</p>
+
+<p>The details of this group of buildings are illustrated under the
+numbers next in series.</p></div>
+
+<p>(12.) <i>Pillars and Lintels of the Western Door of St. Anastasia.</i>
+(Photograph.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The sculpture of the lintel is first notable for its concise and
+intense story of the Life of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>
+1. The Annunciation. (Both Virgin and Angel kneeling.)<br />
+<br />
+2. The Nativity.<br />
+<br />
+3. The Epiphany. (Chosen as a sign of life giver to the<br />
+Gentiles.)<br />
+<br />
+4. Christ bearing His Cross. (Chosen as a sign of His<br />
+personal life in its entirety.)<br />
+<br />
+5. The Crucifixion.<br />
+<br />
+6. The Resurrection.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Secondly. As sculpture, this lintel shows all the principal
+features of the characteristic 13th century design of Verona.</p>
+
+<p>Diminutive and stunted figures; the heads ugly in features, stern
+in expression; but the drapery exquisitely disposed in minute but
+not deep-cut folds.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(13.) <i>The Angels on the left hand of the subject of the Resurrection in
+No. 12.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Drawn of its actual size, excellently.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of fusion and softness in the contours is not caused
+by time, but is intentional, and reached by great skill in the
+sculptor, faithfully rendered in the drawing.</p></div>
+
+<p>(14.) <i>Sketch of the Capital of the Central Pillar in No. 12.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(With slight notes of a 16th century bracket of a street balcony on
+each side.)</p>
+
+<p>Drawn to show the fine curvatures and softness of treatment in
+Veronese sculpture of widely separated periods.</p></div>
+
+<p>246. (15.) <i>Unfinished Sketch of the Castelbarco Tomb, seen from one of
+the windows of the Hotel of the "Two Towers."</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>That inn was itself one of the palaces of the Scaligers; and the
+traveler should endeavor always to imagine the effect of the little
+Square of Sta. Anastasia when the range of its buildings was
+complete; the Castelbarco Tomb on one side, this Gothic palace on
+the other, and the great door of the church between. The masonry of
+the canopy of this tomb was so locked and dove-tailed that it stood
+balanced almost without cement; but of late, owing to the
+permission given to heavily loaded carts to pass continually under
+the archway, the stones were so loosened by the vibration that the
+old roof became unsafe, and was removed, and a fine smooth one of
+trimly cut white stone substituted, while I was painting the rest
+of the tomb, against time. Hence the unfinished condition of my
+sketch the last that can ever be taken of the tomb as it was built.</p></div>
+
+<p>(16.) <i>The Castelbarco Tomb, seen laterally.</i> (B.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A most careful drawing, leaving little to be desired in realization
+of the subject. It is taken so near the tomb as to make the
+perspective awkward, but I liked this quaint view better than more
+distant ones.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing of the archway, and of the dark gray and red masonry of
+the tomb is very beautiful.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>247. (17.) <i>Lion with Hind in its Claws.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The support of the sarcophagus, under the feet of the recumbent
+figure in the Castelbarco Tomb.</p></div>
+
+<p>(18.) <i>Lion with Dragon in its claws.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The support of the sarcophagus at the head of the figure.</p></div>
+
+<p>(19.) <i>St. Luke.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sculpture of one of the four small panels at the angles of the
+sarcophagus in the Castelbarco Tomb. I engraved the St. Mark for
+the illustration of noble grotesque in the "Stones of Venice." But
+this drawing more perfectly renders the stern touch of the old
+sculptor.</p></div>
+
+<p>(20.) <i>Two of the Spurs of the bases of the Nave Pillars in the Church
+of St. Anastasia.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the real size. Not generally seen in the darkness of the Church,
+and very fine in their rough way.</p></div>
+
+<p>248. (21.) <i>Tomb of Can Grande, general view.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Put together some time since, from Photograph and Sketches taken in
+the year 1852; and inaccurate, but useful in giving a general idea.</p></div>
+
+<p>(22.) <i>Tomb of Can Grande.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketch made carefully on the spot last year. The sarcophagus
+unfinished; the details of it would not go into so small a space.</p></div>
+
+<p>(23.) <i>The Sarcophagus and recumbent Statue of Can Grande, drawn
+separately.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched on the spot last year. Almost a faultless type of powerful
+and solemn Gothic sculpture. (Can Grande died in 1329.)</p></div>
+
+<p>(24.) <i>The Two Dogs.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The kneeling Madonna and sculpture of right hand upper panel of the
+Sarcophagus of Can Grande.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing of the panel is of real size, representing the Knight
+at the Battle of Vicenza.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(25.) <i>The Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Can Grande.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of its real size, admirably drawn, and quite showing the softness
+and Correggio-like touch of its leafage, and its symmetrical
+formality of design, while the flow of every leaf is changeful.</p></div>
+
+<p>249. (26.) <i>Study of the Sarcophagus of the Tomb of Mastino II.,
+Verona.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched in 1852.</p></div>
+
+<p>(27.) <i>Head of the recumbent Statue of Mastino II.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Beautifully drawn by Mr. Burgess.</p>
+
+<p>Can Mastino II. had three daughters:&mdash;Madonna Beatrice (called
+afterwards "the Queen," for having "tutte le grazie che i cieli
+ponno concedere a femina," and always simply called by historians
+Lady "Reina" della Scala), Madonna Alta-luna, and Madonna Verde.
+Lady Reina married Bernab&oacute; Visconti, Duke of Milan; Lady Alta-luna,
+Louis of Brandebourg; and Lady Verde, Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua.
+Their father died of "Sovereign melancholy" in 1350, being
+forty-three years old.</p></div>
+
+<p>(28.) <i>Part of Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Mastino II.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the most beautiful Gothic cornices in Italy; its effect
+being obtained with extreme simplicity of execution out of two
+ridges of marble, each cut first into one united sharp edge all
+along, and then drilled through, and modeled into leaf and flower.</p></div>
+
+<p>(29.) <i>Sketch, real size, of the pattern incised and painted on the
+drapery of the Tomb of Can Mastino II.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is worth notice for the variety of its pattern; observe, the
+floral fillings of spaces resemble each other, but are never the
+same. There is no end, when one begins drawing detail of this kind
+carefully. Slight as it is, the sketch gives some idea of the easy
+flow of the stone drapery, and of the care taken by the sculptor to
+paint his pattern <i>as if</i> it were bent at the apparent fold.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>250. (30.) <i>Tomb of Can Signorio della Scala.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Samuel Prout's sketch on the spot; (afterwards lithographed by him
+in his "Sketches in France and Italy";) quite admirable in feeling,
+composition, and concise abstraction of essential character.</p>
+
+<p>The family palace of the Scaligers, in which Dante was received, is
+seen behind it.</p></div>
+
+<p>(31.) <i>A single niche and part of the iron-work of the Tomb of Can
+Signorio.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As seen from the palace of the Scaligers; the remains of another
+house of the same family are seen in the little street beyond.</p></div>
+
+<p>(32.) <i>Study of details of the top of the Tomb of Can Signorio.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Needing more work than I had time for, and quite spoiled by hurry;
+but interesting in pieces here and there; look, for instance, at
+the varied size and design of the crockets; and beauty of the
+cornices.</p></div>
+
+<p>(33.) <i>Bracket under Sarcophagus of Giovanni della Scala.</i> (A.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Characteristic of the finest later treatment of flowing foliage.</p></div>
+
+<p>251. (34.) <i>Part of the front of the Ducal Palace, Venice.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched, in 1852, by measurement, with extreme care; and showing
+the sharp window traceries, which are rarely seen in Photographs.</p></div>
+
+<p>(35.) <i>Angle of the Ducal Palace, looking Seaward from the Piazzetta.</i>
+(R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched last year, (restorations being threatened) merely to show
+the way in which the light is let through the edges of the angle by
+penetration of the upper capital, and of the foliage in the
+sculpture below; so that the mass may not come unbroken against the
+sky.</p></div>
+
+<p>(36.) <i>Photograph of the Angle Capital of Upper Arcade seen in No. 34.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Showing the pierced portions, and their treatment.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(37-38.) <i>Capitals of the Upper Arcade.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Showing the grandest treatment of architectural foliage attained by
+the 14th century masters; massive for all purposes of support;
+exquisitely soft and refined in contour, and faultlessly composed.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>SECTION III. <span class="smcap">Time of</span> "THE MASTERS."</h4>
+
+<p>252. (39.) <i>Study of the top of the Pilaster next the Castelbarco Tomb.</i>
+(R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The wild fig leaves are unfinished; for my assistant having
+unfortunately shown his solicitude for their preservation too
+energetically to some street boys who were throwing stones at them,
+they got a ladder, and rooted them up the same night. The purple
+and fine-grained white marbles of the pilaster are entirely
+uninjured in surface by three hundred years' exposure. The coarse
+white marble above has moldered, and is gray with lichens.</p></div>
+
+<p>(40.) <i>Study of the base of the same Pilaster, and connected Facade.</i>
+(R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Showing the effect of differently colored marbles arranged in
+carefully inequal masses.</p></div>
+
+<p>253. (41.) <i>Interior Court of the Ducal Palace of Venice, with Giant's
+Stair.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched in 1841, and perhaps giving some characters which more
+finished drawing would lose.</p></div>
+
+<p>(42.) <i>The Piazza d' Erbe, Verona.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched in 1841, showing general effect and pretty grouping of the
+later Veronese buildings.</p></div>
+
+<p>(43.) <i>Piazza de' Signori, Verona.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sketched last year. Note the bill advertising Victor Hugo's "Homme
+qui rit," pasted on the wall of the palace.</p>
+
+<p>The great tower is of the Gothic time. Note its noble sweep of
+delicately ascending curves sloped inwards.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(44.) <i>Gate of Ruined School of St. John, Venice.</i> (Photograph.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Exquisite in floral sculpture, and finish of style.</p></div>
+
+<p>(45.) <i>Hawthorn Leaves, from the base of Pilaster, in the Church of St.
+Maria d&eacute; Miracoli, Venice.</i> (R.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the finest style of floral sculpture. It cannot be surpassed for
+perfectness of treatment; especially for the obtaining of life and
+softness, by broad surfaces and fine grouping.</p></div>
+
+<p>(46.) <i>Basrelief from one of the Inner Doors of the Ducal Palace.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Very noble, and typical of the pure style.</p></div>
+
+<p>(47.) <i>St. John Baptist and other Saints.</i> (Cima da Conegliano.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Consummate work; but the photograph, though well taken, darkens it
+terribly.</p></div>
+
+<p>(48.) <i>Meeting of Joachim and Anna.</i> (Vettor Carpaccio.) (Photograph.)</p>
+
+<p>(49.) <i>Madonna and Saints.</i> (John Bellini.) Portrait. (Mantegna.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Photographs.)</p></div>
+
+<p>(50.) <i>Madonna.</i> (John Bellini.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>With Raphael's "Della Seggiola." Showing the first transition from
+the style of the "Masters" to that of modern times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>The Photographs in the above series are all from the Pictures
+themselves.</i></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHRISTIAN_ART_AND_SYMBOLISM15" id="CHRISTIAN_ART_AND_SYMBOLISM15"></a>CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A PREFACE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>254. The writer of this book has long been my friend, and in the early
+days of friendship was my disciple.</p>
+
+<p>But, of late, I have been his; for he has devoted himself earnestly to
+the study of forms of Christian Art which I had little opportunity of
+examining, and has been animated in that study by a brightness of
+enthusiasm which has been long impossible to me. Knowing this, and that
+he was able perfectly to fill what must otherwise have been a rudely
+bridged chasm in my teaching at Oxford, I begged him to give these
+lectures, and to arrange them for press. And this he has done to please
+me; and now that he has done it, I am, in one sense, anything but
+pleased: for I like his writing better than my own, and am more jealous
+of it than I thought it was in me to be of any good work&mdash;how much less
+of my friend's! I console myself by reflecting, or at least repeating to
+myself and endeavoring to think, that he could not have found out all
+this if I had not shown him the way. But most deeply and seriously I am
+thankful for such help, in a work far too great for my present strength;
+help all the more precious because my friend can bring to the
+investigation of early Christian Art, and its influence, the integrity
+and calmness of the faith in which it was wrought, happier than I in
+having been a personal comforter and helper of men, fulfilling his life
+in daily and unquestionable duty; while I have been, perhaps wrongly,
+always hesitatingly, persuading myself that it was my duty to do the
+things which pleased me.</p>
+
+<p>255. Also, it has been necessary to much of my analytical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> work that I
+should regard the art of every nation as much as possible from their own
+natural point of view; and I have striven so earnestly to realize belief
+which I supposed to be false, and sentiment which was foreign to my
+temper, that at last I scarcely know how far I think with other people's
+minds, and see with anyone's eyes but my own. Even the effort to recover
+my temporarily waived conviction occasionally fails; and what was once
+secured to me becomes theoretical like the rest.</p>
+
+<p>But my old scholar has been protected by his definitely directed life
+from the temptations of this speculative equity; and I believe his
+writings to contain the truest expression yet given in England of the
+feelings with which a Christian gentleman of sense and learning should
+regard the art produced in ancient days, by the dawn of the faiths which
+still guide his conduct and secure his peace.</p>
+
+<p>256. On all the general principles of Art, Mr. Tyrwhitt and I are
+absolutely at one; but he has often the better of me in his acute
+personal knowledge of men and their ways. When we differ in our thoughts
+of things, it is because we know them on contrary sides; and often his
+side is that most naturally seen, and which it is most desirable to see.
+There is one important matter, for instance, on which we are thus
+apparently at issue, and yet are not so in reality. These lectures show,
+throughout, the most beautiful and just reverence for Michael Angelo,
+and are of especial value in their account of him; while the last
+lecture on Sculpture,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which I gave at Oxford, is entirely devoted to
+examining the modes in which his genius failed, and perverted that of
+other men. But Michael Angelo is great enough to make praise and blame
+alike necessary, and alike inadequate, in any true record of him. My
+friend sees him as a traveler sees from a distance some noble mountain
+range, obscure in golden clouds and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> purple shade; and I see him as a
+sullen miner would the same mountains, wandering among their precipices
+through chill of storm and snow, and discerning that their strength was
+perilous and their substance sterile. Both of us see truly, both
+partially; the complete truth is the witness of both.</p>
+
+<p>257. The notices of Holbein, and the English whom he painted (see
+especially the sketch of Sir Thomas Wyatt in the sixth lecture), are to
+my mind of singular value, and the tenor of the book throughout, as far
+as I can judge&mdash;for, as I said, much of it treats of subjects with which
+I am unfamiliar&mdash;so sound, and the feeling in it so warm and true, and
+true in the warmth of it, that it refreshes me like the sight of the
+things themselves it speaks of. New and vivid sight of them it will give
+to many readers; and to all who will regard my commendation I commend
+it; asking those who have hitherto credited my teaching to read these
+lectures as they would my own; and trusting that others, who have
+doubted me, will see reason to put faith in my friend.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Pisa</span>, <i>30th April, 1872.</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Preface to the above-named book, by the Rev. St. John
+Tyrwhitt. London: Smith, Elder, &amp; Co., 1872.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See Mr. Ruskin's pamphlet on "The Relation of Michael
+Angelo to Tintoret," being (although separately printed) the seventh
+lecture of the course (1872) published as <i>Aratra
+Pentelici</i>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ART_SCHOOLS_OF_MEDIAEVAL_CHRISTENDOM17" id="ART_SCHOOLS_OF_MEDIAEVAL_CHRISTENDOM17"></a>ART SCHOOLS OF MEDI&AElig;VAL CHRISTENDOM.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A PREFACE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>258. The number of British and American travelers who take unaffected
+interest in the early art of Europe is already large, and is daily
+increasing; daily also, as I thankfully perceive, feeling themselves
+more and more in need of a guidebook containing as much trustworthy
+indication as they can use of what they may most rationally spend their
+time in examining. The books of reference published by Mr. Murray,
+though of extreme value to travelers, who make it their object to see
+(in his, and their, sense of the word) whatever is to be seen, are of
+none whatever, or may perhaps be considered, justly, as even of quite
+the reverse of value, to travelers who wish to see only what they may in
+simplicity understand, and with pleasure remember; while the histories
+of art, and biographies of artists, to which the more earnest student in
+his novitiate must have recourse, are at once so voluminous, so vague,
+and so contradictory, that I cannot myself conceive his deriving any
+other benefit from their study than a deep conviction of the difficulty
+of the subject, and of the incertitude of human opinions.</p>
+
+<p>259. It seemed to me, on reading the essays collected in this volume, as
+they appeared in the periodical<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> for which they were written, that
+the author not only possessed herself a very true discernment of the
+qualities in medi&aelig;val art which were justly deserving of praise, but had
+unusually clear understanding of the degree in which she might expect to
+cultivate such discernment in the general mind of polite travelers; nor
+have I less admired her aptitude in collation of essentially<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+illustrative facts, so as to bring the history of a very widely
+contemplative range of art into tenable compass and very graceful and
+serviceable form. Her reading, indeed, has been, with respect to many
+very interesting periods of religious workmanship, much more extensive
+than my own; and when I consented to edit the volume of collected
+papers, it was not without the assurance of considerable advantage to
+myself during the labor of revising them.</p>
+
+<p>260. The revision, however, I am sorry to say, has been interrupted and
+imperfect, very necessarily the last from the ignorance I have just
+confessed of more than one segment of the great illuminated field of
+early religious art, to which the writer most wisely has directed equal
+and symmetrical attention, and interrupted partly under extreme pressure
+of other occupation, and partly in very fear of being tempted to oppress
+the serenity of the general prospect, which I think these essays are
+eminently calculated to open before an ingenious reader, with the stormy
+chiaroscuro of my own preference and reprobation. I leave the work,
+therefore, absolutely Miss Owen's, with occasional note of remonstrance,
+but without retouch, though it must be distinctly understood that when I
+allow my name to stand as the editor of a book, it is in no mere
+compliment (if my editorship could indeed be held as such) to the genius
+or merit of the author; but it means that I hold myself entirely
+responsible, in main points, for the accuracy of the views advanced, and
+that I wish the work to be received, by those who have confidence in my
+former teaching, as an extension and application of the parts of it
+which I have felt to be incomplete.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Oxford</span>, <i>November 27, 1875.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The "notes of remonstrance" or approbation
+scattered through the volume are not numerous. They are given
+below, preceded in each case by the (italicized) statement or
+expression: giving rise to them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) P. 73. "<i>The peculiar characteristic of the Byzantine churches
+is the dome.</i>" "Form derived first from the Catacombs. See Lord
+Lindsay."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(2) P. 89. "<i>The octagon baptistry at Florence, ascribed to Lombard
+kings....</i>" "No; it is Etruscan work of pure descent."</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Id.</i> "<i>S. Michele, of Pavia, pure Lombard of seventh century,
+rebuilt in tenth.</i>" "Churches were often rebuilt with their
+original sculptures. I believe many in this church to be Lombard.
+See next page."</p>
+
+<p>(4) P. 95. "<i>The revolution begun by Rafaelle has ended in the
+vulgar painting, the sentimental prints, and the colored
+statuettes, which have made the religious art of the nineteenth
+century a by-word for its feebleness on the one side, its
+superstition on the other.</i>" "Excellent; but my good scholar has
+not distinguished vulgar from non-vulgar naturalism. Perhaps she
+will as I read on."</p>
+
+<p>[Compare the last note in the book, pp. 487-8, where Miss Owen's
+statement that "<i>the cause of Rafaelle's popularity ... has been
+that predominance of exaggerated dramatic representation, which in
+his pictures is visible above all moral and spiritual qualities,</i>"
+is noted to be "Intensely and accurately true."]</p>
+
+<p>(5) P. 108. "<i>It may be ... it is scarcely credible.</i>" "What does
+it matter what may be or what is scarcely credible? I hope the
+reader will consider what a waste of time the thinking of things is
+when we can never rightly know them."</p>
+
+<p>(6) P. 109. On the statement that "<i>no vital school of art has ever
+existed save as the expression of the vital and unquestioned faith
+of a people,</i>" followed by some remarks on external helps to
+devotion, there is a note at the word "people." "Down to this line
+this page is unquestionably and entirely true. I do not answer for
+the rest of the clause, but do not dispute it."</p>
+
+<p>(7) P. 113. <i>S. Michele at Lucca.</i> "The church is now only a modern
+architect's copy."</p>
+
+<p>(8) P. 129. "<i>There is a good model of this pulpit</i>" (Niccola's in
+the Pisan Baptistry) "<i>in the Kensington Museum, through which we
+may learn much of the rise of Gothic sculpture.</i>" "You cannot do
+anything of the kind. Pisan sculpture can only be studied in the
+original marble; half its virtue is in the chiseling."</p>
+
+<p>(9) P. 136. "<i>S. Donato's shrine</i>" (by Giovanni Picano) "<i>in Arezzo
+Cathedral is one of the finest monuments of the Pisan school.</i>"
+"No. He tried to be too fine, and overdid it. The work is merely
+accumulated commonplace."</p>
+
+<p>(10) P. 170. On Giotto drawing without compasses a circle with a
+crayon, "<i>not a brush, with which, as Professor Ruskin explained,
+the feat would have been impossible. See 'Giotto and his Works in
+Padua.'</i>" "Don't; but practice with a camel's-hair brush till you
+can do it. I knew nothing of brush-work proper when I wrote that
+essay on Padua."</p>
+
+<p>(11) P. 179. In the first of the bas-reliefs of Giotto's tower at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+Florence, "<i>Noah lies asleep, or, as Professor Ruskin maintains,
+drunk.</i>" "I don't 'maintain' anything of the sort; I <i>know</i> it. He
+is as drunk as a man can be, and the expression of drunkenness
+given with deliberate and intense skill, as on the angle of the
+Ducal Palace at Venice."</p>
+
+<p>(12) P. 179. On Giotto's "<i>astronomy, figured by an old man</i>" on
+the same tower. "Above which are seen, by the astronomy of his
+heart, the heavenly host represented above the stars."</p>
+
+<p>(13) P. 190. "<i>The Loggia dei Langi</i>" (at Florence) ... "<i>the round
+arches, new to those times ... See Vasari.</i>" "Vasari is an ass with
+precious things in his panniers; but you must not ask his opinion
+on any matter. The round arches new to those times had been the
+universal structure form in all Italy, Roman or Lombard, feebly and
+reluctantly pointed in the thirteenth century, and occasionally, as
+in the Campo Santo of Pisa, and Orcagna's own Or San Michele,
+standing within three hundred yards of the Loggia arches 'new to
+those times,' filled with tracery, itself composed of intersecting
+round arches. Now, it does not matter two soldi to the history of
+art who <i>built</i>, but who designed and carved the Loggia. It is out
+and out the grandest in Italy, and its archaic virtues themselves
+are impracticable and inconceivable. I don't vouch for its being
+Orcagna's, nor do I vouch for the Campo Santo frescoes being his. I
+have never specially studied him; nor do I know what men of might
+there were to work with or after him. But I know the Loggia to be
+mighty architecture of Orcagna's style and time, and the Last
+Judgment and Triumph of Death in the Campo Santo to be the sternest
+lessons written on the walls of Tuscany, and worth more study alone
+than English travelers usually give to Pisa, Lucca, Pistoja, and
+Florence altogether."</p>
+
+<p>(14) P. 468. "<i>The Gothic style for churches never took root in
+Venice.</i>" "Not quite correct. The Ducal Palace traceries are shown
+in the 'Stones of Venice' (vol. ii.) to have been founded on those
+of the Frari."</p>
+
+<p>(15) P. 471. Mantegna. "<i>No feeling had he for vital beauty of
+human face, or the lower creatures of the earth.</i>" To this Miss
+Owen adds in a note, "Professor Ruskin reminds me to notice here,
+in qualification, Mantegna's power of painting inanimate forms, as,
+<i>e. g.</i>, in the trees and leaves of his Madonna of the National
+Gallery. 'He is,' says Professor Ruskin, 'the most wonderful
+leaf-painter of Lombardy.'"</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Preface to the above-named book by Miss A. C. Owen, edited
+by Mr. Ruskin. London: Mozley &amp; Smith, 1876.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>The Monthly Packet.</i>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_EXTENSION_OF_RAILWAYS_IN_THE_LAKE_DISTRICT19" id="THE_EXTENSION_OF_RAILWAYS_IN_THE_LAKE_DISTRICT19"></a>THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A PROTEST.</h3>
+
+
+<p>261. The evidence collected in the following pages, in support of their
+pleading, is so complete, and the summary of his cause given with so
+temperate mastery by Mr. Somervell, that I find nothing to add in
+circumstance, and little to re-enforce in argument. And I have less
+heart to the writing even of what brief preface so good work might by
+its author's courtesy be permitted to receive from me, occupied as I so
+long have been in efforts tending in the same direction, because, on
+that very account, I am far less interested than my friend in this local
+and limited resistance to the elsewhere fatally victorious current of
+modern folly, cruelty, and ruin. When the frenzy of avarice is daily
+drowning our sailors, suffocating our miners, poisoning our children,
+and blasting the cultivable surface of England into a treeless waste of
+ashes,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> what does it really matter whether a flock of sheep, more or
+less, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> driven from the slopes of Helvellyn, or the little pool of
+Thirlmere filled with shale, or a few wild blossoms of St. John's vale
+lost to the coronal of English spring? Little to anyone; and&mdash;let me say
+this, at least, in the outset of all saying&mdash;<i>nothing</i> to <i>me</i>. No one
+need charge me with selfishness in any word or action for defense of
+these mossy hills. I do not move, with such small activity as I have yet
+shown in the business, because I live at Coniston (where no sound of the
+iron wheels by Dunmail Raise can reach me), nor because I can find no
+other place to remember Wordsworth by, than the daffodil margin of his
+little Rydal marsh. What thoughts and work are yet before me, such as he
+taught, must be independent of any narrow associations. All my own dear
+mountain grounds and treasure-cities, Chamouni, Interlachen, Lucerne,
+Geneva, Venice, are long ago destroyed by the European populace; and
+now, for my own part, I don't care what more they do; they may drain
+Loch Katrine, drink Loch Lomond, and blow all Wales and Cumberland into
+a heap of slate shingle; the world is wide enough yet to find me some
+refuge during the days appointed for me to stay in it. But it is no less
+my duty, in the cause of those to whom the sweet landscapes of England
+are yet precious, and to whom they may yet teach what they taught me, in
+early boyhood, and would still if I had it now to learn,&mdash;it is my duty
+to plead with what earnestness I may, that these sacred sibylline books
+may be redeemed from perishing.</p>
+
+<p>262. But again, I am checked, because I don't know how to speak to the
+persons who <i>need</i> to be spoken to in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose I were sitting, where still, in much-changed Oxford, I am happy
+to find myself, in one of the little latticed cells of the Bodleian
+Library, and my kind and much-loved friend, Mr. Coxe, were to come to me
+with news that it was proposed to send nine hundred excursionists
+through the library every day, in three parties of three hundred each;
+that it was intended they should elevate their minds by reading all the
+books they could lay hold of while they stayed;&mdash;and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> that practically
+scientific persons accompanying them were to look out for and burn all
+the manuscripts that had any gold in their illuminations, that the said
+gold might be made of practical service; but that he, Mr. Coxe, could
+not, for his part, sympathize with the movement, and hoped I would write
+something in deprecation of it! As I should then feel, I feel now, at
+Mr. Somervell's request that I would write him a preface in defense of
+Helvellyn. What could I say for Mr. Coxe? Of course, that nine hundred
+people should see the library daily, instead of one, is only fair to the
+nine hundred, and if there is gold in the books, is it not public
+property? If there is copper or slate in Helvellyn, shall not the public
+burn or hammer it out&mdash;and they say they will, of course&mdash;in spite of
+us? What does it signify to <i>them</i> how we poor old quiet readers in this
+mountain library feel? True, we know well enough,&mdash;what the nine hundred
+excursionist scholars don't&mdash;that the library can't be read quite
+through in a quarter of an hour; also, that there is a pleasure in real
+reading, quite different from that of turning pages; and that gold in a
+missal, or slate in a crag, may be more precious than in a bank or a
+chimney-pot. But how are these practical people to credit us,&mdash;these,
+who cannot read, nor ever will; and who have been taught that nothing is
+virtuous but care for their bellies, and nothing useful but what goes
+into them?</p>
+
+<p>263. Whether to be credited or not, the real facts of the matter, made
+clear as they are in the following pages, can be briefly stated for the
+consideration of any candid person.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments in favor of the new railway are in the main four, and may
+be thus answered.</p>
+
+<p>1. "There are mineral treasures in the district capable of development."</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> It is a wicked fiction, got up by whosoever has got it up,
+simply to cheat shareholders. Every lead and copper vein in Cumberland
+has been known for centuries; the copper of Coniston does not pay; and
+there is none so rich in Helvellyn. And the main central volcanic rocks,
+through which the track lies, produce neither slate nor hematite, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+there is enough of them at Llanberis and Dalton to roof and iron-grate
+all England into one vast Bedlam, if it honestly perceives itself in
+need of that accommodation.</p>
+
+<p>2. "The scenery must be made accessible to the public."</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> It is more than accessible already; the public are pitched
+into it head-foremost, and necessarily miss two-thirds of it. The Lake
+scenery really begins, on the south, at Lancaster, where the Cumberland
+hills are seen over Morecambe Bay; on the north, at Carlisle, where the
+moors of Skiddaw are seen over the rich plains between them and the
+Solway. No one who loves mountains would lose a step of the approach,
+from these distances, on either side. But the stupid herds of modern
+tourists let themselves be emptied, like coals from a sack, at
+Windermere and Keswick. Having got there, what the new railway has to do
+is to shovel those who have come to Keswick to Windermere, and to shovel
+those who have come to Windermere to Keswick. And what then?</p>
+
+<p>3. "But cheap and swift transit is necessary for the working population,
+who otherwise could not see the scenery at all."</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> After all your shrieking about what the operatives spend in
+drink, can't you teach them to save enough out of their year's wages to
+pay for a chaise and pony for a day, to drive Missis and the Baby that
+pleasant twenty miles, stopping when they like, to unpack the basket on
+a mossy bank? If they can't enjoy the scenery that way, they can't any
+way; and all that your railroad company can do for them is only to open
+taverns and skittle grounds round Grasmere, which will soon, then, be
+nothing but a pool of drainage, with a beach of broken gingerbeer
+bottles; and their minds will be no more improved by contemplating the
+scenery of such a lake than of Blackpool.</p>
+
+<p>4. What else is to be said? I protest I can find nothing, unless that
+engineers and contractors must live. Let them live, but in a more useful
+and honorable way than by keeping Old Bartholomew Fair under Helvellyn,
+and making a steam merry-go-round of the lake country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are roads to be mended, where the parish will not mend them,
+harbors of refuge needed, where our deck-loaded ships are in helpless
+danger; get your commissions and dividends where you know that work is
+needed, not where the best you can do is to persuade pleasure-seekers
+into giddier idleness.</p>
+
+<p>264. The arguments brought forward by the promoters of the railway may
+thus be summarily answered. Of those urged in the following pamphlet in
+defense of the country as it is, I care only myself to direct the
+reader's attention to one (see pp. 27, 28), the certainty, namely, of
+the deterioration of moral character in the inhabitants of every
+district penetrated by a railway. Where there is little moral character
+to be lost, this argument has small weight. But the Border peasantry of
+Scotland and England, painted with absolute fidelity by Scott and
+Wordsworth (for leading types out of this exhaustless portraiture, I may
+name Dandie Dinmont and Michael), are hitherto a scarcely injured race,
+whose strength and virtue yet survive to represent the body and soul of
+England before her days of mechanical decrepitude and commercial
+dishonor. There are men working in my own fields who might have fought
+with Henry the Fifth at Agincourt without being discerned from among his
+knights; I can take my tradesmen's word for a thousand pounds; my garden
+gate opens on the latch to the public road, by day and night, without
+fear of any foot entering but my own, and my girl-guests may wander by
+road, or moorland, or through every bosky dell of this wild wood, free
+as the heather bees or squirrels.</p>
+
+<p>What effect, on the character of such a population, will be produced by
+the influx of that of the suburbs of our manufacturing towns, there is
+evidence enough, if the reader cares to ascertain the facts, in every
+newspaper on his morning table.</p>
+
+<p>265. And now one final word concerning the proposed beneficial effect on
+the minds of those whom you send to corrupt us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I have said I take no selfish interest in this resistance to the
+railroad. But I do take an unselfish one. It is precisely because I
+passionately wish to improve the minds of the populace, and because I am
+spending my own mind, strength, and fortune, wholly on that object, that
+I don't want to let them see Helvellyn while they are drunk. I suppose
+few men now living have so earnestly felt&mdash;none certainly have so
+earnestly declared&mdash;that the beauty of nature is the blessedest and most
+necessary of lessons for men; and that all other efforts in education
+are futile till you have taught your people to love fields, birds, and
+flowers. Come then, my benevolent friends, join with me in that
+teaching. I have been at it all my life, and without pride, do solemnly
+assure you that I know how it is to be managed. I cannot indeed tell
+you, in this short preface, how, completely, to fulfill so glorious a
+task. But I can tell you clearly, instantly, and emphatically, in what
+temper you must set about it. <i>Here</i> are you, a Christian, a gentleman,
+and a trained scholar; <i>there</i> is your subject of education&mdash;a Godless
+clown, in helpless ignorance. You can present no more blessed offering
+to God than that human creature, raised into faith, gentleness, and the
+knowledge of the works of his Lord. But observe this&mdash;you must not hope
+to make so noble an offering to God of that which doth cost you nothing!
+You must be resolved to labor, and to lose, yourself, before you can
+rescue this overlabored lost sheep, and offer it alive to its Master. If
+then, my benevolent friend, you are prepared to take out your two pence,
+and to give them to the hosts here in Cumberland, saying&mdash;"Take care of
+him, and whatsoever thou spendest more, I will repay thee when I come to
+Cumberland myself," on <i>these</i> terms&mdash;oh my benevolent friends, I am
+with you, hand and glove, in every effort you wish to make for the
+enlightenment of poor men's eyes. But if your motive is, on the
+contrary, to put two pence into your own purse, stolen between the
+Jerusalem and Jericho of Keswick and Ambleside, out of the poor drunken
+traveler's pocket;&mdash;if your real object, in your charitable offering,
+is, not even to lend unto the Lord by <i>giving</i> to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> poor, but to lend
+unto the Lord by making a dividend out of the poor;&mdash;then, my pious
+friends, enthusiastic Ananias, pitiful Judas, and sanctified Korah, I
+will do my best in God's name, to stay your hands, and stop your
+tongues.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 1em;">Brantwood</span>, <i>22nd June, 1876</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Preface to a pamphlet (1876) entitled "A Protest against
+the Extension of Railways in the Lake District," compiled by Robert
+Somervell (Windermere, J. Garnett; London, Simpkin, Marshall &amp; Co.). The
+pamphlet also contained a printed announcement as follows:&mdash;"The author
+of 'Modern Painters' earnestly requests all persons who may have taken
+interest in his writings, or who have any personal regard for him, to
+assist him now in the circulation of the inclosed paper, drawn up by his
+friend Mr. Somervell, for the defense of the Lake District of England,
+and to press the appeal, so justly and temperately made in it, on the
+attention of their personal friends."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See&mdash;the illustration being coincidently given as I
+correct this page for press&mdash;the description of the horrible service,
+and history of the fatal explosion of dynamite, on the once lovely
+estates of the Duke of Hamilton, in the <i>Hamilton Advertiser</i> of 10th
+and 17th June.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_STUDY_OF_BEAUTY_AND_ART_IN_LARGE_TOWNS21" id="THE_STUDY_OF_BEAUTY_AND_ART_IN_LARGE_TOWNS21"></a>THE STUDY OF BEAUTY AND ART IN LARGE TOWNS.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>266. I have been asked by Mr. Horsfall to write a few words of
+introduction to the following papers. The trust is a frank one, for our
+friendship has been long and intimate enough to assure their author that
+my feelings and even practical convictions in many respects differ from
+his, and in some, relating especially to the subjects here treated of,
+are even opposed to his; so that my private letters (which, to speak
+truth, he never attends to a word of) are little more than a series of
+exhortations to him to sing&mdash;once for all&mdash;the beautiful Cavalier ditty
+of "Farewell, Manchester," and pour the dew of his artistic benevolence
+on less recusant ground. Nevertheless, as assuredly he knows much more
+of his own town than I do, and as his mind is evidently made up to do
+the best he can for it, the only thing left for me to do is to help him
+all I can in the hard task he has set himself, or, if I can't help, at
+least to bear witness to the goodness of the seed he has set himself to
+sow among thorns. For, indeed, the principles on which he is working are
+altogether true and sound; and the definitions and defense of them, in
+this pamphlet, are among the most important pieces of Art teaching which
+I have ever met with in recent English literature; in past
+Art-literature there cannot of course be anything parallel to them,
+since the difficulties to be met and mischiefs to be dealt with are
+wholly of to-day. And in all the practical suggestions and
+recom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>mendations given in the following pages I not only concur, but am
+myself much aided as I read them in the giving form to my own plans for
+the museum at Sheffield; nor do I doubt that they will at once commend
+themselves to every intelligent and candid reader. But, to my own mind,
+the statements of principle on which these recommendations are based are
+far the more valuable part of the writings, for these are true and
+serviceable for all time, and in all places; while in simplicity and
+lucidity they are far beyond any usually to be found in essays on Art,
+and the political significance of the laws thus defined is really, I
+believe, here for the first time rightly grasped and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>267. Of these, however, the one whose root is deepest and range widest
+will be denied by many readers, and doubted by others, so that it may be
+well to say a word or two farther in its interpretation and defense&mdash;the
+saying, namely, that "faith cannot dwell in hideous towns," and that
+"familiarity with beauty is a most powerful aid to belief." This is a
+curious saying, in front of the fact that the primary force of
+infidelity in the Renaissance times was its pursuit of carnal beauty,
+and that nowadays (at least, so far as my own experience reaches) more
+faith may be found in the back streets of most cities than in the fine
+ones. Nevertheless the saying is wholly true, first, because carnal
+beauty is not true beauty; secondly, because, rightly judged, the fine
+streets of most modern towns are more hideous than the back ones;
+lastly&mdash;and this is the point on which I must enlarge&mdash;because
+universally the first condition to the believing there is Order in
+Heaven is the Sight of Order upon Earth; Order, that is to say, not the
+result of physical law, but of some spiritual power prevailing over it,
+as, to take instances from my own old and favorite subject, the ordering
+of the clouds in a beautiful sunset, which corresponds to a painter's
+invention of them, or the ordering of the colors on a bird's wing, or of
+the radiations of a crystal of hoarfrost or of sapphire, concerning any
+of which matters men, so called of science, are necessarily and forever
+silent, because the distribution of colors in spectra and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> the relation
+of planes in crystals are final and causeless facts, <i>orders</i>, that is
+to say, not <i>laws</i>. And more than this, the infidel temper which is
+incapable of perceiving this spiritual beauty has an instant and
+constant tendency to delight in the reverse of it, so that practically
+its investigation is always, by preference, of forms of death or disease
+and every state of disorder and dissolution, the affectionate analysis
+of vice in modern novels being a part of the same science. And, to keep
+to my own special field of study&mdash;the order of clouds,&mdash;there is a
+grotesquely notable example of the connection between infidelity and the
+sense of ugliness in a paper in the last <i>Contemporary Review</i>, in which
+an able writer, who signs Vernon Lee, but whose personal view or purpose
+remains to the close of the essay inscrutable, has rendered with
+considerable acuteness and animation the course of a dialogue between
+one of the common modern men about town who are the parasites of their
+own cigars and two more or less weak and foolish friends of hesitatingly
+adverse instincts: the three of them, however, practically assuming
+their own wisdom to be the highest yet attained by the human race; and
+their own diversion on the mountainous heights of it being by the aspect
+of a so-called "preposterous" sunset, described in the following
+terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>A brilliant light, which seemed to sink out of the landscape all its
+reds and yellows, and with them all life; bleaching the yellowing
+cornfields and brown heath; but burnishing into demoniac<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> energy of
+color the pastures and oak woods, brilliant against the dark sky, as if
+filled with green fire.</p>
+
+<p>Along the roadside the poppies, which an ordinary sunset makes flame,
+were quite extinguished, like burnt-out embers; the yellow hearts of the
+daisies were quite lost, merged into their shining white petals. And,
+striking against the windows of the old black and white checkered farm
+(a ghastly skeleton in this light), it made them not flare, nay, not
+redden in the faintest degree, but reflect a brilliant speck of white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+light. Everything was unsubstantial, yet not as in a mist, nay, rather
+substantial, but flat, as if cut out of paper and pasted on the black
+branches and green leaves, the livid, glaring houses, with roofs of
+dead, scarce perceptible rod (as when an iron turning white-hot from
+red-hot in the stithy grows also dull and dim).</p>
+
+<p>"It looks like the eve of the coming of Antichrist, as described in
+medi&aelig;val hymns," remarked Vere: "the sun, before setting nevermore to
+rise, sucking all life out of the earth, leaving it but a mound of livid
+cinders, barren and crumbling, through which the buried nations will
+easily break their way when they rise."</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>As I have above said, I do not discern the purpose of the writer of this
+paper; but it would be impossible to illustrate more clearly this
+chronic insanity of infidel thought which makes all nature spectral;
+while, with exactly correspondent and reflective power, whatever <i>is</i>
+dreadful or disordered in external things reproduces itself in disease
+of the human mind affected by them.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>268. The correspondent relations of beauty to morality are illustrated
+in the following pages in a way which leaves little to be desired, and
+scarcely any room for dissent; but I have marked for my own future
+reference the following passages, of which I think it will further the
+usefulness of the book that the reader should initially observe the
+contents and connection.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1 (p. 15, line 6&mdash;10). Our idea of beauty in all things depends on what
+we believe they ought to be and do.</p>
+
+<p>2 (p. 17, line 8&mdash;17). Pleasure is most to be found in safe and pure
+ways, and the greatest happiness of life is to have a great many
+<i>little</i> happinesses.</p>
+
+<p>3 (p. 24, line 10&mdash;30). The wonder and sorrow that in a country
+possessing an Established Church, no book exists which can be put into
+the hands of youth to show them the best things that can be done in
+life, and prevent their wasting it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4 (p. 28, line 21&mdash;36). There is every reason to believe that
+susceptibility to beauty can be gained through proper training in
+childhood by almost everyone.</p>
+
+<p>5 (p. 29, line 33&mdash;35). But if we are to attain to either a higher
+morality or a strong love of beauty, such attainment must be the result
+of a strenuous effort and a strong will.</p>
+
+<p>6 (p. 41, line 16&mdash;22). Rightness of form and aspect must first be shown
+to the people in things which interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> them, and about the rightness of
+appearance in which it is possible for them to care a great deal.</p>
+
+<p>7 (p. 42, line 1&mdash;10). And, therefore, rightness of appearance of the
+bodies, and the houses, and the actions of the people of these large
+towns, is of more importance than rightness of appearance in what is
+usually called art, and pictures of noble action and passion and of
+beautiful scenery are of far greater value than art in things which
+cannot deeply affect human thought and feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The practical suggestions which, deduced from these principles, occupy
+the greater part of Mr. Horsfall's second paper, exhibit an untried
+group of resources in education; and it will be to myself the best
+encouragement in whatever it has been my hope to institute of Art School
+at Oxford if the central influence of the University may be found
+capable of extension by such means, in methods promoting the general
+happiness of the people of England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 1em;">Brantwood</span>, <i>28th June, 1883</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Introduction by Mr. Ruskin to a pamphlet entitled "The
+Study of Beauty and Art in Large Towns, two papers by T. C. Horsfall"
+(London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1883). The first of the two papers was
+originally read at the Congress at Nottingham of the Social Science
+Association, and the second at the Manchester Field Naturalists'
+Society.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See "Art of England."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The passages referred to are as follows:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+1. "Our idea of what beauty is in human being's, in pictures, in houses,
+in chairs, in animals, in cities, in everything, in short, which we know
+to have a use, in the main depends on what we believe that human beings,
+pictures, and the rest ought to be and do.
+</p><p>
+2. "Every bank in every country lane, every bush, every tree, the sky by
+day and by night, every aspect of nature, is full of beautiful form or
+color, or of both, for those whose eyes and hearts and brains have been
+opened to perceive beauty. Richter has somewhere said that man's
+<i>greatest</i> defect is that he has such a lot of <i>small</i> ones. With equal
+truth it may be said that the greatest happiness man can have is to have
+a great many little happinesses, and therefore a strong love of beauty,
+which enables almost every square inch of unspoiled country to give us
+pleasant sensations, is one of the best possessions we can have.
+</p><p>
+3. "It must be evident to everyone who watches life carefully that
+hardly anyone reaches the objects which all should live for who does not
+strive to reach them, and that at present not one person in a hundred so
+much as knows what are the objects which should be sought in life. It is
+astounding, therefore, that in a country which possesses an Established
+Church, richly endowed universities, and even several professors of
+education, no book exists which can be put into the hands of every
+intelligent youth, and of every intelligent father and mother, showing
+what our wisest and best men believe are the best things which can be
+done in life, and what is the kind of training which makes the doing of
+these things most easy. It is often said that each of us can profit only
+by his own experience, but no one believes that. No one can see how many
+well-meaning persons mistake means for ends and drift into error and
+sin, simply because neither they nor their parents have known what
+course should be steered, and what equipment is needed, in the voyage of
+life,&mdash;no one can see this and doubt that a 'guidebook to life,'
+containing the results of the comparison of the experiences of even
+half-a-dozen able and sincere men, would save countless people from
+wasting their lives as most lives are now wasted.
+</p><p>
+4. "That which is true with regard to music is true with regard to
+beauty of form and color. Because a great many grown-up people, in spite
+of great efforts, find it impossible to sing correctly or even to
+perceive any pleasantness in music, it used to be commonly supposed that
+a great many people are born without the power of gaining love of, and
+skill in, music. Now it is known that it is a question of early
+training, that in every thousand children there are very few,&mdash;not, I
+believe, on an average, more than two or three,&mdash;who cannot gain the
+power of singing correctly and of enjoying music, if they are taught
+well in childhood while their nervous system can still easily form
+habits and has not yet formed the habit of being insensible to
+differences of sound.
+</p><p>
+"There is every reason to believe that susceptibility to beauty of form
+and color can also be gained through proper training in childhood by
+almost everyone.
+</p><p>
+5. "In such circumstances as ours there is no such thing as 'a <i>wise</i>
+passiveness.' If we are to attain to a high morality or to strong love
+of beauty, attainment must be the result of strenuous effort, of strong
+will.
+</p><p>
+6. "The principle I refer to is, that, as art is the giving of right or
+beautiful form, or of beautiful or right appearance, if we desire to
+make people take keen interest in art, if we desire to make them love
+good art, we must show it them when applied to things which themselves
+are very interesting to them, and about the rightness of appearance of
+which it is therefore possible for them to care a great deal.
+</p><p>
+7. "Success in bringing the influence of art to bear on the masses of
+the population in large towns, or on any set of people who have to earn
+their bread and have not time to acquire an unhealthy appetite for
+nonsense verses or nonsense pictures, will certainly only be attained by
+persons who know that art is important just in proportion to the
+importance of that which it clothes, and who themselves feel that
+rightness of appearance of the bodies, and the houses, and the actions,
+in short of the whole life, of the population of those large towns which
+are now, or threaten soon to be, 'England,' is of far greater importance
+than rightness of appearance in all that which is usually called 'art,'
+and who feel, to speak of only the fine arts, that rightness of
+appearance in pictures of noble action and passion, and of beautiful
+scenery, love of which is almost a necessary of mental health, is of far
+greater importance than art can be in things which cannot deeply affect
+human thought and feeling."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="NOTES_ON_NATURAL_SCIENCE" id="NOTES_ON_NATURAL_SCIENCE"></a>NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.</h2>
+
+<h4>THE COLOR OF THE RHINE. 1834.<br />
+
+THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC. 1834.<br />
+
+THE INDURATION OF SANDSTONE. 1836.<br />
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF SPRING AND RIVER WATER. 1836.<br />
+
+METEOROLOGY. 1839.<br /></h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h4>TREE TWIGS. 1861.<br />
+
+STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY. 1863.<br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INQUIRIES_ON_THE_CAUSES_OF_THE_COLOR_OF_THE_WATER_OF_THE_RHINE24" id="INQUIRIES_ON_THE_CAUSES_OF_THE_COLOR_OF_THE_WATER_OF_THE_RHINE24"></a>INQUIRIES ON THE CAUSES OF THE COLOR OF THE WATER OF THE RHINE.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>269. I do not think the causes of the color of transparent water have
+been sufficiently ascertained. I do not mean that effect of color which
+is simply optical, as the color of the sea, which is regulated by the
+sky above or the state of the atmosphere, but I mean the settled color
+of transparent water, which has, when analyzed, been found pure. Now,
+copper will tinge water green, and that very strongly; but water thus
+impregnated will not be transparent, and will deposit the copper it
+holds in solution upon any piece of iron which may be thrown into it.
+There is a lake in a defile on the northwest flank of Snowdon, which is
+supplied by a stream which previously passes over several veins of
+copper; this lake is, of course, of a bright verdigris green, but it is
+not transparent. Now the coloring effect, of which I speak, is well seen
+in the water of the Rhone and Rhine. The former of these rivers, when it
+enters the Lake of Geneva, after having received the torrents descending
+from the mountains of the Valais, is fouled with mud, or white with the
+calcareous matter which it holds in solution. Having deposited this in
+the Lake Leman<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (thereby gradually forming an immense delta), it
+issues from the lake perfectly pure, and flows through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> streets of
+Geneva so transparent, that the bottom can be seen twenty feet below the
+surface, jet so blue, that you might imagine it to be a solution of
+indigo. In like manner, the Rhine, after purifying itself in the Lake of
+Constance, flows forth, colored of a clear green, and this under all
+circumstances and in all weathers. It is sometimes said that this arises
+from the torrents which supply these rivers generally flowing from the
+glaciers, the green and blue color of which may have given rise to this
+opinion; but the color of the ice is purely optical, as the fragments
+detached from the mass appear white. Perhaps some correspondent can
+afford me information on the subject.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>March, 1834</i>.</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> From London's <i>Magazine of Natural History</i> (London,
+Longmans &amp; Co., 1834), vol. vii., No. 41, pp. 438-9, being its author's
+earliest contribution to literature.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> This lake, however, if the poet have spoken truly, is not
+very feculent:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Lake Leman woos me with its crystal face,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The mirror where the stars and mountains view</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The stillness of their aspect in each trace</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Its clear depth yields of their far height and hue."</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 2em;">Byron.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> In the number of the magazine in which this note appeared
+was an article by "E. L." on the perforation of a leaden pipe by rats,
+upon which, in a subsequent number (Vol. vii., p. 592), J. R. notes as
+follows: "E. S. has been, surely, too inattentive to proportions: there
+is an inconsistency in the dimensions of a leaden pipe about 1&frac14; in. in
+external diameter, with a bore of about &frac34; in. in diameter; thus leaving
+a solid circumference of metal varying from &frac12; in. to &frac34; in. in
+thickness.&mdash;<i>J. R.</i>, <i>Sept. 1834.</i>"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FACTS_AND_CONSIDERATIONS_ON_THE_STRATA_OF_MONT_BLANC_AND_ON_SOME" id="FACTS_AND_CONSIDERATIONS_ON_THE_STRATA_OF_MONT_BLANC_AND_ON_SOME"></a>FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC, AND ON SOME
+INSTANCES OF TWISTED STRATA OBSERVABLE IN SWITZERLAND.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>270. The granite ranges of Mont Blanc are as interesting to the
+geologist as they are to the painter. The granite is dark red, often
+inclosing veins of quartz, crystallized and compact, and likewise
+well-formed crystals of schorl. The average elevation of its range of
+peaks, which extends from Mont Blanc to the T&egrave;te Noire, is about 12,000
+English feet above the level of the sea. [The highest culminating point
+is 15,744 feet.] The Aiguille de Servoz, and that of Dru, are excellent
+examples of the pyramidal and spiratory formation which these granite
+ranges in general assume. They rise out of immense fields of snow, but,
+being themselves too steep for snow to rest upon, form red, bare, and
+inaccessible peaks, which even the chamois scarcely dares to climb.
+Their bases appear sometimes abutted (if I may so speak) by mica slate,
+which forms the southeast side of the Valley of Chamonix, whose flanks,
+if intersected, might appear as (in <i>fig.</i> 72), <i>a</i>, granite, forming on
+the one side (B) the Mont Blanc, on the other (C) the Mont Breven; <i>b</i>,
+mica slate resting on the base of Mont Blanc, and which contains
+amianthus and quartz, in which capillary crystals of titanium occur;
+<i>c</i>, calcareous rock; <i>d</i>, alluvium, forming the Valley of Chamonix. I
+should have mentioned that the granite appears to contain a small
+quantity of gold, as that metal is found among the granite d&eacute;bris and
+siliceous sand of the river Arve [<i>Bakewell</i>, i. 375]; and I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> have two
+or three specimens in which chlorite (both compact and in minute
+crystals) occupies the place of mica.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.
+</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>March</i>, 1834.</span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>With this paper were printed some observations on it by the Rev. W. B.
+Clarke, after which (p. 648) appears the following note by J. R.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>271. "<span class="smcap">Twisted Strata.</span>&mdash;The contortions of the limestone at the
+fall of the Nant d'Arpenaz, on the road from Geneva to Chamonix, are
+somewhat remarkable. The rock is a hard dark brown limestone, forming
+part of a range of secondary cliffs, which rise from 500 feet to 1000
+feet above the defile which they border. The base itself is about 800
+feet high. The strata bend very regularly except at <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+where they appear to have been fractured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><i>To what Properties in Nature is it owing that the Stones in Buildings,
+formed originally of the frailest Materials, gradually become indurated
+by Exposure to the Atmosphere and by Age, and stand the Wear and Tear of
+Time and Weather every bit as well, in some instances much better, than
+the hardest and most compact Limestones and Granite?</i><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>272. In addition to the fact mentioned by Mr. Hunter<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> relative to the
+induration of soft sandstone, I would adduce an excellent example of the
+same effect in the cathedral of Basle, in Switzerland. The cathedral is
+wholly built of a soft coarse-grained sandstone, of so deep a red as to
+resemble long-burned brick. The numerous and delicate ornaments and fine
+tracery on the exterior are in a state of excellent preservation, and
+present none of the moldering appearance so common in old cathedrals
+that are built of stone which, when quarried, was much harder than this
+sandstone. The pavement in the interior is composed of the same
+material; and, as almost every slab is a tomb, it is charged with the
+arms, names, and often statues in low relief, of those who lie below,
+delicately sculptured in the soft material. Yet, though these sculptures
+have been worn for ages by the feet of multitudes, they are very little
+injured; they still stand out in bold and distinct relief: not an
+illegible letter, not an untraceable ornament is to be found; and it is
+said, and I believe with truth, that they have now grown so hard as not
+to be in the least degree farther worn by the continual tread of
+thousands; and that the longer the stone is exposed to the air, the
+harder it becomes. The cathedral was built in 1019.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>273. The causes of the different effects of air on stone must be
+numerous, and the investigation of them excessively difficult. With
+regard, first, to rocks <i>en masse</i>, if their structure be crystalline,
+or their composition argillaceous, the effect of the air will, I think,
+ordinarily, be found injurious. Thus, in granite, which has a kind of
+parallelogrammatic cleavage, water introduces itself into the fissures,
+and the result, in a sharp frost, will be a disintegration of the rocks
+<i>en masse</i>; and, if the felspar be predominant in the composition of the
+granite, it will be subject to a rapid decomposition. The morvine of
+some of the Chamouni and All&eacute;e Blanche glaciers is composed of a white
+granite, being chiefly composed of quartz and felspar, with a little
+chlorite. The sand and gravel at the edge of these glaciers appears far
+more the result of decomposition than attrition. All finely foliated
+rocks, slates, etc., are liable to injury from frost or wet weather. The
+road of the Simplon, on the Italian side, is in some parts dangerous in,
+or after, wet weather, on account of the rocks of slate continually
+falling from the overhanging mountains above; this, however, is mere
+disintegration, not decomposition. Not so with the breccias of Central
+Switzerland. The rock of Righi is composed of pebbles of different
+kinds, joined by a red argillaceous gluten. When this rock has not been
+exposed to the air, it is very hard: you may almost as easily break the
+pebbles as detach them from their matrix; but, when exposed for a few
+years to wind and weather, the matrix becomes soft, and the pebbles may
+be easily detached. I was struck with the difference between this rock
+and a breccia at Epinal, in France, where the matrix was a red
+sandstone, like that of the cathedral at Basle. Here, though the rock
+had every appearance of having been long exposed to the air, it was as
+hard as iron; and it was utterly impossible to detach any of the pebbles
+from the bed: it was difficult even to break the rock at all. I cannot
+positively state that the gluten in these sandstones is calcareous, but
+I suppose it to have been so. Compact calcareous rock, as far as I
+remember, appears to be subject to no injury from the weather. Many
+churches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> in Italy, and almost the whole cities of Venice and Genoa, are
+built of very fine marble; and the perfection of the delicate carvings,
+however aged, is most remarkable. I remember a church, near Pavia,
+coated with the finest and most expensive marbles; a range of
+beautifully sculptured medallions running round its base, though old,
+were as distinct and fine in their execution as if they had just come
+out of the sculptor's studio. If, therefore, the gluten of the sandstone
+be either calcareous or siliceous, it will naturally produce the effect
+above alluded to, though it is certainly singular that the stone should
+be soft when first quarried. Sandstone is a rock in which you seldom see
+many cracks or fissures in the strata: they are generally continuous and
+solid. Now, there may be a certain degree of density in the mass, which
+could not be increased without producing, as in granite, fissures
+running through it: the particles may be supposed to be held in a
+certain degree of tension, and there may be a tendency to what the
+French call <i>assaissement</i> (I do not know the English term), which is,
+nevertheless, resisted by the stone <i>en masse</i>; and a quantity of water
+may likewise be held, not in a state of chemical combination, but in one
+of close mixture with the rock. On being broken or quarried, the
+<i>assaissement</i> may take place, the particles of stone may draw closer
+together, the attraction become stronger; and, on the exposure to the
+air, the water, however intimately combined, will, in a process of
+years, be driven off, occasioning the consolidation of the calcareous,
+and the near approach of the siliceous, particles, and a consequent
+gradual induration of the whole body of the stone. I offer this
+supposition with all diffidence; there may be many other causes, which
+cannot be developed until proper experiments have been made. It would be
+interesting to ascertain the relative hardness of different specimens of
+sandstone, taken from different depths in a bed, the surface of which
+was exposed to the air, as of specimens exposed to the air for different
+lengths of time.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 1em;">Herne Hill</span>, <i>July 25, 1836.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> London's <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, Vol. vii., pp.
+644-5. The note was illustrated by engravings from two sketches by the
+author of the Aiguille de Servoz and of the Aiguille Dru, and by a
+diagram explanatory of its last sentence but one.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> "A small neat copy of a sketch carefully taken on the
+spot," which, according to the editor of the magazine, accompanied this
+communication, was not, however, published. See the
+magazine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Loudon's <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, Vol. ix., No. 65,
+pp. 488-90.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The question here discussed was originally asked in the
+magazine (Vol. ix., pp. 379-80) by Mr. W. Perceval Hunter with reference
+to the condition of Bodiam Castle, in Sussex.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="OBSERVATIONS_ON_THE_CAUSES_WHICH_OCCASION_THE_VARIATION_OF_TEMPERATURE" id="OBSERVATIONS_ON_THE_CAUSES_WHICH_OCCASION_THE_VARIATION_OF_TEMPERATURE"></a>OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAUSES WHICH OCCASION THE VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE
+BETWEEN SPRING AND RIVER WATER.&mdash;<span class="smcap">By J. R.</span><a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>274. The difference in temperature between river and spring water, which
+gives rise to the query of your correspondent Indigena (p. 491),<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> may
+be the result of many causes, the principal of which is, however,
+without doubt, the interior heat of the earth. It is a well known fact,
+that this heat increases in a considerable ratio as we descend, making a
+difference of several degrees between the temperature of the earth at
+its surface and at depths of 500 or 600 feet; raising, of course, the
+temperature of all springs which have their source at even moderate
+depths, and entirely securing them from the effects of frost, which, it
+is well known, cannot penetrate the earth to a greater depth than 3 or 4
+ft.</p>
+
+<p>275. Many instances might be given of the strong effect of this interior
+heat. The glaciers of the Alps, for instance, frequently cover an extent
+of three or four square leagues, with a mass of ice 400, 500, or even
+600 feet deep, thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> entirely preventing the access of exterior heat to
+the soil; yet the radiation of heat from the ground itself is so
+powerful as to dissolve the ice very rapidly, and to occasion streams of
+no inconsiderable size beneath the ice, whose temperature, in summer,
+is, I believe, as far as can be ascertained, not many degrees below that
+of streams exposed to the air; and the radiation of heat from the water
+of these streams forms vaults under the ice, which are frequently 40 ft.
+or 50 ft. above the water; and which are formed, as a glance will show,
+not by the force of the stream, which would only tear itself a broken
+cave sufficient for its passage, but by the heat which radiates from it,
+and gives the arch its immense height, and beautifully regular form.</p>
+
+<p>These streams continue to flow in winter as well as in summer, although
+in less quantity; and it is this process which chiefly prevents the
+glacier from increasing in size; for the melting at the surface is, in
+comparison, very inconsiderable, even in summer, the wind being cold,
+the sun having little power, and slight frosts being frequent during the
+night. It is also this melting beneath the ice (subglacial, suppose we
+call it) which loosens the ice from the ground, and occasions, or rather
+permits, the perpetual downward movement, with which</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The glacier's cold and restless mass</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moves onward day by day."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>276. But more forcible and striking evidence is afforded by experiments
+made in mines of great depth. Between 60 ft. and 80 ft. down, the
+temperature of the earth is, I believe, the same at all times and in all
+places; and below this depth it gradually increases. Near Bex, in the
+Valais, there is a perpendicular shaft 677 ft. deep, or about 732 ft.
+English, with water at the bottom, the temperature of which was
+ascertained by Saussure. He does not tell us whether he used R&eacute;aumur's
+or the centesimal thermometer; but the result of his experiment was
+this:&mdash;In a lateral gallery, connected with the main shaft, but
+deserted, and, therefore, unaffected by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> breath or the heat of lamps, at
+321 ft. 10 in. below the surface, the temperature of the water and the
+air was exactly the same, 11&frac12;&deg;; or, if the centesimal thermometer was
+used, 52&#8536; Fahr.; if R&eacute;aumur's, 57&#8542; Fahr.</p>
+
+<p>277. In another gallery, 564 feet below the surface, the water and air
+had likewise the same temperature, 12&frac12;&deg;, either 54&#8536; or 6O&frac14;
+Fahr. The water at the bottom, 677 feet, was 14&deg;, 57&frac12; or 63&frac14; Fahr.
+The ratio in which the heat increases, therefore, increased as we
+descend, since a difference of 113 feet between the depth of the bottom
+of the shaft and the lowest gallery makes a greater difference in
+temperature than the difference of 243 feet between the lowest and upper
+gallery. This heat is the more striking when it is considered that the
+water is impregnated with salt; indeed, Saussure appears inclined to
+consider it accidental, perhaps occasioned by the combustion of pyrites,
+or other causes in the interior of the mountain ("Voyages dans les
+Alpes," tom. iv., c. 50). All experiments of this kind, indeed, are
+liable to error, from the frequent occurrence of warm springs, and other
+accidental causes of increase in temperature. The water at the bottom of
+deep lakes is always found several degrees colder than the atmosphere,
+even when the water at the surface is warmer: but that may be accounted
+for by the difference in the specific gravity of water at different
+temperatures; and, as the heat of the sun and atmosphere in summer is
+greater than the mean heat of the earth at moderate depths, the water at
+the bottom, even if it becomes of the same heat with the earth, must be
+colder than that at the surface, which, from its exposure to the sun,
+becomes frequently warmer than the air. The same causes affect the
+temperature of the sea; and the greater saturation of the water below
+with salt renders it yet more susceptible of cold. Under-currents from
+the poles, and the sinking of the water of low temperature, which
+results from the melting of the icebergs which float into warmer
+latitudes, contribute still farther to lower the temperature of the deep
+sea. If, then, the temperature of the sea at great depths is found not
+many degrees lower than that at the surface, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> would be a striking
+proof of the effect produced by the heat of the earth; but I am not
+aware of the results of the experiments which have been made on this
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>278. We must, then, rest satisfied with the well-ascertained fact, that
+the temperature of the earth, even at depths of a few feet, never
+descends, in temperate latitudes, to the freezing point; and that at the
+depth of 60 feet it is always the same, in winter much higher, in summer
+considerably lower, than that of the atmosphere. Spring water, then,
+which has its source at a considerable depth, will, when it first rises,
+be of this mean temperature; while, after it has flowed for some
+distance, it becomes of the temperature of the atmosphere, or, in
+summer, even warmer, owing to the action of the sun, both directly and
+reflected or radiated from its bottom. Besides this equable temperature
+in the water itself, spring or well water is usually covered; and, even
+if exposed, if the well is very deep, the water will not freeze, or at
+least very slightly; for frost does not act with its full power, except
+where there is a free circulation of air. In open ponds, wherever bushes
+hang over the water, the ice is weak. Indigena's supposition, that there
+are earthy particles in river water, which render it more susceptible of
+cold than spring water, cannot be true; for then the relative
+temperatures would be the same in winter and in summer, which is not the
+case; and, besides, there are frequently more earthy particles in
+mineral springs, or even common land springs, than in clear river water,
+provided it has not been fouled by extraneous matter; for it has a
+tendency to deposit the earthy particles which it holds in suspension.</p>
+
+<p>279. It is evident, also, that the supposition of Mr. Carr (Vol. v., p.
+395) relative to anchor frosts, that the stones at the bottom acquire a
+greater degree of cold, or, to speak more correctly, lose more heat,
+than the water, is erroneous. J. G. has given the reasons at p. 770; and
+the glaciers of Switzerland afford us an example. When a stone is
+deposited on a glacier of any considerable size, but not larger than 1
+foot or 18 inches in diameter, it becomes penetrated with the heat of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+the sun, melts the ice below it, and sinks into the glacier. But this
+effect does not cease, as might be supposed, when the stone sinks
+beneath the water which it has formed; on the contrary, it continues to
+absorb heat from the rays of the sun, to keep the water above it liquid
+by its radiation, and to sink deeper into the body of the glacier, until
+it gets down beyond the reach of the sun's rays, when the water of the
+well which it has formed is no longer kept liquid, and the stone is
+buried in the ice. In summer, however, the water is kept liquid; and
+circular wells, formed in this manner, are of frequent occurrence on the
+glaciers, sometimes, in the morning, covered by a thin crust of ice.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the stones at the bottom of streams must tend to raise, rather
+than lower, this temperature. Is it possible that, in the agitation of a
+stream at its bottom, if violent, momentary and minute vacua may be
+formed, tending to increase the intensity of the cold?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 1em;">Herne Hill</span>, <i>Sept. 2, 1836.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> London's <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, vol. ix., pp.
+533-536.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The query was as follows:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+<i>An Inquiry for the Cause of the Difference in Temperature of River
+Water and Spring Water, both in Summer and Winter.</i>&mdash;In the summer time
+the river water is much warmer than that from a spring; during the
+severe frosts of winter it is colder; and when the stream is covered
+over with ice, the spring, that is, well or pump water is unaffected by
+frost. Does this difference proceed from the exposure of the surface of
+the river water, in summer, to the sun's direct influence, and, in
+winter, to that of frost; while the well water, being covered, is
+protected from their power? Or is there in river water, from the earthy
+particles it contains, a greater susceptibility of heat and
+cold?&mdash;<i>Indigena</i>. <i>April 19, 1836.</i>&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="METEOROLOGY33" id="METEOROLOGY33"></a>METEOROLOGY.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>280. The comparison and estimation of the relative advantages of
+separate departments of science is a task which is always partially
+executed, because it is never entered upon with an unbiased mind; for,
+since it is only the accurate knowledge of a science which can enable us
+to present its beauty, or estimate its utility, the branches of
+knowledge with which we are most familiar will always appear the most
+important. The endeavor, therefore, to judge of the relative <i>beauty</i> or
+<i>interest</i> of the sciences is utterly hopeless. Let the astronomer boast
+of the magnificence of his speculations, the mathematician of the
+immutability of his facts, the chemist of the infinity of his
+combinations, and we will admit that they all have equal ground for
+their enthusiasm. But the highest standard of estimation is that of
+utility. The far greater proportion of mankind, the uninformed, who are
+unable to perceive the beauty of the sciences whose benefits they
+experience, are the true, the just, the only judges of their relative
+importance. It is they who feel what impartial men of learning know,
+that the mass of general knowledge is a perfect and beautiful body,
+among whose members there should be no schism, and whose prosperity must
+always be greatest when none are partially pursued, and none unduly
+rejected. We do not, therefore, advance any proud and unjustifiable
+claims to the superiority of that branch of science for the furtherance
+of which this society has been formed over all others; but we zealously
+come forward to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> deprecate the apathy with which it has long been
+regarded, to dissipate the prejudices which that apathy alone could have
+engendered, and to vindicate its claims to an honorable and equal
+position among the proud thrones of its sister sciences. We do not bring
+meteorology forward as a pursuit adapted for the occupation of tedious
+leisure, or the amusement of a careless hour. Such qualifications are no
+inducements to its pursuit by men of science and learning, and to these
+alone do we now address ourselves. Neither do we advance it on the
+ground of its interest or beauty, though it is a science possessing both
+in no ordinary degree. As to its beauty, it may be remarked that it is
+not calculated to harden the mind it strengthens, and bind it down to
+the measurement of magnitudes and estimation of quantities, destroying
+all higher feelings, all finer sensibilities: it is not to be learned
+among the gaseous exhalations of the deathful laboratory; it has no
+dwelling in the cold caves of the dark earth; it is not to be followed
+up among the charnel houses of creation. But it is a science of the pure
+air, and of the bright heaven; its thoughts are amidst the loveliness of
+creation; it leads the mind, as well as the eye, to the morning mist,
+and the noonday glory, and the twilight-cloud, to the purple peace of
+the mountain heaven, to the cloudy repose of the green valley; now
+expatiating in the silence of stormless ether, now on the rushing of the
+wings of the wind. It is indeed a knowledge which must be felt to be, in
+its very essence, full of the soul of the beautiful. For its interest,
+it is universal, unabated in every place, and in all time. He, whose
+kingdom is the heaven, can never meet with an uninteresting space, can
+never exhaust the phenomena of an hour; he is in a realm of perpetual
+change, of eternal motion, of infinite mystery. Light and darkness, and
+cold and heat, are to him as friends of familiar countenance, but of
+infinite variety of conversation; and while the geologist yearns for the
+mountain, the botanist for the field, and the mathematician for the
+study, the meteorologist, like a spirit of a higher order than any,
+rejoices in the kingdoms of the air.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>281. But, as we before said, it is neither for its interest, nor for its
+beauty, that we recommend the study of meteorology. It involves
+questions of the highest practical importance, and the solution of which
+will be productive of most substantial benefit to those classes who can
+least comprehend the speculations from which these advantages are
+derived. Times and seasons and climates, calms and tempests, clouds and
+winds, whose alternations appear to the inexperienced mind the confused
+consequences of irregular, indefinite, and accidental causes, arrange
+themselves before the meteorologist in beautiful succession of
+undisturbed order, in direct derivation from definite causes; it is for
+him to trace the path of the tempest round the globe, to point out the
+place whence it arose, to foretell the time of its decline, to follow
+the hours around the earth, as she "spins beneath her pyramid of night,"
+to feel the pulses of ocean, to pursue the course of its currents and
+its changes, to measure the power, direction, and duration of mysterious
+and invisible influences, and to assign constant and regular periods to
+the seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and
+night, which we know shall not cease, till the universe be no more. It
+may be thought we are exaggerating the effects of a science which is yet
+in its infancy. But it must be remembered that we are not speaking of
+its attained, but of its attainable power: it is the young Hercules for
+the fostering of whose strength the Meteorological Society has been
+formed.</p>
+
+<p>282. There is one point, it must now be observed, in which the science
+of meteorology differs from all others. A Galileo, or a Newton, by the
+unassisted workings of his solitary mind, may discover the secrets of
+the heavens, and form a new system of astronomy. A Davy in his lonely
+meditations on the crags of Cornwall, or in his solitary laboratory,
+might discover the most sublime mysteries of nature, and trace out the
+most intricate combinations of her elements. But the meteorologist is
+impotent if alone; his observations are useless; for they are made upon
+a point, while the speculations to be derived from them must be on
+space. It is of no avail that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> he changes his position, ignorant of what
+is passing behind him and before; he desires to estimate the movements
+of space, and can only observe the dancing of atoms; he would calculate
+the currents of the atmosphere of the world, while he only knows the
+direction of a breeze. It is perhaps for this reason that the cause of
+meteorology has hitherto been so slightly supported; no progress can be
+made by the most gigantic efforts of a solitary intellect, and the
+co-operation demanded was difficult to obtain, because it was necessary
+that the individuals should think, observe, and act simultaneously,
+though separated from each other by distances on the greatness of which
+depended the utility of the observations.</p>
+
+<p>283. The Meteorological Society, therefore, has been formed, not for a
+city, nor for a kingdom, but for the world. It wishes to be the central
+point, the moving power of a vast machine, and it feels that unless it
+can be this, it must be powerless; if it cannot do all, it can do
+nothing. It desires to have at its command, at stated periods, perfect
+systems of methodical and simultaneous observations,&mdash;it wishes its
+influence and its power to be omnipotent over the globe, so that it may
+be able to know, at any given instant, the state of the atmosphere at
+every point on its surface. Let it not be supposed that this is a
+chimerical imagination, the vain dream of a few philosophical
+enthusiasts. It is co-operation which we now come forward to request, in
+full confidence, that if our efforts are met with a zeal worthy of the
+cause, our associates will be astonished, <i>individually</i>, by the result
+of their labors in a body. Let none be discouraged because they are
+alone, or far distant from their associates. What was formerly weakness
+will now have become strength. Let the pastor of the Alps observe the
+variations of his mountain winds; let the voyagers send us notes of the
+changes on the surface of the sea; let the solitary dweller in the
+American prairie observe the passages of the storms, and the variations
+of the climate; and each, who alone would have been powerless, will find
+himself a part of one mighty mind, a ray of light entering into one vast
+eye, a member of a multitudinous power, con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>tributing to the knowledge,
+and aiding the efforts, which will be capable of solving the most deeply
+hidden problems of nature, penetrating into the most occult causes, and
+reducing to principle and order the vast multitude of beautiful and
+wonderful phenomena by which the wisdom and benevolence of the Supreme
+Deity regulates the course of the times and the seasons, robes the globe
+with verdure and fruitfulness, and adapts it to minister to the wants,
+and contribute to the felicity, of the innumerable tribes of animated
+existence.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Oxford University.</span></span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> From the "Transactions of the Meteorological Society,"
+Vol. i., pp. 56-9 (London, 1839). The full title of the paper was
+"Remarks on the Present State of Meteorological Science." The Society
+was instituted in 1823, but appears to have published no previous
+transactions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ON_TREE_TWIGS34" id="ON_TREE_TWIGS34"></a>ON TREE TWIGS.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>284. The speaker's purpose was to exhibit the development of the common
+forms of branch, in dicotyledonous trees, from the fixed type of the
+annual shoot. Three principal modes of increase and growth might be
+distinguished in all accumulative change, namely:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Simple aggregation, having no periodical or otherwise defined limit,
+and subject only to laws of cohesion and crystallization, as in
+inorganic matter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Addition of similar parts to each other, under some law fixing their
+limits and securing their unity.</p>
+
+<p>3. Enlargement, or systematic change in arrangement, of a typical form,
+as in the growth of the members of an animal.</p>
+
+<p>285. The growth of trees came under the second of these heads. A tree
+did not increase in stem or boughs as the wrist and hand of a child
+increased to the wrist and hand of a man; but it was built up by
+additions of similar parts, as a city is increased by the building of
+new rows of houses.</p>
+
+<p>Any annual shoot was most conveniently to be considered as a single rod,
+which would always grow vertically if possible.</p>
+
+<p>Every such rod or pillar was, in common timber trees, typically either
+polygonal in section, or rectangular.</p>
+
+<p>If polygonal, the leaves were arranged on it in a spiral order, as in
+the elm or oak.</p>
+
+<p>If rectangular, the leaves were arranged on it in pairs, set alternately
+at right angles to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Intermediate forms connected each of these types with those of
+monocotyledonous trees. The structure of the <i>arbor vit&aelig;</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> might be
+considered as typically representing the link between the rectangular
+structure and that of monocotyledons; and that of the pine between the
+polygonal structure and that of monocotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>Every leaf during its vitality secreting carbon from the atmosphere,
+with the elements of water, formed a certain quantity of woody tissue,
+which extended down the outside of the tree to the ground, and farther
+to the extremities of the roots. The mode in which this descending
+masonry was added appeared to depend on the peculiar functions of
+cambium, and (the speaker believed) was as yet unexplained by botanists.</p>
+
+<p>286. Every leaf, besides forming this masonry all down the tree,
+protected a bud at the base of its own stalk. From this bud, unless
+rendered abortive, a new shoot would spring next year. Now, supposing
+that out of the leaf-buds on each shoot of a pentagonal tree, only five
+at its extremity or on its side were permitted to develop themselves,
+even under this limitation the number of shoots developed from a single
+one in the seventh year would be 78,125. The external form of a
+healthily grown tree at any period of its development was therefore
+composed of a mass of sprays, whose vitality was approximately
+distributed over the <i>surface</i> of the tree to an equal depth. The
+branches beneath at once supported, and were fed by, this orbicular
+field, or animated external garment of vegetation, from every several
+leaf of which, as from an innumerable multitude of small green
+fountains, the streams of woody fiber descended, met, and united as
+rivers do, and gathered their full flood into the strength of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>287. The principal errors which had been committed by artists in drawing
+trees had arisen from their regarding the bough as ramifying
+irregularly, and somewhat losing in energy towards the extremity;
+whereas the real boughs threw their whole energy, and multiplied their
+substance, towards the extremities, ranking themselves in more or less
+cup-shaped tiers round the trunk, and forming a compact united surface
+at the exterior of the tree.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>288. In the course of arrival at this form, the bough, throughout its
+whole length, showed itself to be influenced by a force like that of an
+animal's instinct. Its minor curves and angles were all subjected to one
+strong ruling tendency and law of advance, dependent partly on the aim
+of every shoot to raise itself upright, partly on the necessity which
+each was under to yield due place to the neighboring leaves, and obtain
+for itself as much light and air as possible. It had indeed been
+ascertained that vegetable tissue was liable to contractions and
+expansion (under fixed mechanical conditions) by light, heat, moisture,
+etc. But vegetable tissue in the living branch did not contract nor
+expand under external influence alone. The principle of life manifested
+itself either by contention with, or felicitous recognition of, external
+force. It accepted with a visible, active, and apparently joyful
+concurrence, the influences which led the bough towards its due place in
+the economy of the tree; and it obeyed reluctantly, partially, and with
+distorted curvatures, those which forced it to violate the typical
+organic form. The attention of painters of foliage had seldom been drawn
+with sufficient accuracy to the lines either of branch curvature, or
+leaf contour, as expressing these subtle laws of incipient volition; but
+the relative merit of the great schools of figure design might, in
+absence of all other evidence, be determined, almost without error, by
+observing the precision of their treatment of leaf curvature. The
+leaf-painting round the head of Ariosto by Titian, in the National
+Gallery, might be instanced.</p>
+
+<p>289. The leaf thus differed from the flower in forming and protecting
+behind it, not only the bud in which was the form of a new shoot like
+itself, but a piece of permanent work, and produced substance, by which
+every following shoot could be placed under different circumstances from
+its predecessor. Every leaf labored to solidify this substance during
+its own life; but the seed left by the flower matured only as the flower
+perished.</p>
+
+<p>This difference in the action and endurance of the flower and leaf had
+been applied by nearly all great nations as a type<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> of the variously
+active and productive states of life among individuals or commonwealths.
+Chaucer's poem of the "Flower and Leaf" is the most definite expression
+of the medi&aelig;val feeling in this respect, while the fables of the rape of
+Proserpine and of Apollo and Daphne embody that of the Greeks. There is
+no Greek goddess corresponding to the Flora of the Romans. Their Flora
+is Persephone, "the bringer of death." She plays for a little while in
+the Sicilian fields, gathering flowers, then snatched away by Pluto,
+receives her chief power as she vanishes from our sight, and is crowned
+in the grave. Daphne, on the other hand, is the daughter of one of the
+great Arcadian river gods, and of the earth; she is the type of the
+river mist filling the rocky vales of Arcadia; the sun, pursuing this
+mist from dell to dell, is Apollo pursuing Daphne; where the mist is
+protected from his rays by the rock shadows, the laurel and other
+richest vegetation spring by the river-sides, so that the laurel-leaf
+becomes the type, in the Greek mind, of the beneficent ministry and
+vitality of the rivers and the earth, under the beams of sunshine; and
+therefore it is chosen to form the signet-crown of highest honor for
+gods or men, honor for work born of the strength and dew of the earth
+and informed by the central light of heaven; work living, perennial, and
+beneficent.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see <i>Proceedings</i>, vol. iii., pp. 358-60), April 19,
+1861.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ON_THE_FORMS_OF_THE_STRATIFIED_ALPS_OF_SAVOY35" id="ON_THE_FORMS_OF_THE_STRATIFIED_ALPS_OF_SAVOY35"></a>ON THE FORMS OF THE STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>290. The purpose of the discourse was to trace some of the influences
+which have produced the present external forms of the stratified
+mountains of Savoy, and the probable extent and results of the future
+operation of such influences.</p>
+
+<p>The subject was arranged under three heads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The Materials of the Savoy Alps.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. The Mode of their Formation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. The Mode of their subsequent Sculpture.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>291. I. <i>Their Materials.</i>&mdash;The investigation was limited to those Alps
+which consist, in whole or in part, either of Jura limestone, of
+Neocomian beds, or of the Hippurite limestone, and include no important
+masses of other formations. All these rocks are marine deposits; and the
+first question to be considered with respect to the development of
+mountains out of them is the kind of change they must undergo in being
+dried. Whether prolonged through vast periods of time, or hastened by
+heat and pressure, the drying and solidification of such rocks involved
+their contraction, and usually, in consequence, their being traversed
+throughout by minute fissures. Under certain conditions of pressure,
+these fissures take the aspect of slaty cleavage; under others, they
+become irregular cracks, dividing all the substance of the stone. If
+these are not filled, the rock would become a mere heap of d&eacute;bris, and
+be incapable of establishing itself in any bold form. This is provided
+against by a metamorphic action, which either arranges the particles of
+the rock, throughout, in new and more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> crystalline conditions, or else
+causes some of them to separate from the rest, to traverse the body of
+the rock, and arrange themselves in its fissures; thus forming a cement,
+usually of finer and purer substance than the rest of the stone. In
+either case the action tends continually to the purification and
+segregation of the elements of the stone. The energy of such action
+depends on accidental circumstances: first, on the attractions of the
+component elements among themselves; secondly, on every change of
+external temperature and relation. So that mountains are at different
+periods in different stages of health (so to call it) or disease. We
+have mountains of a languid temperament, mountains with checked
+circulations, mountains in nervous fevers, mountains in atrophy and
+decline.</p>
+
+<p>292. This change in the structure of existing rocks is traceable through
+continuous gradations, so that a black mud or calcareous slime is
+imperceptibly modified into a magnificently hard and crystalline
+substance, inclosing nests of beryl, topaz, and sapphire, and veined
+with gold. But it cannot be determined how far, or in what localities,
+these changes are yet arrested; in the plurality of instances they are
+evidently yet in progress. It appears rational to suppose that as each
+rock approaches to its perfect type the change becomes slower; its
+perfection being continually neared, but never reached; its change being
+liable also to interruption or reversal by new geological phenomena. In
+the process of this change, rocks expand or contract; and, in portions,
+their multitudinous fissures give them a ductility or viscosity like
+that of glacier-ice on a larger scale. So that many formations are best
+to be conceived as glaciers, or frozen fields of crag, whose depth is to
+be measured in miles instead of fathoms, whose crevasses are filled with
+solvent flame, with vapor, with gelatinous flint, or with crystallizing
+elements of mingled natures; the whole mass changing its dimensions and
+flowing into new channels, though by gradations which cannot be
+measured, and in periods of time of which human life forms no
+appreciable unit.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>293. II. <i>Formation.</i>&mdash;Mountains are to be arranged, with respect to
+their structure, under two great classes&mdash;those which are cut out of the
+beds of which they are composed, and those which are formed by the
+convolution or contortion of the beds themselves. The Savoy mountains
+are chiefly of this latter class. When stratified formations are
+contorted, it is usually either by pressure from below, which raises one
+part of the formation above the rest, or by lateral pressure, which
+reduces the whole formation into a series of waves. The ascending
+pressure may be limited in its sphere of operation; the lateral one
+necessarily affects extensive tracts of country, and the eminences it
+produces vanish only by degrees, like the waves left in the wake of a
+ship. The Savoy mountains have undergone both these kinds of violence in
+very complex modes and at different periods, so that it becomes almost
+impossible to trace separately and completely the operation of any given
+force at a given point.</p>
+
+<p>294. The speaker's intention was to have analyzed, as far as possible,
+the action of the forming forces in one wave of simple elevation, the
+Mont Sal&egrave;ve, and in another of lateral compression, the Mont Brezon: but
+the investigation of the Mont Sal&egrave;ve had presented unexpected
+difficulty. Its fa&ccedil;ade had been always considered to be formed by
+vertical beds, raised into that position during the tertiary periods;
+the speaker's investigations had, on the contrary, led him to conclude
+that the appearance of vertical beds was owing to a peculiarly sharp and
+distinct cleavage, at right angles with the beds, but nearly parallel to
+their strike, elsewhere similarly manifested in the Jurassic series of
+Savoy, and showing itself on the fronts of most of the precipices formed
+of that rock. The attention of geologists was invited to the
+determination of this question.</p>
+
+<p>The compressed wave of the Brezon, more complex in arrangement, was more
+clearly defined. A section of it was given, showing the reversed
+position of the Hippurite limestone in the summit and lower precipices.
+This limestone wave was shown to be one of a great series, running
+parallel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> with the Alps, and constituting an undulatory district,
+chiefly composed of chalk beds, separated from the higher limestone
+district of the Jura and Lias by a long trench or moat, filled with
+members of the tertiary series&mdash;chiefly nummulite limestones and flysch.
+This trench might be followed from Faverges, at the head of the lake of
+Annecy, across Savoy. It separated Mont Vergi from the Mont Dorons, and
+the Dent d'Oche from the Dent du Midi; then entered Switzerland,
+separating the Moleson from the Diablerets; passed on through the
+districts of Thun and Brientz, and, dividing itself into two, caused the
+zigzagged form of the lake of Lucerne. The principal branch then passed
+between the high Sentis and the Glarnisch, and broke into confusion in
+the Tyrol. On the north side of this trench the chalk beds were often
+vertical, or cast into repeated folds, of which the escarpments were
+mostly turned away from the Alps; but on the south side of the trench,
+the Jurassic, Triassic, and Carboniferous beds, though much distorted,
+showed a prevailing tendency to lean towards the Alps, and turn their
+escarpments to the central chain.</p>
+
+<p>295. Both these systems of mountains are intersected by transverse
+valleys, owing their origin, in the first instance, to a series of
+transverse curvilinear fractures, which affect the forms even of every
+minor ridge, and produce its principal ravines and boldest rocks, even
+where no distinctly excavated valleys exist. Thus, the Mont Vergi and
+the Aiguilles of Salouvre are only fragmentary remains of a range of
+horizontal beds, once continuous, but broken by this transverse system
+of curvilinear cleavage, and worn or weathered into separate summits.</p>
+
+<p>The means of this ultimate sculpture or weathering were lastly to be
+considered.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>296. III. <i>Sculpture.</i>&mdash;The final reductions of mountainform are owing
+either to disintegration, or to the action of water, in the condition of
+rain, rivers, or ice, aided by frost and other circumstances of
+temperature and atmosphere.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All important existing forms are owing to disintegration, or the action
+of water. That of ice had been curiously over-rated. As an instrument of
+sculpture, ice is much less powerful than water; the apparently
+energetic effects of it being merely the exponents of disintegration. A
+glacier did not produce its moraine, but sustained and exposed the
+fragments which fell on its surface, pulverizing these by keeping them
+in motion, but producing very unimportant effects on the rock below; the
+roundings and striation produced by ice were superficial; while a
+torrent penetrated into every angle and cranny, undermining and wearing
+continually, and carrying stones, at the lowest estimate, six hundred
+thousand times as fast as the glacier. Had the quantity of rain which
+has fallen on Mont Blanc in the form of snow (and descended in the
+ravines as ice) fallen as rain, and descended in torrents, the ravines
+would have been much deeper than they are now, and the glacier may so
+far be considered as exercising a protective influence. But its power of
+carriage is unlimited, and when masses of earth or rock are once
+loosened, the glacier carries them away, and exposes fresh surfaces.
+Generally, the work of water and ice is in mountain surgery like that of
+lancet and sponge&mdash;one for incision, the other for ablution. No
+excavation by ice was possible on a large scale, any more than by a
+stream of honey; and its various actions, with their limitations, were
+only to be understood by keeping always clearly in view the great law of
+its motion as a viscous substance, determined by Professor James Forbes.</p>
+
+<p>297. The existing forms of the Alps are, therefore, traceable chiefly to
+denudation as they rose from the sea, followed by more or less violent
+aqueous action, partly arrested during the glacial periods, while the
+produced diluvium was carried away into the valley of the Rhine or into
+the North Sea. One very important result of denudation had not yet been
+sufficiently regarded; namely, that when portions of a thick bed (as the
+Rudisten-kalk) had been entirely removed, the weight of the remaining
+masses, pressing unequally on the inferior beds, would, when these were
+soft (as the Neocomian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> marls), press them up into arched conditions,
+like those of the floors of coal-mines in what the miners called
+"creeps." Many anomalous positions of the beds of Spatangenkalk in the
+district of the Lake of Annecy were in all probability owing to this
+cause: they might be studied advantageously in the sloping base of the
+great Rochers de Lanfon, which, disintegrating in curved, nearly
+vertical flakes, each a thousand feet in height, were nevertheless a
+mere outlying remnant of the great horizontal formation of the Parmelan,
+and formed, like it, of very thin horizontal beds of Rudisten-kalk,
+imposed on shaly masses of Neocomian, modified by their pressure. More
+complex forms of harder rock were wrought by the streams and rains into
+fantastic outlines; and the transverse gorges were cut deep where they
+had been first traced by fault or distortion. The analysis of this
+aqueous action would alone require a series of discourses; but the sum
+of the facts was that the best and most interesting portions of the
+mountains were just those which were finally left, the centers and
+joints, as it were, of the Alpine anatomy. Immeasurable periods of time
+would be required to wear these away; and to all appearances, during the
+process of their destruction, others were rising to take their place,
+and forms of perhaps far more nobly organized mountain would witness the
+collateral progress of humanity.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. R.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see <i>Proceedings</i>, vol. iv., pp. 142-46), June 5,
+1863.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_RANGE_OF_INTELLECTUAL_CONCEPTION_PROPORTIONED_TO_THE_RANK_IN" id="THE_RANGE_OF_INTELLECTUAL_CONCEPTION_PROPORTIONED_TO_THE_RANK_IN"></a>THE RANGE OF INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION PROPORTIONED TO THE RANK IN
+ANIMATED LIFE.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A THEOREM.</h3>
+
+
+<p>298. I suppose this theorem to be a truism; but I venture to state it,
+because it is surely desirable that it should be recognized as an axiom
+by metaphysicians, and practically does not seem to me yet to have been
+so. I say "animated life" because the word "life" by itself might have
+been taken to include that of vegetables; and I say "animated" instead
+of "spiritual" life because the Latin "anima," and pretty Italian
+corruption of it, "alma," involving the new idea of nourishment of the
+body as by the Aliment or Alms of God, seems to me to convey a better
+idea of the existence of conscious creatures than any derivative of
+"spiritus," "pneuma," or "psyche."</p>
+
+<p>I attach, however, a somewhat lower sense to the word "conception" than
+is, I believe, usual with metaphysicians, for, as a painter, I belong to
+a lower rank of animated being than theirs, and can only mean by
+conception what I know of it. A painter never conceives anything
+absolutely, and is indeed incapable of conceiving anything at all,
+except as a phenomenon or sensation, or as the mode or locus of a
+phenomenon or sensation. That which is not an appearance, or a feeling,
+or a mode of one or the other, is to him nothing.</p>
+
+<p>299. For instance, he would deny the definition of the phenomenon which
+he is himself first concerned in producing&mdash;a line&mdash;as "length without
+breadth." He would say, "That which has no breadth is nothing, and
+nothing cannot be long." He would define a line as a narrow and long
+phenomenon, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> a mathematician's idea of it as an idea of the
+direction of such a phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>The act of conception or imagination with him, therefore, is merely the
+memory, simple or combined, of things that he has seen or felt. He has
+no ray, no incipience of faculty beyond this. No quantity of the
+sternest training in the school of Hegel, would ever enable him to think
+the Absolute. He would persist in an obstinate refusal to use the word
+"think" at all in a transitive sense. He would never, for instance, say,
+"I think the table," but "I think the table is turning," or is not, as
+the case might be. And if he were to be taught in any school whatever to
+conceive a table, his first demand would be that he should be shown one,
+or referred to other things that had the qualities of one in
+illustrative degree.</p>
+
+<p>300. And even respecting the constant methods or laws of phenomena, he
+cannot raise the statement of them into an act of conception. The
+statement that two right lines can never inclose a space merely appears
+to him another form of verbal definition, or, at the grandest, a
+definition in prophetic extent, saying in other words that a line which
+incloses, or ever may inclose, a space, is not, and never will be, a
+right one. He would admit that what he now conceives as two things,
+doubled, would always be what he now conceives as four things. But
+assuming the existence of a world in which, whenever two things were
+actually set in juxtaposition with other two things, they became
+actually three times, or actually five, he supposes that the practice of
+arithmetic, and laws of it, would change in relation to this new
+condition in matter; and he accepts, therefore, the statement that twice
+two are four only as an accident of the existing phenomena of matter.</p>
+
+<p>301. A painter therefore may, I think, be looked upon as only
+representing a high order of sensational creatures, incapable of any but
+physical ideas and impressions; and I continue my paper, therefore, only
+in the name of the docile, and therefore improvable, part of the Brute
+Creation.</p>
+
+<p>And in their name I would suggest that we should be much more docile
+than we are if we were never occupied in efforts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> to conceive things
+above our natures. To take an instance, in a creature somewhat lower
+than myself. I came by surprise the other day on a cuttle-fish in a pool
+at low tide. On being touched with the point of my umbrella, he first
+filled the pool with ink, and then finding himself still touched in the
+darkness, lost his temper, and attacked the umbrella with much psyche or
+anima, hugging it tightly with all his eight arms, and making efforts,
+like an impetuous baby with a coral, to get it into his mouth. On my
+offering him a finger instead, he sucked that with two or three of his
+arms with an apparently malignant satisfaction, and on being shaken off,
+retired with an air of frantic misanthropy into the cloud of his ink.</p>
+
+<p>302. Now, it seems to me not a little instructive to reflect how
+entirely useless such a manifestation of a superior being was to his
+cuttle-fish mind, and how fortunate it was for his fellow-octopods that
+he had no command of pens as well as ink, nor any disposition to write
+on the nature of umbrellas or of men.</p>
+
+<p>It may be observed, further, that whatever ideas he was able to form
+respecting either were positively false&mdash;so contrary to truth as to be
+worse than none, and simply dangerous to himself, so far as he might be
+induced to act upon them&mdash;that, namely, an umbrella was an eatable
+thing, or a man a conquerable one, that the individual man who looked at
+him was hostile to him or that his purposes could be interfered with by
+ejection of ink. Every effort made by the fish under these convictions
+was harmful to himself; his only wisdom would have been to lie quietly
+and unreflectively in his pool.</p>
+
+<p>And with us painters also, the only result of any efforts we make to
+acquaint ourselves with the subjects of metaphysical inquiry has been an
+increased sense of the prudence of lying placidly and unreflectively in
+our pools, or at least limiting ourselves to such gentle efforts of
+imagination as may be consistent with the as yet imperfectly developed
+powers, I do not say even of cephalopodic, but of Ascidian nervous
+centers.</p>
+
+<p>303. But it may be easily imagined how pleasantly, to per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>sons thus
+subdued in self-estimation, the hope presents itself which is involved
+in the Darwinian theory, that their pools themselves may be capable of
+indefinite extension, and their natures of indefinite development&mdash;the
+hope that our descendants may one day be ashamed of us, and debate the
+question of their parentage with astonishment and disgust.</p>
+
+<p>And it seems to me that the aim of elementary metaphysical study might
+henceforth become more practical than that of any other science. For in
+hitherto taking little cognizance of the limitation of thought by the
+structure of the body, we have surely also lost sight of the power of
+certain modes of thought over the processes of that structure. Taking,
+for instance, the emotion of anger, of which the cephalopoda are indeed
+as capable as we are, but inferior to us in being unable to decide
+whether they do well to be angry or not, I do not think the chemical
+effect of that emotion on the particles of the blood, in decomposing and
+otherwise paralyzing or debilitating them, has been sufficiently
+examined, nor the actual quantity of nervous energy which a fit of anger
+of given violence withdraws from the body and restores to space, neither
+the correlative power of volition in restraining the passion, or in
+directing the choice of salutary thought, as of salutary herbs on
+streams. And even we painters, who dare not call ourselves capable of
+thought, are capable of choice in more or less salutary vision. In the
+degree in which we lose such power of choice in vision, so that the
+spectral phenomena which are the materials of our industry present
+themselves under forms beyond our control, we become insane; and
+although for all our best work a certain degree of this insanity is
+necessary, and the first occurring conceptions are uncommanded, as in
+dreams, we have, when in health, always instantaneous power of accepting
+some, refusing others, perfecting the outlines and colors of those we
+wish to keep, and arranging them in such relations as we choose.</p>
+
+<p>304. And unquestionably the forms of the body which painters
+instinctively recognize as best, and call "beautiful," are so far under
+the command of the plastic force of voluntary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> thought, that the
+original and future authority of such a plastic force over the whole of
+creation cannot but seem to painters a direct, though not a certain
+influence; and they would at once give their adherence to the statement
+made many years since in his opening lectures in Oxford by the present
+Regius Professor of Medicine (as far as I can recollect approximately,
+in these terms)&mdash;that "it is quite as logical, and far more easy, to
+conceive of original anima as adapting itself to forms of substance,
+than of original substance as adapting to itself modes of mind."</p>
+
+<p>305. It is surely, therefore, not too much to expect of future schools
+of metaphysicians that they will direct mankind into methods of thought
+which will be at once happy, unerring, and medicinal, and therefore
+entirely wise; that they will mark the limits beyond which uniformity
+must be dangerous, and speculation vain; and that they will at no
+distant period terminate the acrimony of theologians, and the
+insolences, as well as the sorrows, of groundless faith, by showing that
+it is appointed for us, in common with the rest of the animal creation,
+to live in the midst of an universe the nature of which is as much
+better than we can believe, as it is greater than we can understand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Contemporary Review, June, 1871.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="LITERATURE" id="LITERATURE"></a>LITERATURE.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>FICTION&mdash;FAIR AND FOUL.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Nineteenth Century, June, August, Sept., Nov. 1880, and Oct. 1881.</i>)</h4>
+
+
+<h3>FAIRY STORIES.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Preface to "German Popular Stories," 1868.</i>)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span><br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FICTION_FAIR_AND_FOUL" id="FICTION_FAIR_AND_FOUL"></a>FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.</h2>
+
+
+<p>1.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>1. On the first mild&mdash;or, at least, the first bright&mdash;day of March, in
+this year, I walked through what was once a country lane, between the
+hostelry of the Half-moon at the bottom of Herne Hill, and the secluded
+College of Dulwich.</p>
+
+<p>In my young days, Croxsted Lane was a green byroad traversable for some
+distance by carts; but rarely so traversed, and, for the most part,
+little else than a narrow strip of untilled field, separated by
+blackberry hedges from the better-cared-for meadows on each side of it:
+growing more weeds, therefore, than they, and perhaps in spring a
+primrose or two&mdash;white archangel&mdash;daisies plenty, and purple thistles in
+autumn. A slender rivulet, boasting little of its brightness, for there
+are no springs at Dulwich, yet fed purely enough by the rain and morning
+dew, here trickled&mdash;there loitered&mdash;through the long grass beneath the
+hedges, and expanded itself, where it might, into moderately clear and
+deep pools, in which, under their veils of duckweed, a fresh-water shell
+or two, sundry curious little skipping shrimps, any quantity of tadpoles
+in their time, and even sometimes a tittlebat, offered themselves to my
+boyhood's pleased, and not inaccurate, observation. There, my mother and
+I used to gather the first buds of the hawthorn; and there, in after
+years, I used to walk in the summer shadows, as in a place wilder and
+sweeter than our garden, to think over any passage I wanted to make
+better than usual in <i>Modern Painters</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So, as aforesaid, on the first kindly day of this year, being thoughtful
+more than usual of those old times, I went to look again at the place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Often, both in those days, and since, I have put myself hard to it,
+vainly, to find words wherewith to tell of beautiful things; but beauty
+has been in the world since the world was made, and human language can
+make a shift, somehow, to give account of it, whereas the peculiar
+forces of devastation induced by modern city life have only entered the
+world lately; and no existing terms of language known to me are enough
+to describe the forms of filth, and modes of ruin, that varied
+themselves along the course of Croxsted Lane. The fields on each side of
+it are now mostly dug up for building, or cut through into gaunt corners
+and nooks of blind ground by the wild crossings and concurrencies of
+three railroads. Half a dozen handfuls of new cottages, with Doric
+doors, are dropped about here and there among the gashed ground: the
+lane itself, now entirely grassless, is a deep-rutted, heavy-hillocked
+cart-road, diverging gatelessly into various brickfields or pieces of
+waste; and bordered on each side by heaps of&mdash;Hades only knows
+what!&mdash;mixed dust of every unclean thing that can crumble in drought,
+and mildew of every unclean thing that can rot or rust in damp: ashes
+and rags, beer-bottles and old shoes, battered pans, smashed crockery,
+shreds of nameless clothes, door-sweepings, floor-sweepings, kitchen
+garbage, back-garden sewage, old iron, rotten timber jagged with
+out-torn nails, cigar-ends, pipe-bowls, cinders, bones, and ordure,
+indescribable; and, variously kneaded into, sticking to, or fluttering
+foully here and there over all these,&mdash;remnants broadcast, of every
+manner of newspaper, advertisement or big-lettered bill, festering and
+flaunting out their last publicity in the pits of stinking dust and
+mortal slime.</p>
+
+<p>3. The lane ends now where its prettiest windings once began; being cut
+off by a cross-road leading out of Dulwich to a minor railway station:
+and on the other side of this road, what was of old the daintiest
+intricacy of its solitude is changed into a straight, and evenly
+macadamized carriage drive between new houses of extreme respectability,
+with good attached gardens and offices&mdash;most of these tene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>ments being
+larger&mdash;all more pretentious, and many, I imagine, held at greatly
+higher rent than my father's, tenanted for twenty years at Herne Hill.
+And it became matter of curious meditation to me what must here become
+of children resembling my poor little dreamy quondam self in temper, and
+thus brought up at the same distance from London, and in the same or
+better circumstances of worldly fortune; but with only Croxsted Lane in
+its present condition for their country walk. The trimly kept road
+before their doors, such as one used to see in the fashionable suburbs
+of Cheltenham or Leamington, presents nothing to their study but gravel,
+and gas-lamp posts; the modern addition of a vermilion letter-pillar
+contributing indeed to the splendor, but scarcely to the interest of the
+scene; and a child of any sense or fancy would hastily contrive escape
+from such a barren desert of politeness, and betake itself to
+investigation, such as might be feasible, of the natural history of
+Croxsted Lane.</p>
+
+<p>4. But, for its sense or fancy, what food, or stimulus, can it find, in
+that foul causeway of its youthful pilgrimage? What would have happened
+to myself, so directed, I cannot clearly imagine. Possibly, I might have
+got interested in the old iron and wood-shavings; and become an engineer
+or a carpenter: but for the children of to-day, accustomed, from the
+instant they are out of their cradles, to the sight of this infinite
+nastiness, prevailing as a fixed condition of the universe, over the
+face of nature, and accompanying all the operations of industrious man,
+what is to be the scholastic issue? unless, indeed, the thrill of
+scientific vanity in the primary analysis of some unheard-of process of
+corruption&mdash;or the reward of microscopic research in the sight of worms
+with more legs, and acari of more curious generation than ever vivified
+the more simply smelling plasma of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>One result of such elementary education is, however, already certain;
+namely, that the pleasure which we may conceive taken by the children of
+the coming time, in the analysis of physical corruption, guides, into
+fields more dangerous and desolate, the expatiation of an imaginative
+liter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>ature: and that the reactions of moral disease upon itself, and
+the conditions of languidly monstrous character developed in an
+atmosphere of low vitality, have become the most valued material of
+modern fiction, and the most eagerly discussed texts of modern
+philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>5. The many concurrent reasons for this mischief may, I believe, be
+massed under a few general heads.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>I. There is first the hot fermentation and unwholesome secrecy of the
+population crowded into large cities, each mote in the misery lighter,
+as an individual soul, than a dead leaf, but becoming oppressive and
+infectious each to his neighbor, in the smoking mass of decay. The
+resulting modes of mental ruin and distress are continually new; and in
+a certain sense, worth study in their monstrosity: they have accordingly
+developed a corresponding science of fiction, concerned mainly with the
+description of such forms of disease, like the botany of leaf-lichens.</p>
+
+<p>In De Balzac's story of <i>Father Goriot</i>, a grocer makes a large fortune,
+of which he spends on himself as much as may keep him alive; and on his
+two daughters, all that can promote their pleasures or their pride. He
+marries them to men of rank, supplies their secret expenses, and
+provides for his favorite a separate and clandestine establishment with
+her lover. On his death-bed, he sends for this favorite daughter, who
+wishes to come, and hesitates for a quarter of an hour between doing so,
+and going to a ball at which it has been for the last month her chief
+ambition to be seen. She finally goes to the ball.</p>
+
+<p>The story is, of course, one of which the violent contrasts and spectral
+catastrophe could only take place, or be conceived, in a large city. A
+village grocer cannot make a large fortune, cannot marry his daughters
+to titled squires, and cannot die without having his children brought to
+him, if in the neighborhood, by fear of village gossip, if for no better
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>6. II. But a much more profound feeling than this mere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> curiosity of
+science in morbid phenomena is concerned in the production of the
+carefulest forms of modern fiction. The disgrace and grief resulting
+from the mere trampling pressure and electric friction of town life,
+become to the sufferers peculiarly mysterious in their undeservedness,
+and frightful in their inevitableness. The power of all surroundings
+over them for evil; the incapacity of their own minds to refuse the
+pollution, and of their own wills to oppose the weight, of the
+staggering mass that chokes and crushes them into perdition, brings
+every law of healthy existence into question with them, and every
+alleged method of help and hope into doubt. Indignation, without any
+calming faith in justice, and self-contempt, without any curative
+self-reproach, dull the intelligence, and degrade the conscience, into
+sullen incredulity of all sunshine outside the dunghill, or breeze
+beyond the wafting of its impurity; and at last a philosophy develops
+itself, partly satiric, partly consolatory, concerned only with the
+regenerative vigor of manure, and the necessary obscurities of fimetic
+Providence; showing how everybody's fault is somebody else's, how
+infection has no law, digestion no will, and profitable dirt no
+dishonor.</p>
+
+<p>And thus an elaborate and ingenious scholasticism, in what may be called
+the Divinity of Decomposition, has established itself in connection with
+the more recent forms of romance, giving them at once a complacent tone
+of clerical dignity, and an agreeable dash of heretical impudence; while
+the inculcated doctrine has the double advantage of needing no laborious
+scholarship for its foundation, and no painful self-denial for its
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>7. III. The monotony of life in the central streets of any great modern
+city, but especially in those of London, where every emotion intended to
+be derived by men from the sight of nature, or the sense of art, is
+forbidden forever, leaves the craving of the heart for a sincere, yet
+changeful, interest, to be fed from one source only. Under natural
+conditions the degree of mental excitement necessary to bodily health is
+provided by the course of the seasons, and the various skill<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> and
+fortune of agriculture. In the country every morning of the year brings
+with it a new aspect of springing or fading nature; a new duty to be
+fulfilled upon earth, and a new promise or warning in heaven. No day is
+without its innocent hope, its special prudence, its kindly gift, and
+its sublime danger; and in every process of wise husbandry, and every
+effort of contending or remedial courage, the wholesome passions, pride,
+and bodily power of the laborer are excited and exerted in happiest
+unison. The companionship of domestic, the care of serviceable, animals,
+soften and enlarge his life with lowly charities, and discipline him in
+familiar wisdoms and unboastful fortitudes; while the divine laws of
+seedtime which cannot be recalled, harvest which cannot be hastened, and
+winter in which no man can work, compel the impatiences and coveting of
+his heart into labor too submissive to be anxious, and rest too sweet to
+be wanton. What thought can enough comprehend the contrast between such
+life, and that in streets where summer and winter are only alternations
+of heat and cold; where snow never fell white, nor sunshine clear; where
+the ground is only a pavement, and the sky no more than the glass roof
+of an arcade; where the utmost power of a storm is to choke the gutters,
+and the finest magic of spring, to change mud into dust: where&mdash;chief
+and most fatal difference in state&mdash;there is no interest of occupation
+for any of the inhabitants but the routine of counter or desk within
+doors, and the effort to pass each other without collision outside; so
+that from morning to evening the only possible variation of the monotony
+of the hours, and lightening of the penalty of existence, must be some
+kind of mischief, limited, unless by more than ordinary godsend of
+fatality, to the fall of a horse, or the slitting of a pocket?</p>
+
+<p>8. I said that under these laws of inanition, the craving of the human
+heart for some kind of excitement could be supplied from <i>one</i> source
+only. It might have been thought by any other than a sternly tentative
+philosopher, that the denial of their natural food to human feelings
+would have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> provoked a reactionary desire for it; and that the
+dreariness of the street would have been gilded by dreams of pastoral
+felicity. Experience has shown the fact to be otherwise; the thoroughly
+trained Londoner can enjoy no other excitement than that to which he has
+been accustomed, but asks for <i>that</i> in continually more ardent or more
+virulent concentration; and the ultimate power of fiction to entertain
+him is by varying to his fancy the modes, and defining for his dullness
+the horrors, of Death. In the single novel of "Bleak House" there are
+nine deaths (or left for death's, in the drop scene) carefully wrought
+out or led up to, either by way of pleasing surprise, as the baby's at
+the brick-maker's, or finished in their threatenings and sufferings,
+with as much enjoyment as can be contrived in the anticipation, and as
+much pathology as can be concentrated in the description. Under the
+following varieties of method:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Under the
+following varieties of method:">
+<tr><td align='left'>One by assassination</td><td align='left'>Mr. Tulkinghorn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by starvation, with phthisis</td><td align='left'>Joe.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by chagrin</td><td align='left'>Richard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by spontaneous combustion</td><td align='left'>Mr. Krook.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by sorrow</td><td align='left'>Lady Dedlock's lover.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by remorse</td><td align='left'>Lady Dedlock.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by insanity</td><td align='left'>Miss Flite.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>One by paralysis</td><td align='left'>Sir Leicester.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Besides the baby, by fever, and a lively young Frenchwoman left to be
+hanged.</p>
+
+<p>And all this, observe, not in a tragic, adventurous, or military story,
+but merely as the further enlivenment of a narrative intended to be
+amusing; and as a properly representative average of the statistics of
+civilian mortality in the center of London.</p>
+
+<p>9. Observe further, and chiefly. It is not the mere number of deaths
+(which, if we count the odd troopers in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> last scene, is exceeded in
+"Old Mortality," and reached, within one or two, both in "Waverley" and
+"Guy Mannering") that marks the peculiar tone of the modern novel. It is
+the fact that all these deaths, but one, are of inoffensive, or at least
+in the world's estimate, respectable persons; and that they are all
+grotesquely either violent or miserable, purporting thus to illustrate
+the modern theology that the appointed destiny of a large average of our
+population is to die like rats in a drain, either by trap or poison.
+Not, indeed, that a lawyer in full practice can be usually supposed as
+faultless in the eye of Heaven as a dove or a woodcock; but it is not,
+in former divinities, thought the will of Providence that he should be
+dropped by a shot from a client behind his fire-screen, and retrieved in
+the morning by his housemaid under the chandelier. Neither is Lady
+Dedlock less reprehensible in her conduct than many women of fashion
+have been and will be: but it would not therefore have been thought
+poetically just, in old-fashioned morality, that she should be found by
+her daughter lying dead, with her face in the mud of a St. Giles's
+churchyard.</p>
+
+<p>10. In the work of the great masters death is always either heroic,
+deserved, or quiet and natural (unless their purpose be totally and
+deeply tragic, when collateral meaner death is permitted, like that of
+Polonius or Roderigo). In "Old Mortality," four of the deaths,
+Bothwell's, Ensign Grahame's, Macbriar's, and Evandale's, are
+magnificently heroic; Burley's and Oliphant's long deserved, and swift;
+the troopers', met in the discharge of their military duty, and the old
+miser's as gentle as the passing of a cloud, and almost beautiful in its
+last words of&mdash;now unselfish&mdash;care.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>"Ailie" (he aye ca'd me Ailie, we were auld acquaintance), "Ailie, take
+ye care and hand the gear weel thegither; for the name of Morton of
+Milnwood's gane out like the last sough of an auld sang." And sae he
+fell out o' ae dwam into another, and ne'er spak a word mair, unless it
+something we you'dna mak out, about a dipped candle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> being gude eneugh
+to see to dee wi'. He cou'd ne'er bide to see a molded ane, and there
+was ane, by ill luck, on the table.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>In "Guy Mannering," the murder, though unpremeditated, of a single
+person, (himself not entirely innocent, but at least by heartlessness in
+a cruel function earning his fate,) is avenged to the uttermost on all
+the men conscious of the crime; Mr. Bertram's death, like that of his
+wife, brief in pain, and each told in the space of half a dozen lines;
+and that of the heroine of the tale, self-devoted, heroic in the
+highest, and happy.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is it ever to be forgotten, in the comparison of Scott's with
+inferior work, that his own splendid powers were, even in early life,
+tainted, and in his latter years destroyed, by modern conditions of
+commercial excitement, then first, but rapidly, developing themselves.
+There are parts even in his best novels colored to meet tastes which he
+despised; and many pages written in his later ones to lengthen his
+article for the indiscriminate market.</p>
+
+<p>11. But there was one weakness of which his healthy mind remained
+incapable to the last. In modern stories prepared for more refined or
+fastidious audiences than those of Dickens, the funereal excitement is
+obtained, for the most part, not by the infliction of violent or
+disgusting death; but in the suspense, the pathos, and the more or less
+by all felt, and recognized, mortal phenomena of the sick-room. The
+temptation, to weak writers, of this order of subject is especially
+great, because the study of it from the living&mdash;or dying&mdash;model is so
+easy, and to many has been the most impressive part of their own
+personal experience; while, if the description be given even with
+mediocre accuracy, a very large section of readers will admire its
+truth, and cherish its melancholy. Few authors of second or third rate
+genius can either record or invent a probable conversation in ordinary
+life; but few, on the other hand, are so destitute of observant faculty
+as to be unable to chronicle the broken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> syllables and languid movements
+of an invalid. The easily rendered, and too surely recognized, image of
+familiar suffering is felt at once to be real where all else had been
+false; and the historian of the gestures of fever and words of delirium
+can count on the applause of a gratified audience as surely as the
+dramatist who introduces on the stage of his flagging action a carriage
+that can be driven or a fountain that will flow. But the masters of
+strong imagination disdain such work, and those of deep sensibility
+shrink from it.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Only under conditions of personal weakness,
+presently to be noted, would Scott comply with the cravings of his lower
+audience in scenes of terror like the death of Front-de-B&oelig;uf. But he
+never once withdrew the sacred curtain of the sick-chamber, nor
+permitted the disgrace of wanton tears round the humiliation of
+strength, or the wreck of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>12. IV. No exception to this law of reverence will be found in the
+scenes in C&oelig;ur de Lion's illness introductory to the principal
+incident in the "Talisman." An inferior writer would have made the king
+charge in imagination at the head of his chivalry, or wander in dreams
+by the brooks of Aquitaine; but Scott allows us to learn no more
+startling symptoms of the king's malady than that he was restless and
+impatient, and could not wear his armor. Nor is any bodily weakness, or
+crisis of danger, permitted to disturb for an instant the royalty of
+intelligence and heart in which he examines, trusts and obeys the
+physician whom his attendants fear.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the choice of the main subject in this story and its companion&mdash;the
+trial, to a point of utter torture, of knightly faith, and several
+passages in the conduct of both, more especially the exaggerated scenes
+in the House of Baldring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>ham, and hermitage of Engedi, are signs of the
+gradual decline in force of intellect and soul which those who love
+Scott best have done him the worst injustice in their endeavors to
+disguise or deny. The mean anxieties, moral humiliations, and
+mercilessly demanded brain-toil, which killed him, show their sepulchral
+grasp for many and many a year before their final victory; and the
+states of more or less dulled, distorted, and polluted imagination which
+culminate in "Castle Dangerous" cast a Stygian hue over "St. Ronan's
+Well," "The Fair Maid of Perth," and "Anne of Geierstein," which lowers
+them, the first altogether, the other two at frequent intervals, into
+fellowship with the normal disease which festers throughout the whole
+body of our lower fictitious literature.</p>
+
+<p>13. Fictitious! I use the ambiguous word deliberately; for it is
+impossible to distinguish in these tales of the prison-house how far
+their vice and gloom are thrown into their manufacture only to meet a
+vile demand, and how far they are an integral condition of thought in
+the minds of men trained from their youth up in the knowledge of
+Londinian and Parisian misery. The speciality of the plague is a delight
+in the exposition of the relations between guilt and decrepitude; and I
+call the results of it literature "of the prison-house," because the
+thwarted habits of body and mind, which are the punishment of reckless
+crowding in cities, become, in the issue of that punishment, frightful
+subjects of exclusive interest to themselves; and the art of fiction in
+which they finally delight is only the more studied arrangement and
+illustration, by colored fire-lights, of the daily bulletins of their
+own wretchedness, in the prison calendar, the police news, and the
+hospital report.</p>
+
+<p>14. The reader will perhaps be surprised at my separating the greatest
+work of Dickens, "Oliver Twist," with honor, from the loathsome mass to
+which it typically belongs. That book is an earnest and uncaricatured
+record of states of criminal life, written with didactic purpose, full
+of the gravest instruction, nor destitute of pathetic studies of noble
+passion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> Even the "Mysteries of Paris" and Gaboriau's "Crime d'Orcival"
+are raised, by their definiteness of historical intention and
+forewarning anxiety, far above the level of their order, and may be
+accepted as photographic evidence of an otherwise incredible
+civilization, corrupted in the infernal fact of it, down to the genesis
+of such figures as the Vicomte d'Orcival, the Stabber,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> the Skeleton,
+and the She-wolf. But the effectual head of the whole cretinous school
+is the renowned novel in which the hunchbacked lover watches the
+execution of his mistress from the tower of Notre-Dame; and its strength
+passes gradually away into the anatomical preparations, for the general
+market, of novels like "Poor Miss Finch," in which the heroine is blind,
+the hero epileptic, and the obnoxious brother is found dead with his
+hands dropped off, in the Arctic regions.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. This literature of the Prison-house, understanding by the word not
+only the cell of Newgate, but also and even more definitely the cell of
+the H&ocirc;tel-Dieu, the H&ocirc;pital des Fous, and the grated corridor with the
+dripping slabs of the Morgue, having its central root thus in the Ile de
+Paris&mdash;or historically and pre-eminently the "Cit&eacute; de Paris"&mdash;is,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> when
+understood deeply, the precise counter-corruption of the religion of the
+Sainte Chapelle, just as the worst forms of bodily and mental ruin are
+the corruption of love. I have therefore called it "Fiction m&eacute;croyante,"
+with literal accuracy and precision: according to the explanation of the
+word, which the reader may find in any good French dic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>tionary,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and
+round its Arctic pole in the Morgue, he may gather into one Caina of
+gelid putrescence the entire product of modern infidel imagination,
+amusing itself with destruction of the body, and busying itself with
+aberration of the mind.</p>
+
+<p>16. Aberration, palsy, or plague, observe, as distinguished from normal
+evil, just as the venom of rabies or cholera differs from that of a wasp
+or a viper. The life of the insect and serpent deserves, or at least
+permits, our thoughts; not so the stages of agony in the fury-driven
+hound. There is some excuse, indeed, for the pathologic labor of the
+modern novelist in the fact that he cannot easily, in a city population,
+find a healthy mind to vivisect: but the greater part of such amateur
+surgery is the struggle, in an epoch of wild literary competition, to
+obtain novelty of material. The varieties of aspect and color in healthy
+fruit, be it sweet or sour, may be within certain limits described
+exhaustively. Not so the blotches of its conceivable blight: and while
+the symmetries of integral human character can only be traced by
+harmonious and tender skill, like the branches of a living tree, the
+faults and gaps of one gnawed away by corroding accident can be shuffled
+into senseless change like the wards of a Chubb lock.</p>
+
+<p>17. V. It is needless to insist on the vast field for this dice-cast or
+card-dealt calamity which opens itself in the ignorance, money-interest,
+and mean passion, of city marriage. Peasants know each other as
+children&mdash;meet, as they grow up in testing labor; and if a stout
+farmer's son marries a handless girl, it is his own fault. Also in the
+patrician families of the field, the young people know what they are
+doing, and marry a neighboring estate, or a covetable title, with some
+conception of the responsibilities they undertake. But even among these,
+their season in the con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>fused metropolis creates licentious and
+fortuitous temptation before unknown; and in the lower middle orders, an
+entirely new kingdom of discomfort and disgrace has been preached to
+them in the doctrines of unbridled pleasure which are merely an apology
+for their peculiar forms of ill-breeding. It is quite curious how often
+the catastrophe, or the leading interest, of a modern novel, turns upon
+the want, both in maid and bachelor, of the common self-command which
+was taught to their grandmothers and grandfathers as the first element
+of ordinarily decent behavior. Rashly inquiring the other day the plot
+of a modern story<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> from a female friend, I elicited, after some
+hesitation, that it hinged mainly on the young people's "forgetting
+themselves in a boat;" and I perceive it to be accepted as nearly an
+axiom in the code of modern civic chivalry that the strength of amiable
+sentiment is proved by our incapacity on proper occasions to express,
+and on improper ones to control it. The pride of a gentleman of the old
+school used to be in his power of saying what he meant, and being silent
+when he ought (not to speak of the higher nobleness which bestowed love
+where it was honorable, and reverence where it was due); but the
+automatic amours and involuntary proposals of recent romance acknowledge
+little further law of morality than the instinct of an insect, or the
+effervescence of a chemical mixture.</p>
+
+<p>18. There is a pretty little story of Alfred de Musset's&mdash;"La Mouche,"
+which, if the reader cares to glance at it, will save me further trouble
+in explaining the disciplinarian authority of mere old-fashioned
+politeness, as in some sort protective of higher things. It describes,
+with much grace and precision, a state of society by no means
+pre-eminently virtuous, or enthusiastically heroic; in which many people
+do extremely wrong, and none sublimely right. But as there are heights
+of which the achievement is unattempted, there are abysses to which fall
+is barred; neither accident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> nor temptation will make any of the
+principal personages swerve from an adopted resolution, or violate an
+accepted principle of honor; people are expected as a matter of course
+to speak with propriety on occasion, and to wait with patience when they
+are bid: those who do wrong, admit it; those who do right don't boast of
+it; everybody knows his own mind, and everybody has good manners.</p>
+
+<p>19. Nor must it be forgotten that in the worst days of the
+self-indulgence which destroyed the aristocracies of Europe, their
+vices, however licentious, were never, in the fatal modern sense,
+"unprincipled." The vainest believed in virtue; the vilest respected it.
+"Chaque chose avait son nom,"<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and the severest of English moralists
+recognizes the accurate wit, the lofty intellect, and the unfretted
+benevolence, which redeemed from vitiated surroundings the circle of
+d'Alembert and Marmontel.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have said, with too slight praise, that the vainest, in those days,
+"believed" in virtue. Beautiful and heroic examples of it were always
+before them; nor was it without the secret significance attaching to
+what may seem the least accidents in the work of a master, that Scott
+gave to both his heroines of the age of revolution in England the name
+of the queen of the highest order of English chivalry.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>20. It is to say little for the types of youth and maid which alone
+Scott felt it a joy to imagine, or thought it honorable to portray, that
+they act and feel in a sphere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> where they are never for an instant
+liable to any of the weaknesses which disturb the calm, or shake the
+resolution, of chastity and courage in a modern novel. Scott lived in a
+country and time, when, from highest to lowest, but chiefly in that
+dignified and nobly severe<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> middle class to which he himself
+belonged, a habit of serene and stainless thought was as natural to the
+people as their mountain air. Women like Rose Bradwardine and Ailie
+Dinmont were the grace and guard of almost every household (God be
+praised that the race of them is not yet extinct, for all that Mall or
+Boulevard can do), and it has perhaps escaped the notice of even
+attentive readers that the comparatively uninteresting character of Sir
+Walter's heroes had always been studied among a class of youths who were
+simply incapable of doing anything seriously wrong; and could only be
+embarrassed by the consequences of their levity or imprudence.</p>
+
+<p>21. But there is another difference in the woof of a Waverley novel from
+the cobweb of a modern one, which depends on Scott's larger view of
+human life. Marriage is by no means, in his conception of man and woman,
+the most important business of their existence;<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> nor love the only
+reward to be proposed to their virtue or exertion. It is not in his
+reading of the laws of Providence a necessity that virtue should, either
+by love or any other external blessing, be rewarded at all;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> and
+marriage is in all cases thought of as a constituent of the happiness of
+life, but not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> as its only interest, still less its only aim. And upon
+analyzing with some care the motives of his principal stories, we shall
+often find that the love in them is merely a light by which the sterner
+features of character are to be irradiated, and that the marriage of the
+hero is as subordinate to the main bent of the story as Henry the
+Fifth's courtship of Katherine is to the battle of Agincourt. Nay, the
+fortunes of the person who is nominally the subject of the tale are
+often little more than a background on which grander figures are to be
+drawn, and deeper fates forthshadowed. The judgments between the faith
+and chivalry of Scotland at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge owe little of
+their interest in the mind of a sensible reader to the fact that the
+captain of the Popinjay is carried a prisoner to one battle, and returns
+a prisoner from the other: and Scott himself, while he watches the white
+sail that bears Queen Mary for the last time from her native land, very
+nearly forgets to finish his novel, or to tell us&mdash;and with small sense
+of any consolation to be had out of that minor circumstance,&mdash;that
+"Roland and Catherine were united, spite of their differing faiths."</p>
+
+<p>22. Neither let it be thought for an instant that the slight, and
+sometimes scornful, glance with which Scott passes over scenes which a
+novelist of our own day would have analyzed with the airs of a
+philosopher, and painted with the curiosity of a gossip, indicates any
+absence in his heart of sympathy with the great and sacred elements of
+personal happiness. An era like ours, which has with diligence and
+ostentation swept its heart clear of all the passions once known as
+loyalty, patriotism, and piety, necessarily magnifies the apparent force
+of the one remaining sentiment which sighs through the barren chambers,
+or clings inextricably round the chasms of ruin; nor can it but regard
+with awe the unconquerable spirit which still tempts or betrays the
+sagacities of selfishness into error or frenzy which is believed to be
+love.</p>
+
+<p>That Scott was never himself, in the sense of the phrase<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> as employed by
+lovers of the Parisian school, "ivre d'amour," may be admitted without
+prejudice to his sensibility,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> and that he never knew "l'amor che
+move 'l sol e l'altre stelle," was the chief, though unrecognized,
+calamity of his deeply checkered life. But the reader of honor and
+feeling will not therefore suppose that the love which Miss Vernon
+sacrifices, stooping for an instant from her horse, is of less noble
+stamp, or less enduring faith, than that which troubles and degrades the
+whole existence of Consuelo; or that the affection of Jeanie Deans for
+the companion of her childhood, drawn like a field of soft blue heaven
+beyond the cloudy wrack of her sorrow, is less fully in possession of
+her soul than the hesitating and self-reproachful impulses under which a
+modern heroine forgets herself in a boat, or compromises herself in the
+cool of the evening.</p>
+
+<p>23. I do not wish to return over the waste ground we have traversed,
+comparing, point by point, Scott's manner with those of Bermondsey and
+the Faubourgs; but it may be, perhaps, interesting at this moment to
+examine, with illustration from those Waverley novels which have so
+lately <i>re</i>tracted the attention of a fair and gentle public,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> the
+universal conditions of "style," rightly so called, which are in all
+ages, and above all local currents or wavering tides of temporary
+manners, pillars of what is forever strong, and models of what is
+forever fair.</p>
+
+<p>But I must first define, and that within strict horizon, the works of
+Scott, in which his perfect mind may be known, and his chosen ways
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>His great works of prose fiction, excepting only the first half-volume
+of "Waverley," were all written in twelve years, 1814-26 (of his own age
+forty-three to fifty-five), the actual time employed in their
+composition being not more than a couple of months out of each year; and
+during that time only the morning hours and spare minutes during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+professional day. "Though the first volume of 'Waverley' was begun long
+ago, and actually lost for a time, yet the other two were begun and
+finished between the 4th of June and the 1st of July, during all which I
+attended my duty in court, and proceeded without loss of time or
+hindrance of business."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>Few of the maxims for the enforcement of which, in "Modern Painters,"
+long ago, I got the general character of a lover of paradox, are more
+singular, or more sure, than the statement, apparently so encouraging to
+the idle, that if a great thing can be done at all, it can be done
+easily. But it is that kind of ease with which a tree blossoms after
+long years of gathered strength, and all Scott's great writings were the
+recreations of a mind confirmed in dutiful labor, and rich with organic
+gathering of boundless resource.</p>
+
+<p>Omitting from our count the two minor and ill-finished sketches of the
+"Black Dwarf" and "Legend of Montrose," and, for a reason presently to
+be noticed, the unhappy "St. Ronan's," the memorable romances of Scott
+are eighteen, falling into three distinct groups, containing six each.</p>
+
+<p>24. The first group is distinguished from the other two by characters of
+strength and felicity which never more appeared after Scott was struck
+down by his terrific illness in 1819. It includes "Waverley," "Guy
+Mannering," "The Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old Mortality," and "The Heart
+of Midlothian."</p>
+
+<p>The composition of these occupied the mornings of his happiest days,
+between the ages of forty-three and forty-eight. On the 8th of April,
+1819 (he was forty-eight on the preceding 15th of August), he began for
+the first time to dictate&mdash;being unable for the exertion of
+writing&mdash;"The Bride of Lammermuir," "the affectionate Laidlaw beseeching
+him to stop dictating when his audible suffering filled every pause.
+'Nay, Willie,' he answered, 'only see that the doors are fast. I would
+fain keep all the cry as well as all the wool to ourselves; but as for
+giving over work, that can only be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> when I am in woolen.'"<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> From this
+time forward the brightness of joy and sincerity of inevitable humor,
+which perfected the imagery of the earlier novels, are wholly absent,
+except in the two short intervals of health unaccountably restored, in
+which he wrote "Redgauntlet" and "Nigel."</p>
+
+<p>It is strange, but only a part of the general simplicity of Scott's
+genius, that these revivals of earlier power were unconscious, and that
+the time of extreme weakness in which he wrote "St. Ronan's Well," was
+that in which he first asserted his own restoration.</p>
+
+<p>25. It is also a deeply interesting characteristic of his noble nature
+that he never gains anything by sickness; the whole man breathes or
+faints as one creature: the ache that stiffens a limb chills his heart,
+and every pang of his stomach paralyzes the brain. It is not so with
+inferior minds, in the workings of which it is often impossible to
+distinguish native from narcotic fancy, and the throbs of conscience
+from those of indigestion. Whether in exaltation or languor, the colors
+of mind are always morbid which gleam on the sea for the "Ancient
+Mariner," and through the casements on "St. Agnes' Eve"; but Scott is at
+once blinded and stultified by sickness; never has a fit of the cramp
+without spoiling a chapter, and is perhaps the only author of vivid
+imagination who never wrote a foolish word but when he was ill.</p>
+
+<p>It remains only to be noticed on this point that any strong natural
+excitement, affecting the deeper springs of his heart, would at once
+restore his intellectual powers to their fullness, and that, far towards
+their sunset: but that the strong will on which he prided himself,
+though it could trample upon pain, silence grief, and compel industry,
+never could warm his imagination, or clear the judgment in his darker
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that this power of the heart over the intellect is common to
+all great men: but what the special character of emotion was, that alone
+could lift Scott above the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> of death, I am about to ask the
+reader, in a little while, to observe with joyful care.</p>
+
+<p>26. The first series of romances then, above-named, are all that exhibit
+the emphasis of his unharmed faculties. The second group, composed in
+the three years subsequent to illness all but mortal, bear every one of
+them more or less the seal of it.</p>
+
+<p>They consist of the "Bride of Lammermuir," "Ivanhoe," the "Monastery,"
+the "Abbot," "Kenilworth," and the "Pirate."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The marks of broken
+health on all these are essentially twofold&mdash;prevailing melancholy, and
+fantastic improbability. Three of the tales are agonizingly tragic, the
+"Abbot" scarcely less so in its main event, and "Ivanhoe" deeply wounded
+through all its bright panoply; while even in that most powerful of the
+series the impossible archeries and ax-strokes, the incredibly opportune
+appearances of Locksley, the death of Ulrica, and the resuscitation of
+Athelstane, are partly boyish, partly feverish. Caleb in the "Bride,"
+Triptolemus and Halcro in the "Pirate," are all laborious, and the first
+incongruous; half a volume of the "Abbot" is spent in extremely dull
+detail of Roland's relations with his fellow-servants and his mistress,
+which have nothing whatever to do with the future story; and the lady of
+Avenel herself disappears after the first volume, "like a snaw-wreath
+when it's thaw, Jeanie." The public has for itself pronounced on the
+"Monastery," though as much too harshly as it has foolishly praised the
+horrors of "Ravenswood" and the nonsense of "Ivanhoe"; because the
+modern public finds in the torture and adventure of these, the kind of
+excitement which it seeks at an opera, while it has no sympathy whatever
+with the pastoral happiness of Glendearg, or with the lingering
+simplicities of superstition which give historical likelihood to the
+legend of the White Lady.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But both this despised tale and its sequel have Scott's heart in them.
+The first was begun to refresh himself in the intervals of artificial
+labor on "Ivanhoe." "It was a relief," he said, "to interlay the scenery
+most familiar to me<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> with the strange world for which I had to draw
+so much on imagination." Through all the closing scenes of the second he
+is raised to his own true level by his love for the queen. And within
+the code of Scott's work to which I am about to appeal for illustration
+of his essential powers, I accept the "Monastery" and "Abbot," and
+reject from it the remaining four of this group.</p>
+
+<p>27. The last series contains two quite noble ones, "Redgauntlet" and
+"Nigel"; two of very high value, "Durward" and "Woodstock"; the slovenly
+and diffuse "Peveril," written for the trade;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> the sickly "Tales of
+the Crusaders," and the entirely broken and diseased "St. Ronan's Well."
+This last I throw out of count altogether, and of the rest, accept only
+the four first named as sound work; so that the list of the novels in
+which I propose to examine his methods and ideal standards, reduces
+itself to these following twelve (named in order of production):
+"Waverley," "Guy Mannering," the "Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old
+Mortality," the "Heart of Midlothian," the "Monastery," the "Abbot,"
+"Redgauntlet," the "For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>tunes of Nigel," "Quentin Durward," and
+"Woodstock."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>28. It is, however, too late to enter on my subject in this article,
+which I may fitly close by pointing out some of the merely verbal
+characteristics of his style, illustrative in little ways of the
+questions we have been examining, and chiefly of the one which may be
+most embarrassing to many readers, the difference, namely, between
+character and disease.</p>
+
+<p>One quite distinctive charm in the Waverleys is their modified use of
+the Scottish dialect; but it has not generally been observed, either by
+their imitators, or the authors of different taste who have written for
+a later public, that there is a difference between the dialect of a
+language, and its corruption.</p>
+
+<p>A dialect is formed in any district where there are persons of
+intelligence enough to use the language itself in all its fineness and
+force, but under the particular conditions of life, climate, and temper,
+which introduce words peculiar to the scenery, forms of word and idioms
+of sentence peculiar to the race, and pronunciations indicative of their
+character and disposition.</p>
+
+<p>Thus "burn" (of a streamlet) is a word possible only in a country where
+there are brightly running waters, "lassie," a word possible only where
+girls are as free as the rivulets, and "auld," a form of the southern
+"old," adopted by a race of finer musical ear than the English.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, mere deteriorations, or coarse, stridulent, and, in the
+ordinary sense of the phrase, "broad" forms of utterance, are not
+dialects at all, having nothing dialectic in them; and all phrases
+developed in states of rude employment, and restricted intercourse, are
+injurious to the tone and narrowing to the power of the language they
+affect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> Mere breadth of accent does not spoil a dialect as long as the
+speakers are men of varied idea and good intelligence; but the moment
+the life is contracted by mining, millwork, or any oppressive and
+monotonous labor, the accents and phrases become debased. It is part of
+the popular folly of the day to find pleasure in trying to write and
+spell these abortive, crippled, and more or less brutal forms of human
+speech.</p>
+
+<p>29. Abortive, crippled, or brutal, are however not necessarily
+"corrupted" dialects. Corrupt language is that gathered by ignorance,
+invented by vice, misused by insensibility, or minced and mouthed by
+affectation, especially in the attempt to deal with words of which only
+half the meaning is understood or half the sound heard. Mrs. Gamp's
+"aperiently so"&mdash;and the "underminded" with primal sense of undermine,
+of&mdash;I forget which gossip, in the "Mill on the Floss," are master-and
+mistress-pieces in this latter kind. Mrs. Malaprop's "allegories on the
+banks of the Nile" are in somewhat higher order of mistake: Mrs. Tabitha
+Bramble's ignorance is vulgarized by her selfishness, and Winifred
+Jenkins' by her conceit. The "wot" of Noah Claypole, and the other
+degradations of cockneyism (Sam Weller and his father are in nothing
+more admirable than in the power of heart and sense that can purify even
+these); the "trewth" of Mr. Chadband, and "natur" of Mr. Squeers, are
+examples of the corruption of words by insensibility: the use of the
+word "bloody" in modern low English is a deeper corruption, not altering
+the form of the word, but defiling the thought in it.</p>
+
+<p>Thus much being understood, I shall proceed to examine thoroughly a
+fragment of Scott's Lowland Scottish dialect; not choosing it of the
+most beautiful kind; on the contrary, it shall be a piece reaching as
+low down as he ever allows Scotch to go&mdash;it is perhaps the only unfair
+patriotism in him, that if ever he wants a word or two of really
+villainous slang, he gives it in English or Dutch&mdash;not Scotch.</p>
+
+<p>I had intended in the close of this paper to analyze and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> compare the
+characters of Andrew Fairservice and Richie Moniplies, for examples, the
+former of innate evil, unaffected by external influences, and
+undiseased, but distinct from natural goodness as a nettle is distinct
+from balm or lavender; and the latter of innate goodness, contracted and
+pinched by circumstance, but still undiseased, as an oak-leaf crisped by
+frost, not by the worm. This, with much else in my mind, I must put off;
+but the careful study of one sentence of Andrew's will give us a good
+deal to think of.</p>
+
+<p>30. I take his account of the rescue of Glasgow Cathedral at the time of
+the Reformation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ah! it's a brave kirk&mdash;nane o' yere whigmaleeries an curliewurlies
+and opensteek hems about it&mdash;a' solid, weel-jointed mason-wark,
+that will stand as lang as the warld, keep hands and gunpowther aff
+it. It had amaist a douncome lang syne at the Reformation, when
+they pu'd doun the kirks of St. Andrews and Perth, and thereawa',
+to cleanse them o' Papery, and idolatry, and image-worship, and
+surplices, and sic-like rags o' the muckle hure that sitteth on
+seven hills, as if ane wasna braid eneugh for her auld hinder end.
+Sae the commons o' Renfrew, and o' the Barony, and the Gorbals, and
+a' about, they behoved to come into Glasgow ae fair morning, to try
+their hand on purging the High Kirk o' Popish nicknackets. But the
+townsmen o' Glasgow, they were feared their auld edifice might slip
+the girths in gaun through siccan rough physic, sae they rang the
+common bell, and assembled the train-bands wi' took o' drum. By
+good luck, the worthy James Rabat was Dean o' Guild that year&mdash;(and
+a gude mason he was himsell, made him the keener to keep up the
+auld bigging), and the trades assembled, and offered downright
+battle to the commons, rather than their kirk should coup the
+crans, as others had done elsewhere. It wasna for luve o'
+Paperie&mdash;na, na!&mdash;nane could ever say that o' the trades o'
+Glasgow&mdash;Sae they sune came to an agreement to take a' the
+idolatrous statues of sants (sorrow be on them!) out o' their
+neuks&mdash;And sae<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> the bits o' stane idols were broken in pieces by
+Scripture warrant, and flung into the Molendinar burn, and the auld
+kirk stood as crouse as a cat when the flaes are kaimed aff her,
+and a'body was alike pleased. And I hae heard wise folk say, that
+if the same had been done in ilka kirk in Scotland, the Reform wad
+just hae been as pure as it is e'en now, and we wad hae mair
+Christianlike kirks; for I hae been sae lang in England, that
+naething will drived out o' my head, that the dog-kennel at
+Osbaldistone-Hall is better than mony a house o' God in Scotland.</p></div>
+
+<p>31. Now this sentence is in the first place a piece of Scottish history
+of quite inestimable and concentrated value. Andrew's temperament is the
+type of a vast class of Scottish&mdash;shall we call it
+"<i>sow</i>-thistlian"&mdash;mind, which necessarily takes the view of either Pope
+or saint that the thistle in Lebanon took of the cedar or lilies in
+Lebanon; and the entire force of the passions which, in the Scottish
+revolution, foretold and forearmed the French one, is told in this one
+paragraph; the coarseness of it, observe, being admitted, not for the
+sake of the laugh, any more than an onion in broth merely for its
+flavor, but for the meat of it; the inherent constancy of that
+coarseness being a fact in this order of mind, and an essential part of
+the history to be told.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, observe that this speech, in the religious passion of it, such
+as there may be, is entirely sincere. Andrew is a thief, a liar, a
+coward, and, in the Fair service from which he takes his name, a
+hypocrite; but in the form of prejudice, which is all that his mind is
+capable of in the place of religion, he is entirely sincere. He does not
+in the least pretend detestation of image worship to please his master,
+or anyone else; he honestly scorns the "carnal morality<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> as dowd and
+fusionless as rue-leaves at Yule" of the sermon in the upper cathedral;
+and when wrapt in critical attention to the "real savor o' doctrine" in
+the crypt,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> so completely forgets the hypocrisy of his fair service as
+to return his master's attempt to disturb him with hard punches of the
+elbow.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly. He is a man of no mean sagacity, quite up to the average
+standard of Scottish common sense, not a low one; and, though incapable
+of understanding any manner of lofty thought or passion, is a shrewd
+measurer of weaknesses, and not without a spark or two of kindly
+feeling. See first his sketch of his master's character to Mr.
+Hammorgaw, beginning: "He's no a'thegither sae void o' sense, neither";
+and then the close of the dialogue: "But the lad's no a bad lad after
+a', and he needs some careful body to look after him."</p>
+
+<p>Fourthly. He is a good workman; knows his own business well, and can
+judge of other craft, if sound, or otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>All these four qualities of him must be known before we can understand
+this single speech. Keeping them in mind, I take it up, word by word.</p>
+
+<p>32. You observe, in the outset, Scott makes no attempt whatever to
+indicate accents or modes of pronunciation by changed spelling, unless
+the word becomes a quite definitely new, and securely writable one. The
+Scottish way of pronouncing "James," for instance, is entirely peculiar,
+and extremely pleasant to the ear. But it is so, just because it does
+<i>not</i> change the word into Jeems, nor into Jims, nor into Jawms. A
+modern writer of dialects would think it amusing to use one or other of
+these ugly spellings. But Scott writes the name in pure English, knowing
+that a Scots reader will speak it rightly, and an English one be wise in
+letting it alone. On the other hand he writes "weel" for "well," because
+that word is complete in its change, and may be very closely expressed
+by the double <i>e</i>. The ambiguous <i>u</i>'s in "gude" and "sune" are
+admitted, because far liker the sound than the double <i>o</i> would be, and
+that in "hure," for grace' sake, to soften the word; so also "flaes" for
+"fleas." "Mony" for "many" is again positively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> right in sound, and
+"neuk" differs from our "nook" in sense, and is not the same word at
+all, as we shall presently see.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, observe, not a word is corrupted in any indecent haste,
+slowness, slovenliness, or incapacity of pronunciation. There is no
+lisping, drawling, slobbering, or snuffling: the speech is as clear as a
+bell and as keen as an arrow: and its elisions and contractions are
+either melodious, ("na," for "not,"&mdash;"pu'd," for "pulled,") or as normal
+as in a Latin verse. The long words are delivered without the slightest
+bungling; and "bigging" finished to its last <i>g</i>.</p>
+
+<p>33. I take the important words now in their places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brave.</i> The old English sense of the word in "to go brave," retained,
+expressing Andrew's sincere and respectful admiration. Had he meant to
+insinuate a hint of the church's being too fine, he would have said
+"braw."</p>
+
+<p><i>Kirk.</i> This is of course just as pure and unprovincial a word as
+"Kirche," or "&eacute;glise."</p>
+
+<p><i>Whigmaleerie.</i> I cannot get at the root of this word, but it is one
+showing that the speaker is not bound by classic rules, but will use any
+syllables that will enrich his meaning. "Nipperty-tipperty" (of his
+master's "poetry-nonsense") is another word of the same class.
+"Curliewurlie" is of course just as pure as Shakespeare's "Hurlyburly."
+But see first suggestion of the idea to Scott at Blair-Adam (L. vi.
+264).</p>
+
+<p><i>Opensteek hems.</i> More description, or better, of the later Gothic
+cannot be put into four syllables. "Steek," melodious for stitch, has a
+combined sense of closing or fastening. And note that the later Gothic
+being precisely what Scott knew best (in Melrose) and liked best, it is,
+here as elsewhere, quite as much himself<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> as Frank, that he is
+laughing at, when he laughs <i>with</i> Andrew, whose "opensteek hems" are
+only a ruder metaphor for his own "willow-wreaths changed to stone."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gunpowther.</i> "-Ther" is a lingering vestige of the French "-dre."</p>
+
+<p><i>Syne.</i> One of the melodious and mysterious Scottish words which have
+partly the sound of wind and stream in them, and partly the range of
+softened idea which is like a distance of blue hills over border land
+("far in the distant Cheviot's blue"). Perhaps even the least
+sympathetic "Englisher" might recognize this, if he heard "Old Long
+Since" vocally substituted for the Scottish words to the air. I do not
+know the root; but the word's proper meaning is not "since," but before
+or after an interval of some duration, "as weel sune as syne." "But
+first on Sawnie gies a ca', Syne, bauldly in she enters."</p>
+
+<p><i>Behoved</i> (<i>to come</i>). A rich word, with peculiar idiom, always used
+more or less ironically of anything done under a partly mistaken and
+partly pretended notion of duty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Siccan.</i> Far prettier, and fuller in meaning than "such." It contains
+an added sense of wonder; and means properly "so great" or "so unusual."</p>
+
+<p><i>Took</i> (<i>o' drum</i>). Classical "tuck" from Italian "toccata," the
+preluding "touch" or flourish, on any instrument (but see Johnson under
+word "tucket," quoting "Othello"). The deeper Scottish vowels are used
+here to mark the deeper sound of the bass drum, as in more solemn
+warning.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bigging.</i> The only word in all the sentence of which the Scottish form
+is less melodious than the English, "and what for no," seeing that
+Scottish architecture is mostly little beyond Bessie Bell's and Mary
+Gray's? "They biggit a bow're by yon burnside, and theekit it ow're wi'
+rashes." But it is pure Anglo-Saxon in roots; see glossary to
+Fairbairn's edition of the Douglas "Virgil," 1710.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coup.</i> Another of the much-embracing words; short for "upset," but with
+a sense of awkwardness as the inherent cause of fall; compare Richie
+Moniplies (also for sense of "behoved"): "Ae auld hirplin deevil of a
+potter behoved just to step in my way, and offer me a pig (earthen
+pot&mdash;etym. dub.), as he said 'just to put my Scotch ointment in';<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> and I
+gave him a push, as but natural, and the tottering deevil coupit owre
+amang his own pigs, and damaged a score of them." So also Dandie Dinmont
+in the postchaise: "'Od! I hope they'll no coup us."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Crans.</i> Idiomatic; root unknown to me, but it means in this use,
+fall total, and without recovery.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Molendinar.</i> From "molendinum," the grinding-place. I do not know if
+actually the local name,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> or Scott's invention. Compare Sir Piercie's
+"Molinaras." But at all events used here with by-sense of degradation of
+the formerly idle saints to grind at the mill.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crouse.</i> Courageous, softened with a sense of comfort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ilka.</i> Again a word with azure distance, including the whole sense of
+"each" and "every." The reader must carefully and reverently distinguish
+these comprehensive words, which gather two or more perfectly understood
+meanings into one <i>chord</i> of meaning, and are harmonies more than words,
+from the above-noted blunders between two half-hit meanings, struck as a
+bad piano-player strikes the edge of another note. In English we have
+fewer of these combined thoughts; so that Shakespeare rather plays with
+the distinct lights of his words, than melts them into one. So again
+Bishop Douglas spells, and doubtless spoke, the word "rose,"
+differently, according to his purpose; if as the chief or governing
+ruler of flowers, "rois," but if only in her own beauty, rose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Christianlike.</i> The sense of the decency and order proper to
+Christianity is stronger in Scotland than in any other country, and the
+word "Christian" more distinctly opposed to "beast." Hence the
+back-handed cut at the English for their over-pious care of dogs.</p>
+
+<p>34. I am a little surprised myself at the length to which this
+examination of one small piece of Sir Walter's first-rate work has
+carried us, but here I must end for this time, trusting, if the Editor
+of the <i>Nineteenth Century</i> permit me, yet to trespass, perhaps more
+than once, on his readers' patience; but, at all events, to examine in a
+following paper the technical characteristics of Scott's own style, both
+in prose and verse, together with Byron's, as opposed to our fashionably
+recent dialects and rhythms; the essential virtues of language, in both
+the masters of the old school, hinging ultimately, little as it might be
+thought, on certain unalterable views of theirs concerning the code
+called "of the Ten Commandments," wholly at variance with the dogmas of
+automatic morality which, summed again by the witches' line, "Fair is
+foul, and foul is fair," hover through the fog and filthy air of our
+prosperous England.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, June, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See <i>Time and Tide</i>, &sect; 72.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Nell, in the "Old Curiosity Shop," was simply killed for
+the market, as a butcher kills a lamb (see Forster's "Life,") and Paul
+was written under the same conditions of illness which affected Scott&mdash;a
+part of the ominous palsies, grasping alike author and subject both in
+"Dombey" and "Little Dorrit."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> "Chourineur" not striking with dagger-point, but ripping
+with knife-edge. Yet I do him, and La Louve, injustice in classing them
+with the two others; they are put together only as parts in the same
+phantasm. Compare with La Louve, the strength of wild virtue in the
+"Louv&eacute;cienne" (Lucienne) of Gaboriau&mdash;she, province-born and bred; and
+opposed to Parisian civilization in the character of her seamstress
+friend. "De ce Paris, o&ugrave; elle &eacute;tait n&eacute;e, elle savait tout&mdash;elle
+connaissait tout. Rien ne l'&eacute;tonnait, nul ne l'intimidait. Sa science
+des d&eacute;tails mat&eacute;riels de l'existence &eacute;tait inconcevable. Impossible de
+la duper!&mdash;Eh bien! cette fille si laborieuse et si &eacute;conome n'avait m&ecirc;me
+pas la plus vague notion des sentiments qui sont l'honneur de la femme.
+Je n'avais pas id&eacute;e d'une si compl&egrave;te absence de sens moral; d'une si
+inconscience d&eacute;pravation, d'une impudence si effront&eacute;ment
+na&iuml;ve."&mdash;"L'Argent des autres," vol. i. p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The reader who cares to seek it may easily find medical
+evidence of the physical effects of certain states of brain disease in
+producing especially images of truncated and Hermes-like deformity,
+complicated with grossness. Horace, in the "Epodes," scoffs at it, but
+not without horror. Luca Signorelli and Raphael in their arabesques are
+deeply struck by it: D&uuml;rer, defying and playing with it alternately, is
+almost beaten down again and again in the distorted faces, hewing
+halberts, and suspended satyrs of his arabesques round the polyglot
+Lord's Prayer; it takes entire possession of Balzac in the "Contes
+Drolatiques"; it struck Scott in the earliest days of his childish
+"visions" intensified by the ax-stroke murder of his grand aunt (L. i.
+142, and see close of this note). It chose for him the subject of the
+"Heart of Midlothian," and produced afterwards all the recurrent ideas
+of executions, tainting "Nigel," almost spoiling "Quentin
+Durward"&mdash;utterly the "Fair Maid of Perth": and culminating in "Bizarro"
+(L. x. 149). It suggested all the deaths by falling, or sinking, as in
+delirious sleep&mdash;Kennedy, Eveline Neville (nearly repeated in Clara
+Mowbray), Amy Robsart, the Master of Ravenswood in the quicksand,
+Morris, and Corporal Grace-be-here&mdash;compare the dream of Gride, in
+"Nicholas Nickleby," and Dickens's own last words, <i>on the ground</i> (so
+also, in my own inflammation of the brain, two years ago, I dreamed that
+I fell through the earth and came out on the other side). In its
+grotesque and distorting power, it produced all the figures of the Lay
+Goblin, Pacolet, Flibbertigibbet, Cockledemoy, Geoffrey Hudson, Fenella,
+and Nectabanus; in Dickens it in like manner gives Quilp, Krook, Smike,
+Smallweed, Miss Mowcher, and the dwarfs and wax-work of Nell's caravan;
+and runs entirely wild in "Barnaby Budge," where, with a corps de drame
+composed of one idiot, two madmen, a gentleman-fool who is also a
+villain, a shop-boy fool who is also a blackguard, a hangman, a
+shriveled virago, and a doll in ribbons&mdash;carrying this company through
+riot and fire, till he hangs the hangman, one of the madmen, his mother,
+and the idiot, runs the gentleman-fool through in a bloody duel, and
+burns and crushes the shop-boy fool into shapelessness, he cannot yet be
+content without shooting the spare lover's leg off, and marrying him to
+the doll in a wooden one; the shapeless shop-boy being finally also
+married in <i>two</i> wooden ones. It is this mutilation, observe, which is
+the very sign manual of the plague; joined, in the artistic forms of it,
+with a love of thorniness&mdash;(in their mystic root, the truncation of the
+limbless serpent and the spines of the dragon's wing. Compare "Modern
+Painters," vol. iv., "Chapter on the Mountain Gloom," s. 19); and in
+<i>all</i> forms of it, with petrifaction or loss of power by cold in the
+blood, whence the last Darwinian process of the witches' charm&mdash;"cool it
+with a baboon's <i>blood, then</i> the charm is firm and good." The two
+frescoes in the colossal handbills which have lately decorated the
+streets of London (the baboon with the mirror, and the Maskelyne and
+Cooke decapitation) are the final English forms of Raphael's arabesque
+under this influence; and it is well worth while to get the number for
+the week ending April 3, 1880, of "Young Folks&mdash;a magazine of
+instructive and entertaining literature for boys and girls of all ages,"
+containing "A Sequel to Desdichado" (the modern development of Ivanhoe),
+in which a quite monumental example of the kind of art in question will
+be found as a leading illustration of this characteristic sentence,
+"See, good Cerberus," said Sir Rupert, "<i>my hand has been struck off.
+You must make me a hand of iron, one with springs in it, so that I can
+make it grasp a dagger</i>." The text is also, as it professes to be,
+instructive; being the ultimate degeneration of what I have above called
+the "folly" of "Ivanhoe"; for the folly begets folly down, and down; and
+whatever Scott and Turner did wrong has thousands of imitators&mdash;their
+wisdom none will so much as hear, how much less follow!
+</p><p>
+In both of the Masters, it is always to be remembered that the evil and
+good are alike conditions of literal <i>vision</i>: and therefore also,
+inseparably connected with the state of the health. I believe the first
+elements of all Scott's errors were in the milk of his consumptive
+nurse, which all but killed him as an infant (L. i. 19)&mdash;and was without
+doubt the cause of the teething fever that ended in his lameness (L. i.
+20). Then came (if the reader cares to know what I mean by "Fors," let
+him read the page carefully) the fearful accidents to his only sister,
+and her death (L. i. 17); then the madness of his nurse, who planned his
+own murder (21), then the stories continually told him of the executions
+at Carlisle (24), his aunt's husband having seen them; issuing, he
+himself scarcely knows how, in the unaccountable terror that came upon
+him at the sight of statuary (31)&mdash;especially Jacob's ladder; then the
+murder of Mrs. Swinton, and finally the nearly fatal bursting of the
+blood vessel at Kelso, with the succeeding nervous illness
+(65-67)&mdash;solaced, while he was being "bled and blistered till he had
+scarcely a pulse left," by that history of the Knights of Malta&mdash;fondly
+dwelt on and realized by actual modeling of their fortress, which
+returned to his mind for the theme of its last effort in passing away.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> "Se dit par d&eacute;nigrement, d'un chr&eacute;tien qui ne croit pas
+les dogmes de sa religion."&mdash;Fleming, vol. ii. p. 659.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The novel alluded to is "The Mill on the Floss." See
+below, p. 272, &sect; 108.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> "A son nom," properly. The sentence is one of Victor
+Cherbuliez's, in "Prosper Randoce," which is full of other valuable
+ones. See the old nurse's "ici bas les choses vont de travers, comme un
+chien qui va &agrave; v&ecirc;pres," p. 93; and compare Prosper's treasures, "la
+petite V&eacute;nus, et le petit Christ d'ivoire," p. 121; also Madame
+Brehanne's request for the divertissement of "quelque belle batterie &agrave;
+coups de couteau" with Didier's answer. "H&eacute;las! madame, vous jouez de
+malheur, ici dans la Dr&ocirc;me, l'on se massacre aussi peu que possible," p.
+33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Edgeworth's "Tales," (Hunter, 1827), "Harrington and
+Ormond," vol. iii. p. 260.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Alice of Salisbury, Alice Lee, Alice Bridgnorth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Scott's father was habitually ascetic. "I have heard his
+son tell that it was common with him, if any one observed that the soup
+was good, to taste it again, and say, 'Yes&mdash;it is too good, bairns,' and
+dash a tumbler of cold water into his plate."&mdash;Lockhart's "Life" (Black,
+Edinburgh, 1869), vol. i. p. 312. In other places I refer to this book
+in the simple form of "L."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> A young lady sang to me, just before I copied out this
+page for press, a Miss Somebody's "great song," "Live, and Love, and
+Die." Had it been written for nothing better than silkworms, it should
+at least have added&mdash;Spin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> See passage of introduction to "Ivanhoe," wisely quoted in
+L. vi. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> See below, note, p. 199, on the conclusion of
+"Woodstock."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The reference is to a series of "Waverley Tableaux" given
+in London shortly before the publication of this paper.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> L. iv. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> L. vi. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> "One other such novel, and there's an end; but who can
+last forever? who ever lasted so long?"&mdash;Sydney Smith (of the <i>Pirate</i>)
+to Jeffrey, December 30, 1821. (<i>Letters</i>, vol. ii. p. 223.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> L. vi. p. 188. Compare the description of Fairy Dean, vii.
+192.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> All, alas! were now in a great measure so written.
+"Ivanhoe," "The Monastery," "The Abbot," and "Kenilworth" were all
+published between December 1819 and January 1821, Constable &amp; Co. giving
+five thousand guineas for the remaining copyright of them, Scott
+clearing ten thousand before the bargain was completed; and before the
+"Fortunes of Nigel" issued from the press Scott had exchanged
+instruments and received his bookseller's bills for no less than four
+"works of fiction," not one of them otherwise described in the deeds of
+agreement, to be produced in unbroken succession, <i>each of them to fill
+up at least three volumes, but with proper saving clauses as to increase
+of copy money in case any of them should run to four</i>; and within two
+years all this anticipation had been wiped off by "Peveril of the Peak,"
+"Quentin Durward," "St. Ronan's Well," and "Redgauntlet."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "Woodstock" was finished 26th March, 1826. He knew then of
+his ruin; and wrote in bitterness, but not in weakness. The closing
+pages are the most beautiful of the book. But a month afterwards Lady
+Scott died; and he never wrote glad word more.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Compare Mr. Spurgeon's not unfrequent orations on the same
+subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> There are three definite and intentional portraits of
+himself, in the novels, each giving a separate part of himself: Mr.
+Oldbuck, Frank Osbaldistone, and Alan Fairford.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> See note, p. 224.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Andrew knows Latin, and might have coined the word in his
+conceit; but, writing to a kind friend in Glasgow, I find the brook was
+called "Molyndona" even before the building of the Subdean Mill in 1446.
+See also account of the locality in Mr. George's admirable volume, "Old
+Glasgow," pp. 129, 149, etc. The Protestantism of Glasgow, since
+throwing that powder of saints into her brook Kidron, has presented it
+with other pious offerings; and my friend goes on to say that the brook,
+once famed for the purity of its waters (much used for bleaching), "has
+for nearly a hundred years been a crawling stream of loathsomeness. It
+is now bricked over, and a carriage-way made on the top of it;
+underneath the foul mess still passes through the heart of the city,
+till it falls into the Clyde close to the harbor."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FICTION_FAIR_AND_FOUL62" id="FICTION_FAIR_AND_FOUL62"></a>FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+
+<p>35. <i>"He hated greetings in the market-place</i>, and there were generally
+loiterers in the streets to persecute him <i>either about the events of
+the day</i>, or about some petty pieces of business."</p>
+
+<p>These lines, which the reader will find near the beginning of the
+sixteenth chapter of the first volume of the "Antiquary," contain two
+indications of the old man's character, which, receiving the ideal of
+him as a portrait of Scott himself, are of extreme interest to me. They
+mean essentially that neither Monkbarns nor Scott had any mind to be
+called of men, Rabbi, in mere hearing of the mob; and especially that
+they hated to be drawn back out of their far-away thoughts, or forward
+out of their long-ago thoughts, by any manner of "daily" news, whether
+printed or gabbled. Of which two vital characteristics, deeper in both
+men, (for I must always speak of Scott's creations as if they were as
+real as himself,) than any of their superficial vanities, or passing
+enthusiasms, I have to speak more at another time. I quote the passage
+just now, because there was one piece of the daily news of the year 1815
+which did extremely interest Scott, and materially direct the labor of
+the latter part of his life; nor is there any piece of history in this
+whole nineteenth century quite so pregnant with various instruction as
+the study of the reasons which influenced Scott and Byron in their
+opposite views of the glories of the battle of Waterloo.</p>
+
+<p>36. But I quote it for another reason also. The principal greeting which
+Mr. Oldbuck on this occasion receives in the market-place, being
+compared with the speech of Andrew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> Fairservice, examined in my first
+paper, will furnish me with the text of what I have mainly to say in the
+present one.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"'Mr. Oldbuck,' said the town-clerk (a more important person, who
+came in front and ventured to stop the old gentleman), 'the
+provost, understanding you were in town, begs on no account that
+you'll quit it without seeing him; he wants to speak to ye about
+bringing the water frae the Fairwell spring through a part o' your
+lands.'</p>
+
+<p>"'What the deuce!&mdash;have they nobody's land but mine to cut and
+carve on?&mdash;I won't consent, tell them.'</p>
+
+<p>"'And the provost,' said the clerk, going on, without noticing the
+rebuff, 'and the council, wad be agreeable that you should hae the
+auld stanes at Donagild's Chapel, that ye was wussing to hae.'</p>
+
+<p>"'Eh?&mdash;what?&mdash;Oho! that's another story&mdash;Well, well, I'll call upon
+the provost, and we'll talk about it.'</p>
+
+<p>"'But ye maun speak your mind on't forthwith, Monkbarns, if ye want
+the stanes; for Deacon Harlewalls thinks the carved through-stanes
+might be put with advantage on the front of the new council
+house&mdash;that is, the twa cross-legged figures that the callants used
+to ca' Robbin and Bobbin, ane on ilka door-cheek; and the other
+stane, that they ca'd Ailie Dailie, abune the door. It will be very
+tastefu', the Deacon says, and just in the style of modern Gothic.'</p>
+
+<p>"'Good Lord deliver me from this Gothic generation!' exclaimed the
+Antiquary,&mdash;'a monument of a knight-templar on each side of a
+Grecian porch, and a Madonna on the top of it!&mdash;<i>O crimini!</i>&mdash;Well,
+tell the provost I wish to have the stones, and we'll not differ
+about the water-course.&mdash;It's lucky I happened to come this way
+to-day.'</p>
+
+<p>"They parted mutually satisfied; but the wily clerk had most reason
+to exult in the dexterity he had displayed, since the whole
+proposal of an exchange between the monuments (which the council
+had determined to remove as a nuisance, because they encroached
+three feet upon the public road) and the privilege of conveying the
+water to the burgh, through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> the estate of Monkbarns, was an idea
+which had originated with himself upon the pressure of the moment."</p></div>
+
+<p>37. In this single page of Scott, will the reader please note the kind
+of prophetic instinct with which the great men of every age mark and
+forecast its destinies? The water from the Fairwell is the future
+Thirlmere carried to Manchester; the "auld stanes"<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> at Donagild's
+Chapel, removed as a <i>nuisance</i>, foretell the necessary view taken by
+modern cockneyism, Liberalism, and progress, of all things that remind
+them of the noble dead, of their fathers' fame, or of their own duty;
+and the public road becomes their idol, instead of the saint's shrine.
+Finally, the roguery of the entire transaction&mdash;the mean man seeing the
+weakness of the hon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>orable, and "besting" him&mdash;in modern slang, in the
+manner and at the pace of modern trade&mdash;"on the pressure of the moment."</p>
+
+<p>But neither are these things what I have at present quoted the passage
+for.</p>
+
+<p>I quote it, that we may consider how much wonderful and various history
+is gathered in the fact recorded for us in this piece of entirely fair
+fiction, that in the Scottish borough of Fairport (Montrose, really), in
+the year 17&mdash;of Christ, the knowledge given by the pastors and teachers
+provided for its children by enlightened Scottish Protestantism, of
+their fathers' history, and the origin of their religion, had resulted
+in this substance and sum;&mdash;that the statues of two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> crusading knights
+had become, to their children, Bobbin and Bobbin; and the statue of the
+Madonna, Ailie Dailie.</p>
+
+<p>A marvelous piece of history, truly: and far too comprehensive for
+general comment here. Only one small piece of it I must carry forward
+the readers' thoughts upon.</p>
+
+<p>38. The pastors and teachers aforesaid, (represented typically in
+another part of this errorless book by Mr. Blattergowl,) are not,
+whatever else they may have to answer for, answerable for these names.
+The names are of the children's own choosing and bestowing, but not of
+the children's own inventing. "Robin" is a classically endearing
+cognomen, recording the <i>errant</i> heroism of old days&mdash;the name of the
+Bruce and of Rob Roy. "Bobbin" is a poetical and symmetrical fulfillment
+and adornment of the original phrase. "Ailie" is the last echo of "Ave,"
+changed into the softest Scottish Christian name familiar to the
+children, itself the beautiful feminine form of royal "Louis"; the
+"Dailie" again symmetrically added for kinder and more musical
+endearment. The last vestiges, you see, of honor for the heroism and
+religion of their ancestors, lingering on the lips of babes and
+sucklings.</p>
+
+<p>But what is the meaning of this necessity the children find themselves
+under of completing the nomenclature rhythmically and rhymingly? Note
+first the difference carefully, and the attainment of both qualities by
+the couplets in question. Rhythm is the syllabic and quantitative
+measure of the words, in which Robin both in weight and time, balances
+Bobbin; and Dailie holds level scale with Ailie. But rhyme is the added
+correspondence of sound; unknown and undesired, so far as we can learn,
+by the Greek Orpheus, but absolutely essential to, and, as special
+virtue, becoming titular of, the Scottish Thomas.</p>
+
+<p>39. The "Ryme,"<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> you may at first fancy, is the especially childish
+part of the work. Not so. It is the espe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>cially chivalric and Christian
+part of it. It characterizes the Christian chant or canticle, as a
+higher thing than a Greek ode, melos, or hymnos, or than a Latin carmen.</p>
+
+<p>Think of it; for this again is wonderful! That these children of
+Montrose should have an element of music in their souls which Homer had
+not,&mdash;which a melos of David the Prophet and King had not,&mdash;which
+Orpheus and Amphion had not,&mdash;which Apollo's unrymed oracles became mute
+at the sound of.</p>
+
+<p>A strange new equity this,&mdash;melodious justice and judgment, as it
+were,&mdash;in all words spoken solemnly and ritualistically by Christian
+human creatures;&mdash;Robin and Bobbin&mdash;by the Crusader's tomb, up to "Dies
+ir&aelig;, dies illa," at judgment of the crusading soul.</p>
+
+<p>You have to understand this most deeply of all Christian minstrels, from
+first to last; that they are more musical, because more joyful, than any
+others on earth: ethereal minstrels, pilgrims of the sky, true to the
+kindred points of heaven and home; their joy essentially the sky-lark's,
+in light, in purity; but, with their human eyes, looking for the
+glorious appearing of something in the sky, which the bird cannot.</p>
+
+<p>This it is that changes Etruscan murmur into Terza rima&mdash;Horatian Latin
+into Proven&ccedil;al troubadour's melody; not, because less artful, less wise.</p>
+
+<p>40. Here is a little bit, for instance, of French ryming just before
+Chaucer's time&mdash;near enough to our own French to be intelligible to us
+yet.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"O quant tr&egrave;s-glorieuse vie,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quant cil qui tout peut et maistrie,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Veult esprouver pour n&eacute;cessaire,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ne pour quant il ne blasma mie</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La vie de Marthe sa mie:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mais il lui donna exemplaire</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">D'autrement vivre, et de bien plaire</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A Dieu; et plut de bien &agrave; faire:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pour se conclut-il que Marie</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Qui estoit &agrave; ses piedz sans braire,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Et pensoit d'entendre et de taire,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Estleut la plus saine partie.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La meilleur partie esleut-elle</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Et la plus saine et la plus belle,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Qui j&agrave; ne luy sera ost&eacute;e</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Car par v&eacute;rit&eacute; se fut celle</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Qui fut tousjours fresche et nouvelle,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">D'aymer Dieu et d'en estre aym&eacute;e;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Car jusqu'au cueur fut entam&eacute;e,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Et si ardamment enflam&eacute;e,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que tousjours ardoit I'estincelle;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Par quoi elle fut visit&eacute;e</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Et de Dieu premier confort&eacute;e;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Car charit&eacute; est trop ysnelle."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>41. The only law of <i>meter</i>, observed in this song, is that each line
+shall be octosyllabic:<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Qui fut | tousjours | fresche et | nouvelle,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>D'autre | ment vi | vret de | bien (ben) plaire</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Et pen | soit den | tendret | de taire.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p><br /><br />But the reader must note that words which were two-syllabled in Latin
+mostly remain yet so in the French.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>
+La <i>vi</i> | <i>e</i> de | Marthe | sa mie,
+</p>
+
+<p><br /><br />although <i>mie</i>, which is pet language, loving abbreviation of <i>amica</i>
+through <i>amie</i>, remains monosyllabic. But <i>vie</i> elides its <i>e</i> before a
+vowel:</p>
+
+<p><br /><br />
+Car Mar- | the me | nait vie | active<br />
+Et Ma- | ri-e | contemp | lative;<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>and custom endures many exceptions. Thus <i>Marie</i> may be three-syllabled,
+as above, or answer to <i>mie</i> as a dissyllable; but <i>vierge</i> is always, I
+think, dissyllabic, <i>vier-ge</i>, with even stronger accent on the <i>-ge</i>,
+for the Latin <i>-go</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Then, secondly, of quantity, there is scarcely any fixed law. The meters
+may be timed as the minstrel chooses&mdash;fast or slow&mdash;and the iambic
+current checked in reverted eddy, as the words chance to come.</p>
+
+<p>But, thirdly, there is to be rich ryming and chiming, no matter how
+simply got, so only that the words jingle and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> tingle together with due
+art of interlacing and answering in different parts of the stanza,
+correspondent to the involutions of tracery and illumination. The whole
+twelve-line stanza is thus constructed with two rymes only, six of each,
+thus arranged:<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>
+A A B | A A B | B B A | B B A |<br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>dividing the verse thus into four measures, reversed in ascent and
+descent, or <i>descant</i> more properly; and doubtless with correspondent
+phases in the voice-given, and duly accompanying, or following, music;
+Thomas the Rymer's own precept, that "tong is chefe in mynstrelsye,"
+being always kept faithfully in mind.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>42. Here then you have a sufficient example of the pure chant of the
+Christian ages; which is always at heart joyful, and divides itself into
+the four great forms; Song of Praise, Song of Prayer, Song of Love, and
+Song of Battle; praise, however, being the keynote of passion through
+all the four forms; according to the first law which I have already
+given in the "Laws of F&eacute;sole"; "all great Art is Praise," of which the
+contrary is also true, all foul or miscreant Art is accusation, &#948;&#953;&#945;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#7985;: "She gave me of the tree and I did eat" being an entirely
+museless expression on Adam's part, the briefly essential contrary of
+Love-song.</p>
+
+<p>With these four perfect forms of Christian chant, of which we may take
+for pure examples the "Te Deum," the "Te Lucis Ante," the "Amor che
+nella mente,"<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> and the "Chant de Roland," are mingled songs of
+mourning, of Pagan origin (whether Greek or Danish), holding grasp still
+of the races that have once learned them, in times of suffering and
+sor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>row; and songs of Christian humiliation or grief, regarding chiefly
+the sufferings of Christ, or the conditions of our own sin: while
+through the entire system of these musical complaints are interwoven
+moralities, instructions, and related histories, in illustration of
+both, passing into Epic and Romantic verse, which gradually, as the
+forms and learnings of society increase, becomes less joyful, and more
+didactic, or satiric, until the last echoes of Christian joy and melody
+vanish in the "Vanity of human wishes."</p>
+
+<p>43. And here I must pause for a minute or two to separate the different
+branches of our inquiry clearly from one another. For one thing, the
+reader must please put for the present out of his head all thought of
+the progress of "civilization"&mdash;that is to say, broadly, of the
+substitution of wigs for hair, gas for candles, and steam for legs. This
+is an entirely distinct matter from the phases of policy and religion.
+It has nothing to do with the British Constitution, or the French
+Revolution, or the unification of Italy. There are, indeed, certain
+subtle relations between the state of mind, for instance, in Venice,
+which makes her prefer a steamer to a gondola, and that which makes her
+prefer a gazetteer to a duke; but these relations are not at all to be
+dealt with until we solemnly understand that whether men shall be
+Christians and poets, or infidels and dunces, does not depend on the way
+they cut their hair, tie their breeches, or light their fires. Dr.
+Johnson might have worn his wig in fullness conforming to his dignity,
+without therefore coming to the conclusion that human wishes were vain;
+nor is Queen Antoinette's civilized hair-powder, as opposed to Queen
+Bertha's savagely loose hair, the cause of Antoinette's laying her head
+at last in scaffold dust, but Bertha in a pilgrim-haunted tomb.</p>
+
+<p>44. Again, I have just now used the words "poet" and "dunce," meaning
+the degree of each quality possible to average human nature. Men are
+eternally divided into the two classes of poet (believer, maker, and
+praiser) and dunce (or unbeliever, unmaker, and dispraiser). And in
+process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> ages they have the power of making faithful and formative
+creatures of themselves, or unfaithful and <i>de</i>-formative. And this
+distinction between the creatures who, blessing, are blessed, and
+evermore <i>benedicti</i>, and the creatures who, cursing, are cursed, and
+evermore maledicti, is one going through all humanity; antediluvian in
+Cain and Abel, diluvian in Ham and Shem. And the question for the public
+of any given period is not whether they are a constitutional or
+unconstitutional vulgus, but whether they are a benignant or malignant
+vulgus. So also, whether it is indeed the gods who have given any
+gentleman the grace to despise the rabble, depends wholly on whether it
+is indeed the rabble, or he, who are the malignant persons.</p>
+
+<p>45. But yet again. This difference between the persons to whom Heaven,
+according to Orpheus, has granted "the hour of delight,"<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and those
+whom it has condemned to the hour of detestableness, being, as I have
+just said, of all times and nations,&mdash;it is an interior and more
+delicate difference which we are examining in the gift of <i>Christian</i> as
+distinguished from unchristian, song. Orpheus, Pindar, and Horace are
+indeed distinct from the prosaic rabble, as the bird from the snake; but
+between Orpheus and Palestrina, Horace and Sidney, there is another
+division, and a new power of music and song given to the humanity which
+has hope of the Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p><i>This</i> is the root of all life and all rightness in Christian harmony,
+whether of word or instrument; and so literally, that in precise manner
+as this hope disappears, the power of song is taken away, and taken away
+utterly. "When the Christian falls back out of the bright hope of the
+Resurrection, even the Orpheus song is forbidden him. Not to have known
+the hope is blameless: one may sing, unknowing, as the swan, or
+Philomela. But to have known and fall away from it, and to declare that
+the human wishes, which are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> summed in that one&mdash;"Thy kingdom come"&mdash;are
+vain! The Fates ordain there shall be no singing after that denial.</p>
+
+<p>46. For observe this, and earnestly. The old Orphic song, with its dim
+hope of yet once more Eurydice,&mdash;the Philomela song&mdash;granted after the
+cruel silence,&mdash;the Halcyon song&mdash;with its fifteen days of peace, were
+all sad, or joyful only in some vague vision of conquest over death. But
+the Johnsonian vanity of wishes is on the whole satisfactory to
+Johnson&mdash;accepted with gentlemanly resignation by Pope&mdash;triumphantly and
+with bray of penny trumpets and blowing of steam-whistles, proclaimed
+for the glorious discovery of the civilized ages, by Mrs. Barbauld, Miss
+Edgeworth, Adam Smith, and Co. There is no God, but have we not invented
+gunpowder?&mdash;who wants a God, with that in his pocket?<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> There is no
+Resurrection, neither angel nor spirit; but have we not paper and pens,
+and cannot every blockhead print his opinions, and the Day of Judgment
+become Republican, with everybody for a judge, and the flat of the
+universe for the throne? There is no law, but only gravitation and
+congelation, and we are stuck together in an everlasting hail, and
+melted together in everlasting mud, and great was the day in which our
+worships were born. And there is no gospel, but only, whatever we've
+got, to get more, and, wherever we are, to go somewhere else. And are
+not these discoveries, to be sung of, and drummed of, and fiddled of,
+and generally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> made melodiously indubitable in the eighteenth century
+song of praise?</p>
+
+<p>47. The Fates will not have it so. No word of song is possible, in that
+century, to mortal lips. Only polished versification, sententious
+pentameter and hexameter, until, having turned out its toes long enough
+without dancing, and pattered with its lips long enough without piping,
+suddenly Astr&aelig;a returns to the earth, and a Day of Judgment of a sort,
+and there bursts out a song at last again, a most curtly melodious
+triplet of Amphisb&aelig;nic ryme, "<i>&Ccedil;a ira</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Amphisb&aelig;nic, fanged in each ryme with fire, and obeying Ercildoune's
+precept, "Tong is chefe of mynstrelsye," to the syllable.&mdash;Don
+Giovanni's hitherto fondly chanted "Andiam, andiam," become suddenly
+impersonal and prophetic: <span class="smcap">It</span> shall go, and you also. A
+cry&mdash;before it is a song, then song and accompaniment
+together&mdash;perfectly done; and the march "towards the field of Mars. The
+two hundred and fifty thousand&mdash;they to the sound of stringed
+music&mdash;preceded by young girls with tricolor streamers, they have
+shouldered soldierwise their shovels and picks, and with one throat are
+singing <i>&Ccedil;a ira</i>."<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>Through all the springtime of 1790, from Brittany to Burgundy, on most
+plains of France, under most city walls, there march and
+constitutionally wheel to the &Ccedil;a-iraing mood of fife and drum&mdash;our clear
+glancing phalanxes;&mdash;the song of the two hundred and fifty thousand,
+virgin-led, is in the long light of July. Nevertheless, another song is
+yet needed, for phalanx, and for maid. For, two springs and summers
+having gone&mdash;amphisb&aelig;nic,&mdash;on the 28th of August, 1792, "Dumouriez rode
+from the camp of Maulde, eastwards to <i>Sedan</i>."<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<p>48. "And Longwi has fallen basely, and Brunswick and the Prussian king
+will beleaguer Verdun, and Clairfait and the Austrians press deeper in
+over the northern marches,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> Cimmerian Europe behind. And on that same
+night Dumouriez assembles council of war at his lodgings in Sedan.
+Prussians here, Austrians there, triumphant both. With broad highway to
+Paris and little hindrance&mdash;<i>we</i> scattered, helpless here and
+there&mdash;what to advise?" The generals advise retreating, and retreating
+till Paris be sacked at the latest day possible. Dumouriez, silent,
+dismisses <i>them</i>,&mdash;keeps only, with a sign, Thouvenot. Silent thus, when
+needful, yet having voice, it appears, of what musicians call tenor
+quality, of a rare kind. Rubini-esque, even, but scarcely producible to
+the fastidious ears at opera. The seizure of the forest of Argonne
+follows&mdash;the cannonade of Valmy. The Prussians do not march on Paris
+<i>this</i> time, the autumnal hours of fate pass on&mdash;<i>&ccedil;a ira</i>&mdash;and on the
+6th of November, Dumouriez meets the Austrians also. "Dumouriez
+wide-winged, they wide-winged&mdash;at and around Jemappes, its green heights
+fringed and maned with red fire. And Dumouriez is swept back on this
+wing and swept back on that, and is like to be swept back utterly, when
+he rushes up in person, speaks a prompt word or two, and then, with
+clear tenor-pipe, uplifts the hymn of the Marseillaise, ten thousand
+tenor or bass pipes joining, or say some forty thousand in all, for
+every heart leaps up at the sound; and so, with rhythmic march melody,
+they rally, they advance, they rush death-defying, and like the fire
+whirlwind sweep all manner of Austrians from the scene of action." Thus,
+through the lips of Dumouriez, sings Tyrt&aelig;us, Rouget de Lisle.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> "Aux
+armes&mdash;marchons." Iambic measure with a witness! in what wide strophe
+here beginning&mdash;in what unthought-of antistrophe returning to that
+council chamber in Sedan!</p>
+
+<p>49. While these two great songs were thus being composed, and sung, and
+danced to in cometary cycle, by the French nation, here in our less
+giddy island there rose, amidst hours of business in Scotland and of
+idleness in Eng<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>land, three troubadours of quite different temper.
+Different also themselves, but not opponent; forming a perfect chord,
+and adverse all the three of them alike to the French musicians, in this
+main point&mdash;that while the <i>Ca ira</i> and Marseillaise were essentially
+songs of blame and wrath, the British bards wrote, virtually, always
+songs of praise, though by no means psalmody in the ancient keys. On the
+contrary, all the three are alike moved by a singular antipathy to the
+priests, and are pointed at with fear and indignation by the pietists,
+of their day;&mdash;not without latent cause. For they are all of them, with
+the most loving service, servants of that world which the Puritan and
+monk alike despised; and, in the triple chord of their song, could not
+but appear to the religious persons around them as respectively and
+specifically the praisers&mdash;Scott of the world, Burns of the flesh, and
+Byron of the devil.</p>
+
+<p>To contend with this carnal orchestra, the religious world, having long
+ago rejected its Catholic Psalms as antiquated and unscientific, and
+finding its Puritan melodies sunk into faint jar and twangle from their
+native trumpet-tone, had nothing to oppose but the innocent, rather than
+religious, verses of the school recognized as that of the English Lakes;
+very creditable to them; domestic at once and refined; observing the
+errors of the world outside of the Lakes with a pitying and tender
+indignation, and arriving in lacustrine seclusion at many valuable
+principles of philosophy, as pure as the tarns of their mountains, and
+of corresponding depth.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>50. I have lately seen, and with extreme pleasure, Mr. Matthew Arnold's
+arrangement of Wordsworth's poems; and read with sincere interest his
+high estimate of them. But a great poet's work never needs arrangement
+by other hands; and though it is very proper that Silver How should
+clearly understand and brightly praise its fraternal Rydal Mount,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> we
+must not forget that, over yonder, are the Andes, all the while.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth's rank and scale among poets were determined by himself, in a
+single exclamation:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"What was the great Parnassus' self to thee,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mount Skiddaw?"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Answer his question faithfully, and you have the relation between the
+great masters of the Muse's teaching and the pleasant fingerer of his
+pastoral flute among the reeds of Rydal.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth is simply a Westmoreland peasant, with considerably less
+shrewdness than most border Englishmen or Scotsmen inherit; and no sense
+of humor: but gifted (in this singularly) with vivid sense of natural
+beauty, and a pretty turn for reflections, not always acute, but, as far
+as they reach, medicinal to the fever of the restless and corrupted life
+around him. Water to parched lips may be better than Samian wine, but do
+not let us therefore confuse the qualities of wine and water. I much
+doubt there being many inglorious Miltons in our country churchyards;
+but I am very sure there are many Wordsworths resting there, who were
+inferior to the renowned one only in caring less to hear themselves
+talk.</p>
+
+<p>With an honest and kindly heart, a stimulating egoism, a wholesome
+contentment in modest circumstances, and such sufficient ease, in that
+accepted state, as permitted the passing of a good deal of time in
+wishing that daisies could see the beauty of their own shadows, and
+other such profitable mental exercises, Wordsworth has left us a series
+of studies of the graceful and happy shepherd life of our lake country,
+which to me personally, for one, are entirely sweet and precious; but
+they are only so as the mirror of an existent reality in many ways more
+beautiful than its picture.</p>
+
+<p>51. But the other day I went for an afternoon's rest into the cottage of
+one of our country people of old statesman class; cottage lying nearly
+midway between two village<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> churches, but more conveniently for downhill
+walk towards one than the other. I found, as the good housewife made tea
+for me, that nevertheless she went up the hill to church. "Why do not
+you go to the nearer church?" I asked. "Don't you like the clergyman?"
+"Oh no, sir," she answered, "it isn't that; but you know I couldn't
+leave my mother." "Your mother! she is buried at H&mdash;&mdash; then?" "Yes, sir;
+and you know I couldn't go to church anywhere else."</p>
+
+<p>That feelings such as these existed among the peasants, not of
+Cumberland only, but of all the tender earth that gives forth her fruit
+for the living, and receives her dead to peace, might perhaps have been,
+to our great and endless comfort, discovered before now, if Wordsworth
+had been content to tell us what he knew of his own villages and people,
+not as the leader of a new and only correct school of poetry, but simply
+as a country gentleman of sense and feeling, fond of primroses, kind to
+the parish children, and reverent of the spade with which Wilkinson had
+tilled his lands: and I am by no means sure that his influence on the
+stronger minds of his time was anywise hastened or extended by the
+spirit of tunefulness under whose guidance he discovered that heaven
+rymed to seven, and Foy to boy.</p>
+
+<p>52. Tuneful nevertheless at heart, and of the heavenly choir, I gladly
+and frankly acknowledge him; and our English literature enriched with a
+new and a singular virtue in the a&euml;rial purity and healthful rightness
+of his quiet song;&mdash;but <i>a&euml;rial</i> only,&mdash;not ethereal; and lowly in its
+privacy of light.</p>
+
+<p>A measured mind, and calm; innocent, unrepentant; helpful to sinless
+creatures and scathless, such of the flock as do not stray. Hopeful at
+least, if not faithful; content with intimations of immortality such as
+may be in skipping of lambs, and laughter of children&mdash;incurious to see
+in the hands the print of the Nails.</p>
+
+<p>A gracious and constant mind; as the herbage of its native hills,
+fragrant and pure;&mdash;yet, to the sweep and the shadow, the stress and
+distress, of the greater souls of men,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> as the tufted thyme to the
+laurel wilderness of Tempe,&mdash;as the gleaming euphrasy to the dark
+branches of Dodona.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>[I am obliged to defer the main body of this paper to next
+month,&mdash;revises penetrating all too late into my lacustrine
+seclusion; as chanced also unluckily with the preceding paper, in
+which the reader will perhaps kindly correct the consequent
+misprints [now corrected, <span class="smcap">Ed</span>.], p. 203, l. 23, of
+"scarcely" to "securely," and p. 206, l. 6, "full," with comma to
+"fall," without one; noticing besides that "Redgauntlet" has been
+omitted in the list, pp. 198, 199; and that the reference to note
+should not be at the word "imagination," p. 198, l. 6, but at the
+word "trade," l. 15. My dear old friend, Dr. John Brown, sends me,
+from Jamieson's <i>Dictionary</i>, the following satisfactory end to one
+of my difficulties:&mdash;"Coup the crans." The language is borrowed
+from the "cran," or trivet on which small pots are placed in
+cookery, which is sometimes turned with its feet uppermost by an
+awkward assistant. Thus it signifies to be <i>completely</i> upset.]</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="author"><br />
+"<span class="smcap">Abbotsford</span>: <i>April</i> 21, 1817.<br />
+</p>
+<p>
+"<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;Nothing can be more obliging than your
+attention to the old stones. You have been as true as the sundial
+itself." [The sundial had just been erected.] "Of the two I would
+prefer the larger one, as it is to be in front of a parapet quite
+in the old taste. But in case of accidents it will be safest in
+your custody till I come to town again on the 12th of May. Your
+former favors (which were weighty as acceptable) have come safely
+out here, and will be disposed of with great effect."
+</p><p class="author"><br /><br />
+"<span class="smcap">Abbotsford</span>: <i>July</i> 30th.
+</p>
+<p>
+"I fancy the Tolbooth still keeps its feet, but, as it must soon
+descend, I hope you will remember me. I have an important use for
+the niche above the door; and though many a man has got a niche
+<i>in</i> the Tolbooth by building, I believe I am the first that ever
+got a niche out of it on such an occasion. For which I have to
+thank your kindness, and to remain very much your obliged humble
+servant,
+</p><p class="author"><br /><br />
+"<span class="smcap">Walter Scott</span>."<br />
+"<i>August</i> 16.
+</p>
+<p>
+"<span class="smcap">My Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;I trouble you with this [<i>sic</i>] few lines
+to thank you for the very accurate drawings and measurements of the
+Tolbooth door, and for your kind promise to attend to my interest
+and that of Abbotsford in the matter of the Thistle and Fleur de
+Lis. Most of our scutcheons are now mounted, and look very well, as
+the house is something after the model of an old hall (not a
+castle), where such things are well in character." [Alas&mdash;Sir
+Walter, Sir Walter!] "I intend the old lion to predominate over a
+well which the children have christened the Fountain of the Lions.
+His present den, however, continues to be the hall at Castle
+Street."
+</p><p class="author"><br /><br />
+"<i>September</i> 5.
+</p>
+<p>
+"<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;I am greatly obliged to you for securing the
+stone. I am not sure that I will put up the gate quite in the old
+form, but I would like to secure the means of doing so. The
+ornamental stones are now put up, and have a very happy effect. If
+you will have the kindness to let me know when the Tolbooth door
+comes down, I will send in my carts for the stones; I have an
+admirable situation for it. I suppose the door itself" [he means
+the wooden one] "will be kept for the new jail; if not, and not
+otherwise wanted, I would esteem it curious to possess it.
+Certainly I hope so many sore hearts will not pass through the
+celebrated door when in my possession as heretofore."
+</p><p class="author"><br /><br />
+"<i>September</i> 8.
+</p>
+<p>
+"I should esteem it very fortunate if I could have the door also,
+though I suppose it is modern, having been burned down at the time
+of Porteous-mob.
+</p><p>
+"I am very much obliged to the gentlemen who thought these remains
+of the Heart of Midlothian are not ill bestowed on their intended
+possessor."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> August, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The following fragments out of the letters in my own
+possession, written by Scott to the builder of Abbotsford, as the outer
+decorations of the house were in process of completion, will show how
+accurately Scott had pictured himself in Monkbarns.
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Henceforward, not in affectation, but for the reader's
+better convenience, I shall continue to spell "Ryme" without our wrongly
+added <i>h</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> L. ii. 278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> "Che nella mente mia <i>ragiona</i>." Love&mdash;you observe, the
+highest <i>Reasonableness</i>, instead of French <i>ivresse</i>, or even
+Shakespearian "mere folly"; and Beatrice as the Goddess of Wisdom in
+this third song of the <i>Convito</i>, to be compared with the Revolutionary
+Goddess of Reason; remembering of the whole poem chiefly the line:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Costei penso chi che mosso l'universo."</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+(See Lyell's "Canzoniere," p. 104.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> &#8033;&#961;&#945;&#957; &#964;&#951;&#962; &#964;&#7953;&#961;&#960;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#962;&mdash;Plato, "Laws," ii., Steph.
+669. "Hour" having here nearly the power of "Fate" with added sense of
+being a daughter of Themis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> "Gunpowder is one of the greatest inventions of modern
+times, <i>and what has given such a superiority to civilized nations over
+barbarous</i>"! ("Evenings at Home"&mdash;fifth evening.) No man can owe more
+than I both to Mrs. Barbauld and Miss Edgeworth; and I only wish that in
+the substance of what they wisely said, they had been more listened to.
+Nevertheless, the germs of all modern conceit and error respecting
+manufacture and industry, as rivals to Art and to Genius, are
+concentrated in "Evenings at Home" and "Harry and Lucy"&mdash;being all the
+while themselves works of real genius, and prophetic of things that have
+yet to be learned and fulfilled. See for instance the paper, "Things by
+their Right Names," following the one from which I have just quoted
+("The Ship"), and closing the first volume of the old edition of the
+"Evenings."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Carlyle, "French Revolution" (Chapman, 1869), vol. ii. p.
+70; conf. p. 25, and the <i>&Ccedil;a ira</i> at Arras, vol. iii. p. 276.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> iii. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Carlyle, "French Revolution," iii. 106, the last sentence
+altered in a word or two.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> I have been greatly disappointed, in taking soundings of
+our most majestic mountain pools, to find them, in no case, verge on the
+unfathomable.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.</h2>
+
+<h3>III.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></h3>
+
+<h4>[<span class="smcap">Byron</span>]</h4>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Parching summer hath no warrant</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">To consume this crystal well;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rains, that make each brook a torrent,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neither sully it, nor swell."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>53. So was it year by year, among the unthought-of hills. Little Duddon
+and child Rotha ran clear and glad; and laughed from ledge to pool, and
+opened from pool to mere, translucent, through endless days of peace.</p>
+
+<p>But eastward, between her orchard plains, Loire locked her embracing
+dead in silent sands; dark with blood rolled Iser; glacial-pale,
+Beresina-Lethe, by whose shore the weary hearts forgot their people, and
+their father's house.</p>
+
+<p>Nor unsullied, Tiber; nor unswoln, Arno and Aufidus; and Euroclydon high
+on Helle's wave; meantime, let our happy piety glorify the garden rocks
+with snowdrop circlet, and breathe the spirit of Paradise, where life is
+wise and innocent.</p>
+
+<p>Maps many have we, nowadays clear in display of earth constituent, air
+current, and ocean tide. Shall we ever engrave the map of meaner
+research, whose shadings shall content themselves in the task of showing
+the depth, or drought,&mdash;the calm, or trouble, of Human Compassion?</p>
+
+<p>54. For this is indeed all that is noble in the life of Man, and the
+source of all that is noble in the speech of Man. Had it narrowed itself
+then, in those days, out of all the world, into this peninsula between
+Cockermouth and Shap?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Not altogether so; but indeed the <i>Vocal</i> piety seemed conclusively to
+have retired (or excursed?) into that mossy hermitage, above Little
+Langdale. The <i>Un</i>vocal piety, with the uncomplaining sorrow, of Man,
+may have a somewhat wider range, for aught we know: but history
+disregards those items; and of firmly proclaimed and sweetly canorous
+religion, there really seemed at that juncture none to be reckoned upon,
+east of Ingleborough, or north of Criffel. Only under Furness Fells, or
+by Bolton Priory, it seems we can still write Ecclesiastical Sonnets,
+stanzas on the force of Prayer, Odes to Duty, and complimentary
+addresses to the Deity upon His endurance for adoration. Far otherwise,
+over yonder, by Spezzia Bay, and Ravenna Pineta, and in ravines of
+Hartz. There, the softest voices speak the wildest words; and Keats
+discourses of Endymion, Shelley of Demogorgon, Goethe of Lucifer, and
+Burger of the Resurrection of Death unto Death&mdash;while even Puritan
+Scotland and Episcopal Anglia produce for us only these three minstrels
+of doubtful tone, who show but small respect for the "unco guid," put
+but limited faith in gifted Gilfillan, and translate with unflinching
+frankness the <i>Morgante Maggiore</i>.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>55. Dismal the aspect of the spiritual world, or at least the sound of
+it, might well seem to the eyes and ears of Saints (such as we had) of
+the period&mdash;dismal in angels' eyes also assuredly! Yet is it possible
+that the dismalness in angelic sight may be otherwise quartered, as it
+were, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> the way of mortal heraldry; and that seen, and heard, of
+angels,&mdash;again I say&mdash;hesitatingly&mdash;<i>is</i> it possible that the goodness
+of the Unco Guid, and the gift of Gilfillan, and the word of Mr.
+Blattergowl, may severally not have been the goodness of God, the gift
+of God, nor the word of God: but that in the much blotted and broken
+efforts at goodness, and in the careless gift which they themselves
+despised,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> and in the sweet ryme and murmur of their unpurposed
+words, the Spirit of the Lord had, indeed, wandering, as in chaos days
+on lightless waters, gone forth in the hearts and from the lips of those
+other three strange prophets, even though they ate forbidden bread by
+the altar of the poured-out ashes, and even though the wild beast of the
+desert found them, and slew.</p>
+
+<p>This, at least, I know, that it had been well for England, though all
+her other prophets, of the Press, the Parliament, the Doctor's chair,
+and the Bishop's throne, had fallen silent; so only that she had been
+able to understand with her heart here and there the simplest line of
+these, her despised.</p>
+
+<p>56. I take one at mere chance:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Who thinks of self, when gazing on the sky?"<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Well, I don't know; Mr. Wordsworth certainly did, and observed, with
+truth, that its clouds took a sober coloring in consequence of his
+experiences. It is much if, indeed, this sadness be unselfish, and our
+eyes <i>have</i> kept loving watch o'er Man's Mortality. I have found it
+difficult to make anyone nowadays believe that such sobriety can be; and
+that Turner saw deeper crimson than others in the clouds of Goldau. But
+that any should yet think the clouds brightened by Man's <i>Im</i>mortality
+instead of dulled by his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> death,&mdash;and, gazing on the sky, look for the
+day when every eye must gaze also&mdash;for behold, He cometh with
+clouds&mdash;this it is no more possible for Christian England to apprehend,
+however exhorted by her gifted and guid.</p>
+
+<p>57. "But Byron was not thinking of such things!"&mdash;He, the reprobate! how
+should such as he think of Christ?</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps not wholly as you or I think of Him. Take, at chance, another
+line or two, to try:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Carnage (so Wordsworth tells you) is God's daughter;<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">If he speak truth, she is Christ's sister, and</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Just now, behaved as in the Holy Land."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Blasphemy, cry you, good reader? Are you sure you understand it? The
+first line I gave you was easy Byron&mdash;almost shallow Byron&mdash;these are of
+the man in his depth, and you will not fathom them, like a tarn&mdash;nor in
+a hurry.</p>
+
+<p>"Just now behaved as in the Holy Land." How <i>did</i> Carnage behave in the
+Holy Land then? You have all been greatly questioning, of late, whether
+the sun, which you find to be now going out, ever stood still. Did you
+in any lagging minute, on those scientific occasions, chance to reflect
+what he was bid stand still <i>for</i>? or if not&mdash;will you please look&mdash;and
+what also, going forth again as a strong man to run his course, he saw,
+rejoicing?</p>
+
+<p>"Then Joshua passed from Makkedah unto Libnah&mdash;and fought against
+Libnah. And the Lord delivered it and the king thereof into the hand of
+Israel, and he smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls
+that were therein." And from Lachish to Eglon, and from Eglon to
+Kirjath-Arba, and Sarah's grave in the Amorites' land, "and Joshua smote
+all the country of the hills and of the south&mdash;and of the vale and of
+the springs, and all their kings: he left none remaining, but utterly
+destroyed all that breathed&mdash;as the Lord God of Israel commanded."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>58. Thus, "it is written": though you perhaps do not so often hear
+<i>these</i> texts preached from, as certain others about taking away the
+sins of the world. I wonder how the world would like to part with them!
+hitherto it has always preferred parting first with its life&mdash;and God
+has taken it at its word. But Death is not <i>His</i> Begotten Son, for all
+that; nor is the death of the innocent in battle carnage His "instrument
+for working out a pure intent" as Mr. Wordsworth puts it; but Man's
+instrument for working out an impure one, as Byron would have you to
+know. Theology perhaps less orthodox, but certainly more
+reverent;&mdash;neither is the Woolwich Infant a Child of God; neither does
+the iron-clad "Thunderer" utter thunders of God&mdash;which facts if you had
+had the grace or sense to learn from Byron, instead of accusing him of
+blasphemy, it had been better at this day for <i>you</i>, and for many a
+savage soul also, by Euxine shore, and in Zulu and Afghan lands.</p>
+
+<p>59. It was neither, however, for the theology, nor the use, of these
+lines that I quoted them; but to note this main point of Byron's own
+character. He was the first great Englishman who felt the cruelty of
+war, and, in its cruelty, the shame. Its guilt had been known to George
+Fox&mdash;its folly shown practically by Penn. But the <i>compassion</i> of the
+pious world had still for the most part been shown only in keeping its
+stock of Barabbases unhanged if possible: and, till Byron came, neither
+Kunersdorf, Eylau, nor Waterloo, had taught the pity and the pride of
+men that</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The drying up a single tear has more</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of honest fame than shedding seas of gore."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Such pacific verse would not indeed have been acceptable to the
+Edinburgh volunteers on Portobello sands. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> Byron can write a battle
+song too, when it is <i>his</i> cue to fight. If you look at the introduction
+to the "Isles of Greece," namely the 85th and 86th stanzas of the 3rd
+canto of "Don Juan,"&mdash;you will find&mdash;what will you <i>not</i> find, if only
+you understand them! "He" in the first line, remember, means the typical
+modern poet.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Thus usually, when he was asked to sing,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">He gave the different nations something national.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Twas all the same to him&mdash;'God save the King'</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Or 'Ca ira' according to the fashion all;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">His muse made increment of anything</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">From the high lyric down to the low rational:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">If Pindar sang horse-races, what should hinder</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Himself from being as pliable as Pindar?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In France, for instance, he would write a chanson;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">In England a six-canto quarto tale;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In Spain, he'd make a ballad or romance on</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The last war&mdash;much the same in Portugal;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In Germany, the Pegasus he'd prance on</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Would be old Goethe's&mdash;(see what says de Sta&euml;l)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In Italy, he'd ape the 'Trecentisti';</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In Greece, he'd sing some sort of hymn like this t'ye."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>60. Note first here, as we did in Scott, the concentrating and
+foretelling power. The "God Save the Queen" in England, fallen hollow
+now, as the "Ca ira" in France&mdash;not a man in France knowing where either
+France or "that" (whatever "that" may be) is going to; nor the Queen of
+England daring, for her life, to ask the tiniest Englishman to do a
+single thing he doesn't like;&mdash;nor any salvation, either of Queen or
+Realm, being any more possible to God, unless under the direction of the
+Royal Society: then, note the estimate of height and depth in poetry,
+swept in an instant, "high lyric to low rational." Pindar to Pope
+(knowing Pope's height, too, all the while, no man better); then, the
+poetic power of France&mdash;resumed in a word&mdash;B&eacute;ranger; then the cut at
+Marmion, entirely deserved, as we shall see, yet kindly given, for
+everything he names in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> two stanzas is the best of its kind; then
+'Romance in Spain on&mdash;the <i>last</i> war, (<i>present</i> war not being to
+Spanish poetical taste,) then, Goethe the real heart of all Germany, and
+last, the aping of the Trecentisti which has since consummated itself in
+Pre-Raphaelitism! that also being the best thing Italy has done through
+England, whether in Rossetti's "blessed damozels" or Burne Jones's "days
+of creation." Lastly comes the mock at himself&mdash;the modern English
+Greek&mdash;(followed up by the "degenerate into hands like mine" in the song
+itself); and then&mdash;to amazement, forth he thunders in his
+Achilles-voice. We have had one line of him in his clearness&mdash;five of
+him in his depth&mdash;sixteen of him in his play. Hear now but these, out of
+his whole heart:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"What,&mdash;silent yet? and silent <i>all</i>?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ah no, the voices of the dead</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sound like a distant torrent's fall,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">And answer, 'Let <i>one</i> living head,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But one, arise&mdash;we come&mdash;we come:'</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;'Tis but the living who are dumb."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Resurrection, this, you see like B&uuml;rger's; but not of death unto death.</p>
+
+<p>61. "Sound like a distant torrent's fall." I said the <i>whole</i> heart of
+Byron was in this passage. First its compassion, then its indignation,
+and the third element, not yet examined, that love of the beauty of this
+world in which the three&mdash;unholy&mdash;children, of its Fiery Furnace were
+like to each other; but Byron the widest-hearted. Scott and Burns love
+Scotland more than Nature itself: for Burns the moon must rise over
+Cumnock Hills,&mdash;for Scott, the Rymer's glen divide the Eildons; but,
+for Byron, Loch-na-Gar <i>with Ida</i>, looks o'er Troy, and the soft murmurs
+of the Dee and the Bruar change into voices of the dead on distant
+Marathon.</p>
+
+<p>Yet take the parallel from Scott, by a field of homelier rest:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"And silence aids&mdash;though the steep hills</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Send to the lake a thousand rills;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In summer tide, so soft they weep,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The sound but lulls the ear asleep;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">So stilly is the solitude.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nought living meets the eye or ear,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But well I ween the dead are near;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For though, in feudal strife, a foe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hath laid our Lady's Chapel low,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yet still beneath the hallowed soil,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The peasant rests him from his toil,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And, dying, bids his bones be laid</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Where erst his simple fathers prayed."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>And last take the same note of sorrow&mdash;with Burns's finger on the fall
+of it:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Mourn, ilka grove the cushat kens,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ye hazly shaws and briery dens,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ye burnies, wimplin' down your glens</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Wi' toddlin' din,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or foamin' strang wi' hasty stens</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Frae lin to lin."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>62. As you read, one after another, these fragments of chant by the
+great masters, does not a sense come upon you of some element in their
+passion, no less than in their sound, different, specifically, from that
+of "Parching summer hath no warrant"? Is it more profane, think you&mdash;or
+more tender&mdash;nay, perhaps, in the core of it, more true?</p>
+
+<p>For instance, when we are told that</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"Wharfe, as he moved along,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To matins joined a mournful voice,"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>is this disposition of the river's mind to pensive psalmody quite
+logically accounted for by the previous statement, (itself by no means
+rythmically dulcet,) that</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The boy is in the arms of Wharfe,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And strangled by a merciless force"?</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Or, when we are led into the improving reflection,</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"How sweet were leisure, could it yield no more</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Than 'mid this wave-washed churchyard to recline,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">From pastoral graves extracting thoughts divine!"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;is the divinity of the extract assured to us by its being made at
+leisure, and in a reclining attitude&mdash;as compared with the meditations
+of otherwise active men, in an erect one? Or are we perchance, many of
+us, still erring somewhat in our notions alike of Divinity and
+Humanity,&mdash;poetical extraction, and moral position?</p>
+
+<p>63. On the chance of its being so, might I ask hearing for just a few
+words more of the school of Belial?</p>
+
+<p>Their occasion, it must be confessed, is a quite unjustifiable one. Some
+very wicked people&mdash;mutineers, in fact&mdash;have retired, misanthropically,
+into an unfrequented part of the country, and there find themselves safe
+indeed, but extremely thirsty. Whereupon Byron thus gives them to drink:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"A little stream came tumbling from the height</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And straggling into ocean as it might.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Its bounding crystal frolicked in the ray</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And gushed from cliff to crag with saltless spray,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Close on the wild wide ocean,&mdash;yet as pure</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And fresh as Innocence; and more secure.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Its silver torrent glittered o'er the deep</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">As the shy chamois' eye o'erlooks the steep,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">While, far below, the vast and sullen swell</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of ocean's Alpine azure rose and fell."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Now, I beg, with such authority as an old workman may take concerning
+his trade, having also looked at a waterfall or two in my time, and not
+unfrequently at a wave, to assure the reader that here is entirely
+first-rate literary work. Though Lucifer himself had written it, the
+thing is itself good, and not only so, but unsurpassedly good, the
+closing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> line being probably the best concerning the sea yet written by
+the race of the sea-kings.</p>
+
+<p>64. But Lucifer himself <i>could</i> not have written it; neither any servant
+of Lucifer. I do not doubt but that most readers were surprised at my
+saying, in the close of my first paper, that Byron's "style" depended in
+any wise on his views respecting the Ten Commandments. That so
+all-important a thing as "style" should depend in the least upon so
+ridiculous a thing as moral sense: or that Allegra's father, watching
+her drive by in Count G.'s coach and six, had any remnant of so
+ridiculous a thing to guide,&mdash;or check,&mdash;his poetical passion, may alike
+seem more than questionable to the liberal and chaste philosophy of the
+existing British public. But, first of all, putting the question of who
+writes or speaks aside, do you, good reader, <i>know</i> good "style" when
+you get it? Can you say, of half a dozen given lines taken anywhere out
+of a novel, or poem, or play, That is good, essentially, in style, or
+bad, essentially? and can you say why such half-dozen lines are good, or
+bad?</p>
+
+<p>65. I imagine that in most cases, the reply would be given with
+hesitation, yet if you will give me a little patience, and take some
+accurate pains, I can show you the main tests of style in the space of a
+couple of pages.</p>
+
+<p>I take two examples of absolutely perfect, and in manner highest, <i>i.
+e.</i>, kingly, and heroic, style: the first example in expression of
+anger, the second of love.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1)</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"We are glad the Dauphin is so pleasant with us,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">His present, and your pains, we thank you for.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">When we have match'd our rackets to these balls,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">We will in France, by God's grace, play a set</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall strike his father's crown into the hazard."</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2)</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"My gracious Silence, hail!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Would'st thou have laughed, had I come coffin'd home</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That weep'st to see me triumph? Ah, my dear,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Such eyes the widows in Corioli wear</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And mothers that lack sons."</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>66. Let us note, point by point, the conditions of greatness common to
+both these passages, so opposite in temper.</p>
+
+<p>A. Absolute command over all passion, however intense; this the
+first-of-first conditions, (see the King's own sentence just before, "We
+are no tyrant, but a Christian King, Unto <i>whose grace</i> our passion is
+as subject As are our wretches fettered in our prisons"); and with this
+self-command, the supremely surveying grasp of every thought that is to
+be uttered, before its utterance; so that each may come in its exact
+place, time, and connection. The slightest hurry, the misplacing of a
+word, or the unnecessary accent on a syllable, would destroy the "style"
+in an instant.</p>
+
+<p>B. Choice of the fewest and simplest words that can be found in the
+compass of the language, to express the thing meant: these few words
+being also arranged in the most straightforward and intelligible way;
+allowing inversion only when the subject can be made primary without
+obscurity: (thus, "his present, and your pains, we thank you for" is
+better than "we thank you for his present and your pains," because the
+Dauphin's gift is by courtesy put before the Ambassador's pains; but
+"when to these balls our rackets we have matched" would have spoiled the
+style in a moment, because&mdash;I was going to have said, ball and racket
+are of equal rank, and therefore only the natural order proper; but also
+here the natural order is the desired one, the English racket to have
+precedence of the French ball). In the fourth line the "in France" comes
+first, as announcing the most important resolution of action; the "by
+God's grace" next, as the only condition rendering resolution possible;
+the detail of issue follows with the strictest limit in the final word.
+The King does not say "danger," far less "dishonor," but "hazard" only;
+of <i>that</i> he is, humanly speaking, sure.</p>
+
+<p>67. C. Perfectly emphatic and clear utterance of the chosen words;
+slowly in the degree of their importance, with omission however of every
+word not absolutely required; and natural use of the familiar
+contractions of final dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>syllable. Thus "play a set shall strike" is
+better than "play a set <i>that</i> shall strike," and "match'd" is kingly
+short&mdash;no necessity of meter could have excused "matched" instead. On
+the contrary, the three first words, "We are glad," would have been
+spoken by the king more slowly and fully than any other syllables in the
+whole passage, first pronouncing the kingly "we" at its proudest, and
+then the "are" as a continuous state, and then the "glad," as the exact
+contrary of what the ambassadors expected him to be.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>D. Absolute spontaneity in doing all this, easily and necessarily as the
+heart beats. The king <i>cannot</i> speak otherwise than he does&mdash;nor the
+hero. The words not merely come to them, but are compelled to them. Even
+lisping numbers "come," but mighty numbers are ordained, and inspired.</p>
+
+<p>E. Melody in the words, changeable with their passion, fitted to it
+exactly, and the utmost of which the language is capable&mdash;the melody in
+prose being Eolian and variable&mdash;in verse, nobler by submitting itself
+to stricter law. I will enlarge upon this point presently.</p>
+
+<p>F. Utmost spiritual contents in the words; so that each carries not only
+its instant meaning, but a cloudy companionship of higher or darker
+meaning according to the passion&mdash;nearly always indicated by metaphor:
+"play a set"&mdash;sometimes by abstraction&mdash;(thus in the second passage
+"silence" for silent one) sometimes by description instead of direct
+epithet ("coffined" for dead) but always indicative of there being more
+in the speaker's mind than he has said, or than he can say, full though
+his saying be. On the quantity of this attendant fullness depends the
+majesty of style; that is to say, virtually, on the quantity of
+contained thought in briefest words, such thought being primarily loving
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> true: and this the sum of all&mdash;that nothing can be well said, but
+with truth, nor beautifully, but by love.</p>
+
+<p>68. These are the essential conditions of noble speech in prose and
+verse alike, but the adoption of the form of verse, and especially rymed
+verse, means the addition to all these qualities of one more; of music,
+that is to say, not Eolian merely, but Apolline; a construction or
+architecture of words fitted and befitting, under external laws of time
+and harmony.</p>
+
+<p>When Byron says "rhyme is of the rude,"<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> he means that Burns needs
+it,&mdash;while Henry the Fifth does not, nor Plato, nor Isaiah&mdash;yet in this
+need of it by the simple, it becomes all the more religious: and thus
+the loveliest pieces of Chris<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>tian language are all in ryme&mdash;the best of
+Dante, Chaucer, Douglas, Shakespeare, Spenser, and Sidney.</p>
+
+<p>69. I am not now able to keep abreast with the tide of modern
+scholarship; (nor, to say the truth, do I make the effort, the first
+edge of its waves being mostly muddy, and apt to make a shallow sweep of
+the shore refuse:) so that I have no better book of reference by me than
+the confused essay on the antiquity of ryme at the end of Turner's
+"Anglo-Saxons." I cannot however conceive a more interesting piece of
+work, if not yet done, than the collection of sifted earliest fragments
+known of rymed song in European languages. Of Eastern I know nothing;
+but, this side Hellespont, the substance of the matter is all given in
+King Canute's impromptu</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Gaily" (or is it sweetly?&mdash;I forget which, and it's no matter)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"sang the monks of Ely,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">As Knut the king came sailing by;"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>much to be noted by any who make their religion lugubrious, and their
+Sunday the eclipse of the week. And observe further, that if Milton does
+not ryme, it is because his faculty of Song was concerning Loss,
+chiefly; and he has little more than faculty of Croak, concerning Gain;
+while Dante, though modern readers never go further with him than into
+the Pit, is stayed only by Casella in the ascent to the Rose of Heaven.
+So, Gibbon can write in <i>his</i> manner the Fall of Rome; but Virgil, in
+<i>his</i> manner, the rise of it; and finally Douglas, in <i>his</i> manner,
+bursts into such rymed passion of praise both of Rome and Virgil, as
+befits a Christian Bishop, and a good subject of the Holy See.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Master of Masters&mdash;sweet source, and springing well,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wide where over all rings thy heavenly bell;</span><br />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%; Margin-left: 2em; Margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" />
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Why should I then with dull forehead and vain,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With rude ingene, and barane, emptive brain,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With bad harsh speech, and lewit barbare tongue</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presume to write, where thy sweet bell is rung,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or counterfeit thy precious wordis dear?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Na, na&mdash;not so; but kneel when I them hear.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But farther more&mdash;and lower to descend</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Forgive me, Virgil, if I thee offend</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pardon thy scolar, suffer him to ryme</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Since <i>thou</i> wast but ane mortal man sometime."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>"Before honor is humility." Does not clearer light come for you on that
+law after reading these nobly pious words? And note you <i>whose</i>
+humility? How is it that the sound of the bell comes so instinctively
+into his chiming verse? This gentle singer is the son of&mdash;Archibald
+Bell-the-Cat!</p>
+
+<p>70. And now perhaps you can read with right sympathy the scene in
+"Marmion" between his father and King James.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"His hand the monarch sudden took&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Now, by the Bruce's soul,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angus, my hasty speech forgive,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For sure as doth his spirit live</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">As he said of the Douglas old</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I well may say of you,&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That never king did subject hold,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In speech more free, in war more bold,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">More tender and more true:'</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And while the king his hand did strain</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The old man's tears fell down like rain."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I believe the most infidel of scholastic readers can scarcely but
+perceive the relation between the sweetness, simplicity, and melody of
+expression in these passages, and the gentleness of the passions they
+express, while men who are not scholastic, and yet are true scholars,
+will recognize further in them that the simplicity of the educated is
+lovelier than the simplicity of the rude. Hear next a piece of Spenser's
+teaching how rudeness itself may become more beautiful even by its
+mistakes, if the mistakes are made lovingly.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Ye shepherds' daughters that dwell on the green,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hye you there apace;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Let none come there but that virgins been</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">To adorn her grace:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And when you come, whereas she in place,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See that your rudeness do not you disgrace;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bind your fillets fast,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">And gird in your waste,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For more fineness, with a taudry lace.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bring hither the pink and purple cullumbine</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">With gylliflowers;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bring coronati&ouml;ns, and sops in wine,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Worn of paramours;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strow me the ground with daffadowndillies</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And cowslips, and kingcups, and loved lilies;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The pretty paunce</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">And the chevisaunce</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall match with the fair flowre-delice."<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>71. Two short pieces more only of master song, and we have enough to
+test all by.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1)</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"No more, no more, since thou art dead,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Shall we e'er bring coy brides to bed,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">No more, at yearly festivals,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">We cowslip balls</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Or chains of columbines shall make,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">For this or that occasion's sake.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">No, no! our maiden pleasures be</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wrapt in thy winding-sheet with thee."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2)</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Death is now the phoenix nest,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">And the turtle's loyal breast</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">To eternity doth rest.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Truth may seem, but cannot be;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Beauty brag, but 'tis not she:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Truth and beauty buried be."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>72. If now, with the echo of these perfect verses in your mind, you turn
+to Byron, and glance over, or recall to mem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>ory, enough of him to give
+means of exact comparison, you will, or should, recognize these
+following kinds of mischief in him. First, if anyone offends him&mdash;as for
+instance Mr. Southey, or Lord Elgin&mdash;"his manners have not that repose
+that marks the caste," etc. <i>This</i> defect in his Lordship's style, being
+myself scrupulously and even painfully reserved in the use of
+vituperative language, I need not say how deeply I deplore.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>Secondly. In the best and most violet-bedded bits of his work there is
+yet, as compared with Elizabethan and earlier verse, a strange taint; an
+indefinable&mdash;evening flavor of Covent Garden, as it were;&mdash;not to say,
+escape of gas in the Strand. That is simply what it proclaims
+itself&mdash;London air. If he had lived all his life in Green-head Ghyll,
+things would of course have been different. But it was his fate to come
+to town&mdash;modern town&mdash;like Michael's son; and modern London (and Venice)
+are answerable for the state of their drains, not Byron.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly. His melancholy is without any relief whatsoever; his jest
+sadder than his earnest; while, in Elizabethan work, all lament is full
+of hope, and all pain of balsam.</p>
+
+<p>Of this evil he has himself told you the cause in a single line
+prophetic of all things since and now. "Where <i>he</i> gazed, a gloom
+pervaded space."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>So that, for instance, while Mr. Wordsworth, on a visit to town, being
+an exemplary early riser, could walk, felicitous, on Westminster Bridge,
+remarking how the city now did like a garment wear the beauty of the
+morning; Byron,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> rising somewhat later, contemplated only the garment
+which the beauty of the morning had by that time received for wear from
+the city: and again, while Mr. Wordsworth, in irrepressible religious
+rapture, calls God to witness that the houses seem asleep, Byron, lame
+demon as he was, flying smoke-drifted, unroofs the houses at a glance,
+and sees what the mighty cockney heart of them contains in the still
+lying of it, and will stir up to purpose in the waking business of it,</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The sordor of civilization, mixed</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With all the passions which Man's fall hath fixed."<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>73. Fourthly, with this steadiness of bitter melancholy, there is joined
+a sense of the material beauty, both of inanimate nature, the lower
+animals, and human beings, which in the iridescence, color-depth, and
+morbid (I use the word deliberately) mystery and softness of it,&mdash;with
+other qualities indescribable by any single words, and only to be
+analyzed by extreme care,&mdash;is found, to the full, only in five men that
+I know of in modern times; namely, Rousseau, Shelley, Byron, Turner, and
+myself,&mdash;differing totally and throughout the entire group of us, from
+the delight in clear-struck beauty of Angelico and the Trecentisti; and
+separated, much more singularly, from the cheerful joys of Chaucer,
+Shakespeare, and Scott, by its unaccountable affection for "Rokkes blak"
+and other forms of terror and power, such as those of the ice-oceans,
+which to Shakespeare were only Alpine rheum; and the Via Malas and
+Diabolic Bridges which Dante would have condemned none but lost souls to
+climb, or cross;&mdash;all this love of impending mountains, coiled
+thunder-clouds, and dangerous sea, being joined in us with a sulky,
+almost ferine, love of retreat in valleys of Charmettes, gulfs of
+Spezzia, ravines of Olympus, low lodgings in Chelsea, and close
+brushwood at Coniston.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>74. And, lastly, also in the whole group of us, glows volcanic instinct
+of Astr&aelig;an justice returning not to, but up out of, the earth, which
+will not at all suffer us to rest any more in Pope's serene "whatever
+is, is right"; but holds, on the contrary, profound conviction that
+about ninety-nine hundredths of whatever at present is, is wrong:
+conviction making four of us, according to our several manners, leaders
+of revolution for the poor, and declarers of political doctrine
+monstrous to the ears of mercenary mankind; and driving the fifth, less
+sanguine, into mere painted-melody of lament over the fallacy of Hope
+and the implacableness of Fate.</p>
+
+<p>In Byron the indignation, the sorrow, and the effort are joined to the
+death: and they are the parts of his nature (as of mine also in its
+feebler terms), which the selfishly comfortable public have, literally,
+no conception of whatever; and from which the piously sentimental
+public, offering up daily the pure oblation of divine tranquillity,
+shrink with anathema not unembittered by alarm.</p>
+
+<p>75. Concerning which matters I hope to speak further and with more
+precise illustration in my next paper; but, seeing that this present one
+has been hitherto somewhat somber, and perhaps, to gentle readers, not a
+little discomposing, I will conclude it with a piece of light biographic
+study, necessary to my plan, and as conveniently admissible in this
+place as afterwards;&mdash;namely, the account of the manner in which
+Scott&mdash;whom we shall always find, as aforesaid, to be in salient and
+palpable elements of character, of the World, worldly, as Burns is of
+the Flesh, fleshly, and Byron of the Deuce, damnable,&mdash;spent his Sunday.</p>
+
+<p>76. As usual, from Lockhart's farrago we cannot find out the first thing
+we want to know,&mdash;whether Scott worked after his week-day custom, on the
+Sunday morning. But, I gather, not; at all events his household and his
+cattle rested (L. iii. 108). I imagine he walked out into his woods, or
+read quietly in his study. Immediately after breakfast, whoever was in
+the house, "Ladies and gentlemen, I shall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> read prayers at eleven, when
+I expect you all to attend" (vii. 306). Question of college and other
+externally unanimous prayer settled for us very briefly: "if you have no
+faith, have at least manners." He read the Church of England service,
+lessons and all, the latter, if interesting, eloquently (<i>ibid.</i>). After
+the service, one of Jeremy Taylor's sermons (vi. 188). After sermon, if
+the weather was fine, walk with his family, dogs included and guests, to
+<i>cold</i> picnic (iii. 109), followed by short extempore biblical
+novelettes; for he had his Bible, the Old Testament especially, by
+heart, it having been his mother's last gift to him (vi. 174). These
+lessons to his children in Bible history were always given, whether
+there was picnic or not. For the rest of the afternoon he took his
+pleasure in the woods with Tom Purdie, who also always appeared at his
+master's elbow on Sunday after dinner was over, and drank long life to
+the laird and his lady and all the good company, in a quaigh of whisky
+or a tumbler of wine, according to his fancy (vi. 195). Whatever might
+happen on the other evenings of the week, Scott always dined at home on
+Sunday; and with old friends: never, unless inevitably, receiving any
+person with whom he stood on ceremony (v. 335). He came into the room
+rubbing his hands like a boy arriving at home for the holidays, his
+Peppers and Mustards gamboling about him, "and even the stately Maida
+grinning and wagging his tail with sympathy." For the usquebaugh of the
+less honored week-days, at the Sunday board he circulated the champagne
+briskly during dinner, and considered a pint of claret each man's fair
+share afterwards (v. 339). In the evening, music being to the Scottish
+worldly mind indecorous, he read aloud some favorite author, for the
+amusement or edification of his little circle. Shakespeare it might be,
+or Dryden,&mdash;Johnson, or Joanna Baillie,&mdash;Crabbe, or Wordsworth. But in
+those days "Byron was pouring out his spirit fresh and full, and if a
+new piece from <i>his</i> hand had appeared, it was <i>sure to be read by Scott
+the Sunday evening afterwards</i>; and that with such delighted emphasis
+as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> showed how completely the elder bard had kept up his enthusiasm for
+poetry at pitch of youth, and all his admiration of genius, free, pure,
+and unstained by the least drop of literary jealousy" (v. 341).</p>
+
+<p>77. With such necessary and easily imaginable varieties as chanced in
+having Dandie Dinmont or Captain Brown for guests at Abbotsford, or
+Colonel Mannering, Counselor Pleydell, and Dr. Robertson in Castle
+Street, such was Scott's habitual Sabbath: a day, we perceive, of eating
+the fat, (<i>dinner</i>, presumably not cold, being a work of necessity and
+mercy&mdash;thou also, even thou, Saint Thomas of Turnbull, hast thine!) and
+drinking the sweet, abundant in the manner of Mr. Southey's cataract of
+Lodore,&mdash;"Here it comes, sparkling." A day bestrewn with coronati&ouml;ns and
+sops in wine; deep in libations to good hope and fond memory; a day of
+rest to beast, and mirth to man, (as also to sympathetic beasts that can
+be merry,) and concluding itself in an Orphic hour of delight,
+signifying peace on Tweedside, and goodwill to men, there or far
+away;&mdash;always excepting the French, and Boney.</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, and see what it all came to in the end."</p>
+
+<p>Not so, dark-virulent Minos-Mucklewrath; the end came of quite other
+things; of <i>these</i>, came such length of days and peace as Scott had in
+his Fatherland, and such immortality as he has in all lands.</p>
+
+<p>78. Nathless, firm, though deeply courteous, rebuke, for his sometimes
+overmuch lightmindedness, was administered to him by the more grave and
+thoughtful Byron. For the Lord Abbot of Newstead knew his Bible by heart
+as well as Scott, though it had never been given him by his mother as
+her dearest possession. Knew it, and what was more, had thought of it,
+and sought in it what Scott had never cared to think, nor been fain to
+seek.</p>
+
+<p>And loving Scott well, and always doing him every possible pleasure in
+the way he sees to be most agreeable to him&mdash;as, for instance,
+remembering with precision, and writing down the very next morning,
+every blessed word<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> that the Prince Regent had been pleased to say of
+him before courtly audience,&mdash;he yet conceived that such cheap ryming as
+his own "Bride of Abydos," for instance, which he had written from
+beginning to end in four days, or even the traveling reflections of
+Harold and Juan on men and women, were scarcely steady enough Sunday
+afternoon's reading for a patriarch-Merlin like Scott. So he dedicates
+to him a work of a truly religious tendency, on which for his own part
+he has done his best,&mdash;the drama of "Cain." Of which dedication the
+virtual significance to Sir Walter might be translated thus. Dearest and
+last of Border soothsayers, thou hast indeed told us of Black Dwarfs,
+and of White Maidens, also of Gray Friars, and Green Fairies; also of
+sacred hollies by the well, and haunted crooks in the glen. But of the
+bushes that the black dogs rend in the woods of Phlegethon; and of the
+crooks in the glen, and the bickerings of the burnie where ghosts meet
+the mightiest of us; and of the black misanthrope, who is by no means
+yet a dwarfed one, and concerning whom wiser creatures than Hobbie
+Elliot may tremblingly ask "Gude guide us, what's yon?" hast thou yet
+known, seeing that thou hast yet told, <i>nothing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Scott may perhaps have his answer. We shall in good time hear.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> September, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "It must be put by the original, stanza for stanza, and
+verse for verse; and you will see what was permitted in a Catholic
+country and a bigoted age to Churchmen, on the score of Religion&mdash;and so
+tell those buffoons who accuse me of attacking the Liturgy.
+</p><p>
+"I write in the greatest haste, it being the hour of the Corso, and I
+must go and buffoon with the rest. My daughter Allegra is just gone with
+the Countess G. in Count G.'s coach and six. Our old Cardinal is dead,
+and the new one not appointed yet&mdash;but the masquing goes on the same."
+(Letter to Murray, 355th in Moore, dated Ravenna, Feb. 7, 1820.) "A
+dreadfully moral place, for you must not look at anybody's wife, except
+your neighbor's."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See quoted <i>infra</i> the mock, by Byron, of himself and all
+other modern poets, "Juan," canto iii. stanza 80, and compare canto xiv.
+stanza 8. In reference of future quotations the first numeral will stand
+always for canto; the second for stanza; the third, if necessary, for
+line.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> "Island," ii. 16, where see context.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Juan," viii. 5; but, by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says "instrument,"&mdash;not "daughter." Your Lordship had better
+have said "Infant" and taken the Woolwich authorities to witness: only
+Infant would not have rymed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> "Juan," viii. 3; compare 14, and 63, with all its lovely
+context 61-68: then 82, and afterwards slowly and with thorough
+attention, the Devil's speech, beginning, "Yes, Sir, you forget" in
+scene 2 of "The Deformed Transformed": then Sardanapalus's, act i. scene
+2, beginning, "he is gone, and on his finger bears my signet," and
+finally the "Vision of Judgment," stanzas 3 to 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> "Island," iii. 3, and compare, of shore surf, the "slings
+its high flakes, shivered into sleet" of stanza 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> A modern editor&mdash;of whom I will not use the expressions
+which occur to me&mdash;finding the "we" a redundant syllable in the iambic
+line, prints, "we're." It is a little thing&mdash;but I do not recollect, in
+the forty years of my literary experience, any piece of editor's retouch
+quite so base. But I don't read the new editions much: that must be
+allowed for.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> "Island," ii. 5. I was going to say, "Look to the
+context," but am fain to give it here; for the stanza, learned by heart,
+ought to be our school-introduction to the literature of the world.
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Such was this ditty of Tradition's days,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Which to the dead a lingering fame conveys</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In song, where fame as yet hath left no sign</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beyond the sound whose charm is half divine;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Which leaves no record to the skeptic eye,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But yields young history all to harmony;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A boy Achilles, with the centaur's lyre</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In hand, to teach him to surpass his sire.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For one long-cherish'd ballad's simple stave,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rung from the rock, or mingled with the wave,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or from the bubbling streamlet's grassy side,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or gathering mountain echoes as they glide,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hath greater power o'er each true heart and ear,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Than all the columns Conquest's minions rear;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Invites, when hieroglyphics are a theme</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For sages' labors or the student's dream;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Attracts, when History's volumes are a toil&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The first, the freshest bud of Feeling's soil,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Such was this rude rhyme&mdash;rhyme is of the rude,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But such inspired the Norseman's solitude,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Who came and conquer'd; such, wherever rise</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lands which no foes destroy or civilize,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exist; and what can our accomplish'd art</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of verse do more than reach the awaken'd heart?"</span><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> "Shepherd's Calendar." "Coronati&ouml;n," loyal-pastoral for
+Carnation; "sops in wine," jolly-pastoral for double pink; "paunce,"
+thoughtless pastoral for pansy; "chevisaunce," I don't know (not in
+Gerarde); "flowre-delice"&mdash;pronounce dellice&mdash;half made up of "delicate"
+and "delicious."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Herrick, "Dirge for Jephthah's Daughter."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> "Passionate Pilgrim."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> In this point compare the "Curse of Minerva" with the
+"Tears of the Muses."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "He,"&mdash;Lucifer; ("Vision of Judgment," 24). It is
+precisely because Byron was <i>not</i> his servant, that he could see the
+gloom. To the Devil's true servants, their Master's presence brings both
+cheerfulness and prosperity; with a delightful sense of their own wisdom
+and virtue; and of the "progress" of things in general:&mdash;in smooth sea
+and fair weather,&mdash;and with no need either of helm touch, or oar toil:
+as when once one is well within the edge of Maelstrom.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> "Island," ii. 4; perfectly orthodox theology, you observe;
+no denial of the fall,&mdash;nor substitution of Bacterian birth for it. Nay,
+nearly Evangelical theology, in contempt for the human heart; but with
+deeper than Evangelical humility, acknowledging also what is sordid in
+its civilization.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.</h2>
+
+<h3>IV.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>79. I fear the editor of the <i>Nineteenth Century</i> will get little thanks
+from his readers for allowing so much space in closely successive
+numbers to my talk of old-fashioned men and things. I have nevertheless
+asked his indulgence, this time, for a note or two concerning yet older
+fashions, in order to bring into sharper clearness the leading outlines
+of literary fact, which I ventured only in my last paper to secure in
+<i>silhouette</i>, obscurely asserting itself against the limelight of recent
+moral creed, and fiction manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The Bishop of Manchester, on the occasion of the great Wordsworthian
+movement in that city for the enlargement, adornment, and sale of
+Thirlmere, observed, in his advocacy of these operations, that very few
+people, he supposed, had ever seen Tairlmere. His Lordship might have
+supposed, with greater felicity, that very few people had ever read
+Wordsworth. My own experience in that matter is that the amiable persons
+who call themselves "Wordsworthian" have read&mdash;usually a long time
+ago&mdash;"Lucy Gray," "The April Mornings," a picked sonnet or two, and the
+"Ode on the Intimations," which last they seem generally to be under the
+impression that nobody else has ever met with: and my further experience
+of these sentimental students is, that they are seldom inclined to put
+in practice a single syllable of the advice tendered them by their model
+poet.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as I happen myself to have used Wordsworth as a daily text-book
+from youth to age, and have lived, moreover, in all essential points
+according to the tenor of his teaching, it was matter of some
+mortification to me, when, at Oxford,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> I tried to get the memory of Mr.
+Wilkinson's spade honored by some practical spadework at Ferry Hincksey,
+to find that no other tutor in Oxford could see the slightest good or
+meaning in what I was about; and that although my friend Professor
+Rolleston occasionally sought the shades of our Rydalian laurels with
+expressions of admiration, his professorial manner of "from pastoral
+graves extracting thoughts divine" was to fill the Oxford Museum with
+the scabbed skulls of plague-struck cretins.</p>
+
+<p>80. I therefore respectfully venture to intimate to my bucolic friends,
+that I know, more vitally by far than they, what <i>is</i> in Wordsworth, and
+what is not. Any man who chooses to live by his precepts will thankfully
+find in them a beauty and rightness, (<i>exquisite</i> rightness I called it,
+in "Sesame and Lilies,") which will preserve him alike from mean
+pleasure, vain hope, and guilty deed: so that he will neither mourn at
+the gate of the fields which with covetous spirit he sold, nor drink of
+the waters which with yet more covetous spirit he stole, nor devour the
+bread of the poor in secret, nor set on his guest-table the poor man's
+lamb:&mdash;in all these homely virtues and assured justices let him be
+Wordsworth's true disciple; and he will then be able with equanimity to
+hear it said, when there is need to say so, that his excellent master
+often wrote verses that were not musical, and sometimes expressed
+opinions that were not profound.</p>
+
+<p>And the need to say so becomes imperative when the unfinished verse, and
+uncorrected fancy, are advanced by the affection of his disciples into
+places of authority where they give countenance to the popular national
+prejudices from the infection of which, in most cases, they themselves
+sprang.</p>
+
+<p>81. Take, for example, the following three and a half lines of the 38th
+Ecclesiastical Sonnet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Amazement strikes the crowd; while many turn</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Their eyes away in sorrow, others burn</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With scorn, invoking a vindictive ban</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">From outraged Nature."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The first quite evident character of these lines is that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> are
+extremely bad iambics,&mdash;as ill-constructed as they are unmelodious; the
+turning and burning being at the wrong ends of them, and the ends
+themselves put just when the sentence is in its middle.</p>
+
+<p>But a graver fault of these three and a half lines is that the
+amazement, the turning, the burning, and the banning, are all alike
+fictitious; and foul-fictitious, calumniously conceived no less than
+falsely. Not one of the spectators of the scene referred to was in
+reality amazed&mdash;not one contemptuous, not one maledictory. It is only
+our gentle minstrel of the meres who sits in the seat of the
+scornful&mdash;only the hermit of Rydal Mount who invokes the malison of
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>What the scene verily was, and how witnessed, it will not take long to
+tell; nor will the tale be useless: but I must first refer the reader to
+a period preceding, by nearly a century, the great symbolic action under
+the porch of St. Mark's.</p>
+
+<p>82. The Protestant ecclesiastic, and infidel historian, who delight to
+prop their pride, or edge their malice, in unveiling the corruption
+through which Christianity has passed, should study in every fragment of
+authentic record which the fury of their age has left, the lives of the
+three queens of the Priesthood, Theodora, Marozia, and Matilda, and the
+foundation of the merciless power of the Popes, by the monk Hildebrand.
+And if there be any of us who would satisfy with nobler food than the
+catastrophes of the stage, the awe at what is marvelous in human sorrow
+which makes sacred the fountain of tears in authentic tragedy, let them
+follow, pace by pace, and pang by pang, the humiliation of the fourth
+Henry at Canossa, and his death in the church he had built to the Virgin
+at Spire.</p>
+
+<p>His antagonist, Hildebrand, died twenty years before him; captive to the
+Normans in Salerno, having seen the Rome in which he had proclaimed his
+princedom over all the earth, laid in her last ruin; and forever. Rome
+herself, since her desolation by Guiscard, has been only a grave and a
+wilderness<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>&mdash;what <i>we</i> call Rome, is a mere colony of the stranger
+in her "Field of Mars." This destruction of Rome by the Normans is
+accurately and utterly the end of her Capitoline and wolf-suckled power;
+and from that day her Leonine or Christian power takes its throne in the
+Leonine city, sanctified in tradition by its prayer of safety for the
+Saxon Borgo, in which the childhood of our own Alfred had been trained.</p>
+
+<p>And from this date forward, (recollected broadly as 1090, the year of
+the birth of St. Bernard,) no longer oppressed by the remnants of Roman
+death,&mdash;Christian faith, chivalry, and art possess the world, and
+recreate it, through the space of four hundred years&mdash;the twelfth,
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>And, necessarily, in the first of these centuries comes the main debate
+between the powers of Monk and Knight which was reconciled in this scene
+under the porch of St. Mark's.</p>
+
+<p>83. That debate was brought to its crisis and issue by the birth of the
+new third elemental force of the State&mdash;the Citizen. Sismondi's
+republican enthusiasm does not permit him to recognize the essential
+character of this power. He speaks always of the Republics and the
+liberties of Italy, as if a craftsman differed from a knight only in
+political privileges, and as if his special virtue consisted in
+rendering obedience to no master. But the strength of the great cities
+of Italy was no more republican than that of her monasteries, or
+fortresses. The Craftsman of Milan, Sailor of Pisa, and Merchant of
+Venice are all of them essentially different persons from the soldier
+and the anchorite:&mdash;but the city, under the banner of its <i>caroccio</i>,
+and the command of its <i>podesta</i>, was disciplined far more strictly than
+any wandering military squadron by its leader, or any lower order of
+monks under their abbot. In the founding of civic constitutions, the
+Lord of the city is usually its Bishop:&mdash;and it is curious to hear the
+republican historian&mdash;who, however in judgment blind, is never in heart
+uncandid, prepare to close his record of the ten years' war of Como with
+Milan, with this summary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> of distress to the heroic mountaineers&mdash;that
+"they had lost their Bishop Guido, who was their soul."</p>
+
+<p>84. I perceive for quite one of the most hopeless of the many
+difficulties which Modernism finds, and will find, insuperable either by
+steam or dynamite, that of either wedging or welding into its own
+cast-iron head, any conception of a king, monk, or townsman of the
+twelfth and two succeeding centuries. And yet no syllable of the
+utterance, no fragment of the arts of the middle ages, far less any
+motive of their deeds, can be read even in the letter&mdash;how much less
+judged in spirit&mdash;unless, first of all, we can somewhat imagine all
+these three Living souls.</p>
+
+<p>First, a king who was the best knight in his kingdom, and on whose own
+swordstrokes hung the fate of Christendom. A king such as Henry the
+Fowler, the first and third Edwards of England, the Bruce of Scotland,
+and this Frederic the First of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, a monk who had been trained from youth in greater hardship
+than any soldier, and had learned at last to desire no other life than
+one of hardship;&mdash;a man believing in his own and his fellows'
+immortality, in the aiding powers of angels, and the eternal presence of
+God; versed in all the science, graceful in all the literature,
+cognizant of all the policy of his age; and fearless of any created
+thing, on the earth or under it.</p>
+
+<p>And, lastly, a craftsman absolutely master of his craft, and taking such
+pride in the exercise of it as all healthy souls take in putting forth
+their personal powers: proud also of his city and his people; enriching,
+year by year, their streets with loftier buildings, their treasuries
+with rarer possession; and bequeathing his hereditary art to a line of
+successive masters, by whose tact of race, and honor of effort, the
+essential skills of metal-work in gold and steel, of pottery,
+glass-painting, woodwork, and weaving, were carried to a perfectness
+never to be surpassed; and of which our utmost modern hope is to produce
+a not instantly detected imitation.</p>
+
+<p>These three kinds of persons, I repeat, we have to conceive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> before we
+can understand any single event of the Middle Ages. For all that is
+enduring in them was done by men such as these. History, indeed, records
+twenty undoings for one deed, twenty desolations for one redemption; and
+thinks the fool and villain potent as the wise and true. But Nature and
+her laws recognize only the noble: generations of the cruel pass like
+the darkness of locust plagues; while one loving and brave heart
+establishes a nation.</p>
+
+<p>85. I give the character of Barbarossa in the words of Sismondi, a man
+sparing in the praise of emperors:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The death of Frederic was mourned even by the cities which so long had
+been the objects of his hostility, and the victims of his vengeance. All
+the Lombards&mdash;even the Milanese&mdash;acknowledged his rare courage, his
+constancy in misfortune&mdash;his generosity in conquest.</p>
+
+<p>"An intimate conviction of the justice of his cause had often rendered
+him cruel, even to ferocity, against those who still resisted; but after
+victory he took vengeance only on senseless walls; and irritated as he
+had been by the people of Milan, Crema, and Tortona, and whatever blood
+he had shed during battle, he never sullied his triumph by odious
+punishments. In spite of the treason which he on one occasion used
+against Alessandria, his promises were in general respected; and when,
+after the peace of Constance, the towns which had been most inveterately
+hostile to him received him within their walls, they had no need to
+guard against any attempt on his part to suppress the privileges he had
+once recognized."</p>
+
+<p>My own estimate of Frederic's character would be scarcely so favorable;
+it is the only point of history on which I have doubted the authority
+even of my own master, Carlyle. But I am concerned here only with the
+actualities of his wars in Italy, with the people of her cities, and the
+head of her religion.</p>
+
+<p>86. Frederic of Suabia, direct heir of the Ghibelline rights, while
+nearly related by blood to the Guelph houses of Bavaria and Saxony, was
+elected emperor almost in the exact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> middle of the twelfth century
+(1152). He was called into Italy by the voices of Italians. The then
+Pope, Eugenius III., invoked his aid against the Roman people under
+Arnold of Brescia. The people of Lodi prayed his protection against the
+tyrannies of Milan.</p>
+
+<p>Frederic entered the plain of Verona in 1154, by the valley of the
+Adige,&mdash;ravaged the territory of Milan,&mdash;pillaged and burned Tortona,
+Asti, and Chieri,&mdash;kept his Christmas at Novara; marched on
+Rome,&mdash;delivered up Arnold to the Pope<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> (who, instantly killing him,
+ended for that time Protestant reforms in Italy)&mdash;destroyed Spoleto; and
+returned by Verona, having scorched his path through Italy like a level
+thunderbolt along the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Three years afterwards, Adrian died; and, chiefly, by the love and will
+of the Roman people, Roland of Siena was raised to the Papal throne,
+under the name of Alexander III. The conclave of cardinals chose another
+Pope, Victor III.; Frederic on his second invasion of Italy (1158)
+summoned both elected heads of the Church to receive judgment of their
+claims before <i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Cardinals' Pope, Victor, obeyed. The people's Alexander, refused;
+answering that the successor of St. Peter submitted himself to the
+judgment neither of emperors nor councils.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of modern prelacy may perhaps have rendered it impossible for
+an English churchman to conceive this answer as other than that of
+insolence and hypocrisy. But a faithful Pope, and worthy of his throne,
+could answer no otherwise. Frederic of course at once confirmed the
+claims of his rival; the German bishops and Italian cardinals in council
+at Pavia joined their powers to the Emperor's and Alexander, driven from
+Rome, wandered&mdash;unsubdued in soul&mdash;from city to city, taking refuge at
+last in France.</p>
+
+<p>87. Meantime, in 1159, Frederic took and destroyed Crema, having first
+bound its hostages to his machines of war. In 1161, Milan submitted to
+his mercy, and he decreed that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> her name should perish. Only a few
+pillars of a Roman temple, and the church of St. Ambrose, remain to us
+of the ancient city. Warned by her destruction, Verona, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, and Venice, joined in the vow&mdash;called of the Lombard League&mdash;to
+reduce the Emperor's power within its just limits. And, in 1164,
+Alexander, under the protection of Louis VII. of France and Henry II. of
+England, returned to Rome, and was received at Ostia by its senate,
+clergy, and people.</p>
+
+<p>Three years afterwards, Frederic again swept down on the Campagna;
+attacked the Leonine city, where the basilica of the Vatican, changed
+into a fortress, and held by the Pope's guard, resisted his assault
+until, by the Emperor's order, fire was set to the Church of St. Mary of
+Pity.</p>
+
+<p>The Leonine city was taken; the Pope retired to the Coliseum, whence,
+uttering once again his fixed defiance of the Emperor, but fearing
+treachery, he fled in disguise down the Tiber to the sea, and sought
+asylum at Benevento.</p>
+
+<p>The German army encamped round Rome in August of 1166, with the sign
+before their eyes of the ruins of the church of Our Lady of Pity. The
+marsh-fever struck them&mdash;killed the Emperor's cousin, Frederic of
+Rothenburg, the Duke of Bavaria, the Archbishop of Cologne, the Bishops
+of Li&eacute;ge, Spire, Ratisbonne, and Verden, and two thousand knights; the
+common dead were uncounted. The Emperor gathered the wreck of his army
+together, retreated on Lombardy, quartered his soldiery at Pavia, and
+escaped in secret over the Mont Cenis with thirty knights.</p>
+
+<p>88. No places of strength remained to him south of the Alps but Pavia
+and Montferrat; and to hold these in check, and command the plains of
+Piedmont, the Lombard League built the fortress city, which, from the
+Pope who had maintained through all adversity the authority of his
+throne and the cause of the Italian people, they named "Alessandria."</p>
+
+<p>Against this bulwark the Emperor, still indomitable, dashed with his
+utmost regathered strength after eight years of pause, and in the temper
+in which men set their souls on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> single stake. All had been lost in
+his last war, except his honor&mdash;in this, he lost his honor also.
+Whatever may be the just estimate of the other elements of his
+character, he is unquestionably, among the knights of his time, notable
+in impiety. In the battle of Cassano, he broke through the Milanese
+vanguard to their <i>caroccio</i>, and struck down with his own hand its
+golden crucifix;&mdash;two years afterwards its cross and standard were bowed
+before him&mdash;and in vain.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> He fearlessly claims for himself right of
+decision between contending popes, and camps against the rightful one on
+the ashes of the Church of the Virgin.</p>
+
+<p>Foiled in his first assault on Alessandria, detained before it through
+the inundations of the winter, and threatened by the army of the League
+in the spring, he announced a truce to the besieged, that they might
+keep Good Friday. Then violating alike the day's sanctity and his own
+oath, he attacked the trusting city through a secretly completed mine.
+And, for a second time, the verdict of God went forth against him. Every
+man who had obtained entrance within the city was slain or cast from its
+ramparts;&mdash;the Alessandrines threw all their gates open&mdash;fell, with the
+broken fugitives, on the investing troops, scattered them in disorder,
+and burned their towers of attack. The Emperor gathered their remains
+into Pavia on Easter Sunday,&mdash;spared in his defeat by the army of the
+League.</p>
+
+<p>89. And yet, once more, he brought his cause to combat-trial.
+Temporizing at Lodi with the Pope's legates, he assembled, under the
+Archbishops of Magdebourg and Cologne,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> and the chief prelates and
+princes of Germany, a seventh army; brought it down to Como across the
+Spl&uuml;gen, put himself there at its head, and in the early spring of 1176,
+the fifteenth year since he had decreed the effacing of the name of
+Milan, was met at Legnano by the specter of Milan.</p>
+
+<p>Risen from her grave, she led the Lombard League in this final battle.
+Three hundred of her nobles guarded her <i>caroccio</i>; nine hundred of her
+knights bound themselves&mdash;under the name of the Cohort of Death&mdash;to win
+for her, or to die.</p>
+
+<p>The field of battle is in the midst of the plain, now covered with maize
+and mulberry trees, from which the traveler, entering Italy by the Lago
+Maggiore, sees first the unbroken snows of the Rosa behind him and the
+white pinnacles of Milan Cathedral in the south. The Emperor, as was his
+wont, himself led his charging chivalry. The Milanese knelt as it
+came;&mdash;prayed aloud to God, St. Peter, and St. Ambrose&mdash;then advanced
+round their <i>caroccio</i> on foot. The Emperor's charge broke through their
+ranks nearly up to their standard&mdash;then the Cohort of Death rode against
+him.</p>
+
+<p>90. And all his battle changed before them into flight. For the first
+time in stricken field, the imperial standard fell, and was taken. The
+Milanese followed the broken host until their swords were weary; and the
+Emperor, struck fighting from his horse, was left, lost among the dead.
+The Empress, whose mercy to Milan he had forbidden, already wore
+mourning for him in Pavia, when her husband came, solitary and
+suppliant, to its gate.</p>
+
+<p>The lesson at last sufficed; and Barbarossa sent his heretic bishops to
+ask forgiveness of the Pope, and peace from the Lombards.</p>
+
+<p>Pardon and peace were granted&mdash;without conditions. "C&aelig;sar's successor"
+had been the blight of Italy for a quarter of a century; he had ravaged
+her harvests, burnt her cities, decimated her children with famine, her
+young men with the sword; and, seven times over, in renewed invasion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+sought to establish dominion over her, from the Alps to the rock of
+Scylla.</p>
+
+<p>She asked of him no restitution;&mdash;coveted no province&mdash;demanded no
+fortress, of his land. Neither coward nor robber, she disdained alike
+guard and gain upon her frontiers: she counted no compensation for her
+sorrow; and set no price upon the souls of her dead. She stood in the
+porch of her brightest temple&mdash;between the blue plains of her earth and
+sea, and, in the person of her spiritual father, gave her enemy pardon.</p>
+
+<p>"Black demons hovering o'er his mitered head," think you, gentle
+sonneteer of the daffodil-marsh? And have Barbarossa's race been taught
+of better angels how to bear themselves to a conquered emperor,&mdash;or
+England, by braver and more generous impulses, how to protect his exiled
+son?</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Venice, since that day, was measured by Byron in a single
+line:</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"An Emperor tramples where an emperor knelt."
+</p>
+
+<p>But what words shall measure the darker humiliation of the German
+pillaging his helpless enemy and England leaving her ally under the
+savage's spear?</p>
+
+<p>91. With the clews now given, and an hour or two's additional reading of
+any standard historian he pleases, the reader may judge on secure
+grounds whether the truce of Venice and peace of Constance were of the
+Devil's making: whereof whatever he may ultimately feel or affirm, this
+at least he will please note for positive, that Mr. Wordsworth, having
+no shadow of doubt of the complete wisdom of every idea that comes into
+his own head, writes down in dogmatic sonnet his first impression of
+black instrumentality in the business; so that his innocent readers,
+taking him for their sole master, far from caring to inquire into the
+thing more deeply, may remain even unconscious that it is disputable,
+and forever incapable of conceiving either a Catholic's feeling, or a
+careful historian's hesitation, touching the centrally momentous crisis
+of power in all the Middle Ages!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> Whereas Byron, knowing the history
+thoroughly, and judging of Catholicism with an honest and open heart,
+ventures to assert nothing that admits of debate, either concerning
+human motives or angelic presences; but binds into one line of massive
+melody the unerringly counted sum of Venetian majesty and shame.</p>
+
+<p>92. In a future paper, I propose examining his method of dealing with
+the debate, itself on a higher issue: and will therefore close the
+present one by trampling a few of the briers and thorns of popular
+offense out of our way.</p>
+
+<p>The common counts against Byron are in the main, three.</p>
+
+<p>I. That he confessed&mdash;in some sort, even proclaimed defiantly (which is
+a proud man's natural manner of confession)<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>&mdash;the naughtiness of his
+life.</p>
+
+<p>The hypocrisy<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> even of Pall Mall and Petit Trianon does not, I
+assume, and dares not, go so far as to condemn the naughtiness itself?
+And that he <i>did</i> confess it, is precisely the reason for reading him by
+his own motto "Trust Byron." You always may; and the common
+smooth-countenanced man of the world is guiltier in the precise measure
+of your higher esteem for him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>II. That he wrote about pretty things which ought never to be heard of.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of the exact proprieties of modern Fiction, Art, and
+Drama, I am shy of touching on the question of what should be mentioned,
+and seen&mdash;and should not. All that I care to say, here, is that Byron
+tells you of realities, and that their being pretty ones is, to my
+mind,&mdash;at the first (literally) blush, of the matter, rather in his
+favor. If however you have imagined that he means you to think Dudu as
+pretty as Myrrha,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> or even Haidee, whether in full dress or none, as
+pretty as Marina, it is your fault, not his.</p>
+
+<p>93. III. That he blasphemed God and the King.</p>
+
+<p>Before replying to this count, I must ask the reader's patience in a
+piece of very serious work, the ascertainment of the real and full
+meaning of the word Blasphemy. It signifies simply "Harmful
+speaking"&mdash;Male-diction&mdash;or shortly "Blame"; and may be committed as
+much against a child or a dog, if you <i>desire</i> to hurt them, as against
+the Deity. And it is, in its original use, accurately opposed to another
+Greek word, "Euphemy," which means a reverent and loving manner of
+benediction&mdash;fallen entirely into disuse in modern sentiment and
+language.</p>
+
+<p>Now the compass and character of essential Male-diction, so-called in
+Latin, or Blasphemy, so-called in Greek, may, I think, be best explained
+to the general reader by an instance in a very little thing, first
+translating the short pieces of Plato which best show the meaning of the
+word in codes of Greek morality.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"These are the things then" (the true order of the Sun, Moon, and
+Planets), "oh my friends, of which I desire that all our citizens
+and youths should learn at least so much concerning the Gods of
+Heaven, as not to blaspheme con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>cerning them, but to eupheme
+reverently, both in sacrificing, and in every prayer they
+pray."&mdash;Laws, VII. Steph. 821.</p>
+
+<p>"And through the whole of life, beyond all other need for it, there
+is need of Euphemy from a man to his parents, for there is no
+heavier punishment than that of light and winged words," (to
+<i>them</i>)? "for Nemesis, the angel of Divine Recompense, has been
+throned Bishop over all men who sin in such manner."&mdash;IV. Steph.
+717.</p></div>
+
+<p>The word which I have translated "recompense" is more strictly that
+"heavenly Justice"&mdash;the proper Light of the World, from which nothing
+can be hidden, and by which all who will may walk securely; whence the
+mystic answer of Ulysses to his son, as Athena, herself invisible, walks
+with them, filling the chamber of the house with light, "This is the
+justice of the Gods who possess Olympus." See the context in reference
+to which Plato quotes the line.&mdash;Laws, X. Steph. 904. The little story
+that I have to tell is significant chiefly in connection with the second
+passage of Plato above quoted.</p>
+
+<p>94. I have elsewhere mentioned that I was a homebred boy, and that as my
+mother diligently and scrupulously taught me my Bible and Latin Grammar,
+so my father fondly and devotedly taught me my Scott, my Pope, and my
+Byron.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> The Latin grammar out of which my mother taught me was the
+11th edition of Alexander Adam's&mdash;(Edinb.: Bell and Bradfute,
+1823)&mdash;namely, that Alexander Adam, Rector of Edinburgh High School,
+into whose upper class Scott passed in October 1782, and who&mdash;previous
+masters having found nothing noticeable in the heavy-looking lad&mdash;<i>did</i>
+find sterling qualities in him, and "would constantly refer to him for
+dates, and particulars of battles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> and other remarkable events alluded
+to in Horace, or <i>whatever other authors the boys were reading</i>; and
+called him the historian of his class" (L. i. 126). <i>That</i> Alex. Adam,
+also, who, himself a loving historian, remembered the fate of every boy
+at his school during the fifty years he had headed it, and whose last
+words&mdash;"It grows dark, the boys may dismiss," gave to Scott's heart the
+vision and the audit of the death of Elspeth of the Craigburn-foot.</p>
+
+<p>Strangely, in opening the old volume at this moment (I would not give it
+for an illuminated missal) I find, in its article on Prosody, some
+things extremely useful to me, which I have been hunting for in vain
+through Zumpt and Matthi&aelig;. In all rational respects I believe it to be
+the best Latin Grammar that has yet been written.</p>
+
+<p>When my mother had carried me through it as far as the syntax, it was
+thought desirable that I should be put under a master: and the master
+chosen was a deeply and deservedly honored clergyman, the Rev. Thomas
+Dale, mentioned in Mr. Holbeach's article, "The New Fiction,"
+(<i>Contemporary Review</i> for February of this year), together with Mr.
+Melville, who was our pastor after Mr. Dale went to St. Pancras.</p>
+
+<p>95. On the first day when I went to take my seat in Mr. Dale's
+schoolroom, I carried my old grammar to him, in a modest pride,
+expecting some encouragement and honor for the accuracy with which I
+could repeat, on demand, some hundred and sixty close-printed pages of
+it.</p>
+
+<p>But Mr. Dale threw it back to me with a fierce bang upon his desk,
+saying (with accent and look of seven-times-heated scorn), "That's a
+<i>Scotch</i> thing."</p>
+
+<p>Now, my father being Scotch, and an Edinburgh High School boy, and my
+mother having labored in that book with me since I could read, and all
+my happiest holiday time having been spent on the North Inch of Perth,
+these four words, with the action accompanying them, contained as much
+insult, pain, and loosening of my respect for my parents, love of my
+father's country, and honor for its worthies, as it was possible to
+compress into four syllables<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> and an ill-mannered gesture. Which were
+therefore pure, double-edged and point-envenomed blasphemy. For to make
+a boy despise his mother's care, is the straightest way to make him also
+despise his Redeemer's voice; and to make him scorn his father and his
+father's house, the straightest way to make him deny his God, and his
+God's Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>96. I speak, observe, in this instance, only of the actual words and
+their effect; not of the feeling in the speaker's mind, which was almost
+playful, though his words, tainted with extremity of pride, were such
+light ones as men shall give account of at the Day of Judgment. The real
+sin of blasphemy is not in the saying, nor even in the thinking; but in
+the wishing which is father to thought and word: and the nature of it is
+simply in wishing evil to anything; for as the quality of Mercy is not
+strained, so neither that of Blasphemy, the one distilling from the
+clouds of Heaven, the other from the steam of the Pit. He that is unjust
+in little is unjust in much, he that is malignant to the least is to the
+greatest, he who hates the earth which is God's footstool, hates yet
+more Heaven which is God's throne, and Him that sitteth thereon.
+Finally, therefore, blasphemy is wishing ill to <i>any</i> thing; and its
+outcome is in Vanni Fucci's extreme "ill manners"&mdash;wishing ill to God.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, Euphemy is wishing well to everything, and its outcome
+is in Burns' extreme "good manners," wishing well to&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+"Ah! wad ye tak a thought, and men'!"
+</p>
+
+<p>That is the supreme of Euphemy.</p>
+
+<p>97. Fix then, first in your minds, that the sin of malediction, whether
+Shimei's individual, or John Bull's national, is in the vulgar
+malignity, not in the vulgar diction, and then note further that the
+"phemy" or "fame" of the two words, blasphemy and euphemy, signifies
+broadly the bearing of <i>false</i> witness <i>against</i> one's neighbor in the
+one case, and of <i>true</i> witness <i>for</i> him in the other: so that while
+the peculiar province of the blasphemer is to throw firelight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> on the
+evil in good persons, the province of the euphuist (I must use the word
+inaccurately for want of a better) is to throw sunlight on the good in
+bad ones; such, for instance, as Bertram, Meg Merrilies, Rob Roy, Robin
+Hood, and the general run of Corsairs, Giaours, Turks, Jews, Infidels,
+and Heretics; nay, even sisters of Rahab, and daughters of Moab and
+Ammon; and at last the whole spiritual race of him to whom it was said,
+"If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted?"</p>
+
+<p>98. And being thus brought back to our actual subject, I purpose, after
+a few more summary notes on the luster of the electrotype language of
+modern passion, to examine what facts or probabilities lie at the root
+both of Goethe's and Byron's imagination of that contest between the
+powers of Good and Evil, of which the Scriptural account appears to Mr.
+Huxley so inconsistent with the recognized laws of political economy;
+and has been, by the cowardice of our old translators, so maimed of its
+vitality, that the frank Greek assertion of St. Michael's not daring to
+blaspheme the devil,<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> is tenfold more mischievously deadened and
+caricatured by their periphrasis of "durst not bring against him a
+railing accusation," than by Byron's apparently&mdash;and only
+apparently&mdash;less reverent description of the manner of angelic encounter
+for an inferior ruler of the people.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">"Between His Darkness and His Brightness</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">There passed a mutual glance of great politeness."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Paris</span>, <i>September 20, 1880</i>.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Postscript</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>99. I am myself extremely grateful, nor doubt a like feeling in most of
+my readers, both for the information contained in the first of the two
+following letters; and the correction of references in the second, of
+which, however, I have omitted some closing sentences which the writer
+will, I think, see to have been unnecessary.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="author"><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">North Street, Wirksworth</span>:<br />
+<i>August 2, 1880.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;When reading your interesting article in the June
+number of the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, and your quotation from Walter
+Scott, I was struck with the great similarity between some of the Scotch
+words and my native tongue (Norwegian). <i>Whigmaleerie</i>, as to the
+derivation of which you seem to be in some perplexity, is in Norwegian
+<i>V&aelig;gmaleri</i>. <i>V&aelig;g</i>, pronounced "Vegg," signifying wall, and Maleri
+"picture," pronounced almost the same as in Scotch, and derived from <i>at
+male</i>, to paint. Siccan is in Danish <i>sikken</i>, used more about something
+comical than great, and scarcely belonging to the written language, in
+which <i>slig</i>, such, and <i>slig en</i>, such a one, would be the equivalent.
+I need not remark that as to the written language Danish and Norwegian
+is the same, only the dialects differ.</p>
+
+<p>Having been told by some English friends that this explanation would
+perhaps not be without interest to yourself, I take the liberty of
+writing this letter. I remain yours respectfully,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Thea Berg</span>.
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="author"><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Inner Temple</span>: <i>September 9, 1880.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,&mdash;In your last article on Fiction, Foul and Fair
+(<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, September 1880) you have the following note:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Juan viii. 5" (it ought to be 9) "but by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says 'instrument' not 'daughter.'"</p>
+
+<p>Now in Murray's edition of Byron, 1837, octavo, his Lordship's quotation
+is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"But thy most dreaded instrument</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In working out a pure intent</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Is man arranged for mutual slaughter;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yea, Carnage is thy daughter."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>And his Lordship refers you to "Wordsworth's Thanksgiving Ode."</p>
+
+<p>I have no early edition of Wordsworth. In Moxon's, 1844, no such lines
+appear in the Thanksgiving Ode, but in the ode dated 1815, and printed
+immediately before it, the following lines occur.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"But man is thy most awful instrument</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In working out a pure intent."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that Wordsworth altered
+the lines after "Don Juan" was written. I am, with great respect, your
+obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Ralph Thicknesse</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">John Ruskin</span>, Esq.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> November, 1880.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "Childe Harold," iv. 79; compare "Adonais," and Sismondi,
+vol. i. p. 148.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Adrian the Fourth. Eugenius died in the previous year.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> "All the multitudes threw themselves on their knees,
+praying mercy in the name of the crosses they bore: the Count of
+Blandrata took a cross from the enemies with whom he had served, and
+fell at the foot of the throne, praying for mercy to them. All the court
+and the witnessing army were in tears&mdash;the Emperor alone showed no sign
+of emotion. Distrusting his wife's sensibility, he had forbidden her
+presence at the ceremony; the Milanese, unable to approach her, threw
+towards her windows the crosses they carried, to plead for
+them."&mdash;Sismondi (French edition), vol. i. p. 378.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> The most noble and tender confession is in Allegra's
+epitaph, "I shall go to her, but she shall not return to me."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Hypocrisy is too good a word for either Pall Mall or
+Trianon, being justly applied (as always in the New Testament), only to
+men whose false religion has become earnest, and a part of their being:
+so that they compass heaven and earth to make a proselyte. There is no
+relation between minds of this order and those of common rogues. Neither
+Tartuffe nor Joseph Surface are hypocrites&mdash;they are simply impostors:
+but many of the most earnest preachers in all existing churches are
+hypocrites in the highest; and the Tartuffe-Squiredom and Joseph
+Surface-Masterhood of our virtuous England which build churches and pay
+priests to keep their peasants and hands peaceable, so that rents and
+per cents may be spent, unnoticed, in the debaucheries of the
+metropolis, are darker forms of imposture than either heaven or earth
+have yet been compassed by; and what they are to end in, heaven and
+earth only know. Compare again, "Island," ii. 4, "the prayers of Abel
+linked to deeds of Cain," and "Juan," viii. 25, 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Perhaps some even of the attentive readers of Byron may
+not have observed the choice of the three names&mdash;Myrrha (bitter
+incense), Marina (sea lady), Angiolina (little angel)&mdash;in relation to
+the plots of the three plays.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> I shall have lost my wits very finally when I forget the
+first time that I pleased my father with a couplet of English verse
+(after many a year of trials); and the radiant joy on his face as he
+declared, reading it aloud to my mother with emphasis half choked by
+tears,&mdash;that "it was as fine as anything that Pope or Byron ever
+wrote!"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Of our tingle-tangle-titmouse disputes in Parliament like
+Robins in a bush, but not a Robin in all the house knowing his great A,
+hear again Plato: "But they, for ever so little a quarrel, uttering much
+voice, blaspheming, speak evil one of another,&mdash;and it is not becoming
+that in a city of well-ordered persons, such things should be&mdash;no;
+nothing of them nohow nowhere,&mdash;and let this be the one law for all&mdash;let
+nobody speak mischief of anybody (&#924;&#951;&#948;&#7953;&#957;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#954;&#951;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#949;&#7985;&#964;&#959; &#956;&#951;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#962;)."&mdash;Laws, book ii. s. 935; and compare Book iv. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> A paragraph beginning "I find press corrections always
+irksome work, and in my last paper trust the reader's kindness to make
+some corrections in the preceding paper," is here omitted, and the
+corrections made.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.</h2>
+
+<h3>V.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">THE TWO SERVANTS</span>.</h4>
+
+
+<p>100. I have assumed throughout these papers, that everybody knew what
+Fiction meant; as Mr. Mill assumed in his Political Economy, that
+everybody knew what wealth meant. The assumption was convenient to Mr.
+Mill, and persisted in: but, for my own part, I am not in the habit of
+talking, even so long as I have done in this instance, without making
+sure that the reader knows what I am talking about; and it is high time
+that we should be agreed upon the primary notion of what Fiction is.</p>
+
+<p>A feigned, fictitious, artificial, supernatural,
+put-together-out-of-one's-head, thing. All this it must be, to begin
+with. The best type of it being the most practically fictile&mdash;a Greek
+vase. A thing which has two sides to be seen, two handles to be carried
+by, and a bottom to stand on, and a top to be poured out of, this, every
+right fiction <i>is</i>, whatever else it may be. Planned rigorously, rounded
+smoothly, balanced symmetrically, handled handily, lipped softly for
+pouring out oil and wine. Painted daintily at last with images of
+eternal things&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Forever shalt thou love, and she be fair.
+</p>
+
+<p>101. Quite a different thing from a "cast,"&mdash;this work of clay in the
+hands of the potter, as it seemed good to the potter to make it. Very
+interesting, a cast from life may perhaps be; more interesting, to some
+people perhaps, a cast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> from death;&mdash;most modern novels are like
+specimens from Lyme Regis, impressions of skeletons in mud.</p>
+
+<p>"Planned rigorously"&mdash;I press the conditions again one by one&mdash;it must
+be, as ever Memphian labyrinth or Norman fortress. Intricacy full of
+delicate surprise; covered way in secrecy of accurate purposes, not a
+stone useless, nor a word nor an incident thrown away.</p>
+
+<p>"Rounded smoothly"&mdash;the wheel of Fortune revolving with it in unfelt
+swiftness; like the world, its story rising like the dawn, closing like
+the sunset, with its own sweet light for every hour.</p>
+
+<p>"Balanced symmetrically"&mdash;having its two sides clearly separate, its war
+of good and evil rightly divided. Its figures moving in majestic law of
+light and shade.</p>
+
+<p>"Handled handily"&mdash;so that, being careful and gentle, you can take easy
+grasp of it and all that it contains; a thing given into your hand
+henceforth to have and to hold. Comprehensible, not a mass that both
+your arms cannot get round; tenable, not a confused pebble heap of which
+you can only lift one pebble at a time.</p>
+
+<p>"Lipped softly"&mdash;full of kindness and comfort: the Keats line indeed the
+perpetual message of it&mdash;"For ever shalt thou love, and she be fair."
+All beautiful fiction is of the Madonna, whether the Virgin of Athens or
+of Judah&mdash;Pan-Athenaic always.</p>
+
+<p>And all foul fiction is <i>leze majest&eacute;</i> to the Madonna and to womanhood.
+For indeed the great fiction of every human life is the shaping of its
+Love, with due prudence, due imagination, due persistence and perfection
+from the beginning of its story to the end; for every human soul, its
+Palladium. And it follows that all right imaginative work is beautiful,
+which is a practical and brief law concerning it. All frightful things
+are either foolish, or sick, visits of frenzy, or pollutions of plague.</p>
+
+<p>102. Taking thus the Greek vase at its best time, for the symbol of fair
+fiction: of foul, you may find in the great entrance-room of the Louvre,
+filled with the luxurious <i>orf&egrave;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>vrerie</i> of the sixteenth century, types
+perfect and innumerable: Satyrs carved in serpentine, Gorgons platted in
+gold, Furies with eyes of ruby, Scyllas with scales of pearl; infinitely
+worthless toil, infinitely witless wickedness; pleasure satiated into
+idiocy, passion provoked into madness, no object of thought, or sight,
+or fancy, but horror, mutilation, distortion, corruption, agony of war,
+insolence of disgrace, and misery of Death.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the ease with which a serpent, or something that will be
+understood for one, can be chased or wrought in metal, and the small
+workmanly skill required to image a satyr's hoof and horns, as compared
+to that needed for a human foot or forehead, have greatly influenced the
+choice of subject by incompetent smiths; and in like manner, the
+prevalence of such vicious or ugly story in the mass of modern
+literature is not so much a sign of the lasciviousness of the age, as of
+its stupidity, though each react on the other, and the vapor of the
+sulphurous pool becomes at last so diffused in the atmosphere of our
+cities, that whom it cannot corrupt, it will at least stultify.</p>
+
+<p>103. Yesterday, the last of August, came to me from the Fine Art
+Society, a series of twenty black and white scrabbles<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> of which I am
+informed in an eloquent preface that the author was a Michael Angelo of
+the glebe, and that his shepherds and his herdswomen are akin in dignity
+and grandeur to the prophets and Sibyls of the Sistine.</p>
+
+<p>Glancing through the series of these stupendous productions, I find one
+peculiarly characteristic and expressive of modern picture-making and
+novel-writing,&mdash;called "Hauling" or more definitely "Paysan rentrant du
+Fumier," which represents a man's back, or at least the back of his
+waistcoat and trousers, and hat, in full light, and a small blot where
+his face should be, with a small scratch where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> its nose should be,
+elongated into one representing a chink of timber in the background.</p>
+
+<p>Examining the volume farther, in the hope of discovering some trace of
+reasonable motive for the publication of these works by the Society, I
+perceive that this Michael Angelo of the glebe had indeed natural
+faculty of no mean order in him, and that the woeful history of his life
+contains very curious lessons respecting the modern conditions of
+Imagination and Art.</p>
+
+<p>104. I find in the first place, that he was a Breton peasant; his
+grandmother's godson, baptized in good hope, and christened Jean, after
+his father, and Fran&ccedil;ois after the Saint of Assisi, his godmother's
+patron. It was under her care and guidance and those of his uncle, the
+Abb&eacute; Charles, that he was reared; and the dignified and laborious
+earnestness of these governors of his was a chief influence in his life,
+and a distinguishing feature in his character. The Millet family led an
+existence almost patriarchal in its unalterable simplicity and
+diligence; and the boy grew up in an environment of toil, sincerity and
+devoutness. He was fostered upon the Bible, and the great book of
+nature.... When he woke, it was to the lowing of cattle and the song of
+birds; he was at play all day, among "the sights and sounds of the open
+landscape; and he slept with the murmur of the spinning-wheel in his
+ears, and the memory of the evening prayer in his heart.... He learned
+Latin from the parish priest, and from his uncle Charles; and he soon
+came to be a student of Virgil, and while yet young in his teens began
+to follow his father out into the fields, and thenceforward, as became
+the eldest boy in a large family, worked hard at grafting and plowing,
+sowing and reaping, scything and shearing and planting, and all the many
+duties of husbandmen. Meanwhile, he had taken to drawing ... copied
+everything he saw, and produced not only studies but compositions also;
+until at last his father was moved to take him away from farming, and
+have him taught painting."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>105. Now all this is related concerning the lad's early life by the
+prefatory and commenting author, as if expecting the general reader to
+admit that there had been some advantage for him in this manner of
+education:&mdash;that simplicity and devoutness are wholesome states of mind;
+that parish cur&eacute;s and uncle Abb&eacute;s are not betrayers or devourers of
+youthful innocence&mdash;that there is profitable reading in the Bible, and
+something agreeably soothing&mdash;if not otherwise useful&mdash;in the sound of
+evening prayer. I may observe also in passing, that his education, thus
+far, is precisely what, for the last ten years, I have been describing
+as the most desirable for all persons intending to lead an honest and
+Christian life: (my recommendation that peasants should learn Latin
+having been, some four or five years ago, the subject of much merriment
+in the pages of <i>Judy</i> and other such nurses of divine wisdom in the
+public mind.) It however having been determined by the boy's father that
+he should be a painter, and that art being unknown to the Abb&eacute; Charles
+and the village Cur&eacute; (in which manner of ignorance, if the infallible
+Pope did but know it, he and his <i>now</i> artless shepherds stand at a
+fatal disadvantage in the world as compared with monks who could
+illuminate with color as well as word)&mdash;the simple young soul is sent
+for the exalting and finishing of its artistic faculties to Paris.</p>
+
+<p>106. "Wherein," observers my prefatory author, "the romantic movement
+was in the full tide of prosperity."</p>
+
+<p>Hugo had written "Notre Dame," and Musset had published "Rolla" and the
+"Nuits"; Balzac the "Lys dans la Vall&eacute;e"; Gautier the "Com&eacute;die de la
+Mort"; Georges Sand "L&eacute;one L&eacute;onie"; and a score of wild and eloquent
+novels more; and under the instruction of these romantic authors, his
+landlady, to whom he had intrusted the few francs he possessed, to dole
+out to him as he needed, fell in love with him, and finding he could
+not, or would not, respond to her advances, confiscated the whole
+deposit, and left him penniless. The preface goes on to tell us how, not
+feeling himself in harmony with these forms of Romanticism, he takes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> to
+the study of the Infinite, and Michael Angelo; how he learned to paint
+the Heroic Nude; how he mixed up for imitation the manners of Rubens,
+Ribera, Mantegna, and Correggio; how he struggled all his life with
+neglect, and endured with his family every agony of poverty; owed his
+butcher and his grocer, was exposed to endless worry and annoyance from
+writs and executions; and when first his grandmother died, and then his
+mother, neither death-bed was able to raise the money that would have
+carried him from Barbizon to Gruchy.</p>
+
+<p>The work now laid before the public by the Fine Art Society is to be
+considered, therefore&mdash;whatever its merits or defects may be&mdash;as an
+expression of the influence of the Infinite and Michael Angelo on a mind
+innocently prepared for their reception. And in another place I may take
+occasion to point out the peculiar adaptability of modern etching to the
+expression of the Infinite, by the multitude of scratches it can put on
+a surface without representing anything in particular; and to
+illustration of the majesty of Michael Angelo by preference of the backs
+and legs of people to their faces.</p>
+
+<p>107. But I refer to the book in this paper, partly indeed because my
+mind is full of its sorrow, and I may not be able to find another
+opportunity of saying so; but chiefly, because the author of the preface
+has summed the principal authors of depraved Fiction in a single
+sentence; and I want the reader to ask himself why, among all the forms
+of the picturesque which were suggested by this body of literary
+leaders, none were acceptable by, none helpful to, the mind of a youth
+trained in purity and faith.</p>
+
+<p>He will find, if he reflect, that it is not in romantic, or any other
+healthy aim, that the school detaches itself from those called sometimes
+by recent writers "classical"; but first by Infidelity, and an absence
+of the religious element so total that at last it passes into the hatred
+of priesthood which has become characteristic of Republicanism; and
+secondly, by the taint and leprosy of animal passion idealized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> as a
+governing power of humanity, or at least used as the chief element of
+interest in the conduct of its histories. It is with the <i>Sin</i> of Master
+Anthony that Georges Sand (who is the best of them) overshadows the
+entire course of a novel meant to recommend simplicity of life&mdash;and by
+the weakness of Consuelo that the same authoress thinks it natural to
+set off the splendor of the most exalted musical genius.</p>
+
+<p>I am not able to judge of the degree of moral purpose, or conviction,
+with which any of the novelists wrote. But I am able to say with
+certainty that, whatever their purpose, their method is mistaken, and
+that no good is ever done to society by the pictorial representation of
+its diseases.</p>
+
+<p>108. All healthy and helpful literature sets simple bars between right
+and wrong; assumes the possibility, in men and women, of having healthy
+minds in healthy bodies, and loses no time in the diagnosis of fever or
+dyspepsia in either; least of all in the particular kind of fever which
+signifies the ungoverned excess of any appetite or passion. The
+"dullness" which many modern readers inevitably feel, and some modern
+blockheads think it creditable to allege, in Scott, consists not a
+little in his absolute purity from every loathsome element or excitement
+of the lower passions; so that people who live habitually in Satyric or
+hircine conditions of thought find him as insipid as they would a
+picture of Angelico's. The accurate and trenchant separation between him
+and the common railroad-station novelist is that, in his total method of
+conception, only lofty character is worth describing at all; and it
+becomes interesting, not by its faults, but by the difficulties and
+accidents of the fortune through which it passes, while, in the railway
+novel, interest is obtained with the vulgar reader for the vilest
+character, because the author describes carefully to his recognition the
+blotches, burrs and pimples in which the paltry nature resembles his
+own. The "Mill on the Floss" is perhaps the most striking instance
+extant of this study of cutaneous disease. There is not a single person
+in the book of the smallest importance to anybody in the world<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> but
+themselves, or whose qualities deserved so much as a line of printer's
+type in their description. There is no girl alive, fairly clever, half
+educated, and unluckily related, whose life has not at least as much in
+it as Maggie's, to be described and to be pitied. Tom is a clumsy and
+cruel lout, with the making of better things in him (and the same may be
+said of nearly every Englishman at present smoking and elbowing his way
+through the ugly world his blunders have contributed to the making of);
+while the rest of the characters are simply the sweepings out of a
+Pentonville omnibus.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>109. And it is very necessary that we should distinguish this
+essentially Cockney literature, developed only in the London suburbs,
+and feeding the demand of the rows of similar brick houses, which branch
+in devouring cancer round every manufacturing town,&mdash;from the really
+romantic literature of France. Georges Sand is often immoral; but she is
+always beautiful, and in the characteristic novel I have named, "Le
+P&eacute;ch&eacute; de Mons. Antoine," the five principal characters, the old Cavalier
+Marquis,&mdash;the Carpenter,&mdash;M. de Chateaubrun,&mdash;Gilberte,&mdash;and the really
+passionate and generous lover, are all as heroic and radiantly ideal as
+Scott's Colonel Mannering, Catherine Seyton, and Roland Graeme; while
+the landscape is rich and true with the emotion of years of life passed
+in glens of Norman granite and beside bays of Italian sea. But in the
+English Cockney school, which consummates itself in George Eliot, the
+personages are picked up from behind the counter and out of the gutter;
+and the landscape, by excursion train to Gravesend, with return ticket
+for the City-road.</p>
+
+<p>110. But the second reason for the dullness of Scott to the uneducated
+or miseducated reader lies far deeper; and its analysis is related to
+the most subtle questions in the Arts of Design.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The mixed gayety and gloom in the plan of any modern novel fairly clever
+in the make of it, may be likened, almost with precision, to the
+patchwork of a Harlequin's dress, well spangled; a pretty thing enough,
+if the human form beneath it be graceful and active. Few personages on
+the stage are more delightful to me than a good Harlequin; also, if I
+chance to have nothing better to do, I can still read my Georges Sand or
+Alfred de Musset with much contentment, if only the story end well.</p>
+
+<p>But we must not dress Cordelia or Rosalind in robes of triangular
+patches, covered with spangles, by way of making the <i>coup d'&oelig;il</i> of
+them less dull; and so the story-telling of Scott is like the robe of
+the Sistine Zipporah&mdash;embroidered only on the edges with gold and blue,
+and the embroidery involving a legend written in mystic letters.</p>
+
+<p>And the interest and joy which he intends his reader to find in his
+tale, are in taking up the golden thread here and there in its intended
+recurrence&mdash;and following, as it rises again and again, his melody
+through the disciplined and unaccented march of the fugue.</p>
+
+<p>111. Thus the entire charm and meaning of the story of the Monastery
+depend on the degree of sympathy with which we compare the first and
+last incidents of the appearance of a character, whom perhaps not one in
+twenty readers would remember as belonging to the dramatis
+person&aelig;&mdash;Stawarth Bolton.</p>
+
+<p>Childless, he assures safety in the first scene of the opening tale to
+the widow of Glendinning and her two children&mdash;the elder boy challenging
+him at the moment, "I will war on thee to the death, when I can draw my
+father's sword." In virtually the last scene, the grown youth, now in
+command of a small company of spearmen in the Regent Murray's service,
+is on foot, in the first pause after the battle at Kennaquhair, beside
+the dead bodies of Julian Avenel and Christie, and the dying
+Catherine.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Glendinning forgot for a moment his own situation and duties, and was
+first recalled to them by a trampling of horse, and the cry of St.
+George for England, which the English soldiers still continued to use.
+His handful of men, for most of the stragglers had waited for Murray's
+coming up, remained on horseback, holding their lances upright, having
+no command either to submit or resist.</p>
+
+<p>"There stands our captain," said one of them, as a strong party of
+English came up, the vanguard of Foster's troop.</p>
+
+<p>"Your captain! with his sword sheathed, and on foot in the presence of
+his enemy? a raw soldier, I warrant him," said the English leader. "So!
+ho! young man, is your dream out, and will you now answer me if you will
+fight or fly?"</p>
+
+<p>"Neither," answered Halbert Glendinning, with great tranquillity.</p>
+
+<p>"Then throw down thy sword and yield thee," answered the Englishman.</p>
+
+<p>"Not till I can help myself no otherwise," said Halbert, with the same
+moderation of tone and manner.</p>
+
+<p>"Art thou for thine own hand, friend, or to whom dost thou owe service?"
+demanded the English captain.</p>
+
+<p>"To the noble Earl of Murray."</p>
+
+<p>"Then thou servest," said the Southron, "the most disloyal nobleman who
+breathes&mdash;false both to England and Scotland."</p>
+
+<p>"Thou liest," said Glendinning, regardless of all consequences.</p>
+
+<p>"Ha! art thou so hot now, and wert so cold but a minute since? I lie, do
+I? Wilt thou do battle with me on that quarrel?"</p>
+
+<p>"With one to one, one to two, or two to five, as you list," said Halbert
+Glendinning; "grant me but a fair field."</p>
+
+<p>"That thou shalt have. Stand back, my mates," said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> the brave
+Englishman. "If I fall, give him fair play, and let him go off free with
+his people."</p>
+
+<p>"Long life to the noble captain!" cried the soldiers, as impatient to
+see the duel as if it had been a bull.</p>
+
+<p>"He will have a short life of it, though," said the sergeant, "if he, an
+old man of sixty, is to fight for any reason, or for no reason, with
+every man he meets, and especially the young fellows he might be father
+to. And here comes the warden, besides, to see the sword-play."</p>
+
+<p>In fact, Sir John Foster came up with a considerable body of his
+horsemen, just as his captain, whose age rendered him unequal to the
+combat with so strong and active a youth as Glendinning, lost his
+sword.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>"Take it up for shame, old Stawarth Bolton," said the English warden;
+"and thou, young man, get you gone to your own friends, and loiter not
+here."</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this peremptory order, Halbert Glendinning could not
+help stopping to cast a look upon the unfortunate Catherine, who lay
+insensible of the danger and of the trampling of so many horses around
+her&mdash;insensible, as the second glance assured him, of all and forever.
+Glendinning almost rejoiced when he saw that the last misery of life was
+over, and that the hoofs of the war-horses, amongst which he was
+compelled to leave her, could only injure and deface a senseless corpse.
+He caught the infant from her arms, half ashamed of the shout of
+laughter which rose on all sides, at seeing an armed man in such a
+situation assume such an unwonted and inconvenient burden.</p>
+
+<p>"Shoulder your infant!" cried a harquebusier.</p>
+
+<p>"Port your infant!" said a pikeman.</p>
+
+<p>"Peace, ye brutes!" said Stawarth Bolton, "and respect humanity in
+others, if you have none yourselves. I pardon the lad having done some
+discredit to my gray hairs, when I see him take care of that helpless
+creature, which ye would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> have trampled upon as if ye had been littered
+of bitch-wolves, not born of women."</p>
+
+<p>The infant thus saved is the heir of Avenel, and the intricacy and
+fateful bearing of every incident and word in the scene, knitting into
+one central moment all the clews to the plot of two romances, as the
+rich boss of a Gothic vault gathers the shaft moldings of it, can only
+be felt by an entirely attentive reader; just as (to follow out the
+likeness on Scott's own ground) the willow-wreaths changed to stone of
+Melrose tracery can only be caught in their plighting by the keenest
+eyes. The meshes are again gathered by the master's own hand when the
+child now in Halbert's arms, twenty years hence, stoops over him to
+unlace his helmet, as the fallen knight lies senseless on the field of
+Carberry Hill.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>112. But there is another, and a still more hidden method in Scott's
+designing of story, in which, taking extreme pains, he counts on much
+sympathy from the reader, and can assuredly find none in a modern
+student. The moral purpose of the whole, which he asserted in the
+preface to the first edition of Waverley, was involved always with the
+minutest study of the effects of true and false religion on the
+conduct;&mdash;which subject being always touched with his utmost lightness
+of hand and stealthiness of art, and founded on a knowledge of the
+Scotch character and the human heart, such as no other living man
+possessed, his purpose often escapes first observation as completely as
+the inner feelings of living people do; and I am myself amazed, as I
+take any single piece of his work up for examination, to find how many
+of its points I had before missed or disregarded.</p>
+
+<p>113. The groups of personages whose conduct in the Scott romance is
+definitely affected by religious conviction, may be arranged broadly, as
+those of the actual world, under these following heads:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. The lowest group consists of persons who, believing in the general
+truths of Evangelical religion, accommodate them to their passions, and
+are capable, by gradual increase in depravity, of any crime or violence.
+I am not going to include these in our present study. Trumbull ("Red
+Gauntlet"), Trusty Tomkyns ("Woodstock"), Burley ("Old Mortality"), are
+three of the principal types.</p>
+
+<p>2. The next rank above these consists of men who believe firmly and
+truly enough to be restrained from any conduct which they clearly
+recognize as criminal, but whose natural selfishness renders them
+incapable of understanding the morality of the Bible above a certain
+point; and whose imperfect powers of thought leave them liable in many
+directions to the warping of self-interest or of small temptations.</p>
+
+<p>Fairservice. Blattergowl. Kettledrummle. Gifted Gilfillan.</p>
+
+<p>3. The third order consists of men naturally just and honest, but with
+little sympathy and much pride, in whom their religion, while in the
+depth of it supporting their best virtues, brings out on the surface all
+their worst faults, and makes them censorious, tiresome, and often
+fearfully mischievous.</p>
+
+<p>Richie Moniplies. Davie Deans. Mause Hedrigg.</p>
+
+<p>4. The enthusiastic type, leading to missionary effort, often to
+martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>Warden, in "Monastery." Colonel Gardiner. Ephraim Macbriar. Joshua
+Geddes.</p>
+
+<p>5. Highest type, fulfilling daily duty; always gentle, entirely firm,
+the comfort and strength of all around them; merciful to every human
+fault, and submissive without anger to every human oppression.</p>
+
+<p>Rachel Geddes. Jeanie Deans. Bessie Maclure, in "Old Mortality"&mdash;the
+Queen of all.</p>
+
+<p>114. In the present paper, I ask the reader's patience only with my
+fulfillment of a promise long since made, to mark the opposition of the
+effects of an entirely similar religious faith in two men of inferior
+position, representing in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> perfectness the commonest types in Scotland
+of the second and third order of religionists here distinguished, Andrew
+Fairservice ("Rob Roy"), and Richie Moniplies ("Nigel").</p>
+
+<p>The names of both the men imply deceitfulness of one kind or
+another&mdash;Fairservice, as serving fairly only in pretense; Moniplies, as
+having many windings, turns, and ways of escape. Scott's names are
+themselves so Moniplied that they need as much following out as
+Shakespeare's; and as their roots are pure Scotch, and few people have a
+good Scottish glossary beside them, or would use it if they had, the
+novels are usually read without any turning of the first keys to them. I
+did not myself know till very lately the root of Dandie Dinmont's
+name&mdash;"Dinmont," a two-year-old sheep; still less that of Moniplies,
+which I had been always content to take Master George Heriot's rendering
+of: "This fellow is not ill-named&mdash;he has more plies than one in his
+cloak." ("Nigel," i. 72.) In its first sense, it is the Scotch word for
+tripe, Moniplies being a butcher's son.</p>
+
+<p>115. Cunning, then, they both are, in a high degree&mdash;but Fairservice
+only for himself, Moniplies for himself and his friend; or, in grave
+business, even for his friend first. But it is one of Scott's first
+principles of moral law that cunning never shall succeed, unless
+definitely employed <i>against an enemy</i> by a person whose essential
+character is wholly frank and true; as by Roland against Lady Lochleven,
+or Mysie Happer against Dan of the Howlet-hirst; but consistent cunning
+in the character always fails: Scott allows no Ulyssean hero.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore the cunning of Fairservice fails always, and totally; but that
+of Moniplies precisely according to the degree of its selfishness:
+wholly, in the affair of the petition&mdash;("I am sure I had a' the right
+and a' the risk," i. 73)&mdash;partially, in that of the carcanet. This he
+himself at last recognizes with complacency:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I think you might have left me," says Nigel in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> parting scene (i.
+286), "to act according to my own judgment."</p>
+
+<p>"Mickle better not," answered Richie; "mickle better not. We are a'
+frail creatures, and can judge better for ilk ither than in our own
+cases. And for me&mdash;even myself&mdash;I have always observed myself to be much
+more prudential in what I have done in your lordship's behalf, than even
+in what I have been able to transact for my own interest&mdash;whilk last, I
+have, indeed, always postponed, as in duty I ought."</p>
+
+<p>"I do believe thou hast," answered Lord Nigel, "having ever found thee
+true and faithful."</p>
+
+<p>And his final success is entirely owing to his courage and fidelity, not
+to his cunning.</p>
+
+<p>To this subtlety both the men join considerable power of penetration
+into the weaknesses of character; but Fairservice only sees the
+surface-failings, and has no respect for any kind of nobleness; while
+Richie watches the gradual lowering of his master's character and
+reputation with earnest sorrow.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"My lord," said Richie, "to be round with you, the grace of God is
+better than gold pieces, and, if they were my last words," he said,
+raising his voice, "I would say you are misled, and are forsaking
+the paths your honorable father trode in; and what is more, you are
+going&mdash;still under correction&mdash;to the devil with a dishclout, for
+ye are laughed at by them that lead you into these disordered
+bypaths" (i. 282).</p></div>
+
+<p>116. In the third place, note that the penetration of
+Moniplies,&mdash;though, as aforesaid, more into faults than virtues,&mdash;being
+yet founded on the truth of his own nature, is undeceivable. No rogue
+can escape him for an instant; and he sees through all the machinations
+of Lord Glenvarloch's enemies from the first; while Fairservice, shrewd
+enough in detecting the follies of good people, is quite helpless before
+knaves, and is deceived three times over by his own chosen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+friends&mdash;first by the lawyer's clerk, Touthope (ii. 21), then by the
+hypocrite MacVittie, and finally by his true blue Presbyterian friend
+Laurie.</p>
+
+<p>In these first elements of character the men are thus broadly
+distinguished; but in the next, requiring analysis, the differences are
+much more subtle. Both of them have, in nearly equal degree, the
+peculiar love of doing or saying what is provoking, by an exact
+contrariety to the wishes of the person they are dealing with, which is
+a fault inherent in the rough side of uneducated Scottish character; but
+in Andrew, the habit is checked by his self-interest, so that it is only
+behind his master's back that we hear his opinion of him; and only when
+he has lost his temper that the inherent provocativeness comes out&mdash;(see
+the dark ride into Scotland).</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, Moniplies never speaks but in praise of his <i>absent</i>
+master; but exults in mortifying him in direct colloquy: yet never
+indulges this amiable disposition except with a really kind purpose, and
+entirely knowing what he is about. Fairservice, on the other hand,
+gradually falls into an unconscious fatality of varied blunder and
+provocation; and at last causes the entire catastrophe of the story by
+bringing in the candles when he has been ordered to stay downstairs.</p>
+
+<p>117. We have next to remember that with Scott, Truth and Courage are
+one. He somewhat overvalued <i>animal</i> courage&mdash;holding it the basis of
+all other virtue&mdash;in his own words, "Without courage there can be no
+truth, and without truth no virtue." He would, however, sometimes allow
+his villains to possess the basis, without the super-structure, and thus
+Rashleigh, Dalgarno, Balfour, Varney, and other men of that stamp are to
+be carefully distinguished from his erring <i>heroes</i>, Marmion, Bertram,
+Christie of the Clinthill, or Nanty Ewart, in whom loyalty is always the
+real strength of the character, and the faults of life are owing to
+temporary passion or evil fate. Scott differs in this standard of
+heroism materially from Byron,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> in whose eyes mere courage, with
+strong affections, are enough for admiration: while Bertram, and even
+Marmion, though loyal to his country, are meant only to be pitied&mdash;not
+honored. But neither Scott nor Byron will ever allow any grain of mercy
+to a coward; and the final difference, therefore, between Fairservice
+and Moniplies, which decides their fate in Scott's hands, is that
+between their courage and cowardice. Fairservice is driven out at the
+kitchen door, never to be heard of more, while Richie rises into Sir
+Richie of Castle-Collop&mdash;the reader may perhaps at the moment think by
+too careless grace on the King's part; which, indeed, Scott in some
+measure meant;&mdash;but the grotesqueness and often evasiveness of Richie's
+common manner make us forget how surely his bitter word is backed by his
+ready blow, when need is. His first introduction to us (i. 33), is
+because his quick temper overcomes his caution,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I thought to mysel', 'Ye are owre mony for me to mell with; but
+let me catch ye in Barford's Park, or at the fit of the vennel, I
+could gar some of ye sing another sang.' Sae, ae auld hirpling
+deevil of a potter behoved just to step in my way and offer me a
+pig, as he said, just to pit my Scotch ointment in, and <i>I gave him
+a push, as but natural</i>, and the tottering deevil couped owre amang
+his ain pigs, and damaged a score of them. And then the
+reird<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> raise"&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<p>while in the close of the events (ii. 365), he wins his wife by a piece
+of hand-to-hand fighting, of the value of which his cool and stern
+estimate, in answer to the gay Templar, is one of the great sentences
+marking Scott's undercurrent of two feelings about war, in spite of his
+love of its heroism.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"Bravo, Richie," cried Lowestoffe, "why, man, there lies Sin struck down
+like an ox, and Iniquity's throat cut like a calf."</p>
+
+<p>"I know not why you should upbraid me with my upbringing, Master
+Lowestoffe," answered Richie, with great composure; "but I can tell you,
+the shambles is not a bad place for training one to this work."</p>
+
+
+<p>118. These then being the radical conditions of native character in the
+two men, wholly irrespective of their religious persuasion, we have to
+note what form their Presbyterian faith takes in each, and what effect
+it has on their consciences.</p>
+
+<p>In Richie, it has little to do; his conscience being, in the deep of it,
+frank and clear. His religion commands him nothing which he is not at
+once ready to do, or has not habitually done; and it forbids him nothing
+which he is unwilling to forego. He pleads no pardon from it for known
+faults; he seeks no evasions in the letter of it for violations of its
+spirit. We are scarcely therefore aware of its vital power in him,
+unless at moments of very grave feeling and its necessary expression.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Wherefore, as the letter will not avail you with him to whom it is
+directed, you may believe that Heaven hath sent it to <i>me</i>, who
+have a special regard for the writer&mdash;have besides, as much mercy
+and honesty within me as man can weel mak' his bread with, and am
+willing to aid any distressed creature, that is my friend's
+friend."</p></div>
+
+<p>So, again, in the deep feeling which rebukes his master's careless ruin
+of the poor apprentice&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I say, then, as I am a true man, when I saw that puir creature
+come through the ha' at that ordinary, whilk is accurst (Heaven
+forgive me for swearing) of God and man, with his teeth set, and
+his hands clenched, and his bonnet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> drawn over his brows...." He
+stopped a moment, and looked fixedly in his master's face.</p></div>
+
+<p>&mdash;and again in saving the poor lad himself when he takes the street to
+his last destruction "with burning heart and bloodshot eye":</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Why do you stop my way?" he said fiercely.</p>
+
+<p>"Because it is a bad one, Master Jenkin," said Richie.</p>
+
+<p>"Nay, never start about it, man; you see you are known.
+Alack-a-day! that an honest man's son should live to start at
+hearing himself called by his own name."</p>
+
+<p>"I pray you in good fashion to let me go," said Jenkin. "I am in
+the humor to be dangerous to myself, or to anyone."</p>
+
+<p>"I will abide the risk," said the Scot, "if you will but come with
+me. You are the very lad in the world whom I most wish to
+meet."<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>"And you," answered Vincent, "or any of your beggarly countrymen,
+are the last sight I should ever wish to see. You Scots are ever
+fair and false."</p>
+
+<p>"As to our poverty, friend," replied Richie, "that is as Heaven
+pleases; but touching our falsity, I'll prove to you that a
+Scotsman bears as leal and true a heart to his friend as ever beat
+in an English doublet."</p></div>
+
+<p>119. In these, and other such passages, it will be felt that I have done
+Richie some injustice in classing him among the religionists who have
+little sympathy! For all real distress, his compassion is instant; but
+his doctrinal religion becomes immediately to him a cause of failure in
+charity.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Yon divine has another air from powerful Master Rollock, and Mess
+David Black of North Leith, and sic like. Alack-a-day, wha can ken,
+if it please your lordship, whether sic prayers as the Southrons
+read out of their auld blethering black mess-book there, may not be
+as powerful to invite fiends, as a right red-het prayer warm from
+the heart may be powerful to drive them away; even as the evil
+spirit was driven by the smell of the fish's liver from the bridal
+chamber of Sara, the daughter of Raguel!"</p></div>
+
+<p>The scene in which this speech occurs is one of Scott's most finished
+pieces, showing with supreme art how far the weakness of Richie's
+superstitious formality is increased by his being at the time partially
+drunk!</p>
+
+<p>It is on the other hand to be noted to his credit, for an earnest and
+searching Bible-reader, that he quotes the Apocrypha. Not so gifted
+Gilfillan,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"But if your honor wad consider the case of Tobit&mdash;!"</p>
+
+<p>"Tobit!" exclaimed Gilfillan with great heat; "Tobit and his dog
+baith are altogether heathenish and apocryphal, and none but a
+prelatist or a papist would draw them into question. I doubt I hae
+been mista'en in you, friend."</p></div>
+
+<p>Gilfillan and Fairservice are exactly alike, and both are distinguished
+from Moniplies in their scornfully exclusive dogmatism, which is indeed
+the distinctive plague-spot of the lower evangelical sect everywhere,
+and the worst blight of the narrow natures, capable of its zealous
+profession. In Blattergowl, on the contrary, as his name implies, the
+<i>doctrinal</i> teaching has become mere Blather, Blatter, or patter&mdash;a
+string of commonplaces spoken habitually in performance of his clerical
+function, but with no personal or sectarian interest in them on his
+part.</p>
+
+<p>"He said fine things on the duty o' resignation to the will of God&mdash;that
+did he"; but his own mind is fixed under ordinary circumstances only on
+the income and privilege of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> his position. Scott however indicates this
+without severity as one of the weaknesses of an established church, to
+the general principle of which, as to all other established and
+monarchic law, he is wholly submissive, and usually affectionate (see
+the description of Colonel Mannering's Edinburgh Sunday), so that
+Blattergowl, <i>out of the pulpit</i>, does not fail in his serious pastoral
+duty, but gives real comfort by his presence and exhortation in the
+cottage of the Mucklebackits.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, to all kinds of Independents and Nonconformists
+(unless of Roderick Dhu type) Scott is adverse with all his powers; and
+accordingly, Andrew and Gilfillan are much more sternly and scornfully
+drawn than Blattergowl.</p>
+
+<p>120. In all the three, however, the reader must not for an instant
+suspect what is commonly called "hypocrisy." Their religion is no
+assumed mask or advanced pretense. It is in all a confirmed and intimate
+faith, mischievous by its error, in proportion to its sincerity (compare
+"Ariadne Florentina," paragraph 87), and although by his cowardice,
+petty larceny,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> and low cunning, Fairservice is absolutely separated
+into a different class of men from Moniplies&mdash;in his fixed religious
+principle and primary conception of moral conduct, he is exactly like
+him. Thus when, in an agony of terror, he speaks for once to his master
+with entire sincerity, one might for a moment think it was a lecture by
+Moniplies to Nigel.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"O, Maister Frank, a' your uncle's follies and your cousin's
+fliskies, were nothing to this! Drink clean cap-out, like Sir
+Hildebrand; begin the blessed morning with brandy-taps like Squire
+Percy; rin wud among the lasses like Squire John; gamble like
+Richard; win souls to the Pope and the deevil, like Rashleigh;
+rive, rant, <i>break the Sabbath</i>, and do the Pope's bidding, like
+them a' put thegither&mdash;but merciful Providence! tak' care o' your
+young bluid, and gang na near Rob Roy."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I said, one might for a moment think it was a Moniplies' lecture to
+Nigel. But not for two moments, if we indeed can think at all. We could
+not find a passage more concentrated in expression of Andrew's total
+character; nor more characteristic of Scott in the calculated precision
+and deliberate appliance of every word.</p>
+
+<p>121. Observe first, Richie's rebuke, quoted above, fastens Nigel's mind
+instantly on the <i>nobleness</i> of his father. But Andrew's to Frank
+fastens as instantly on the <i>follies</i> of his uncle and cousins.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the sum of Andrew's lesson is&mdash;"do anything that is rascally,
+if only you save your skin." But Richie's is summed in "the grace of God
+is better than gold pieces."</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, Richie takes little note of creeds, except when he is drunk,
+but looks to conduct always; while Andrew clinches his catalogue of
+wrong with "doing the Pope's bidding" and Sabbath-breaking; these
+definitions of the unpardonable being the worst absurdity of all Scotch
+wickedness to this hour&mdash;everything being forgiven to people who go to
+church on Sunday, and curse the Pope. Scott never loses sight of this
+marvelous plague-spot of Presbyterian religion, and the last words of
+Andrew Fairservice are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The villain Laurie! to betray an auld friend that sang aff the
+same psalm-book wi' him <i>every Sabbath</i> for twenty years,"</p></div>
+
+<p>and the tragedy of these last words of his, and of his expulsion from
+his former happy home&mdash;"a jargonelle pear-tree at one end of the
+cottage, a rivulet and flower plot of a rood in extent in front, a
+kitchen garden behind, and a paddock for a cow" (viii. 6, of the 1830
+edition) can only be understood by the reading of the chapter he quotes
+on that last Sabbath evening he passes in it&mdash;the 5th of Nehemiah.</p>
+
+<p>122. For&mdash;and I must again and again point out this to the modern
+reader, who, living in a world of affectation, suspects "hypocrisy" in
+every creature he sees&mdash;the very plague of this lower evangelical piety
+is that it is <i>not</i> hypocrisy; that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> Andrew and Laurie <i>do</i> both expect
+to get the grace of God by singing psalms on Sunday, whatever rascality
+they practice during the week. In the modern popular drama of
+"School,"<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> the only religious figure is a dirty and malicious usher
+who appears first reading Hervey's "Meditations," and throws away the
+book as soon as he is out of sight of the company. But when Andrew is
+found by Frank "perched up like a statue by a range of beehives in an
+attitude of devout contemplation, with one eye watching the motions of
+the little irritable citizens, and the other fixed on a book of
+devotion," you will please observe, suspicious reader, that the devout
+gardener has no expectation whatever of Frank's approach, nor has he any
+design upon him, nor is he reading or attitudinizing for effect of any
+kind on any person. He is following his own ordinary customs, and his
+book of devotion has been already so well used that "much attrition had
+deprived it of its corners, and worn it into an oval shape"; its
+attractiveness to Andrew being twofold&mdash;the first, that it contains
+doctrine to his mind; the second, that such sound doctrine is set forth
+under figures properly belonging to his craft. "I was e'en taking a
+spell o' worthy Mess John Quackleben's 'Flower of a Sweet Savour sown on
+the Middenstead of this World'" (note in passing Scott's easy, instant,
+exquisite invention of the name of author and title of book); and it is
+a question of very curious interest how far these sweet "spells" in
+Quackleben, and the like religious exercises of a nature compatible with
+worldly business (compare Luckie Macleary, "with eyes employed on
+Boston's 'Crook in the Lot,' while her ideas were engaged in summing up
+the reckoning"&mdash;Waverley, i. 112)&mdash;do indeed modify in Scotland the
+national character<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> for the better or the worse; or, not materially
+altering, do at least solemnize and confirm it in what good it may be
+capable of. My own Scottish nurse described in "Fors Clavigera" for
+April, 1873, would, I doubt not, have been as faithful and affectionate
+without her little library of Puritan theology; nor were her minor
+faults, so far as I could see, abated by its exhortations; but I cannot
+but believe that her uncomplaining endurance of most painful disease,
+and steadiness of temper under not unfrequent misapprehension by those
+whom she best loved and served, were in great degree aided by so much of
+Christian faith and hope as she had succeeded in obtaining, with little
+talk about it.</p>
+
+<p>123. I knew however in my earlier days a right old Covenanter in my
+Scottish aunt's house, of whom, with Mause Hedrigg and David Deans, I
+may be able perhaps to speak further in my next paper.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> But I can
+only now write carefully of what bears on my immediate work: and must
+ask the reader's indulgence for the hasty throwing together of materials
+intended, before my illness last spring, to have been far more
+thoroughly handled. The friends who are fearful for my reputation as an
+"&eacute;crivain" will perhaps kindly recollect that a sentence of "Modern
+Painters" was often written four or five times over in my own hand, and
+tried in every word for perhaps an hour&mdash;perhaps a forenoon&mdash;before it
+was passed for the printer. I rarely now fix my mind on a sentence, or a
+thought, for five minutes in the quiet of morning, but a telegram comes
+announcing that somebody or other will do themselves the pleasure of
+calling at eleven o'clock, and that there's two shillings to pay.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> October 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "Jean Fran&ccedil;ois Millet." Twenty Etching's and Woodcuts
+reproduced in Facsimile, and Biographical Notice by William Ernest
+Henley. London, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> I am sorry to find that my former allusion to the boating
+expedition in this novel has been misconstrued by a young authoress of
+promise into disparagement of her own work; not supposing it possible
+that I could only have been forced to look at George Eliot's by a
+friend's imperfect account of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> I am ashamed to exemplify the miserable work of "review"
+by mangling and mumbling this noble closing chapter of the "Monastery,"
+but I cannot show the web of work without unweaving it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> With ludicrously fatal retouch in the later edition "was
+deprived of" his sword.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Again I am obliged, by review necessity, to omit half the
+points of the scene.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> I must deeply and earnestly express my thanks to my
+friend Mr. Hale White for his vindication of Goethe's real opinion of
+Byron from the mangled representation of it by Mr. Matthew Arnold
+(<i>Contemporary Review</i>, August, 1881).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> "Reirde, rerde, Anglo-Saxon reord, lingua, sermo, clamor,
+shouting" (Douglas glossary). No Scottish sentence in the Scott novels
+should be passed without examining every word in it, his dialect, as
+already noticed, being always pure and classic in the highest degree,
+and his meaning always the fuller, the further it is traced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> The reader must observe that in quoting Scott for
+illustration of particular points I am obliged sometimes to alter the
+succession and omit much of the context of the pieces I want, for Scott
+never lets you see his hand, nor get at his points without remembering
+and comparing far-away pieces carefully. To collect the evidence of any
+one phase of character, is like pulling up the detached roots of a
+creeper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Note the "wee business of my ain," i. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Its "hero" is a tall youth with handsome calves to his
+legs, who shoots a bull with a fowling-piece, eats a large lunch, thinks
+it witty to call Othello a "nigger," and, having nothing to live on, and
+being capable of doing nothing for his living, establishes himself in
+lunches and cigars forever, by marrying a girl with a fortune. The
+heroine is an amiable governess, who, for the general encouragement of
+virtue in governesses, is rewarded by marrying a lord.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The present paper was, however, the last.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FAIRY_STORIES110" id="FAIRY_STORIES110"></a>FAIRY STORIES.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>124. Long since, longer ago than the opening of some fairy tales, I was
+asked by the publisher who has been rash enough, at my request, to
+reprint these my favorite old stories in their earliest English form, to
+set down for him my reasons for preferring them to the more polished
+legends, moral and satiric, which are now, with rich adornment of every
+page by very admirable art, presented to the acceptance of the Nursery.</p>
+
+<p>But it seemed to me to matter so little to the majestic independence of
+the child-public, who, beside themselves, liked, or who disliked, what
+they pronounced entertaining, that it is only on strict claims of a
+promise unwarily given that I venture on the impertinence of eulogy; and
+my reluctance is the greater, because there is in fact nothing very
+notable in these tales, unless it be their freedom from faults which for
+some time have been held to be quite the reverse of faults by the
+majority of readers.</p>
+
+<p>125. In the best stories recently written for the young, there is a
+taint which it is not easy to define, but which inevitably follows on
+the author's addressing himself to children bred in schoolrooms and
+drawing-rooms, instead of fields and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> woods&mdash;children whose favorite
+amusements are premature imitations of the vanities of elder people, and
+whose conceptions of beauty are dependent partly on costliness of dress.
+The fairies who interfere in the fortunes of these little ones are apt
+to be resplendent chiefly in millinery and satin slippers, and appalling
+more by their airs than their enchantments.</p>
+
+<p>The fine satire which, gleaming through every playful word, renders some
+of these recent stories as attractive to the old as to the young, seems
+to me no less to unfit them for their proper function. Children should
+laugh, but not mock; and when they laugh, it should not be at the
+weaknesses and the faults of others. They should be taught, as far as
+they are permitted to concern themselves with the characters of those
+around them, to seek faithfully for good, not to lie in wait maliciously
+to make themselves merry with evil: they should be too painfully
+sensitive to wrong to smile at it; and too modest to constitute
+themselves its judges.</p>
+
+<p>126. With these minor errors a far graver one is involved. As the
+simplicity of the sense of beauty has been lost in recent tales for
+children, so also the simplicity of their conception of love. That word
+which, in the heart of a child, should represent the most constant and
+vital part of its being; which ought to be the sign of the most solemn
+thoughts that inform its awakening soul and, in one wide mystery of pure
+sunrise, should flood the zenith of its heaven, and gleam on the dew at
+its feet; this word, which should be consecrated on its lips, together
+with the Name which it may not take in vain, and whose meaning should
+soften and animate every emotion through which the inferior things and
+the feeble creatures, set beneath it in its narrow world, are revealed
+to its curiosity or companionship; this word, in modern child-story, is
+too often restrained and darkened into the hieroglyph of an evil
+mystery, troubling the sweet peace of youth with premature gleams of
+uncomprehended passion, and flitting shadows of unrecognized sin.</p>
+
+<p>These great faults in the spirit of recent child-fiction are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> connected
+with a parallel folly of purpose. Parents who are too indolent and
+self-indulgent to form their children's characters by wholesome
+discipline, or in their own habits and principles of life are conscious
+of setting before them no faultless example, vainly endeavor to
+substitute the persuasive influence of moral precept, intruded in the
+guise of amusement, for the strength of moral habit compelled by
+righteous authority:&mdash;vainly think to inform the heart of infancy with
+deliberative wisdom, while they abdicate the guardianship of its
+unquestioning innocence; and warp into the agonies of an immature
+philosophy of conscience the once fearless strength of its unsullied and
+unhesitating virtue.</p>
+
+<p>127. A child should not need to choose between right and wrong. It
+should not be capable of wrong; it should not conceive of wrong.
+Obedient, as bark to helm, not by sudden strain or effort, but in the
+freedom of its bright course of constant life; true, with an
+undistinguished, praiseless, unboastful truth, in a crystalline
+household world of truth; gentle, through daily entreatings of
+gentleness, and honorable trusts, and pretty prides of child-fellowship
+in offices of good; strong, not in bitter and doubtful contest with
+temptation, but in peace of heart, and armor of habitual right, from
+which temptation falls like thawing hail; self-commanding, not in sick
+restraint of mean appetites and covetous thoughts, but in vital joy of
+unluxurious life, and contentment in narrow possession, wisely esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>Children so trained have no need of moral fairy tales; but they will
+find in the apparently vain and fitful courses of any tradition of old
+time, honestly delivered to them, a teaching for which no other can be
+substituted, and of which the power cannot be measured; animating for
+them the material world with inextinguishable life, fortifying them
+against the glacial cold of selfish science, and preparing them
+submissively, and with no bitterness of astonishment, to behold, in
+later years, the mystery&mdash;divinely appointed to remain such to all human
+thought&mdash;of the fates that happen alike to the evil and the good.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>128. And the effect of the endeavor to make stories moral upon the
+literary merit of the work itself, is as harmful as the motive of the
+effort is false. For every fairy tale worth recording at all is the
+remnant of a tradition possessing true historical value;&mdash;historical, at
+least in so far as it has naturally arisen out of the mind of a people
+under special circumstances, and risen not without meaning, nor removed
+altogether from their sphere of religious faith. It sustains afterwards
+natural changes from the sincere action of the fear or fancy of
+successive generations; it takes new color from their manner of life,
+and new form from their changing moral tempers. As long as these changes
+are natural and effortless, accidental and inevitable, the story remains
+essentially true, altering its form, indeed, like a flying cloud, but
+remaining a sign of the sky; a shadowy image, as truly a part of the
+great firmament of the human mind as the light of reason which it seems
+to interrupt. But the fair deceit and innocent error of it cannot be
+interpreted nor restrained by a willful purpose, and all additions to it
+by act do but defile, as the shepherd disturbs the flakes of morning
+mist with smoke from his fire of dead leaves.</p>
+
+<p>129. There is also a deeper collateral mischief in this indulgence of
+licentious change and retouching of stories to suit particular tastes,
+or inculcate favorite doctrines. It directly destroys the child's power
+of rendering any such belief as it would otherwise have been in his
+nature to give to an imaginative vision. How far it is expedient to
+occupy his mind with ideal forms at all may be questionable to many,
+though not to me; but it is quite beyond question that if we do allow of
+the fictitious representation, that representation should be calm and
+complete, possessed to the full, and read down its utmost depth. The
+little reader's attention should never be confused or disturbed, whether
+he is possessing himself of fairy tale or history. Let him know his
+fairy tale accurately, and have perfect joy or awe in the conception of
+it as if it were real; thus he will always be exercising his power of
+grasping realities: but a confused, careless, or discrediting tenure of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+the fiction will lead to as confused and careless reading of fact. Let
+the circumstances of both be strictly perceived and long dwelt upon, and
+let the child's own mind develop fruit of thought from both. It is of
+the greatest importance early to secure this habit of contemplation, and
+therefore it is a grave error, either to multiply unnecessarily, or to
+illustrate with extravagant richness, the incidents presented to the
+imagination. It should multiply and illustrate them for itself; and, if
+the intellect is of any real value, there will be a mystery and
+wonderfulness in its own dreams which would only be thwarted by external
+illustration. Yet I do not bring forward the text or the etchings in
+this volume as examples of what either ought to be in works of the kind:
+they are in many respects common, imperfect, vulgar; but their vulgarity
+is of a wholesome and harmless kind. It is not, for instance, graceful
+English, to say that a thought "popped into Catherine's head"; but it
+nevertheless is far better, as an initiation into literary style, that a
+child should be told this than that "a subject attracted Catherine's
+attention." And in genuine forms of minor tradition, a rude and more or
+less illiterate tone will always be discernible; for all the best fairy
+tales have owed their birth, and the greater part of their power, to
+narrowness of social circumstances; they belonged properly to districts
+in which walled cities are surrounded by bright and unblemished country,
+and in which a healthy and bustling town life, not highly refined, is
+relieved by, and contrasted with, the calm enchantment of pastoral and
+woodland scenery, either under humble cultivation by peasant masters, or
+left in its natural solitude. Under conditions of this kind the
+imagination is enough excited to invent instinctively (and rejoice in
+the invention of) spiritual forms of wildness and beauty, while yet it
+is restrained and made cheerful by the familiar accidents and relations
+of town life, mingling always in its fancy humorous and vulgar
+circumstances with pathetic ones, and never so much impressed with its
+supernatural fantasies as to be in danger of retaining them as any part
+of its religious faith. The good spirit descends gradually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> from an
+angel into a fairy, and the demon shrinks into a playful grotesque of
+diminutive malevolence, while yet both keep an accredited and vital
+influence upon the character and mind. But the language in which such
+ideas will be usually clothed, must necessarily partake of their
+narrowness; and art is systematically incognizant of them, having only
+strength under the conditions which awake them to express itself in an
+irregular and gross grotesque, fit only for external architectural
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>130. The illustrations of this volume are almost the only exceptions I
+know to the general rule. They are of quite sterling and admirable art,
+in a class precisely parallel in elevation to the character of the tales
+which they illustrate; and the original etchings, as I have before said
+in the Appendix to my "Elements of Drawing," were quite unrivaled in
+masterfulness of touch since Rembrandt (in some qualities of delineation
+unrivaled even by him). These copies have been so carefully executed,
+that at first I was deceived by them, and supposed them to be late
+impressions from the plates (and what is more, I believe the master
+himself was deceived by them, and supposed them to be his own); and
+although on careful comparison with the first proofs they will be found
+no exception to the terrible law that literal repetition of entirely
+fine work shall be, even to the hand that produced it,&mdash;much more to any
+other,&mdash;forever impossible, they still represent, with sufficient
+fidelity to be in the highest degree instructive, the harmonious light
+and shade, the manly simplicity of execution, and the easy, unincumbered
+fancy, of designs which belonged to the best period of Cruikshank's
+genius. To make somewhat enlarged copies of them, looking at them
+through a magnifying glass, and never putting two lines where Cruikshank
+has put only one, would be an exercise in decision and severe drawing
+which would leave afterwards little to be learnt in schools, I would
+gladly also say much in their praise as imaginative designs; but the
+power of genuine imaginative work, and its difference from that which is
+compounded and patched together from borrowed sources, is of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> all
+qualities of art the most difficult to explain; and I must be content
+with the simple assertions of it.</p>
+
+<p>And so I trust the good old book, and the honest work that adorns it, to
+such favor as they may find with children of open hearts and lowly
+lives.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Denmark Hill</span>, <i>Easter</i>, 1868.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> This paper forms the introduction to a volume entitled
+"German Popular Stories, with Illustrations after the original designs
+of George Cruikshank, edited by Edgar Taylor, with Introduction by John
+Ruskin, M.A." London: Chatto and Windus, 1868. The book is a reprint of
+Mr. Edgar Taylor's original (1823) selections of the "Hausm&auml;rchen," or
+"German Popular Stories" of the Brothers Grimm. The original selections
+were in two octavo volumes; the reprint in one of smaller size, it being
+(the publisher states in his preface) "Mr. Ruskin's wish that the new
+edition should appeal to young readers rather than to
+adults."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="ECONOMY" id="ECONOMY"></a>ECONOMY.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Contemporary Review, May</i> 1873.)</h4>
+
+
+<h3>USURY. A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Contemporary Review, February</i> 1880.)</h4>
+
+
+<h3>USURY. A PREFACE.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Pamphlet</i>, 1885.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span><br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="HOME_AND_ITS_ECONOMIES111" id="HOME_AND_ITS_ECONOMIES111"></a>HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>131. In the March number of the <i>Contemporary Review</i> appeared two
+papers,<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> by writers of reputation, which I cannot but hope their
+authors will perceive upon reflection to have involved errors only the
+more grave in that they have become, of late, in the minds of nearly all
+public men, facile and familiar. I have, therefore, requested the
+editor's permission to offer some reply to both of these essays, their
+subjects being intimately connected.</p>
+
+<p>The first of which I speak was Mr. Herbert Spencer's, which appeared
+under the title of "The Bias of Patriotism." But the real subject of the
+paper (discussed in its special extent, with singular care and equity)
+was only the bias of National vanity; and the debate was opened by this
+very curious sentence,&mdash;"Patriotism is nationally, that which Egoism is
+individually."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Spencer would not, I think, himself accept this statement, if put
+into the clear form, "What is Egoism in one man, is Patriotism in two or
+more, and the vice of an individual, the virtue of a multitude."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>
+But it is strange,&mdash;however strictly Mr. Spencer may of late have
+confined his attention to metaphysical or scientific subjects,
+disregarding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> the language of historical or imaginative literature&mdash;it
+is strange, I repeat, that so careful a student should be unaware that
+the term "patriotism" cannot, in classical usage, be extended to the
+action of a multitude. No writer of authority ever speaks of a nation as
+having felt, or acted, patriotically. Patriotism is, by definition, a
+virtue of individuals; and so far from being in those individuals a mode
+of egoism, it is precisely in the sacrifice of their egoism that it
+consists. It is the temper of mind which determines them to defer their
+own interests to those of their country.</p>
+
+<p>132. Supposing it possible for any parallel sentiment to animate a
+nation as one body, it could have reference only to the position it held
+among other families of the world. The name of the emotion would then be
+properly "Cosmism," and would signify the resolution of such a people to
+sacrifice its own special interests to those of Mankind. Cosmism
+hitherto has indeed generally asserted itself only in the desire of the
+Cosmic nation that all others should adopt its theological opinions, and
+permit it to adopt their personal property; but Patriotism has truly
+existed, and even as a dominant feeling, in the minds of many persons
+who have been greatly influential on the fates of their races, and that
+one of our leading philosophers should be unconscious of the nature of
+this sentiment, and ignorant of its political power, is to be noted as
+painfully characteristic of the present state of England itself.</p>
+
+<p>It does not indeed follow that a feeling of which we are unaware is
+necessarily extinguished in us; and the faculties of perception and
+analysis are always so paralyzed by the lingual ingenuities of logic
+that it is impossible to say, of any professed logician, whether he may
+not yet be acting under the real force of ideas of which he has lost
+both the consciousness and conception. No man who has once entangled
+himself in what Mr. Spencer defines, farther on, as the "science of the
+relations implied by the conclusions, exclusions, and overlappings of
+classes," can be expected during the rest of his life to perceive more
+of any one thing than that it is included, excluded, or overlapped by
+something else; which is in itself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> a sufficiently confused state of
+mind, and especially harmful in that it permits us to avoid considering
+whether our intellectual linen is itself clean, while we concern
+ourselves only to ascertain whether it is included, excluded, or
+overlapped by our coat collar. But it is a grave phenomenon of the time
+that patriotism&mdash;of all others&mdash;should be the sentiment which an English
+logician is not only unable to define, but attempts to define as its
+precise contrary. In every epoch of decline, men even of high
+intellectual energy have been swept down in the diluvium of public life,
+and the crystalline edges of their minds worn away by friction with
+blunted ones; but I had not believed that the whole weight of the
+depraved mob of modern England, though they have become incapable alike
+of fidelity to their own country, and alliance with any other, could so
+far have perplexed one of our exactest students as to make him confuse
+heroism with conceit, and the loves of country and of home with the
+iniquities of selfishness. Can it be only a quarter of a century since
+the Last Minstrel died&mdash;and have we already answered his "Lives there a
+man?" with the calm assertion that there live no other than such; and
+that the "wretch concentered all in self "is the "Patriot" of our
+generation?</p>
+
+<p>133. Be it so. Let it even be admitted that egoism is the only power
+conceivable by a modern metaphysician to be the spring of mental energy;
+just as chemical excitement may be the only power traceable by the
+modern physician as the source of muscular energy. And still Mr.
+Spencer's subsequent analysis is inaccurate, and unscholarly. For egoism
+does not necessarily imply either misapprehension or mismeasurement.
+There are modes of the love of our country which are definitely selfish,
+as a cat's of the hearthrug, yet entirely balanced and calm in judicial
+faculty; passions which determine conduct, but have no influence on
+opinion. For instance, I have bought for my own exclusive gratification,
+the cottage in which I am writing, near the lake-beach on which I used
+to play when I was seven years old. Were I a public-spirited scientific
+person, or a benevolently pious one, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> should doubtless, instead, be
+surveying the geographical relations of the Mountains of the Moon, or
+translating the Athanasian Creed into Tartar-Chinese. But I hate the
+very name of the public, and labor under no oppressive anxiety either
+for the advancement of science, or the salvation of mankind. I therefore
+prefer amusing myself with the lake-pebbles, of which I know nothing but
+that they are pretty; and conversing with people whom I can understand
+without pains, and who, so far from needing to be converted, seem to me
+on the whole better than myself. This is moral egoism, but it is not
+intellectual error. I never form, much less express, any opinion as to
+the relative beauties of Yewdale crag and the Mountains of the Moon; nor
+do I please myself by contemplating, in any exaggerated light, the
+spiritual advantages which I possess in my familiarity with the
+Thirty-nine Articles. I know the height of my neighboring mountains to a
+foot; and the extent of my real possessions, theological and material,
+to an article. Patriotic egoism attaches me to the one; personal egoism
+satisfies me in the other; and the calm selfishness with which Nature
+has blessed all her unphilosophical creatures, blinds me to the
+attractions&mdash;as to the faults&mdash;of things with which I have no concern,
+and saves me at once from the folly of contempt, and the discomfort of
+envy. I might have written, as accurately, "The discomfort of contempt";
+for indeed the forms of petulant rivalry and self-assertion which Mr.
+Spencer assumes to be developments of egoism, are merely its diseases;
+(taking the word "disease" in its most literal meaning). A man of sense
+is more an egoist in modesty than a blockhead is in boasting; and it is
+neither pride nor self-respect, but only ignorance and ill-breeding,
+that either disguise the facts of life, or violate its courtesies.</p>
+
+<p>134. It will not, I trust, be thought violation of courtesy to a writer
+of Mr. Spencer's extending influence, if I urge on his attention the
+danger under which metaphysicians are always placed of supposing that
+the investigation of the processes of thought will enable them to
+distinguish its forms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> 'As well might the chemist, who had exhaustively
+examined the conditions of vitreous fusion, imagine himself therefore
+qualified to number or class the vases bent by the breath of Venice. Mr.
+Spencer has determined, I believe, to the satisfaction of his readers,
+in what manner thoughts and feelings are constructed; it is time for him
+now to observe the results of the construction, whether native to his
+own mind, or discoverable in other intellectual territories. Patriotism
+is, however, perhaps the last emotion he can now conveniently study in
+England, for the temper which crowns the joy of life with the sweetness
+and decorum of death can scarcely be manifested clearly in a country
+which is fast rendering herself one whose peace is pollution, and whose
+battle, crime; within whose confines it is loathsome to live, and in
+whose cause it is disgraceful to die.</p>
+
+<p>135. The chief causes of her degradation were defended, with delicate
+apology, in the second paper to which I have above referred; the
+modification by Mr. W. R. Greg of a letter which he had addressed, on
+the subject of luxurious expenditure and its economical results, to the
+<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>; and which Mr. Greg states to have given rise in
+that journal to a controversy in which four or five combatants took
+part, the looseness of whose notions induced him to express his own more
+coherent ones in the <i>Contemporary Review</i>.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p>I am sorry to find that Mr. Greg looked upon my own poor part in that
+correspondence as controversial. I merely asked him a question which he
+declared to be insidious and irrelevant (not considering that if it were
+the one, it could not be the other), and I stated a few facts respecting
+which no controversy was possible, and which Mr. Greg, in his own terms,
+"sedulously abstained" from noticing.</p>
+
+<p>But Mr. Greg felt my question to be insidious because it made him partly
+conscious that he had only examined one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> half of the subject he was
+discussing, and even that half without precision.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Goldwin Smith had spoken of a rich man as consuming the means of
+living of the poor. Mr. Greg, in reply, pointed out how beneficially the
+rich man spent what he had got. Upon which I ventured to inquire "how he
+got it"; which is indeed precisely the first of all questions to be
+asked when the economical relations of any man with his neighbor are to
+be examined.</p>
+
+<p>Dick Turpin is blamed&mdash;suppose&mdash;by some plain-minded person for
+consuming the means of other people's living. "Nay," says Dick to the
+plain-minded person, "observe how beneficently and pleasantly I spend
+whatever I get!"</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, Dick," persists the plain-minded person; "but how do you get it?"</p>
+
+<p>"The question," says Dick, "is insidious and irrelevant."</p>
+
+<p>Do not let it be supposed that I mean to assert any irregularity or
+impropriety in Dick's profession&mdash;I merely assert the necessity for Mr.
+Greg's examination, if he would be master of his subject, of the manner
+of Gain in every case, as well as the manner of Expenditure. Such
+accounts must always be accurately rendered in a well-regulated society.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>136. "Le lieutenant adressa la parole au capitaine, et lui dit
+qu'il venait d'enlever ces mannequins, remplis de sucre, de
+cannelle, d'amandes, et de raisins sees, &agrave; un &eacute;picier de B&eacute;navente.
+Apr&egrave;s qu'il eut rendu compte de son exp&eacute;dition au bureau, les
+d&eacute;pouilles de l'&eacute;picier furent port&eacute;es dans l'office. Alors il ne
+fut plus question que de se r&eacute;jouir; je d&eacute;butai par le buffet, que
+je parai de plusieurs bouteilles de ce bon vin que le Seigneur
+Rolando m'avoit vant&eacute;."</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Greg strictly confines himself to an examination of the benefits
+conferred on the public by this so agreeable festivity; but he must not
+be surprised or indignant that some inquiry should be made as to the
+resulting condition of the &eacute;picier de B&eacute;navente.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And it is all the more necessary that such inquiry be instituted when
+the captain of the expedition is a minion, not of the moon, but of the
+sun; and dazzling, therefore, to all beholders. "It is heaven which
+dictates what I ought to do upon this occasion,"<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> says Henry of
+Navarre; "my retreat out of this city,<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> before I have made myself
+master of it, will be the retreat of my soul out of my body."
+"Accordingly all the quarter which still held out, we forced," says M.
+de Rosny, "after which the inhabitants, finding themselves no longer
+able to resist, laid down their arms, and the city was given up to
+plunder. My good fortune threw a small iron chest in my way, in which I
+found about four thousand gold crowns."</p>
+
+<p>I cannot doubt that the Baron's expenditure of this sum would be in the
+highest degree advantageous to France and to the Protestant religion.
+But complete economical science must study the effect of its abstraction
+on the immediate prosperity of the town of Cahors; and even beyond
+this&mdash;the mode of its former acquisition by the town itself, which
+perhaps, in the economies of the nether world, may have delegated some
+of its citizens to the seventh circle.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>137. And the most curious points in the partiality of modern economical
+science are that while it always waives this question of ways and means
+with respect to rich persons, it studiously pushes it in the case of
+poor ones; and while it asserts the consumption of such an article of
+luxury as wine (to take that which Mr. Greg himself instances) to be
+economi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>cally expedient, when the wine is drunk by persons who are not
+thirsty, it asserts the same consumption to be altogether inexpedient,
+when the privilege is extended to those who are. Thus Mr. Greg
+dismisses, in one place, with compassionate disdain, the extremely
+vulgar notion "that a man who drinks a bottle of champagne worth five
+shillings, while his neighbor is in want of actual food, is in some way
+wronging his neighbor"; and yet Mr. Greg himself, elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>
+evidently remains under the equally vulgar impression that the
+twenty-four millions of such thirstier persons who spend fifteen per
+cent of their incomes in drink and tobacco, are wronging their neighbors
+by that expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>138. It cannot, surely, be the difference in degree of refinement
+between malt liquor and champagne which causes Mr. Greg's undefined
+sensation of moral delinquency and economical error in the one case, and
+of none in the other; if that be all, I can relieve him from his
+embarrassment by putting the cases in more parallel form. A clergyman
+writes to me, in distress of mind, because the able-bodied laborers who
+come begging to him in winter, drink port wine out of buckets in summer.
+Of course Mr. Greg's logical mind will at once admit (as a consequence
+of his own very just <i>argumentum ad hominem</i> in a previous page<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>)
+that the consumption of port wine out of buckets must be as much a
+benefit to society in general as the consumption of champagne out of
+bottles; and yet, curiously enough, I am certain he will feel my
+question, "Where does the drinker get the means for his drinking?" more
+relevant in the case of the imbibers of port than in that of the
+imbibers of champagne. And although Mr. Greg proceeds, with that lofty
+contempt for the dictates of nature and Christianity which radical
+economists cannot but feel, to observe that "while the natural man and
+the Christian would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> have the champagne drinker forego his bottle, and
+give the value of it to the famishing wretch beside him, the radical
+economist would condemn such behavior as distinctly criminal and
+pernicious," he would scarcely, I think, carry out with the same
+triumphant confidence the conclusions of the unnatural man and the
+anti-christian, with respect to the laborer as well as the idler; and
+declare that while the extremely simple persons who still believe in the
+laws of nature, and the mercy of God, would have the port-drinker forego
+his bucket, and give the value of it to the famishing wife and child
+beside him, "the radical economist would condemn such behavior as
+distinctly criminal and pernicious."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Greg has it indeed in his power to reply that it is proper to
+economize for the sake of one's own wife and children, but not for the
+sake of anybody else's. But since, according to another exponent of the
+principles of Radical Economy, in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> a
+well-conducted agricultural laborer must not marry till he is
+forty-five, his economies, if any, in early life, must be as offensive
+to Mr. Greg on the score of their abstract humanity, as those of the
+richest bachelor about town.</p>
+
+<p>139. There is another short sentence in this same page, of which it is
+difficult to overrate the accidental significance.</p>
+
+<p>"The superficial observer," says Mr. Greg, "recollects a text which he
+heard in his youth, but of which he never considered the precise
+applicability&mdash;'He that hath two coats, let him impart to him that hath
+none.'"</p>
+
+<p>The assumptions that no educated Englishman can ever have heard that
+text except in his youth, and that those who are old enough to remember
+having heard it, "never considered its precise applicability," are
+surely rash, in the treatment of a scientific subject. I can assure Mr.
+Greg that a few gray-headed votaries of the creed of Christendom still
+read&mdash;though perhaps under their breath&mdash;the words which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> early
+associations have made precious to them; and that in the bygone days,
+when that Sermon on the Mount was still listened to with respect by many
+not illiterate persons, its meaning was not only considered, but very
+deliberately acted upon. Even the readers of the <i>Contemporary Review</i>
+may perhaps have some pleasure in retreating from the sunshine of
+contemporary science, for a few quiet moments, into the shadows of that
+of the past, and hearing in the following extracts from two letters of
+Scott's (the first describing the manner of life of his mother, whose
+death it announces to a friend, the second, anticipating the verdict of
+the future on the management of his estate by a Scottish nobleman) what
+relations between rich and poor were possible, when philosophers had not
+yet even lisped in the sweet numbers of Radical Sociology.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>140. "She was a strict economist, which she said, enabled her to be
+liberal; out of her little income of about &pound;300 a year she bestowed at
+least a third in well-chosen charities, and with the rest, lived like a
+gentlewoman, and even with hospitality more general than seemed to suit
+her age; yet I could never prevail on her to accept of any assistance.
+You cannot conceive how affecting it was to me to see the little
+preparations of presents which she had assorted for the New Year, for
+she was a great observer of the old fashions of her period&mdash;and to think
+that the kind heart was cold which delighted in all these arts of kindly
+affection."</p>
+
+<p>141. "The Duke is one of those retired and high-spirited men who will
+never be known until the world asks what became of the huge oak that
+grew on the brow of the hill, and sheltered such an extent of ground.
+During the late distress, though his own immense rents remained in
+arrears, and though I know he was pinched for money, as all men were,
+but more especially the possessors of entailed estates, he absented
+himself from London in order to pay, with ease to himself, the laborers
+employed on his various estates. These amounted (for I have often seen
+the roll and helped to check it) to nine hundred and fifty men, working
+at day wages, each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> of whom on a moderate average might maintain three
+persons, since the single men have mothers, sisters, and aged or very
+young relations to protect and assist. Indeed it is wonderful how much
+even a small sum, comparatively, will do in supporting the Scottish
+laborer, who in his natural state is perhaps one of the best, most
+intelligent, and kind-hearted of human beings; and in truth I have
+limited my other habits of expense very much since I fell into the habit
+of employing mine honest people. I wish you could have seen about a
+hundred children, being almost entirely supported by their fathers' or
+brothers' labor, come down yesterday to dance to the pipes, and get a
+piece of cake and bannock, and pence apiece (no very deadly largess) in
+honor of hogmanay. I declare to you, my dear friend, that when I thought
+the poor fellows, who kept these children so neat, and well taught, and
+well behaved, were slaving the whole day for eighteen pence or twenty
+pence at most, I was ashamed of their gratitude, and of their becks and
+bows. But after all, one does what one can, and it is better twenty
+families should be comfortable according to their wishes and habits,
+than that half that number should be raised above their situation."</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>142. I must pray Mr. Greg farther to observe, if he has condescended to
+glance at these remains of almost prehistoric thought, that although the
+modern philosopher will never have reason to blush for any man's
+gratitude, and has totally abandoned the romantic idea of making even so
+much as one family comfortable according to their wishes and habits, the
+alternative suggested by Scott, that half "the number should be raised
+above their situation" may become a very inconvenient one if the
+doctrines of Modern Equality and competition should render the other
+half desirous of parallel promotion.</p>
+
+<p>143. It is now just sixteen years since Mr. Greg's present philosophy of
+Expenditure was expressed with great precision by the Common Councilmen
+of New York, in their report on the commercial crisis of 1857, in the
+following terms:&mdash;<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Another erroneous idea is that luxurious living, extravagant
+dressing, splendid turn-outs and fine houses, are the cause of
+distress to a nation, No more erroneous impression could exist.
+Every extravagance that the man of 100.000 or 1,000,000 dollars
+indulges in, adds to the means, the support, the wealth of ten or a
+hundred who had little or nothing else but their labor, their
+intellect, or their taste. If a man of 1,000,000 dollars spends
+principal and interest in ten years, and finds himself beggared at
+the end of that time, he has actually made a hundred who have
+catered to his extravagance, employers or employed, so much richer
+by the division of his wealth. He may be ruined, but the nation is
+better off and richer, for one hundred minds and hands, with 10,000
+dollars apiece, are far more productive than one with the whole."</p></div>
+
+<p>Now that is precisely the view also taken of the matter by a large
+number of Radical Economists in England as well as America; only they
+feel that the time, however short, which the rich gentleman takes to
+divide his property among them in his own way, is practically wasted;
+and even worse, because the methods which the gentleman himself is
+likely to adopt for the depression of his fortune will not, in all
+probability, be conducive to the elevation of his character. It appears,
+therefore, on moral as well as economical grounds, desirable that the
+division and distribution should at once be summarily effected; and the
+only point still open to discussion in the views of the Common
+Councilmen is to what degree of minuteness they would think it advisable
+to carry the subsequent subdivision.</p>
+
+<p>144. I do not suppose, however, that this is the conclusion which Mr.
+Greg is desirous that the general Anti-Christian public should adopt;
+and in that case, as I see by his paper in the last number of the
+<i>Contemporary</i>,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> that he considers the Christian life itself
+virtually impossible, may I recommend his examination of the manners of
+the Pre-Christian?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> For I can certify him that this important subject,
+of which he has only himself imperfectly investigated one side, had been
+thoroughly investigated on all sides, at least seven hundred years
+before Christ; and from that day to this, all men of wit, sense, and
+feeling have held precisely the same views on the subjects of economy
+and charity, in all nations under the sun. It is of no consequence
+whether Mr. Greg chooses the experience of Boeotia, Lombardy, or
+Yorkshire, nor whether he studies the relation of work to-day or under
+Hesiod, Virgil, or Sydney Smith. But it is desirable that at least he
+should acquaint himself with the opinions of some such persons, as well
+as with those of the Common Councilmen of New York; for though a man of
+superior sagacity may be pardoned for thinking, with the friends of Job,
+that Wisdom will die with him, it can only be through neglect of the
+existing opportunities of general culture that he remains distinctly
+under the impression that she was born with him.</p>
+
+<p>145. It may perhaps be well that in conclusion, I should state briefly
+the causes and terms of the economical crisis of our own day, which has
+been the subject of the debate between Mr. Goldwin Smith and Mr. Greg.</p>
+
+<p>No man ever became, or can become, largely rich merely by labor and
+economy.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> All large fortunes (putting treasure-trove and gambling
+out of consideration) are founded either on occupation of land, usury,
+or taxation of labor. Whether openly or occultly, the landlord,
+money-lender, and capitalist employer, gather into their possession a
+certain quantity of the means of existence which other people produce by
+the labor of their hands. The effect of this impost upon the condition
+of life of the tenant, borrower, and workman, is the first point to be
+studied;&mdash;the results, that is to say, of the mode in which Captain
+Roland fills his purse.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, we have to study the effects of the mode in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> Captain
+Roland empties his purse. The landlord, usurer, or labor-master, does
+not, and cannot, himself consume all the means of life he collects. He
+gives them to other persons, whom he employs for his own behoof&mdash;growers
+of champagne, jockeys, footmen, jewelers, builders, painters, musicians,
+and the like. The division of the labor of these persons from the
+production of food to the production of articles of luxury is very
+frequently, and at the present day, very grievously the cause of famine.
+But when the luxuries are produced, it becomes a quite separate question
+who is to have them, and whether the landlord and capitalist are
+entirely to monopolize the music, the painting, the architecture, the
+hand-service, the horse-service, and the sparkling champagne of the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>146. And it is gradually, in these days, becoming manifest to the
+tenants, borrowers, and laborers, that instead of paying these large
+sums into the hands of the landlords, lenders, and employers, for them
+to purchase music, painting, etc., with, the tenants, borrowers, and
+workers had better buy a little music and painting for themselves. That,
+for instance, instead of the capitalist-employer paying three hundred
+pounds for a full-length portrait of himself, in the attitude of
+investing his capital, the united workmen had better themselves pay the
+three hundred pounds into the hands of the ingenious artist, for a
+painting in the antiquated manner of Leonardo or Raphael, of some
+subject more religiously or historically interesting to them; and placed
+where they can always see it. And again instead of paying three hundred
+pounds to the obliging landlord, for him to buy a box at the opera with,
+whence to study the refinements of music and dancing, the tenants are
+beginning to think that they may as well keep their rents to themselves,
+and therewith pay some Wandering Willie to fiddle at their own doors, or
+bid some gray-haired minstrel</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Tune, to please a peasant's ear,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The harp a king had loved to hear."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>And similarly the dwellers in the hut of the field and garret<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> of the
+city are beginning to think that instead of paying half a crown for the
+loan of half a fire-place, they had better keep their half-crown in
+their pockets till they can buy for themselves a whole one.</p>
+
+<p>147. These are the views which are gaining ground among the poor; and it
+is entirely vain to endeavor to repress them by equivocations. They are
+founded on eternal laws; and although their recognition will long be
+refused, and their promulgation, resisted as it will be, partly by
+force, partly by falsehood, can only be through incalculable confusion
+and misery, recognized they must be eventually; and with these three
+ultimate results:&mdash;that the usurer's trade will be abolished
+utterly,&mdash;that the employer will be paid justly for his superintendence
+of labor, but not for his capital, and the landlord paid for his
+superintendence of the cultivation of land, when he is able to direct it
+wisely: that both he, and the employer of mechanical labor, will be
+recognized as beloved masters, if they deserve love, and as noble guides
+when they are capable of giving discreet guidance; but neither will be
+permitted to establish themselves any more as senseless conduits through
+which the strength and riches of their native land are to be poured into
+the cup of the fornication of its capital.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> <i>Contemporary Review</i>, May 1873.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> These were, first, Mr. Herbert Spencer's "Bias of
+Patriotism," being the ninth chapter of his "Study of Sociology," first
+published in the <i>Contemporary Review</i>; and, secondly, Mr. W. R. Greg's
+"What is culpable luxury?" See below, p. 303, &sect; 135.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> I take due note that Mr. Spencer partly means by his
+adverbial sentence that Patriotism is individual Egoism, expecting its
+own central benefit through the Nation's circumferent benefit, as
+through a funnel: but, throughout, Mr. Spencer confuses this sentiment,
+which he calls "reflex egoism," with the action of "corporate
+conscience."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> See the letters on "How the Rich Spend their Money"
+(reprinted from the <i>Pall Mall</i>) in "Arrows of the Chace," vol. ii.,
+where the origin of the discussion is explained.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> I use the current English of Mrs. Lennox's translation,
+but Henry's real saying was (see the first&mdash;green leaf&mdash;edition of
+Sully), "It is written above what is to happen to me on every occasion."
+"Toute occasion" becomes "cette occasion" in the subsequent editions,
+and finally "what is to happen to me" (ce que doit &ecirc;tre fait de moi)
+becomes "what I ought to do" in the English.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Cahors. See the "Memoirs of the Duke of Sully," Book 1.
+(Bohn's 1856 Edition, vol. i., pp. 118-9.)&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Where violence and brutality are punished. See Dante's
+"Inferno," Canto xii.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> See the <i>Contemporary Review</i> at pp. 618 and
+624.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Viz.:&mdash;That if the expenditure of an income of &pound;30,000 a
+year upon luxuries is to rob the poor, so <i>pro tanto</i> is the expenditure
+of so much of an income of &pound;300 as is spent on anything beyond "the
+simplest necessaries of life."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Referring to two anonymous articles on "The Agricultural
+Laborer," in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, vol. 27, Jan. and June 1873, pp.
+215 and 307.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See the Times of November 23rd of that year.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> "Is a Christian life feasible in these
+days?"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> See <i>Munera Pulveris</i>, &sect; 139: "No man can become largely
+rich by his personal will.... It is only by the discovery of some method
+of taxing the labor of others that he can become opulent." And see also
+<i>Time and Tide</i>, &sect; 81.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="USURY124" id="USURY124"></a>USURY.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.</h3>
+
+
+<p>148. I have been honored by the receipt of a letter from the Bishop of
+Manchester, which, with his Lordship's permission, I have requested the
+editor of the <i>Contemporary Review</i> to place before the large circle of
+his readers, with a brief accompanying statement of the circumstances by
+which the letter has been called forth, and such imperfect reply as it
+is in my power without delay to render.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+J. <span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>.
+<br /><br /></p>
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Manchester</span>, <i>December</i> 8, 1879.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,&mdash;In a letter from yourself to the Rev. F. A.
+Malleson,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> published in the <i>Contemporary Review</i> of the current
+month, I observe the following passage:&mdash;"I have never yet heard so much
+as <i>one</i> (preacher) heartily proclaiming against all those 'deceivers
+with vain words,' that no 'covetous person, which is an idolater, hath
+<i>any</i> inheritance in the Kingdom of Christ and of God;' and on myself
+personally and publicly challenging the Bishops of England generally,
+and by name the Bishop of Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was
+not, according to the will of God, I have received no answer from any
+one of them." I confess, for myself, that until I saw this passage in
+print a few days ago, I was unaware of the existence of such challenge,
+and therefore I could not answer it. It appears to have been delivered
+(A) in No. 82 of a series of letters which, under the title of <i>Fors
+Clavigera</i>, you have for some time been addressing to the working
+classes of England, but which, from the peculiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> mode of their
+publication, are not easily accessible to the general reader and which I
+have only caught a glimpse of, on the library-table of the Athen&aelig;um
+Club, on the rare occasions when I am able to use my privileges as a
+member of that Society. I have no idea why I had the honor of being
+specially mentioned by name (B); but I beg to assure you that my silence
+did not arise from any discourtesy towards my challenger, nor from that
+discretion which, some people may think, is usually the better part of
+episcopal valor, and which consists in ignoring inconvenient questions
+from a sense of inability to answer them; but simply from the fact that
+I was not conscious that your lance had touched my shield.</p>
+
+<p>149. The question you have asked is just one of those to which
+Aristotle's wise caution applies: "We must distinguish and define such
+words, if we would know how far, and in what sense, the opposite views
+are true" (<i>Eth. Nic.</i>, ix, c. viii. &sect; 3). What do you mean by "usury"?
+(C) Do you comprehend under it <i>any</i> payment of money as interest for
+the use of borrowed capital? or only exorbitant, inequitable, grinding
+interest, such as the money-lender, Fufidius, extorted?</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quinas hic capiti mercedes exsecat, atque</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quanto perditior quisque est, tanto acrius urget:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nomina sectatur modo sumta veste virili</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sub patribus duris tironum. Maxime, quis non,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jupiter, exclamat, simul atque audivit?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">&mdash;<i>Hor. Sat.</i> i. 2, 14-18.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Usury, in itself, is a purely neutral word, carrying with it, in its
+primary meaning, neither praise nor blame; and a "usurer" is defined in
+our dictionaries as "a person accustomed to lend money and take interest
+for it"&mdash;which is the ordinary function of a banker, without whose
+help great commercial undertakings could not be carried out; though it
+is obvious how easily the word may pass into a term of reproach, so that
+to have been "called a usurer" was one of the bitter memories that
+rankled most in Shylock's catalogue of his wrongs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>150. I do not believe that anything has done more harm to the practical
+efficacy of religions sanctions than the extravagant attempts that are
+frequently made to impose them in cases which they never originally
+contemplated, or to read into "ordinances," evidently "imposed for a
+time"&mdash;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#8033;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#956;&#7953;&#967;&#961;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#965; (Heb. ix. 10)&mdash;a law of
+eternal and immutable obligation. Just as we are told (D) not to expect
+to find in the Bible a scheme of physical science, so I do not expect to
+find there a scheme of political economy. What I do expect to find, in
+relation to my duty to my neighbor, are those unalterable principles of
+equity, fairness, truthfulness, honesty (E), which are the indispensable
+bases of civil society. I am sure I have no need to remind you that,
+while a Jew was forbidden by his law to take usury&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, interest for
+the loan of money&mdash;from his brother, if he were waxen poor and fallen
+into decay with him, and this generous provision was extended even to
+strangers and sojourners in the land (Lev. xxv. 35-38), and the
+interesting story in Nehemiah (v. 1-13), tells us how this principle was
+recognized in the latest days of the commonwealth&mdash;still in that old law
+there is no denunciation of usury in general, and it was expressly
+permitted in the case of ordinary strangers<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> (Deut. xxiii. 20).</p>
+
+<p>It seems to me plain also that our Blessed Lord's precept about
+"lending, hoping for nothing again" (Luke vi. 35), has the same, or a
+similar, class of circumstances in view, and was intended simply to
+govern a Christian man's conduct to the poor and needy, and "such as
+have no helper," and cannot, without a violent twist (F), be construed
+into a general law determining forever and in all cases the legitimate
+use of capital. Indeed, on another occasion, and in a very memorable
+parable, the great Founder of Christianity recognizes, and impliedly
+sanctions, the practice of lending money at interest. "Thou oughtest,"
+says the master, addressing his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> unprofitable servant, "thou
+oughtest"&mdash;&#949;&#948;&#949;&#953; &#963;&#949;&mdash;"to have put my money to the exchangers;
+and then, at my coming, I should have received mine own <i>with usury</i>."</p>
+
+<p>151. "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." (G) But who is the
+&#960;&#955;&#949;&#959;&#957;&#7953;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#962;? Not the man who may happen to have money out on
+loan at a fair rate of interest; but, as Liddell and Scott give the
+meaning of the word, "one who has or claims <i>more than his share</i>;
+hence, greedy, grasping, selfish." Of such men, whose affections are
+wholly set on things of the earth, and who are not very scrupulous how
+they gratify them, it may, perhaps, not improperly be said (H) that they
+"have no inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God." But here,
+again, it would be a manifest "wresting" of the words to make them apply
+to a case which we have no proof that the Apostle had in contemplation
+when he uttered them. Rapacity, greed of gain, harsh and oppressive
+dealing, taking unfair advantage of our own superior knowledge and
+another's ignorance, shutting up the bowels of compassion towards a
+brother who we see has need&mdash;all these and the like things are forbidden
+by the very spirit of Christianity, and are manifestly "<i>not</i> according
+to the will of God," for they are all of them forms of injustice or
+wrong. But money may be lent at interest without one of these bad
+passions being brought in to play, and in these cases I confess my
+inability to see where, either in terms or in spirit, such use of money
+is condemned either by the Christian code of charity, or by that natural
+law of conscience which we are told (I) is written on the hearts of men.</p>
+
+<p>152. Let me take two or three simple instances by way of illustration.
+The following has happened to myself. All my life through&mdash;from the time
+when my income was not a tenth part of what it is now&mdash;I have felt it a
+duty, while endeavoring to discharge all proper claims, to live within
+that income, so to adjust my expenditure to it that there should be a
+margin on the right side. This margin, of course, accumulated, and
+reached in time, say, &pound;1000. Just then, say, the London and
+North-Western Railway Company proposed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> to issue Debenture Stock,
+bearing four per cent. interest, for the purpose of extending the
+communications, and so increasing the wealth, of the country. Whom in
+the world am I injuring&mdash;what conceivable wrong am I doing&mdash;where or how
+am I thwarting "the Will of God"&mdash;if I let the Company have my &pound;1000,
+and have been receiving from them &pound;40 a year for the use of it ever
+since? Unless the money had been forthcoming from some quarter or other,
+a work which was absolutely necessary for the prosperity of the nation,
+and which finds remunerative employment (K) for an immense number of
+Englishmen, enabling them to bring up their families in respectability
+and comfort, would never have been accomplished. Will you tell me that
+this method of carrying out great commercial enterprises, sanctioned by
+experience (L) as the most, if not the only, practicable one, is "not
+according to the Will of God"?</p>
+
+<p>153. Take another instance. In Lancashire a large number of cotton mills
+have been erected on the joint-stock principle with limited liability.
+The thing has been pushed too far probably, and at one time there was a
+good deal of unwholesome speculation in floating companies. But that is
+not the question before us; and the enterprises gave working men an
+opportunity of investing their savings, which was a great stimulus to
+thrift, and, so far, an advantage to the country. In a mill, which it
+would perhaps cost &pound;50,000 to build and fit with machinery, the
+subscribed capital, which would be entitled to a division of profits
+after all other demands had been satisfied, would not amount probably to
+more than &pound;20,000. The rest would be borrowed at rates of interest
+varying according to the conditions of the market. You surely would not
+maintain that those who lent their money for such a purpose, and were
+content with 5 or 6 per cent, for the use of it, thus enabling, in good
+times, the shareholders to realize 20 or 25 per cent, on their
+subscribed capital, were doing wrong either to the shareholders or
+anyone else, or could in any sense be charged with acting "not according
+to the will of God"?</p>
+
+<p>154. Take yet one case more. A farmer asks his landlord<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> to drain his
+land. "Gladly," says his squire, "if you will pay me five per cent on
+the outlay." In other words, "if you will let me share the increased
+profits to this extent." The bargain is agreeable to both sides; the
+productiveness of the land is largely increased; who is wronged? Surely
+such a transaction could not fairly be described as "not according to
+the will of God"; surely, unless the commerce and productive industries
+of the country are to be destroyed, and, with the destruction, its
+population is to be reduced to what it was in the days of Elizabeth,
+these and similar transactions&mdash;which can be kept entirely clear of the
+sin of covetousness, and rest upon the well-understood basis of mutual
+advantage, each and all being gainers by them&mdash;are not only legitimate,
+but inevitable (M). And now that I have taken up your challenge, and, so
+far as my ability goes, answered it, may I, without staying to inquire
+how far your charge against the clergy can be substantiated, that they
+"generally patronize and encourage all the iniquity of the world by
+steadily preaching away the penalties of it" (N), be at least allowed to
+demur to your wholesale denunciation of the great cities of the earth,
+which you say "have become loathsome centers of fornication and
+covetousness, the smoke of their sin going up into the face of Heaven,
+like the furnace of Sodom, and the pollution of it rotting and raging
+through the bones and souls of the peasant people round them, as if they
+were each a volcano, whose ashes brake out in blains upon man and
+beast."<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> Surely, Sir, your righteous indignation at evil has caused
+you to overcharge your language. No one can have lived in a great city,
+as I have for the last ten years, without being aware of its sins and
+its pollutions. But unless you can prevent the aggregation of human
+beings into great cities, these are evils which must necessarily exist;
+at any rate, which always have existed. The great cities of to-day are
+not worse than great cities always have been (O). In one capital
+respect, I believe they are better. There is an increasing number of
+their citizens who are aware of these evils, and who are trying their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+best, with the help of God, to remedy them. In Sodom there was but one
+righteous man who "vexed his soul" at the unlawful deeds that he
+witnessed day by day, on every side; and he, apparently, did no more
+than vex his soul. In Manchester, the men and women, of all ranks and
+persuasions, who are actively engaging in some Christian or
+philanthropic work, to battle against these gigantic evils, are to be
+reckoned by hundreds. Nowhere have I seen more conspicuous instances of
+Christian effort, and of single-hearted devotion to the highest
+interests of mankind. And though, no doubt, if these efforts were better
+organized, more might be achieved, and elements, which one could wish
+absent, sometimes mingle with and mar the work, still a great city, even
+"with the smoke of its sin going up into the face of Heaven," is the
+noblest field of the noblest virtues, because it gives the amplest scope
+for the most varied exercise of them.</p>
+
+<p>If you will teach us clergy how better to discharge our office as
+ministers of a Kingdom of Truth and Righteousness, we shall all owe you
+a deep debt of gratitude; which no one will be more forward to
+acknowledge than, my dear Sir, yours faithfully and with much respect,</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">J. Manchester</span>.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 1em;">John Ruskin</span>, Esq.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>155. The foregoing letter, to which I would fain have given my undivided
+and unwearied attention, reached my hands, as will be seen by its date,
+only in the close of the year, when my general correspondence always far
+overpasses my powers of dealing with it, and my strength&mdash;such as now is
+left me&mdash;had been spent, nearly to lowest ebb, in totally unexpected
+business arising out of the threatened mischief at Venice. But I am
+content that such fragmentary reply as, under this pressure, has been
+possible to me, should close the debate as far as I am myself concerned.
+The question at issue is not one of private interpretation; and the
+interests concerned are too vast to allow its decision to be long
+delayed.</p>
+
+<p>The Bishop will, I trust, not attribute to disrespect the mode of reply
+in the form of notes attached to special pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>sages, indicated by
+inserted letters, which was adopted in <i>Fors Clavigera</i> in all cases of
+important correspondence, as more clearly defining the several points
+under debate.</p>
+
+<p>156. (A) "The challenge appears to have been delivered." May I
+respectfully express my regret that your lordship should not have read
+the letter you have honored me by answering. The number of <i>Fors</i>
+referred to does not deliver&mdash;it only reiterates&mdash;the challenge given in
+the <i>Fors</i> for January 1st, 1875, with reference to the prayer "Have
+mercy upon all Jews, Turks, infidels, and heretics, and so fetch them
+home, blessed Lord, to Thy flock, that they may be saved among the
+remnant of the true Israelites," in these following terms: "Who <i>are</i>
+the true Israelites, my Lord of Manchester, on your Exchange? Do they
+stretch their cloth, like other people?&mdash;have they any underhand
+dealings with the liable-to-be-damned false Israelites&mdash;Rothschilds and
+the like? or are they duly solicitous about those wanderers' souls? and
+how often, on the average, do your Manchester clergy preach from the
+delicious parable, savoriest of all Scripture to rogues (at least since
+the eleventh century, when I find it to have been specially headed with
+golden title in my best Greek MS.) of the Pharisee and Publican,&mdash;and
+how often, on the average, from those objectionable First and Fifteenth
+Psalms?"</p>
+
+<p>(B) "I have no idea why I had the honor of being specially mentioned by
+name." By diocese, my Lord; not name, please observe; and for this very
+simple reason: that I have already fairly accurate knowledge of the
+divinity of the old schools of Canterbury, York, and Oxford; but I
+looked to your Lordship as the authoritative exponent of the more
+advanced divinity of the school of Manchester, with which I am not yet
+familiar.</p>
+
+<p>157. (C) "What do you mean by usury?" What <i>I</i> mean by that word, my
+Lord, is surely of no consequence to anyone but my few readers, and
+fewer disciples. What David and his Son meant by it I have prayed your
+Lordship to tell your flock, in the name of the Church which dictates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+daily to them the songs of the one, and professes to interpret to them
+the commands of the other.</p>
+
+<p>And although I can easily conceive that a Bishop at the court of the
+Third Richard might have paused in reply to a too curious layman's
+question of what was meant by "Murder"; and can also conceive a Bishop
+at the court of the Second Charles hesitating as to the significance of
+the word "Adultery"; and farther, in the present climacteric of the
+British Constitution, an elder of the Church of Glasgow debating within
+himself whether the Commandment which was severely prohibitory of Theft
+might not be mildly permissive of Misappropriation;&mdash;at no time, nor
+under any conditions, can I conceive any question existing as to the
+meaning of the words &#964;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#962;, <i>f&oelig;nus</i>; <i>usura</i>, or usury: and
+I trust that your Lordship will at once acquit me of wishing to attach
+any other significance to the word than that which it was to the full
+intended to convey on every occasion of its use by Moses, by David, by
+Christ, and by the Doctors of the Christian Church, down to the
+seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Nor, even since that date, although the commercial phrase "interest" has
+been adopted in order to distinguish an open and unoppressive rate of
+usury from a surreptitious and tyrannical one, has the debate of
+lawfulness or unlawfulness ever turned seriously on that distinction. It
+is neither justified by its defenders only in its mildness, nor
+condemned by its accusers only in its severity. Usury in any degree is
+asserted by the Doctors of the early Church to be sinful, just as theft
+and adultery are asserted to be sinful, though neither may have been
+accompanied with violence; and although the theft may have been on the
+most splendid scale, and the fornication of the most courtly refinement.</p>
+
+<p>So also, in modern days, though the voice of the Bank of England in
+Parliament declares a loan without interest to be a monster,<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> and a
+loan made below the current rate of interest, a monster in its degree,
+the increase of dividends above that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> current rate is not, as far as I
+am aware, shunned by shareholders with an equally religious horror.</p>
+
+<p>158. But&mdash;this strange question being asked&mdash;I give its simple and broad
+answer in the words of Christ: "The taking up that thou layedst not
+down;"&mdash;or, in explained and literal terms, usury is any money paid, or
+other advantage given, for the loan of anything which is restored to its
+possessor uninjured and undiminished. For simplest instance, taking a
+cabman the other day on a long drive, I lent him a shilling to get his
+dinner. If I had kept thirteen pence out of his fare, the odd penny
+would have been usury.</p>
+
+<p>Or again. I lent one of my servants, a few years ago, eleven hundred
+pounds, to build a house with, and stock its ground. After some years he
+paid me the eleven hundred pounds back. If I had taken eleven hundred
+pounds and a penny, the extra penny would have been usury.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know whether by the phrase, presently after used by your
+Lordship, "religious sanctions," I am to understand the Law of God which
+David loved, and Christ fulfilled, or whether the splendor, the
+commercial prosperity, and the familiar acquaintance with all the
+secrets of science and treasures of art, which we admire in the City of
+Manchester, must in your Lordship's view be considered as "cases" which
+the intelligence of the Divine Lawgiver could not have originally
+contemplated. Without attempting to disguise the narrowness of the
+horizon grasped by the glance of the Lord from Sinai, nor the
+inconvenience of the commandments which Christ has directed those who
+love Him to keep, am I too troublesome or too exigent in asking from one
+of those whom the Holy Ghost has made our overseers, at least a distinct
+chart of the Old World as contemplated by the Almighty; and a clear
+definition of even the inappropriate tenor of the orders of Christ: if
+only that the modern scientific Churchman may triumph more securely in
+the circumference of his heavenly vision, and accept more gratefully the
+glorious liberty of the free-thinking children of God?</p>
+
+<p>159. To take a definite, and not impertinent, instance, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> observe in
+the continuing portion of your letter that your Lordship recognizes in
+Christ Himself, as doubtless all other human perfections, so also the
+perfection of an usurer; and that, confidently expecting one day to hear
+from His lips the convicting sentence, "Thou knewest that I was an
+austere man," your Lordship prepares for yourself, by the disposition of
+your capital no less than of your talents, a better answer than the
+barren, "Behold, there thou hast that is thine!" I would only observe in
+reply, that although the conception of the Good Shepherd, which in your
+Lordship's language is "implied" in this parable, may indeed be less
+that of one who lays down his life for his sheep, than of one who takes
+up his money for them, the passages of our Master's instruction, of
+which the meaning is not implicit, but explicit, are perhaps those which
+His simpler disciples will be safer in following. Of which I find, early
+in His teaching, this, almost, as it were, in words of one syllable:
+"Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee
+turn not thou away."</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing more "implied" in this sentence than the probable
+disposition to turn away, which might be the first impulse in the mind
+of a Christian asked to lend for nothing, as distinguished from the
+disciple of the Manchester school, whose principal care is rather to
+find, than to avoid, the enthusiastic and enterprising "him that would
+borrow of thee." We of the older tradition, my Lord, think that
+prudence, no less than charity, forbids the provocation or temptation of
+others into the state of debt, which some time or other we might be
+called upon, not only to allow the payment of without usury, but even
+altogether to forgive.</p>
+
+<p>160. (D) "Just as we are told." Where, my Lord, and by whom? It is
+possible that some of the schemers in physical science, of whom, only a
+few days since, I heard one of the leading doctors explain to a pleased
+audience that serpents once had legs, and had dropped them off in the
+process of development, may have advised the modern disciple of progress
+of a new meaning in the simple phrase, "upon thy belly shalt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> thou go";
+and that the wisdom of the serpent may henceforth consist, for true
+believers of the scientific Gospel, in the providing of meats for that
+spiritual organ of motion. It is doubtless also true that we shall look
+vainly among the sayings of Solomon for any expression of the opinions
+of Mr. John Stuart Mill; but at least this much of Natural science,
+enough for our highest need, we may find in the Scriptures&mdash;that by the
+Word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the
+breath of His mouth;&mdash;and this much of Political, that the Blessing of
+the Lord, <i>it</i> maketh rich&mdash;and He addeth no sorrow with it.</p>
+
+<p>(E) "What I do expect to find." Has your Lordship <i>no</i> expectations
+loftier than these, from severer scrutiny of the Gospel? As for
+instance, of some ordinance of Love, built on the foundation of Honesty?</p>
+
+<p>161. (F) "Cannot without a violent twist." I have never myself found any
+person sincerely desirous of obeying the Word of the Lord, who had the
+least wish, or occasion, to twist it; nay, even those who study it only
+that they may discover methods of pardonable disobedience, recognize the
+unturnable edge of its sword&mdash;and in the worst extremity of their need,
+strive not to avert, but to evade. The utmost deceivableness of
+unrighteousness cannot deceive itself into satisfactory
+misinterpretation; it is reduced always to a tremulous omission of the
+texts it is resolved to disobey. But a little while since, I heard an
+entirely well-meaning clergyman, taken by surprise in the course of
+family worship in the house of a wealthy friend, and finding himself
+under the painful necessity of reading the fifteenth Psalm, omit the
+first sentence of the closing verse. I chanced afterwards to have an
+opportunity of asking him why he had done so, and received for answer,
+that the lowliness of Christian attainment was not yet "up" to that
+verse. The harmonies of iniquity are thus curiously perfect:&mdash;the
+economies of spiritual nourishment approve the same methods of
+adulteration which are found profitable in the carnal; until the prudent
+pastor follows the example of the well-instructed dairyman; and
+pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>vides for his new-born babes the <i>in</i>sincere Milk of the Word, that
+they may <i>not</i> grow thereby.</p>
+
+<p>162. (G) "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." Am I to
+understand your Lordship as considering this undeniable denunciation an
+original and peculiar view taken by the least of the Apostles&mdash;perhaps,
+in this particular opinion, not worthy to be called an Apostle? The
+traditions of my earlier days were wont to refer me to an earlier source
+of the idea; which does not, however, appear to have occurred to your
+Lordship's mind&mdash;else the reference to the authority of Liddell and
+Scott, for the significance of the noun &#960;&#955;&#949;&#959;&#957;&#7953;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#962;, ought to
+have been made also for that of the verb &#949;&#960;&#953;&#952;&#965;&#956;&#7953;&#969;. And your
+Lordship's frankness in referring me to the instances of your own
+practice in the disposal of your income, must plead my excuse for what
+might have otherwise seemed impertinent&mdash;in noting that the
+blamelessness of episcopal character, even by that least of the
+Apostles, required in his first Epistle to Timothy, consists not merely
+in contentment with an episcopal share of Church property, but in being
+in no respect either &#945;&#953;&#963;&#967;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#961;&#948;&#7969;&#962;&mdash;a taker of gain in a base
+or vulgar manner, or &#966;&#953;&#955;&#7937;&#961;&#947;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;&mdash;a "lover of silver," this
+latter word being the common and proper word for covetous, in the
+Gospels and Epistles; as of the Pharisees in Luke xvi. 14; and
+associated with the other characters of men in perilous times, 2 Timothy
+iii. 2, and its relative noun &#966;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#961;&#947;&#945;&#961;&#7985;&#945;, given in sum for the
+root of <i>all</i> evil in 2 Timothy vi. 10, while even the authority of
+Liddell and Scott in the interpretation of &#960;&#955;&#949;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#958;&#7985;&#945; itself as
+only the desire of getting more than our share, may perhaps be bettered
+by the authority of the teacher, who, declining the appeal made to him
+as an equitable &#956;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#7969;&#962; (Luke xii. 14-46), tells his disciples
+to beware of coveteousness, simply as the desire of getting more than we
+have got. "For a man's life consisteth not in the <i>abundance</i> of the
+things which he possesseth."</p>
+
+<p>163. Believe me, my Lord, it is not without some difficulty that I check
+my natural impulse to follow you, as a scholar, into the interesting
+analysis of the distinctions which may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> drawn between Rapacity and
+Acquisitiveness; between the Avarice, or the prudent care, of
+possession; between the greed, and the modest expectation, of gain;
+between the love of money, which is the root of all evil; and the
+commercial spirit, which is in England held to be the fountain of all
+good. These delicate adjustments of the balance, by which we strive to
+weigh to a grain the relative quantities of devotion which we may render
+in the service of Mammon and of God, are wholly of recent invention and
+application; nor have they the slightest bearing, either on the
+spiritual purport of the final commandment of the Decalogue, or on the
+distinctness of the subsequent prohibition of practical usury.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered, also, how difficult it has become to define the
+term "filthy" with precision, in the present state, moral and physical,
+of the English atmosphere; and still more so, to judge how far, in that
+healthy element, a moderate and delicately sanctified appetite for gold
+may be developed into livelier qualms of hunger for righteousness. It
+may be matter of private opinion how far the lucre derived by your
+Lordship from commission on the fares and refreshments of the passengers
+by the North-Western may be odoriferous or precious, in the same sense
+as the ointment on the head of Aaron; or how far that received by the
+Primate of England in royalties on the circulation of improving
+literature<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> may enrich&mdash;as with perfumes out of broken
+alabaster&mdash;the empyreal air of Addington. But the higher class of
+laborers in the Lord's vineyard might surely, with true grace, receive,
+from the last unto the first, the reflected instruction so often given
+by the first unto the last, "Be content with your wages."</p>
+
+<p>(H) "It may, perhaps, not improperly be said," The Bible Society will
+doubtless in future gratefully prefix this guarantee to their
+publications.</p>
+
+<p>(I) "Which we are told." Can we then no more find for ourselves this
+writing on our hearts&mdash;or has it ceased to be legible?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>164. (K) "Remunerative employment." I cannot easily express the
+astonishment with which I find a man of your Lordship's intelligence
+taking up the common phrase of "giving employment," as if, indeed, labor
+were the best gift which the rich could bestow on the poor. Of course,
+every idle vagabond, be he rich or poor, "gives employment" to some
+otherwise enough burdened wretch, to provide his dinner and clothes for
+him; and every vicious vagabond, in the destructive power of his vice,
+gives sorrowful occupation to the energies of resisting and renovating
+virtue. The idle child who litters its nursery and tears its frock,
+gives employment to the housemaid and seamstress; the idle woman, who
+litters her drawing-room with trinkets, and is ashamed to be seen twice
+in the same dress, is, in your Lordship's view, the enlightened
+supporter of the arts and manufactures of her country. At the close of
+your letter, my Lord, you, though in measured terms, indignantly dissent
+from my statement of the power of great cities for evil, and indeed I
+have perhaps been led, by my prolonged study of the causes of the Fall
+of Venice, into clearer recognition of some of these urban influences
+than may have been possible to your Lordship in the center of the
+virtues and proprieties which have been blessed by Providence in the
+rise of Manchester. But the Scriptural symbol of the power of temptation
+in the hand of the spiritual Babylon&mdash;"all kings have been drunk with
+the wine of her Fornication"&mdash;is perfectly literal in its exposition of
+the special influence of cities over a vicious, that is to say, a
+declining, people. They are the foci of its fornication, and the
+practical meaning is that the lords of the soil take the food and labor
+of the peasants, who are their slaves, and spend them especially in
+forms of luxury perfected by the definitely so-called "women of the
+<i>town</i>" who, whether East-cheap Doll, or West&mdash;much the reverse of
+cheap&mdash;Nell, are, both in the color which they give to the Arts, and in
+the tone which they give to the Manners, of the State, a literal plague,
+pestilence and burden to it, quite otherwise malignant and maleficent
+than the poor country lassie who loses her snood among the heather.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> And
+when, at last, <i>real</i> political economy shall exhibit the exact sources
+and consequences of the expenditure of the great capitals of
+civilization on their own indulgences, your Lordship will be furnished,
+in the statistics of their most splendid and most impious pleasure, with
+record of precisely the largest existing source of "remunerative
+employment"&mdash;(if <i>that</i> were all the poor had to ask for), next after
+the preparation and practice of war. I believe it is, indeed, probable
+that "facility of intercourse" gives the next largest quantity of
+occupation; and, as your Lordship rightly observes, to most respectable
+persons. And if the entire population of Manchester lost the use of its
+legs, your Lordship would similarly have the satisfaction of observing,
+and might share in the profits of providing, the needful machinery of
+porterage and stretchers. But observe, my Lord&mdash;and observe as a final
+and inevitable truth&mdash;that whether you lend your money to provide an
+invalided population with crutches, stretchers, hearses, or the railroad
+accommodation which is so often synonymous with the three, the <i>tax on
+the use</i> of these, which constitutes the shareholder's dividend, is a
+permanent burden upon them, exacted by avarice, and by no means an aid
+granted by benevolence.</p>
+
+<p>165. (L) "Sanctioned by experience." The experience of twenty-three
+years, my Lord, and with the following result:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"We have now had an opportunity of practically testing the theory. Not
+more than seventeen" (now twenty-three&mdash;I quote from a letter dated
+1875) "years have passed since" (by the final abolition of the Usury
+laws) "all restraint was removed from the growth of what Lord Coke calls
+'this pestilent weed,'" and we see Bacon's words verified&mdash;"the rich
+becoming richer, and the poor poorer, throughout the civilized world."
+Letter from Mr. R. Sillar, quoted in <i>Fors Clavigera</i>, No. 43.</p>
+
+<p>(M) "Inevitable." Neither "impossible" nor "inevitable" were words of
+old Christian Faith. But see the closing paragraph of my letter.</p>
+
+<p>(N) Before you call on me to substantiate this charge, my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> Lord, I
+should like to insert after the words, "steadily preaching," the phrase,
+"and politely explaining"&mdash;with the Pauline qualification, "whether by
+word, or our epistle."</p>
+
+<p>166. (O) "The great cities of to-day are not worse than great cities
+always have been," I do not remember having said that they were, my
+Lord; I have never anticipated for Manchester a worse fate than that of
+Sardis or Sodom; nor have I yet observed any so mighty works shown forth
+in her by her ministers, as to make her impenitence less pardonable than
+that of Sidon or Tyre. But I used the particular expression which your
+Lordship supposes me to have overcharged in righteous indignation, "a
+boil breaking forth with blains on man and beast," because that
+particular plague was the one which Moses was ordered, in the Eternal
+Wisdom, to connect with the ashes of the Furnace&mdash;literally, no less
+than spiritually, when he brought the Israelites forth out of Egypt,
+<i>from the midst of the Furnace of Iron</i>. How literally, no less than in
+faith and hope, the smoke of "the great city, which spiritually is
+called Sodom and Egypt," has poisoned the earth, the waters, and the
+living creatures, flocks and herds, and the babes that know not their
+right hand from their left&mdash;neither Memphis, Gomorrah, nor Cahors are
+themselves likely to recognize: but, as I pause in front of the
+infinitude of the evil that I cannot find so much as thought to
+follow&mdash;how much less words to speak!&mdash;a letter is brought to me which
+gives what perhaps may be more impressive in its single and historical
+example, than all the general evidence gathered already in the pages of
+<i>Fors Clavigera</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>167. "I could never understand formerly what you meant about usury, and
+about its being wrong to take interest. I said, truly, then that I
+'trusted you,' meaning I knew that in such matters you did not
+'opine'&mdash;and that innumerable things were within your horizon which had
+no place within mine.</p>
+
+<p>"But as I did not understand I could only watch and ponder. Gradually I
+came to see a little&mdash;as when I read<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> current facts about India&mdash;about
+almost every country, and about our own trade, etc. Then (one of several
+circumstances that could be seen more closely) among my mother's kindred
+in the north, I watched the ruin of two lives. They began married life
+together, with good prospects and sufficient means, in a lovely little
+nest among the hills, beyond the Rochdale smoke. Soon this became too
+narrow. 'A splendid trade,' more mills, frequent changes into even finer
+dwellings, luxurious living, ostentation, extravagance, increasing year
+by year, all, as now appears, made possible by usury&mdash;borrowed capital.
+The wife was laid in her grave lately, and her friends are <i>thankful</i>.
+The husband, with ruin threatening his affairs, is in a worse, and
+living, grave of evil habits."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"These are some of the loopholes through which light has fallen
+upon your words, giving them a new meaning, and making me wonder
+how I could have missed seeing it from the first. Once alive to it,
+I recognize the evil on all sides, and how we are entangled by it;
+and though I am still puzzled at one or two points, I am very clear
+about the principle&mdash;that usury is a deadly thing,"</p></div>
+
+<p>Yes; and deadly always with the vilest forms of destruction both to soul
+and body.</p>
+
+<p>168. It happens strangely, my Lord, that although throughout the seven
+volumes of <i>Fors Clavigera</i>, I never have set down a sentence without
+chastising it first into terms which could be <i>literally</i> as well as in
+their widest bearing justified against all controversy, you could
+perhaps not have found in the whole book, had your Lordship read it for
+the purpose, any saying quite so literally and terrifically demonstrable
+as this which you have chanced to select for attack. For, in the first
+place, of all the calamities which in their apparently merciless
+infliction paralyzed the wavering faith of medi&aelig;val Christendom, the
+"boil breaking forth into blains," in the black plagues of Florence and
+London, was the fatalest messenger of the fiends: and, in the second
+place, the broad result of the Missionary labors of the cities of
+Madrid, Paris, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> London, for the salvation of the wild tribes of the
+New World, since the vaunted discovery of it, may be summed in the stem
+sentence&mdash;Death, by drunkenness and smallpox.</p>
+
+<p>The beneficent influence of recent commercial enterprise in the
+communication of such divine grace, and divine blessing (not to speak of
+other more dreadful and shameful conditions of disease), may be studied
+to best advantage in the history of the two great French and English
+Companies, who have enjoyed the monopoly of clothing the nakedness of
+the Old World with coats of skins from the New.</p>
+
+<p>The charter of the English one, obtained from the Crown in 1670, was in
+the language of modern Liberalism&mdash;" wonderfully liberal,"<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>
+comprising not only the grant of the exclusive trade, but also of full
+territorial possession, to all perpetuity, of the vast lands within the
+watershed of Hudson's Bay. The Company at once established some forts
+along the shores of the great inland sea from which it derived its name,
+and opened a very lucrative trade with the Indians, <i>so that it never
+ceased paying rich dividends</i> to the fortunate shareholders, until
+towards the close of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time, with the exception of the voyage of discovery which
+Herne (1770-71) made under its auspices to the mouth of the Coppermine
+River, it had done but little for the promotion of geographical
+discovery in its vast territory.</p>
+
+<p>169. Meanwhile, the Canadian (French) fur traders had become so hateful
+to the Indians, that these savages formed a conspiracy for their total
+extirpation. <i>Fortunately for the white men</i>, the smallpox broke out
+about this time among the redskins, and swept them away as the fire
+consumes the parched grass of the prairies. Their unburied corpses were
+torn by the wolves and wild dogs, and the survivors were too weak and
+dispirited to be able to undertake anything against the foreign
+intruders. The Canadian fur traders now also saw the necessity of
+combining their efforts for their mutual benefit, instead of ruining
+each other by an insane competition; and consequently formed in 1783 a
+society which, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> the name of the North-West Company of Canada,
+ruled over the whole continent from the Canadian lakes to the Rocky
+Mountains, and in 1806 it even crossed the barrier and established its
+forts on the northern tributaries of the Columbia river. To the north it
+likewise extended its operations, encroaching more and more upon the
+privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company, which, roused to energy, now
+also pushed on its posts further and further into the interior, and
+established, in 1812, a colony on the Red River to the south of Winnipeg
+Lake, thus driving, as it were, a sharp thorn into the side of its
+rival. But a power like the North-West Company, which had no less than
+50 agents, 70 interpreters, and 1120 "voyageurs" in its pay, and whose
+chief managers used to appear at their annual meetings at Fort William,
+on the banks of Lake Superior, with all the pomp and pride of feudal
+barons, was not inclined to tolerate this encroachment; and thus, after
+many quarrels, a regular war broke out between the two parties, which,
+after two years' duration, led to the expulsion of the Red River
+colonists, and the murder of their governor Semple. This event took
+place in the year 1816, and is but one episode of the bloody feuds which
+continued to reign between the two rival Companies until 1821.</p>
+
+<p>170. The dissension's of the fur traders had most deplorable
+consequences for the redskins; for both Companies, to swell the number
+of their adherents, lavishly distributed spirituous liquors&mdash;a
+temptation which no Indian can resist. The whole of the meeting-grounds
+of the Saskatchewan and Athabasca were but one scene of revelry and
+bloodshed. Already decimated by the smallpox, the Indians now became the
+victims of drunkenness and discord, and it was to be feared that if the
+war and its consequent demoralization continued, the most important
+tribes would soon be utterly swept away.</p>
+
+<p>At length wisdom prevailed over passion, and the enemies came to a
+resolution which, if taken from the very beginning, would have saved
+them both a great deal of treasure and many crimes. Instead of
+continuing to swing the tomahawk, they now smoked the calumet, and
+amalgamated in 1821, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> the name of "Hudson's Bay Company," and
+under the wing of the Charter.</p>
+
+<p>The British Government, as a dowry to the impoverished couple, presented
+them with a license of exclusive trade throughout the whole of that
+territory which, under the name of the "Hudson's Bay and North-West
+territories," extends from Labrador to the Pacific, and from the Red
+River to the Polar Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>171. Such, my Lord, have been the triumphs of the modern Evangel of
+Usury, Competition, and Private Enterprise, in a perfectly clear
+instance of their action, chosen I hope with sufficient candor, since
+"History," says Professor Hind, "does not furnish another example of an
+association of private individuals exerting a powerful influence over so
+large an extent of the earth's surface and administering their affairs
+with such consummate skill, and unwavering devotion to the original
+objects of their incorporation."</p>
+
+<p>That original object being, of course, that poor naked America, having
+yet in a manner two coats, might be induced by these Christian merchants
+to give to him that had none?</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, may any Christian householder, who has two houses or
+perchance two parks, ever be induced to give to him that hath none? My
+temper and my courtesy scarcely serve me, my Lord, to reply to your
+assertion of the "inevitableness" that, while half of Great Britain is
+laid out in hunting-grounds for sport more savage than the Indians, the
+poor of our cities must be swept into incestuous heaps; or into dens and
+caves which are only tombs disquieted, so changing the whiteness of
+Jewish sepulchers into the blackness of Christian ones, in which the
+hearts of the rich and the homes of the poor are alike as graves that
+appear not;&mdash;only their murmur, that sayeth "it is not enough," sounds
+deeper beneath us every hour; nay, the whole earth, and not only the
+cities of it, sends forth that ghastly cry; and her fruitful plains have
+become slime-pits, and her fair estuaries, gulfs of death; for <i>us</i>, the
+Mountain of the Lord has become only Golgotha, and the sound of the new
+song before the Throne is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> drowned in the rolling death-rattle of the
+nations, "Oh Christ; where is thy victory?"</p>
+
+<p>These are thy glorious works, Mammon parent of Good,&mdash;and this the true
+debate, my Lord of Manchester, between the two Angels of your
+Church,&mdash;whether the "Dreamland" of its souls be now, or
+hereafter,&mdash;now, the firelight in the cave, or hereafter, the sunlight
+of Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>172. How, my Lord, am I to receive, or reply to, the narrow concessions
+of your closing sentence? The Spirit of Truth was breathed even from the
+Athenian Acropolis, and the Law of Justice thundered even from the
+Cretan Sinai; but for <i>us</i>, He who said, "I am the Truth," said also, "I
+am the Way, and the Life;" and for <i>us</i>, He who reasoned of
+Righteousness, reasoned also of Temperance and Judgment to come. Is this
+the sincere milk of the Word, which takes the hope from the Person of
+Christ, and the fear from the charge of His apostle, and forbids to
+English heroism the perilous vision of Immortality? God be with you, my
+Lord, and exalt your teaching to that quality of Mercy which, distilling
+as the rain from Heaven&mdash;not strained as through channels from a sullen
+reservoir-may soften the hearts of your people to receive the New
+Commandment, that they Love one another. So, round the cathedral of your
+city, shall the merchant's law be just, and his weights true; the table
+of the money-changer not overthrown, and the bench of the money-lender
+unbroken.</p>
+
+<p>And to as many as walk according to this rule, Peace shall be on them,
+and Mercy, and upon the Israel of God.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>173. With the preceding letter must assuredly end&mdash;for the present, if
+not forever&mdash;my own notes on a subject of which my strength no longer
+serves me to endure the stress and sorrow; but I may possibly be able to
+collect, eventually, into more close form, the already manifold and
+sufficient references scattered through <i>Fors Clavigera</i>: and perhaps to
+reprint for the St. George's Guild the admirable compendium of British
+ecclesiastical and lay authority on the subject,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> collected by John
+Blaxton, preacher of God's Word at Osmington in Dorsetshire, printed by
+John Norton under the title of "The English Usurer," and sold by Francis
+Bowman, in Oxford, 1631. A still more precious record of the fierce
+struggle of usury into life among Christians, and of the resistance to
+it by Venice and her "Anthony,"<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> will be found in the dialogue
+"della Usura," of Messer Speron Sperone (Aldus, in Vinegia, MDXIII.),
+followed by the dialogue "del Cathaio," between "Portia, sola, e
+fanciulla, fame, e cibo, vita, e morte, di ciascuno che la conosce," and
+her lover Moresini, which is the source of all that is loveliest in the
+<i>Merchant of Venice</i>. Readers who seek more modern and more scientific
+instruction may consult the able abstract of the triumph of usury, drawn
+up by Dr. Andrew Dickson White, President of Cornell University ("The
+Warfare of Science," H. S. King &amp; Co., 1877), in which the victory of
+the great modern scientific principle, that two and two make five, is
+traced exultingly to the final overthrow of St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome,
+St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, Luther, and Bossuet, by "the
+establishment of the Torlonia family in Rome." A better collection of
+the most crushing evidence cannot be found than this, furnished by an
+adversary; a less petulant and pompous, but more earnest voice from
+America, "Usury the Giant Sin of the Age," by Edward Palmer (Perth
+Amboys, 1865), should be read together with it. In the meantime, the
+substance of the teaching of the <i>former</i> Church of England, in the
+great sermon against usury of Bishop Jewell, may perhaps not uselessly
+occupy one additional page of the <i>Contemporary Review</i>:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>174. "Usury is a kind of lending of money, or corne, or oyle, or wine,
+or of any other thing, wherein, upon covenant and bargaine, we receive
+againe the whole principall which we delivered, and somewhat more, for
+the use and occupying of the same; as if I lend 100 pound, and for it
+covenant to receive 105 pound, or any other summe, greater then was the
+summe which I did lend: this is that which we call usury: such a kind of
+bargaining as no good man, or godly man ever used. Such a kind of
+bargaining as all men that ever feared God's judgments have alwaies
+abhorred and condemned. It is filthy gaines, and a worke of darkenesse,
+it is a monster in nature: the overthrow of mighty kingdoms, the
+destruction of flourishing States, the decay of wealthy cities, the
+plagues of the world, and the misery of the people: it is theft, it is
+the murthering of our brethren, its the curse of God, and the curse of
+the people. This is Usury. By these signes and tokens you may know it.
+For wheresoever it raigneth all those mischiefes ensue.</p>
+
+<p>"Whence springeth usury? Soone shewed. Even thence whence theft, murder,
+adultery, the plagues, and destruction of the people doe spring. All
+these are the workes of the divell, and the workes of the flesh. Christ
+telleth the Pharisees, You are of your father the divell, and the lusts
+of your father you will doe. Even so may it truely be sayd to the
+usurer, Thou art of thy father the divell, and the lusts of thy father
+thou wilt doe, and therefore thou hast pleasure in his workes. The
+divell entered into the heart of Judas, and put in him this greedinesse,
+and covetousnesse of game, for which he was content to sell his master.
+Judas's heart was the shop, the divell was the foreman to worke in it.
+They that will be rich fall into tentation and snares, and into many
+foolish and noysome lusts, which drowne men in perdition and
+destruction. For the desire of money is the roote of all evil. And St.
+John saith, Whosoever committeth sinne is of the Divell, 1 Joh. 3-8.
+Thus we see that the divell is the planter, and the father of usury.</p>
+
+<p>"What are the fruits of usury? A. 1. It dissolveth the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> knot and
+fellowship of mankind. 2. It hardeneth man's heart. 3. It maketh men
+unnaturall, and bereaveth them of charity, and love to their dearest
+friends. 4. It breedeth misery and provoketh the wrath of God from
+heaven. 5. It consumeth rich men, it eateth up the poore, it maketh
+bankrupts, and undoeth many householders. 6. The poore occupiers are
+driven to flee, their wives are left alone, their children are
+hopelesse, and driven to beg their bread, through the unmercifull
+dealing of the covetous usurer.</p>
+
+<p>175. "He that is an usurer, wisheth that all others may lacke and come
+to him and borrow of him; that all others may lose, so that he may have
+gaine. Therefore our old forefathers so much abhorred this trade, that
+they thought an usurer unworthy to live in the company of Christian men.
+They suffered not an usurer to be witnesse in matters of Law. They
+suffer him not to make a Testament, and to bestow his goods by will.
+When an usurer dyed, they would not suffer him to be buried in places
+appointed for the buriall of Christians. So highly did they mislike this
+unmercifull spoyling and deceiving our brethren.</p>
+
+<p>"But what speak I of the ancient Fathers of the Church? There was never
+any religion, nor sect, nor state, nor degree, nor profession of men,
+but they have disliked it. Philosophers, Greekes, Latins, lawyers,
+divines, Catholikes, heretics; all tongues and nations have ever thought
+an usurer as dangerous as a theefe. The very sense of nature proves it
+to be so. If the stones could speak they would say as much. But some
+will say all kindes of usury are not forbidden. There may be cases where
+usury may stand with reason and equity, and herein they say so much as
+by wit may be devised to paint out a foule and ugly idoll, and to shadow
+themselves in manifest and open wickednesse. Whatsoever God sayeth, yet
+this or this kind of usury, say they, which is done in this or this
+sort, is not forbidden. It proffiteth the Commonwealth, it relieveth
+great numbers, the poore should otherwise perish, none would lend them.
+By like good reason, there are some that defend theft and murder; they
+say, there may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> some case where it is lawful to kill or to steale;
+for God willed the Hebrews to rob the &AElig;gyptians, and Abraham to kill his
+owne sonne Isaac. In these cases the robbery and the killing of his
+sonne were lawfull. So say they. Even so by the like reason doe some of
+our countrymen maintayne concubines, curtizans, and brothel-houses, and
+stand in defence of open stewes. They are (say they) for the benefit of
+the country, they keepe men from more dangerous inconveniences; take
+them away, it will be worse. Although God say, there shall be no whore
+of the daughters of Israel, neither shall there be a whorekeeper of the
+sonnes of Israel: yet these men say all manner of whoredom is not
+forbidden. In these and these cases it is not amisse to alow it."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As Samuel sayd to Saul, so may we say to the usurer, Thou hast
+devised cases and colours to hide thy shame, but what regard hath
+God to thy cases? What careth He for thy reasons? the Lord would
+have more pleasure, if when thou heareth His voyce thou wouldest
+obey Him. For what is thy device against the counsell, and
+ordinance of God? What bold presumption is it for a mortall man to
+controule the commandments of immortall God? And to weigh his
+heavenly wisdome in the ballance of humane foolishnesse? When God
+sayth, Thou shalt not take usury, what creature of God art thou
+which canst take usury? When God maketh it unlawfull, what art
+thou, oh man, that sayst, it is lawfull? This is a token of a
+desperate mind. It is found true in thee, that Paul sayd, the love
+of money is the root of all ill. Thou art so given over unto the
+wicked Mammon, that thou carest not to doe the will of God."</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus far, the theology of Old England. Let it close with the calm law,
+spoken four hundred years before Christ, &#945; &#956;&#7969; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#7953;&#952;&#959;&#957;, &#956;&#7969; &#945;&#957;&#7953;&#955;&#951;.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>Contemporary Review</i>, February 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> See below (p. 393, &sect; 236), in the eighth letter on the
+Lord's Prayer.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> In Proverbs xxviii. 8, "usury" is coupled with "unjust
+gain," and a pitiless spirit towards the poor, which shows in what sense
+the word is to be understood there, and in such other passages as Ps.
+xv. 5 and Ezek. xviii. 8, 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> See post, p. 394, &sect; 237.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Speech of Mr. J. C. Hubbard, M.P. for London, reported in
+<i>Standard</i> of 26th July, 1879.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> See the Articles of Association of the East Surrey Hall,
+Museum, and Library Company. (<i>Fors Clavigera</i>, Letter lxx.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "The Polar World," p. 342, Longmans, 1874.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The dearest friend to me, the kindest man,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The best conditioned and unwearied spirit,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In doing courtesies; and one in whom</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The ancient Roman honor more appears,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Than any that draws breath in Italy.</i>"</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+This is the Shakespearian description of that Anthony, whom the modern
+British public, with its new critical lights, calls a "sentimentalist
+and speculator!"&mdash;holding Shylock to be the real hero, and innocent
+victim of the drama.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="USURY132" id="USURY132"></a>USURY.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>A PREFACE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>176. In the wise, practical, and affectionate sermon, given from St.
+Mary's pulpit last autumn to the youth of Oxford, by the good Bishop of
+Carlisle, his Lordship took occasion to warn his eagerly attentive
+audience, with deep earnestness, against the crime of debt; dwelling
+with powerful invective on the cruelty and selfishness with which, too
+often, the son wasted in his follies the fruits of his father's labor,
+or the means of his family's subsistence; and involved himself in
+embarrassments which, said the Bishop, "I have again and again known to
+cause the misery of all subsequent life."</p>
+
+<p>The sin was charged, the appeal pressed, only on the preacher's
+undergraduate hearers. Beneath the gallery, the Heads of Houses sate,
+remorseless; nor from the pulpit was a single hint permitted that any
+measures could be rationally taken for the protection, no less than the
+warning, of the youth under their care. No such suggestion would have
+been received, if even understood, by any English congregation of this
+time;&mdash;a strange and perilous time, in which the greatest commercial
+people of the world have been brought to think Usury the most honorable
+and fruitful branch, or rather perennial stem, of commercial industry.</p>
+
+<p>177. But whose the fault that English congregations are in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> this temper,
+and this ignorance? The saying of mine,<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> which the author of this
+book quotes in the close of his introduction, was written by me with a
+meaning altogether opposite, and far more forcible, than that which it
+might seem to bear to a careless interpreter.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> In the present state
+of popular revolt against all conception and manner of authority, but
+more especially spiritual authority, the sentence reads as if it were
+written by an adversary of the Church,&mdash;a hater of its Prelacy,&mdash;an
+advocate of universal liberty of thought and license of crime: whereas
+the sentence is really written in the conviction (I might say knowledge,
+if I spoke without deference to the reader's incredulity) that the
+Pastoral Office must forever be the highest, for good or evil, in every
+Christian land; and that when <i>it</i> fails in vigilance, faith, or
+courage, the sheep <i>must</i> be scattered, and neither King nor law avail
+any more to protect them against the fury of their own passions, nor any
+human sagacity against the deception of their own hearts.</p>
+
+<p>178. Since, however, these things are instantly so, and the Bishops of
+England have now with one accord consented to become merely the highly
+salaried vergers of her Cathedrals, taking care that the choristers do
+not play at leapfrog in the Churchyard, that the Precincts are elegantly
+iron-railed from the profane parts of the town, and that the doors of
+the building be duly locked, so that nobody may pray in it at improper
+times,&mdash;these things being so, may we not turn to the
+"every-man-his-own-Bishop" party, with its Bible Society, Missionary
+zeal, and right of infallible private interpretation, to ask at least
+for some small exposition to the inhabitants of their own country, of
+those Scriptures which they are so fain to put in the possession of
+others; and this the rather, because the popular familiar version of the
+New Testament among us, unwritten, seems to be now the exact contrary of
+that which we were once taught to be of Divine authority.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>179. I place, side by side, the ancient and modern versions of the seven
+verses of the New Testament which were the beginning, and are indeed the
+heads, of all the teaching of Christ:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Ancient.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the Poor in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spirit, for their's is the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kingdom of Heaven.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are they that mourn,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall be comforted.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the meek, for</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">they shall inherit the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earth.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are they which do</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunger for righteousness,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall be filled.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the merciful, for</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">they shall obtain mercy.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the pure in heart,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall see God.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the Peacemakers,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall be called the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">children of God.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Modern.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the Rich in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flesh, for their's is the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kingdom of Earth.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are they that are</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">merry, and laugh the last.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the proud, in that</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">they <i>have</i> inherited the</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earth.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are they which hunger</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for unrighteousness, in</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">that they shall divide its</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mammon.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the merciless, for</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">they shall obtain money.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the foul in heart,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall see no God.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blessed are the War-makers,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for they shall be adored by</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the children of men.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>180. Who are the true "Makers of War," the promoters and supports of it,
+I showed long since in the note to the brief sentence of "Unto this
+last." "It is entirely capitalists' (<i>i.e.</i>, Usurers') wealth<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> which
+supports unjust Wars." But to what extent the adoration of the Usurer,
+and the slavery consequent upon it, has perverted the soul or bound the
+hands of every man in Europe, I will let the reader hear, from authority
+he will less doubt than mine:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Financiers are the mischievous feudalism of the 19th century. A handful
+of men have invented distant, seductive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> loans, have introduced national
+debts in countries happily ignorant of them, have advanced money to
+unsophisticated Powers on ruinous terms, and then, by appealing to small
+investors all over the world, got rid of the bonds. Furthermore, with
+the difference between the advances and the sale of bonds, they caused a
+fall in the securities which they had issued, and, having sold at 80,
+they bought back at 10, taking advantage of the public panic. Again,
+with the money thus obtained, they bought up consciences, where
+consciences are marketable, and under the pretense of providing the
+country thus traded upon with new means of communication, they passed
+money into their own coffers. They have had pupils, imitators, and
+plagiarists; and at the present moment, under different names, the
+financiers rule the world, are a sore of society, and form one of the
+chief causes of modern crises.</p>
+
+<p>"Unlike the Nile, wherever they pass they render the soil dry and
+barren. The treasures of the world flow into their cellars, and there
+remain. They spend one-tenth of their revenues; the remaining
+nine-tenths they hoard and divert from circulation. They distribute
+favors, and are great political leaders. They have not assumed the place
+of the old nobility, but have taken the latter into their service.
+Princes are their chamberlains, dukes open their doors, and marquises
+act as their equerries when they deign to ride.</p>
+
+<p>"These new grandees canter on their splendid Arabs along Rotten Ron, the
+Bois de Boulogne, the Prospect, the Prater, or Unter den Linden. The
+shopkeepers, and all who save money, bow low to these men, who represent
+their savings, which they will never again see under any other form.
+Proof against sarcasms, sure of the respect of the Continental Press,
+protecting each other with a sort of freemasonry, the financiers dictate
+laws, determine the fate of nations, and render the cleverest political
+combinations abortive. They are everywhere received and listened to, and
+all the Cabinets feel their influence. Governments watch them with
+uneasiness, and even the Iron Chancellor has his gilded Egeria, who
+reports to him the wishes of this the sole modern Autocrat"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>&mdash;<i>Letter
+from Paris Correspondent</i>, "<i>Times</i>," <i>30th January</i>, 1885.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>181. But to this statement, I must add the one made to &sect; 149 (see note)
+of "Munera Pulveris," that if we could trace the innermost of all causes
+of modern war, they would be found, not in the avarice or ambition, but
+the idleness of the upper classes. "They have nothing to do but to teach
+the peasantry to kill each other"&mdash;while that the peasantry are thus
+teachable, is further again dependent on their not having been educated
+primarily in the common law of justice. See again "Munera Pulveris,"
+Appendix I.: "Precisely according to the number of just men in a nation
+is their power of avoiding either intestine or foreign war."</p>
+
+<p>I rejoice to see my old friend Mr. Sillar gathering finally together the
+evidence he has so industriously collected on the guilt of usury, and
+supporting it by the always impressive language of symbolical art;<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>
+for indeed I had myself no idea, till I read the connected statement
+which these pictures illustrate, how steadily the system of
+money-lending had gained on the nation, and how fatally every hand and
+foot was now entangled by it. Yet in commending the study of this book
+to every virtuous and patriotic Englishman, I must firmly remind the
+reader, that all these sins and errors are only the branches from one
+root of bitterness&mdash;mortal Pride. For this we gather, for this we war,
+for this we die&mdash;here and hereafter; while all the while the Wisdom
+which is from above stands vainly teaching us the way to Earthly Riches
+and to Heavenly Peace, "What doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but
+to do justice, to love mercy, and to walk <i>humbly</i> with thy God?"</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>7th March</i>, 1885.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Introduction to a pamphlet entitled "Usury and the
+English Bishops," or more fully, "Usury, its pernicious effects on
+English agriculture and commerce: An allegory dedicated without
+permission to the Bishops of Manchester, Peterborough and Rochester"
+(London: A. Southey, 146, Fenchurch Street, 1885). By R. J. Sillar. (See
+<i>Fors Clavigera</i>, vol. v. Letter 56.)&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> "Everything evil in Europe is primarily the fault of her
+Bishops."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> "I knew, in using it, perfectly well what you meant."
+(Note by Mr. Sillar.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> "Cash," I should have said, in accuracy&mdash;not "wealth."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Mr. Sillar's pamphlet consists of a collection of
+paragraphs, all condemnatory of usury, from the writings of the English
+bishops, from the sixteenth century down to the present time; and is
+illustrated by five emblematic woodcuts representing an oak tree
+(English commerce) gradually overgrown and destroyed by an ivy-plant
+(usury).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="THEOLOGY" id="THEOLOGY"></a>THEOLOGY.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(Pamphlet, 1851.)</h4>
+
+
+<h3>THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Letters and Epilogue</i>, 1879-1881.)</h4>
+
+
+<h3>THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>Contemporary Review, March</i> 1873.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span><br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES_ON_THE_CONSTRUCTION_OF_SHEEPFOLDS137" id="NOTES_ON_THE_CONSTRUCTION_OF_SHEEPFOLDS137"></a>NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></h2>
+
+
+<h3>PREFACE (CALLED "ADVERTISEMENT") TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Many persons will probably find fault with me for publishing opinions
+which are not new: but I shall bear this blame contentedly, believing
+that opinions on this subject could hardly be just if they were not 1800
+years old. Others will blame me for making proposals which are
+altogether new: to whom I would answer, that things in these days seem
+not so far right but that they may be mended. And others will simply
+call the opinions false and the proposals foolish&mdash;to whose goodwill, if
+they take it in hand to contradict me, I must leave what I have
+written&mdash;having no purpose of being drawn, at present, into religious
+controversy. If, however, any should admit the truth, but regret the
+tone of what I have said, lean only pray them to consider how much less
+harm is done in the world by ungraceful boldness, than by untimely
+fear.</i></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Denmark</span> <span class="smcap">Hill</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>February, 1851</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>PREFACE TO THE SECOND (1851) EDITION.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Since the publication of these Notes, I have received many letters upon
+the affairs of the Church, from persons of nearly every denomination of
+Christians; for all these letters I am grateful, and in many of them I
+have found valuable information, or suggestion: but I have not leisure
+at present to follow out the subject farther; and no reason has been
+shown me for modifying or altering any part of the text as it stands. It
+is republished, therefore, without change or addition</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>I must, however, especially thank one of my correspondents for sending
+me a pamphlet, called "Sectarianism, the Bane of Religion and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> the
+Church,"<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> which I would recommend, in the strongest terms, to the
+reading of all who regard the cause of Christ; and, for help in reading
+the Scriptures, I would name also the short and admirable arrangement of
+parallel passages relating to the offices of the clergy, called "The
+Testimony of Scripture concerning the Christian Ministry."</i><a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3>PREFACE TO THIRD (CALLED SECOND) EDITION.</h3>
+
+<p><i>I have only to add to this first preface, that the boldness of the
+pamphlet,&mdash;ungraceful enough, it must be admitted,&mdash;has done no one any
+harm, that I know of; but on the contrary, some definite good, as far as
+I can judge; and that I republish the whole now, letter for letter, as
+originally printed, believing it likely to be still serviceable, and, on
+the ground it takes for argument, (Scriptural authority,)
+incontrovertible as far as it reaches; though it amazes me to find on
+re-reading it, that, so late as 1851, I had only got the length of
+perceiving the schism between sects of Protestants to be criminal, and
+ridiculous, while I still supposed the schism between Protestants and
+Catholics to be virtuous and sublime.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The most valuable part of the whole is the analysis of governments, &sect;&sect;
+213-15; the passages on Church discipline, &sect;&sect; 204-5, being also
+anticipatory of much that I have to say in Fors, where I hope to
+re-assert the substance of this pamphlet on wider grounds, and with more
+modesty.</i></p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>3rd August, 1875</i>.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> This pamphlet was originally published in 1851, under the
+title of "Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds," by John Ruskin,
+M.A., author of the "Seven Lamps of Architecture," etc. (Smith, Elder, &amp;
+Co.). A second edition, with an additional preface, followed in the same
+year, after which the pamphlet remained out of print till 1875, when it
+was reprinted in a third, erroneously called a second, edition (George
+Allen, Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> London: 1846. Nisbet &amp; Co., Berners Street.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> London: 1847. T. K. Campbell, 1, Warwick Square.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES" id="NOTES"></a>NOTES,</h2>
+
+<h3>ETC., ETC.</h3>
+
+
+<p>182. The following remarks were intended to form part of the appendix to
+an essay on Architecture: but it seemed to me, when I had put them into
+order, that they might be useful to persons who would not care to
+possess the work to which I proposed to attach them: I publish them,
+therefore, in a separate form; but I have not time to give them more
+consistency than they would have had in the subordinate position
+originally intended for them. I do not profess to teach Divinity, and I
+pray the reader to understand this, and to pardon the slightness and
+insufficiency of notes set down with no more intention of connected
+treatment of their subject than might regulate an accidental
+conversation. Some of them are simply copied from my private diary;
+others are detached statements of facts, which seem to me significative
+or valuable, without comment; all are written in haste, and in the
+intervals of occupation with an entirely different subject. It may be
+asked of me, whether I hold it right to speak thus hastily and
+insufficiently respecting the matter in question? Yes. I hold it right
+to <i>speak</i> hastily; not to <i>think</i> hastily. I have not thought hastily
+of these things; and, besides, the haste of speech is confessed, that
+the reader may think of me only as talking to him, and saying, as
+shortly and simply as I can, things which, if he esteem them foolish or
+idle, he is welcome to cast aside; but which, in very truth, I cannot
+help saying at this time.</p>
+
+<p>183. The passages in the essay which required notes, described the
+repression of the political power of the Venetian Clergy by the Venetian
+Senate; and it became necessary for me&mdash;in supporting an assertion made
+in the course of the inquiry, that the idea of separation of Church and
+State was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> both vain and impious&mdash;to limit the sense in which it seemed
+to me that the word "Church" should be understood, and to note one or
+two consequences which would result from the acceptance of such
+limitation. This I may as well do in a separate paper, readable by any
+person interested in the subject; for it is high time that <i>some</i>
+definition of the word should be agreed upon. I do not mean a definition
+involving the doctrine of this or that division of Christians, but
+limiting, in a manner understood by all of them, the sense in which the
+<i>word</i> should thenceforward be used. There is grievous inconvenience in
+the present state of things. For instance, in a sermon lately published
+at Oxford, by an anti-Tractarian divine, I find this sentence,&mdash;"It is
+clearly within the province of the State to establish a national
+<i>church</i>, or <i>external institution of certain forms of worship</i>." Now
+suppose one were to take this interpretation of the word "Church," given
+by an Oxford divine, and substitute it for the simple word in some Bible
+texts, as, for instance, "Unto the angel of the external institution of
+certain forms of worship of Ephesus, write," etc. Or, "Salute the
+brethren which are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the external
+institution of certain forms of worship which is in his house,"&mdash;what
+awkward results we should have, here and there! Now I do not say it is
+possible for men to agree with each other in their religious <i>opinions</i>,
+but it is certainly possible for them to agree with each other upon
+their religious <i>expressions</i>; and when a word occurs in the Bible a
+hundred and fourteen times, it is surely not asking too much of
+contending divines to let it stand in the sense in which it there
+occurs; and when they want an expression of something for which it does
+<i>not</i> stand in the Bible, to use some other word. There is no compromise
+of religious opinion in this; it is simply proper respect for the
+Queen's English.</p>
+
+<p>184. The word occurs in the New Testament, as I said, a hundred and
+fourteen times.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> In every one of those oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>currences, it bears one
+and the same grand sense: that of a congregation or assembly of men. But
+it bears this sense under four different modifications, giving four
+separate meanings to the word. These are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. The entire Multitude of the Elect; otherwise called the Body of
+Christ; and sometimes the Bride, the Lamb's Wife; including the Faithful
+in all ages;&mdash;Adam, and the children of Adam yet unborn.</p>
+
+<p>In this sense it is used in Ephesians v. 25, 27, 32; Colossians i. 18;
+and several other passages.</p>
+
+<p>II. The entire multitude of professing believers in Christ, existing on
+earth at a given moment; including false brethren, wolves in sheep's
+clothing, goats and tares, as well as sheep and wheat, and other forms
+of bad fish with good in the net.</p>
+
+<p>In this sense it is used in 1 Cor. x. 32, xv. 9; Galatians i. 13; 1 Tim.
+iii. 5, etc.</p>
+
+<p>III. The multitude of professed believers, living in a certain city,
+place, or house. This is the most frequent sense in which the word
+occurs, as in Acts vii. 38, xiii. 1; 1 Cor. i. 2, xvi. 19, etc.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Any assembly of men: as in Acts xix. 32, 41.</p>
+
+<p>185. That in a hundred and twelve out of the hundred and fourteen texts,
+the word bears some one of these four meanings, is indisputable.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>
+But there are two texts in which, if the word had alone occurred, its
+meaning might have been doubtful. These are Matt. xvi. 18, and xviii.
+17.</p>
+
+<p>The absurdity of founding any doctrine upon the inexpressibly minute
+possibility that, in these two texts, the word might have been used with
+a different meaning from that which it bore in all the others, coupled
+with the assumption that the meaning was this or that, is self-evident:
+it is not so much a religious error as a philological solecism;
+unpar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>alleled, so far as I know, in any other science but that of
+divinity.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is it ever, I think, committed with open front by Protestants. No
+English divine, asked in a straightforward manner for a Scriptural
+definition of "the Church," would, I suppose, be bold enough to answer
+"the Clergy." Nor is there any harm in the common use of the word, so
+only that it be distinctly understood to be not the Scriptural one; and
+therefore to be unfit for substitution in a Scriptural text. There is no
+harm in a man's talking of his son's "going into the Church; "meaning
+that he is going to take orders: but there is much harm in his supposing
+this a Scriptural use of the word, and therefore, that when Christ said,
+"Tell it to the Church," He might possibly have meant, "Tell it to the
+Clergy."</p>
+
+<p>186. It is time to put an end to the chance of such misunderstanding.
+Let it but be declared plainly by all men, when they begin to state
+their opinions on matters ecclesiastical, that they will use the word
+"Church" in one sense or the other;&mdash;that they will accept the sense in
+which it is used by the Apostles, or that they deny this sense, and
+propose a new definition of their own. We shall then know what we are
+about with them&mdash;we may perhaps grant them their new use of the term,
+and argue with them on that understanding; so only that they will not
+pretend to make use of Scriptural authority, while they refuse to employ
+Scriptural language. This, however, it is not my purpose to do at
+present. I desire only to address those who are willing to accept the
+Apostolic sense of the word Church; and with them, I would endeavor
+shortly to ascertain what consequences must follow from an acceptance of
+that Apostolic sense, and what must be our first and most necessary
+conclusions from the common language of Scripture<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> respecting these
+following points:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1) The distinctive characters of the Church,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2) The Authority of the Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(3) The Authority of the Clergy over the Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(4) The Connection of the Church with the State.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>187. These are four separate subjects of question; but we shall not have
+to put these questions in succession with each of the four Scriptural
+meanings of the word Church, for evidently its second and third meaning
+may be considered together, as merely expressing the general or
+particular conditions of the Visible Church, and the fourth
+signification is entirely independent of all questions of a religious
+kind. So that we shall only put the above inquiries successively
+respecting the Invisible and Visible Church; and as the two last&mdash;of
+authority of Clergy, and connection with State&mdash;can evidently only have
+reference to the Visible Church, we shall have, in all, these six
+questions to consider:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1) The distinctive characters of the Invisible Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(2) The distinctive characters of the Visible Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(3) The Authority of the Invisible Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(4) The Authority of the Visible Church,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(5) The Authority of Clergy over the Visible Church.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(6) The Connection of the Visible Church with the State.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>188. (1) What are the distinctive characters of the Invisible Church?
+That is to say, What is it which makes a person a member of this Church,
+and how is he to be known for such? Wide question&mdash;if we had to take
+cognizance of all that has been written respecting it, remarkable as it
+has been always for quantity rather than carefulness, and full of
+confusion between Visible and Invisible: even the Article of the Church
+of England being ambiguous in its first clause: "The <i>Visible</i> Church is
+a congregation of Faithful men." As if ever it had been possible, except
+for God, to see Faith, or to know a Faithful man by sight! And there is
+little else written on this question, without some such quick confusion
+of the Visible and Invisible Church;&mdash;needless and unaccountable
+confusion. For evidently, the Church which is composed of Faithful men
+is the one true, indivisible, and indiscernible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> Church, built on the
+foundation of Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+chief corner-stone. It includes all who have ever fallen asleep in
+Christ, and all yet unborn, who are to be saved in Him: its Body is as
+yet imperfect; it will not be perfected till the last saved human spirit
+is gathered to its God.</p>
+
+<p>A man becomes a member of this Church only by believing in Christ with
+all his heart; nor is he positively recognizable for a member of it,
+when he has become so, by any one but God, not even by himself.
+Nevertheless, there are certain signs by which Christ's sheep may be
+guessed at. Not by their being in any definite Fold&mdash;for many are lost
+sheep at times; but by their sheeplike behavior; and a great many are
+indeed sheep, which, on the far mountain side, in their peacefulness, we
+take for stones. To themselves, the best proof of their being Christ's
+sheep is to find themselves on Christ's shoulders; and, between them,
+there are certain sympathies (expressed in the Apostles' Creed by the
+term "communion of Saints"), by which they may in a sort recognize each
+other, and so become verily visible to each other for mutual comfort.</p>
+
+<p>189. (2) The Limits of the Visible Church, or of the Church in the
+Second Scriptural Sense, are not so easy to define: they are awkward
+questions, these, of stake-nets. It has been ingeniously and plausibly
+endeavored to make Baptism a sign of admission into the Visible Church:
+but absurdly enough; for we know that half the baptized people in the
+world are very visible rogues, believing neither in God nor devil; and
+it is flat blasphemy to call these Visible Christians; we also know that
+the Holy Ghost was sometimes given before Baptism,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> and it would be
+absurdity to call a man, on whom the Holy Ghost had fallen, an Invisible
+Christian. The only rational distinction is that which practically,
+though not professedly, we always assume. If we hear a man profess
+himself a believer in God and in Christ, and detect him in no glaring
+and willful violation of God's law, we speak of him as a Christian; and,
+on the other hand, if we hear him or see him denying Christ, either in
+his words or conduct, we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> tacitly assume him not to be a Christian. A
+mawkish charity prevents us from outspeaking in this matter, and from
+earnestly endeavoring to discern who are Christians and who are not; and
+this I hold<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> to be one of the chief sins of the Church in the
+present day; for thus wicked men are put to no shame; and better men are
+encouraged in their failings, or caused to hesitate in their virtues, by
+the example of those whom, in false charity, they choose to call
+Christians. Now, it being granted that it is impossible to know,
+determinedly, who are Christians indeed, that is no reason for utter
+negligence in separating the nominal, apparent, or possible Christian,
+from the professed Pagan or enemy of God. We spend much time in arguing
+about efficacy of sacraments and such other mysteries; but we do not act
+upon the very certain tests which are clear and visible. We know that
+Christ's people are not thieves&mdash;not liars&mdash;not busybodies&mdash;not
+dishonest&mdash;not avaricious&mdash;not wasteful&mdash;not cruel. Let us then get
+ourselves well clear of thieves&mdash;liars&mdash;wasteful people&mdash;avaricious
+people&mdash;cheating people&mdash;people who do not pay their debts. Let us
+assure them that they, at least, do not belong to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> Visible Church;
+and having thus got that Church into decent shape and cohesion, it will
+be time to think of drawing the stake-nets closer.</p>
+
+<p>I hold it for a law, palpable to common sense, and which nothing but the
+cowardice and faithlessness of the Church prevents it from putting in
+practice, that the conviction of any dishonorable conduct or willful
+crime, of any fraud, falsehood, cruelty, or violence, should be ground
+for the excommunication of any man:&mdash;for his publicly declared
+separation from the acknowledged body of the Visible Church: and that he
+should not be received again therein without public confession of his
+crime and declaration of his repentance. If this were vigorously
+enforced, we should soon have greater purity of life in the world, and
+fewer discussions about high and low churches. But before we can obtain
+any idea of the manner in which such law could be enforced, we have to
+consider the second respecting the Authority of the Church. Now
+authority is twofold: to declare doctrine, and to enforce discipline;
+and we have to inquire, therefore, in each kind,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>190. (3) What is the authority of the Invisible Church? Evidently, in
+matters of doctrine, all members of the Invisible Church must have been,
+and must ever be, at the time of their deaths, right in the points
+essential to Salvation. But, (A), we cannot tell who <i>are</i> members of
+the Invisible Church.</p>
+
+<p>(B) We cannot collect evidence from death-beds in a clearly stated form.</p>
+
+<p>(C) We can collect evidence, in any form, only from some one or two out
+of every sealed thousand of the Invisible Church. Elijah thought he was
+alone in Israel; and yet there were seven thousand invisible ones around
+him. Grant that we had Elijah's intelligence; and we could only
+calculate on collecting one seven-thousandth part of the evidence or
+opinions of the part of the Invisible Church living on earth at a given
+moment: that is to say, the seven-millionth or trillionth of its
+collective evidence. It is very clear, therefore, we cannot hope to get
+rid of the contradictory opinions, and keep the consistent ones, by a
+general equation. But, it has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> been said, these are no contradictory
+opinions; the Church is infallible. There was some talk about the
+infallibility of the Church, if I recollect right, in that letter of Mr.
+Bennett's to the Bishop of London. If any Church is infallible, it is
+assuredly the Invisible Church, or Body of Christ: and infallible in the
+main sense it must of course be by its definition. An Elect person must
+be saved, and therefore cannot eventually be deceived on essential
+points: so that Christ says of the deception of such, "If it were
+<i>possible</i>" implying it to be impossible. Therefore, as we said, if one
+could get rid of the variable opinions of the members of the Invisible
+Church, the constant opinions would assuredly be authoritative: but, for
+the three reasons above stated, we cannot get at their constant
+opinions: and as for the feelings and thoughts which they daily
+experience or express, the question of Infallibility -which is practical
+only in this bearing&mdash;is soon settled. Observe, St. Paul, and the rest
+of the Apostles, write nearly all their epistles to the Invisible
+Church:&mdash;those epistles are headed,&mdash;Romans, "To the beloved of God,
+called to be saints; "1 Corinthians, "To them that are sanctified in
+Christ Jesus; "2 Corinthians, "To the saints in all Achaia;" Ephesians,
+"To the saints which are at Ephesus, and to the faithful in Christ
+Jesus; "Philippians, "To all the saints which are at Philippi;
+"Colossians, "To the saints and faithful brethren which are at Colosse;"
+1 and 2 Thessalonians, "To the Church of the Thessalonians, which is
+in God the Father, and the Lord Jesus; "1 and 2 Timothy, "To his own son
+in the faith; "Titus, to the same; 1 Peter, "To the Strangers, Elect
+according to the foreknowledge of God;" 2 Peter, "To them that have
+obtained like precious faith with us; " 2 John, "To the Elect lady; "
+Jude, " To them that are sanctified by God the Father, and preserved in
+Jesus Christ, and called."</p>
+
+<p>191. There are thus fifteen epistles, expressly directed to the members
+of the Invisible Church. Philemon and Hebrews, and 1 and 3 John, are
+evidently also so written, though not so expressly inscribed. That of
+James, and that to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> Galatians, are as evidently to the Visible
+Church: the one being general, and the other to persons "removed from
+Him that called them." Missing out, therefore, these two epistles, but
+including Christ's words to His disciples, we find in the Scriptural
+addresses to members of the Invisible Church, fourteen, if not more,
+direct injunctions "not to be deceived."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> So much for the
+"Infallibility of the Church."</p>
+
+<p>Now, one could put up with Puseyism more patiently, if its fallacies
+arose merely from peculiar temperaments yielding to peculiar
+temptations. But its bold refusals to read plain English; its elaborate
+adjustments of tight bandages over its own eyes, as wholesome
+preparation for a walk among traps and pitfalls; its daring trustfulness
+in its own clairvoyance all the time, and declarations that every pit it
+falls into is a seventh heaven; and that it is pleasant and profitable
+to break its legs;&mdash;with all this it is difficult to have patience. One
+thinks of the highwayman with his eyes shut in the "Arabian Nights"; and
+wonders whether any kind of scourging would prevail upon the Anglican
+highwayman to open "first one and then the other."</p>
+
+<p>192. (4) So much, then, I repeat, for the infallibility of the
+<i>In</i>visible Church, and for its consequent authority. Now, if we want to
+ascertain what infallibility and authority there is in the Visible
+Church, we have to alloy the small wisdom and the light weight of
+Invisible Christians, with the large percentage of the false wisdom and
+contrary weight of Undetected Anti-Christians. Which alloy makes up the
+current coin of opinions in the Visible Church, having such value as we
+may choose&mdash;its nature being properly assayed&mdash;to attach to it.</p>
+
+<p>There is, therefore, in matters of doctrine, <i>no such thing</i> as the
+Authority of the Church. We might as well talk of the authority of a
+morning cloud. There may be light <i>in</i> it, but the light is not of it;
+and it diminishes the light that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> gets; and lets less of it through
+than it receives, Christ being its sun. Or, we might as well talk of the
+authority of a flock of sheep&mdash;for the Church is a body to be taught and
+fed, not to teach and feed: and of all sheep that are fed on the earth,
+Christ's Sheep are the most simple, (the children of this generation are
+wiser): always losing themselves; doing little else in this world <i>but</i>
+lose themselves;&mdash;never finding themselves; always found by Some One
+else; getting perpetually into sloughs, and snows, and bramble thickets,
+like to die there, but for their Shepherd, who is forever finding them
+and bearing them back, with torn fleeces and eyes full of fear.</p>
+
+<p>193. This, then, being the No-Authority of the Church in matter of
+Doctrine, what Authority has it in matters of Discipline?</p>
+
+<p>Much, every way. The sheep have natural and wholesome power (however far
+scattered they may be from their proper fold) of getting together in
+orderly knots; following each other on trodden sheepwalks, and holding
+their heads all one way when they see strange dogs coming; as well as of
+casting out of their company any whom they see reason to suspect of not
+being right sheep, and being among them for no good. All which things
+must be done as the time and place require, and by common consent. A
+path may be good at one time of day which is bad at another, or after a
+change of wind; and a position may be very good for sudden defense,
+which would be very stiff and awkward for feeding in. And common consent
+must often be of such and such a company on this or that hillside, in
+this or that particular danger,&mdash;not of all the sheep in the world: and
+the consent may either be literally common, and expressed in assembly,
+or it may be to appoint officers over the rest, with such and such
+trusts of the common authority, to be used for the common advantage.
+Conviction of crimes, and excommunication, for instance, could neither
+be effected except before, or by means of, officers of some appointed
+authority.</p>
+
+<p>194. (5) This then brings us to our fifth question. What is the
+Authority of the Clergy over the Church?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first clause of the question must evidently be,&mdash;Who <i>are</i> the
+Clergy? And it is not easy to answer this without begging the rest of
+the question.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, I think I can hear certain people answering, that the
+Clergy are folk of three kinds;&mdash;Bishops, who overlook the Church;
+Priests, who sacrifice for the Church; Deacons, who minister to the
+Church: thus assuming in their answer, that the Church is to be
+sacrificed <i>for</i>, and that the people cannot overlook and minister to
+her at the same time;&mdash;which is going much too fast. I think, however,
+if we define the Clergy to be the "Spiritual Officers of the
+Church,"&mdash;meaning, by Officers, merely People in office,&mdash;we shall have
+a title safe enough and general enough to begin with, and corresponding
+too, pretty well, with St. Paul's general expression &#960;&#961;&#959;&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#956;&#7953;&#957;&#959;&#953;, in Rom. xii. 8, and 1 Thess. v. 13.</p>
+
+<p>Now, respecting these Spiritual Officers, or office-bearers, we have to
+inquire, first, What their Office or Authority is, or should be?
+secondly, Who gave, or should give, them that Authority? That is to say,
+first, What is, or should be, the <i>nature</i> of their office? and
+secondly, What the <i>extent</i>, or force, of their authority in it? for
+this last depends mainly on its derivation.</p>
+
+<p>195. First, then, What should be the offices, and of what kind should be
+the authority, of the Clergy?</p>
+
+<p>I have hitherto referred to the Bible for an answer to every question. I
+do so again; and, behold, the Bible gives me no answer. I defy you to
+answer me from the Bible. You can only guess, and dimly conjecture, what
+the offices of the Clergy <i>were</i> in the first century. You cannot show
+me a single command as to what they shall be. Strange, this; the Bible
+gives no answer to so apparently important a question! God surely would
+not have left His word without an answer to anything His children ought
+to ask. Surely it must be a ridiculous question&mdash;a question we ought
+never to have put, or thought of putting. Let us think of it again a
+little. To be sure,&mdash;It <i>is</i> a ridiculous question, and we should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
+ashamed of ourselves for having put it:&mdash;What should be the offices of
+the Clergy? That is to say, What are the possible spiritual necessities
+which at any time may arise in the Church, and by what means and men are
+they to be supplied?&mdash;evidently an infinite question. Different kinds of
+necessities must be met by different authorities, constituted as the
+necessities arise. Robinson Crusoe, in his island, wants no Bishop, and
+makes a thunderstorm do for an Evangelist. The University of Oxford
+would be ill off without its Bishop; but wants an Evangelist besides;
+and that forthwith. The authority which the Vaudois shepherds need is of
+Barnabas, the Son of Consolation; the authority which the city of London
+needs is of James, the Son of Thunder. Let us then alter the form of our
+question, and put it to the Bible thus: What are the necessities most
+likely to arise in the Church? and may they be best met by different
+men, or in great part by the same men acting in different capacities?
+and are the names attached to their offices of any consequence? Ah, the
+Bible answers now, and that loudly. The Church is built on the
+Foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+corner-stone. Well; we cannot have two foundations, so we can have no
+more Apostles nor Prophets:&mdash;then, as for the other needs of the Church
+in its edifying upon this foundation, there are all manner of things to
+be done daily;&mdash;rebukes to be given; comfort to be brought; Scripture to
+be explained; warning to be enforced; threatenings to be executed;
+charities to be administered; and the men who do these things are
+called, and call themselves, with absolute indifference, Deacons,
+Bishops, Elders, Evangelists, according to what they are doing at the
+time of speaking. St. Paul almost always calls himself a deacon, St.
+Peter calls himself an elder, 1 Peter v. 1; and Timothy, generally
+understood to be addressed as a bishop, is called a deacon in 1 Tim. iv.
+6&mdash;forbidden to rebuke an elder, in v. 1, and exhorted to do the work of
+an evangelist, in 2 Tim. iv. 5. But there is one thing which, as
+officers, or as separate from the rest of the flock, they <i>never</i> call
+themselves,&mdash;which it would have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> impossible, as so separate, they
+ever <i>should</i> have called themselves; that is&mdash;<i>Priests</i>.</p>
+
+<p>196. It would have been just as possible for the Clergy of the early
+Church to call themselves Levites, as to call themselves (ex-officio)
+Priests. The whole function of Priesthood was, on Christmas morning, at
+once and forever gathered into His Person who was born at Bethlehem; and
+thenceforward, all who are united with Him, and who with Him make
+sacrifice of themselves; that is to say, all members of the Invisible
+Church become, at the instant of their conversion, Priests; and are so
+called in 1 Peter ii. 5, and Rev. i. 6, and xx. 6, where, observe, there
+is no possibility of limiting the expression to the Clergy; the
+conditions of Priesthood being simply having been loved by Christ, and
+washed in His blood. The blasphemous claim on the part of the Clergy of
+being <i>more</i> Priests than the godly laity&mdash;that is to say, of having a
+higher Holiness than the Holiness of being one with Christ,&mdash;is
+altogether a Romanist heresy, dragging after it, or having its origin
+in, the other heresies respecting the sacrificial power of the Church
+officer, and his repeating the oblation of Christ, and so having power
+to absolve from sin:&mdash;with all the other endless and miserable
+falsehoods of the Papal hierarchy; falsehoods for which, that there
+might be no shadow of excuse, it has been ordained by the Holy Spirit
+that no Christian minister shall once call himself a Priest from one end
+of the New Testament to the other, except together with his flock; and
+so far from the idea of any peculiar sanctification, belonging to the
+Clergy, ever entering the Apostles' minds, we actually find St. Paul
+defending himself against the possible imputation of inferiority: "If
+any man trust to himself that he is Christ's, let him of himself think
+this again, that, as he is Christ's, even so are we Christ's" (2 Cor. x.
+7). As for the unhappy retention of the term Priest in our English
+Prayer-book, so long as it was understood to mean nothing but an upper
+order of Church officer, licensed to tell the congregation from the
+reading-desk, what (for the rest) they might, one would think, have
+known without being told,&mdash;that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> "God pardoneth all them that truly
+repent,"&mdash;there was little harm in it; but, now that this order of
+Clergy begins to presume upon a title which, if it mean anything at all,
+is simply short for Presbyter, and has no more to do with the word
+Hiereus than with the word Levite, it is time that some order should be
+taken both with the book and the Clergy. For instance, in that dangerous
+compound of halting poetry with hollow Divinity, called the "Lyra
+Apostolica," we find much versification on the sin of Korah and his
+company: with suggested parallel between the Christian and Levitical
+Churches, and threatening that there are "Judgment Fires, for
+high-voiced Korahs in their day." There are indeed such fires. But when
+Moses said, "a Prophet shall the Lord raise up unto you, like unto me,"
+did he mean the writer who signs &#947; in the "Lyra Apostolica"?
+The office of the Lawgiver and Priest is now forever gathered into One
+Mediator between God and man; and THEY are guilty of the sin of Korah
+who blasphemously would associate themselves in His Mediatorship.</p>
+
+<p>197. As for the passages in the "Ordering of Priests" and "Visitation of
+the Sick" respecting Absolution, they are evidently pure Romanism, and
+might as well not be there, for any practical effect which they have on
+the consciences of the Laity; and had much better not be there, as
+regards their effect on the minds of the Clergy. It is indeed true that
+Christ promised absolving powers to His Apostles: He also promised to
+those who believed, that they should take up serpents; and if they drank
+any deadly thing, it should not hurt them. His words were fulfilled
+literally; but those who would extend their force to beyond the
+Apostolic times, must extend both promises or neither.</p>
+
+<p>Although, however, the Protestant laity do not often admit the absolving
+power of their clergy, they are but too apt to yield, in some sort, to
+the impression of their greater sanctification; and from this instantly
+results the unhappy consequence that the sacred character of the Layman
+himself is forgotten, and his own Ministerial duty is neglected. Men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+not in office in the Church suppose themselves, on that ground, in a
+sort unholy; and that, therefore, they may sin with more excuse, and be
+idle or impious with less danger, than the Clergy: especially they
+consider themselves relieved from all ministerial function, and as
+permitted to devote their whole time and energy to the business of this
+world. No mistake can possibly be greater. Every member of the Church is
+equally bound to the service of the Head of the Church; and that service
+is pre-eminently the saving of souls. There is not a moment of a man's
+active life in which he may not be indirectly preaching; and throughout
+a great part of his life he ought to be <i>directly</i> preaching, and
+teaching both strangers and friends; his children, his servants, and all
+who in any way are put under him, being given to him as special objects
+of his ministration. So that the only difference between a Church
+officer and a lay member is either a wider degree of authority given to
+the former, as apparently a wiser and better man, or a special
+appointment to some office more easily discharged by one person than by
+many: as, for instance, the serving of tables by the deacons; the
+authority or appointment being, in either case, commonly signified by a
+marked separation from the rest of the Church, and the privilege or
+power<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> of being maintained by the rest of the Church, without being
+forced to labor with his hands, or incumber himself with any temporal
+concerns.</p>
+
+<p>198. Now, putting out of the question the serving of tables, and other
+such duties, respecting which there is no debate, we shall find the
+offices of the Clergy, whatever names we may choose to give to those who
+discharge them, falling mainly into two great heads:&mdash;Teaching;
+including doctrine, warning, and comfort: Discipline; including reproof
+and direct administration of punishment. Either of which functions would
+naturally become vested in single persons, to the exclusion of others,
+as a mere matter of convenience: whether those persons were wiser and
+better than others or not; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> respecting each of which, and the
+authority required for its fitting discharge, a short inquiry must be
+separately made.</p>
+
+<p>199. I. Teaching.&mdash;It appears natural and wise that certain men should
+be set apart from the rest of the Church that they may make Theology the
+study of their lives: and that they should be thereto instructed
+specially in the Hebrew and Greek tongues; and have entire leisure
+granted them for the study of the Scriptures, and for obtaining general
+knowledge of the grounds of Faith, and best modes of its defense against
+all heretics: and it seems evidently right, also, that with this
+Scholastic duty should be joined the Pastoral duty of constant
+visitation and exhortation to the people; for, clearly, the Bible, and
+the truths of Divinity in general, can only be understood rightly in
+their practical application; and clearly, also, a man spending his time
+constantly in spiritual ministrations, must be better able, on any given
+occasion, to deal powerfully with the human heart than one unpracticed
+in such matters. The unity of Knowledge and Love, both devoted
+altogether to the service of Christ and His Church, marks the true
+Christian Minister; who, I believe, whenever he has existed, has never
+failed to receive due and fitting reverence from all men,&mdash;of whatever
+character or opinion; and I believe that if all those who profess to be
+such were such indeed, there would never be question of their authority
+more.</p>
+
+<p>200. But, whatever influence they may have over the Church, their
+authority never supersedes that of either the intellect or the
+conscience of the simplest of its lay members. They can assist those
+members in the search for truth, or comfort their over-worn and doubtful
+minds; they can even assure them that they are in the way of truth, or
+that pardon is within their reach: but they can neither manifest the
+truth, nor grant the pardon. Truth is to be discovered, and Pardon to be
+won, for every man by himself. This is evident from innumerable texts of
+Scripture, but chiefly from those which exhort every man to seek after
+Truth, and which connect knowing with doing. We are to seek after
+knowledge as silver, and search for her as for hid treasures; therefore,
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> every man she must be naturally hid, and the discovery of her is
+to be the reward only of personal search. The kingdom of God is as
+treasure hid in a field; and of those who profess to help us to seek for
+it, we are not to put confidence in those who say,&mdash;Here is the
+treasure, we have found it, and have it, and will give you some of it;
+but in those who say,&mdash;We think that is a good place to dig, and you
+will dig most easily in such and such a way.</p>
+
+<p>201. Farther, it has been promised that if such earnest search be made,
+Truth shall be discovered: as much truth, that is, as is necessary for
+the person seeking. These, therefore, I hold, for two fundamental
+principles of religion,&mdash;that, without seeking, truth cannot be known at
+all; and that, by seeking, it may be discovered by the simplest. I say,
+without seeking it cannot be known at all. It can neither be declared
+from pulpits, nor set down in Articles, nor in anywise "prepared and
+sold" in packages, ready for use. Truth must be ground for every man by
+himself out of its husk, with such help as he can get, indeed, but not
+without stern labor of his own. In what science is knowledge to be had
+cheap? or truth to be told over a velvet cushion, in half an hour's talk
+every seventh day? Can you learn chemistry so?&mdash;zoology?&mdash;anatomy? and
+do you expect to penetrate the secret of all secrets, and to know that
+whose price is above rubies; and of which the depth saith,&mdash;It is not in
+me,&mdash;in so easy fashion? There are doubts in this matter which evil
+spirits darken with their wings, and that is true of all such doubts
+which we were told long ago&mdash;they can "be ended by action alone."<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>202. As surely as we live, this truth of truths can only so be
+discerned: to those who act on what they know, more shall be revealed;
+and thus, if any man will do His will, he shall know the doctrine
+whether it be of God. Any man,&mdash;not the man who has most means of
+knowing, who has the subtlest brains, or sits under the most orthodox
+preacher, or has his library fullest of most orthodox books,&mdash;but the
+man who strives to know, who takes God at His word, and sets himself to
+dig up the heavenly mystery, roots and all, before sunset, and the night
+come, when no man can work. Beside such a man, God stands in more and
+more visible presence as he toils, and teaches him that which no
+preacher can teach&mdash;no earthly authority gainsay. By such a man, the
+preacher must himself be judged.</p>
+
+<p>203. Doubt you this? There is nothing more certain nor clear throughout
+the Bible: the Apostles themselves appeal constantly to their flocks,
+and actually <i>claim</i> judgment from them, as deserving it, and having a
+right to it, rather than discouraging it. But, first notice the way in
+which the discovery of truth is spoken of in the Old Testament: "Evil
+men understand not judgment; but they that seek the Lord understand all
+things," Proverbs xxviii. 5. God overthroweth, not merely the
+transgressor or the wicked, but even "the words of the transgressor,"
+Proverbs xxii. 12, and "the counsel of the wicked," Job v. 13, xxi. 16;
+observe again, in Proverbs xxiv. 14, "My son, eat thou honey, because it
+is good&mdash;so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul, when thou
+hast <i>found it</i>, there shall be a reward;" and again, "What man is he
+that feareth the Lord? him shall He teach in the way that He shall
+choose;" so Job xxxii. 8, and multitudes of places more; and then, with
+all these places, which express the definite and personal operation of
+the Spirit of God on every one of His people, compare the place in
+Isaiah, which speaks of the contrary of this human teaching: a passage
+which seems as if it had been written for this very day and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> hour.
+"Because their fear towards me is taught by the <i>precept of men</i>;
+therefore, behold, the wisdom of their wise men shall perish, and the
+understanding of their prudent men shall be hid" (xxix. 13,14). Then
+take the New Testament, and observe how St. Paul himself speaks of the
+Romans, even as hardly needing his epistle, but able to admonish one
+another: "<i>Nevertheless, brethren, I have written the more boldly unto
+you in some sort, as putting you in mind</i>" (xv. 15). Anyone, we should
+have thought, might have done as much as this, and yet St. Paul
+increases the modesty of it as he goes on; for he claims the right of
+doing as much as this, only "because of the grace given to me of God,
+that I should be the minister of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles." Then
+compare 2 Cor. v. 11, where he appeals to the consciences of the people
+for the manifestation of his having done his duty; and observe in verse
+21 of that, and I of the next chapter, the "pray" and "beseech," not
+"command"; and again in chapter vi. verse 4, "approving ourselves as the
+ministers of God." But the most remarkable passage of all is 2 Cor. iii.
+1, whence it appears that the churches were actually in the habit of
+giving letters of recommendation to their ministers; and St. Paul
+dispenses with such letters, not by virtue of his Apostolic authority,
+but because the power of his preaching was enough manifested in the
+Corinthians themselves. And these passages are all the more forcible,
+because if in any of them St. Paul had claimed absolute authority over
+the Church as a teacher, it was no more than we should have expected him
+to claim, nor could his doing so have in anywise justified a successor
+in the same claim. But now that he has not claimed it,&mdash;who,
+following him, shall dare to claim it? And the consideration of the
+necessity of joining expressions of the most exemplary humility, which
+were to be the example of succeeding ministers, with such assertion of
+Divine authority as should secure acceptance for the epistle itself in
+the sacred canon, sufficiently accounts for the apparent inconsistencies
+which occur in 2 Thess. iii. 14, and other such texts.</p>
+
+<p>204. So much, then, for the authority of the Clergy in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> matters of
+Doctrine. Next, what is their authority in matters of Discipline? It
+must evidently be very great, even if it were derived from the people
+alone, and merely vested in the clerical officers as the executors of
+their ecclesiastical judgments, and general overseers of all the Church.
+But granting, as we must presently, the minister to hold office directly
+from God, his authority of discipline becomes very great indeed; how
+great, it seems to me most difficult to determine, because I do not
+understand what St. Paul means by "delivering a man to Satan for the
+destruction of the flesh." Leaving this question, however, as much too
+hard for casual examination, it seems indisputable that the authority of
+the Ministers or court of Ministers should extend to the pronouncing a
+man Excommunicate for certain crimes against the Church, as well as for
+all crimes punishable by ordinary law. There ought, I think, to be an
+ecclesiastical code of laws; and a man ought to have jury trial,
+according to this code, before an ecclesiastical judge; in which, if he
+were found guilty, as of lying, or dishonesty, or cruelty, much more of
+any actually committed violent crime, he should be pronounced
+excommunicate; refused the Sacrament; and have his name written in some
+public place as an excommunicate person until he had publicly confessed
+his sin and besought pardon of God for it. The jury should always be of
+the laity, and no penalty should be enforced in an ecclesiastical court
+except this of excommunication.</p>
+
+<p>205. This proposal may seem strange to many persons; but assuredly this,
+if not much more than this, is commanded in Scripture, first in the
+(much-abused) text, "Tell it unto the Church;" and most clearly in 1
+Cor. v. 11-13; 2 Thess. iii. 6 and 14; 1 Tim. v. 8 and 20; and Titus
+iii. 10; from which passages we also know the two proper degrees of the
+penalty. For Christ says, Let him who refuses to hear the Church, "be
+unto thee as an heathen man and a publican," But Christ ministered to
+the heathen, and sat at meat with the publican; only always with
+declared or implied expression of their inferiority; here, therefore, is
+one degree of excom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>munication for persons who "offend" their brethren,
+committing some minor fault against them; and who, having been
+pronounced in error by the body of the Church, refuse to confess their
+fault or repair it; who are then to be no longer considered members of
+the Church; and their recovery to the body of it is to be sought exactly
+as it would be in the case of an heathen. But covetous persons, railers,
+extortioners, idolaters, and those guilty of other gross crimes, are to
+be entirely cut off from the company of the believers; and we are not so
+much as to eat with them. This last penalty, however, would require to
+be strictly guarded, that it might not be abused in the infliction of
+it, as it has been by the Romanists. We are not, indeed, to eat with
+them, but we may exercise all Christian charity towards them, and give
+them to eat, if we see them in hunger, as we ought to all our enemies;
+only we are to consider them distinctly as our <i>enemies</i>: that is to
+say, enemies of our Master, Christ; and servants of Satan.</p>
+
+<p>206. As for the rank or name of the officers in whom the authorities,
+either of teaching or discipline, are to be vested, they are left
+undetermined by Scripture. I have heard it said by men who know their
+Bible far better than I, that careful examination may detect evidence of
+the existence of three orders of Clergy in the Church. This may be; but
+one thing is very clear, without any laborious examination, that
+"bishop" and "elder" sometimes mean the same thing; as, indisputably, in
+Titus i. 5 and 7, and I Peter v. I and 2, and that the office of the
+bishop or overseer was one of considerably less importance than it is
+with us. This is palpably evident from I Timothy iii., for what divine
+among us, writing of episcopal proprieties, would think of saying that
+bishops "must not be given to wine," must be "no strikers," and must not
+be "novices"? We are not in the habit of making bishops of novices in
+these days; and it would be much better that, like the early Church, we
+sometimes ran the risk of doing so; for the fact is we have not bishops
+enough&mdash;by some hundreds. The idea of overseership has been practically
+lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> sight of, its fulfillment having gradually become physically
+impossible, for want of more bishops. The duty of a bishop is, without
+doubt, to be accessible to the humblest clergymen of his diocese, and to
+desire very earnestly that all of them should be in the habit of
+referring to him in all cases of difficulty; if they do not do this of
+their own accord, it is evidently his duty to visit them, live with them
+sometimes, and join in their ministrations to their flocks, so as to
+know exactly the capacities and habits of life of each; and if any of
+them complained of this or that difficulty with their congregations, the
+bishop should be ready to go down to help them, preach for them, write
+general epistles to their people, and so on: besides this, he should of
+course be watchful of their errors&mdash;ready to hear complaints from their
+congregations of inefficiency or aught else; besides having general
+superintendence of all the charitable institutions and schools in his
+diocese, and good knowledge of whatever was going on in theological
+matters, both all over the kingdom and on the Continent. This is the
+work of a right overseer; and I leave the reader to calculate how many
+additional bishops&mdash;and those hard-working men, too&mdash;we should need
+to have it done, even decently. Then our present bishops might all
+become archbishops with advantage, and have general authority over the
+rest.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p>207. As to the mode in which the officers of the Church should be
+elected or appointed, I do not feel it my business to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> say anything at
+present, nor much respecting the extent of their authority, either over
+each other or over the congregation, this being a most difficult
+question, the right solution of which evidently lies between two most
+dangerous extremes&mdash;insubordination and radicalism on one hand, and
+ecclesiastical tyranny and heresy on the other: of the two,
+insubordination is far the least to be dreaded&mdash;for this reason, that
+nearly all real Christians are more on the watch against their pride
+than their indolence, and would sooner obey their clergyman, if
+possible, than contend with him; while the very pride they suppose
+conquered often returns masked, and causes them to make a merit of their
+humility and their abstract obedience, however unreasonable: but they
+cannot so easily persuade themselves there is a merit in abstract
+<i>dis</i>obedience.</p>
+
+<p>208. Ecclesiastical tyranny has, for the most part, founded itself on
+the idea of Vicarianism, one of the most pestilent of the Romanist
+theories, and most plainly denounced in Scripture. Of this I have a word
+or two to say to the modern "Vicarian." All powers that be are
+unquestionably ordained of God; so that they that resist the Power,
+resist the ordinance of God. Therefore, say some in these offices, We,
+being ordained of God, and having our credentials, and being in the
+English Bible called ambassadors for God, do, in a sort, represent God.
+We are Vicars of Christ, and stand on earth in place of Christ. I have
+heard this said by Protestant clergymen.</p>
+
+<p>209. Now the word ambassador has a peculiar ambiguity about it, owing to
+its use in modern political affairs; and these clergymen assume that the
+word, as used by St. Paul, means an Ambassador Plenipotentiary;
+representative of his King, and capable of acting for his King. What
+right have they to assume that St. Paul meant this? St. Paul never uses
+the word ambassador at all. He says, simply, "We are in embassage from
+Christ; and Christ beseeches you through us." Most true. And let it
+further be granted, that every word that the clergyman speaks is
+literally dictated to him by Christ; that he can make no mistake in
+delivering his mes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>sage; and that, therefore, it is indeed Christ
+Himself who speaks to us the word of life through the messenger's lips.
+Does, therefore, the messenger represent Christ? Does the channel which
+conveys the waters of the Fountain represent the Fountain itself?
+Suppose, when we went to draw water at a cistern, that all at once the
+Leaden Spout should become animated, and open its mouth and say to us,
+See, I am Vicarious for the Fountain. Whatever respect you show to the
+Fountain, show some part of it to me. Should we not answer the Spout,
+and say, Spout, you were set there for our service, and may be taken
+away and thrown aside<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> if anything goes wrong with you? But the
+Fountain will flow forever.</p>
+
+<p>210. Observe, I do not deny a most solemn authority vested in every
+Christian messenger from God to men. I am prepared to grant this to the
+uttermost; and all that George Herbert says, in the end of "The
+Church-porch," I would enforce, at another time than this, to the
+uttermost. But the Authority is simply that of a King's <i>Messenger</i>; not
+of a King's <i>Representative</i>. There is a wide difference; all the
+difference between humble service and blasphemous usurpation.</p>
+
+<p>Well, the congregation might ask, grant him a King's messenger in cases
+of doctrine,&mdash;in cases of discipline, an officer bearing the King's
+Commission. How far are we to obey him? How far is it lawful to dispute
+his commands?</p>
+
+<p>For, in granting, above, that the Messenger always gave his message
+faithfully, I granted too much to my adversaries, in order that their
+argument might have all the weight it possibly could. The Messengers
+rarely deliver their message faithfully; and sometimes have declared, as
+from the King, messages of their own invention. How far are we, knowing
+them for King's messengers, to believe or obey them?</p>
+
+<p>211. Suppose, for instance, in our English army, on the eve of some
+great battle, one of the colonels were to give his order to his
+regiment: "My men, tie your belts over your eyes, throw down your
+muskets, and follow me as steadily as you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> can, through this marsh, into
+the middle of the enemy's line," (this being precisely the order issued
+by our Puseyite Church officers). It might be questioned, in the real
+battle, whether it would be better that a regiment should show an
+example of insubordination, or be cut to pieces. But happily in the
+Church there is no such difficulty; for the King is always with His
+army: not only with His army, but at the right hand of every soldier of
+it. Therefore, if any of their colonels give them a strange command, all
+they have to do is to ask the King; and never yet any Christian asked
+guidance of his King, in any difficulty whatsoever, without mental
+reservation or secret resolution, but he had it forthwith. We conclude
+then, finally, that the authority of the Clergy is, in matters of
+discipline, large (being executive, first, of the written laws of God,
+and secondly, of those determined and agreed upon by the body of the
+Church), in matters of doctrine, dependent on their recommending
+themselves to every man's conscience, both as messengers of God, and as
+themselves men of God, perfect, and instructed to good works.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<p>212. (6) The last subject which we had to investigate was, it will be
+remembered, what is usually called the connection of "Church and State."
+But, by our definition of the term Church, throughout the whole of
+Christendom, the Church (or society of professing Christians) <i>is</i> the
+State, and our subject is therefore, properly speaking, the connection
+of lay and clerical officers of the Church; that is to say, the degrees
+in which the civil and ecclesiastical governments ought to interfere
+with or influence each other.</p>
+
+<p>It would of course be vain to attempt a formal inquiry into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> this
+intricate subject;&mdash;I have only a few detached points to notice
+respecting it.</p>
+
+<p>213. There are three degrees or kinds of civil government. The first and
+lowest, executive merely; the government in this sense being simply the
+National Hand, and composed of individuals who administer the laws of
+the nation, and execute its established purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The second kind of government is deliberative; but in its deliberation,
+representative only of the thoughts and will of the people or nation,
+and liable to be deposed the instant it ceases to express those thoughts
+and that will. This, whatever its form, whether centered in a king or in
+any number of men, is properly to be called Democratic. The third and
+highest kind of government is deliberative, not as representative of the
+people, but as chosen to take separate counsel for them, and having
+power committed to it, to enforce upon them whatever resolution it may
+adopt, whether consistent with their will or not. This government is
+properly to be called Monarchical, whatever its form.</p>
+
+<p>214. I see that politicians and writers of history continually run into
+hopeless error, because they confuse the Form of a Government with its
+Nature. A Government may be nominally vested in an individual; and yet
+if that individual be in such fear of those beneath him, that he does
+nothing but what he supposes will be agreeable to them, the Government
+is Democratic; on the other hand, the Government may be vested in a
+deliberative assembly of a thousand men, all having equal authority, and
+all chosen from the lowest ranks of the people; and yet if that assembly
+act independently of the will of the people, and have no fear of them,
+and enforce its determinations upon them, the Government is Monarchical;
+that is to say, the Assembly, acting as One, has power over the Many,
+while in the case of the weak king, the Many have power over the One.</p>
+
+<p>A Monarchical Government, acting for its own interest, instead of the
+people's, is a tyranny. I said the Executive Government was the hand of
+the nation:&mdash;the Republican<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> Government is in like manner its tongue.
+The Monarchical Government is its head.</p>
+
+<p>All true and right government is Monarchical, and of the head. What is
+its best form, is a totally different question; but unless it act <i>for</i>
+the people, and not as representative of the people, it is no government
+at all; and one of the grossest blockheadisms of the English in the
+present day, is their idea of sending men to Parliament to "represent
+<i>their</i> opinions." Whereas their only true business is to find out the
+wisest men among them, and send them to Parliament to represent their
+<i>own</i> opinions, and act upon them. Of all puppet-shows in the Satanic
+Carnival of the earth, the most contemptible puppet-show is a Parliament
+with a mob pulling the strings.</p>
+
+<p>215. Now, of these three states of Government, it is clear that the
+merely executive can have no proper influence over ecclesiastical
+affairs. But of the other two, the first, being the voice of the people,
+or voice of the Church, must have such influence over the Clergy as is
+properly vested in the body of the Church. The second, which stands in
+the same relation to the people as a father does to his family, will
+have such farther influence over ecclesiastical matters, as a father has
+over the consciences of his adult children. No absolute authority,
+therefore, to enforce their attendance at any particular place of
+worship, or subscription to any particular Creed. But indisputable
+authority to procure for them such religious instruction as he deems
+fittest,<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> and to recommend it to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> them by every means in his power;
+he not only has authority, but is under obligation to do this, as well
+as to establish such disciplines and forms of worship in his house as he
+deems most convenient for his family: with which they are indeed at
+liberty to refuse compliance, if such disciplines appear to them clearly
+opposed to the law of God; but not without most solemn conviction of
+their being so, nor without deep sorrow to be compelled to such a
+course.</p>
+
+<p>216. But it may be said, the Government of a people never does stand to
+them in the relation of a father to his family. If it do not, it is no
+Government. However grossly it may fail in its duty, and however little
+it may be fitted for its place, if it be a Government at all, it has
+paternal office and relation to the people. I find it written on the one
+hand,&mdash;"Honor thy Father; "on the other,&mdash;"Honor the King:" on the one
+hand,&mdash;"Whoso smiteth his Father, shall be put to death;"<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> on the
+other,&mdash;"They that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." Well,
+but, it may be farther argued, the Clergy are in a still more solemn
+sense the Fathers of the People, and the People are their beloved Sons;
+why should not, therefore, the Clergy have the power to govern the civil
+officers?</p>
+
+<p>217. For two very clear reasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In all human institutions certain evils are granted, as of necessity;
+and, in organizing such institutions, we must allow for the consequences
+of such evils, and make arrangements such as may best keep them in
+check. Now, in both the civil and ecclesiastical governments there will
+of necessity be a certain number of bad men. The wicked civilian has
+comparatively little interest in overthrowing ecclesiastical authority;
+it is often a useful help to him, and presents in itself little which
+seems covetable. But the wicked ecclesiastical officer has much interest
+in overthrowing the civilian, and getting the political power into his
+own hands. As far as wicked men are concerned, therefore, it is better
+that the State should have power over the Clergy, than the Clergy over
+the State.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, supposing both the Civil and Ecclesiastical officers to be
+Christians; there is no fear that the civil officer should underrate the
+dignity or shorten the serviceableness of the minister; but there is
+considerable danger that the religious enthusiasm of the minister might
+diminish the serviceableness of the civilian. (The History of Religious
+Enthusiasm should be written by someone who had a life to give to its
+investigation; it is one of the most melancholy pages in human records,
+and one of the most necessary to be studied.) Therefore, as far as good
+men are concerned, it is better the State should have power over the
+Clergy than the Clergy over the State.</p>
+
+<p>218. This we might, it seems to me, conclude by unassisted reason. But
+surely the whole question is, without any need of human reason, decided
+by the history of Israel. If ever a body of Clergy should have received
+independent authority, the Levitical Priesthood should; for they were
+indeed a Priesthood, and more holy than the rest of the nation. But
+Aaron is always subject to Moses. All solemn revelation is made to
+Moses, the civil magistrate, and he actually commands Aaron as to the
+fulfillment of his priestly office, and that in a necessity of life and
+death: "Go, and make an atonement for the people." Nor is anything more
+remarkable throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> whole of the Jewish history than the perfect
+subjection of the Priestly to the Kingly Authority. Thus Solomon thrusts
+out Abiathar from being priest, I Kings ii. 27; and Jehoahaz administers
+the funds of the Lord's House, 2 Kings xii. 4, though that money was
+actually the Atonement Money, the Hansom for Souls (Exod. xxx. 12).</p>
+
+<p>219. We have, however, also the beautiful instance of Samuel uniting in
+himself the offices of Priest, Prophet, and Judge; nor do I insist on
+any special manner of subjection of Clergy to civil officers, or <i>vice
+vers&acirc;</i>; but only on the necessity of their perfect unity and influence
+upon each other in every Christian kingdom. Those who endeavor to effect
+the utter separation of ecclesiastical and civil officers, are striving,
+on the one hand, to expose the Clergy to the most grievous and most
+subtle of temptations from their own spiritual enthusiasm and spiritual
+pride; on the other, to deprive the civil officer of all sense of
+religious responsibility, and to introduce the fearful, godless,
+conscienceless, and soulless policy of the Radical and the (so-called)
+Socialist. Whereas, the ideal of all government is the perfect unity of
+the two bodies of officers, each supporting and correcting the other;
+the Clergy having due weight in all the national councils; the civil
+officers having a solemn reverence for God in all their acts; the Clergy
+hallowing all worldly policy by their influence; and the magistracy
+repressing all religious enthusiasm by their practical wisdom. To
+separate the two is to endeavor to separate the daily life of the nation
+from God, and to map out the dominion of the soul into two
+provinces&mdash;one of Atheism, the other of Enthusiasm. These, then, were
+the reasons which caused me to speak of the idea of separation of Church
+and State as Fatuity; for what Fatuity can be so great as the not having
+God in our thoughts; and, in any act or office of life, saying in our
+hearts, "There is no God"?</p>
+
+<p>220. Much more I would fain say of these things, but not now: this only
+I must emphatically assert, in conclusion:&mdash;That the schism between the
+so-called Evangelical and High Church Parties in Britain, is enough to
+shake many men's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> faith in the truth or existence of Religion at all. It
+seems to me one of the most disgraceful scenes in Ecclesiastical
+history, that Protestantism should be paralyzed at its very heart by
+jealousies, based on little else than mere difference between high and
+low breeding. For the essential differences in the religious opinions of
+the two parties are sufficiently marked in two men whom we may take as
+the highest representatives of each&mdash;George Herbert and John Milton; and
+I do not think there would have been much difficulty in atoning those
+two, if one could have got them together. But the real difficulty,
+nowadays, lies in the sin and folly of both parties; in the
+superciliousness of the one, and the rudeness of the other. Evidently,
+however, the sin lies most at the High Church door, for the Evangelicals
+are much more ready to act with Churchmen than they with the
+Evangelicals; and I believe that this state of things cannot continue
+much longer; and that if the Church of England does not forthwith unite
+with herself the entire Evangelical body, both of England and Scotland,
+and take her stand with them against the Papacy, her hour has struck.
+She cannot any longer serve two masters; nor make courtesies alternately
+to Christ and Antichrist. That she <i>has</i> done this is visible enough by
+the state of Europe at this instant. Three centuries since Luther&mdash;three
+hundred years of Protestant knowledge&mdash;and the Papacy not yet
+overthrown! Christ's truth still restrained, in narrow dawn, to the
+white cliffs of England and white crests of the Alps;&mdash;the morning star
+paused in its course in heaven;&mdash;the sun and moon stayed, with Satan
+for their Joshua.</p>
+
+<p>221. But how to unite the two great sects of paralyzed Protestants? By
+keeping simply to Scripture. The members of the Scottish Church have not
+a shadow of excuse for refusing Episcopacy; it has indeed been abused
+among them, grievously abused; but it is in the Bible; and that is all
+they have a right to ask.</p>
+
+<p>They have also no shadow of excuse for refusing to employ a written form
+of prayer. It may not be to their taste&mdash;it may not be the way in which
+they like to pray; but it is no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> question, at present, of likes or
+dislikes, but of duties; and the acceptance of such a form on their part
+would go half-way to reconcile them with their brethren. Let them allege
+such objections as they can reasonably advance against the English form,
+and let these be carefully and humbly weighed by the pastors of both
+churches: some of them ought to be at once forestalled. For the English
+Church, on the other hand, <i>must</i> cut the term Priest entirely out of
+her Prayer-book, and substitute for it that of Minister or Elder; the
+passages respecting Absolution must be thrown out also, except the
+doubtful one in the Morning Service, in which there is no harm; and then
+there would be only the Baptismal question left, which is one of words
+rather than of things, and might easily be settled in Synod, turning the
+refractory Clergy out of their offices, to go to Rome if they chose.
+Then, when the Articles of Faith and form of worship had been agreed
+upon between the English and Scottish Churches, the written forms and
+articles should be carefully translated into the European languages, and
+offered to the acceptance of the Protestant churches on the Continent,
+with earnest entreaty that they would receive them, and due
+entertainment of all such objections as they could reasonably allege;
+and thus the whole body of Protestants, united in one great Fold, would
+indeed go in and out, and find pasture; and the work appointed for them
+would be done quickly, and Antichrist overthrown.</p>
+
+<p>222. Impossible: a thousand times impossible!&mdash;I hear it exclaimed
+against me. No&mdash;not impossible. Christ does not order impossibilities,
+and He <i>has</i> ordered us to be at peace one with another. Nay, it is
+answered&mdash;He came not to send peace, but a sword. Yes, verily: to send a
+sword upon earth, but not within His Church; for to His Church He said,
+"My Peace I leave with you."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> I may, perhaps, have missed count of one or two
+occurrences of the word; but not, I think, in any important passages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> The expression "House of God," in 1 Tim. iii. 15, is
+shown to be used of the congregation by 1 Cor. iii. 16, 17.
+</p><p>
+I have not noticed the word &#954;&#965;&#961;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#7969; (oikia)] from which the
+German "Kirche," the English "Church," and the Scotch "Kirk" are
+derived, as it is not used with that signification in the New
+Testament.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Any reference <i>except</i> to Scripture, in notes of this
+kind would, of course, be useless: the argument from, or with, the
+Fathers is not to be compressed into fifty pages. I have something to
+say about Hooker; but I reserve that for another time, not wishing to
+say it hastily, or to leave it without support.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Acts x. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> Let not the reader be displeased with me for these short
+and apparently insolent statements of opinion. I am not writing
+insolently, but as shortly and clearly as I can; and when I seriously
+believe a thing, I say so in a few words, leaving the reader to
+determine what my belief is worth. But I do not choose to temper down
+every expression of personal opinion into courteous generalities, and so
+lose space, and time, and intelligibility at once. We are utterly
+oppressed in these days by our courtesies, and considerations, and
+compliances, and proprieties. Forgive me them, this once, or rather let
+us all forgive them to each other, and learn to speak plainly first,
+and, if it may be, gracefully afterwards; and not only to speak, but to
+stand by what we have spoken. One of my Oxford friends heard, the other
+day, that I was employed on these notes, and forthwith wrote to me, in a
+panic, not to put my name to them, for fear I should "compromise
+myself." I think we are most of us compromised to some extent already,
+when England has sent a Roman Catholic minister to the second city in
+Italy, and remains herself for a week without any government, because
+her chief men cannot agree upon the position which a Popish cardinal is
+to have leave to occupy in London.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Matt. xxiv. 4; Mark xiii. 5; Luke xxi. 8; 1 Cor. iii. 18,
+vi. 9, xv. 33; Eph. iv. 14, v. 6; Col. ii. 8; 2 Thess. ii. 3; Heb. iii.
+13; 1 John i. 8, iii. 7; 2 John 7, 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> &#949;&#958;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#7985;&#945; in 1 Cor. ix. 12. 2 Thess, iii. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> (Carlyle, "Past and Present," chapter xi.) Can anything
+be more striking than the repeated warnings of St. Paul against strife
+of words; and his distinct setting forth of Action as the only true
+means of attaining knowledge of the truth, and the only sign of men's
+possessing the true faith? Compare 1 Timothy vi. 4, 20, (the latter
+verse especially, in connection with the previous three,) and 2 Timothy
+ii. 14, 19, 22, 23, tracing the connection here also; add Titus i. 10,
+14, 16, noting "<i>in works</i> they deny him," and Titus iii. 8, 9, "affirm
+constantly that they be careful to maintain good works; but avoid
+foolish questions;" and finally, 1 Timothy i. 4-7: a passage which seems
+to have been especially written for these times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> I leave, in the main text, the abstract question of the
+fitness of Episcopacy unapproached, not feeling any call to speak of it
+at length at present; all that I feel necessary to be said is, that
+bishops being granted, it is clear that we have too few to do their
+work. But the argument from the practice of the Primitive Church appears
+to me to be of enormous weight,&mdash;nor have I ever heard any rational
+plea alleged against Episcopacy, except that, like other things, it is
+capable of abuse, and has sometimes been abused; and as, altogether
+clearly and indisputably, there is described in the Bible an episcopal
+office, distinct from the merely ministerial one; and, apparently, also
+an episcopal officer attached to each church, and distinguished in the
+Revelation as an Angel, I hold the resistance of the Scotch Presbyterian
+Church to Episcopacy to be unscriptural, futile, and schismatic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> "By just judgment be deposed," Art. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The difference between the authority of doctrine and
+discipline is beautifully marked in 2 Timothy ii. 25, and Titus ii.
+12-15. In the first passage, the servant of God, teaching divine
+doctrine, must not strive, but must "in <i>meekness</i> instruct those that
+oppose themselves;" in the second passage, teaching us "that denying
+ungodliness and worldly lusts he <i>is to live soberly, righteously, and
+godly</i> in this <i>present world</i>," the minister is to speak, exhort, and
+rebuke with ALL AUTHORITY&mdash;both functions being expressed as united in 2
+Timothy iv. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Observe, this and the following conclusions depend
+entirely on the supposition that the Government is part of the Body of
+the Church, and that some pains have been taken to compose it of
+religious and wise men. If we choose, knowingly and deliberately, to
+compose our Parliament, in great part, of infidels and Papists, gamblers
+and debtors, we may well regret its power over the Clerical officer; but
+that we should, at any time, so compose our Parliament, is a sign that
+the Clergy themselves have failed in their duty, and the Church in its
+watchfulness;&mdash;thus the evil accumulates in reaction. Whatever I say of
+the responsibility or authority of Government, is therefore to be
+understood only as sequent on what I have said previously of the
+necessity of closely circumscribing the Church, and then composing the
+Civil Government out of the circumscribed Body. Thus, all Papists would
+at once be rendered incapable of share in it being subjected to the
+second or most severe degree of excommunication&mdash;first, as idolaters, by
+1 Cor. v. 10; then as covetous and extortioners (selling absolution,) by
+the same text; and, finally, as heretics and maintainers of falsehoods,
+by Titus iii. 10, and 1 Tim. iv. 1.
+</p><p>
+I do not write this hastily, nor without earnest consideration both, of
+the difficulty and the consequences of such Church Discipline. But
+either the Bible is a superannuated book, and is only to be read as a
+record of past days; or these things follow from it, clearly and
+inevitably. That we live in days when the Bible has become
+impracticable, is (if it be so) the very thing I desire to be
+considered. I am not setting down these plans or schemes as at present
+possible. I do not know how far they are possible; but it seems to me
+that God has plainly commanded them, and that, therefore, their
+impracticability is a thing to be meditated on.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Exod. xxi. 15.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_LORDS_PRAYER_AND_THE_CHURCH153" id="THE_LORDS_PRAYER_AND_THE_CHURCH153"></a>THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></h2>
+
+<h3>LETTERS.</h3>
+
+
+<h3>I.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></h3>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Brantwood, Coniston, Lancashire,</span></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>20th June, 1879</i>.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>223. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;I could not at once answer your
+important letter; for, though I felt at once the impossibility of my
+venturing to address such an audience as you proposed, I am unwilling to
+fail in answering to any call relating to matters respecting which my
+feelings have been long in earnest, if in any wise it may be possible
+for me to be of service therein. My health&mdash;or want of it&mdash;now utterly
+forbids my engagement in any duty involving excitement or acute
+intellectual effort; but I think, before the first Tuesday in August, I
+might be able to write one or two letters to your<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>self, referring to,
+and more or less completing, some passages already printed in <i>Fors</i> and
+elsewhere, which might, on your reading any portions you thought
+available, become matter of discussion during the meeting at some
+leisure time, after its own main purposes had been answered.</p>
+
+<p>At all events, I will think over what I should like, and be able, to
+represent to such a meeting, and only beg you not to think me insensible
+of the honor done me by your wish, and of the gravity of the trust
+reposed in me.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever most faithfully yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin.</span>
+</p>
+<p>The Rev. F. A. Malleson.
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Brantwood, Coniston</span>, <i>23rd June, 1879</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>224. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;Walking, and talking, are now alike
+impossible to me;<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> my strength is gone for both; nor do I believe
+talking on such matters to be of the least use except to promote,
+between sensible people, kindly feeling and knowledge of each other's
+personal characters. I have every trust in <i>your</i> kindness and truth;
+nor do I fear being myself misunderstood by you; what I may be able to
+put into written form, so as to admit of being laid before your friends
+in council, must be set down without any question of personal
+feeling&mdash;as simply as a mathematical question or demonstration.</p>
+
+<p>225. The first exact question which it seems to me such an assembly may
+be earnestly called upon by laymen to solve, is surely axiomatic: the
+definition of themselves as a body, and of their business as such.</p>
+
+<p>Namely: as clergymen of the Church of England, do they consider
+themselves to be so called merely as the attached servants of a
+particular state? Do they, in their quality of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> guides, hold a position
+similar to that of the guides of Chamouni or Grindelwald, who, being a
+numbered body of examined and trustworthy persons belonging to those
+several villages, have nevertheless no Chamounist or Grindelwaldist
+opinions on the subject of Alpine geography or glacier walking; but are
+prepared to put into practice a common and universal science of Locality
+and Athletics, founded on sure survey and successful practice? Are the
+clergymen of the Ecclesia of England thus simply the attached and
+salaried guides of England and the English, in the way, known of all
+good men, that leadeth unto life?&mdash;or are they, on the contrary, a body
+of men holding, or in any legal manner required, or compelled to hold,
+opinions on the subject&mdash;say, of the height of the Celestial Mountains,
+the crevasses which go down quickest to the pit, and other cognate
+points of science&mdash;differing from, or even contrary to, the tenets of
+the guides of the Church of France, the Church of Italy, and other
+Christian countries?</p>
+
+<p>Is not this the first of all questions which a Clerical Council has to
+answer in open terms?</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever affectionately yours<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>6th July.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>226. My first letter contained a Layman's plea for a clear answer to the
+question, "What is a clergyman of the Church of England?" Supposing the
+answer to this first to be, that the clergy of the Church of England are
+teachers, not of the Gospel to England, but of the Gospel to all
+nations; and not of the Gospel of Luther, nor of the Gospel of
+Augustine, but of the Gospel of Christ,&mdash;then the Layman's second
+question would be:</p>
+
+<p>Can this Gospel of Christ be put into such plain words and short terms
+as that a plain man may understand it?&mdash;and, if so, would it not be, in
+a quite primal sense, desirable that it should be so, rather than left
+to be gathered out of Thirty-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>nine Articles, written by no means in
+clear English, and referring, for further explanation of exactly the
+most important point in the whole tenor of their teaching,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> to a
+"Homily of Justification,"<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> which is not generally in the
+possession, or even probably within the comprehension, of simple
+persons?</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever faithfully yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>8th July.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>227. I am so very glad that you approve of the letter plan, as it
+enables me to build up what I would fain try to say, of little stones,
+without lifting too much for my strength at once; and the sense of
+addressing a friend who understands me and sympathizes with me prevents
+my being brought to a stand by continual need for apology, or fear of
+giving offense.</p>
+
+<p>But yet I do not quite see why you should feel my asking for a simple
+and comprehensible statement of the Christian Gospel at starting. Are
+you not bid to go into <i>all</i> the world and preach it to every creature?
+(I should myself think the clergyman most likely to do good who accepted
+the &#960;&#7937;&#963;&#951; &#964;&#951; &#954;&#964;&#7985;&#963;&#949;&#953; so literally as at least to sympathize with
+St. Francis' sermon to the birds, and to feel that feeding either sheep
+or fowls, or unmuzzling the ox, or keeping the wrens alive in the snow,
+would be received by their Heavenly Feeder as the <i>perfect</i> fulfillment
+of His "Feed my sheep" in the higher sense.)<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+<p>228. That's all a parenthesis; for although I should think that your
+good company would all agree that kindness to animals was a kind of
+preaching to them, and that hunting and vivisection were a kind of
+blasphemy to them, I want only to put the sterner question before your
+council, <i>how</i> this Gospel is to be preached either &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#967;&#959;&#8017;"
+or to "&#960;&#7937;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#964;&#7937; &#954;&#964;&#7985;&#963;&#949;&#953; if first its preachers have not
+determined quite clearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> what it <i>is</i>? And might not such definition,
+acceptable to the entire body of the Church of Christ, be arrived at by
+merely explaining, in their completeness and life, the terms of the
+Lord's Prayer&mdash;the first words taught to children all over the Christian
+world?</p>
+
+<p>I will try to explain what I mean of its several articles, in following
+letters; and in answer to the question with which you close your last, I
+can only say that you are at perfect liberty to use any, or all, or any
+parts of them, as you think good. Usually, when I am asked if letters of
+mine may be printed, I say: "Assuredly, provided only that you print them
+entire." But in your hands, I withdraw even this condition, and trust
+gladly to your judgment, remaining always</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Faithfully and affectionately yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin.</span></p>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">The Rev. F. A. Malleson.</span></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>V.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#960;&#7937;&#964;&#949;&#961; &#7969;&#956;&#969;&#957; &#959; &#949;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#7985;&#962; &#959;&#965;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#8001;&#953;&#962;<br />
+<br />
+<i>Pater noster qui es in c&aelig;lis</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>10th July</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>229. My meaning, in saying that the Lord's Prayer might be made a
+foundation of Gospel-teaching, was not that it contained all that
+Christian ministers have to teach; but that it contains what all
+Christians are agreed upon as first to be taught; and that no good
+parish-working pastor in any district of the world but would be glad to
+take his part in making it clear and living to his congregation.</p>
+
+<p>And the first clause of it, of course rightly explained, gives us the
+ground of what is surely a mighty part of the Gospel&mdash;its "first and
+great commandment," namely, that we have a Father whom we <i>can</i> love,
+and are required to love, and to desire to be with Him in Heaven,
+wherever that may be.</p>
+
+<p>And to declare that we have such a loving Father, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> mercy is over
+<i>all</i> His works, and whose will and law is so lovely and lovable that it
+is sweeter than honey, and more precious than gold, to those who can
+"taste" and "see" that the Lord is Good&mdash;this, surely, is a most
+pleasant and glorious good message and <i>spell</i> to bring to men&mdash;as
+distinguished from the evil message and accursed spell that Satan has
+brought to the nations of the world instead of it, that they have no
+Father, but only "a consuming fire" ready to devour them, unless they
+are delivered from its raging flame by some scheme of pardon for all,
+for which they are to be thankful, not to the Father, but to the Son.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing this first article of the true Gospel agreed to, how would the
+blessing that closes the epistles of that Gospel become intelligible and
+living, instead of dark and dead: "The grace of Christ, and the <i>love</i>
+of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost,"&mdash;the most <i>tender</i> word
+being that used of the Father?</p>
+
+
+<h3>VI.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#945;&#947;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#952;&#7969;&#964;&#969; &#964;&#8001; &#959;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#7937; &#963;&#959;&#965;<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sanctificetur nomen tuum</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>12th July, 1879</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>230. I wonder how many, even of those who honestly and attentively join
+in our Church services, attach any distinct idea to the second clause of
+the Lord's Prayer, the <i>first petition</i> of it, the first thing that they
+are ordered by Christ to seek of their Father?</p>
+
+<p>Am I unjust in thinking that most of them have little more notion on the
+matter than that God has forbidden "bad language," and wishes them to
+pray that everybody may be respectful to Him?</p>
+
+<p>Is it any otherwise with the Third Commandment? Do not most look on it
+merely in the light of the statute of swearing? and read the words "will
+not hold him guiltless" merely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> as a passionless intimation that however
+carelessly a man may let out a round oath, there really <i>is</i> something
+wrong in it?</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, can anything be more tremendous than the words
+themselves&mdash;double-negatived:</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#959;&#965; &#947;&#7937;&#961; &#956;&#7969; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#7985;&#963;&#951;
+</p>
+
+<p>For <i>other</i> sins there is washing;&mdash;for this, none! the seventh verse,
+Ex. xx., in the Septuagint, marking the real power rather than the
+English, which (I suppose) is literal to the Hebrew.</p>
+
+<p>To my layman's mind, of practical needs in the present state of the
+Church, nothing is so immediate as that of explaining to the
+congregation the meaning of being gathered in His name, and having Him
+in the midst of them; as, on the other hand, of being gathered in
+blasphemy of His name, and having the devil in the midst of
+them&mdash;presiding over the prayers which have become an abomination.</p>
+
+<p>231. For the entire body of the texts in the Gospel against hypocrisy
+are one and all nothing but the expansion of the threatening that closes
+the Third Commandment. For as "the name whereby He shall be called is
+<span class="smcap">the Lord our Righteousness</span>,"&mdash;so the taking that name in vain
+is the sum of "the deceivableness of <i>un</i>righteousness in them that
+perish."</p>
+
+<p>Without dwelling on the possibility&mdash;which I do not myself, however, for
+a moment doubt&mdash;of an honest clergyman's being able actually to prevent
+the entrance among his congregation of persons leading openly wicked
+lives, could any subject be more vital to the purposes of your meetings
+than the difference between the present and the probable state of the
+Christian Church which would result, were it more the effort of zealous
+parish priests, instead of getting wicked <i>poor</i> people to <i>come</i> to
+church, to get wicked rich ones to stay out of it?</p>
+
+<p>Lest, in any discussion of such question, it might be, as it too often
+is, alleged that "the Lord looketh upon the heart," etc., let me be
+permitted to say&mdash;with as much positiveness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> as may express my deepest
+conviction&mdash;that, while indeed it is the Lord's business to look upon
+the heart, it is the pastor's to look upon the hands and the lips; and
+that the foulest oaths of the thief and the street-walker are, in the
+ears of God, sinless as the hawk's cry, or the gnat's murmur, compared
+to the responses in the Church service, on the lips of the usurer and
+the adulterer, who have destroyed, not their own souls only, but those
+of the outcast ones whom they have made their victims.</p>
+
+<p>It is for the meeting of clergymen themselves&mdash;not for a layman
+addressing them&mdash;to ask further, how much the name of God may be taken
+in vain, and profaned instead of hallowed&mdash;<i>in</i> the pulpit, as well as
+under it.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever affectionately yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>VII</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#949;&#955;&#952;&#7953;&#964;&#969; &#951; &#914;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#7985;&#945; &#963;&#959;&#965;<br />
+<br />
+<i>Adveniat regnum tuum.</i></p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>14th July, 1879</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>232. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;Sincere thanks for both your letters
+and the proofs<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> sent. Your comment and conducting link, when needed,
+will be of the greatest help and value, I am well assured, suggesting
+what you know will be the probable feeling of your hearers, and the
+point that will come into question.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, certainly, that "His" in the fourth line was meant to imply that
+eternal presence of Christ; as in another passage,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> referring to
+the Creation, "when His right hand strewed the snow on Lebanon, and
+smoothed the slopes of Calvary," but in so far as we dwell on that
+truth, "Hast thou seen <i>Me</i>, Philip, and not the Father?"<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> we are
+not teaching the people what is specially the Gospel of <i>Christ</i> as
+having a distinct function&mdash;namely, to <i>serve</i> the Father, and do the
+Father's will. And in all His human relations to us, and commands to us,
+it is as the Son of Man, not as the "power of God and wisdom of God,"
+that He acts and speaks. Not as the Power; for <i>He</i> must pray, like one
+of us. Not as the Wisdom; for He must not know "if it be possible" His
+prayer should be heard.</p>
+
+<p>233. And in what I want to say of the third clause of His prayer (<i>His</i>,
+not merely as His ordering, but His using), it is especially this
+comparison between <i>His</i> kingdom, and His Father's, that I want to see
+the disciples guarded against. I believe very few, even of the most
+earnest, using that petition, realize that it is the Father's&mdash;not the
+Son's&mdash;kingdom,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> that they pray may come,&mdash;although the whole prayer is
+foundational on that fact: "<i>For</i> Thine is the kingdom, the power, and
+the glory." And I fancy that the mind of the most faithful Christian is
+quite led away from its proper hope, by dwelling on the reign&mdash;or the
+coming again&mdash;of Christ; which, indeed, they are to look for, and
+<i>watch</i> for, but not to pray for. Their prayer is to be for the greater
+kingdom to which He, risen and having all His enemies under His feet, is
+to surrender <i>His</i>, "that God may be All in All."</p>
+
+<p>And, though the greatest, it is that everlasting kingdom which the
+poorest of us can advance. We cannot hasten Christ's coming. "Of the day
+and hour, knoweth none." But the kingdom of God is as a grain of mustard
+seed:&mdash;we can sow of it; it is as a foam-globe of leaven:&mdash;we can mingle
+it; and its glory and its joy are that even the birds of the air can
+lodge in the branches thereof.</p>
+
+<p>Forgive me for getting back to my sparrows; but truly, in the present
+state of England, the fowls of the air are the only creatures, tormented
+and murdered as they are, that yet have here and there nests, and peace,
+and joy in the Holy Ghost. And it would be well if many of us, in
+reading that text, "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink," had even
+got so far as to the understanding that it was at least <i>as much</i>, and
+that until we had fed the hungry, there was no power in us to inspire
+the unhappy.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever affectionately yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>I will write my feeling about the pieces of the Life of Christ you have
+sent me, in a private letter. I may say at once that I am sure it will
+do much good, and will be upright and intelligible, which how few
+religious writings are!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#947;&#949;&#957;&#951;&#952;&#7969;&#964;&#969; &#964;&#959; &#952;&#7953;&#955;&#951;&#956;&#7937; &#963;&#959;&#965; &#969;&#962; &#949;&#957; &#959;&#965;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#8033;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#949;&#960;&#7985; &#947;&#7969;&#962;.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Fiat voluntas tua sicut in caelo et in terra.</i></p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>9th August</i>, 1879.
+</p>
+
+<p>234. I was reading the second chapter of Malachi this morning by chance,
+and wondering how many clergymen ever read it, and took to heart the
+"commandment for <i>them</i>."</p>
+
+<p>For they are always ready enough to call themselves priests (though they
+know themselves to be nothing of the sort) whenever there is any dignity
+to be got out of the title; but, whenever there is any good, hot
+scolding or unpleasant advice given them by the prophets, in that
+self-assumed character of theirs, they are as ready to quit it as ever
+Dionysus his lion-skin, when he finds the character of Herakles
+inconvenient. "Ye have wearied the Lord with your words" (yes, and some
+of His people, too, in your time): "yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied
+Him? When ye say, Everyone that doeth evil is good in the sight of the
+Lord, and He delighteth in them; or, Where is the God of judgment?"</p>
+
+<p>How many, again and again I wonder, of the lively young ecclesiastics
+supplied to the increasing demand of our west-ends of flourishing Cities
+of the Plain, ever consider what sort of sin it is for which God (unless
+they lay it to heart) will "curse their blessings, and spread dung upon
+their faces," or have understood, even in the dimmest manner, what part
+<i>they</i> had taken, and were taking, in "corrupting the covenant of the
+Lord with Levi, and causing many to stumble at the Law"?</p>
+
+<p>235. Perhaps the most subtle and unconscious way which the religious
+teachers upon whom the ends of the world are come, have done this, is in
+never telling their people the meaning of the clause in the Lord's
+Prayer, which, of all others, their most earnest hearers have oftenest
+on their lips: "Thy will be done." They allow their people to use it as
+if their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> Father's will were always to kill their babies, or do
+something unpleasant to them, instead of explaining to them that the
+first and intensest article of their Father's will was their own
+sanctification, and following comfort and wealth; and that the one only
+path to national prosperity and to domestic peace was to understand what
+the will of the Lord was, and to do all they could to get it done.
+Whereas one would think, by the tone of the eagerest preachers nowadays,
+that they held their blessed office to be that, not of showing men how
+to do their Father's will on earth, but how to get to heaven without
+doing any of it either here or there!</p>
+
+<p>236. I say, especially, the most eager preachers; for nearly the whole
+Missionary body (with the hottest Evangelistic sect of the English
+Church) is at this moment composed of men who think the Gospel they are
+to carry to mend the world with, forsooth, is that, "If any man sin, he
+hath an Advocate with the Father;" while I have never yet, in my own
+experience, met either with a Missionary or a Town Bishop who so much as
+professed himself "to understand what the will of the Lord" was, far
+less to teach anybody else to do it; and for fifty preachers, yes, and
+fifty hundreds whom I have heard proclaiming the Mediator of the New
+Testament, that "they which were called might receive the promise of
+eternal inheritance," I have never yet heard so much as <i>one</i> heartily
+proclaiming against all those "deceivers with vain words" (Eph. v. 6),
+that "no covetous person which is an idolater hath <i>any</i> inheritance in
+the kingdom of Christ, or of God;" and on myself personally and publicly
+challenging the Bishops of England generally, and by name the Bishop of
+Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was not, according to the will
+of God, I have received no answer from any one of them.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+<p class="author"><i>13th August.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>237. I have allowed myself, in the beginning of this letter, to dwell on
+the equivocal use of the word "Priest" in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> English Church (see
+Christopher Harvey, Grosart's edition, p. 38), because the assumption of
+the mediatorial, in defect of the pastoral, office by the clergy fulfill
+itself, naturally and always, in their pretending to absolve the sinner
+from his punishment, instead of purging him from his sin; and
+practically, in their general patronage and encouragement of all the
+iniquity of the world, by steadily preaching away the penalties of it.
+So that the great cities of the earth, which ought to be the places set
+on its hills, with the temple of the Lord in the midst of them, to which
+the tribes should go up,<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>&mdash;centers to the Kingdoms and Provinces of
+Honor, Virtue, and the Knowledge of the law of God,&mdash;have become,
+instead, loathsome centers of fornication and covetousness&mdash;the smoke of
+their sin going up into the face of Heaven like the furnace of Sodom,
+and the pollution of it rotting and raging through the bones and the
+souls of the peasant people round them, as if they were each a volcano
+whose ashes broke out in blains upon man and upon beast.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+<p>And in the midst of them, their freshly-set-tip steeples ring the crowd
+to a weekly prayer that the rest of their lives may be pure and holy,
+while they have not the slightest intention of purifying, sanctifying,
+or changing their lives in any the smallest particular; and their clergy
+gather, each into himself, the curious dual power, and Janus-faced
+majesty in mischief, of the prophet that prophesies falsely, and the
+priest that bears rule by his means.</p>
+
+<p>And the people love to have it so.</p>
+
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>12th August</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>I am very glad of your little note from Brighton. I thought it needless
+to send the two letters there, which you will find at home; and they
+pretty nearly end all <i>I</i> want to say; for the remaining clauses of the
+prayer touch on things<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> too high for me. But I will send you one
+concluding letter about them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IX.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#964;&#959;&#957; &#945;&#961;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#951;&#956;&#8033;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#960;&#953;&#959;&#8017;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#948;&#959;&#962; &#951;&#956;&#7985;&#957; &#963;&#7969;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie.</i></p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>19th August</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>238. I retained the foregoing letter by me till now, lest you should
+think it written in any haste or petulance; but it is every word of it
+deliberate, though expressing the bitterness of twenty years of vain
+sorrow and pleading concerning these things. Nor am I able to write,
+otherwise, anything of the next following clause of the prayer;&mdash;for no
+words could be burning enough to tell the evils which have come on the
+world from men's using it thoughtlessly and blasphemously, praying God
+to give them what they are deliberately resolved to steal. For all true
+Christianity is known&mdash;as its Master was&mdash;in breaking of bread, and all
+false Christianity in stealing it.</p>
+
+<p>Let the clergyman only apply&mdash;with impartial and level sweep&mdash;to his
+congregation the great pastoral order: "The man that will not work,
+neither should he eat;" and be resolute in requiring each member of his
+flock to tell him <i>what</i>&mdash;day by day&mdash;they do to earn their
+dinners;&mdash;and he will find an entirely new view of life and its
+sacraments open upon him and them.</p>
+
+<p>239. For the man who is not&mdash;day by day&mdash;doing work which will earn his
+dinner, must be stealing his dinner;<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> and the actual fact is that
+the great mass of men, calling themselves Christians, do actually live
+by robbing the poor of their bread, and by no other trade whatsoever:
+and the simple examination of the mode of the produce and consumption of
+European food&mdash;who digs for it, and who eats it&mdash;will prove that to any
+honest human soul.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nor is it possible for any Christian Church to exist but in pollutions
+and hypocrisies beyond all words, until the virtues of a life moderate
+in its self-indulgence, and wide in its offices of temporal ministry to
+the poor, are insisted on as the normal conditions in which, only, the
+prayer to God for the harvest of the earth is other than blasphemy.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place. Since in the parable in Luke, the bread asked for
+is shown to be also, and chiefly, the Holy Spirit (Luke xi. 13), and the
+prayer, "Give us each day our daily bread," is, in its fullness, the
+disciples', "Lord, evermore give us <i>this</i> bread,"&mdash;the clergyman's
+question to his whole flock, primarily literal: "Children, have ye here
+any meat?" must ultimately be always the greater spiritual one:
+"Children, have ye here any Holy Spirit?" or, "Have ye not heard yet
+whether there <i>be</i> any? and, instead of a Holy Ghost the Lord and Giver
+of Life, do you only believe in an unholy mammon, Lord and Giver of
+Death?"</p>
+
+<p>The opposition between the two Lords has been, and will be as long as
+the world lasts, absolute, irreconcilable, mortal; and the clergyman's
+first message to his people of this day is&mdash;if he be faithful&mdash;"Choose
+ye this day whom ye will serve."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever faithfully yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 4em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>X.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+&#954;&#945;&#953; &#945;&#966;&#949;&#962; &#951;&#956;&#953;&#957; &#964;&#945; &#959;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#955;&#7969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#951;&#956;&#969;&#957; &#969;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#953; &#951;&#956;&#953;&#7953;&#962;
+&#945;&#966;&#7985;&#949;&#956;&#949;&#957; &#964;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#959;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#955;&#7953;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#962; &#951;&#956;&#969;&#957;<br />
+<br />
+<i>Et dimitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>3rd September</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>240. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;I have been very long before trying to
+say so much as a word about the sixth clause of the Pater; for whenever
+I began thinking of it, I was stopped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> by the sorrowful sense of the
+hopeless task you poor clergymen had, nowadays, in recommending and
+teaching people to love their enemies, when their whole energies were
+already devoted to swindling their friends.</p>
+
+<p>But, in any days, past or now, the clause is one of such difficulty,
+that, to understand it, means almost to know the love of God which
+passeth knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>But, at all events, it is surely the pastor's duty to prevent his flock
+from <i>mis</i>understanding it; and above all things to keep them from
+supposing that God's forgiveness is to be had simply for the asking, by
+those who "willfully sin after they have received the knowledge of the
+truth."</p>
+
+<p>241. There is one very simple lesson also, needed especially by people
+in circumstances of happy life, which I have never heard fully enforced
+from the pulpit, and which is usually the more lost sight of, because
+the fine and inaccurate word "trespasses" is so often used instead of
+the single and accurate one "debts." Among people well educated and
+happily circumstanced it may easily chance that long periods of their
+lives pass without any such conscious sin as could, on any discovery or
+memory of it, make them cry out, in truth and in pain,&mdash;"I have sinned
+against the Lord." But scarcely an hour of their happy days can pass
+over them without leaving&mdash;were their hearts open&mdash;some evidence written
+there that they have "left undone the things that they ought to have
+done," and giving them bitterer and heavier cause to cry, and cry
+again&mdash;forever, in the pure words of their Master's prayer, "Dimitte
+nobis <i>debita</i> nostra."</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the more accurate translation of "debts" rather than
+"trespasses,"<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> it would surely be well to keep constantly in the
+mind of complacent and inoffensive congregations that in Christ's own
+prophecy of the manner of the last judgment, the condemnation is
+pronounced only on the sins of omission: "I was hungry, and ye gave Me
+no meat."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>242. But, whatever the manner of sin, by offense or defect, which the
+preacher fears in his people, surely he has of late been wholly remiss
+in compelling their definite recognition of it, in its several and
+personal particulars. Nothing in the various inconsistency of human
+nature is more grotesque than its willingness to be taxed with any
+quantity of sins in the gross, and its resentment at the insinuation of
+having committed the smallest parcel of them in detail. And the English
+Liturgy, evidently drawn up with the amiable intention of making
+religion as pleasant as possible, to a people desirous of saving their
+souls with no great degree of personal inconvenience, is perhaps in no
+point more unwholesomely lenient than in its concession to the popular
+conviction that we may obtain the present advantage, and escape the
+future punishment, of any sort of iniquity, by dexterously concealing
+the manner of it from man, and triumphantly confessing the quantity of
+it to God.</p>
+
+<p>243. Finally, whatever the advantages and decencies of a form of prayer,
+and how wide soever the scope given to its collected passages, it cannot
+be at one and the same time fitted for the use of a body of well-taught
+and experienced Christians, such as should join the services of a Church
+nineteen centuries old,&mdash;and adapted to the needs of the timid sinner
+who has that day first entered its porch, or of the remorseful publican
+who has only recently become sensible of his call to a pew.</p>
+
+<p>And surely our clergy need not be surprised at the daily increasing
+distrust in the public mind of the efficacy of Prayer, after having so
+long insisted on their offering supplication, <i>at least</i> every Sunday
+morning at eleven o'clock, that the rest of their lives hereafter might
+be pure and holy, leaving them conscious all the while that they would
+be similarly required to inform the Lord next week, at the same hour,
+that "there was no health in them!"</p>
+
+<p>Among, the much-rebuked follies and abuses of so-called "Ritualism,"
+none that I have heard of are indeed so dangerously and darkly "Ritual"
+as this piece of authorized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> mockery of the most solemn act of human
+life, and only entrance of eternal life&mdash;Repentance.</p>
+
+<p>Believe me, dear Mr. Malleson,</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever faithfully and respectfully yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">&#954;&#945;&#953; &#956;&#951; &#949;&#953;&#963;&#949;&#957;&#7953;&#947;&#954;&#951;&#962; &#951;&#956;&#945;&#962; &#949;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#8001;&#957;, &#945;&#955;&#955;&#7937; &#961;&#965;&#963;&#945;&#953; &#951;&#956;&#945;&#962; &#945;&#960;&#959; &#964;&#959;&#965; &#959;&#957;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#965; &#959;&#964;&#953; &#963;&#959;&#965; &#949;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#957; &#951;
+&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#7985;&#945;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#951; &#948;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962;, &#954;&#945;&#953; &#951; &#948;&#8001;&#958;&#945;, &#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#945;&#953;&#8033;&#957;&#945;&#962;. &#913;&#956;&#7969;&#957;.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Et ne nos inducas in tentationem; sed libera nos a malo; quia tuum est
+regnum, potentia, et gloria in sceeula sceculorum. Amen</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+<span class="smcap">Brantwood</span>, <i>14th September, 1879</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>244. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;The gentle words in your last letter
+referring to the difference between yourself and me in the degree of
+hope with which you could regard what could not but appear to the
+general mind Utopian in designs for the action of the Christian Church,
+surely might best be answered by appeal to the consistent tone of the
+prayer we have been examining.</p>
+
+<p>Is not every one of its petitions for a perfect state? and is not this
+last clause of it, of which we are to think to-day&mdash;if fully
+understood&mdash;a petition not only for the restoration of Paradise, but of
+Paradise in which there shall be no deadly fruit, or, at least, no
+tempter to praise it? And may we not admit that it is probably only for
+want of the earnest use of this last petition that not only the
+preceding ones have become formal with us, but that the private and
+simply restricted prayer for the little things we each severally desire,
+has become by some Christians dreaded and unused, and by others used
+faithlessly, and therefore with disappointment?</p>
+
+<p>245. And is it not for want of this special directness and simplicity of
+petition, and of the sense of its acceptance, that the whole nature of
+prayer has been doubted in our hearts, and disgraced by our lips; that
+we are afraid to ask God's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> blessing on the earth, when the scientific
+people tell us He has made previous arrangements to curse it; and that,
+instead of obeying, without fear or debate, the plain order, "Ask, and
+ye shall receive, that your joy may be full," we sorrowfully sink back
+into the apology for prayer, that "it is a wholesome exercise, even when
+fruitless," and that we ought piously always to suppose that the text
+really means no more than "Ask, and ye shall <i>not</i> receive, that your
+joy may be <i>empty</i>"?</p>
+
+<p>Supposing we were first all of us quite sure that we <i>had</i> prayed,
+honestly, the prayer against temptation, and that we would thankfully be
+refused anything we had set our hearts upon, if indeed God saw that it
+would lead us into evil, might we not have confidence afterwards that He
+in whose hand the king's heart is, as the rivers of water, would turn
+our tiny little hearts also in the way that they should go, and that
+<i>then</i> the special prayer for the joys He taught them to seek would be
+answered to the last syllable, and to overflowing?</p>
+
+<p>246. It is surely scarcely necessary to say, farther, what the holy
+teachers of all nations have invariably concurred in showing,&mdash;that
+faithful prayer implies always correlative exertion; and that no man can
+ask honestly or hopefully to be delivered from temptation, unless he has
+himself honestly and firmly determined to do the best he can to keep out
+of it. But, in modern days, the first aim of all Christian parents is to
+place their children in circumstances where the temptations (which they
+are apt to call "opportunities") may be as great and as many as
+possible; where the sight and promise of "all these things" in Satan's
+gift may be brilliantly near; and where the act of "falling down to
+worship me" may be partly concealed by the shelter, and partly excused,
+as involuntary, by the pressure, of the concurrent crowd.</p>
+
+<p>In what respect the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of <i>them</i>,
+differ from the Kingdom, the Power, and the Glory, which are God's
+forever, is seldom, as far as I have heard, intelligibly explained from
+the pulpit; and still less the irreconcilable hostility between the two
+royalties and realms asserted in its sternness of decision.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whether it be, indeed, Utopian to believe that the kingdom we are taught
+to pray for <i>may</i> come&mdash;verily come&mdash;for the asking, it is surely not
+for man to judge; but it is at least at his choice to resolve that he
+will no longer render obedience, nor ascribe glory and power, to the
+Devil. If he cannot find strength in himself to advance towards Heaven,
+he may at least say to the power of Hell, "Get thee behind me;" and
+staying himself on the testimony of Him who saith, "Surely I come
+quickly," ratify his happy prayer with the faithful "Amen, even so,
+come, Lord Jesus."</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever, my dear friend,
+<br />
+Believe me affectionately and gratefully yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 7em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The following further letters from Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in "Letters to the Clergy."<br /><br /></p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="author"><i>Sept. 13th.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>247. <span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Malleson</span>,&mdash;I am so very grateful for your
+proposal to edit the letters without any further reference to me. I
+think that will be exactly the right way; and I believe I can put you at
+real ease in the doing of it, by explaining, as I can in very few words,
+the kind of <i>carte blanche</i> I should rejoicingly give you.</p>
+
+<p>Interrupted to-day! more to-morrow with, I hope, the last letter.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">J. Ruskin.</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="author"><i>14th Sept.</i></p>
+
+<p>I've nearly done the last letter, but will keep it till to-morrow,
+rather than finish hurriedly, for the first post. Your nice little note
+has just come; and I can only say that you cannot please me better than
+by acting with perfect freedom in all ways; and that I only want to see,
+or reply to, what you wish me for the matter's sake. And surely there is
+no occasion for any thought or waste of type about <i>me</i> personally,
+except only to express your knowledge of my real<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> desire for the health
+and power of the Church, More than this praise you must not give me; for
+I have learned almost everything, I may say, that I know, by my errors.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+I am affectionately yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin.</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="author"><i>17th Oct.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>248. I am thankful to see that the letters read clearly and easily, and
+contain all that was in my mind to get said; and nothing can possibly be
+more right in every way than the printing and binding,<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> nor more
+courteous and firm than your preface.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, there <i>will</i> be a chasm to cross&mdash;a <i>tauriformis
+Aufidus</i><a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>&mdash;greater than Rubicon, and the roar of it for many a year
+has been heard in the distance, through the gathering fog on the earth,
+more loudly.</p>
+
+<p>The River of spiritual Death to this world, and entrance to Purgatory in
+the other, come down to us.</p>
+
+<p>When will the feet of the Priests be dipped in the still brim of the
+water? Jordan overflows his banks already.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>When you have put your large edition, with its correspondence, into
+press, I should like to read the sheets as they are issued; and put
+merely letters of reference to be taken up in a short "Epilogue." But I
+don't want to do or say anything more till you have all in perfect
+readiness for publication. I should merely add my reference letters in
+the margin, and the shortest possible notes at the end.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">J. Ruskin.</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> These letters were written by Mr. Ruskin to the Rev. F.
+A. Malleson, Vicar of Broughton-in-Furness, by whom they were read,
+after a few introductory remarks, before the Furness Clerical Society.
+They originated, as may be gathered from the first of them, in a request
+by Mr. Malleson that Mr. Ruskin would address the society on the
+subject. They have been printed in three forms:&mdash;(1) in a small pamphlet
+(October 1879) "for private circulation only," among the members of the
+Furness and one or two other clerical societies; (2) in the
+<i>Contemporary Review</i> of December 1879; (3) in a volume (Strahan &amp; Co.,
+1880) entitled "The Lord's Prayer and the Church," and containing also
+various replies to Mr, Ruskin's letters, and an epilogue by way of
+rejoinder by Mr. Ruskin himself. This volume was edited by Mr. Malleson,
+with whose concurrence Mr. Ruskin's contributions to it are reprinted
+here.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Called Letter II. in the Furness pamphlet,&mdash;where a note
+is added to the effect that there was a previous unpublished
+letter.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> In answer to the proposal of discussing the subject
+during a mountain walk.&mdash;F. A. M.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Art, xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Homily xi. of the Second Table.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> "<i>Arrows of the Chace.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> See postscript to this letter.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Referring to the closing sentence of the third paragraph
+of the fifth 'ter, which <i>seemed</i> to express what I felt could not be
+Mr. Ruskin's full meaning, I pointed out to him the following sentence
+in "Modern Painters:"&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"When, in the desert, Jesus was girding Himself for the work of life,
+angels of life came and ministered unto Him; now, in the fair world,
+when He is girding Himself for the work of death, the ministrants come
+to Him from the grave; but from the grave conquered. One from the tomb
+under Abarim, which <i>His</i> own hand had sealed long ago; the other from
+the rest which He had entered without seeing corruption."
+</p><p>
+On this I made a remark somewhat to the following effect: that I felt
+sure Mr. Ruskin regarded the loving work of the Father and of the Son to
+be <i>equal</i> in the forgiveness of sins and redemption of mankind; that
+what is done by the Father is in reality done also by the Son; and that
+it is by a mere accommodation to human infirmity of understanding that
+the doctrine of the Trinity is revealed to us in language, inadequate
+indeed to convey divine truths, but still the only language possible;
+and I asked whether some such feeling was not present in his mind when
+he used the pronoun "His," in the above passage from "Modern Painters,"
+of the Son, where it would be usually understood of the Father; and as a
+corollary, whether, in the letter, he does not himself fully recognize
+the fact of the redemption of the world by the loving self-sacrifice of
+the Son in entire concurrence with the equally loving will of the
+Father. This, as well as I can recollect, is the origin of the passage
+in the second paragraph in the seventh letter.&mdash;F. A. M.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> The "Letters to the Clergy" adds note: "Yet hast thou not
+known Me, Philip? he that hath seen Me hath seen the Father" (John xiv.
+9).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> <i>Fors Clavigera</i>, Letter lxxxii. (See <i>ante</i>, &sect;
+148.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> "Bibliotheca Pastorum," Vol. i. "The Economist of
+Xenophon," Pref., p. xii&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> See <i>ante</i>, p. 319, &sect; 154; p. 330, &sect; 166.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> "<i>Arrows of the Chace.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> "<i>Arrows of the Chace.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Referring to the first edition, printed for private
+circulation.&mdash;F. A. M.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a>
+</p><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Sic tauriformis volvitur Aufidus,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Qua regna Dauni praefluit Appuli</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quum saevit, horrendamque cultis</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Diluviem meditatur agris."</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="smcap" style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&mdash;Hor.</span>, <i>Carm.</i>, iv. 14.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EPILOGUE" id="EPILOGUE"></a>EPILOGUE.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Brantwood, Coniston</span>, <i>June 1880</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>249. <span class="smcap">My dear Malleson</span>,&mdash;I have glanced at the proofs you send;
+and <i>can</i> do no more than glance, even if it seemed to me desirable that
+I should do more,&mdash;which, after said glance, it does in no wise. Let me
+remind you of what it is absolutely necessary that the readers of the
+book should clearly understand&mdash;that I wrote these Letters at your
+request, to be read and discussed at the meeting of a private society of
+clergymen. I declined then to be present at the discussion, and I
+decline still. You afterwards asked leave to print the Letters, to which
+I replied that they were yours, for whatever use you saw good to make of
+them: afterwards your plans expanded, while my own notion remained
+precisely what it had been&mdash;that the discussion should have been
+private, and kept within the limits of the society, and that its
+conclusions, if any, should have been announced in a few pages of clear
+print, for the parishioners' exclusive reading.</p>
+
+<p>I am, of course, flattered by the wider course you have obtained for the
+Letters, but am not in the slightest degree interested by the debate
+upon them, nor by any religious debates whatever, undertaken without
+serious conviction that there is a jot wrong in matters as they are, or
+serious resolution to make them a tittle better. Which, so far as I can
+read the minds of your correspondents, appears to me the substantial
+state of them.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>250. One thing I cannot pass without protest&mdash;the quantity of talk about
+the writer of the Letters. What I am, or am not, is of no moment
+whatever to the matters in hand. I observe with comfort, or at least
+with complacency, that on the strength of a couple of hours' talk, at a
+time when I was thinking chiefly of the weatherings of slate you were
+good enough to show me above Goat's Water, you would have ventured to
+baptize me in the little lake&mdash;as not a goat, but a sheep. The best I
+can be sure of, myself, is that I am no wolf, and have never aspired to
+the dignity even of a Dog of the Lord.</p>
+
+<p>You told me, if I remember rightly, that one of the members of the
+original meeting denounced me as an arch-heretic<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>&mdash;meaning,
+doubtless, an arch-pagan; for a heretic, or sect-maker, is of all terms
+of reproach the last that can be used of me. And I think he should have
+been answered that it was precisely as an arch-pagan that I ventured to
+request a more intelligible and more unanimous account of the Christian
+Gospel from its preachers.</p>
+
+<p>251. If anything in the Letters offended those of you who hold me a
+brother, surely it had been best to tell me between ourselves, or to
+tell it to the Church, or to let me be Anathema Maranatha in peace,&mdash;in
+any case, I must at present so abide, correcting only the mistakes about
+myself which have led to graver ones about the things I wanted to speak
+of.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+
+<p>The most singular one, perhaps, in all the Letters is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> of Mr.
+Wanstall's, that I do not attach enough weight to antiquity. I have only
+come upon the sentence to-day (29th May), but my reply to it is partly
+written already, with reference to the wishes of some other of your
+correspondents to know more of my reasons for finding fault with the
+English Liturgy.</p>
+
+<p>252. If people are taught to use the Liturgy rightly and reverently, it
+will bring them all good; and for some thirty years of my life I used to
+read it always through to my servant and myself, if we had no Protestant
+church to go to, in Alpine or Italian villages. One can always tacitly
+pray of it what one wants, and let the rest pass. But, as I have grown
+older, and watched the decline in the Christian faith of all nations, I
+have got more and more suspicious of the effect of this particular form
+of words on the truthfulness of the English mind (now fast becoming a
+salt which has lost his savor, and is fit only to be trodden underfoot
+of men). And during the last ten years, in which my position at Oxford
+has compelled me to examine what authority there was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> for the code of
+prayer, of which the University is now so ashamed that it no more dares
+compel its youths so much as to hear, much less to utter it, I got
+necessarily into the habit of always looking to the original forms of
+the prayers of the fully developed Christian Church. Nor did I think it
+a mere chance which placed in my own possession a manuscript of the
+perfect Church service of the thirteenth century, written by the monks
+of the Sainte Chapelle for St. Louis; together with one of the same
+date, written in England, probably for the Diocese of Lincoln; adding
+some of the Collects, in which it corresponds with St. Louis's, and the
+Latin hymns so much beloved by Dante, with the appointed music for them.</p>
+
+<p>253. And my wonder has been greater every hour, since I examined closely
+the text of these and other early books, that in any state of declining,
+or captive, energy, the Church of England should have contented itself
+with a service which cast out, from beginning to end, all these
+intensely spiritual and passionate utterances of chanted prayer (the
+whole body, that is to say, of the authentic <i>Christian</i> Psalms), and in
+adopting what it timidly preserved of the Collects, mangled or blunted
+them down to the exact degree which would make them either
+unintelligible or inoffensive&mdash;so vague that everybody might use them,
+or so pointless that nobody could be offended by them. For a special
+instance: The prayer for "our bishops and curates, and all congregations
+committed to their charge," is, in the Lincoln Service-book, "for our
+bishop, and all congregations committed to <i>his</i> charge." The change
+from singular to plural seems a slight one. But it suffices to take the
+eyes of the people off their own bishop into infinite space; to change a
+prayer which was intended to be uttered in personal anxiety and
+affection, into one for the general good of the Church, of which nobody
+could judge, and for which nobody would particularly care; and, finally,
+to change a prayer to which the answer, if given, would be visible, into
+one of which nobody could tell whether it were answered or not.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>254. In the Collects, the change, though verbally slight, is thus
+tremendous in issue. But in the Litany&mdash;word and thought go all wild
+together. The first prayer of the Litany in the Lincoln Service-book is
+for the Pope and all ranks beneath him, implying a very noteworthy piece
+of theology&mdash;that the Pope might err in religious matters, and that the
+prayer of the humblest servant of God would be useful to him:&mdash;"Ut
+Dompnum Apostolicum, et omnes gradus ecclesie in sancta religione
+conservare digneris." Meaning that whatever errors particular persons
+might, and must, fall into, they prayed God to keep the Pope right, and
+the collective testimony and conduct of the ranks below him. Then
+follows the prayer for their own bishop and <i>his</i> flock&mdash;then for the
+king and the princes (chief lords), that they (not all nations) might be
+kept in concord&mdash;and then for <i>our</i> bishops and abbots,&mdash;the Church of
+England proper; every one of these petitions being direct, limited, and
+personally heartfelt;&mdash;and then this lovely one for themselves:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Ut obsequium servitutis nostre rationabile facias."&mdash;"That Thou wouldst
+make the obedience of our service reasonable" ("which is your reasonable
+service").</p>
+
+<p>This glorious prayer is, I believe, accurately an "early English" one.
+It is not in the St. Louis Litany, nor in a later elaborate French
+fourteenth century one; but I find it softened in an Italian MS. of the
+fifteenth century into "ut nosmet ipsos in tuo sancto servitio
+confortare et conservare digneris,"&mdash;"that Thou wouldst deign to keep
+and comfort us ourselves in Thy sacred service" (the comfort, observe,
+being here asked for whether reasonable or not!); and in the best and
+fullest French service-book I have, printed at Rouen in 1520, it
+becomes, "ut congregationes omnium sanctorum in tuo sancto servitio
+conservare digneris;" while victory as well as concord is asked for the
+king and the princes,&mdash;thus leading the way to that for our own Queen's
+victory over all her enemies, a prayer which might now be advisedly
+altered into one that she&mdash;and in her, the monarchy of England&mdash;might
+find more fidelity in their friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>255. I give one more example of the corruption of our Prayer-Book, with
+reference to the objections taken by some of your correspondents to the
+distinction implied in my Letters between the Persons of the Father and
+the Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The "Memoria de Sancta Trinitate," in the St. Louis service-book, runs
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Omnipotens sempiterne Deus, qui dedisti famulis tuis in confessione
+vere fidei eterne Trinitatis gloriam agnoscere, et in potentia
+majestatis adorare unitatem, quesumus ut ejus fidei firmitate ab omnibus
+semper muniemur adversis. Qui vivis et regnas Deus, per omnia secula
+seculorum. Amen."</p>
+
+<p>"Almighty and everlasting God, who has given to Thy servants, in
+confession of true faith to recognize the glory of the Eternal Trinity,
+and in the power of Majesty to pray to the Unity; we ask that by the
+firmness of that faith we may be always defended from all adverse
+things, who livest and reignest God through all ages. Amen."</p>
+
+<p>256. Turning to our Collect, we find we have first slipped in the word
+"us" before "Thy servants," and by that little insertion have slipped in
+the squire and his jockey, and the public-house landlord&mdash;and anyone
+else who may chance to have been coaxed, swept, or threatened into
+Church on Trinity Sunday, and required the entire company of them to
+profess themselves servants of God, and believers in the mystery of the
+Trinity. And we think we have done God a service!</p>
+
+<p>"Grace." Not a word about grace in the original. You don't believe by
+having grace, but by having wit.</p>
+
+<p>"To acknowledge." "Agnosco" is to recognize, not to acknowledge. To
+<i>see</i> that there are three lights in a chandelier is a great deal more
+than to acknowledge that they are there.</p>
+
+<p>"To worship." "Adorare" is to pray to, not to worship. You may worship a
+mere magistrate; but you <i>pray</i> to the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.</p>
+
+<p>The last sentence in the English is too horribly mutilated to be dealt
+with in any patience. The meaning of the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> old collect is that by
+the shield of that faith we may quench all the fiery darts of the devil.
+The English prayer means, if it means anything, "Please keep us in our
+faith without our taking any trouble; and, besides, please don't let us
+lose our money, nor catch cold."</p>
+
+<p>"Who livest and reignest." Right; but how many of any extant or instant
+congregations understand what the two words mean? That God is a living
+God, not a dead Law; and that He is a reigning God, putting wrong things
+to rights, and that, sooner or later, with a strong hand and a rod of
+iron; and not at all with a soft sponge and warm water, washing
+everybody as clean as a baby every Sunday morning, whatever dirty work
+they may have been about all the week.</p>
+
+<p>257. On which latter supposition your modern Liturgy, in so far as it
+has supplemented instead of corrected the old one, has entirely modeled
+itself,&mdash;producing in its first address to the congregation before the
+Almighty precisely the faultfulest and foolishest piece of English
+language that I know in the whole compass of English or American
+literature. In the seventeen lines of it (as printed in my
+old-fashioned, large-print Prayer-Book), there are seven times over two
+words for one idea.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1. Acknowledge and confess.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">2. Sins and wickedness.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">3. Dissemble nor cloke.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">4. Goodness and mercy.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">5. Assemble and meet.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">6. Requisite and necessary.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">7. Pray and beseech.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There is, indeed, a shade of difference in some of these ideas for a
+good scholar, none for a general congregation;<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> and what difference
+they can guess at merely muddles their heads: to acknowledge sin is
+indeed different from confessing it, but it cannot be done at a minute's
+notice; and goodness is a different thing from mercy, but it is by no
+means God's infinite goodness that forgives our badness, but that judges
+it.</p>
+
+<p>258. "The faultfulest," I said, "and the foolishest." After using
+fourteen words where seven would have done, what is it that the whole
+speech gets said with its much speaking? This Morning Service of all
+England begins with the assertion that the Scripture moveth us in sundry
+places to confess our sins before God. <i>Does</i> it so? Have your
+congregations ever been referred to those sundry places? Or do they take
+the assertion on trust, or remain under the impression that, unless with
+the advantage of their own candor, God must remain ill-informed on the
+subject of their sins?</p>
+
+<p>"That we should not dissemble nor cloke them." <i>Can</i> we then? Are these
+grown-up congregations of the enlightened English Church in the
+nineteenth century still so young in their nurseries that the "Thou,
+God, seest me" is still not believed by them if they get under the bed?</p>
+
+<p>259. Let us look up the sundry moving passages referred to.</p>
+
+<p>(I suppose myself a simple lamb of the flock, and only able to use my
+English Bible.)</p>
+
+<p>I find in my concordance (confess and confession together) forty-two
+occurrences of the word. Sixteen of these, including John's confession
+that he was not the Christ, and the confession of the faithful fathers
+that they were pilgrims on the earth, do indeed move us strongly to
+confess Christ before men. Have you ever taught your congregations what
+that confession means? They are ready enough to confess Him in church,
+that is to say, in their own private synagogue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> Will they in
+Parliament? Will they in a ballroom? Will they in a shop? Sixteen of the
+texts are to enforce their doing <i>that</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The most important one (1 Tim. vi. 13) refers to Christ's own good
+confession, which I suppose was not of His sins, but of His obedience.
+How many of your congregations can make any such kind of confession, or
+wish to make it?</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth (1 Kings viii. 33, 2 Chron.
+vi. 26, Heb. xiii. 15) speak of confessing thankfully that God is God
+(and not a putrid plasma nor a theory of development), and the
+twenty-first (Job xl. 14) speaks of God's own confession, that no doubt
+we are the people, and that wisdom shall die with us, and on what
+conditions He will make it.</p>
+
+<p>260. There remains twenty-one texts which do speak of the confession of
+our sins&mdash;very moving ones indeed&mdash;and Heaven grant that some day the
+British public may be moved by them.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The first is Lev. v. 5, "He shall confess that he hath sinned <i>in
+that thing</i>." And if you can get any soul of your congregation to say he
+has sinned in <i>any</i>thing, he may do it in two words for one if he likes,
+and it will yet be good liturgy.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The second is indeed general&mdash;Lev. xvi. 21: the command that the
+whole nation should afflict its soul on the great day of atonement once
+a year. The Church of England, I believe, enjoins no such unpleasant
+ceremony. Her festivals are passed by her people often indeed in the
+extinction of their souls, but by no means in their intentional
+affliction.</p>
+
+<p>(3, 4, 5.) The third, fourth, and fifth (Lev. xxvi. 40, Numb. v. 7,
+Nehem. i. 6) refer all to national humiliation for definite idolatry,
+accompanied with an entire abandonment of that idolatry, and of
+idolatrous persons. How soon <i>that</i> form of confession is likely to find
+a place in the English congregations the defenses of their main idol,
+mammon, in the vilest and cruelest shape of it&mdash;usury&mdash;with which this
+book has been defiled, show very sufficiently.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>261. (6.) The sixth is Psalm xxxii. 5&mdash;virtually the whole of that
+psalm, which does, indeed, entirely refer to the greater confession,
+once for all opening the heart to God, which can be by no means done
+fifty-two times a year, and which, once done, puts men into a state in
+which they will never again say there is no health in them; nor that
+their hearts are desperately wicked; but will obey forever the instantly
+following order, "Rejoice in the Lord, ye righteous, and shout for joy,
+all ye that are true of heart."</p>
+
+<p>(7.) The seventh (Acts xxiv. 14) is the one confession in which I can
+myself share:&mdash;"After the way which they call heresy, so worship I the
+Lord God of my fathers."</p>
+
+<p>(8.) The eighth (James v. 16) tells us to confess our faults&mdash;not to
+God, but "one to another"&mdash;a practice not favored by English
+catechumens&mdash;(by the way, what <i>do</i> you all mean by "auricular"
+confession&mdash;confession that can be heard? and is the Protestant
+pleasanter form one that can't be?)</p>
+
+<p>(9.) The ninth is that passage of St. John (i. 9), the favorite
+evangelical text, which is read and preached by thousands of false
+preachers every day, without once going on to read its great companion,
+"Beloved, if our heart condemn us, God is greater than our heart, and
+knoweth all things; but if our heart condemn us <i>not</i>, then have we
+confidence toward God." Make your people understand the second text, and
+they will understand the first. At present you leave them understanding
+neither.</p>
+
+<p>262. And the entire body of the remaining texts is summed in Joshua vii.
+19 and Ezra x. 11, in which, whether it be Achan, with his Babylonish
+garment, or the people of Israel, with their Babylonish lusts, the
+meaning of confession is simply what it is to every brave boy, girl,
+man, and woman, who knows the meaning of the word "honor" before God or
+man&mdash;namely, to say what they have done wrong, and to take the
+punishment of it (not to get it blanched over by any means), and to do
+it no more&mdash;which is so far from being a tone of mind generally enforced
+either by the English, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> any other extant Liturgy, that, though all my
+maids are exceedingly pious, and insist on the privilege of going to
+church as a quite inviolable one, I think it a scarcely to be hoped for
+crown and consummation of virtue in them that they should tell me when
+they have broken a plate; and I should expect to be met only with looks
+of indignation and astonishment if I ventured to ask one of them how she
+had spent her Sunday afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>"Without courage," said Sir Walter Scott, "there is no truth; and
+without truth there is no virtue." The sentence would have been itself
+more true if Sir Walter had written "candor" for "truth," for it is
+possible to be true in insolence, or true in cruelty. But in looking
+back from the ridges of the Hill Difficulty in my own past life, and in
+all the vision that has been given me of the wanderings in the ways of
+others&mdash;this, of all principles, has become to me surest&mdash;that the first
+virtue to be required of man is frankness of heart and lip: and I
+believe that every youth of sense and honor, putting himself to faithful
+question, would feel that he had the devil for confessor, if he had not
+his father or his friend.</p>
+
+<p>263. That a clergyman should ever be so truly the friend of his
+parishioners as to deserve their confidence from childhood upwards, may
+be flouted as a sentimental ideal; but he is assuredly only their enemy
+in showing his Lutheran detestation of the sale of indulgences by
+broadcasting these gratis from his pulpit.</p>
+
+<p>The inconvenience and unpleasantness of a catechism concerning itself
+with the personal practice as well as the general theory of duty, are
+indeed perfectly conceivable by me: yet I am not convinced that such
+manner of catechism would therefore be less medicinal; and during the
+past ten years it has often been matter of amazed thought with me, while
+our President at Corpus read prayers to the chapel benches, what might
+by this time have been the effect on the learning as well as the creed
+of the University, if, forty years ago, our stern old Dean Gaisford, of
+the House of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> Christ, instead of sending us to chapel as to the house of
+correction, when we missed a lecture, had inquired, before he allowed us
+to come to chapel at all, whether we were gamblers, harlot-mongers, or
+in concealed and selfish debt.</p>
+
+<p>264. I observe with extreme surprise in the preceding letters the
+unconsciousness of some of your correspondents, that there ever was such
+a thing as discipline in the Christian Church. Indeed, the last
+wholesome instance of it I can remember was when my own great-great
+uncle Maitland lifted Lady &mdash;&mdash; from his altar-rails, and led her back to
+her seat before the congregation, when she offered to take the
+Sacrament, being at enmity with her son.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> But I believe a few hours
+honestly spent by any clergyman on his Church history would show him
+that the Church's confidence in her prayer has been always exactly
+proportionate to the strictness of her discipline; that her present
+fright at being caught praying by a chemist or an electrician, results
+mainly from her having allowed her twos and threes gathered in the name
+of Christ to become sixes and sevens gathered in the name of Belial; and
+that therefore her now needfulest duty is to explain to her stammering
+votaries, extremely doubtful as they are of the effect of their
+supplications either on politics or the weather, that although Elijah
+was a man subject to like passions as we are, he had them better under
+command; and that while the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man
+availeth much, the formal and lukewarm one of an iniquitous man
+availeth&mdash;much the other way.</p>
+
+<p>Such an instruction, coupled with due explanation of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> nature of
+righteousness and iniquity, directed mainly to those who have the power
+of both in their own hands, being makers of law, and holders of
+property, would, without any further debate, bring about a very singular
+change in the position and respectability of English clergymen.</p>
+
+<p>265. How far they may at present be considered as merely the Squire's
+left hand, bound to know nothing of what he is doing with his right, it
+is for their own consciences to determine.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, a friend wrote to me the other day, "Will you not come
+here? You will see a noble duke destroying a village as old as the
+Conquest, and driving out dozens of families whose names are in Domesday
+Book, because, owing to the neglect of his ancestors and rackrenting for
+a hundred years, the place has fallen out of repair, and the people are
+poor, and may become paupers. A local paper ventured to tell the truth.
+The duke's agent called on the editor, and threatened him with
+destruction if he did not hold his tongue." The noble duke, doubtless,
+has proper Protestant horror of auricular confession. But suppose,
+instead of the local editor, the local parson had ventured to tell the
+truth from his pulpit, and even to intimate to his Grace that he might
+no longer receive the Body and Blood of the Lord at the altar of that
+parish! The parson would scarcely&mdash;in these days&mdash;have been therefore
+made bonfire of, and had a pretty martyr's memorial by Mr. Scott's
+pupils; but he would have lighted a goodly light, nevertheless, in this
+England of ours, whose pettifogging piety has now neither the courage to
+deny a duke's grace in its church, nor to declare Christ's in its
+Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>266. Lastly. Several of your contributors, I observe, have rashly dipped
+their feet in the brim of the water of that raging question of Usury;
+and I cannot but express my extreme regret that you should yourself have
+yielded to the temptation of expressing opinions which you have had no
+leisure either to sound or to test. My assertion, however, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>
+rich lived mainly by robbing the poor, referred not to Usury, but to
+Rent; and the facts respecting both these methods of extortion are
+perfectly and indubitably ascertainable by any person who himself wishes
+to ascertain them, and is able to take the necessary time and pains. I
+see no sign, throughout the whole of these letters, of any wish
+whatever, on the part of one of their writers, to ascertain the facts,
+but only to defend practices which they hold to be convenient in the
+world, and are afraid to blame in their congregations. Of the
+presumption with which several of the writers utter their notions on the
+subject, I do not think it would be right to speak farther, in an
+epilogue to which there is no reply, in the terms which otherwise would
+have been deserved. In their bearing on other topics, let me earnestly
+thank you (so far as my own feelings may be permitted voice in the
+matter) for the attention with which you have examined, and the courage
+with which you have ratified, or at least endured, letters which could
+not but bear at first the aspect of being written in a
+hostile&mdash;sometimes even in a mocking spirit. That aspect is untrue, nor
+am I answerable for it: the things of which I had to speak could not be
+shortly described but in terms which might sound satirical; for all
+error, if frankly shown, is precisely most ridiculous when it is most
+dangerous, and I have written no word which is not chosen as the
+exactest for its occasion, whether it move sigh or smile. In my earlier
+days I wrote much with the desire to please, and the hope of influencing
+the reader. As I grow older and older, I recognize the truth of the
+Preacher's saying, "Desire shall fail, and the mourners go about the
+streets;" and I content myself with saying, to whoso it may concern,
+that the thing is verily thus, whether they will hear or whether they
+will forbear. No man more than I has ever loved the places where God's
+honor dwells, or yielded truer allegiance to the teaching of His evident
+servants. No man at this time grieves more for the danger of the Church
+which supposes him her enemy, while she whispers procrastinating <i>pax<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span>
+vobiscum</i> in answer to the spurious kiss of those who would fain toll
+curfew over the last fires of English faith, and watch the sparrow find
+nest where she may lay her young, around the altars of the Lord.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Ever affectionately yours,<br />
+<span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 6em;">J. Ruskin</span>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> The following extracts from letters of Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in the "Letters to the Clergy":&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"<i>14th May</i>, 1880.&mdash;My dear Malleson, ... I had never seen <i>yours</i> at
+all when I wrote last. I fell first on &mdash;&mdash;, whom I read with some
+attention, and commented on with little favor; went on to the next, and
+remained content with that taste till I had done my Scott (<i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>).
+</p><p>
+"I have this morning been reading your own, on which I very earnestly
+congratulate you. God knows it is not because they are friendly or
+complimentary, but because you <i>do</i> see what I mean; and people hardly
+ever do; and I think it needs very considerable power and feeling to
+forgive and understand as you do. You have said everything I want to
+say, and much more, except on the one point of excommunication, which
+will be the chief, almost the only, subject of my final note."
+</p><p>
+"<i>16th May</i>.&mdash;Yes, the omission of the 'Mr.' meant much change in all my
+feelings towards you and estimates of you; for which change, believe me,
+I am more glad and thankful than I can well tell you.
+</p><p class="author">
+"<span class="smcap">J. Ruskin</span>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Only a heretic!&mdash;F. A. M.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> I may perhaps be pardoned for vindicating-at least my
+arithmetic, which, with Bishop Colenso, I rather pride myself upon. One
+of your correspondents greatly doubts my having heard five thousand
+asserters of evangelical principles (Catholic-absolvent or
+Protestant-detergent are virtually the same). I am now sixty years old,
+and for forty-five of them was in church at least once on the
+Sunday,&mdash;say once a month also in afternoons,&mdash;and you have above three
+thousand church services. When I am abroad I am often in half-a-dozen
+churches in the course of a single day, and never lose a chance of
+listening to anything that is going on. Add the conversations pursued,
+not unearnestly, with every sort of reverend person I can get to talk to
+me&mdash;from the Bishop of Strasburg (as good a specimen of a town bishop as
+I have known), with whom I was studying ecstatic paintings in the year
+1850&mdash;down to the simplest traveling tinker inclined Gospelwards, whom I
+perceive to be sincere, and your correspondent will perceive that my
+rapid numerical expression must be far beneath the truth. He subjoins
+his more rational doubt of my acquaintance with many town missionaries;
+to which I can only answer, that as I do not live in town, nor set up
+for a missionary myself, my spiritual advantages have certainly not been
+great in that direction. I simply assert that of the few I have
+known,&mdash;beginning with Mr. Spurgeon, under whom I sat with much
+edification for a year or two,&mdash;I have not known any such teaching as I
+speak of.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> The only explanation ever offered for this exuberant
+wordiness is that if worshipers did not understand one term they would
+the other, and in some cases, in the Exhortation and elsewhere, one word
+is of Latin and the other of Saxon derivation.[1] But this is surely a
+very feeble excuse for bad composition. Of a very different kind is that
+beautiful climax which is reached in the three admirably chosen pairs of
+words in the Prayer for the Parliament, "peace and happiness, truth and
+justice, religion and piety."&mdash;F. A. M.
+</p><p>
+(Note 1: The repetition of synonymous terms is of very frequent
+occurrence in sixteenth century writing, as "for ever and aye," "Time
+and the hour run through the roughest day" (<i>Macbeth</i>, i. 3).)
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> In some of the country districts of Scotland the right of
+the Church to interfere with the lives of private individuals is still
+exercised. Only two years ago, a wealthy gentleman farmer was rebuked by
+the "Kirk Session" of the Dissenting Church to which he belonged, for
+infidelity to his wife.
+</p><p>
+At the Scottish half-yearly Communion the ceremony of "fencing the
+tables" used to be observed; that is, turning away all those whose lives
+were supposed to have made them unfit to receive the Sacrament.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="THE_NATURE_AND_AUTHORITY_OF_MIRACLE174" id="THE_NATURE_AND_AUTHORITY_OF_MIRACLE174"></a>THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>267. Every age of the world has its own special sins, and special
+simplicities; and among our own most particular humors in both kinds
+must be reckoned the tendency to parade our discoveries of the laws of
+Nature, as if nobody had ever heard of a law of Nature before.</p>
+
+<p>The most curious result of this extremely absurd condition of mind is
+perhaps the alarm of religious persons on subjects of which one would
+have fancied most of the palpable difficulties had been settled before
+the nineteenth century. The theory of prayer, for instance, and of
+Miracles. I noticed a lengthy discussion in the newspapers a month or
+two ago, on the propriety of praying for, or against rain. It had
+suddenly, it seems, occurred to the public mind, and to that of the
+gentlemen who write the theology of the breakfast-table, that rain was
+owing to natural causes; and that it must be unreasonable to expect God
+to supply on our immediate demand what could not be provided but by
+previous evaporation. I noticed farther that this alarming difficulty
+was at least softened to some of our Metropolitan congregations by the
+assurances of their ministers, that, although, since the last lecture by
+Professor Tyndall at the Royal Institution, it had become impossible to
+think of asking God for any temporal blessing, they might still hope
+their applications for spiritual advantages would occasionally be
+successful;&mdash;thus implying that though material processes were
+necessarily slow, and the laws of Heaven respecting matter, inviolable,
+mental processes might be instantaneous, and mental laws at any moment
+disregarded by their Institutor: so that the spirit of a man might be
+brought to maturity in a mo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>ment, though the resources of Omnipotence
+would be overtaxed, or its consistency abandoned, in the endeavor to
+produce the same result On a greengage.</p>
+
+<p>More logically, though not more wisely, other divines have asserted that
+prayer is medicinally beneficial to ourselves, whether we obtain what we
+ask for or not; and that our moral state is gradually elevated by the
+habit of praying daily that the Kingdom of God may come,&mdash;though nothing
+would more astonish us than its coming.</p>
+
+<p>268. With these doubts respecting the possibility or propriety of
+miracle, a more immediate difficulty occurs as to its actual nature or
+definition. What is the quality of any event which may be properly
+called "miraculous"? What are the degrees of wonderfulness?&mdash;what the
+surpassing degree of it, which changes the wonder into the sign, or may
+be positively recognized by human intelligence as an interruption,
+instead of a new operation, of those laws of Nature with which, of late,
+we have become so exhaustively acquainted? For my own part, I can only
+say that I am so haunted by doubt of the security of our best knowledge,
+and by discontent in the range of it, that it seems to me contrary to
+modesty, whether in a religious or scientific point of view, to regard
+<i>any</i>thing as miraculous. I know so little, and this little I know is so
+inexplicable, that I dare not say anything is wonderful because it is
+strange to me, or not wonderful because it is familiar. I have not the
+slightest idea how I compel my hand to write these words, or my lips to
+read them: and the question which was the thesis of Mr. Ward's very
+interesting paper, "Can Experience prove the Uniformity of Nature?"<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>
+is, in my mind, so assuredly answerable with the negative which the
+writer appeared to desire, that, precisely on that ground, the
+performance of any so-called miracle whatever would be morally
+unimpressive to me. If a second Joshua to-morrow commanded the sun to
+stand still, and it obeyed him; and he therefore claimed deference as a
+miracle-worker, I am afraid I should answer, "What! a miracle that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span> the
+sun stands still?&mdash;not at all. I was always expecting it would. The only
+wonder, to me, was its going on."</p>
+
+<p>269. But even assuming the demonstrable uniformity of the laws or
+customs of Nature which are known to us, it remains a difficult question
+what manner of interference with such law or custom we might logically
+hold miraculous, and what, on the contrary, we should treat only as
+proof of the existence of some other law, hitherto undiscovered.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, there is a case authenticated by the signatures of several
+leading physicists in Paris, in which a peasant girl, under certain
+conditions of morbid excitement, was able to move objects at some
+distance from her without touching them. Taking the evidence for what it
+may be worth, the discovery of such a faculty would only, I suppose,
+justify us in concluding that some new vital energy was developing
+itself under the conditions of modern bodily health; and not that any
+interference with the laws of Nature had taken place. Yet the generally
+obstinate refusal of men of science to receive any verbal witness of
+such facts is a proof that they believe them contrary to a code of law
+which is more or less complete in their experience, and altogether
+complete in their conception; and I think it is therefore their province
+to lay down for us the true principle by which we may distinguish the
+miraculous violation of a known law from the sudden manifestation of an
+unknown one.</p>
+
+<p>270. In the meantime, supposing ourselves ever so incapable of defining
+law, or discerning its interruption, we need not therefore lose our
+conception of the one, nor our faith in the other. Some of us may no
+more be able to know a genuine miracle, when we see it, than others to
+know a genuine picture; but the ordinary impulse to regard, therefore,
+all claim to miraculous power as imposture, or self-deception, reminds
+me always of the speech of a French lady to me, whose husband's
+collection of old pictures had brought unexpectedly low prices in the
+auction-room,&mdash;"How can you be so senseless," she said, "as to attach
+yourself to the study of an art in which you see that all excellence is
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> mere matter of opinion?" Some of us have thus come to imagine that
+the laws of Nature, as well as those of Art, may be matters of opinion;
+and I recollect an ingenious paper by Mr. Frederic Harrison, some two
+years ago, on the "Subjective Synthesis,"&mdash;which, after proving, what
+does not seem to stand in need of so elaborate proof, that we can only
+know, of the universe, what we can see and understand, went on to state
+that the laws of Nature "were not objective realities, any more than
+they were absolute truths."<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Which decision, it seems to me, is as
+if some modest and rational gnat, who had submitted to the humiliating
+conviction that it could know no more of the world than might be
+traversed by flight, or tasted by puncture, yet, in the course of an
+experiment on a philosopher with its proboscis, hearing him speak of the
+Institutes of Justinian, should observe, on its return to the society of
+gnats, that the Institutes of Justinian were not objective realities,
+any more than they were absolute truths. And, indeed, the careless use
+of the word "Truth" itself, often misleads even the most accurate
+thinkers. A law cannot be spoken of as a truth, either absolute or
+concrete. It is a law of nature, that is to say, of my own particular
+nature, that I fall asleep after dinner, and my confession of this fact
+is a truth; but the bad habit is no more a truth than the statement of
+it is a bad habit.</p>
+
+<p>271. Nevertheless, in spite of the treachery of our conceptions and
+language, and in just conclusion even from our narrow experience, the
+conviction is fastened in our hearts that the habits or laws of Nature
+are more constant than our own and sustained by a firmer Intelligence:
+so that, without in the least claiming the faculty of recognition of
+miracle, we may securely define its essence. The phenomena of the
+universe with which we are acquainted are assumed to be, under general
+conditions, constant, but to be maintained in that constancy by a
+supreme personal Mind; and it is farther sup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>posed that, under
+particular conditions, this ruling Person interrupts the constancy of
+these phenomena, in order to establish a particular relation with
+inferior creatures.</p>
+
+<p>272. It is, indeed, singular how ready the inferior creatures are to
+imagine such a relation, without any very decisive evidence of its
+establishment. The entire question of miracle is involved with that of
+the special providences which are supposed, in some theories of
+religion, sometimes to confound the enemies, and always to protect the
+darlings of God: and in the minds of amiable persons, the natural and
+very justifiable sense of their own importance to the well-being of the
+world may often encourage the pleasant supposition that the Deity,
+however improvident for others, will be provident for <i>them</i>. I
+recollect a paper on this subject by Dr. Guthrie, published not long ago
+in some religious periodical, in which the writer mentioned, as a
+strikingly Providential circumstance, the catching of his foot on a
+ledge of rock which averted what might otherwise have been a fatal fall.
+Under the sense of the loss to the cause of religion and the society of
+Edinburgh, which might have been the consequence of the accident, it is
+natural that Dr. Guthrie should refer to it with strongly excited
+devotional feelings: yet, perhaps, with better reason, a junior member
+of the Alpine Club, less secure of the value of his life, would have
+been likely on the same occasion rather to be provoked by his own
+awkwardness, than impressed by the providential structure of the rock.
+At the root of every error on these subjects we may trace either an
+imperfect conception of the universality of Deity, or an exaggerated
+sense of individual importance: and yet it is no less certain that every
+train of thought likely to lead us in a right direction must be founded
+on the acknowledgment that the personality of a Deity who has commanded
+the doing of Justice and the showing of Mercy can be no otherwise
+manifested than in the signal support of causes which are just, and
+favor of persons who are kind. The beautiful tradition of the deaths of
+Cleobis and Bito, indeed, expresses the sense proper to the wisest men,
+that we are un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>able either to discern or decide for ourselves in what
+the favor of God consists: but the promises of the Christian religion
+imply that its true disciples will be enabled to ask with prudence what
+is to be infallibly granted.</p>
+
+<p>273. And, indeed, the relations between God and His creatures which it
+is the function of miracle to establish, depend far more on the
+correspondence of events with human volition than on the marvelous
+character of the events themselves. These relations are, in the main,
+twofold. Miracles are either to convince, or to assist. We are apt to
+think of them as meant only to establish faith, but many are for mere
+convenience of life. Elisha's making the ax-head swim, and the poisoned
+soup wholesome, were not to convince anybody, but merely to give help in
+the quickest way. Conviction is, indeed, in many of the most interesting
+miracles, quite a secondary end, and often an unattained one. The hungry
+multitude are fed, the ship in danger relieved by sudden calm. The
+disciples disregard the multiplying of the loaves, yet are strongly
+affected by the change in the weather.</p>
+
+<p>But whether for conviction, aid (or aid in the terrific form of
+punishment), the essence of miracle is as the manifestation of a Power
+which can direct or modify the otherwise constant phenomena of Nature;
+and it is, I think, by attaching too great importance to what may be
+termed the missionary work of miracle, instead of what may in
+distinction be called its pastoral work, that many pious persons, no
+less than infidels, are apt to despise, and therefore to deny,
+miraculous power altogether.</p>
+
+<p>274. "We do not need to be convinced," they say, "of the existence of
+God by the capricious exertion of His power. We are satisfied in the
+normal exertion of it; and it is contrary to the idea of His Excellent
+Majesty that there should be any other."</p>
+
+<p>But all arguments and feelings must be distrusted which are founded on
+our own ideas of what it is proper for Deity to do. Nor can I, even
+according to our human modes of judgment, find any impropriety in the
+thought that an energy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span> may be natural without being normal, and Divine
+without being constant. The wise missionary may indeed require no
+miracle to confirm his authority; but the despised pastor may need
+miracle to enforce it, or the compassionate governor to make it
+beneficial. And it is quite possible to conceive of Pastoral Miracle as
+resulting from a power as natural as any other, though not as perpetual.
+The wind bloweth where it listeth, and some of the energies granted to
+men born of the Spirit may be manifested only on certain conditions and
+on rare occasions; and therefore be always wonderful or miraculous,
+though neither disorderly nor unnatural.</p>
+
+<p>Thus St. Paul's argument to Agrippa, "Why should it be thought with you
+a thing impossible that God should raise the dead?" would be suicidal,
+if he meant to appeal to the miracle as a proof of the authority of his
+mission. But, claiming no authority, he announces as a probable and
+acceptable fact the opening of a dispensation in which it was as natural
+for the dead to be raised as for the Gospel to be preached to the poor,
+though both the one and the other were miraculous signs that the Master
+of Nature had come down to be Emmanuel among men, and that no prophet
+was in future to look for another.</p>
+
+<p>We have indeed fallen into a careless habit of using the words
+supernatural and superhuman, as if equivalent. A human act may be
+super-doggish, and a Divine act superhuman, yet all three acts
+absolutely Natural. It is, perhaps, as much the virtue of a Spirit to be
+inconstant as of a poison to be sure, and therefore always impossible to
+weigh the elements of moral force in the balance of an apothecary.</p>
+
+<p>275. It is true that, in any abstract reflection on these things, one is
+instantly brought to pause by questions of the reasonableness, the
+necessity, or the expedient degree of miracle. Christ walks on the
+water, overcoming gravity to that extent. Why not have flown, and
+overcome it altogether? He feeds the multitude by breaking existent
+loaves; why not have commanded the stones into bread? Or, instead of
+miraculously feeding either an assembly or a nation, why not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> enable
+them, like Himself, miraculously to fast, for the needful time? And in
+generally admitting the theories of pastoral miracle the instant
+question submits itself,&mdash;Supposing a nation wisely obedient to divinely
+appointed ministers of a sensible Theocracy, how much would its
+government be miraculously assisted, and how many of its affairs brought
+to miraculous prosperity of issue? Would its enemies be destroyed by
+angels, and its food poured down upon it from the skies, or would the
+supernatural aid be limited to diminishing the numbers of its slain in
+battle,<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> or to conducting its merchant ships safely, or
+instantaneously, to the land whither they would go?</p>
+
+<p>But no progress can be made, and much may be prevented, in the
+examination of any really difficult human problem, by thus approaching
+it on the hypothetical side. Such approach is easy to the foolish,
+pleasant to the proud, and convenient to the malicious, but absolutely
+fruitless of practical result. Our modesty and wisdom consist alike in
+the simple registry of the facts cognizable by us, and our duty, in
+making active use of them for the present, without concerning ourselves
+as to the possibilities of the future. And the two main facts we have to
+deal with are that the historical record of miracle is always of
+inconstant power, and that our own actual energies are inconstant almost
+in exact proportion to their worthiness.</p>
+
+<p>276. First, I say, the history of miracle is of inconstant power. St.
+Paul raises Eutychus from death, and his garments effect miraculous
+cure; yet he leaves Trophimus sick at Miletum, recognizes only the mercy
+of God in the recovery of Epaphroditus, and, like any uninspired
+physician, recommends Timothy wine for his infirmities. And in the
+second place, our own energies are inconstant almost in proportion to
+their nobleness. We breathe with regularity, and can calculate upon the
+strength necessary for common tasks. But the record of our best work,
+and of our happiest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> moments, is always one of success which we did not
+expect, and of enthusiasm which we could not prolong.</p>
+
+<p>277. And therefore we can only look for an imperfect and interrupted,
+but may surely insist on an occasional, manifestation of miraculous
+credentials by every minister of religion. There is no practical
+difficulty in the discernment of marvel properly to be held superhuman.
+It is indeed frequently alleged by the admirers of scientific discovery
+that many things which were wonderful fifty years ago, have ceased to be
+so now; and I am perfectly ready to concede to them that what they now
+themselves imagine to be admirable, will not in the future be admired.
+But the petty sign, said to have been wrought by the augur Attus before
+Tarquin, would be as impressive at this instant as it was then; while
+the utmost achievements of recent scientific miracle have scarcely yet
+achieved the feeding of Lazarus their beggar, still less the
+resurrection of Lazarus their friend. Our Christian faith, at all
+events, stands or falls by this test. "These signs shall follow them
+that believe," are words which admit neither of qualification nor
+misunderstanding; and it is far less arrogant in any man to look for
+such Divine attestation of his authority as a teacher, than to claim,
+without it, any authority to teach. And assuredly it is no proof of any
+unfitness or unwisdom in such expectations, that, for the last thousand
+years, miraculous powers seem to have been withdrawn from, or at least
+indemonstrably possessed, by a Church which, having been again and again
+warned by its Master that Riches were deadly to Religion, and Love
+essential to it, has nevertheless made wealth the reward of Theological
+learning, and controversy its occupation. There are states of moral
+death no less amazing than physical resurrection; and a church which
+permits its clergy to preach what they have ceased to believe, and its
+people to trust what they refuse to obey, is perhaps more truly
+miraculous in impotence, than it would be miraculous in power, if it
+could move the fatal rocks of California to the Pole, and plant the
+sycamore and the vine between the ridges of the sea.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> <i>Contemporary Review</i>, March, 1873.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Read at the November meeting of the Metaphysical
+Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> I quote from memory but am sure of the purport of the
+sentence, though not of its expression.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> "And be it death proclaim&euml;d through our host to boast of
+this."&mdash;<i>Henry V.</i></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><br /><br /><a name="AN_OXFORD_LECTURE" id="AN_OXFORD_LECTURE"></a>AN OXFORD LECTURE.</h2>
+
+<h4>(<i>Nineteenth Century, January 1878.</i>)<br /><br /></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="AN_OXFORD_LECTURE178" id="AN_OXFORD_LECTURE178"></a>AN OXFORD LECTURE.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>278. I am sure that all in this audience who were present yesterday at
+Dr. Acland's earnest and impressive lecture must have felt how deeply I
+should be moved by his closing reference to the friendship begun in our
+undergraduate days;&mdash;of which I will but say that, if it alone were all
+I owed to Oxford, the most gracious kindness of the Alma Mater would in
+that gift have been fulfilled to me.</p>
+
+<p>But his affectionate words, in their very modesty, as if even standing
+on the defense of his profession, the noblest of human occupations! and
+of his science&mdash;the most wonderful and awful of human intelligences!
+showed me that I had yet not wholly made clear to you the exactly
+limited measure in which I have ventured to dispute the fitness of
+method of study now assigned to you in this University.</p>
+
+<p>279. Of the dignity of physical science, and of the happiness of those
+who are devoted to it for the healing and the help of mankind, I never
+have meant to utter, and I do not think I <i>have</i> uttered, one irreverent
+word. But against the curiosity of science, leading us to call virtually
+nothing gained but what is new discovery, and to despise every use of
+our knowledge in its acquisition; of the insolence of science, in
+claiming for itself a separate function of that human mind which in its
+perfection is one and indivisible, in the image of its Creator; and of
+the perversion of science, in hoping to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span> discover by the analysis of
+death, what can only be discovered by the worship of life,&mdash;of these I
+have spoken, not only with sorrow, but with a fear which every day I
+perceive to be more surely grounded, that such labor, in effacing from
+within you the sense of the presence of God in the garden of the earth,
+may awaken within you the prevailing echo of the first voice of its
+Destroyer, "<i>Ye</i> shall be as gods."</p>
+
+<p>280. To-day I have little enough time to conclude,&mdash;none to review&mdash;what
+I have endeavored thus to say; but one instance, given me directly in
+conversation after lecture, by one of yourselves, will enable me to
+explain to you precisely what I <i>mean</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After last lecture, in which you remember I challenged our physiologists
+to tell me how a bird flies, one of you, whose pardon, if he thinks it
+needful, I ask for this use of his most timely and illustrative
+statement, came to me, saying, "You know the way in which we are shown
+how a bird flies, is, that any one, a dove for instance, is given to us,
+plucked, and partly skinned, and incised at the insertion of the wing
+bone; and then, with a steel point, the ligament of the muscle at the
+shoulder is pulled up, and out, and made distinct from other ligaments,
+and we are told 'that is the way a bird flies,' and on that matter it is
+thought we have been told enough."</p>
+
+<p>I say that this instance given me was timely; I will say more&mdash;in the
+choice of this particular bird, providential. Let me take, in their
+order, the two subjects of inquiry and instruction, which are indeed
+offered to us in the aspect and form of that one living creature.</p>
+
+<p>281. Of the splendor of your own true life, you are told, in the words
+which, to-day, let me call, as your Fathers did, words of
+inspiration&mdash;"Yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove, that is covered
+with silver wings and her feathers with gold." Of the manifold iris of
+color in the dove's plumage, watched carefully in sunshine as the bird
+moves, I cannot hope to give you any conception by words; but that it is
+the most exquisite, in the modesty of its light, and in the myriad
+mingling of its hue, of all plumage, I may partly prove to you in this
+one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> fact, that out of all studies of color, the one which I would
+desire most to place within your reach in these schools, is Turner's
+drawing of a dove, done when he was in happy youth at Farnley. But of
+the causes of this color, and of the peculiar subtlety in its
+iridescence, nothing is told you in any scientific book I have ever seen
+on ornithology.</p>
+
+<p>282. Of the power of flight in these wings, and the tender purpose of
+their flight, you hear also in your Fathers' book. To the Church, flying
+from her enemies into desolate wilderness, there were indeed given two
+wings as of a great eagle. But the weary saint of God, looking forward
+to his home in calm of eternal peace, prays rather&mdash;"Oh that I had wings
+like a dove, for then should I flee away, and be at rest." And of these
+wings, and this mind of hers, this is what reverent science should teach
+you: first, with what parting of plume, and what soft pressure and
+rhythmic beating of divided air, she reaches that miraculous swiftness
+of undubious motion, compared with which the tempest is slow, and the
+arrow uncertain; and secondly, what clew there is, visible, or
+conceivable to thought of man, by which, to her living conscience and
+errorless pointing of magnetic soul, her distant home is felt afar
+beyond the horizon, and the straight path, through concealing clouds,
+and over trackless lands, made plain to her desire, and her duty, by the
+finger of God.</p>
+
+<p>283. And lastly, since in the tradition of the Old Covenant she was made
+the messenger of forgiveness to those eight souls saved through the
+baptism unto death, and in the Gospel of the New Covenant, under her
+image, was manifested the well-pleasing of God, in the fulfillment of
+all righteousness by His Son in the Baptism unto life,&mdash;surely alike all
+Christian people, old and young, should be taught to be gladdened by her
+sweet presence; and in every city and village in Christendom she should
+have such home as in Venice she has had for ages, and be, among the
+sculptured marbles of the temple, the sweetest sculpture; and,
+fluttering at your children's feet, their never-angered friend. And
+surely also, therefore, of the thousand evidences which any carefully
+thoughtful person<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> may see, not only of the ministration of good, but of
+the deceiving and deadly power of the evil angels, there is no one more
+distinct in its gratuitous, and unreconcilable sin, than that this&mdash;of
+all the living creatures between earth and sky&mdash;should be the one chosen
+to amuse the apathy of our murderous idleness, with skill-less,
+effortless, merciless slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>284. I pass to the direct subject on which I have to speak finally
+to-day;&mdash;the reality of that ministration of the good angels, and of
+that real adversity of the principalities and powers of Satan, in which,
+without exception, all earnest Christians have believed, and the
+appearance of which, to the imagination of the greatest and holiest of
+them, has been the root, without exception, of all the greatest art
+produced by the human mind or hand in this world.</p>
+
+<p>That you have at present no art properly so called in England at
+all&mdash;whether of painting, sculpture, or architecture<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>&mdash;I, for one,
+do not care. In midst of Scottish Lothians, in the days of Scott, there
+was, by how much less art, by so much purer life, than in the midst of
+Italy in the days of Raphael. But that you should have lost, not only
+the skill of Art, but the simplicity of Faith and life, all in one, and
+not only here deface your ancient streets by the Ford of the waters of
+sacred learning, but also deface your ancient hills with guilt of
+mercenary desolation, driving their ancient shepherd life into exile,
+and diverting the waves of their streamlets into the cities which are
+the very centers of pollution, of avarice, and impiety: for this I <i>do</i>
+care,&mdash;for this you have blamed me for caring, instead of merely trying
+to teach you drawing. I have nevertheless yet done my best to show you
+what real drawing is; and must yet again bear your blame for trying to
+show you, through that, somewhat more.</p>
+
+<p>285. I was asked, as we came out of chapel this morning,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> by one of the
+Fellows of my college, to say a word to the Undergraduates, about
+Thirlmere. His request, being that of a faithful friend, came to enforce
+on me the connection between this form of spoliation of our native land
+of its running waters, and the gaining disbelief in the power of prayer
+over the distribution of the elements of our bread and water, in rain,
+and sunshine,&mdash;seedtime, and harvest. Respecting which, I must ask you
+to think with me to-day what is the meaning of the myth, if you call it
+so, of the great prophet of the Old Testament, who is to be again sent
+before the coming of the day of the Lord. For truly, you will find that
+if any part of your ancient faith be true, it is needful for every soul
+which is to take up its cross, with Christ, to be also first
+transfigured in the light of Christ,&mdash;talking with Moses and with Elias.</p>
+
+<p>The contest of Moses is with the temporal servitude,&mdash;of Elijah, with
+the spiritual servitude, of the people; and the war of Elijah is with
+their servitude essentially to two Gods, Baal, or the Sun God, in whose
+hand they thought was their life, and Baalzebub&mdash;the Fly God,&mdash;of
+Corruption, in whose hand they thought was the arbitration of death.</p>
+
+<p>The entire contest is summed in the first assertion by Elijah, of his
+authority as the Servant of God, over those elemental powers by which
+the heart of Man, whether Jew or heathen, was filled with food and
+gladness.</p>
+
+<p>And Elijah the Tishbite; who was of the inhabitants of Gilead, said unto
+Ahab, "As the Lord God of Israel liveth, before whom I stand, there
+shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word."</p>
+
+<p>286. Your modern philosophers have explained to you the absurdity of all
+that: you think? Of all the shallow follies of this age, that
+proclamation of the vanity of prayer for the sunshine and rain; and the
+cowardly equivocations, to meet it, of the clergy who never in their
+lives really prayed for anything, I think, excel. Do these modern
+scientific gentlemen fancy that nobody, before they were born, knew the
+laws of cloud and storm, or that the mighty human souls of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> former ages,
+who every one of them lived and died by prayer, and in it, did not know
+that in every petition framed on their lips they were asking for what
+was not only fore-ordained, but just as probably fore-<i>done</i>? or that
+the mother pausing to pray before she opens the letter from Alma or
+Balaclava, does not know that already he is saved for whom she prays, or
+already lies festering in his shroud? The whole confidence and glory of
+prayer is in its appeal to a Father who knows our necessities before we
+ask, who knows our thoughts before they rise in our hearts, and whose
+decrees, as unalterable in the eternal future as in the eternal past,
+yet in the close verity of visible fact, bend, like reeds, before the
+fore-ordained and faithful prayers of His children.</p>
+
+<p>287. Of Elijah's contest on Carmel with that Sun-power in which,
+literally, you again now are seeking your life, you know the story,
+however little you believe it. But of his contest with the Death-power,
+on the Hill of Samaria, you read less frequently, and more doubtfully.</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, thou Man of God, the King hath said, Come down. And Elijah answered
+and said, If I be a man of God, let fire come down from Heaven, and
+consume thee, and thy fifty."</p>
+
+<p>How monstrous, how revolting, cries your modern religionist, that a
+prophet of the Lord should invoke death on fifty men. And he sits
+himself, enjoying his muffin and <i>Times</i>, and contentedly allows the
+slaughter of fifty thousand men, so it be in the interests of England,
+and of his own stock on Exchange.</p>
+
+<p>But note Elijah's message. "Because thou hast sent to inquire of
+Baalzebub the God of Ekron, therefore, thou shalt not go down from the
+bed on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die."</p>
+
+<p>"Because thou hast sent to inquire:" he had not sent to <i>pray</i> to the
+God of Ekron, only to <i>ask</i> of him. The priests of Baal <i>prayed</i> to
+Baal, but Ahaziah only <i>questions</i> the fly-god.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He does not pray "Let me recover," but he asks "<i>Shall</i> I recover of
+this disease?"</p>
+
+<p>The scientific mind again, you perceive,&mdash;Sanitary investigation; by
+oracle of the God of Death. Whatever can be produced of disease, by
+flies, by aphides, by lice, by communication of corruption, shall not we
+moderns also wisely inquire, and so recover of our diseases?</p>
+
+<p>All which may, for aught I know, be well; and when I hear of the vine
+disease or potato disease being stayed, I will hope also that plague may
+be, or diphtheria, or aught else of human plague, by due sanitary
+measures.</p>
+
+<p>288. In the meantime, I see that the common cleanliness of the earth and
+its water is despised, as if <i>it</i> were a plague; and after myself
+laboring for three years to purify and protect the source of the
+loveliest stream in the English midlands, the Wandel, I am finally
+beaten, because the road commissioners insist on carrying the road
+washings into it, at its source. But that's nothing. Two years ago, I
+went, for the first time since early youth, to see Scott's country by
+the shores of Yarrow, Teviot, and Gala waters. I will read you once
+again, though you will remember it, his description of one of those
+pools which you are about sanitarily to draw off into your
+engine-boilers, and then I will tell you what I saw myself in that
+sacred country.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oft in my mind such thoughts awake,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">By lone Saint Mary's silent lake;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thou know'st it well,&mdash;nor fen, nor sedge,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pollute the pure lake's crystal edge;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abrupt and sheer, the mountains sink</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">At once upon the level brink;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And just a trace of silver sand</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marks where the water meets the land.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Far in the mirror, bright and blue,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Each hill's huge outline you may view;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shaggy with heath, but lonely, bare,</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nor tree, nor bush, nor brake, is there,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Save where, of land, yon slender line</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bears thwart the lake the scatter'd pine.</span>
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 25%; Margin-left: 2em; Margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;" />
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And silence aids&mdash;though the steep hills</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Send to the lake a thousand rills</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In summer tide, so soft they weep,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The sound but lulls the ear asleep;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">So stilly is the solitude.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nought living meets the eye or ear,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But well I ween the dead are near;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For though, in feudal strife, a foe</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hath laid Our Lady's chapel low,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yet still beneath the hallow'd soil,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The peasant rests him from his toil,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And, dying, bids his bones be laid,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Where erst his simple fathers pray'd.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>289. What I saw myself, in that fair country, of which the sight remains
+with me, I will next tell you. I saw the Teviot oozing, not flowing,
+between its wooded banks, a mere sluggish injection, among the filthy
+stones, of poisonous pools of scum-covered ink; and in front of Jedburgh
+Abbey, where the foaming river used to dash round the sweet ruins as if
+the rod of Moses had freshly cleft the rock for it, bare and foul
+nakedness of its bed, the whole stream carried to work in the mills, the
+dry stones and crags of it festering unseemly in the evening sun, and
+the carcass of a sheep, brought down in the last flood, lying there in
+the midst of the children at their play, literal and ghastly symbol, in
+the sweetest pastoral country in the world, of the lost sheep of the
+house of Israel.</p>
+
+<p>That is your symbol to-day, of the Lamb as it had been slain; and that
+the work of your prayerless science;&mdash;the issues, these, of your
+enlightened teaching, and of all the toils and the deaths of the
+Covenanters on those barren hills, of the prophetic martyrs here in your
+crossing streets, and of the highest, sincerest, simplest patriot of
+Catholic England, Sir Thomas More, within the walls of England's central
+Tower. So is ended, with prayer for the bread of this life,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> also the
+hope of the life that is to come. Yet I will take leave to show you the
+light of that hope, as it shone on, and guided, the children of the ages
+of faith.</p>
+
+<p>290. Of that legend of St. Ursula which I read to you so lately, you
+remember, I doubt not, that the one great meaning is the victory of her
+faith over all fears of death. It is the laying down of all the joy, of
+all the hope, nay of all the Love, of this life, in the eager
+apprehension of the rejoicing and the love of Eternity. What truth there
+was in such faith I dare not say that I know; but what manner of human
+souls it made, you may for yourselves <i>see</i>. Here are enough brought to
+you, of the thoughts of a believing people.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> This maid in her purity
+is no fable; this is a Venetian maid, as she was seen in the earthly
+dawn, and breathed on by the breeze of her native sea. And here she is
+in her womanhood, in her courage and perfect peace, waiting for her
+death.</p>
+
+<p>I have sent for this drawing for you, from Sheffield, where it is to
+stay, they needing it more than you. It is the best of all that my
+friend did with me at Venice, for St. George, and with St. George's help
+and St. Ursula's. It shows you only a piece of the great picture of the
+martyrdom&mdash;nearly all have fallen around the maid, and she kneels with
+her two servant princesses, waiting for her own death. Faithful behind
+their mistress, they wait with her,&mdash;not feebler, but less raised in
+thought, as less conceiving their immortal destiny; the one, a gentle
+girl, conceiving not in her quiet heart any horror of death, bows her
+fair head towards the earth, almost with a smile; the other, fearful
+lest her faith should for an instant fail, bursts into passion of prayer
+through burning tears. St. Ursula kneels, as daily she knelt, before the
+altar, giving herself up to God forever.</p>
+
+<p>And so you see her, here in the days of childhood, and here in her
+sacred youth, and here in her perfect womanhood, and here borne to her
+grave.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Such creatures as these <i>have</i> lived&mdash;do live yet, thank God, in the
+faith of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>291. You hear it openly said that this, their faith, was a foolish
+dream. Do you choose to find out whether it was or not? You may if you
+will, but you can find it out in one way only.</p>
+
+<p>Take the dilemma in perfect simplicity. Either Christianity is true or
+not. Let us suppose it first one, then the other, and see what follows.</p>
+
+<p>Let it first be supposed untrue. Then rational investigation will in all
+probability discover that untruth; while, on the other hand, irrational
+submission to what we are told may lead us into any form of absurdity or
+insanity; and, as we read history, we shall find that this insanity has
+perverted, as in the Crusades, half the strength of Europe to its ruin,
+and been the source of manifold dissension and misery to society.</p>
+
+<p>Start with the supposition that Christianity is untrue, much more with
+the desire that it should be, and that is the conclusion at which you
+will certainly arrive.</p>
+
+<p>But, on the other hand, let us suppose that it is, or may be, true.
+Then, in order to find out whether it is or not, we must attend to what
+it says of itself. And its first saying is an order to adopt a certain
+line of conduct. <i>Do</i> that first, and you shall know more. Its promise
+is of blessing and of teaching, more than tongue can utter, or mind
+conceive, if you choose to do this; and it refuses to teach or help you
+on any other terms than these.</p>
+
+<p>292. You may think it strange that such a trial is required of you.
+Surely the evidences of our future state might have been granted on
+other terms&mdash;nay, a plain account might have been given, with all
+mystery explained away in the clearest language. <i>Then</i>, we should have
+believed at once.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, but, as you see and hear, that, if it be our way, is not God's. He
+has chosen to grant knowledge of His truth to us on one condition and no
+other. If we refuse that condition, the rational evidence around us is
+all in proof of our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> death, and that proof is true, for God also tells
+us that in such refusal we shall die.</p>
+
+<p>You see, therefore, that in either case, be Christianity true or false,
+death is demonstrably certain to us in refusing it. As philosophers, we
+can expect only death, and as unbelievers, we are condemned to it.</p>
+
+<p>There is but one chance of life&mdash;in admitting so far the possibility of
+the Christian verity as to try it on its own terms. There is not the
+slightest possibility of finding out whether it be true, or not, first.</p>
+
+<p>"Show me a sign first and I will come," you say. "No," answers God.
+"Come first, then you shall see a sign."</p>
+
+<p>Hard, you think? You will find it is not so, on thinking more. For this,
+which you are commanded, is not a thing unreasonable in itself. So far
+from that, it is merely the wisest thing you could do for your own and
+for others' happiness, if there were no eternal truth to be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>You are called simply to be the servant of Christ, and of other men for
+His sake; that is to say, to hold your life and all its faculties as a
+means of service to your fellows. All you have to do is to be sure it
+<i>is</i> the service you are doing them, and not the service you do
+yourself, which is uppermost in your minds.</p>
+
+<p>293. Now you continually hear appeals to you made in a vague way, which
+you don't know how far you can follow. You shall not say that, to-day; I
+both can and will tell you what Christianity requires of you in simplest
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>Read your Bible as you would any other book&mdash;with strictest criticism,
+frankly determining what you think beautiful, and what you think false
+or foolish. But be sure that you try accurately to understand it, and
+transfer its teaching to modern need by putting other names for those
+which have become superseded by time. For instance, in such a passage as
+that which follows and supports the "Lie not one to another" of
+Colossians iii.&mdash;"seeing that ye have put on the new man, which is
+renewed in knowledge after the spirit of Him that created him, where"
+(meaning in that great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> creation where) "there is neither Greek nor Jew,
+circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free." In
+applying that verse to the conduct and speech of modern policy, it falls
+nearly dead, because we suffer ourselves to remain under a vague
+impression&mdash;vague, but practically paralyzing,&mdash;that though it was very
+necessary to speak the truth in the countries of Scythians and Jews,
+there is no objection to any quantity of lying in managing the affairs
+of Christendom. But now merely substitute modern for ancient names, and
+see what a difference it will make in the force and appeal of the
+passage, "Lie not one to another, brethren, seeing that ye have put off
+the old man, with his deeds, and have put on the new man, which is
+renewed to knowledge," &#949;&#953;&#962; &#949;&#960;&#7985;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#957;, according to the
+knowledge of Him that created him, in that great creation where there is
+neither Englishman nor German, baptism nor want of baptism, Turk nor
+Russian, slave nor free, but Christ is all, and in all.</p>
+
+<p>294. Read your Bible, then, making it the first morning business of your
+life to understand some piece of it clearly, and your daily business to
+obey of it all that you understand, beginning first with the most human
+and most dear obedience&mdash;to your father and mother. Doing all things as
+they would have you do, for the present: if they want you to be
+lawyers&mdash;be lawyers; if soldiers&mdash;soldiers; if to get on in the
+world&mdash;even to get money&mdash;do as they wish, and that cheerfully, after
+distinctly explaining to them in what points you wish otherwise. Theirs
+is for the present the voice of God to you.</p>
+
+<p>But, at the same time, be quite clear about your own purpose, and the
+carrying out of that so far as under the conditions of your life you
+can. And any of you who are happy enough to have wise parents will find
+them contented in seeing you do as I now tell you.</p>
+
+<p>295. First cultivate all your personal powers, not competitively, but
+patiently and usefully. You have no business to read in the long
+vacation. Come <i>here</i> to make scholars of yourselves, and go to the
+mountains or the sea to make men of yourselves. Give at least a month in
+each year to rough<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> sailor's work and sea fishing. Don't lounge and
+flirt on the beach, but make yourselves good seamen. Then, on the
+mountains, go and help the shepherd at his work, the wood-men at theirs,
+and learn to know the hills by night and day. If you are staying in
+level country, learn to plow, and whatever else you can that is useful.
+Then here in Oxford, read to the utmost of your power, and practice
+singing, fencing, wrestling, and riding. No rifle practice, and no
+racing&mdash;boat or other. Leave the river quiet for the naturalist, the
+angler, and the weary student like me.</p>
+
+<p>You may think all these matters of no consequence to your studies of art
+and divinity; and that I am merely crotchety and absurd. Well, that is
+the way the devil deceives you. It is not the sins which we <i>feel</i>
+sinful, by which he catches us; but the apparently healthy ones,&mdash;those
+which nevertheless waste the time, harden the heart, concentrate the
+passions on mean objects, and prevent the course of gentle and fruitful
+thought.</p>
+
+<p>296. Having thus cultivated, in the time of your studentship, your
+powers truly to the utmost, then, in your manhood, be resolved they
+shall be spent in the true service of men&mdash;not in being ministered unto,
+but in ministering. Begin with the simplest of all ministries&mdash;breaking
+of bread to the poor. Think first of that, not of your own pride,
+learning, comfort, prospects in life: nay, not now, once come to
+manhood, may even the obedience to parents check your own conscience of
+what is your Master's work. "Whoso loveth father and mother more than me
+is not worthy of me." Take the perfectly simple words of the Judgment,
+"Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of the least of these, ye did it unto
+me:" but you must <i>do</i> it, not preach it. And you must not be resolved
+that it shall be done only in a gentlemanly manner. Your pride must be
+laid down, as your avarice, and your fear. Whether as fishermen on the
+sea, plowmen on the earth, laborers at the forge, or merchants at the
+shop-counter, you must break and distribute bread to the poor, set down
+in companies&mdash;for that also is literally told you&mdash;upon the green<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>
+grass, not crushed in heaps under the pavement of cities. Take Christ at
+His literal word, and, so sure as His word is true, He will be known of
+you in breaking of bread. Refuse that servant's duty because it is
+plain,&mdash;seek either to serve God, or know Him, in any other way: your
+service will become mockery of Him, and your knowledge darkness. Every
+day your virtues will be used by the evil spirits to conceal, or to make
+respectable, national crime; every day your felicities will become baits
+for the iniquity of others; your heroisms, wreckers' beacons, betraying
+them to destruction; and before your own deceived eyes and wandering
+hearts every false meteor of knowledge will flash, and every perishing
+pleasure glow, to lure you into the gulf of your grave.</p>
+
+<p>297. But obey the word in its simplicity, in wholeness of purpose and
+with serenity of sacrifice, like this of the Venetian maids', and truly
+you shall receive sevenfold into your bosom in this present life, as in
+the world to come, life everlasting. All your knowledge will become to
+you clear and sure, all your footsteps safe; in the present brightness
+of domestic life you will foretaste the joy of Paradise, and to your
+children's children bequeath, not only noble fame, but endless virtue.
+"He shall give his angels charge over you to keep you in all your ways;
+and the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your
+hearts and minds through Christ Jesus."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Left, at the Editor's request, with only some absolutely
+needful clearing of unintelligible sentences, as it was written for free
+delivery. It was the last of a course of twelve given this
+autumn;&mdash;refers partly to things already said, partly to drawings on the
+walls; and needs the reader's pardon throughout, for faults and
+abruptness incurable but by re-writing the whole as an essay instead of
+a lecture.&mdash;(<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, January, 1878.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> Of course, this statement is merely a generalization of
+many made in the preceding lectures, the tenor of which any readers
+acquainted with my recent writings may easily conceive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> The references were to the series of drawings lately
+made, in Venice, for the Oxford and Sheffield schools, from the works of
+Carpaccio, by Mr. Fairfax Murray.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2)
+       A Collection of Miscellaneous Essays and Articles on Art and Literature
+
+Author: John Ruskin
+
+Release Date: April 30, 2007 [EBook #21263]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE OLD ROAD, VOL. 2 (OF 2) ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Library Edition
+
+  THE COMPLETE WORKS
+
+  OF
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN
+
+  ON THE OLD ROAD
+  VOLUMES I-II
+
+  NATIONAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
+  NEW YORK        CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+  ON THE OLD ROAD.
+
+  _A COLLECTION OF
+  MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS AND ARTICLES
+  ON ART AND LITERATURE._
+
+  PUBLISHED 1834-1885.
+
+  VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE
+
+  PICTURE GALLERIES.
+
+    PARLIAMENTARY EVIDENCE:--
+      NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION. 1857                  3
+      SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 1860          25
+      THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION                           50
+    A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY                              71
+
+  MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.
+
+      THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS, VERONA. 1872                    89
+      VERONA AND ITS RIVERS (WITH CATALOGUE). 1870           99
+      CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 1872                     118
+      ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIAEVAL CHRISTENDOM. 1876             121
+      THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 1876                       125
+      THE STUDY OF BEAUTY. 1883                             132
+
+  NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.
+
+      THE COLOR OF THE RHINE. 1834                          141
+      THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC. 1834                        143
+      THE INDURATION OF SANDSTONE. 1836                     145
+      THE TEMPERATURE OF SPRING AND RIVER WATER. 1836.      148
+      METEOROLOGY. 1839                                     153
+      TREE TWIGS. 1861                                      158
+      STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY. 1863                        162
+      INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION AND ANIMATED LIFE. 1871       168
+
+  LITERATURE.
+
+      FICTION--FAIR AND FOUL. 1880-81                       175
+      FAIRY STORIES. 1868                                   290
+
+  ECONOMY.
+
+      HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES. 1873                         299
+      USURY. A REPLY AND A REJOINDER. 1880                  314
+      USURY. A PREFACE. 1885                                340
+
+  THEOLOGY.
+
+      NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS. 1851         347
+      THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH. 1879-81. (Letters
+        and Epilogue.)                                               382
+      THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE. 1873             418
+
+  AN OXFORD LECTURE. 1878                                            429
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  PICTURE GALLERIES:
+
+  _THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION._
+
+
+  A. PARLIAMENTARY EVIDENCE.
+
+      NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION 1857.
+      SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 1860.
+      THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION 1863.
+
+  B. LETTERS ON A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY.
+
+                 (_Art Journal, June and August, 1880._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+THE NATIONAL GALLERY SITE COMMISSION.[1]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, April 6, 1857._
+
+
+114. _Chairman._ Has your attention been turned to the desirableness of
+uniting sculpture with painting under the same roof?--Yes.
+
+What is your opinion on the subject?--I think it almost essential that
+they should be united, if a National Gallery is to be of service in
+teaching the course of art.
+
+Sculpture of all kinds, or only ancient sculpture?--Of all kinds.
+
+Do you think that the sculpture in the British Museum should be in the
+same building with the pictures in the National Gallery, that is to say,
+making an application of your principle to that particular case?--Yes,
+certainly; I think so for several reasons--chiefly because I think the
+taste of the nation can only be rightly directed by having always
+sculpture and painting visible together. Many of the highest and best
+points of painting, I think, can only be discerned after some discipline
+of the eye by sculpture. That is one very essential reason. I think that
+after looking at sculpture one feels the grace of composition infinitely
+more, and one also feels how that grace of composition was reached by
+the painter.
+
+Do you consider that if works of sculpture and works of painting were
+placed in the same gallery, the same light would be useful for both of
+them?--I understood your question only to refer to their collection
+under the same roof. I should be sorry to see them in the same room.
+
+You would not mix them up in the way in which they are mixed up in the
+Florentine Gallery, for instance?--Not at all. I think, on the contrary,
+that the one diverts the mind from the other, and that, although the one
+is an admirable discipline, you should take some time for the
+examination of sculpture, and pass afterwards into the painting room,
+and so on. You should not be disturbed while looking at paintings by the
+whiteness of the sculpture.
+
+You do not then approve, for example, of the way in which the famous
+room, the Tribune, at Florence, is arranged?--No; I think it is merely
+arranged for show--for showing how many rich things can be got together.
+
+115. _Mr. Cockerell._ Then you do not regard sculpture as a proper
+decorative portion of the National Gallery of Pictures--you do not admit
+the term decoration?--No; I should not use that term of the sculpture
+which it was the object of the gallery to exhibit. It might be added, of
+course, supposing it became a part of the architecture, but not as
+independent--not as a thing to be contemplated separately in the room,
+and not as a part of the room. As a part of the room, of course, modern
+sculpture might be added; but I have never thought that it would be
+necessary.
+
+You do not consider that sculpture would be a repose after contemplating
+painting for some time?--I should not feel it so myself.
+
+116. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of removing the sculpture of
+the British Museum, and of uniting it with the pictures of the National
+Gallery, do you comprehend the whole range of the sculpture in the
+British Museum, commencing with the Egyptian, and going down through its
+regular series of gradation to the decline of the art?--Yes, because my
+great hope respecting the National Gallery is, that it may become a
+perfectly consecutive chronological arrangement, and it seems to me that
+it is one of the chief characteristics of a National Gallery that it
+should be so.
+
+Then you consider that one great excellence of the collection at the
+British Museum is, that it does present that sort of history of the art
+of sculpture?--I consider it rather its weakness that it does not.
+
+Then you would go down further?--I would.
+
+You are perhaps acquainted with the ivories which have been recently
+purchased there?--I am not.
+
+Supposing there were a fine collection of Byzantine ivories, you would
+consider that they were an important link in the general
+history?--Certainly.
+
+Would you unite the whole of that Pagan sculpture with what you call the
+later Christian art of Painting?--I should be glad to see it done--that
+is to say, I should be glad to see the galleries of painting and
+sculpture collaterally placed, and the gallery of sculpture beginning
+with the Pagan art, and proceeding to the Christian art, but not
+necessarily associating the painting with the sculpture of each epoch;
+because the painting is so deficient in many of the periods where the
+sculpture is rich, that you could not carry them on collaterally--you
+must have your painting gallery and your sculpture gallery.
+
+You would be sorry to take any portion of the sculpture from the
+collection in the British Museum, and to associate it with any
+collection of painting?--Yes, I should think it highly inexpedient. My
+whole object would be that it might be associated with a larger
+collection, a collection from other periods, and not be subdivided. And
+it seems to be one of the chief reasons advanced in order to justify
+removing that collection, that it cannot be much more enlarged--that you
+cannot at present put other sculpture with it.
+
+Supposing that the collection of ancient Pagan art could not be united
+with the National Gallery of pictures, with which would you associate
+the mediaeval sculpture, supposing we were to retain any considerable
+amount of sculpture?--With the painting.
+
+The mediaeval art you would associate with the painting, supposing you
+could not put the whole together?--Yes.
+
+117. _Chairman._ Do you approve of protecting pictures by glass?--Yes,
+in every case. I do not know of what size a pane of glass can be
+manufactured, but I have never seen a picture so large but that I should
+be glad to see it under glass. Even supposing it were possible, which I
+suppose it is not, the great Paul Veronese, in the gallery of the
+Louvre, I think would be more beautiful under glass.
+
+Independently of the preservation?--Independently of the preservation, I
+think it would be more beautiful. It gives an especial delicacy to light
+colors, and does little harm to dark colors--that is, it benefits
+delicate pictures most, and its injury is only to very dark pictures.
+
+Have you ever considered the propriety of covering the sculpture with
+glass?--I have never considered it. I did not know until a very few days
+ago that sculpture was injured by exposure to our climate and our smoke.
+
+_Professor Faraday._ But you would cover the pictures, independently of
+the preservation, you would cover them absolutely for the artistic
+effect, the improvement of the picture?--Not necessarily so, because to
+some persons there might be an objectionable character in having to
+avoid the reflection more scrupulously than otherwise. I should not
+press for it on that head only. The advantage gained is not a great one;
+it is only felt by very delicate eyes. As far as I know, many persons
+would not perceive that there was a difference, and that is caused by
+the very slight color in the glass, which, perhaps, some persons might
+think it expedient to avoid altogether.
+
+Do you put it down to the absolute tint in the glass like a glazing, or
+do you put it down to a sort of reflection? Is the effect referable to
+the color in the glass, or to some kind of optic action, which the most
+transparent glass might produce?--I do not know; but I suppose it to
+be referable to the very slight tint in the glass.
+
+118. _Dean of St. Paul's._ Is it not the case when ladies with very
+brilliant dresses look at pictures through glass, that the reflection of
+the color of their dresses is so strong as greatly to disturb the
+enjoyment and the appreciation of the pictures?--Certainly; but I should
+ask the ladies to stand a little aside, and look at the pictures one by
+one. There is that disadvantage.
+
+I am supposing a crowded room--of course the object of a National
+Gallery is that it should be crowded--that as large a number of the
+public should have access to it as possible--there would of course be
+certain limited hours, and the gallery would be liable to get filled
+with the public in great numbers?--It would be disadvantageous
+certainly, but not so disadvantageous as to balance the much greater
+advantage of preservation. I imagine that, in fact, glass is essential;
+it is not merely an expedient thing, but an essential thing to the
+safety of the pictures for twenty or thirty years.
+
+Do you consider it essential as regards the atmosphere of London, or of
+this country generally?--I speak of London only. I have no experience of
+other parts. But I have this experience in my own collection. I kept my
+pictures for some time without glass, and I found the deterioration
+definite within a very short period--a period of a couple of years.
+
+You mean at Denmark Hill?--Yes; that deterioration on pictures of the
+class I refer to is not to be afterwards remedied--the thing suffers
+forever--you cannot get into the interstices.
+
+_Professor Faraday._ You consider that the picture is permanently
+injured by the dirt?--Yes.
+
+That no cleaning can restore it to what it was?--Nothing can restore it
+to what it was, I think, because the operation of cleaning must scrape
+away some of the grains of paint.
+
+Therefore, if you have two pictures, one in a dirtier place, and one in
+a cleaner place, no attention will put the one in the dirtier place on
+a level with that in the cleaner place?--I think nevermore.
+
+119. _Chairman._ I see that in your "Notes on the Turner Collection,"
+you recommended that the large upright pictures would have great
+advantage in having a room to themselves. Do you mean each of the large
+pictures or a whole collection of large pictures?--Supposing very
+beautiful pictures of a large size (it would depend entirely on the
+value and size of the picture), supposing we ever acquired such large
+pictures as Titian's Assumption, or Raphael's Transfiguration, those
+pictures ought to have a room to themselves, and to have a gallery round
+them.
+
+Do you mean that each of them should have a room?--Yes.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Have you been recently at Dresden?--No, I have
+never been at Dresden.
+
+Then you do not know the position of the Great Holbein and of the
+Madonna de S. Sisto there, which have separate rooms?--No.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ Are you acquainted with the Munich Gallery--No.
+
+Do you know the plans of it?--No.
+
+Then you have not seen, perhaps, the most recent arrangements adopted by
+that learned people, the Germans, with regard to the exhibition of
+pictures?--I have not been into Germany for twenty years.
+
+120. That subject has been handled by them in an original manner, and
+they have constructed galleries at Munich, at Dresden, and I believe at
+St. Petersburg upon a new principle, and a very judicious principle. You
+have not had opportunities of considering that?--No, I have never
+considered that; because I always supposed that there was no difficulty
+in producing a beautiful gallery, or an efficient one. I never thought
+that there could be any question about the form which such a gallery
+should take, or that it was a matter of consideration. The only
+difficulty with me was this--the persuading, or hoping to persuade, a
+nation that if it had pictures at all, it should have those pictures on
+the line of the eye; that it was not well to have a noble picture many
+feet above the eye, merely for the glory of the room. Then I think that
+as soon as you decide that a picture is to be seen, it is easy to find
+out the way of showing it; to say that it should have such and such a
+room, with such and such a light; not a raking light, as I heard Sir
+Charles Eastlake express it the other day, but rather an oblique and
+soft light, and not so near the picture as to catch the eye painfully.
+That may be easily obtained, and I think that all other questions after
+that are subordinate.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Your proposition would require a great extent of
+wall?--An immense extent of wall.
+
+121. _Chairman._ I see you state in the pamphlet to which I have before
+alluded, that it is of the highest importance that the works of each
+master should be kept together. Would not such an arrangement increase
+very much the size of the National Gallery?--I think not, because I have
+only supposed in my plan that, at the utmost, two lines of pictures
+should be admitted on the walls of the room; that being so, you would be
+always able to put all the works of any master together without any
+inconvenience or difficulty in fitting them to the size of the room.
+Supposing that you put the large pictures high on the walls, then it
+might be a question, of course, whether such and such a room or
+compartment of the Gallery would hold the works of a particular master;
+but supposing the pictures were all on a continuous line, you would only
+stop with A and begin with B.
+
+Then you would only have them on one level and one line?--In general;
+that seems to me the common-sense principle.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Then you disapprove of the whole of the European hanging
+of pictures in galleries?--I think it very beautiful sometimes, but not
+to be imitated. It produces most noble rooms. No one can but be
+impressed with the first room at the Louvre, where you have the most
+noble Venetian pictures one mass of fire on the four walls; but then
+none of the details of those pictures can be seen.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ There you have a very fine general effect, but you
+lose the effect of the beauties of each individual picture?--You lose
+all the beauties, all the higher merits; you get merely your general
+idea. It is a perfectly splendid room, of which a great part of the
+impression depends upon the consciousness of the spectator that it is so
+costly.
+
+122. Would you have those galleries in themselves richly decorated?--Not
+richly, but pleasantly.
+
+Brilliantly, but not too brightly?--Not too brightly. I have not gone
+into that question, it being out of my way; but I think, generally, that
+great care should be taken to give a certain splendor--a certain
+gorgeous effect--so that the spectator may feel himself among splendid
+things; so that there shall be no discomfort or meagerness, or want of
+respect for the things which are being shown.
+
+123. _Mr. Richmond._ Then do you think that Art would be more worthily
+treated, and the public taste and artists better served, by having even
+a smaller collection of works so arranged, than by a much larger one
+merely housed and hung four or five deep, as in an auction room?--Yes.
+But you put a difficult choice before me, because I do think it a very
+important thing that we should have many pictures. Totally new results
+might be obtained from a large gallery in which the chronological
+arrangement was perfect, and whose curators prepared for that
+chronological arrangement, by leaving gaps to be filled by future
+acquisition; taking the greatest pains in the selection of the examples,
+that they should be thoroughly characteristic; giving a greater price
+for a picture which was thoroughly characteristic and expressive of the
+habits of a nation; because it appears to me that one of the main uses
+of Art at present is not so much as Art, but as teaching us the feelings
+of nations. History only tells us what they did; Art tells us their
+feelings, and why they did it: whether they were energetic and fiery, or
+whether they were, as in the case of the Dutch, imitating minor things,
+quiet and cold. All those expressions of feeling cannot come out of
+History. Even the contemporary historian does not feel them; he does not
+feel what his nation is; but get the works of the same master together,
+the works of the same nation together, and the works of the same
+century together, and see how the thing will force itself upon
+everyone's observation.
+
+124. Then you would not exclude the genuine work of inferior
+masters?--Not by any means.
+
+You would have the whole as far as you could obtain it?--Yes, as far as
+it was characteristic; but I think you can hardly call an inferior
+master one who does in the best possible way the thing he undertakes to
+do; and I would not take any master who did not in some way excel. For
+instance, I would not take a mere imitator of Cuyp among the Dutch; but
+Cuyp himself has done insuperable things in certain expressions of
+sunlight and repose. Vander Heyden and others may also be mentioned as
+first-rate in inferior lines.
+
+Taking from the rise of art to the time of Raphael, would you in the
+National Gallery include examples of all those masters whose names have
+come down to the most learned of us?--No.
+
+Where would you draw the line, and where would you begin to leave
+out?--I would only draw the line when I was purchasing a picture. I
+think that a person might always spend his money better by making an
+effort to get one noble picture than five or six second or third-rate
+pictures, provided only, that you had examples of the best kind of work
+produced at that time. I would not have second-rate pictures. Multitudes
+of masters among the disciples of Giotto might be named; you might have
+one or two pictures of Giotto, and one or two pictures of the disciples
+of Giotto.
+
+Then you would rather depend upon the beauty of the work itself; if the
+work were beautiful, you would admit it?--Certainly.
+
+But if it were only historically interesting, would you then reject
+it?--Not in the least. I want it historically interesting, but I want as
+good an example as I can have of that particular manner.
+
+Would it not be historically interesting if it were the only picture
+known of that particular master, who was a follower of Giotto? For
+instance, supposing a work of Cennino Cennini were brought to light,
+and had no real merit in it as a work of art, would it not be the duty
+of the authorities of a National Gallery to seize upon that picture, and
+pay perhaps rather a large price for it?--Certainly; all documentary art
+I should include.
+
+Then what would you exclude?--Merely that which is inferior, and not
+documentary; merely another example of the same kind of thing.
+
+Then you would not multiply examples of the same masters if inferior
+men, but you would have one of each. There is no man, I suppose, whose
+memory has come down to us after three or four centuries, but has
+something worth preserving in his work--something peculiar to himself,
+which perhaps no other person has ever done, and you would retain one
+example of such, would you not?--I would, if it was in my power, but I
+would rather with given funds make an effort to get perfect examples.
+
+Then you think that the artistic element should govern the archaeological
+in the selection?--Yes, and the archaeological in the arrangement.
+
+125. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of arranging the works of one
+master consecutively, would you pay any regard or not to the subjects?
+You must be well aware that many painters, for instance, Correggio, and
+others, painted very incongruous subjects; would you rather keep them
+together than disperse the works of those painters to a certain degree
+according to their subjects?--I would most certainly keep them together.
+I think it an important feature of the master that he did paint
+incongruously, and very possibly the character of each picture would be
+better understood by seeing them together; the relations of each are
+sometimes essential to be seen.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Do you think that the preservation of these works is one
+of the first and most important things to be provided for?--It would be
+so with me in purchasing a picture. I would pay double the price for it
+if I thought it was likely to be destroyed where it was.
+
+In a note you wrote to me the other day, I find this passage: "The Art
+of a nation I think one of the most important points of its history, and
+a part which, if once destroyed, no history will ever supply the place
+of--and the first idea of a National Gallery is, that it should be a
+Library of Art, in which the rudest efforts are, in some cases, hardly
+less important than the noblest." Is that your opinion?--Perfectly. That
+seems somewhat inconsistent with what I have been saying, but I mean
+there, the noblest efforts of the time at which they are produced. I
+would take the greatest pains to get an example of eleventh century
+work, though the painting is perfectly barbarous at that time.
+
+126. You have much to do with the education of the working classes in
+Art. As far as you are able to tell us, what is your experience with
+regard to their liking and disliking in Art--do comparatively uneducated
+persons prefer the Art up to the time of Raphael, or down from the time
+of Raphael?--we will take the Bolognese School, or the early Florentine
+School--which do you think a working man would feel the greatest
+interest in looking at?--I cannot tell you, because my working men would
+not be allowed to look at a Bolognese picture; I teach them so much love
+of detail, that the moment they see a detail carefully drawn, they are
+caught by it. The main thing which has surprised me in dealing with
+these men is the exceeding refinement of their minds--so that in a
+moment I can get carpenters, and smiths, and ordinary workmen, and
+various classes to give me a refinement which I cannot get a young lady
+to give me when I give her a lesson for the first time. Whether it is
+the habit of work which makes them go at it more intensely, or whether
+it is (as I rather think) that, as the feminine mind looks for strength,
+the masculine mind looks for delicacy, and when you take it simply, and
+give it its choice, it will go to the most refined thing, I do not know.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Can you see any perceptible improvement in the
+state of the public mind and taste in that respect since these measures
+have been adopted?--There has not been time to judge of that.
+
+127. Do these persons who are taking an interest in Art come from
+different parts of London?--Yes.
+
+Of course the distance which they would have to come would be of very
+great importance?--Yes.
+
+Therefore one of the great recommendations of a Gallery, if you wish it
+to have an effect upon the public mind in that respect, would be its
+accessibility, both with regard to the time consumed in going there, and
+to the cheapness, as I may call it, of access?--Most certainly.
+
+You would therefore consider that the more central the situation,
+putting all other points out of consideration, the greater advantage it
+would be to the public?--Yes; there is this, however, to be said, that a
+central situation involves the crowding of the room with parties wholly
+uninterested in the matter--a situation more retired will generally be
+serviceable enough for the real student.
+
+Would not that very much depend upon its being in a thoroughfare? There
+might be a central situation which would not be so complete a
+thoroughfare as to tempt persons to go in who were not likely to derive
+advantage from it?--I think that if this gallery were made so large and
+so beautiful as we are proposing, it would be rather a resort, rather a
+lounge every day, and all day long, provided it were accessible.
+
+128. Would not that a good deal depend upon its being in a public
+thoroughfare? If it were in a thoroughfare, a great many persons might
+pass in who would be driven in by accident, or driven in by caprice, if
+they passed it; but if it were at a little distance from a thoroughfare,
+it would be less crowded with those persons who are not likely to derive
+much advantage from it?--Quite so; but there would always be an
+advantage in attracting a crowd; it would always extend its educational
+ability in its being crowded. But it would seem to me that all that is
+necessary for a noble Museum of the best art should be more or less
+removed, and that a collection, solely for the purpose of education, and
+for the purpose of interesting people who do not care much about art,
+should be provided in the very heart of the population, if possible,
+that pictures not of great value, but of sufficient value to interest
+the public, and of merit enough to form the basis of early education,
+and to give examples of all art, should be collected in the popular
+Gallery, but that all the precious things should be removed and put into
+the great Gallery, where they would be safest, irrespectively altogether
+of accessibility.
+
+_Chairman._ Then you would, in fact, have not one but two
+Galleries?--Two only.
+
+129. _Professor Faraday._ And you would seem to desire purposely the
+removal of the true and head Gallery to some distance, so as to prevent
+the great access of persons?--Yes.
+
+Thinking that all those who could make a real use of a Gallery would go
+to that one?--Yes. My opinion in that respect has been altered within
+these few days from the fact having been brought to my knowledge of
+sculpture being much deteriorated by the atmosphere and the total
+impossibility of protecting sculpture. Pictures I do not care about, for
+I can protect them, but not sculpture.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Whence did you derive that knowledge?--I forget
+who told me; it was some authority I thought conclusive, and therefore
+took no special note of.
+
+130. _Chairman._ Do you not consider that it is rather prejudicial to
+art that there should be a Gallery notoriously containing no first-rate
+works of art, but second-rate or third-rate works?--No; I think it
+rather valuable as an expression of the means of education, that there
+should be early lessons in art--that there should be this sort of art
+selected especially for first studies, and also that there should be a
+recognition of the exceeding preciousness of some other art. I think
+that portions of it should be set aside as interesting, but not
+unreplaceable; but that other portions should be set aside as being
+things as to which the function of the nation was, chiefly, to take care
+of those things, not for itself merely, but for all its descendants, and
+setting the example of taking care of them for ever.
+
+You do not think, then, that there would be any danger in the studying
+or the copying of works which notoriously were not the best works?--On
+the contrary, I think it would be better that works not altogether the
+best should be first submitted. I never should think of giving the best
+work myself to a student to copy--it is hopeless; he would not feel its
+beauties--he would merely blunder over it. I am perfectly certain that
+that cannot be serviceable in the particular branch of art which I
+profess, namely, landscape-painting; I know that I must give more or
+less of bad examples.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ But you would admit nothing into this second gallery
+which was not good or true of its kind?--Nothing which was not good or
+true of its kind, but only inferior in value to the others.
+
+And if there were any other works which might be deposited there with
+perfect safety, say precious drawings, which might be protected by
+glass, you would not object to exhibit those to the unselected
+multitude?--Not in the least; I should be very glad to do so, provided I
+could spare them from the grand chronological arrangement.
+
+Do you think that a very interesting supplementary exhibition might be
+got up, say at Trafalgar Square, and retained there?--Yes, and all the
+more useful because you would put few works, and you could make it
+complete in series--and because, on a small scale, you would have the
+entire series. By selecting a few works, you would have an epitome of
+the Grand Gallery, the divisions of the chronology being all within the
+compartment of a wall, which in the great Gallery would be in a separate
+division of the building.
+
+131. _Mr. Cockerell._ Do you contemplate the possibility of excellent
+copies being exhibited of the most excellent works both of sculpture and
+of painting?--I have not contemplated that possibility. I have a great
+horror of copies of any kind, except only of sculpture. I have great
+fear of copies of painting; I think people generally catch the worst
+parts of the painting and leave the best.
+
+But you would select the artist who should make the copy. There are
+persons whose whole talent is concentrated in the power of imitation of
+a given picture, and a great talent it is.--I have never in my life
+seen a good copy of a good picture.
+
+_Chairman._ Have you not seen any of the German copies of some of the
+great Italian masters, which are generally esteemed very admirable
+works?--I have not much studied the works of the copyists; I have not
+observed them much, never having yet found an exception to that rule
+which I have mentioned. When I came across a copyist in the Gallery of
+the Vatican, or in the Gallery at Florence, I had a horror of the
+mischief, and the scandal and the libel upon the master, from the
+supposition that such a thing as that in any way resembled his work, and
+the harm that it would do to the populace among whom it was shown.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ You look upon it as you would upon coining bad money and
+circulating it, doing mischief?--Yes, it is mischievous.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ But you admit engravings--you admit photographs of
+these works, which are imitations in another language?--Yes; in abstract
+terms, they are rather descriptions of the paintings than copies--they
+are rather measures and definitions of them--they are hints and tables
+of the pictures, rather than copies of them; they do not pretend to the
+same excellence in any way.
+
+You speak as a connoisseur; how would the common eye of the public agree
+with you in that opinion?--I think it would not agree with me.
+Nevertheless, if I were taking some of my workmen into the National
+Gallery, I should soon have some hope of making them understand in what
+excellence consisted, if I could point to a genuine work; but I should
+have no such hope if I had only copies of these pictures.
+
+132. Do you hold much to the archaeological, chronological, and
+historical series and teaching of pictures?--Yes.
+
+Are you of opinion that that is essential to the creative teaching, with
+reference to our future schools?--No. I should think not essential at
+all. The teaching of the future artist, I should think, might be
+accomplished by very few pictures of the class which that particular
+artist wished to study. I think that the chronological arrangement is
+in no-wise connected with the general efficiency of the gallery as a
+matter of study for the artist, but very much so as a means of study,
+not for persons interested in painting merely, but for those who wish to
+examine the general history of nations; and I think that painting should
+be considered by that class of persons as containing precious evidence.
+It would be part of the philosopher's work to examine the art of a
+nation as well as its poetry.
+
+You consider that art speaks a language and tells a tale which no
+written document can effect?--Yes, and far more precious; the whole soul
+of a nation generally goes with its art. It may be urged by an ambitious
+king to become a warrior nation. It may be trained by a single leader to
+become a _great_ warrior nation, and its character at that time may
+materially depend upon that one man, but in its art all the mind of the
+nation is more or less expressed: it can be said, that was what the
+peasant sought to when he went into the city to the cathedral in the
+morning--that was the sort of book the poor person read or learned
+in--the sort of picture he prayed to. All which involves infinitely more
+important considerations than common history.
+
+133. _Dean of St. Paul's._ When you speak of your objections to copies
+of pictures, do you carry that objection to casts of sculpture?--Not at
+all.
+
+Supposing there could be no complete union of the great works of
+sculpture in a country with the great works of painting in that country,
+would you consider that a good selection of casts comprising the great
+remains of sculpture of all ages would be an important addition to a
+public gallery?--I should be very glad to see it.
+
+If you could not have it of originals, you would wish very much to have
+a complete collection of casts, of course selected from all the finest
+sculptures in the world?--Certainly.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Would you do the same with architecture--would you
+collect the remains of architecture, as far as they are to be collected,
+and unite them with sculpture and painting?--I should think that
+architecture consisted, as far as it was portable, very much in
+sculpture. In saying that, I mean, that in the different branches of
+sculpture architecture is involved--that is to say, you would have the
+statues belonging to such and such a division of a building. Then if you
+had casts of those statues, you would necessarily have those casts
+placed exactly in the same position as the original statues--it involves
+the buildings surrounding them and the elevation--it involves the whole
+architecture.
+
+In addition to that, would you have original drawings of architecture,
+and models of great buildings, and photographs, if they could be made
+permanent, of the great buildings as well as the moldings and casts of
+the moldings, and the members as far as you could obtain them?--Quite
+so.
+
+Would you also include, in the National Gallery, what may be called the
+handicraft of a nation--works for domestic use or ornament? For
+instance, we know that there were some salt-cellars designed for one of
+the Popes; would you have those if they came to us?--Everything, pots
+and pans, and salt-cellars, and knives.
+
+You would have everything that had an interesting art element in
+it?--Yes.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ In short, a modern Pompeian Gallery?--Yes; I know
+how much greater extent that involves, but I think that you should
+include all the iron work, and china, and pottery, and so on. I think
+that all works in metal, all works in clay, all works in carved wood,
+should be included. Of course, that involves much. It involves all the
+coins--it involves an immense extent.
+
+134. Supposing it were impossible to concenter in one great museum the
+whole of these things, where should you prefer to draw the line? Would
+you draw the line between what I may call the ancient Pagan world and
+the modern Christian world, and so leave, to what may be called the
+ancient world, all the ancient sculpture, and any fragments of ancient
+painting which there might be--all the vases, all the ancient bronzes,
+and, in short, everything which comes down to a certain period? Do you
+think that that would be the best division, or should you prefer any
+division which takes special arts, and keeps those arts together?--I
+should like the Pagan and Christian division. I think it very essential
+that wherever the sculpture of a nation was, there its iron work should
+be--that wherever its iron work was, there its pottery should be, and so
+on.
+
+And you would keep the mediaeval works together, in whatever form those
+mediaeval works existed?--Yes; I should not at all feel injured by having
+to take a cab-drive from one century to another century.
+
+Or from the ancient to the modern world?--No.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ If it were found convenient to keep separate the Pagan
+and the Christian art, with which would you associate the mediaeval?--By
+"Christian and Pagan Art" I mean, before Christ and after Christ.
+
+Then the mediaeval would come with the paintings?--Yes; and also the
+Mahomedan, and all the Pagan art which was after Christ, I should
+associate as part, and a most essential part, because it seems to me
+that the history of Christianity is complicated perpetually with that
+which Christianity was effecting. Therefore, it is a matter of date, not
+of Christianity. Everything before Christ I should be glad to see
+separated, or you may take any other date that you like.
+
+But the inspiration of the two schools--the Pagan and the
+Christian--seems so different, that there would be no great violence
+done to the true theory of a National Gallery in dividing these two,
+would there, if each were made complete in itself?--That is to say,
+taking the spirit of the world after Christianity was in it, and the
+spirit of the world before Christianity was in it.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ The birth of Christ, you say, is the commencement
+of Christian art?--Yes.
+
+Then Christian influence began, and, of course, that would leave a small
+debatable ground, particularly among the ivories for instance, which we
+must settle according to circumstances?--Wide of any debatable ground,
+all the art of a nation which had never heard of Christianity, the
+Hindoo art and so on, would, I suppose, if of the Christian era, go into
+the Christian gallery.
+
+I was speaking rather of the transition period, which, of course, there
+must be?--Yes.
+
+_Mr. Cockerell._ There must be a distinction between the terms "museum"
+and "gallery." What are the distinctions which you would draw in the
+present case?--I should think "museum" was the right name of the whole
+building. A "gallery" is, I think, merely a room in a museum adapted for
+the exhibition of works in a series, whose effect depends upon their
+collateral showing forth.
+
+135. There are certainly persons who would derive their chief advantage
+from the historical and chronological arrangement which you propose, but
+there are others who look alone for the beautiful, and who say, "I have
+nothing to do with your pedantry. I desire to have the beautiful before
+me. Show me those complete and perfect works which are received and
+known as the works of Phidias and the great Greek masters as far as we
+possess them, and the works of the great Italian painters. I have not
+time, nor does my genius permit that I should trouble myself with those
+details." There is a large class who are guided by those feelings?--And
+I hope who always will be guided by them; but I should consult their
+feelings enough in the setting before them of the most beautiful works
+of art. All that I should beg of them to yield to me would be that they
+should look at Titian only, or at Raphael only, and not wish to have
+Titian and Raphael side by side; and I think I should be able to teach
+them, as a matter of beauty, that they did enjoy Titian and Raphael
+alone better than mingled. Then I would provide them beautiful galleries
+full of the most-noble sculpture. Whenever we come as a country and a
+nation to provide beautiful sculpture, it seems to me that the greatest
+pains should be taken to set it off beautifully. You should have
+beautiful sculpture in the middle of the room, with dark walls round it
+to throw out its profile, and you should have all the arrangements made
+there so as to harmonize with it, and to set forth every line of it. So
+the painting gallery, I think, might be made a glorious thing, if the
+pictures were level, and the architecture above produced unity of
+impression from the beauty and glow of color and the purity of form.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ And you would not exclude a Crevelli because it was
+quaint, or an early master of any school--you would have the infancy,
+the youth, and the age, of each school, would you not?--Certainly.
+
+_Dean of St. Paul's._ Of the German as well as the Italian?--Yes.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ Spanish, and all the schools?--Certainly.
+
+136. _Mr. Cockerell._ You are quite aware of the great liberality of the
+Government, as we learn from the papers, in a recent instance, namely,
+the purchase of a great Paul Veronese?--I am rejoiced to hear it. If it
+is confirmed, nothing will have given me such pleasure for a long time.
+I think it is the most precious Paul Veronese in the world, as far as
+the completion of the picture goes, and quite a priceless picture.
+
+Can you conceive a Government, or a people, who would countenance so
+expensive a purchase, condescending to take up with the occupation of
+the upper story of some public building, or with an expedient which
+should not be entirely worthy of such a noble Gallery of Pictures?--I do
+not think that they ought to do so; but I do not know how far they will
+be consistent. I certainly think they ought not to put up with any such
+expedient. I am not prepared to say what limits there are to consistency
+or inconsistency.
+
+_Mr. Richmond._ I understand you to have given in evidence that you
+think a National Collection should be illustrative of the whole art in
+all its branches?--Certainly.
+
+Not a cabinet of paintings, not a collection of sculptured works, but
+illustrative of the whole art?--Yes.
+
+137. Have you any further remark to offer to the Commissioners?--I wish
+to say one word respecting the question of the restoration of statuary.
+It seems to me a very simple question. Much harm is being at present
+done in Europe by restoration, more harm than was ever done, as far as
+I know, by revolutions or by wars. The French are now doing great harm
+to their cathedrals, under the idea that they are doing good, destroying
+more than all the good they are doing. And all this proceeds from the
+one great mistake of supposing that sculpture can be restored when it is
+injured. I am very much interested by the question which one of the
+Commissioners asked me in that respect; and I would suggest whether it
+does not seem easy to avoid all questions of that kind. If the statue is
+injured, leave it so, but provide a perfect copy of the statue in its
+restored form; offer, if you like, prizes to sculptors for conjectural
+restorations, and choose the most beautiful, but do not touch the
+original work.
+
+138. _Professor Faraday._ You said some time ago that in your own
+attempts to instruct the public there had not been time yet to see
+whether the course taken had produced improvement or not. You see no
+signs at all which lead you to suppose that it will not produce the
+improvement which you desire?--Far from it--I understood the Dean of St.
+Paul's to ask me whether any general effect had been produced upon the
+minds of the public. I have only been teaching a class of about forty
+workmen for a couple of years, after their work--they not always
+attending--and that forty being composed of people passing away and
+coming again; and I do not know what they are now doing; I only see a
+gradual succession of men in my own class. I rather take them in an
+elementary class, and pass them to a master in a higher class. But I
+have the greatest delight in the progress which these men have made, so
+far as I have seen it; and I have not the least doubt that great things
+will be done with respect to them.
+
+_Chairman._ Will you state precisely what position you hold?--I am
+master of the Elementary and Landscape School of Drawing at the Working
+Men's College in Great Ormond Street. My efforts are directed not to
+making a carpenter an artist, but to making him happier as a carpenter.
+
+     NOTE.--The following analysis of the above evidence was
+     given in the Index to the Report (p. 184).--ED.
+
+     114-5-6. Sculpture and painting should be combined under same
+     roof, not in same room.--Sculpture disciplines the eye to
+     appreciate painting.--But, if in same room, disturbs the
+     mind.--Tribune at Florence arranged too much for show--Sculpture
+     not to be regarded as _decorative_ of a room.--National Gallery
+     should include works of all kinds of art _of all ages_, arranged
+     chronologically (_cf._ 132). Mediaeval sculpture should go with
+     painting, if it is found impossible to combine art of all ages.
+
+     117-8. Pictures should be protected by glass in every case. It
+     makes them more beautiful, independently of the
+     preservation,--Glass is not merely expedient, but
+     essential.--Pictures are permanently injured by dirt.
+
+     119-20-21. First-rate large pictures should have a room to
+     themselves, and a gallery round them.--Pictures must be hung on a
+     line with the eye.--In one, or at most two, lines.--In the Salon
+     Carre at the Louvre the effect is magnificent, but details of
+     pictures cannot be seen.
+
+     122. Galleries should be decorated not splendidly, but pleasantly.
+
+     123. Great importance of chronological arrangement. Art the truest
+     history (_cf._ 125 and 132).
+
+     124. Best works of inferior artists to be secured.
+
+     125. All the works of a painter, however incongruous their
+     subjects, to be exhibited in juxtaposition.
+
+     126. Love of detail in pictures among workmen.--Great refinement of
+     their perceptions.
+
+     127. Accessibility of new National Gallery.
+
+     128. There should be two galleries--one containing gems, placed in
+     as _safe_ a position as possible; the other containing works good,
+     but inferior to the highest, and located solely with a view to
+     accessibility.
+
+     129. Impossible to protect _sculpture_ from London atmosphere.
+
+     130. Inferior gallery would be useful as an instructor.--In this
+     respect superior to the great gallery.
+
+     131-32. _Copies_ of paintings much to be deprecated.
+
+     133. Good collection of casts a valuable addition to a national
+     gallery.--Also architectural fragments and illustrations.--And
+     everything which involves art.
+
+     134. If it is impossible to combine works of art of all ages, the
+     Pagan and Christian division is the best.--"Christian" art
+     including _all_ art subsequent to the birth of Christ.
+
+     135. Great importance of arranging and setting off sculpture.
+
+     136. Recent purchase by Government of the great Paul Veronese.
+
+     137. "Restoring" abroad.
+
+     138. Witness is Master of the Elementary and Landscape School of
+     Drawing at the Working Men's College in Great Ormond
+     Street.--Progress made by students highly satisfactory.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: This evidence, given by Mr. Ruskin as stated above, is
+reprinted from the Report of the National Gallery Site Commission.
+London: Harrison and Sons. 1857. Pp. 92-7. Questions 2392-2504. The
+Commission consisted of Lord Broughton (chairman), Dean Milman,
+Professor Faraday, Mr. Cockerell, R.A., and Mr. George Richmond, all of
+whom were present on the occasion of Mr. Ruskin giving his
+evidence.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+SELECT COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS.[2]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Tuesday, March 20, 1860._
+
+
+139. _Chairman._ I believe you have a general acquaintance with
+the leading museums, picture galleries, and institutions in this
+metropolis?--Yes, I know them well.
+
+And especially the pictures?--Yes.
+
+I believe you have also taken much interest in the Working Men's
+College?--Yes, much interest. I have been occupied there as a master for
+about five years.
+
+I believe you conduct a class on two days in the week?--On one day of
+the week only.
+
+You have given a great deal of gratuitous instruction to the working
+classes?--Not so much to the working classes as to the class which
+especially attends the lectures on drawing, but which of course is
+connected with the working classes, and through which I know something
+about them.
+
+140. You are probably able to speak with reference to the hours at which
+it would be most convenient that these institutions should be opened to
+the working classes, so that they might enjoy them?--At all events, I
+can form some opinion about it.
+
+What are the hours which you think would be the most suitable to the
+working classes, or those to whom you have imparted instruction?--They
+would, of course, have in general no hours but in the evening.
+
+Do you think the hours which are now found suitable for mechanics'
+institutes would be suitable for them, that is, from eight till ten, or
+from seven till ten at night?--The earlier the better, I should think;
+that being dependent closely upon the other much more important
+question, how you can prepare the workmen for taking advantage of these
+institutions. The question before us, as a nation, is not, I think, what
+opportunities we shall give to the workmen of instruction, unless we
+enable them to receive it; and all this is connected closely, in my
+mind, with the early closing question, and with the more difficult
+question, issuing out of that, how far you can get the hours of labor
+regulated, and how far you can get the labor during those hours made not
+competitive, and not oppressive to the workmen.
+
+141. Have you found that the instruction which you have been enabled to
+give to the working classes has produced very good results upon them
+already? I ought perhaps hardly to speak of my own particular modes of
+instruction, because their tendency is rather to lead the workman out of
+his class, and I am privately obliged to impress upon my men who come to
+the Working Men's College, not to learn in the hope of being anything
+but working men, but to learn what may be either advantageous for them
+in their work, or make them happy after their work. In my class, they
+are especially tempted to think of rising above their own rank, and
+becoming artists,--becoming something better than workmen, and that
+effect I particularly dread. I want all efforts for bettering the
+workmen to be especially directed in this way: supposing that they are
+to remain in this position forever, that they have not capacity to rise
+above it, and that they are to work as coal miners, or as iron forgers,
+staying as they are; how then you may make them happier and wiser?
+
+I should suppose you would admit that the desire to rise out of a class
+is almost inseparable from the amount of self-improvement that you
+would wish to give them?--I should think not; I think that the moment a
+man desires to rise out of his own class, he does his work badly in it;
+he ought to desire to rise in his own class, and not out of it.
+
+The instruction which you would impart one would suppose would be
+beneficial to the laborer in the class which he is in?--Yes.
+
+142. And that agrees, does it not, with what has been alleged by many
+working men, that they have found in their competition with foreigners
+that a knowledge of art has been most beneficial to them?--Quite so.
+
+I believe many foreigners are now in competition with working men in the
+metropolis, in matters in which art is involved?--I believe there are
+many, and that they are likely still more to increase as the relations
+between the nations become closer.
+
+Is it your opinion that the individual workman who now executes works of
+art in this country is less intellectually fit for his occupation than
+in former days?--Very much so indeed.
+
+Have you not some proofs of that which you can adduce for the benefit of
+the Committee?--I can only make an assertion; I cannot prove it; but I
+assert it with confidence, that no workman, whose mind I have examined,
+is, at present, capable of design in the arts, only of imitation, and of
+exquisite manual execution, such as is unsurpassable by the work of any
+time or any country; manual execution, which, however, being wholly
+mechanical, is always profitless to the man himself, and profitless
+ultimately to those who possess the work.
+
+143. With regard to those institutions in which pictures are exhibited,
+are you satisfied that the utmost facilities are afforded to the public
+compatibly with the expense which is now incurred?--I cannot tell how
+far it would be compatible with the expense, but I think that a very
+little increase of expense might certainly bring about a great increase
+of convenience.
+
+Various plans have been suggested, by different persons, as to an
+improvement in the National Gallery, with regard to the area, and a
+better distribution of the pictures?--Yes.
+
+Are you of opinion that at a very small cost it would be possible to
+increase the area considerably in the case of the National Gallery?--I
+have not examined the question with respect to the area of the National
+Gallery. It depends of course upon questions of rent, and respecting the
+mode in which the building is now constructed, which I have not
+examined; but in general this is true of large buildings, that expense
+wisely directed to giving facilities for seeing the pictures, and not to
+the mere show of the building, would always be productive of far more
+good to the nation, and especially to the lower orders of the nation,
+than expense in any other way directed, with reference to these
+institutions.
+
+144. Some persons have been disposed to doubt whether, if the
+institutions were open at night, gas would be found injurious to the
+pictures; would that be your impression?--I have no doubt that it would
+be injurious to the pictures, if it came in contact with them. It would
+be a matter of great regret to me that valuable pictures should be so
+exhibited. I have hoped that pictures might be placed in a gallery for
+the working classes which would interest them much more than the
+_chefs-d'oeuvre_ of the great masters, and which at the same time
+would not be a great loss to the nation if destroyed.
+
+145. Have you had any experience of the working of the evening openings
+of the South Kensington Museum?--No direct experience, but my impression
+is that the workmen at present being compelled to think always of
+getting as much work done in a day as they can, are generally led in
+these institutions to look to the machinery, or to anything which bears
+upon their trade; it therefore is no rest to them; it may be sometimes,
+when they are allowed to take their families, as they do on certain
+evenings, to the Kensington Museum, that is a great step; but the great
+evil is that the pressure of the work on a man's mind is not removed,
+and that he has not rest enough, thorough rest given him by proper
+explanations of the things he sees; he is not led by a large printed
+explanation beneath the very thing to take a happy and unpainful
+interest in every subject brought before him; he wanders about
+listlessly, and exerts himself to find out things which are not
+sufficiently explained, and gradually he tires of it, and he goes back
+to his home, or to his alehouse, unless he is a very intelligent man.
+
+Would you recommend that some person should follow him through the
+building to explain the details?--No; but I would especially recommend
+that our institutions should be calculated for the help of persons whose
+minds are languid with labor. I find that with ordinary constitutions,
+the labor of a day in England oppresses a man, and breaks him down, and
+it is not refreshment to him to use his mind after that, but it would be
+refreshment to him to have anything read to him, or any amusing thing
+told him, or to have perfect rest; he likes to lie back in his chair at
+his own fireside, and smoke his pipe, rather than enter into a political
+debate, and what we want is an extension of our art institutions, with
+interesting things, teaching a man and amusing him at the same time;
+above all, large printed explanations under every print and every
+picture; and the subjects of the pictures such as they can enjoy.
+
+146. Have you any other suggestion to offer calculated to enlighten the
+Committee on the subject intrusted to them for consideration?--I can
+only say what my own feelings have been as to my men. I have found
+particularly that natural history was delightful to them; I think that
+that has an especial tendency to take their minds off their work, which
+is what I always try to do, not ambitiously, but reposingly. I should
+like to add to what I said about the danger of injury to
+_chefs-d'oeuvre_, that such danger exists, not only as to gas, but
+also the breath, the variation of temperature, the extension of the
+canvases in a different temperature, the extension of the paint upon
+them, and various chemical operations of the human breath, the chance of
+an accidental escape of gas, the circulation of variously damp air
+through the ventilators; all these ought not to be allowed to affect
+the great and unreplaceable works of the best masters; and those works,
+I believe, are wholly valueless to the working classes; their merits are
+wholly imperceptible except to persons who have given many years of
+study to endeavor to qualify themselves to discover them; but what is
+wanting for the working man is historical painting of events noble, and
+bearing upon his own country; the history of his own country well
+represented to him; the natural history of foreign countries well
+represented to him; and domestic pathos brought before him. Nothing
+assists him so much as having the moral disposition developed rather
+than the intellectual after his work; anything that touches his feelings
+is good, and puts new life into him; therefore I want modern pictures,
+if possible, of that class which would ennoble and refine by their
+subjects. I should like prints of all times, engravings of all times;
+those would interest him with their variety of means and subject; and
+natural history of three kinds, namely, shells, birds, and plants; not
+minerals, because a workman cannot study mineralogy at home; but
+whatever town he may be in, he may take some interest in the birds and
+in the plants, or in the sea shells of his own country and coast. I
+should like the commonest of all our plants first, and most fully
+illustrated; the commonest of all our birds, and of our shells, and men
+would be led to take an interest in those things wholly for their
+beauty, and for their separate charm, irrespective of any use that might
+be made of them in the arts. There also ought to be, for the more
+intelligent workman, who really wants to advance himself in his
+business, specimens of the manufactures of all countries, as far as the
+compass of such institutions would allow.
+
+147. You have traveled, I believe, a good deal abroad?--Yes.
+
+And you have seen in many foreign countries that far more interest is
+taken in the improvement of the people in this matter than is taken in
+this country?--Far more.
+
+Do you think that you can trace the good effects which result from that
+mode of treatment?--The circumstances are so different that I do not
+feel able to give evidence of any definite effect from such efforts;
+only, it stands to reason, that it must be so. There are so many
+circumstances at present against us, in England, that we must not be
+sanguine as to too speedy an effect. I believe that one great reason of
+the superiority of foreign countries in manufactures is, that they have
+more beautiful things about them continually, and it is not possible for
+a man who is educated in the streets of our manufacturing towns ever to
+attain that refinement of eye or sense; he cannot do it; and he is
+accustomed in his home to endure that which not the less blunts his
+senses.
+
+The Committee has been informed that with regard to some of our museums,
+particularly the British Museum, they are very much overcharged with
+objects, and I apprehend that the same remark would be true as to some
+of our picture galleries. Are you of opinion that it would be conducive
+to the general elevation of the people in this country if our works of
+art, and objects of interest, were circulated more expeditiously, and
+more conveniently, than at present, throughout the various manufacturing
+districts?--I think that all precious works of art ought to be treated
+with a quite different view, and that they ought to be kept together
+where men whose work is chiefly concerned with art, and where the
+artistically higher classes can take full advantage of them. They ought,
+therefore, to be all together, as in the Louvre at Paris, and as in the
+Uffizii at Florence, everything being illustrative of other things, but
+kept separate from the collections intended for the working classes,
+which may be as valuable as you choose, but they should be usable, and
+above all things so situated that the working classes could get at them
+easily, without keepers to watch what they are about, and have their
+wives and children with them, and be able to get at them freely, so that
+they might look at a thing as their own, not merely as the nation's, but
+as a gift from the nation to them as the working class.
+
+You would cultivate a taste at the impressionable age?--Especially in
+the education of children, that being just the first question, I
+suppose, which lies at the root of all you can do for the workman.
+
+148. With regard to the circulation of pictures and such loans of
+pictures as have heretofore been made in Manchester and elsewhere, are
+you of opinion that, in certain cases, during a part of the year, some
+of our best pictures might be lent for particular periods, to particular
+towns, to be restored in the same condition, so as to give those towns
+an opportunity of forming an opinion upon them, which otherwise they
+would not have?--I would rather keep them all in the metropolis, and
+move them as little as possible when valuable.
+
+_Mr. Slaney._ That would not apply to loans by independent gentlemen who
+were willing to lend their pictures?--I should be very glad if it were
+possible to lend pictures, and send them about. I think it is one of the
+greatest movements in the nation, showing the increasing kindness of the
+upper classes towards the lower, that that has been done; but I think
+nothing can justify the risking of noble pictures by railway, for
+instance; that, of course, is an artist's view of the matter; but I do
+not see that the advantage to be gained would at all correspond with the
+danger of loss which is involved.
+
+149. _Mr. Hanbury._ You mentioned that you thought it was very desirable
+that there should be lectures given to the working classes?--Yes.
+
+Do you think that the duplicate specimens at the British Museum could be
+made available for lectures on natural history, if a part of that
+institution could be arranged for the purpose?--I should think so; but
+it is a question that I have no right to have an opinion upon. Only the
+officers of the institution can say what number of their duplicate
+specimens they could spare.
+
+I put the question to you because I have observed in the British Museum
+that the people took a great interest in the natural history department,
+and, upon one occasion, a friend of mine stopped, and explained some of
+the objects, and at once a very numerous crowd was attracted round him,
+and the officials had to interfere, and told him to move on.--So much
+more depends upon the explanation than on the thing explained, that I
+believe, with very simple collections of very small value, but well
+chosen, and exhibited by a thoroughly intelligent lecturer, you might
+interest the lower classes, and teach them to any extent.
+
+Would it be difficult to find such lecturers as you speak of?--Not in
+time; perhaps at present it would be, because we have got so much in the
+habit of thinking that science consists in language, and in fine words,
+and not in ascertaining the nature of the thing. The workman cannot be
+deceived by fine words; he always wants to know something about the
+thing, and its properties. Many of our lecturers would, I have no doubt,
+be puzzled if they were asked to explain the habits of a common bird.
+
+150. Is there an increasing desire for information and improvement among
+the working classes?--A thirsty desire for it in every direction,
+increasing day by day, and likely to increase; it would grow by what it
+feeds upon.
+
+To what do you attribute this improvement?--Partly to the healthy and
+proper efforts which have been made to elevate the working classes;
+partly, I am sorry to say, to an ambitious desire throughout the nation
+always to get on to a point which it has not yet reached, and which
+makes one man struggle with another in every way. I think that the idea
+that knowledge is power is at the root of the movement among the working
+classes, much more so than in any other.
+
+Do you consider that the distance of our public institutions is a great
+hindrance to the working classes?--Very great indeed.
+
+You would, therefore, probably consider it a boon if another institution
+such as the British Museum could be established in the eastern end of
+the metropolis?--I should be most thankful to see it, especially there.
+
+151. _Mr. Slaney._ I think you stated that you considered, that for the
+working classes it is a great thing to have relaxation of mind after the
+close occupation of the day; that they would embrace an opportunity of
+attending popular lectures on branches of natural history which they
+could comprehend, if they were given to them in plain and simple
+language?--Yes.
+
+For instance, if you were to give a popular lecture upon British birds,
+giving them an explanation of the habits of the various birds, assisted
+by tolerably good plates, or figures describing the different habits of
+migration of those that come to us in spring, remain during the summer,
+and depart in the autumn to distant countries; of those which come in
+the autumn, remain during the winter, and then leave us; of those which
+charm us with their song, and benefit us in various ways; do you think
+that such a lecture would be acceptable to the working classes?--It
+would be just what they would enjoy the most, and what would do them the
+most good.
+
+Do you not think that such lectures might be given without any very
+great cost, by finding persons who would endeavor to make the subjects
+plain and pleasant, not requiring a very expensive apparatus, either of
+figures or of birds, but which might be pointed out to them, and
+explained to them from time to time?--No; I think that no such lectures
+would be of use, unless a permanent means of quiet study were given to
+the men between times. As far as I know, lectures are always entirely
+useless, except as a matter of amusement, unless some opportunity be
+afforded of accurate intermediate study, and although I should deprecate
+the idea, on the one side, of giving the _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of the
+highest masters to the workman for his daily experiments, so I should
+deprecate, on the other, the idea of any economy if I saw a definite
+plan of helping a man in his own times of quiet study.
+
+152. There are some popular works on British birds which the men might
+be referred to, containing accounts of the birds and their habits, which
+might be referred to subsequently?--Yes.
+
+There are several works relating to British birds which are very
+beautifully illustrated, and to those they might be referred; do you not
+think that something might also be done with regard to popular lectures
+upon British plants, and particularly those which are perhaps the most
+common, and only neglected because of their being common; that you might
+point out to them the different soils in which they grow, so that they
+might be able to make excursions to see them in their wild state?--My
+wish is, that in every large manufacturing town there should be a
+perfect collection, at all events of the principal genera of British
+plants and birds, thoroughly well arranged, and a library associated
+with it, containing the best illustrative works on the subject, and that
+from time to time lectures should be given by the leading scientific
+men, which I am sure they would be willing to give if such collections
+were opened to them.
+
+I dare say you know that there is one book upon British birds, which was
+compiled by a gentleman who was in trade, and lived at the corner of St.
+James's Street for many years, which is prized by all who are devoted to
+that study, and which would be easily obtained for the working men. Do
+you not think that this would relax their minds and be beneficial to
+them in many ways, especially if they were able to follow up the
+study?--Yes, in every way.
+
+As to plants, might not they interest their wives as well?--I quite
+believe so.
+
+If such things could be done by subscription in the vicinity of large
+towns, such as Manchester, would they not be very much responded to by
+the grateful feelings of the humbler people, who themselves would
+subscribe probably some trifle?--I think they would be grateful, however
+it were done. But I should like it to be done as an expression of the
+sense of the nation, as doing its duty towards the workmen, rather than
+it should be done as a kind of charity by private subscription.
+
+153. _Sir Robert Peel._ You have been five years connected with the
+Working Men's College?--Yes; I think about that time.
+
+Is the attendance good there?--There is a fair attendance, I believe.
+
+Of the working classes?--Yes; in the other lecture-rooms; not much in
+mine.
+
+Do they go there as they please without going beforehand for
+tickets?--They pass through an introductory examination, which is not
+severe in any way, but merely shows that they are able to take advantage
+of the classes there; of course they pay a certain sum, which is not at
+all, at present, I believe, supporting to the college, for every class,
+just to insure their paying attention to it.
+
+You stated that you did not think lectures would be of any use unless
+there was what you called active intermediate study?--I think not.
+
+What did you mean by active intermediate study? if a man is working
+every day of the week until Saturday afternoon, how could that take
+place?--I think that you could not at all provide lectures once or twice
+a week at the institutions throughout the kingdom. By intermediate
+study, I mean merely that a man should have about him, when he came into
+the room, things that shall tempt him to look at them, and get
+interested in, say in one bird, or in one plant.
+
+While the lecture was going on?--No, that might be given once a
+fortnight, or once a month, but that this intermediate attention should
+be just that which a man is delighted to give to a single plant which he
+cultivates in his own garden, or a single bird which he may happen to
+have obtained; the best of all modes of study.
+
+154. You are in favor of the Early Closing Association?--I will not say
+that I am, because I have not examined their principles. I want to have
+our labor regulated, so that it shall be impossible for men to be so
+entirely crushed in mind and in body as they are by the system of
+competition.
+
+You stated that you would wish the hours during which they would be able
+to enjoy the institutions to be as early as possible?--Yes, certainly.
+
+But it would be impossible to have them earlier than they are now, on
+account of the organization of labor in the country.--I do not know what
+is possible. I do not know what the number of hours necessary for labor
+will ultimately be found to be.
+
+Still you are of opinion that, if there was a half-holiday on the
+Saturday, it would be an advantage to the working classes, and enable
+them to visit and enjoy these institutions?--Certainly.
+
+155. You observed, I think, that there was a thirsty desire on the part
+of the working classes for improvement?--Certainly.
+
+And you also stated that there was a desire on their part to rise in
+that class, but not out of it?--I did not say that they wanted to rise
+in that class; they wish to emerge from it; they wish to become
+something better than workmen, and I want to keep them in that class; I
+want to teach every man to rest contented in his station, and I want all
+people, in all stations, to better and help each other as much as they
+can.
+
+But you never saw a man, did you, who was contented?--Yes, I have seen
+several; nearly all the very good workmen are contented; I find that it
+is only the second-rate workmen who are discontented.
+
+156. Surely competition with foreigners is a great advantage to the
+working classes of this country?--No.
+
+It has been stated that competition is an immense advantage in the
+extension of artistic knowledge among the people of this country, who
+are rapidly stepping on the heels of foreigners?--An acquaintance with
+what foreign nations have accomplished may be very useful to our
+workmen, but a spirit of competition with foreign nations is useful to
+no one.
+
+Will you be good enough to state why?--Every nation has the power of
+producing a certain number of objects of art, or of manufacturing
+productions which are peculiar to it, and which it can produce
+thoroughly well; and, when that is rightly understood, every nation will
+strive to do its own work as well as it can be done, and will desire to
+be supplied, by other nations, with that which they can produce; for
+example, if we tried here in England to produce silk, we might possibly
+grow unhealthy mulberry trees and bring up unhealthy silkworms, but not
+produce good silk. It may be a question how far we should compete with
+foreigners in matters of taste. I think it doubtful, even in that view,
+that we should ever compete with them thoroughly. I find evidence in
+past art, that the French have always had a gift of color, which the
+English never had.
+
+157. You stated that you thought that at very little expense the
+advantages to be derived from our national institutions might be greatly
+increased; will you state why you think very little expense would be
+necessary, and how it should be done?--By extending the space primarily,
+and by adding very cheap but completely illustrative works; by making
+all that such institutions contain thoroughly accessible; and giving, as
+I think I have said before, explanations, especially in a visible form,
+beside the thing to be illustrated, not in a separate form.
+
+But that only would apply to daytime?--To nighttime as well.
+
+But would you not have to introduce a system of lighting?--Yes; a system
+of lighting I should only regret as applied to the great works of art; I
+should think that the brightest system of lighting should be applied,
+especially of an evening, so that such places should be made delightful
+to the workman, and withdraw him from the alehouse and all other evil
+temptation; but I want them rather to be occupied by simple, and more or
+less cheap collections, than by the valuable ones, for fear of fire.
+
+If, at the British Museum, they had printed information upon natural
+history, that, you think, would do great good?--Yes.
+
+158. You stated that you thought there was far more interest taken in
+foreign countries in the intellectual development of the working classes
+than in England?--I answered that question rather rashly. I hardly ever
+see anything of society in foreign countries, and I was thinking, at the
+time, of the great efforts now being made in France, and of the general
+comfort of the institutions that are open.
+
+Not political?--No.
+
+Still you think that there is more interest taken in the intellectual
+development of the working classes in foreign countries than in
+England?--I think so, but I do not trust my own opinion.
+
+I have lived abroad, and I have remarked that there is a natural
+facility in the French people, for instance, in acquiring a knowledge of
+art, and of combination of colors, but I never saw more, but far less
+desire or interest taken in the working classes than in England.--As far
+as relates to their intellectual development, I say yes; but I think
+there is a greater disposition to make them happy, and allow them to
+enjoy their happiness, in ordinary associations, at _fetes_, and
+everything of that kind, that is amusing or recreative to them.
+
+But that is only on Sundays?--No; on all _fete_ days, and throughout, I
+think you see the working man, with his wife, happier in the gardens or
+in the suburbs of a town, and on the whole in a happier state; there is
+less desire to get as much out of him for the money as they can; less of
+that desire to oppress him and to use him as a machine than there is in
+England. But, observe, I do not lean upon that point; and I do not quite
+see how that bears upon the question, because, whatever interest there
+may be in foreign countries, or in ours, it is not as much as it should
+be in either.
+
+But you were throwing a slur upon the character of the upper classes in
+this country, by insinuating that abroad a great deal more interest was
+taken in the working classes than in England. Now I assert, that quite
+the contrary is the fact.--I should be very sorry to express all the
+feelings that I have respecting the relations between the upper classes
+and the working classes in this country; it is a subject which cannot at
+present be discussed, and one upon which I would decline any further
+examination.
+
+159. You stated that the working men were not so happy in this country
+as they were abroad, pursuing the same occupations?--I should think
+certainly not.
+
+You have been in Switzerland?--Yes.
+
+And at Zurich?--Not lately.
+
+That is the seat of a great linen manufacture?--I have never examined
+the manufactures there, nor have I looked at Switzerland as a
+manufacturing country.
+
+But you stated that there was much more interest taken in the
+intellectual developments of the working classes in foreign countries
+than in England?--Yes; but I was not thinking of Switzerland or of
+Zurich. I was thinking of France, and I was thinking of the working
+classes generally, not specially the manufacturing working classes. I
+used the words "working classes" generally.
+
+Then do you withdraw the expression that you made use of, that in
+foreign countries the upper classes take more interest in the condition
+of the working classes, than they do in England?--I do not withdraw it;
+I only said that it was my impression.
+
+But you cannot establish it?--No.
+
+Therefore it is merely a matter of individual impression?--Entirely so.
+
+You said, I think, that abroad the people enjoy their public
+institutions better, because inspectors do not follow them about?--I did
+not say so. I was asked the question whether I thought teaching should
+be given by persons accompanying the workman about, and I said certainly
+not. I would rather leave him to himself, with such information as
+could be given to him by printed documents.
+
+160. _Mr. Sclater Booth._ With regard to the National Gallery, are you
+aware that there is great pressure and want of space there now, both
+with regard to the room for hanging pictures, and also with reference to
+the crowds of persons who frequent the National Gallery?--I am quite
+sure that if there is not great pressure, there will be soon, owing to
+the number of pictures which are being bought continually.
+
+Do you not think that an extension of the space in the National Gallery
+is a primary consideration, which ought to take precedence of any
+improvement that might be made in the rooms as they are, with a view to
+opening them of an evening?--Most certainly.
+
+That is the first thing, you think, that ought to be done?--Most
+certainly.
+
+When you give your lectures at the Working Men's College, is it your
+habit to refer to special pictures in the National Gallery, or to
+special works of art in the British Museum?--Never; I try to keep
+whatever instruction I give bearing upon what is easily accessible to
+the workman, or what he can see at the moment. I do not count upon his
+having time to go to these institutions; I like to put the thing in his
+hand, and have it about.
+
+Has it never been a stumbling-block in your path that you have found a
+workman unable to compare your lectures with any illustrations that you
+may have referred him to?--I have never prepared my lectures with a view
+to illustrate them by the works of the great masters.
+
+161. You spoke, and very justly, of the importance of fixing on works of
+art printed explanations; are you not aware that that has been done to
+some extent at the Kensington Museum?--Yes.
+
+Do you not think that a great part of the popularity of that institution
+is owing to that circumstance?--I think so, certainly.
+
+On the whole, I gather from your evidence that you are not very sanguine
+as to the beneficial results that would arise from the opening of the
+British Museum and the National Gallery of an evening, as those
+institutions are at present constituted, from a want of space and the
+crowding of the objects there?--Whatever the results might be, from
+opening them, as at present constituted, I think better results might be
+attained by preparing institutions for the workman himself alone.
+
+Do you think that museums of birds and plants, established in various
+parts of the metropolis, illustrated and furnished with pictures of
+domestic interest, and possibly with specimens of manufactures, would be
+more desirable, considering the mode in which the large institutions are
+now seen?--I think in these great institutions attention ought
+specially to be paid to giving perfect security to all the works and
+objects of art which they possess; and to giving convenience to the
+thorough student, whose business lies with those museums; and that
+collections for the amusement and improvement of the working classes
+ought to be entirely separate.
+
+If such institutions as I have described were to be established, you
+would of course desire that they should be opened of an evening, and be
+specially arranged, with a view to evening exhibition?--Certainly.
+
+It has been stated that the taxpayer has a right to have these
+exhibitions opened at hours when the workpeople can go to them, they
+being taxpayers; do not you think that the real interest of the taxpayer
+is, first, to have the pictures as carefully preserved as possible, and
+secondly, that they should be accessible to those whose special
+occupation in life is concerned in their study?--Most certainly.
+
+Is not the interest of the taxpayer reached in this way, rather than by
+any special opportunity being given of visiting at particular
+hours?--Most certainly.
+
+162. _Mr. Kinnaird._ Have you ever turned your attention to any peculiar
+localities, where museums of paintings and shells, and of birds and
+plants, might be opened for the purpose referred to?--Never; I have
+never examined the subject.
+
+Has it ever occurred to you that the Vestry Halls, which have recently
+been erected, and which are lighted, might be so appropriated?--No; I
+have never considered the subject at all.
+
+Supposing that suitable premises could be found, do you not think that
+many people would contribute modern paintings, and engravings, and
+various other objects of interest?--I think it is most probable; in
+fact, I should say certain.
+
+You would view such an attempt with great favor?--Yes; with great
+delight indeed.
+
+You rather look upon it as the duty of the Government to provide such
+institutions for the people?--I feel that very strongly indeed.
+
+Do you not think that the plan which has been adopted at Versailles, of
+having modern history illustrated by paintings, would prove of great
+interest to the people?--I should think it would be an admirable plan in
+every way.
+
+And a very legitimate step to be taken by the Government, for the
+purpose of encouraging art in that way?--Most truly.
+
+Would it have, do you think, an effect in encouraging art in this
+country?--I should think so, certainly.
+
+Whose duty would you consider it to be to superintend the formation of
+such collections? are there any Government officers who are at present
+capable of organizing a staff for employment in local museums that you
+are aware of?--I do not know; I have not examined that subject at all.
+
+163. _Chairman._ The Committee would like to understand you more
+definitely upon the point that has been referred to, as to foreigners
+and Englishmen. I presume that what you wished the Committee to
+understand was, that upon the whole, so far as you have observed, more
+facilities are in point of fact afforded to the working classes, in some
+way or other, abroad than in this country for seeing pictures and
+visiting public institutions?--My answer referred especially to the
+aspect of the working classes as I have watched them in their times of
+recreation; I see them associated with the upper classes, more happily
+for themselves; I see them walking through the Louvre, and walking
+through the gardens of all the great cities of Europe, and apparently
+less ashamed of themselves, and more happily combined with all the upper
+classes of society, than they are here. Here our workmen, somehow, are
+always miserably dressed, and they always keep out of the way, both at
+such institutions and at church. The temper abroad seems to be, while
+there is a sterner separation and a more aristocratic feeling between
+the upper and the lower classes, yet just on that account the workman
+confesses himself for a workman, and is treated with affection. I do not
+say workmen merely, but the lower classes generally, are treated with
+affection, and familiarity, and sympathy by the master or employer,
+which has to me often been very touching in separate eases; and that
+impression being on my mind, I answered, not considering that the
+question was of any importance, hastily; and I am not at present
+prepared to say how far I could, by thinking, justify that impression.
+
+164. _Mr. Kinnaird._ In your experience, in the last few years, have you
+not seen a very marked improvement in the working classes in this
+country in every respect to which you have alluded; take the last twenty
+years, or since you have turned your attention that way?--I have no
+evidence before me in England of that improvement, because I think that
+the struggle for existence becomes every day more severe, and that,
+while greater efforts are made to help the workman, the principles on
+which our commerce is conducted are every day oppressing him, and
+sinking him deeper.
+
+Have you ever visited the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and
+Yorkshire, with a view of ascertaining the state of the people
+there?--Not with a definite view. My own work has nothing to do with
+those subjects; and it is only incidentally, because I gratuitously give
+such instruction as I am able to give at the Working Men's College, that
+I am able to give you any facts on this subject. All the rest that I can
+give is, as Sir Robert Peel accurately expressed it, nothing but
+personal impression.
+
+You admit that the Working Men's College is, after all, a very limited
+sphere?--A very limited sphere.
+
+165. _Sir Robert Peel._ You have stated that, in the Louvre, a working
+man looks at the pictures with a greater degree of self-respect than the
+same classes do in the National Gallery here?--I think so.
+
+You surely never saw a man of the upper class, in England, scorn at a
+working man because he appeared in his working dress in the National
+Gallery in London?--I have certainly seen working men apprehensive of
+such scorn.
+
+_Chairman._ Is it not the fact, that the upper and lower classes
+scarcely ever meet on the same occasions?--I think, if possible, they do
+not.
+
+Is it not the fact that the laboring classes almost invariably cease
+labor at such hours as would prevent them from going to see pictures at
+the time when the upper classes do go?--I meant, before, to signify
+assent to your question, that they do not meet if it can be avoided.
+
+_Sir Robert Peel._ Take the Crystal Palace as an example; do not working
+men and all classes meet there together, and did you ever see a working
+man _gene_ in the examination of works of art?--I am sure that a working
+man very often would not go where he would like to go.
+
+But you think he would abroad?--I think they would go abroad; I only say
+that I believe such is the fact.
+
+_Mr. Slaney._ Do not you think that the light-hearted temperament of our
+southern neighbors, and the fineness of the climate, which permits them
+to enjoy themselves more in the open air, has something to do with
+it?--I hope that the old name of Merry England may be recovered one of
+these days. I do not think that it is in the disposition of the
+inhabitants to be in the least duller than other people.
+
+_Sir Robert Peel._ When was that designation lost?--I am afraid ever
+since our manufactures have prospered.
+
+_Chairman._ Referring to the Crystal Palace, do you think that that was
+an appropriate instance to put, considering the working man pays for his
+own, and is not ashamed to enjoy his own for his own money?--I have
+never examined the causes of the feeling; it did not appear to me to be
+a matter of great importance what was the state of feeling in foreign
+countries. I felt that it depended upon so many circumstances, that I
+thought it would be a waste of time to trace it.
+
+166. _Sir Robert Peel._ You stated that abroad the working classes were
+much better dressed?--Yes.
+
+Do you think so?--Yes.
+
+Surely they cannot be better dressed than they are in England, for you
+hardly know a working man here from an aristocrat?--It is precisely
+because I do know working men on a Sunday and every other day of the
+week from an aristocrat that I like their dress better in France; it is
+the ordinary dress belonging to their position, and it expresses
+momentarily what they are; it is the blue blouse which hangs freely
+over their frames, keeping them sufficiently protected from cold and
+dust; but here it is a shirt open at the collar, very dirty, very much
+torn, with ragged hair, and a ragged coat, and altogether a dress of
+misery.
+
+You think that they are better dressed abroad because they wear a
+blouse?--Because they wear a costume appropriate to their work.
+
+Are you aware that they make it an invariable custom to leave off the
+blouse on Sundays and on holidays, and that after they have finished
+their work they take off their blouse?--I am not familiar, nor do I
+profess to be familiar, with the customs of the Continent; I am only
+stating my impressions; but I like especially their habit of wearing a
+national costume. I believe the national costume of work in Switzerland
+to be at the root of what prosperity Switzerland yet is retaining. I
+think, for instance, although it may sound rather singular to say so,
+that the pride which the women take in their clean chemise sleeves, is
+one of the healthiest things in Switzerland, and that it is operative in
+every way on the health of the mind and the body, their keeping their
+costume pure, fresh, and beautiful.
+
+You stated that the working classes were better dressed abroad than in
+England?--As far as I know, that is certainly the fact.
+
+Still their better dress consists of a blouse, which they take off when
+they have finished their work?--I bow to your better knowledge of the
+matter.
+
+_Chairman._ Are you aware that a considerable number of the working
+classes are in bed on the Sunday?--Perhaps it is the best place for
+them.
+
+167. _Mr. Kinnaird._ You trace the deterioration in the condition of the
+working classes to the increase of trade and manufactures in this
+country?--To the increase of competitive trades and manufactures.
+
+It is your conviction that we may look upon this vast extension of
+trade, and commerce, and competition, altogether as an evil?--Not on
+the vast extension of trade, but on the vast extension of the struggle
+of man with man, instead of the principle of help of man by man.
+
+_Chairman._ I understood you to say, that you did not object to trade,
+but that you wished each country to produce that which it was best
+fitted to produce, with a view to an interchange of its commodities with
+those of other countries?--Yes.
+
+You did not intend to cast a slur upon the idea of competition?--Yes,
+very distinctly; I intended not only to cast a slur, but to express my
+excessive horror of the principle of competition, in every way; for
+instance, we ought not to try to grow claret here, nor to produce silk;
+we ought to produce coal and iron, and the French should give us wine
+and silk.
+
+You say that, with a view to an interchange of such commodities?--Yes.
+
+Each country producing that which it is best fitted to produce?--Yes, as
+well as it can; not striving to imitate or compete with the productions
+of other countries. Finally, I believe that the way of ascertaining what
+ought to be done for the workman in any position, is for any one of us
+to suppose that he was our own son, and that he was left without any
+parents, and without any help; that there was no chance of his ever
+emerging out of the state in which he was, and then, that what we should
+each of us like to be done for our son, so left, we should strive to do
+for the workman.
+
+     The following analysis of the above evidence was mainly given in
+     the Index to the Report (p. 153).--ED.
+
+     139. Is well acquainted with the museums, picture galleries, etc.,
+     in the metropolis.--Conducts a drawing class at the Working Men's
+     College.
+
+     140. Desirableness of the public institutions being open in the
+     evening (cp. 154, 161).
+
+     141. Remarks relative to the system of teaching expedient for the
+     working classes; system pursued by witness at the Working Men's
+     College.--Workmen to aim at rising in their class, not _out of_ it
+     (cp. 155).
+
+     142. Backward state, intellectually, of the working man of the
+     present time; superiority of the foreigner.
+
+     143. Improvement of the National Gallery suggested (cp. 157, 160).
+
+     144. Inexpediency of submitting valuable ancient pictures to the
+     risk of injury from gas, etc. (cp. 146, 157).
+
+     145. Statement as to the minds of the working classes after their
+     day's labor being too much oppressed to enable them to enjoy or
+     appreciate the public institutions, if merely opened in the
+     evening.
+
+     146. Suggested collection of pictures and prints of a particular
+     character for the inspection of the working classes.--Suggestions
+     with a view to special collections of shells, birds, and plants
+     being prepared for the use of the working classes; system of
+     lectures, of illustration, and of intermediate study necessary in
+     connection with such collections (cp. 151-52).
+
+     147. Statement as to greater interest being taken in France and
+     other foreign countries than in England in the intellectual
+     development of the working classes; examination on this point, and
+     on the effect produced thereby upon the character and demeanor of
+     the working people (cp. 158, 163-64).
+
+     148. Objection to circulating valuable or rare works of art
+     throughout the country, on account of the risk of
+     injury--Disapproval of inspectors, etc., going about with the
+     visitors (cp. 159).--Advantage in the upper classes lending
+     pictures, etc., for public exhibition.
+
+     149. Lectures to working men. Advantage if large printed
+     explanations were placed under every picture (cp. 157, 161).
+
+     150. Great desire among the working classes to acquire knowledge;
+     grounds of such desire (cp. 155).--Great boon if a museum were
+     formed at the east end of London.
+
+     151. Lectures on natural history for working men.
+
+     152. Books available on British birds.
+
+     153. Intermediate study essential to use of Lectures.--Good
+     attendance at Working Men's College.--Terms and conditions of
+     admission to it.
+
+     154. Approval of Saturday half-holiday movement (cp. 140, 161).
+
+     155. See above, s. 142.
+
+     156. Competition in trade and labor regarded by witness as a great
+     evil.
+
+     157. See above, s. 143, 149.
+
+     158-59. Happier condition of lower classes abroad than at home.
+     Their dress also better abroad. 163-64, 166, and see above, s. 142.
+
+     160. See above, s. 143, 149, 157.
+
+     161. See above, s. 149, 154.
+
+     162. Use of existing public buildings for art collections.
+
+     163-64. See above, s. 158-59.
+
+     165. Surely England may one day be Merry England again.--When it
+     ceased to be so.
+
+     166. See above, s. 158-59.
+
+     167. Increase of trade and deteriorated condition of
+     working-classes.--Our duty to them.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Reprinted from "The Report of the Select Committee on
+Public Institutions. _Ordered by_ the House of Commons _to be printed_,
+27 March 1860," pp. 113-123. The following members of the Committee were
+present on the occasion of the above evidence being given: -Sir John
+Trelawny (_Chairman_), Mr. Sclater Booth, Mr. Du Pre, Mr. Kinnaird, Mr.
+Hanbury, Sir Robert Peel, Mr. Slaney, and Mr. John Tollemache.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+PICTURE GALLERIES--THEIR FUNCTIONS AND FORMATION.
+
+THE ROYAL ACADEMY COMMISSION.[3]
+
+_Evidence of John Ruskin, Monday, June 8th, 1863._
+
+
+168. _Chairman._ You have, no doubt, frequently considered the position
+of the Royal Academy in this country?--Yes.
+
+Is it in all points satisfactory to you?--No, certainly not.
+
+Do you approve, for example, of the plan by which, on a vacancy
+occurring, the Royal Academicians supply that vacancy, or would you wish
+to see that election confided to any other hands?--I should wish to see
+the election confided to other hands. I think that all elections are
+liable to mistake, or mischance, when the electing body elect the
+candidate into them. I rather think that elections are only successful
+where the candidate is elected into a body other than the body of
+electors; but I have not considered the principles of election fully
+enough to be able to give any positive statement of opinion upon that
+matter. I only feel that at present the thing is liable to many errors
+and mischances.
+
+Does it not seem, however, that there are some precedents, such, for
+example, as the Institute of France, in which the body electing to the
+vacancies that occur within it keeps up a very high character, and
+enjoys a great reputation?--There are many such precedents; and, as
+every such body for its own honor must sometimes call upon the most
+intellectual men of the country to join it, I should think that every
+such body must retain a high character where the country itself has a
+proper sense of the worth of its best men; but the system of election
+may be wrong, though the sense of the country may be right; and I think,
+in appealing to a precedent to justify a system, we should estimate
+properly what has been brought about by the feeling of the country. We
+are all, I fancy, too much in the habit of looking to forms as the cause
+of what really is caused by the temper of the nation at the particular
+time, working, through the forms, for good or evil.
+
+If, however, the election of Academicians were to be confided to artists
+who were not already Academicians themselves, would it be easy to meet
+this objection, that they would have in many cases a personal interest
+in the question; that each might be striving for his own admission to
+that distinction; whereas, when the election takes place among those who
+have already attained that distinction, direct personal interest at all
+events is absent?--I should think personal interest would act in a
+certain sense in either case; it would branch into too many subtleties
+of interest to say in what way it would act. I should think that it
+would be more important to the inferior body to decide rightly upon
+those who were to govern them, than to the superior body to decide upon
+those who were to govern other people; and that the superior body would
+therefore generally choose those who were likely to be pleasant to
+themselves;--pleasant, either as companions, or in carrying out a system
+which they chose for their own convenience to adopt; while the inferior
+body would choose men likely to carry out the system that would tend
+most to the general progress of art.
+
+169. As I understand you, though you have a decided opinion that it
+would be better for some other constituent body to elect the members of
+the Royal Academy, you have not a decided opinion as to how that
+constituent body would best be composed?--By no means.
+
+I presume you would wish that constituent body to consist of artists,
+though you are not prepared to say precisely how they should be
+selected?--I should like the constituent body to consist both of artists
+and of the public. I feel great difficulties in offering any suggestion
+as to the manner in which the electors should elect: but I should like
+the public as well as artists to have a voice, so that we might have the
+public feeling brought to bear upon painting as we have now upon music;
+and that the election of those who were to attract the public eye, or
+direct the public mind, should indicate also the will of the public in
+some respects; not that I think that "will" always wise, but I think you
+would then have pointed out in what way those who are teaching the
+public should best regulate the teaching; and also it would give the
+public itself an interest in art, and a sense of responsibility, which
+in the present state of things they never can have.
+
+Will you explain more fully the precedent of music to which you have
+just adverted?--The fame of any great singer or any great musician
+depends upon the public enthusiasm and feeling respecting him. No Royal
+Academy can draw a large audience to the opera by stating that such and
+such a piece of music is good, or that such and such a voice is clear;
+if the public do not feel the voice to be delicious, and if they do not
+like the music, they will not go to hear it. The fame of the musician,
+whether singer, instrumentalist, or composer, is founded mainly upon his
+having produced a strong effect upon the public intellect and
+imagination. I should like that same effect to be produced by painters,
+and to be expressed by the public enthusiasm and approbation; not merely
+by expressions of approbation in conversation, but by the actual voice
+which in the theater is given by the shout and by the clapping of the
+hands. You cannot clap a picture, nor clap a painter at his work, but I
+should like the public in some way to bring their voice to bear upon the
+painter's work.
+
+170. Have you formed any opinion upon the position of the Associates in
+the Royal Academy?--I have thought of it a little, but the present
+system of the Academy is to me so entirely nugatory, it produces so
+little effect in any way (what little effect it does produce being in my
+opinion mischievous), that it has never interested me; and I have felt
+the difficulty so greatly, that I never, till your lordship's letter
+reached me, paid much attention to it. I always thought it would be a
+waste of time to give much time to thinking how it might be altered; so
+that as to the position of Associates I can say little, except that I
+think, in any case, there ought to be some period of probation, and some
+advanced scale of dignity, indicative of the highest attainments in art,
+which should be only given to the oldest and most practiced painters.
+
+From the great knowledge which you possess of British art, looking to
+the most eminent painters, sculptors, and architects at this time,
+should you say that the number of the Royal Academy is sufficient fully
+to represent them, or would you recommend an increase in the present
+number of Academicians?--I have not considered in what proportion the
+Academicianships at present exist. That is rather a question bearing
+upon the degree of dignity which one would be glad to confer. I should
+like the highest dignity to be limited, but I should like the inferior
+dignity corresponding to the Associateship to be given, as the degrees
+are given in the universities, without any limitation of number, to
+those possessing positive attainments and skill. I should think a very
+limited number of Academicianships would always meet all the
+requirements of the highest intellect of the country.
+
+171. Have you formed any opinion upon the expediency of intrusting
+laymen with some share in the management of the affairs of the
+Academy?--No, I have formed no opinion upon that matter. I do not know
+what there is at present to be managed in the Academy. I should think if
+the Academy is to become an available school, laymen cannot be joined in
+the management of that particular department. In matters of revenue, and
+in matters concerning the general interests and dignity of the Academy,
+they might be.
+
+Should you think that non-professional persons would be fitly associated
+with artists in such questions as the selection and hanging of the
+pictures sent in for exhibition?--No, I think not.
+
+Some persons have suggested that the president of the Academy should not
+always nor of necessity be himself an artist; should you approve of any
+system by which a gentleman of high social position, not an artist, was
+placed at the head of such a body as the Academy?--"Of such a body as
+the Academy," if I may be permitted to repeat your words, must of course
+have reference to the constitution to be given to it. As at present
+constituted, I do not know what advantage might or might not be derived
+from such a gentleman being appointed president. As I should like to see
+it constituted, I think he ought to be an artist only.
+
+172. Have you had any reason to observe or to make yourself acquainted
+with the working of the schools of the Royal Academy?--Yes, I have
+observed it. I have not made myself acquainted with the actual methods
+of teaching at present in use, but I know the general effect upon the
+art of the country.
+
+What should you say was that effect?--Nearly nugatory: exceedingly
+painful in this respect, that the teaching of the Academy separates, as
+the whole idea of the country separates, the notion of art-education
+from other education, and when you have made that one fundamental
+mistake, all others follow. You teach a young man to manage his chalk
+and his brush--not always that--but having done that, you suppose you
+have made a painter of him; whereas to educate a painter is the same
+thing as to educate a clergyman or a physician--you must give him a
+liberal education primarily, and that must be connected with the kind of
+learning peculiarly fit for his profession. That error is partly owing
+to our excessively vulgar and excessively shallow English idea that the
+artist's profession is not, and cannot be, a liberal one. We respect a
+physician, and call him a gentleman, because he can give us a purge and
+clean out our stomachs; but we do not call an artist a gentleman, whom
+we expect to invent for us the face of Christ. When we have made that
+primary mistake, all other mistakes in education are trivial in
+comparison. The very notion of an art academy should be, a body of
+teachers of the youth who are to be the guides of the nation through its
+senses; and that is a very important means of guiding it. We have done a
+good deal through dinners, but we may some day do a good deal more
+through pictures.
+
+You would have a more comprehensive system of teaching?--Much more
+comprehensive.
+
+173. Do I rightly understand you that you would wish it to embrace
+branches of liberal education in general, and not be merely confined to
+specific artistic studies?--Certainly. I would have the Academy
+education corresponding wholly to the university education. The schools
+of the country ought to teach the boy the first conditions of
+manipulation. He should come up, I say not at what age, but probably at
+about fourteen or fifteen, to the central university of art, wherever
+that was established; and then, while he was taught to paint and to
+carve and to work in metal--just as in old times he would have been
+taught to manage the sword and lance, they being the principal business
+of his life,--during the years from fifteen to twenty, the chief
+attention of his governors should be to make a gentleman of him in the
+highest sense; and to give him an exceedingly broad and liberal
+education, which should enable him not only to work nobly, but to
+conceive nobly.
+
+174. As to the point, however, of artistic manipulation, is not it the
+fact that many great painters have differed, and do differ, from each
+other, and would it therefore be easy for the Academy to adopt any
+authoritative system of teaching, excluding one mode and acknowledging
+another?--Not easy, but very necessary. There have been many methods;
+but there has never been a case of a great school which did not fix upon
+its method: and there has been no case of a thoroughly great school
+which did not fix upon the right method, as far as circumstances enabled
+it to do so. The meaning of a successful school is, that it has adopted
+a method which it teaches to its young painters, so that right working
+becomes a habit with them; so that with no thought, and no effort, and
+no torment, and no talk about it, they have the habit of doing what
+their school teaches them.
+
+You do not think a system is equally good which leaves to each eminent
+professor, according to the bent of his genius or the result of his
+experience, to instruct young men, the instruction varying with the
+character of each professor?--Great benefit would arise if each
+professor founded his own school, and were interested in his own pupils;
+but, as has been sufficiently illustrated in the schools of Domenichino
+and Guido, there is apt to arise rivalry between the masters, with no
+correlative advantages, unless the masters are all of one mind. And the
+only successful idea of an academy has been where the practice was
+consistent, and where there was no contradiction. Considering the
+knowledge we now have, and the means we now have of comparing all the
+works of the greatest painters, though, as you suggest by your question,
+it is not easy to adopt an authoritative system, yet it is perfectly
+possible. Let us get at the best method and let us teach that. There is
+unquestionably a best way if we can find it; and we have now in England
+the means of finding it out.
+
+The teaching in the Academy is now, under all circumstances, gratuitous;
+would you wish that system to continue, or should you prefer to see a
+system of payment?--I am not prepared to answer that question. It would
+depend upon the sort of system that was adopted and on the kind of
+persons you received into your schools.
+
+175. I presume you would say that in artistic teaching there are some
+points on which there would be common ground, and others upon which
+there must be specific teaching; for instance, in sculpture and painting
+there is a point up to which the proportions of the human figure have to
+be studied, but afterwards there is a divergence between the two arts of
+chiseling marble and laying colors on the canvas?--Certainly. I should
+think all that might be arranged in an Academy system very simply. You
+would have first your teaching of drawing with the soft point; and
+associated with that, chiaroscuro: you would then have the teaching of
+drawing with the hard or black point, involving the teaching of the best
+system of engraving, and all that was necessary to form your school of
+engravers: you would then proceed to metal work; and on working in metal
+you would found your school of sculpture, and on that your school of
+architecture: and finally, and above all, you would have your school of
+painting, including oil painting and fresco painting, and all painting
+in permanent material; (not comprising painting in any material that was
+not permanent:) and with that you would associate your school of
+chemistry, which should teach what was permanent and what was not; which
+school of chemistry should declare authoritatively, with the Academy's
+seal, what colors would stand and what process would secure their
+standing: and should have a sort of Apothecaries' Hall where anybody who
+required them could procure colors in the purest state; all these things
+being organized in one great system, and only possibly right by their
+connection and in their connection.
+
+176. Do you approve of the encouragement which of late years has been
+given to fresco painting, and do you look forward to much extension of
+that branch of art in England?--I found when I was examining the term
+"fresco painting," that it was a wide one, that none of us seemed to
+know quite the limitation or extent of it; and after giving a good deal
+more time to the question I am still less able to answer distinctly on
+an understanding of the term "fresco painting:" but using the term
+"decorative painting, applicable to walls in permanent materials," I
+think it essential that every great school should include as one of its
+main objects the teaching of wall painting in permanent materials, and
+on a large scale.
+
+You think it should form a branch of the system of teaching in the
+Academy?--I think it should form a branch of the teaching in the
+Academy, possibly the principal branch.
+
+Does it so far as you know form a separate branch of teaching in any of
+the foreign academies?--I do not know.
+
+177. Looking generally, and of course without mentioning any names, have
+you in the course of the last few years been generally satisfied with
+the selection of artists into the Royal Academy?--No, certainly not.
+
+Do you think that some artists of merit have been excluded, or that
+artists whom you think not deserving of that honor have been
+elected?--More; that artists not deserving of the honor have been
+elected. I think it does no harm to any promising artist to be left out
+of the Academy, but it does harm to the public sometimes that an
+unpromising artist should be let into it.
+
+You think there have been cases within the last few years in which
+persons, in your judgment, not entitled to that distinction have
+nevertheless been elected?--Certainly.
+
+178. With respect to the selection of pictures for the exhibition, are
+you satisfied in general with that selection, or have you in particular
+instances seen ground to think that it has been injudiciously
+exercised?--In some cases it has been injudiciously exercised, but it is
+a matter of small importance; it causes heartburning probably, but
+little more. If a rejected picture is good, the public will see it some
+day or other, and find out that it is a good picture. I care little
+about what pictures are let in or not, but I do care about seeing the
+pictures that are let in. The main point, which everyone would desire to
+see determined, is how the pictures that are admitted are to be best
+seen. No picture deserving of being seen at all should be so hung as to
+give you any pain or fatigue in seeing it. If you let a picture into the
+room at all, it should not be hung so high as that either the feelings
+of the artist or the neck of the public should be hurt.
+
+179. _Viscount Hardinge._ I gather from your evidence that you would
+wish to see the Royal Academy a sort of central university to which
+young men from other institutions should be sent. Assuming that there
+were difficulties in the way of carrying that out, do you think, under
+the present system, you could exact from young men who are candidates
+for admission into the Royal Academy, some educational test?--Certainly;
+I think much depends upon that. If the system of education which I have
+been endeavoring to point out were adopted, you would have in every one
+of those professions very practiced workmen. You could not have any of
+this education carried out, unless you had thoroughly practiced workmen;
+and you should fix your pass as you fix your university pass, and you
+should pass a man in architecture, sculpture, and painting, because he
+knows his business, and knows as much of any other science as is
+necessary for his profession. You require a piece of work from him, and
+you examine him, and then you pass him,--call him whatever you
+like;--but you say to the public, Here is a workman in this branch who
+will do your work well.
+
+You do not think there would in such a system be any risk of excluding
+men who might hereafter be great men who under such a system might not
+be able to pass?--There are risks in every system, but I think every man
+worth anything would pass. A great many who would be good for nothing
+would pass, but your really great man would assuredly pass.
+
+180. Has it ever struck you that it would be advantageous to art if
+there were at the universities professors of art who might give lectures
+and give instruction to young men who might desire to avail themselves
+of it, as you have lectures on botany and geology?--Yes, assuredly. The
+want of interest on the part of the upper classes in art has been very
+much at the bottom of the abuses which have crept into all systems of
+education connected with it. If the upper classes could only be
+interested in it by being led into it when young, a great improvement
+might be looked for; therefore I feel the expediency of such an addition
+to the education of our universities.
+
+181. Is not that want of refinement which may be observed in many of the
+pictures from time to time exhibited in the Royal Academy to be
+attributed in a great measure to the want of education amongst
+artists?--It is to be attributed to that, and to the necessity which
+artists are under of addressing a low class of spectators: an artist to
+live must catch the public eye. Our upper classes supply a very small
+amount of patronage to artists at present, their main patronage being
+from the manufacturing districts and from the public interested in
+engravings;--an exceedingly wide sphere, but a low sphere,--and you
+catch the eye of that class much more by pictures having reference to
+their amusements than by any noble subject better treated, and the
+better treated it was the less it would interest that class.
+
+Is it not often the case that pictures exhibiting such a want of
+refinement, at the same time fetch large prices amongst what I may call
+the mercantile patrons of art?--Certainly; and, the larger the price,
+the more harm done of course to the school, for that is a form of
+education you cannot resist. Plato said long ago, when you have your
+demagogue against you no human form of education can resist that.
+
+182. _Sir E. Head._ What is your opinion of the present mode of teaching
+in the life school and the painting school, namely, by visitors
+constantly changing?--I should think it mischievous. The unfortunate
+youths, I should imagine, would just get what they could pick up; it
+would be throwing them crumbs very much as you throw bones to the
+animals in the Zoological Gardens.
+
+Do you conceive that anything which can be properly called a school, is
+likely to be formed where the teaching is conducted in that
+way?--Assuredly not.
+
+183. You stated that in the event of the introduction of lay members
+into the Academy, you would not think it desirable that they should take
+part in the selection or hanging of pictures for exhibition. Is not
+there a great distinction between the selection of the pictures and the
+hanging of the pictures, and might not they take part in the one without
+taking part in the other?--I should think hardly. My notion of hanging a
+picture is to put it low enough to be seen. If small it should be placed
+near the eye. Anybody can hang a picture, but the question should be, is
+there good painting enough in this picture to make it acceptable to the
+public, or to make it just to the artist to show it? And none but
+artists can quite judge of the workmanship which should entitle it to
+enter the Academy.
+
+Do you think it depends solely upon the workmanship?--Not by any means
+solely, but I think that is the first point that should be looked to. An
+ill-worked picture ought not to be admitted; let it be exhibited
+elsewhere if you will, but your Academy has no business to let bad work
+pass. If a man cannot carve or paint, though his work may be well
+conceived, do not let his work pass. Unless you require good work in
+your Academy exhibition, you can form no school.
+
+_Mr. Reeve._ Applying the rule you have just laid down, would the effect
+be to exclude a considerable proportion of the works now exhibited in
+the Academy?--Yes; more of the Academicians' than of others.
+
+_Sir E. Head._ Selection now being made by technical artists?--No.
+
+Professional?--Yes.
+
+_Lord Elcho._ Do you think that none but professional artists
+are capable of judging of the actual merit or demerit of a
+painting?--Non-professional persons may offer a very strong opinion upon
+the subject, which may happen to be right,--or which may be wrong.
+
+Your opinion is that the main thing with respect to the exhibition is,
+that the pictures should be seen; that they should not be hung too high
+or too low. That question has been already raised before the Commission,
+and it has been suggested that two feet from the ground should be the
+minimum height for the base of the picture, and some witnesses have said
+that six feet and others eight feet should be the maximum height for the
+base of the picture; what limit would you fix?--I should say that the
+horizontal line in the perspective of the picture ought always to be
+opposite the spectator's eye, no matter what the height may be from the
+floor. If the horizontal line is so placed that it must be above the
+spectator's eye, in consequence of the size of the picture, it cannot
+be helped, but I would always get the horizontal line opposite the eye
+if possible.
+
+184. _Chairman._ Should you concur in the suggestion which a witness has
+made before this Commission, that it would be an improvement, if the
+space admitted of it, that works of sculpture should be intermixed in
+the same apartment with works of painting, instead of being kept as at
+present in separate apartments?--I should think it would be very
+delightful to have some works of sculpture mixed with works of painting;
+that it would make the exhibition more pleasing, and that the eye would
+be rested sometimes by turning from the colors to the marble, and would
+see the colors of the paintings better in return. Sir Joshua Reynolds
+mentions the power which some of the Flemish pictures seemed to derive,
+in his opinion, by looking at them after having consulted his note-book.
+Statuary placed among the pictures would have the same effect. I would
+not have the sculpture that was sent in for the exhibition of the year
+exhibited with the paintings, but I would have works of sculpture placed
+permanently in the painting rooms.
+
+_Lord Elcho._ Supposing there were no works of sculpture available for
+being placed in the rooms permanently, and supposing among the works
+sent in for annual exhibition there were works of a character fit to be
+placed among the paintings, should you see any objection to their being
+so placed?--That would cause an immense amount of useless trouble, and
+perpetual quarrels among the sculptors, as to whose works were entitled
+to be placed in the painting rooms or not.
+
+Are you aware that in the exhibition in Paris in 1855, that was the
+system adopted?--No. If the French adopted it, it was likely to be
+useful, and doubtless they would carry it out very cleverly; but we have
+not the knack of putting the right things in the right places by any
+means.
+
+Did you see our own International Exhibition last year?--No.
+
+Are you aware that a similar system was resorted to in the exhibition of
+pictures there?--I should think in our exhibitions we must put anything
+where it would go, in the sort of way that we manage them.
+
+185. At the present moment there are on the books of the Academy five
+honorary members, who hold certain titular offices, Earl Stanhope being
+antiquary to the Academy, Mr. Grote being professor of ancient history,
+Dean Milman being professor of ancient literature, the Bishop of Oxford
+being chaplain, and Sir Henry Holland being secretary for foreign
+correspondence; these professors never deliver any lectures and have no
+voice whatever in the management, but have mere honorary titular
+distinctions; should you think it desirable that gentlemen of their
+position and character should have a voice in the management of the
+affairs of the Academy?--It would be much more desirable that they
+should give lectures upon the subjects with which they are acquainted. I
+should think Earl Stanhope and all the gentlemen you have mentioned,
+would be much happier in feeling that they were of use in their
+positions; and that if you gave them something to do they would very
+nobly do it. If you give them nothing to do I think they ought not to
+remain in the institution.
+
+186. It has been suggested that the Academy now consisting of forty-two
+might be increased advantageously to fifty professional members,
+architecture, sculpture, and painting being fairly represented, and that
+in addition to those fifty there might be elected or nominated somehow
+or other ten non-professional persons, that is, men taking an interest
+in art, who had a certain position and standing in the country, and who
+might take an active part in the management of the affairs of the
+institution, so tending to bring the Royal Academy and the public
+together?--I do not know enough of society to be able to form an opinion
+upon the subject.
+
+Irrespective of society, as a question of art, you know enough of
+non-professional persons interested in art to judge as to whether the
+infusion of such an element into the Academy might be of advantage to
+the Academy and to art generally?--I think if you educate our upper
+classes to take more interest in art, which implies, of course, to know
+something about it, they might be most efficient members of the
+Academy; but if you leave them, as you leave them now, to the education
+which they get at Oxford and Cambridge, and give them the sort of scorn
+which all the teaching there tends to give, for art and artists, the
+less they have to do with an academy of art the better.
+
+Assuming that, at present, you have not a very great number of those
+persons in the country, do you not think that the mere fact of the
+adoption of such a principle in any reform in the constitution of the
+Academy might have the effect of turning attention more to this matter
+at the Universities, and leading to the very thing which you think so
+desirable?--No, I should think not. It would only at present give the
+impression that the whole system was somewhat artificial, and that it
+was to remain ineffective.
+
+Notwithstanding the neglect of this matter at the Universities, do you
+think, at the present moment, you could not find ten non-professional
+persons, of the character you would think desirable, to add to the
+Academy?--If I may be so impertinent, I may say that you as one of the
+upper classes, and I as a layman in the lower classes, are tolerably
+fair examples of the kind of persons who take an interest in art, and I
+think both of us would do a great deal of mischief if we had much to do
+with the Academy.
+
+187. Assuming those two persons to be appointed lay members, will you
+state in what way you think they would do mischief in the councils of
+the Academy?--We should be disturbing elements, whereas what I should
+try to secure, if I had anything to do with its arrangements, would be
+entire tranquillity, a regular system of tuition in which there should
+be little excitement, and little operation of popular, aristocratic, or
+any other disturbing influence; none of criticism, and therefore none of
+tiresome people like myself;--none of money patronage, or even of
+aristocratic patronage. The whole aim of the teachers should be to
+produce work which could be demonstrably shown to be good and useful,
+and worthy of being bought, or used in any way; and after that the
+whole question of patronage and interest should be settled. The school
+should teach its art-grammar thoroughly in everything, and in every
+material, and should teach it carefully; and that could be done if a
+perfect system were adopted, and above all, if a few thoroughly good
+examples were put before the students. That is a point which I think of
+very great importance. I think it very desirable that grants should be
+made by the Government to obtain for the pupils of the Academy beautiful
+examples of every kind, the very loveliest and best; not too many; and
+that their minds should not be confused by having placed before them
+examples of all schools and times; they are confused enough by what they
+see in the shops, and in the annual exhibitions. Let engraving be taught
+by Marc Antonio and Albert Duerer,--painting by Giorgione, Paul Veronese,
+Titian and Velasquez,--and sculpture by good Greek and selected Roman
+examples, and let there be no question of other schools or their merits.
+Let those things be shown as good and right, and let the student be
+trained in those principles:--if afterwards he strikes out an original
+path, let him; but do not let him torment himself and other people with
+his originalities, till he knows what is right, so far as is known at
+present.
+
+You are opposed, on the whole, to the introduction of the lay
+element?--Yes; but I am not opposed strongly or distinctly to it,
+because I have not knowledge enough of society to know how it would
+work.
+
+Your not being in favor of it results from your belief that the lay
+element that would be useful to the Academy does not at present exist in
+this country; but you think, if it did exist, and if it could be made to
+grow out of our schools and universities by art teaching, it might, with
+advantage to the Academy and to artists, be introduced into the
+Academy?--Yes.
+
+188. Supposing the class of Royal Academicians to be retained, and that
+you had fifty Royal Academicians, should you think it desirable that
+their works should be exhibited by themselves, so that the public might
+see together the works of those considered to be the first artists of
+this country?--Certainly, I should like all pictures to be well seen,
+but I should like one department of the exhibition to be given to the
+Associates or Graduates. I use that term because I suppose those
+Associates to have a degree given them for a certain amount of
+excellence, and any person who had attained that degree should be
+allowed to send in so many pictures. Then the pictures sent in by
+persons who had attained the higher honor of Royal Academician should be
+separately exhibited.
+
+That would act as a stimulus to them to keep up their position and show
+themselves worthy of the honor?--Yes. I do not think they ought to be
+mixed at all as they are now.
+
+189. What is your opinion with reference to the present system of
+traveling studentships?--I think it might be made very useful indeed.
+
+On the one hand it has been suggested that there should be, as is the
+system adopted by the French Academy, a permanent professor at Rome to
+look after the students; on the other hand it has been said that it is
+not desirable, if you have those traveling studentships, that the
+students should go to Rome, that it is better for them to travel, and to
+go to Venice or Lombardy, and to have no fixed school in connection with
+the Academy at Rome. To which of those two systems do you give the
+preference?--I should prefer the latter; if a man goes to travel, he
+ought to travel, and not be plagued with schools.
+
+It has been suggested that fellowships might be given to rising artists,
+pecuniary assistance being attached to those fellowships, the artist
+being required annually to send in some specimen of his work to show
+what he was doing, but it being left optional with him to go abroad or
+to work at home; should you think that would be desirable, or as has
+been suggested in a letter by Mr. Armitage, supposing those fellowships
+to be established for four years, that two of those years should be
+spent abroad and two at home?--Without entering into any detail as to
+whether two years should be spent abroad and two years at home, I feel
+very strongly that one of the most dangerous and retarding influences
+you have operating upon art is the enormous power of money, and the
+chances of entirely winning or entirely losing, that is, of making your
+fortune in a year by a large taking picture, or else starving for ten
+years by very good small ones. The whole life of an artist is a lottery,
+and a very wild lottery, and the best artist is liable to be warped away
+from what he knows is right by the chance of at once making a vast
+fortune by catching the public eye, the public eye being only to be
+caught by bright colors and certain conditions of art not always
+desirable. If, therefore, connected with the Academy schools there could
+be the means of giving a fixed amount of income to certain men, who
+would as a consideration for that income furnish a certain number of
+works that might be agreed upon, or undertake any national work that
+might be agreed upon, that I believe would be the healthiest way in
+which a good painter could be paid. To give him his bread and cheese,
+and so much a day, and say, Here are such and such things we want you to
+do, is, I believe, the healthiest, simplest, and happiest way in which
+great work can be produced. But whether it is compatible with our
+present system I cannot say, nor whether every man would not run away as
+soon as he found he could get two or three thousand pounds by painting a
+catching picture. I think your best men would not.
+
+You would be in favor of those fellowships?--Yes.
+
+190. I gather that you are in favor of the encouragement of mural
+decoration, fresco painting, and so forth. The system that prevails
+abroad, in France, for instance, is for painters to employ pupils to
+work under them. It was in that way that Delaroche painted his hemicycle
+at the Academie des Beaux-Arts, employing four pupils, who worked for
+him, and who from his small sketch drew the full-sized picture on the
+walls, which was subsequently corrected by him. They then colored it up
+to his sketch, after which he shut himself up again, and completed it.
+On the other hand, if you go to the Victoria Gallery in the House of
+Lords, you find Mr. Maclise at work on a space of wall forty-eight feet
+long, painting the Death of Nelson on the deck of the "Victory," every
+figure being life size, the deck of the ship and the ropes and
+everything being the actual size, and you see him painting with his own
+hand each little bit of rope and the minutest detail. Which of the two
+systems do you think is the soundest and most calculated to produce
+great and noble work?--The first is the best for the pupils, the other
+is the best for the public. But unquestionably not only can a great work
+be executed as Mr. Maclise is executing his, but no really great work
+was executed otherwise, for in all mighty work, whether in fresco or
+oil, every touch and hue of color to the last corner has been put on
+lovingly by the painter's own hand, not leaving to a pupil to paint so
+much as a pebble under a horse's foot.
+
+191. Do you believe that most of the works of the great masters in Italy
+were so executed?--No; because the pupils were nearly as mighty as the
+masters. Great men took such an interest in their work, and they were so
+modest and simple that they were repeatedly sacrificing themselves to
+the interests of their religion or of the society they were working for;
+and when a thing was to be done in a certain time it could only be done
+by bringing in aid; but whenever precious work was to be done, then the
+great man said, "Lock me up here by myself, give me a little wine and
+cheese, and come in a month, and I will show you what I have done."
+
+Do you think it desirable that the pupils should be so trained as to be
+capable of assisting great masters in such works?--Assuredly.
+
+     NOTE.--The following analysis of the above evidence was
+     given in the Index to the Report (pp. 139, 140).--ED.
+
+     168-69. The Academy not in all points satisfactory. Would wish to
+     see the Academicians not self-elected.--But by a constituency
+     consisting both of artists and the public.--Public influence to be
+     the same in painting as in music.
+
+     170. As to the Associates: is in favor of some period of
+     probation.--Their class to be unlimited, with a very limited number
+     of Academicians.
+
+     171. Has formed no opinion on the question of introducing laymen
+     into the Academy; in matters of revenue they might be joined with
+     artists, but not in the selection and hanging of pictures: opposed
+     on the whole to their introduction, considering the present state
+     of art education.--As he would like to see the Academy constituted,
+     thinks the president ought to be an artist.
+
+     172. General effect of the Academy's teaching upon the art of the
+     country merely nugatory.--Would have a much more comprehensive
+     system of teaching.
+
+     173. The Academy education to correspond wholly to the University
+     education.
+
+     174. Not easy but very necessary for the Academy to adopt an
+     authoritative system of teaching.
+
+     175. His idea of what the Academy teaching should be; would have a
+     school of chemistry.
+
+     176. The teaching of wall-painting in permanent materials should be
+     a branch, possibly the principal branch.
+
+     177. Not satisfied with the selection of artists to be members of
+     the Academy.
+
+     178. In some cases the selection of pictures has been injudicious,
+     but this a matter of small importance; the main point is how the
+     pictures that are admitted are to be best seen.
+
+     179. In favor of an educational test for candidates for admission
+     into the Academy.
+
+     180. And of professors of art at the Universities.
+
+     181. Causes of the want of refinement observable in many modern
+     pictures; the large prices they fetch harmful.
+
+     182. Teaching by visitors constantly changing mischievous.
+
+     183. How a picture should be hung.--An ill-worked picture ought not
+     to be admitted by the Academy.--Bearing of this last opinion upon
+     the present Exhibition.
+
+     184. Would have works of sculpture placed permanently in the
+     painting-room, but not any of those sent in for the Exhibition of
+     the year.
+
+     185. In favor of the present honorary members being made of use in
+     their positions.
+
+     186. Introduction of laymen into the Academy deprecated under
+     present circumstances, and why.--Present feeling towards art and
+     artists at the Universities.
+
+     187. Desirable that Government grants should be made to obtain for
+     the pupils of the Academy beautiful examples of every kind of art.
+
+     188. In favor of separate exhibitions of the works of Associates
+     (or Graduates) and Academicians.
+
+     189. In favor of art-fellowships, but not of a fixed school in
+     connection with the Academy at Rome.
+
+     190. Comparison of the French, and English systems (as regards
+     assistance from pupils) in the production of great public
+     paintings.
+
+     191. How the works of the Italian masters were executed.--Desirable
+     that pupils should be trained to assist great masters in public
+     works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: Reprinted from "The Report of the Commissioners appointed
+to inquire into the Present Position of the Royal Academy in Relation to
+the Fine Arts." London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1863 (pp. 546-55.
+Questions 5079-5142). The Commission consisted of Earl Stanhope
+(_Chairman_), Viscount Hardinge, Lord Elcho, Sir E. W. Head, Mr. William
+Stirling, Mr. H. D. Seymour, and Mr. Henry Reeve, all of whom, except
+Mr. Seymour, were present at the above sitting.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+A MUSEUM OR PICTURE GALLERY:
+
+ITS FUNCTIONS AND ITS FORMATION.[4]
+
+
+  _March 20th, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+192. If I put off writing the paper you asked me for, till I can do it
+conveniently, it may hang fire till this time next year. If you will
+accept a note on the subject now and then, keeping them till there are
+enough to be worth printing, all practical ends may be enough answered,
+and much more quickly.
+
+The first function of a Museum--(for a little while I shall speak of Art
+and Natural History as alike cared for in an ideal one)--is to give
+example of perfect order and perfect elegance, in the true sense of that
+test word, to the disorderly and rude populace. Everything in its _own_
+place, everything looking its best because it is there, nothing crowded,
+nothing unnecessary, nothing puzzling. Therefore, after a room has been
+once arranged, there must be no change in it. For new possessions there
+must be new rooms, and after twenty years' absence--coming back to the
+room in which one learned one's bird or beast alphabet, we should be
+able to show our children the old bird on the old perch in the
+accustomed corner. But--first of all, let the room be beautifully
+complete, _i.e._ complete enough for its proper business.
+
+193. In the British Museum, at the top of the stairs, we encounter in a
+terrific alliance a giraffe, a hippopotamus, and a basking shark. The
+public--young and old--pass with a start and a stare, and remain as wise
+as they were before about all the three creatures. The day before
+yesterday I was standing by the big fish--a father came up to it with
+his little boy. "That's a shark," says he; "it turns on its side when it
+wants to eat you," and so went on--literally as wise as he was before;
+for he had read in a book that sharks turn on their side to bite, and he
+never looked at the ticket, which told him this particular shark only
+ate small fish. Now he never looked at the ticket, because he didn't
+expect to find anything on it except that this was the Sharkogobalus
+Smith-Jonesianius. But if, round the walls of the room, there had been
+all the _well-known_ kinds of shark, going down, in graduated sizes,
+from that basking one to our waggling dog-fish, and if every one of
+these had had a plain English ticket, with ten words of common sense on
+it, saying where and how the beast lived, and a number (unchangeable)
+referring to a properly arranged manual of the shark tribe (sold by the
+Museum publisher, who ought to have his little shop close by the
+porter's lodge), both father and son must have been much below the level
+of average English man and boy in mother wit if they did not go out of
+the room by the door in front of them very distinctly, and--to
+themselves--amazingly, wiser than they had come in by the door behind
+them.
+
+194. If I venture to give instances of fault from the British Museum, it
+is because, on the whole, it is the best-ordered and pleasantest
+institution in all England, and the grandest concentration of the means
+of human knowledge in the world. And I am heartily sorry for the
+break-up of it, and augur no good from any changes of arrangement likely
+to take place in concurrence with Kensington, where, the same day that I
+had been meditating by the old shark, I lost myself in a Cretan
+labyrinth of military ironmongery, advertisements of spring blinds,
+model fish-farming, and plaster bathing nymphs with a year's smut on all
+the noses of them; and had to put myself in charge of a policeman to get
+out again. Ever affectionately yours,
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+  _March 29th, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+195. The only chance of my getting these letters themselves into fairly
+consistent and Museum-like order is by writing a word or two always the
+first thing in the morning till I get them done; so, I shall at least
+remember what I was talking of the day before; but for the rest--I must
+speak of one thing or another as it may come into my head, for there are
+too many to classify without pedantry and loss of time.
+
+My requirement of "elegance" in that last letter contemplates chiefly
+architecture and fittings. These should not only be perfect in
+stateliness, durability, and comfort, but beautiful to the utmost point
+consistent with due subordination to the objects displayed. To enter a
+room in the Louvre is an education in itself; but two steps on the
+filthy floor and under the iron forks, half scaffold, half gallows, of
+the big Norwood glass bazaar, debase mind and eye at once below
+possibility of looking at anything with profit all the day afterwards. I
+have just heard that a French picture dealer is to have charge of the
+picture gallery there, and that the whole interior is to become
+virtually a large cafe, when--it is hoped--the glass monster may at last
+"pay." Concerning which beautiful consummation of Mr. Dickens's
+"Fairyland" (see my pamphlet[5] on the opening of the so-called
+"palace"), be it here at once noted, that all idea of any "payment," in
+that sense, must be utterly and scornfully abjured on the foundation
+stone of every National or Civic Museum. There must be neither companies
+to fill their own pockets out of it, nor trustees who can cramp the
+management, or interfere with the officering, or shorten the supplies of
+it. Put one man of reputation and sense at its head; give him what staff
+he asks for, and a fixed annual sum for expenditure--specific accounts
+to be printed annually for all the world's seeing--and let him alone.
+The original expenditure for building and fitting must be magnificent,
+and the current expenditure for cleaning and refitting magnanimous; but
+a certain proportion of this current cost should be covered by small
+entrance fees, exacted, not for any miserly helping out of the
+floor-sweepers' salaries, but for the sake of the visitors themselves,
+that the rooms may not be incumbered by the idle, or disgraced by the
+disreputable. You must not make your Museum a refuge against either rain
+or ennui, nor let into perfectly well-furnished, and even, in the true
+sense, palatial, rooms, the utterly squalid and ill-bred portion of the
+people. There should, indeed, be refuges for the poor from rain and
+cold, and decent rooms accessible to indecent persons, if they like to
+go there; but neither of these charities should be part of the function
+of a Civic Museum.
+
+196. Make the entrance fee a silver penny (a silver groat, typically
+representing the father, mother, eldest son, and eldest daughter,
+passing always the total number of any one family), and every person
+admitted, however young, being requested to sign their name, or make
+their mark.
+
+That the entrance money should be always of silver is one of the
+beginnings of education in the place--one of the conditions of its
+"elegance" on the very threshold.
+
+And the institution of silver for bronze in the lower coinage is a part
+of the system of National education which I have been teaching these
+last ten years--a very much deeper and wider one than any that can be
+given in museums--and without which all museums will ultimately be
+vain.--Ever affectionately yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+P.S.--There should be a well-served coffee-room attached to the
+building; but this part of the establishment without any luxury in
+furniture or decoration, and without any cooking apparatus for
+carnivora.
+
+
+  _Easter Monday, 1880._
+
+  DEAR ----,
+
+197. The day is auspicious for the beginning of reflection on the right
+manner of manifestation of all divine things to those who desire to see
+them. For every house of the Muses, where, indeed, they live, is an
+Interpreter's by the wayside, or rather, a place of oracle and
+interpretation in one. And the right function of every museum, to simple
+persons, is the manifestation to them of what is lovely in the life of
+Nature, and heroic in the life of Men.
+
+There are already, you see, some quaint restrictions in that last
+sentence, whereat sundry of our friends will start, and others stop. I
+must stop also, myself, therefore, for a minute or two, to insist on
+them.
+
+198. A Museum, primarily, is to be for _simple_ persons. Children, that
+is to say, and peasants. For your student, your antiquary, or your
+scientific gentleman, there must be separate accommodation, or they must
+be sent elsewhere. The Town Museum is to be for the Town's People, the
+Village Museum for the Villagers. Keep that first principle clear to
+start with. If you want to found an academy of painting in
+Littleborough, or of literature in Squattlesea Mere, you must get your
+advice from somebody else, not me.
+
+199. Secondly. The museum is to manifest to these simple persons the
+beauty and life of all things and creatures in their perfectness. Not
+their modes of corruption, disease, or death. Not even, always, their
+genesis, in the more or less blundering beginnings of it; not even their
+modes of nourishment, if destructive; you must not stuff a blackbird
+pulling up a worm, nor exhibit in a glass case a crocodile crunching a
+baby.
+
+Neither must you ever show bones or guts, or any other charnel-house
+stuff. Teach your children to know the lark's note from the
+nightingale's; the length of their larynxes is their own business, and
+God's.
+
+I cannot enough insist upon this point, nor too solemnly. If you wish
+your children to be surgeons, send them to Surgeons' College; if
+jugglers or necromancers, to Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke; and if
+butchers, to the shambles: but if you want them to lead the calm life of
+country gentlemen and gentlewomen, manservants and maidservants, let
+them seek none of Death's secrets till they die. Ever faithfully and
+affectionately yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _Easter Tuesday, 1880._
+
+  DEAR ----,
+
+200. I must enter to-day somewhat further on the practical, no less than
+emotional, reason for the refusal of anatomical illustrations to the
+general public.
+
+It is difficult enough to get one clear idea into anybody, of any single
+thing. But next to impossible to get _two_ clear ideas into them, of the
+same thing. We have had lions' heads for door-knockers these hundred and
+fifty years, without ever learning so much as what a lion's head is
+like. But with good modern stuffing and fetching, I can manage now to
+make a child really understand something about the beast's look, and his
+mane, and his sullen eyes and brindled lips. But if I'm bothered at the
+same time with a big bony box, that has neither mane, lips, nor eyes,
+and have to explain to the poor wretch of a parish schoolboy how somehow
+this fits on to that, I will be bound that, at a year's end, draw one as
+big as the other, and he won't know a lion's head from a tiger's--nor a
+lion's skull from a rabbit's. Nor is it the parish boy only who suffers.
+The scientific people themselves miss half their points from the habit
+of hacking at things, instead of looking at them. When I gave my lecture
+on the Swallow[6] at Oxford, I challenged every anatomist there to tell
+me the use of his tail (I believe half of them didn't know he had one).
+Not a soul of them could tell me, which I knew beforehand; but I did not
+know, till I had looked well through their books, how they were
+quarreling about his wings! Actually at this moment (Easter Tuesday,
+1880), I don't believe you can find in any scientific book in Europe a
+true account of the way a bird flies--or how a snake serpentines. My
+Swallow lecture was the first bit of clear statement on the one point,
+and when I get my Snake lecture published, you will have the first
+extant bit of clear statement on the other; and that is simply because
+the anatomists can't, for their life, look at a thing till they have
+skinned it.
+
+201. And matters get worse and worse every hour. Yesterday, after
+writing the first leaf of this note, I went into the British Museum, and
+found a nasty skeleton of a lizard, with its under jaw dropped off, on
+the top of a table of butterflies--temporarily of course--but then
+everything has been temporary or temporizing at the British Museum for
+the last half-century; making it always a mere waste and weariness to
+the general public, because, forsooth, it had always to be kept up to
+the last meeting of the Zoological Society, and last edition of the
+_Times_. As if there had not been beasts enough before the Ark to tell
+our children the manners of, on a Sunday afternoon!
+
+202. I had gone into the Museum that day to see the exact form of a
+duck's wing, the examination of a lively young drake's here at Coniston
+having closed in his giving me such a cut on the wrist with it, that I
+could scarcely write all the morning afterwards. Now in the whole bird
+gallery there are only two ducks' wings expanded, and those in different
+positions. Fancy the difference to the mob, and me, if the shells and
+monkey skeletons were taken away from the mid-gallery, and instead,
+three gradated series of birds put down the length of it (or half the
+length--or a quarter would do it--with judgment), showing the
+transition, in length of beak, from bunting to woodcock--in length of
+leg, from swift to stilted plover--and in length of wing, from auk to
+frigate-bird; the wings, all opened, in one specimen of each bird to
+their full sweep, and in another, shown at the limit of the down back
+stroke. For what on earth--or in air--is the use to me of seeing their
+boiled sternums and scalped sinciputs, when I'm never shown either how
+they bear their breasts--or where they carry their heads?
+
+Enough of natural history, you will say! I will come to art in my next
+letter--finishing the ugly subject of this one with a single sentence
+from section ix. of the "Tale of a Tub," commending the context of it to
+my friends of the Royal Academy.
+
+"Last week, I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much
+it altered her person for the worse."--Ever, my dear ----, affectionately
+yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _7th April, 1880._
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+203. I suppose that proper respect for the great first principles of the
+British Constitution, that every man should do as he pleases, think what
+he likes, and see everything that can be seen for money, will make most
+of your readers recoil from my first principle of Museum
+arrangement,--that nothing should be let inside the doors that isn't
+good of its sort,--as from an attempt to restore the Papacy, revive the
+Inquisition, and away with everybody to the lowest dungeon of the
+castle moat. They must at their pleasure charge me with these sinister
+views; they will find that there is no dexter view to be had of the
+business, which does not consist primarily in knowing Bad from Good, and
+Right from Wrong. Nor, if they will condescend to begin simply enough,
+and at the bottom of the said business, and let the cobbler judge of the
+crepida, and the potter of the pot, will they find it so supremely
+difficult to establish authorities that shall be trustworthy, and
+judgments that shall be sure.
+
+204. Suppose, for instance, at Leicester, whence came first to us the
+inquiry on such points, one began by setting apart a Hunter's Room, in
+which a series of portraits of their Master's favorites, for the last
+fifty years or so, should be arranged, with certificate from each Squire
+of his satisfaction, to such and such a point, with the portrait of
+Lightfoot, or Lucifer, or Will o' the Wisp; and due notification, for
+perhaps a recreant and degenerate future, of the virtues and perfections
+at this time sought and secured in the English horse. Would not such a
+chamber of chivalry have, in its kind, a quite indisputable authority
+and historical value, not to be shaken by any future impudence or
+infidelity?
+
+Or again in Staffordshire, would it not be easily answered to an honest
+question of what is good and not, in clay or ware, "This will work, and
+that will stand"? and might not a series of the mugs which have been
+matured with discrimination, and of the pots which have been popular in
+use, be so ordered as to display their qualities in a convincing and
+harmonious manner against all gainsayers?
+
+205. Nor is there any mystery of taste, or marvel of skill, concerning
+which you may not get quite easy initiation and safe pilotage for the
+common people, provided you once make them clearly understand that there
+is indeed something to be learned, and something to be admired, in the
+arts, which will need their attention for a time; and cannot be
+explained with a word, nor seen with a wink. And provided also, and with
+still greater decision, you set over them masters, in each branch of
+the arts, who know their own minds in that matter, and are not afraid to
+speak them, nor to say, "We know," when they know, and "We don't know,"
+when they don't.
+
+To which end, the said several branches must be held well apart, and
+dealt with one at a time. Every considerable town ought to have its
+exemplary collections of woodwork, iron-work, and jewelry, attached to
+the schools of their several trades, leaving to be illustrated in its
+public museum, as in an hexagonal bee's cell, the six queenly and
+muse-taught arts of needlework, writing, pottery, sculpture,
+architecture, and painting.
+
+206. For each of these, there should be a separate Tribune or Chamber of
+absolute tribunal, which need not be large--that, so called, of
+Florence, not the size of a railway waiting-room, has actually for the
+last century determined the taste of the European public in two
+arts!--in which the absolute best in each art, so far as attainable by
+the communal pocket, should be authoritatively exhibited, with simple
+statement that it is good, and reason why it is good, and notification
+in what particulars it is unsurpassable, together with some not too
+complex illustrations of the steps by which it has attained to that
+perfection, where these can be traced far back in history.
+
+207. These six Tribunes, or Temples, of Fame, being first set with their
+fixed criteria, there should follow a series of historical galleries,
+showing the rise and fall (if fallen) of the arts in their beautiful
+associations, as practiced in the great cities and by the great nations
+of the world. The history of Egypt, of Persia, of Greece, of Italy, of
+France, and of England, should be given in their arts,--dynasty by
+dynasty and age by age; and for a seventh, a Sunday Room, for the
+history of Christianity in its art, including the farthest range and
+feeblest efforts of it; reserving for this room, also, what power could
+be reached in delineation of the great monasteries and cathedrals which
+were once the glory of all Christian lands.
+
+208. In such a scheme, every form of noble art would take harmonious
+and instructive place, and often very little and disregarded things be
+found to possess unthought-of interest and hidden relative beauty; but
+its efficiency--and in this chiefly let it be commended to the patience
+of your practical readers--would depend, not on its extent, but on its
+strict and precise limitation. The methods of which, if you care to have
+my notions of them, I might perhaps enter into, next month, with some
+illustrative detail.--Ever most truly yours,
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+  _10th June, 1880._[7]
+
+  MY DEAR ----,
+
+209. I can't give you any talk on detail, yet; but, not to drop a stitch
+in my story, I want to say why I've attached so much importance to
+needlework, and put it in the opening court of the six. You see they are
+progressive, so that I don't quite put needlework on a _level_ with
+painting. But a nation that would learn to "touch" _must_ primarily know
+how to "stitch." I am always busy, for a good part of the day, in my
+wood, and wear out my leathern gloves fast, after once I can wear them
+at all: but that's the precise difficulty of the matter. I get them from
+the shop looking as stout and trim as you please, and half an hour after
+I've got to work they split up the fingers and thumbs like ripe
+horse-chestnut shells, and I find myself with five dangling rags round
+my wrist, and a rotten white thread draggling after me through the wood,
+or tickling my nose, as if Ariadne and Arachne had lost their wits
+together. I go home, invoking the universe against sewing-machines; and
+beg the charity of a sound stitch or two from any of the maids who know
+their woman's art; and thenceforward the life of the glove proper
+begins. Wow, it is not possible for any people that put up with this
+sort of thing, to learn to paint, or do anything else with their fingers
+decently:--only, for the most part they don't think their museums are
+meant to show them how to do anything decently, but rather how to be
+idle, indecently. Which extremely popular and extremely erroneous
+persuasion, if you please, we must get out of our way before going
+further.
+
+210. I owe some apology, by the way, to Mr. Frith, for the way I spoke
+of his picture[8] in my letter to the Leicester committee, not intended
+for publication, though I never write what I would not allow to be
+published, and was glad that they asked leave to print it. It was not I
+who instanced the picture, it had been named in the meeting of the
+committee as the kind of thing that people best like, and I was obliged
+to say _why_ people best liked it:--namely, not for the painting, which
+is good, and worthy their liking, but for the sight of the racecourse
+and its humors. And the reason that such a picture ought not to be in a
+museum, is precisely because in a museum people ought not to fancy
+themselves on a racecourse. If they want to see races, let them go to
+races; and if rogues, to Bridewells. They come to museums to see
+something different from rogues and races.
+
+211. But, to put the matter at once more broadly, and more accurately,
+be it remembered, for sum of all, that a museum is not a theater. Both
+are means of noble education--but you must not mix up the two. Dramatic
+interest is one thing; aesthetic charm another; a pantomime must not
+depend on its fine color, nor a picture on its fine pantomime.
+
+Take a special instance. It is long since I have been so pleased in the
+Royal Academy as I was by Mr. Britton Riviere's "Sympathy." The dog in
+uncaricatured doggedness, divine as Anubis, or the Dog-star; the child
+entirely childish and lovely, the carpet might have been laid by
+Veronese. A most precious picture in itself, yet not one for a museum.
+Everybody would think only of the story in it; everybody be wondering
+what the little girl had done, and how she would be forgiven, and if she
+wasn't, how soon she would stop crying, and give the doggie a kiss, and
+comfort his heart. All which they might study at home among their own
+children and dogs just as well; and should not come to the museum to
+plague the real students there, since there is not anything of especial
+notableness or unrivaled quality in the actual painting.
+
+212. On the other hand, one of the four pictures I chose for permanent
+teaching in Fors was one of a child and a dog. The child is doing
+nothing; neither is the dog. But the dog is absolutely and beyond
+comparison the best painted dog in the world--ancient or modern--on this
+side of it, or at the Antipodes, (so far as I've seen the contents of
+said world). And the child is painted so that child _cannot_ be better
+done. _That_ is a picture for a museum.
+
+Not that dramatic, still less didactic, intention should disqualify a
+work of art for museum purposes. But--broadly--dramatic and didactic art
+should be universally national, the luster of our streets, the treasure
+of our palaces, the pleasure of our homes. Much art that is weak,
+transitory, and rude may thus become helpful to us. But the museum is
+only for what is eternally right, and well done, according to divine law
+and human skill. The least things are to be there--and the greatest--but
+all _good_ with the goodness that makes a child cheerful and an old man
+calm; the simple should go there to learn, and the wise to remember.
+
+213. And now to return to what I meant to be the subject of this
+letter--the arrangement of our first ideal room in such a museum. As I
+think of it, I would fain expand the single room, first asked for, into
+one like Prince Houssain's,--no, Prince Houssain had the flying
+tapestry, and I forget which prince had the elastic palace. But, indeed,
+it must be a lordly chamber which shall be large enough to exhibit the
+true nature of thread and needle--omened in "Thread-needle Street!"
+
+The structure, first of wool and cotton, of fur, and hair, and down, of
+hemp, flax, and silk:--microscope permissible if any cause can be shown
+_why_ wool is soft, and fur fine, and cotton downy, and down downier;
+and how a flax fiber differs from a dandelion stalk, and how the
+substance of a mulberry leaf can become velvet for Queen Victoria's
+crown, and clothing of purple for the housewife of Solomon.
+
+Then the phase of its dyeing. What azures, and emeralds, and Tyrians
+scarlets can be got into fibers of thread.
+
+214. Then the phase of its spinning. The mystery of that divine
+spiral, from finest to firmest, which renders lace possible at
+Valenciennes--anchorage possible, after Trafalgar--if Hardy had but done
+as he was bid.
+
+Then the mystery of weaving. The eternal harmony of warp and woof, of
+all manner of knotting, knitting, and reticulation, the art which makes
+garment possible, woven from the top throughout, draughts of fishes
+possible, miraculous enough in any pilchard or herring shoal, gathered
+into companionable catchableness;--which makes, in fine, so many Nations
+possible, and Saxon and Norman beyond the rest.
+
+215. And finally, the accomplished phase of needlework, the _Acu
+Tetigisti_ of all time, which does, indeed, practically exhibit what
+mediaeval theologists vainly tried to conclude inductively--How many
+angels can stand on a needle-point. To show the essential nature of a
+stitch--drawing the separate into the inseparable, from the lowly work
+of duly restricted sutor, and modestly installed cobbler, to the
+needle-Scripture of Matilda, the Queen.
+
+All the acicular Art of Nations, savage and civilized, from Lapland
+boot, letting in no snow-water--to Turkey cushion bossed with pearl--to
+valance of Venice gold in needlework -to the counterpanes and samplers
+of our own lovely ancestresses, imitable, perhaps, once more, with good
+help from Whiteland's College--and Girton.
+
+216. It was but yesterday, my own womankind were in much wholesome and
+sweet excitement delightful to behold, in the practice of some new
+device of remedy for rents (to think how much of evil there is in the
+two senses of that four-lettered word! as in the two methods of
+intonation of its synonym tear!) whereby they might be daintily effaced,
+and with a newness which would never make them worse. The process began
+beautifully, even to my uninformed eyes, in the likeness of herring-bone
+masonry, crimson on white, but it seemed to me marvelous that anything
+should yet be discoverable in needle process, and that of so utilitarian
+character.
+
+All that is reasonable, I say of such work is to be in our first museum
+room. All that Athena and Penelope would approve. Nothing that vanity
+has invented for change, or folly loved for costliness; but all that can
+bring honest pride into homely life, and give security to health--and
+honor to beauty.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: These letters are reprinted from the _Art Journal_ of June
+and August 1880, where they were prefaced with the following note by the
+editor in explanation of their origin:--"We are enabled, through Mr.
+Ruskin's kindness, to publish this month a series of letters to a friend
+upon the functions and formation of a model Museum or Picture Gallery.
+As stated in our last issue the question arose thus:--At the
+distribution of the prizes to the School of Art at Leicester by Mr. J.
+D. Linton and Mr. James Orrock, members of the Institute of Painters in
+Water Colors, the latter, after stating the vital importance of study
+from nothing but the finest models, and expressing his regret that the
+present price of works of Art of the first class rendered their
+attainment by schools almost prohibitory, offered drawings by William
+Hunt and David Cox as a nucleus for a collection. He urged others to
+follow this example, and with so much success that a few days saw a
+large sum and many works of Art promised in aid of a students' gallery.
+The attention of the Leicester Corporation was thereupon drawn to the
+movement, and they at once endeavored to annex the scheme to their
+Museum. Failing in this, they in friendly rivalry subscribed a large sum
+of money, and the question at once arose how best to dispose of it, each
+naturally thinking his own ideas the best. At this juncture Mr. Ruskin's
+aid was invoked by one section of the subscribers, and he replied in a
+letter which, owing to its having been circulated without its context,
+has been open to some misconstruction. As he was only asked, so he only
+advised, what should _not_ be done. However, the letter bore its fruits,
+for both parties have had the attention of the country drawn to their
+proposals, and so are now more diffident how to set about carrying them
+into effect than they were before. Under these circumstances Mr. Ruskin
+has been induced to set out the mode in which he considers an Art Museum
+should be formed."
+
+The letter which was "open to some misconstruction" may be found in
+_Arrows of the Chace_.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Reprinted in vol. i., Sec.Sec. 253-273.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 6: In 1873. See the second lecture of _Love's
+Meinie_.--ED..]
+
+[Footnote 7: _Art Journal_, August, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The "Derby Day." See _Arrows of the Chase_.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MINOR WRITINGS UPON ART.
+
+
+  THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS, VERONA. 1872.
+
+  VERONA AND ITS RIVERS (WITH CATALOGUE). 1870.
+
+  CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM. 1872.
+
+  ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIAEVAL CHRISTENDOM. 1876.
+
+  THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS. 1876.
+
+  THE STUDY OF BEAUTY. 1883.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE CAVALLI MONUMENTS IN THE CHURCH OF ST. ANASTASIA, VERONA.[9]
+
+
+217. The tomb of Federigo and Nicola Cavalli is in the southernmost
+chapel of the five which form the east end of the church of St.
+Anastasia at Verona.
+
+The traveler in Italy is so often called upon to admire what he cannot
+enjoy, that it must relieve the mind of any reader intending to visit
+Verona to be assured that this church deserves nothing but extraordinary
+praise; it has, however, some characters which a quarter of an hour's
+attention will make both interesting and instructive, and which I will
+note briefly before giving an account of the Cavalli chapel. This church
+"would, if the font were finished, probably be the most perfect specimen
+in existence of the style to which it belongs," says a critic quoted in
+"Murray's Guide." The conjecture is a bold one, for the font is not only
+unfinished, and for the most part a black mass of ragged brickwork, but
+the portion pretending to completion is in three styles; approaches
+excellence only in one of them; and in that the success is limited to
+the sides of the single entrance door. The flanks and vaults of this
+porch, indeed, deserve our almost unqualified admiration for their
+beautiful polychrome masonry. They are built of large masses of green
+serpentine alternating with red and white marble, and the joints are so
+delicate and firm that a casual spectator might pass the gate with
+contempt, thinking the stone was painted.
+
+218. The capitals on these two sides, the carved central shaft, and the
+horizontal lintel of this door are also excellent examples of Veronese
+thirteenth century sculpture, and have merits of a high order, but of
+which the general observer cannot be cognizant. I do not mean, in
+saying this, to extol them greatly; the best art is pleasing to all, and
+its virtue, or a portion of its virtue, instantly manifest. But there
+are some good qualities in every earnest work which can only be
+ascertained by attention; and in saying that a casual observer cannot
+see the good qualities in early Veronese sculpture, I mean that it
+possesses none but these, nor of these many.
+
+219. Yet it is worth a minute's delay to observe how much the sculpture
+has counted on attention. In later work, figures of the size of life, or
+multitudinous small ones, please, if they do not interest, the spectator
+who can spare them a momentary glance. But all the figures on this door
+are diminutive, and project so slightly from the stone as scarcely to
+catch the eye; there are none in the sides and none in the vault of the
+gate, and it is only by deliberate examination that we find the faith
+which is to be preached in the church, and the honor of its preacher,
+conclusively engraved on the lintel and door-post. The spiral flutings
+of the central shaft are uninterrupted, so as to form a slight recess
+for the figure of St. Dominic, with, I believe, St. Peter Martyr and St.
+Thomas Aquinas, one on each side with the symbols of the sun and moon.
+At the end of the lintel, on the left, is St. Anastasia; on the right,
+St. Catherine (of Siena); in the center, on the projecting capital, the
+Madonna; and on the lintel, the story of Christ, in the four passages of
+the Annunciation, Nativity, Crucifixion, and Resurrection.
+
+220. This is the only part of the front of the church which is certainly
+part of the first structure in 1260. The two statues of St. Anastasia
+and St. Catherine are so roughly joined to the lateral capitals as to
+induce a suspicion that even these latter and the beautiful polychrome
+vault are of later work, not, however, later than 1300. The two pointed
+arches which divide the tympanum are assuredly subsequent, and the
+fresco which occupies it is a bad work of the end of the fourteenth
+century; and the marble frieze and foundations of the front are at least
+not earlier than 1426.
+
+Of this portion of the building the foundation is noble, and its color
+beautifully disposed, but the sculpture of the paneling is poor, and of
+no interest or value.
+
+221. On entering the church, and turning immediately to the left, there
+will be seen on the inner side of the external wall a tomb under a
+boldly trefoiled canopy. It is a sarcophagus with a recumbent figure on
+it, which is the only work of art in the church deserving serious
+attention. It is the tomb of Gerard Bolderius "sui temporis physicorum
+principi," says his epitaph,[10] not, as far as I can discover, untruly.
+On the front of the sarcophagus is the semi-figure of Christ rising from
+the tomb, used generally at the period for the type of resurrection,
+between the Virgin and St. John; and two shields, bearing, one the
+fleur-de-lys, the other an eagle. The recumbent figure is entirely
+simple and right in treatment, sculptured without ostentation of skill
+or exaggeration of sentiment, by a true artist, who endeavors only to
+give the dead due honor, and his own art subordinate and modest scope.
+
+This monument, being the best in St. Anastasia, is, by the usual spite
+of fortune, placed where it is quite invisible except on bright days. On
+the opposite side of the church, the first monument on the right, well
+lighted by the tall western window, should be looked at next to the
+physician's; for as that is the best, this is essentially the worst,
+piece of sculptured art in the building; a series of academy studies in
+marble, well executed, but without either taste or invention, and
+necessarily without meaning, the monument having been erected to a
+person whose only claim to one was his having stolen money enough to pay
+for it before he died. It is one of the first pieces extant of entirely
+mechanical art workmanship, done for money; and the perfection of its
+details may justify me in directing special attention to it.
+
+222. There are no other monuments, still less pictures, in the body of
+the church deserving notice. The general effect of the interior is
+impressive, owing partly to the boldness and simplicity of the pillars
+which sustain the roof; partly to the darkness which involves them:
+these Dominican churches being, in fact, little more than vast halls for
+preaching in, and depending little on decoration, and not at all on
+light. But the sublimity of shadow soon fails when it has nothing
+interesting to shade; and the chapel or monuments which, opposite each
+interval between the pillars, fill the sides of the aisles, possess no
+interest except in their arabesques of cinque-cento sculpture, of which
+far better examples may be seen elsewhere; while the differences in
+their ages, styles, and purposes hinder them from attaining any unity of
+decorative effect, and break the unity of the church almost as fatally,
+though not as ignobly, as the incoherent fillings of the aisles at
+Westminster. The Cavalli chapel itself, though well deserving the
+illustration which the Arundel Society has bestowed upon it, is filled
+with a medley of tombs and frescoes of different dates, partly
+superseding, none illustrating, each other, and instructive mainly as
+showing the unfortunate results of freedom and "private enterprise" in
+matters of art, as compared with the submission to the design of one
+ruling mind which is the glory of all the chapels in Italy where the art
+is entirely noble.
+
+223. Instructive, thus, at least, even if seen hastily; much better
+teaching may be had even from the unharmonious work, if we give time and
+thought to it. The upper fresco on the north wall, representing the
+Baptism of Christ, has no beauty, and little merit as art; yet the
+manner of its demerit is interesting. St. John kneels to baptize. This
+variation from the received treatment, in which he stands above the
+Christ, is enough in itself to show that the poor Veronese painter had
+some intelligence of his subject; and the quaint and haggard figure,
+grim-featured, with its black hair rising in separate locks like a crown
+of thorns, is a curious intermediate type between the grotesque
+conception which we find in earlier art (or, for instance, on the coins
+of Florence) and the beautiful, yet always melancholy and severe figures
+of St. John painted by Cima da Conegliano at Venice. With this stern
+figure, in raiment of camel's hair, compare the Magdalen in the frescoes
+at the side of the altar, who is veiled from head to foot with her own,
+and sustained by six angels, being the type of repentance from the
+passions, as St. John of resistance to them. Both symbols are, to us, to
+say the very least, without charm, and to very few without offense; yet
+consider how much nobler the temper of the people must have been who
+could take pleasure in art so gloomy and unadorned, than that of the
+populace of to-day, which must be caught with bright colors and excited
+by popular sentiment.
+
+224. Both these frescoes, with the others on the north wall of the
+chapel, and Madonna between four saints on the south side, by the
+Cavalli tomb, are evidently of fourteenth century work, none of it good,
+but characteristic; and the last-named work (seen in the plate) is so
+graceful as to be quite worth some separate illustration. But the one
+above it is earlier, and of considerable historical interest. It was
+discovered with the other paintings surrounding the tomb, about the year
+1838, when Persico published his work, "Verona, e la sua Provincia," in
+which he says (p. 13), "levatane l'antica incrostatura, tornarono a vita
+novella."
+
+It would have been more serviceable to us if we could have known the
+date of the rough cast, than of its removal; the period of entire
+contempt for ancient art being a subject of much interest in the
+ecclesiastical history of Italy. But the tomb itself was an
+incrustation, having been raised with much rudeness and carelessness
+amidst the earlier art which recorded the first rise of the Cavalli
+family.
+
+225. It will be seen by reference to the plate that the frescoes round
+the tomb have no symmetrical relation to it. They are all of earlier
+date, and by better artists. The tomb itself is roughly carved, and
+coarsely painted, by men who were not trying to do their best, and could
+not have done anything very well, even if they had tried: it is an
+entirely commonplace and dull work, though of a good school, and has
+been raised against the highest fresco with a strange disregard of the
+merit of the work itself, and of its historical value to the family.
+This fresco is attributable by Persico to Giotto, but is, I believe,
+nothing more than an interesting example of the earnest work of his
+time, and has no quality on which I care to enlarge; nor is it
+ascertainable who the three knights are whom it commemorates, unless
+some evidence be found of the date of the painting, and there is, yet,
+none but that of its manner. But they are all three Cavallis, and I
+believe them to represent the three first founders of the family,
+Giovanni, "che fioriva intorno al 1274," his son Nicola (1297), and
+grandson Federigo, who was Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers in
+1331, and by whom I suppose the fresco to have been commanded. The
+Cavallis came first from Germany into the service of the Visconti of
+Milan, as condottieri, thence passing into the service of the Scaligers.
+Whether I am right in this conjecture or not, we have, at all events,
+record in this chapel of seven knights of the family, of whom two are
+named on the sarcophagus, of which the inscription (on the projecting
+ledge under the recumbent figure) is:--
+
+     S. (Sepulchrum) nobilis et egregii viri Federici et egregii et
+     strenui viri domini Nicolai de Cavalis suorunique heredum, qui
+     spiritum redidit astris Ano Dni MCCCLXXXX.
+
+Of which, I think, the force may be best given thus in modern terms:--
+
+"The tomb of the noble and distinguished Herr Frederic, and of the
+distinguished and energetic Herr the Lord Nicholas of the house of the
+Horse, and of their heirs, who gave back his soul to the stars in the
+year of our Lord 1390."
+
+226. This Frederic and Nicolas Cavalli were the brothers of the Jacopo
+Cavalli who is buried at Venice, and who, by a singular fatality, was
+enrolled among the Venetian nobles of the senate in the year in which
+his brother died at Verona (for I assume the "spiritum redidit" to be
+said of the first-named brother). Jacopo married Constance della Scala,
+of Verona, and had five sons, of whom one, Giorgio, Conte di Schio,
+plotted, after the fall of the Scaligers, for their restoration to power
+in Verona, and was exiled, by decree of the Council of Ten, to Candia,
+where he died. From another son, Conrad, are descended the Cavallis of
+Venice, whose palace has been the principal material from which recent
+searchers for the picturesque in Venice compose pictures of the Grand
+Canal. It forms the square mass of architecture on the left, in the
+continually repeated view of the Church of the Salute seen from the
+steps of the Academy.
+
+The genealogy of the family, from the thirteenth century, when they
+first appeared in Italy, to the founder of this Venetian lordship, had
+better be set before the reader in one view.[11]
+
+                      GIOVANNI,
+     Condottiere in service of the Visconti, 1274.
+                         |
+                       NICOLA,
+                Condottiere, 1297.
+                         |
+                      FEDERICO,
+     Podesta of Vicenza under the Scaligers, 1331.
+                         |
+                       CONRADO,
+                Condottiere, 1350.
+                         |
+          |--------------+-------------|
+       FEDERIGO,         JACOPO,        NICOLA,
+                         |
+    |---------+----------+----------+----------|
+  NICOLA,   GIOVANNI,     CONRADO,    FEDERIGO,    GIORGIO.
+               Founds Venetian family.
+
+227. Now, as above stated, I believe that the fresco of the three
+knights was commanded by the Podesta of Vicenza, on his receiving that
+authority from the Scaligers in 1331, and that it represents Giovanni,
+Nicola, and himself; while the tomb of Federigo and Nicola would be
+ordered by the Venetian Cavallis, and completed without much care for
+the record of the rise of the family at Verona.
+
+Whether my identification of the figures seen kneeling in the fresco be
+correct or not, the representation of these three Cavalli knights to the
+Madonna, each interceded for by his patron saint, will be found to
+receive a peculiar significance if the reader care to review the
+circumstances influencing the relation of the German chivalry to the
+power of the Church in the very year when Giovanni Cavalli entered the
+ranks of the Visconti.
+
+228. For the three preceding centuries, Milan, the oldest archbishopric
+of Lombardy, had been the central point at which the collision between
+the secular and ecclesiastical power took place in Europe. The Guelph
+and Ghibelline naturally met and warred throughout the plain of
+Lombardy; but the intense civic stubbornness and courage of the Milanese
+population formed a kind of rock in their tide-way, where the quarrel of
+burgher with noble confused itself with, embittered, and brought again
+and again to trial by battle, that of pope with emperor. In 1035 their
+warrior archbishop, heading their revolt against Conrad of Franconia,
+organized the first disciplined resistance of foot-soldiers to cavalry
+by his invention and decoration of the Carroccio; and the contest was
+only closed, after the rebuilding of the walls of ruined Milan, by the
+wandering of Barbarossa, his army scattered, through the maize fields,
+which the traveler now listlessly crosses at speed in the train between
+Milan and Arona, little noting the name of the small station, "Legnano,"
+where the fortune of the Lombard republic finally prevailed. But it was
+only by the death of Frederick II. that the supremacy of the Church was
+secured; and when Innocent IV., who had written, on hearing of that
+death, to his Sicilian clergy, in words of blasphemous exultation,
+entered Milan, on his journey from Lyons to Perugia, the road, for ten
+miles before he reached the gates, was lined by the entire population of
+the city, drawn forth in enthusiastic welcome; as they had invented a
+sacred car for the advance of their standard in battle, they invented
+some similar honor for the head of their Church as the harbinger of
+peace: under a canopy of silk, borne by the first gentlemen of Milan,
+the Pope received the hosannas of a people who had driven into shameful
+flight their Caesar-king; and it is not uninteresting for the English
+traveler to remember, as he walks through the vast arcades of shops, in
+the form of a cross, by which the Milanese of to-day express their
+triumph in liberation from Teutonic rule, that the "Baldacchino" of all
+mediaeval religious ceremony owed its origin to the taste of the
+milliners of Milan, as the safety of the best knights in European battle
+rested on the faithful craftsmanship of her armorers.
+
+229. But at the date when the Cavalli entered the service of the great
+Milanese family, the state of parties within the walls had singularly
+changed. Three years previously (1271) Charles of Anjou had drawn
+together the remnants of the army of his dead brother, had confiscated
+to his own use the goods of the crusading knights whose vessels had been
+wrecked on the coast of Sicily, and called the pontifical court to
+Viterbo, to elect a pope who might confirm his dominion over the
+kingdoms of Sicily and Jerusalem.
+
+On the deliberations of the Cardinals at Viterbo depended the fates of
+Italy and the Northern Empire. They chose Tebaldo Visconti, then a monk
+in pilgrimage at Jerusalem. But, before that election was accomplished,
+one of the candidates for the Northern Empire had involuntarily
+withdrawn his claim; Guy de Montfort had murdered, at the altar foot,
+the English Count of Cornwall, to avenge his father, Simon de Montfort,
+killed at Evesham. The death of the English king of the Romans left the
+throne of Germany vacant. Tebaldo had returned from Jerusalem with no
+personal ambition, but having at heart only the restoration of Greece to
+Europe, and the preaching of a new crusade in Syria. A general council
+was convoked by him at Lyons, with this object; but before anything
+could be accomplished in the conclave, it was necessary to balance the
+overwhelming power of Charles of Anjou, and the Visconti (Gregory X.)
+ratified, in 1273, the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg.
+
+230. But Charles of Anjou owed his throne, in reality, to the assistance
+of the Milanese. Their popular leader, Napoleone della Torre, had
+facilitated his passage through Lombardy, which otherwise must have been
+arrested by the Ghibelline states; and in the year in which the Visconti
+pope had appointed the council at Lyons, the Visconti archbishop of
+Milan was heading the exiled nobles in vain attempts to recover their
+supremacy over the popular party. The new Emperor Rudolph not only sent
+a representative to the council, but a German contingent to aid the
+exiled archbishop. The popular leader was defeated, and confined in an
+iron cage, in the year 1274, and the first entrance of the Cavalli into
+the Italian armies is thus contemporary with the conclusive triumph of
+the northern monarchic over the republican power, or, more literally, of
+the wandering rider, Eques, or Ritter, living by pillage, over the
+sedentary burgher, living by art, and hale peasant, living by labor. The
+essential nature of the struggle is curiously indicated in relation to
+this monument by the two facts that the revolt of the Milanese burghers,
+headed by their archbishop, began by a gentleman's killing an
+importunate creditor, and that, at Venice, the principal circumstance
+recorded of Jacopo Cavalli (see my notice of his tomb in the "Stones of
+Venice," Vol. III. ch. ii. Sec. 69) is his refusal to assault Feltre,
+because the senate would not grant him the pillage of the town. The
+reader may follow out, according to his disposition, what thoughts the
+fresco of the three kneeling knights, each with his helmet-crest, in the
+shape of a horse's head, thrown back from his shoulders, may suggest to
+him on review of these passages of history: one thought only I must
+guard him against, strictly; namely, that a condottiere's religion must
+necessarily have been false or hypocritical. The folly of nations is in
+nothing more manifest than in their placid reconciliation of noble
+creeds with base practices. But the reconciliation, in the fourteenth as
+in the nineteenth century, was usually foolish only, not insincere.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 9: Published by the Arundel Society (1872), together with a
+chromo-lithograph after a drawing by Herr Gnauth.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 10:
+
+  D.M.
+  Gerardo Bolderio
+  sui temporis
+  Physicorum Principi
+  Franciscus et
+  Matthaeus Nepotes
+  P.P.]
+
+[Footnote 11: I am indebted for this genealogy to the research and to
+the courtesy of Mr. J. Stefani. The help given me by other Venetian
+friends, especially Mr. Rawdon Brown, dates from many years back in
+matters of this kind.]
+
+
+
+
+VERONA AND ITS RIVERS.[12]
+
+
+231. The discourse began with a description of the scenery of the
+eastern approach to Verona, with special remarks upon its magnificent
+fortifications, consisting of a steep ditch, some thirty feet deep by
+sixty or eighty wide, cut out of the solid rock, and the precipice-like
+wall above, with towers crested with forked battlements set along it at
+due intervals. The rock is a soft and crumbling limestone, containing
+"fossil creatures still so like the creatures they were once, that there
+it first occurred to the human brain to imagine that the buried shapes
+were not mockeries of life, but had indeed once lived; and, under those
+white banks by the roadside, was born, like a poor Italian gypsy, the
+modern science of geology." ... "The wall was chiefly built, the moat
+entirely excavated, by Can Grande della Scala; and it represents
+typically the form, of defense which rendered it possible for the life
+and the arts of citizens to be preserved and practiced in an age of
+habitual war. Not only so, but it is the wall of the actual city which
+headed the great Lombard league, which was the beginner of personal and
+independent power in the Italian nation, and the first banner-bearer,
+therefore, of all that has been vitally independent in religion and in
+art throughout the entire Christian world to this day." At the upper
+angle of the wall, looking down the northern descent, is seen a great
+round tower at the foot of it, not forked in battlements, but with
+embrasures for guns. "The battlemented wall was the cradle of civic
+life. That low circular tower is the cradle of modern war and of all its
+desolation. It is the first European tower for artillery; the beginning
+of fortification against gunpowder--the beginning, that is to say, of
+the end of _all_ fortification."
+
+232. After noticing the beautiful vegetation of the district, Mr. Ruskin
+described the view from the promontory or spur, about ten miles long, of
+which the last rock dies into the plain at the eastern gate of Verona.
+"This promontory," he said, "is one of the sides of the great gate out
+of Germany into Italy, through which the Goths always entered, cloven up
+to Innspruck by the Inn, and down to Verona by the Adige. And by this
+gate not only the Gothic armies came, but after the Italian nation is
+formed, the current of northern life enters still into its heart through
+the mountain artery, as constantly and strongly as the cold waves of the
+Adige itself." ... "The rock of this promontory hardens as we trace it
+back to the Alps, first into a limestone having knots of splendid brown
+jasper in it as our chalk has flints, and in a few miles more into true
+marble, colored by iron into a glowing orange or pale warm red--the
+peach-blossom marble, of which Verona is chiefly built--and then as you
+advance farther into the hills into variegated marbles very rich and
+grotesque in their veinings."
+
+233. After dilating on the magnificent landscape viewed from the top of
+this promontory, embracing the blue plain of Lombardy and its cities"
+Mr. Ruskin said:--
+
+"I do not think that there is any other rock in all the world from which
+the places and monuments of so complex and deep a fragment of the
+history of its ages can be visible as from this piece of crag with its
+blue and prickly weeds. For you have thus beneath you at once the
+birthplaces of Virgil and of Livy--the homes of Dante and Petrarch, and
+the source of the most sweet and pathetic inspiration to your own
+Shakespeare--the spot where the civilization of the Gothic kingdoms was
+founded on the throne of Theodoric; and there whatever was strongest in
+the Italian race redeemed itself into life by its league against
+Barbarossa; the beginning of the revival of natural science and medicine
+in the schools of Padua; the center of Italian chivalry, in the power
+of the Scaligers; of Italian cruelty, in that of Ezzelin; and, lastly,
+the birthplace of the highest art; for among those hills, or by this
+very Adige bank, were born Mantegna, Titian, Correggio, and Veronese."
+
+234. Mr. Ruskin then referred to a series of drawings and photographs
+taken at Verona by himself and his assistants, Mr. Burgess and Mr.
+Bunney, which he had divided into three series, and of which he had
+furnished a number of printed catalogues illustrated with notes.[13]
+
+I. "Lombard, extending to the end of the twelfth century, being the
+expression of the introduction of Christianity into barbaric minds;
+Christianization.
+
+II. "The Gothic period. Dante's time, from 1200 to 1400 (Dante beginning
+his poem exactly in the midst of it, in 1300); the period of vital
+Christianity, and of the development of the laws of chivalry and forms
+of imagination which are founded on Christianity.
+
+III. "The first period of the revival, in which the arts of Greece and
+some of its religion return and join themselves to Christianity; not
+taking away its sincerity or earnestness, but making it poetical instead
+of practical. In the following period even this poetical Christianity
+expired; the arts became devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, and in that
+they persist except where they are saved by a healthy naturalism or
+domesticity.
+
+235. I. "The Lombardic period is one of savage but noble life gradually
+subjected to law. It is the forming of men, not out of clay but wild
+beasts. And art of this period in all countries, including our own
+Norman especially, is, in the inner heart of it, the subjection of
+savage or terrible, or foolish and erring life, to a dominant law. It is
+government and conquest of fearful dreams. There is in it as yet no
+germ of true hope--only the conquest of evil, and the waking from
+darkness and terror. The literature of it is, as in Greece, far in
+advance of art, and is already full of the most tender and impassioned
+beauty, while the art is still grotesque and dreadful; but, however
+wild, it is supreme above all others by its expression of governing law,
+and here at Verona is the very center and utmost reach of that
+expression.
+
+"I know nothing in architecture at once so exquisite and so wild and so
+strange in the expression of self-conquest achieved almost in a dream.
+For observe, these barbaric races, educated in violence--chiefly in war
+and in hunting--cannot feel or see clearly as they are gradually
+civilized whether this element in which they have been brought up is
+evil or not. They _must_ be good soldiers and hunters--that is their
+life; yet they know that killing is evil, and they do not expect to find
+wild beasts in heaven. They have been trained by pain, by violence, by
+hunger and cold. They know there is a good in these things as well as
+evil: they are perpetually hesitating between the one and the other
+thought of them. But one thing they see clearly, that killing and
+hunting, and every form of misery, pleasure, and of passion, must
+somehow at last be subdued by law, which shall bring good out of it all,
+and which they feel more and more constraining them every hour. Now, if
+with this sympathy you look at their dragon and wild beast decoration,
+you will find that it now tells you about these Lombards far more than
+they could know of themselves.... All the actions, and much more the
+arts, of men tell to others, not only what the worker does not know, but
+what he can never know of himself, which you can only recognize by being
+in an element more advanced and wider than his.... In deliberate
+symbolism, the question is always, not what a symbol meant first or
+meant elsewhere, but what it means now and means here. Now, this dragon
+symbol of the Lombard is used of course all over the world; it means
+good here, and evil there; sometimes means nothing; sometimes
+everything. You have always to ask what the man who here uses it means
+by it. Whatever is in his mind, that he is sure partly to express by
+it; nothing else than that can he express by it."
+
+236. II. In the second period Mr. Ruskin said was to be found "the
+highest development of Italian character and chivalry, with an entirely
+believed Christian religion; you get, therefore, joy and courtesy, and
+hope, and a lovely peace in death. And with these you have two fearful
+elements of evil. You have first such confidence in the virtue of the
+creed that men hate and persecute all who do not accept it. And worse
+still, you find such confidence in the power of the creed that men not
+only can do anything that is wrong, and be themselves for a word of
+faith pardoned, but are even sure that after the wrong is done God is
+sure to put it all right again for them, or even make things better than
+they were before. Now, I need not point out to you how the spirit of
+persecution, as well as of vain hope founded on creed only, is mingled
+in every line with the lovely moral teaching of the 'Divina Conmedia,'
+nor need I point out to you how, between the persecution of other
+people's creeds and the absolution of one's own crimes, all Christian
+error is concluded."
+
+In relation to this Mr. Ruskin referred to the history of the founder of
+the power of the Scalas, Mastino, a simple citizen, chosen first to be
+podesta and then captain of Verona, for his justice and sagacity, who,
+although wise and peaceful in his policy, employed the civil power in
+the persecution of heresy, burning above two hundred persons; and he
+also related how Can Signorio della Scala on his death-bed, after giving
+a pious charge to his children, ordered the murder of his
+brother--examples of the boundless possibility of self-deception. One of
+these children killed the other, and was himself driven from the throne,
+so ending the dynasty of the Scalas. Referring to his illustrations, Mr.
+Ruskin pointed out the expressions of hope, in the conquest of death,
+and the rewards of faith, apparent in the art of the time. The Lombard
+architecture expresses the triumph of law over passion, the Christian,
+that of hope over sorrow.
+
+Mr. Ruskin concluded his remarks on this period by commenting on the
+history and the tomb of Can Grande della Scala, a good knight and true,
+as busy and bright a life as is found in the annals of chivalry.
+
+237. III. "The period when classical literature and art were again known
+in Italy, and the painters and sculptors, who had been gaining steadily
+in power for two hundred years--power not of practice merely, but of
+race also--with every circumstance in their favor around them, received
+their finally perfect instruction, both in geometrical science, in that
+of materials, and in the anatomy and action of the human body. Also the
+people about them--the models of their work--had been perfected in
+personal beauty by a chivalric war; in imagination by a transcendental
+philosophy; in practical intellect by stern struggle for civic law; and
+in commerce, not in falsely made or vile or unclean things, but in
+lovely things, beautifully and honestly made. And now, therefore, you
+get out of all the world's long history since it was peopled by men till
+now--you get just fifty years of perfect work. Perfect. It is a strong
+word; it is also a _true_ one. The doing of these fifty years is
+unaccusably Right, as art; what its sentiment may be--whether too great
+or too little, whether superficial or sincere--is another question, but
+as artists' work it admits no conception of anything better.
+
+"It is true that in the following age, founded on the absolutely stern
+rectitude of this, there came a phase of gigantic power and of exquisite
+ease and felicity which possess an awe and a charm of their own. They
+are more inimitable than the work of the perfect school. But they are
+not _perfect_." ...
+
+238. This period Mr. Ruskin named "the 'Time of the Masters,' Fifty
+Years, including Luini, Leonardo, John Bellini, Vitto Carpaccio, Andrea
+Mantegna, Andrea Verrocchio, Cima da Conegliano, Perugino, and in date,
+though only in his earlier life, belonging to the school, Raphael....
+The great fifty years was the prime of life of three men: John Bellini,
+born 1430, died at 90, in 1516; Mantegna, born 1430, died at 76, in
+1506; and Vittor Carpaccio, who died in 1522."
+
+"The object of these masters is wholly different from that of the former
+school. The central Gothic men always want chiefly to impress you with
+the facts of their subject; but the masters of this finished time desire
+only to make everything dainty and delightful. We have not many pictures
+of the class in England, but several have been of late added to the
+National Gallery, and the Perugino there, especially the compartment
+with Raphael and Tobit, and the little St. Jerome by John Bellini, will
+perfectly show you this main character--pictorial perfectness and
+deliciousness--sought before everything else. You will find, if you look
+into that St. Jerome, that everything in it is exquisite, complete, and
+pure; there is not a particle of dust in the cupboards, nor a cloud in
+the air; the wooden shutters are dainty, the candlesticks are dainty,
+the saint's scarlet hat is dainty, and its violet tassel, and its
+ribbon, and his blue cloak and his spare pair of shoes, and his little
+brown partridge--it is all a perfect quintessence of innocent
+luxury--absolute delight, without one drawback in it, nor taint of the
+Devil anywhere." ...
+
+239. After dilating on several other pictures of this class, giving
+evidence of the entire devotion of the artists of the period to their
+art and work, Mr. Ruskin adverted to the second part of his discourse,
+the rivers of Verona. "There is but one river at Verona, nevertheless
+Dante connects its name with that of the Po when he says of the whole of
+Lombardy,--
+
+  'In sul paese, ch' Adice e Po riga,
+  Solea valore e cortesia trovarsi
+  Prima che Federigo avesse briga.'
+
+I want to speak for a minute or two about those great rivers, because in
+the efforts that are now being made to restore some of its commerce to
+Venice precisely the same questions are in course of debate which again
+and again, ever since Venice was a city, have put her senate at
+pause--namely, how to hold in check the continually advancing morass
+formed by the silt brought down by the Alpine rivers. Is it not strange
+that for at least six hundred years the Venetians have been contending
+with those rivers at their _mouths_--that is to say, where their
+strength has become wholly irresistible--and never once thought of
+contending with them at their sources, where their infinitely separated
+streamlets might be, and are meant by Heaven to be, ruled as easily as
+children? And observe how sternly, how constantly the place where they
+are to be governed is marked by the mischief done by their liberty.
+Consider what the advance of the delta of the Po in the Adriatic
+signifies among the Alps. The evil of the delta itself, however great,
+is as nothing in comparison of that which is in its origin.
+
+240. "The gradual destruction of the harborage of Venice, the endless
+cost of delaying it, the malaria of the whole coast down to Ravenna,
+nay, the raising of the bed of the Po, to the imperiling of all
+Lombardy, are but secondary evils. Every acre of that increasing delta
+means _the devastation of part of an Alpine valley, and the loss of so
+much fruitful soil and ministering rain_. Some of you now present must
+have passed this year through the valleys of the Toccia and Ticino. You
+know therefore the devastation that was caused there, as well as in the
+valley of the Rhone, by the great floods of 1868, and that ten years of
+labor, even if the peasantry had still the heart for labor, cannot
+redeem those districts into fertility. What you have there seen on a
+vast scale takes place to a certain extent during every summer
+thunderstorm, and from the ruin of some portion of fruitful land the
+dust descends to increase the marshes of the Po. But observe
+further--whether fed by sudden melting of snow or by storm--every
+destructive rise of the Italian rivers signifies the loss of so much
+power of irrigation on the south side of the Alps. You must all well
+know the look of their chain--seen from Milan or Turin late in
+summer--how little snow is left, except on Monte Rosa, how vast a
+territory of brown mountain-side heated and barren, without rocks, yet
+without forest. There is in that brown-purple zone, and along the
+flanks of every valley that divides it, another Lombardy of cultivable
+land; and every drift of rain that swells the mountain torrents if it
+were caught where it falls is literally rain of gold. We seek gold
+beneath the rocks; and we will not so much as make a trench along the
+hillside to catch it where it falls from heaven, and where, if not so
+caught, it changes into a frantic monster, first ravaging hamlet, hill,
+and plain, then sinking along the shores of Venice into poisoned sleep.
+Think what that belt of the Alps might be--up to four thousand feet
+above the plain--if the system of terraced irrigation which even
+half-savage nations discovered and practiced long ago in China and in
+Borneo, and by which our own engineers have subdued vast districts of
+farthest India, were but in part also practiced here--here, in the
+oldest and proudest center of European arts, where Leonardo da
+Vinci--master among masters--first discerned the laws of the coiling
+clouds and wandering streams, so that to this day his engineering
+remains unbettered by modern science; and yet in this center of all
+human achievements of genius no thought has been taken to receive with
+sacred art these great gifts of quiet snow and flying rain. Think, I
+repeat, what that south slope of the Alps might be: one paradise of
+lovely pasture and avenued forest of chestnut and blossomed trees, with
+cascades docile and innocent as infants, laughing all summer long from
+crag to crag and pool to pool, and the Adige and the Po, the Dora and
+the Ticino, no more defiled, no more alternating between fierce flood
+and venomous languor, but in calm clear currents bearing ships to every
+city and health to every field of all that azure plain of Lombard
+Italy....
+
+241. "It has now become a most grave object with me to get some of the
+great pictures of the Italian schools into England; and that, I think,
+at this time--with good help--might be contrived. Further, without in
+the least urging my plans impatiently on anyone else, I know thoroughly
+that this, which I have said _should_ be done, _can_ be done, for the
+Italian rivers, and that no method of employment of our idle
+able-bodied laborers would be in the end more remunerative, or in the
+beginnings of it more healthful and every way beneficial than, with the
+concurrence of the Italian and Swiss governments, setting them to redeem
+the valleys of the Ticino and the Rhone. And I pray you to think of
+this; for I tell you truly--you who care for Italy--that both her
+passions and her mountain streams are noble; but that her happiness
+depends not on the liberty, but the right government of both."[14]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 12: Report (with extracts) of a paper entitled "A Talk
+respecting Verona and its Rivers," read by Mr. Ruskin at the Weekly
+Evening Meeting of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Feb. 4th,
+1870. See _Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution, vol. vi., p.
+55.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 13: This catalogue (London: Queen Street Printing-Office,
+1870) is printed below, p. 109, Sec. 242 _seqq._--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See _Arrows of the Chace_.]
+
+
+
+
+CATALOGUE.
+
+(_See ante,_ p. 101.--ED.)
+
+_Drawings and Photographs, illustrative of the Architecture of Verona,
+shown at the Royal Institution, Feb. 4th, 1870._
+
+
+SECTION I. NOS. 1 TO 7. LOMBARD.
+
+242. (1.) _Porch of the Church of St. Zeno._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Of the 12th century.
+
+(2.) _Porch of the South Entrance of the Duomo._
+
+     Probably of the 10th or 11th century, and highly remarkable for the
+     wildness of its grotesque or monstrous sculpture, which has been
+     most carefully rendered by the draughts-man, Mr. Bunney.
+
+     It will save space to note that the sketches by my two most
+     skillful and patient helpers, Mr. A. Burgess and Mr. Bunney, will
+     be respectively marked (A) and (B), and my own (R).
+
+(3.) _Porch of the Western Entrance of the Duomo._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Later in date--but still of 12th or very early 13th century.
+     Details of it are given in the next drawings.
+
+243. (4.) _Griffin_ (I keep the intelligible old English spelling),
+     _sustaining the Pillar on the North Side of the Porch seen in No. 3._
+     (R.)
+
+     Painted last summer.
+
+     I engraved his head and breast, seen from the other side, in the
+     plate of "True and False Griffins," in "Modern Painters." Only the
+     back of the head and neck of the small dragon he holds in his
+     fore-claws can be seen from this side.
+
+(5.) _Capital of the Pillar sustained by the Griffin, of which the base
+     is seen in No. 4._ (A.)
+
+     First-rate sculpture of the time, and admirably drawn.
+
+(6.) _Portion of decorative Lombardic molding from the South Side of the
+     Duomo._ (A.)
+
+     Showing the peculiar writhing of the branched tracery with a
+     serpentine flexure--altogether different from the springing lines
+     of Gothic ornament. It would be almost impossible to draw this
+     better; it is much more like the real thing than a cast would be.
+
+(7.) _Lion, with Dragon in its claws, of Lombardic sculpture_ (now built
+     into a wall at Venice); _above it, head of one of the Dogs which
+     support the Tomb of Can Grande, at Verona._ (R.)
+
+     The lion--in its emaciated strength, and the serpent with its vital
+     writhe and deadly reverted bite, are both characteristic of the
+     finest Lombard work. The dog's head is 14th century Gothic--a
+     masterpiece of broad, subtle, easy sculpture, getting expression
+     with every touch, and never losing the least undulation of surface,
+     while it utterly disdains the mere imitation of hair, or attainment
+     of effect by deep cutting.
+
+
+SECTION II. NOS. 8 TO 38. GOTHIC.
+
+244. (8.) _North Porch of the Church of St. Fermo._ 13th century. (B.)
+
+     Mr. Bunney's drawing is so faithful and careful as almost to enable
+     the spectator to imagine himself on the spot. The details of this
+     porch are among the most interesting in the Gothic of Italy, but I
+     was obliged, last year, to be content with this general view, taken
+     in terror of the whole being "restored"; and with the two following
+     drawings.
+
+(9.) _Base of the Central Pillar. North Porch, St. Fermo._ (B.)
+
+     In facsimile, as nearly as possible, and of the real size, to show
+     the perpetual variety in the touch; and in the disposition and size
+     of the masses.
+
+(10.) _Shaft-Capitals of the Interior Arch of the North Porch, St.
+      Fermo._ (B.)
+
+     Contrived so that, while appearing symmetrical, and even
+     monotonous, not one lobe of any of the leaves shall be like
+     another.
+
+     Quite superb in the original, but grievously difficult to draw, and
+     losing, in this sketch, much of their grace.
+
+245. (11.) _Western Door of the Church of St. Anastasia, with the Tomb
+     of the Count of Castelbarco on the left, over the arch._ (Photograph.)
+
+     In the door, its central pillar, carved lintels and encompassing
+     large pointed arch, with its deep moldings and flanking shafts, are
+     of the finest Veronese 13th century work. The two minor pointed
+     arches are of the 14th century. The flanking pilasters, with double
+     panels and garlands above, are the beginning of a facade intended
+     to have been erected in the 15th century.
+
+     The Count of Castelbarco, the Chancellor of Can Grande della Scala,
+     died about the year 1330, and his tomb cannot be much later in
+     date.
+
+     The details of this group of buildings are illustrated under the
+     numbers next in series.
+
+(12.) _Pillars and Lintels of the Western Door of St. Anastasia._
+     (Photograph.)
+
+     The sculpture of the lintel is first notable for its concise and
+     intense story of the Life of Christ.
+
+  1. The Annunciation. (Both Virgin and Angel kneeling.)
+
+  2. The Nativity.
+
+  3. The Epiphany. (Chosen as a sign of life giver to the
+     Gentiles.)
+
+  4. Christ bearing His Cross. (Chosen as a sign of His
+     personal life in its entirety.)
+
+  5. The Crucifixion.
+
+  6. The Resurrection.
+
+     Secondly. As sculpture, this lintel shows all the principal
+     features of the characteristic 13th century design of Verona.
+
+     Diminutive and stunted figures; the heads ugly in features, stern
+     in expression; but the drapery exquisitely disposed in minute but
+     not deep-cut folds.
+
+(13.) _The Angels on the left hand of the subject of the Resurrection in
+      No. 12._ (A.)
+
+     Drawn of its actual size, excellently.
+
+     The appearance of fusion and softness in the contours is not caused
+     by time, but is intentional, and reached by great skill in the
+     sculptor, faithfully rendered in the drawing.
+
+(14.) _Sketch of the Capital of the Central Pillar in No. 12._ (R.)
+
+     (With slight notes of a 16th century bracket of a street balcony on
+     each side.)
+
+     Drawn to show the fine curvatures and softness of treatment in
+     Veronese sculpture of widely separated periods.
+
+246. (15.) _Unfinished Sketch of the Castelbarco Tomb, seen from one of
+     the windows of the Hotel of the "Two Towers."_ (R.)
+
+     That inn was itself one of the palaces of the Scaligers; and the
+     traveler should endeavor always to imagine the effect of the little
+     Square of Sta. Anastasia when the range of its buildings was
+     complete; the Castelbarco Tomb on one side, this Gothic palace on
+     the other, and the great door of the church between. The masonry of
+     the canopy of this tomb was so locked and dove-tailed that it stood
+     balanced almost without cement; but of late, owing to the
+     permission given to heavily loaded carts to pass continually under
+     the archway, the stones were so loosened by the vibration that the
+     old roof became unsafe, and was removed, and a fine smooth one of
+     trimly cut white stone substituted, while I was painting the rest
+     of the tomb, against time. Hence the unfinished condition of my
+     sketch the last that can ever be taken of the tomb as it was built.
+
+(16.) _The Castelbarco Tomb, seen laterally._ (B.)
+
+     A most careful drawing, leaving little to be desired in realization
+     of the subject. It is taken so near the tomb as to make the
+     perspective awkward, but I liked this quaint view better than more
+     distant ones.
+
+     The drawing of the archway, and of the dark gray and red masonry of
+     the tomb is very beautiful.
+
+247. (17.) _Lion with Hind in its Claws._ (A.)
+
+     The support of the sarcophagus, under the feet of the recumbent
+     figure in the Castelbarco Tomb.
+
+(18.) _Lion with Dragon in its claws._ (A.)
+
+     The support of the sarcophagus at the head of the figure.
+
+(19.) _St. Luke._ (A.)
+
+     Sculpture of one of the four small panels at the angles of the
+     sarcophagus in the Castelbarco Tomb. I engraved the St. Mark for
+     the illustration of noble grotesque in the "Stones of Venice." But
+     this drawing more perfectly renders the stern touch of the old
+     sculptor.
+
+(20.) _Two of the Spurs of the bases of the Nave Pillars in the Church
+      of St. Anastasia._ (A.)
+
+     Of the real size. Not generally seen in the darkness of the Church,
+     and very fine in their rough way.
+
+248. (21.) _Tomb of Can Grande, general view._ (R.)
+
+     Put together some time since, from Photograph and Sketches taken in
+     the year 1852; and inaccurate, but useful in giving a general idea.
+
+(22.) _Tomb of Can Grande._ (R.)
+
+     Sketch made carefully on the spot last year. The sarcophagus
+     unfinished; the details of it would not go into so small a space.
+
+(23.) _The Sarcophagus and recumbent Statue of Can Grande, drawn
+      separately._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched on the spot last year. Almost a faultless type of powerful
+     and solemn Gothic sculpture. (Can Grande died in 1329.)
+
+(24.) _The Two Dogs._ (R.)
+
+     The kneeling Madonna and sculpture of right hand upper panel of the
+     Sarcophagus of Can Grande.
+
+     The drawing of the panel is of real size, representing the Knight
+     at the Battle of Vicenza.
+
+(25.) _The Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Can Grande._ (A.)
+
+     Of its real size, admirably drawn, and quite showing the softness
+     and Correggio-like touch of its leafage, and its symmetrical
+     formality of design, while the flow of every leaf is changeful.
+
+249. (26.) _Study of the Sarcophagus of the Tomb of Mastino II.,
+     Verona._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1852.
+
+(27.) _Head of the recumbent Statue of Mastino II._ (A.)
+
+     Beautifully drawn by Mr. Burgess.
+
+     Can Mastino II. had three daughters:--Madonna Beatrice (called
+     afterwards "the Queen," for having "tutte le grazie che i cieli
+     ponno concedere a femina," and always simply called by historians
+     Lady "Reina" della Scala), Madonna Alta-luna, and Madonna Verde.
+     Lady Reina married Bernabo Visconti, Duke of Milan; Lady Alta-luna,
+     Louis of Brandebourg; and Lady Verde, Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua.
+     Their father died of "Sovereign melancholy" in 1350, being
+     forty-three years old.
+
+(28.) _Part of Cornice of the Sarcophagus of Mastino II._ (A.)
+
+     One of the most beautiful Gothic cornices in Italy; its effect
+     being obtained with extreme simplicity of execution out of two
+     ridges of marble, each cut first into one united sharp edge all
+     along, and then drilled through, and modeled into leaf and flower.
+
+(29.) _Sketch, real size, of the pattern incised and painted on the
+      drapery of the Tomb of Can Mastino II._ (R.)
+
+     It is worth notice for the variety of its pattern; observe, the
+     floral fillings of spaces resemble each other, but are never the
+     same. There is no end, when one begins drawing detail of this kind
+     carefully. Slight as it is, the sketch gives some idea of the easy
+     flow of the stone drapery, and of the care taken by the sculptor to
+     paint his pattern _as if_ it were bent at the apparent fold.
+
+250. (30.) _Tomb of Can Signorio della Scala._
+
+     Samuel Prout's sketch on the spot; (afterwards lithographed by him
+     in his "Sketches in France and Italy";) quite admirable in feeling,
+     composition, and concise abstraction of essential character.
+
+     The family palace of the Scaligers, in which Dante was received, is
+     seen behind it.
+
+(31.) _A single niche and part of the iron-work of the Tomb of Can
+      Signorio._ (R.)
+
+     As seen from the palace of the Scaligers; the remains of another
+     house of the same family are seen in the little street beyond.
+
+(32.) _Study of details of the top of the Tomb of Can Signorio._ (R.)
+
+     Needing more work than I had time for, and quite spoiled by hurry;
+     but interesting in pieces here and there; look, for instance, at
+     the varied size and design of the crockets; and beauty of the
+     cornices.
+
+(33.) _Bracket under Sarcophagus of Giovanni della Scala._ (A.)
+
+     Characteristic of the finest later treatment of flowing foliage.
+
+251. (34.) _Part of the front of the Ducal Palace, Venice._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched, in 1852, by measurement, with extreme care; and showing
+     the sharp window traceries, which are rarely seen in Photographs.
+
+(35.) _Angle of the Ducal Palace, looking Seaward from the Piazzetta._
+      (R.)
+
+     Sketched last year, (restorations being threatened) merely to show
+     the way in which the light is let through the edges of the angle by
+     penetration of the upper capital, and of the foliage in the
+     sculpture below; so that the mass may not come unbroken against the
+     sky.
+
+(36.) _Photograph of the Angle Capital of Upper Arcade seen in No. 34._
+
+     Showing the pierced portions, and their treatment.
+
+(37-38.) _Capitals of the Upper Arcade._
+
+     Showing the grandest treatment of architectural foliage attained by
+     the 14th century masters; massive for all purposes of support;
+     exquisitely soft and refined in contour, and faultlessly composed.
+
+
+SECTION III. TIME OF "THE MASTERS."
+
+252. (39.) _Study of the top of the Pilaster next the Castelbarco Tomb._
+     (R.)
+
+     The wild fig leaves are unfinished; for my assistant having
+     unfortunately shown his solicitude for their preservation too
+     energetically to some street boys who were throwing stones at them,
+     they got a ladder, and rooted them up the same night. The purple
+     and fine-grained white marbles of the pilaster are entirely
+     uninjured in surface by three hundred years' exposure. The coarse
+     white marble above has moldered, and is gray with lichens.
+
+(40.) _Study of the base of the same Pilaster, and connected Facade._
+      (R.)
+
+     Showing the effect of differently colored marbles arranged in
+     carefully inequal masses.
+
+253. (41.) _Interior Court of the Ducal Palace of Venice, with Giant's
+     Stair._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1841, and perhaps giving some characters which more
+     finished drawing would lose.
+
+(42.) _The Piazza d' Erbe, Verona._ (R.)
+
+     Sketched in 1841, showing general effect and pretty grouping of the
+     later Veronese buildings.
+
+(43.) _Piazza de' Signori, Verona._
+
+     Sketched last year. Note the bill advertising Victor Hugo's "Homme
+     qui rit," pasted on the wall of the palace.
+
+     The great tower is of the Gothic time. Note its noble sweep of
+     delicately ascending curves sloped inwards.
+
+(44.) _Gate of Ruined School of St. John, Venice._ (Photograph.)
+
+     Exquisite in floral sculpture, and finish of style.
+
+(45.) _Hawthorn Leaves, from the base of Pilaster, in the Church of St.
+      Maria de Miracoli, Venice._ (R.)
+
+     In the finest style of floral sculpture. It cannot be surpassed for
+     perfectness of treatment; especially for the obtaining of life and
+     softness, by broad surfaces and fine grouping.
+
+(46.) _Basrelief from one of the Inner Doors of the Ducal Palace._
+
+     Very noble, and typical of the pure style.
+
+(47.) _St. John Baptist and other Saints._ (Cima da Conegliano.)
+
+     Consummate work; but the photograph, though well taken, darkens it
+     terribly.
+
+(48.) _Meeting of Joachim and Anna._ (Vettor Carpaccio.) (Photograph.)
+
+(49.) _Madonna and Saints._ (John Bellini.) Portrait. (Mantegna.)
+     (Photographs.)
+
+(50.) _Madonna._ (John Bellini.)
+
+     With Raphael's "Della Seggiola." Showing the first transition from
+     the style of the "Masters" to that of modern times.
+
+     _The Photographs in the above series are all from the Pictures
+     themselves._
+
+
+
+
+CHRISTIAN ART AND SYMBOLISM.[15]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+254. The writer of this book has long been my friend, and in the early
+days of friendship was my disciple.
+
+But, of late, I have been his; for he has devoted himself earnestly to
+the study of forms of Christian Art which I had little opportunity of
+examining, and has been animated in that study by a brightness of
+enthusiasm which has been long impossible to me. Knowing this, and that
+he was able perfectly to fill what must otherwise have been a rudely
+bridged chasm in my teaching at Oxford, I begged him to give these
+lectures, and to arrange them for press. And this he has done to please
+me; and now that he has done it, I am, in one sense, anything but
+pleased: for I like his writing better than my own, and am more jealous
+of it than I thought it was in me to be of any good work--how much less
+of my friend's! I console myself by reflecting, or at least repeating to
+myself and endeavoring to think, that he could not have found out all
+this if I had not shown him the way. But most deeply and seriously I am
+thankful for such help, in a work far too great for my present strength;
+help all the more precious because my friend can bring to the
+investigation of early Christian Art, and its influence, the integrity
+and calmness of the faith in which it was wrought, happier than I in
+having been a personal comforter and helper of men, fulfilling his life
+in daily and unquestionable duty; while I have been, perhaps wrongly,
+always hesitatingly, persuading myself that it was my duty to do the
+things which pleased me.
+
+255. Also, it has been necessary to much of my analytical work that I
+should regard the art of every nation as much as possible from their own
+natural point of view; and I have striven so earnestly to realize belief
+which I supposed to be false, and sentiment which was foreign to my
+temper, that at last I scarcely know how far I think with other people's
+minds, and see with anyone's eyes but my own. Even the effort to recover
+my temporarily waived conviction occasionally fails; and what was once
+secured to me becomes theoretical like the rest.
+
+But my old scholar has been protected by his definitely directed life
+from the temptations of this speculative equity; and I believe his
+writings to contain the truest expression yet given in England of the
+feelings with which a Christian gentleman of sense and learning should
+regard the art produced in ancient days, by the dawn of the faiths which
+still guide his conduct and secure his peace.
+
+256. On all the general principles of Art, Mr. Tyrwhitt and I are
+absolutely at one; but he has often the better of me in his acute
+personal knowledge of men and their ways. When we differ in our thoughts
+of things, it is because we know them on contrary sides; and often his
+side is that most naturally seen, and which it is most desirable to see.
+There is one important matter, for instance, on which we are thus
+apparently at issue, and yet are not so in reality. These lectures show,
+throughout, the most beautiful and just reverence for Michael Angelo,
+and are of especial value in their account of him; while the last
+lecture on Sculpture,[16] which I gave at Oxford, is entirely devoted to
+examining the modes in which his genius failed, and perverted that of
+other men. But Michael Angelo is great enough to make praise and blame
+alike necessary, and alike inadequate, in any true record of him. My
+friend sees him as a traveler sees from a distance some noble mountain
+range, obscure in golden clouds and purple shade; and I see him as a
+sullen miner would the same mountains, wandering among their precipices
+through chill of storm and snow, and discerning that their strength was
+perilous and their substance sterile. Both of us see truly, both
+partially; the complete truth is the witness of both.
+
+257. The notices of Holbein, and the English whom he painted (see
+especially the sketch of Sir Thomas Wyatt in the sixth lecture), are to
+my mind of singular value, and the tenor of the book throughout, as far
+as I can judge--for, as I said, much of it treats of subjects with which
+I am unfamiliar--so sound, and the feeling in it so warm and true, and
+true in the warmth of it, that it refreshes me like the sight of the
+things themselves it speaks of. New and vivid sight of them it will give
+to many readers; and to all who will regard my commendation I commend
+it; asking those who have hitherto credited my teaching to read these
+lectures as they would my own; and trusting that others, who have
+doubted me, will see reason to put faith in my friend.
+
+  PISA, _30th April, 1872._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 15: Preface to the above-named book, by the Rev. St. John
+Tyrwhitt. London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1872.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See Mr. Ruskin's pamphlet on "The Relation of Michael
+Angelo to Tintoret," being (although separately printed) the seventh
+lecture of the course (1872) published as _Aratra Pentelici_--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ART SCHOOLS OF MEDIAEVAL CHRISTENDOM.[17]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+258. The number of British and American travelers who take unaffected
+interest in the early art of Europe is already large, and is daily
+increasing; daily also, as I thankfully perceive, feeling themselves
+more and more in need of a guidebook containing as much trustworthy
+indication as they can use of what they may most rationally spend their
+time in examining. The books of reference published by Mr. Murray,
+though of extreme value to travelers, who make it their object to see
+(in his, and their, sense of the word) whatever is to be seen, are of
+none whatever, or may perhaps be considered, justly, as even of quite
+the reverse of value, to travelers who wish to see only what they may in
+simplicity understand, and with pleasure remember; while the histories
+of art, and biographies of artists, to which the more earnest student in
+his novitiate must have recourse, are at once so voluminous, so vague,
+and so contradictory, that I cannot myself conceive his deriving any
+other benefit from their study than a deep conviction of the difficulty
+of the subject, and of the incertitude of human opinions.
+
+259. It seemed to me, on reading the essays collected in this volume, as
+they appeared in the periodical[18] for which they were written, that
+the author not only possessed herself a very true discernment of the
+qualities in mediaeval art which were justly deserving of praise, but had
+unusually clear understanding of the degree in which she might expect to
+cultivate such discernment in the general mind of polite travelers; nor
+have I less admired her aptitude in collation of essentially
+illustrative facts, so as to bring the history of a very widely
+contemplative range of art into tenable compass and very graceful and
+serviceable form. Her reading, indeed, has been, with respect to many
+very interesting periods of religious workmanship, much more extensive
+than my own; and when I consented to edit the volume of collected
+papers, it was not without the assurance of considerable advantage to
+myself during the labor of revising them.
+
+260. The revision, however, I am sorry to say, has been interrupted and
+imperfect, very necessarily the last from the ignorance I have just
+confessed of more than one segment of the great illuminated field of
+early religious art, to which the writer most wisely has directed equal
+and symmetrical attention, and interrupted partly under extreme pressure
+of other occupation, and partly in very fear of being tempted to oppress
+the serenity of the general prospect, which I think these essays are
+eminently calculated to open before an ingenious reader, with the stormy
+chiaroscuro of my own preference and reprobation. I leave the work,
+therefore, absolutely Miss Owen's, with occasional note of remonstrance,
+but without retouch, though it must be distinctly understood that when I
+allow my name to stand as the editor of a book, it is in no mere
+compliment (if my editorship could indeed be held as such) to the genius
+or merit of the author; but it means that I hold myself entirely
+responsible, in main points, for the accuracy of the views advanced, and
+that I wish the work to be received, by those who have confidence in my
+former teaching, as an extension and application of the parts of it
+which I have felt to be incomplete.
+
+     OXFORD, _November 27, 1875._
+
+     NOTE.--The "notes of remonstrance" or approbation
+     scattered through the volume are not numerous. They are given
+     below, preceded in each case by the (italicized) statement or
+     expression: giving rise to them:--
+
+     (1) P. 73. "_The peculiar characteristic of the Byzantine churches
+     is the dome._" "Form derived first from the Catacombs. See Lord
+     Lindsay."
+
+     (2) P. 89. "_The octagon baptistry at Florence, ascribed to Lombard
+     kings...._" "No; it is Etruscan work of pure descent."
+
+     (3) _Id._ "_S. Michele, of Pavia, pure Lombard of seventh century,
+     rebuilt in tenth._" "Churches were often rebuilt with their
+     original sculptures. I believe many in this church to be Lombard.
+     See next page."
+
+     (4) P. 95. "_The revolution begun by Rafaelle has ended in the
+     vulgar painting, the sentimental prints, and the colored
+     statuettes, which have made the religious art of the nineteenth
+     century a by-word for its feebleness on the one side, its
+     superstition on the other._" "Excellent; but my good scholar has
+     not distinguished vulgar from non-vulgar naturalism. Perhaps she
+     will as I read on."
+
+     [Compare the last note in the book, pp. 487-8, where Miss Owen's
+     statement that "_the cause of Rafaelle's popularity ... has been
+     that predominance of exaggerated dramatic representation, which in
+     his pictures is visible above all moral and spiritual qualities,_"
+     is noted to be "Intensely and accurately true."]
+
+     (5) P. 108. "_It may be ... it is scarcely credible._" "What does
+     it matter what may be or what is scarcely credible? I hope the
+     reader will consider what a waste of time the thinking of things is
+     when we can never rightly know them."
+
+     (6) P. 109. On the statement that "_no vital school of art has ever
+     existed save as the expression of the vital and unquestioned faith
+     of a people,_" followed by some remarks on external helps to
+     devotion, there is a note at the word "people." "Down to this line
+     this page is unquestionably and entirely true. I do not answer for
+     the rest of the clause, but do not dispute it."
+
+     (7) P. 113. _S. Michele at Lucca._ "The church is now only a modern
+     architect's copy."
+
+     (8) P. 129. "_There is a good model of this pulpit_" (Niccola's in
+     the Pisan Baptistry) "_in the Kensington Museum, through which we
+     may learn much of the rise of Gothic sculpture._" "You cannot do
+     anything of the kind. Pisan sculpture can only be studied in the
+     original marble; half its virtue is in the chiseling."
+
+     (9) P. 136. "_S. Donato's shrine_" (by Giovanni Picano) "_in Arezzo
+     Cathedral is one of the finest monuments of the Pisan school._"
+     "No. He tried to be too fine, and overdid it. The work is merely
+     accumulated commonplace."
+
+     (10) P. 170. On Giotto drawing without compasses a circle with a
+     crayon, "_not a brush, with which, as Professor Ruskin explained,
+     the feat would have been impossible. See 'Giotto and his Works in
+     Padua.'_" "Don't; but practice with a camel's-hair brush till you
+     can do it. I knew nothing of brush-work proper when I wrote that
+     essay on Padua."
+
+     (11) P. 179. In the first of the bas-reliefs of Giotto's tower at
+     Florence, "_Noah lies asleep, or, as Professor Ruskin maintains,
+     drunk._" "I don't 'maintain' anything of the sort; I _know_ it. He
+     is as drunk as a man can be, and the expression of drunkenness
+     given with deliberate and intense skill, as on the angle of the
+     Ducal Palace at Venice."
+
+     (12) P. 179. On Giotto's "_astronomy, figured by an old man_" on
+     the same tower. "Above which are seen, by the astronomy of his
+     heart, the heavenly host represented above the stars."
+
+     (13) P. 190. "_The Loggia dei Langi_" (at Florence) ... "_the round
+     arches, new to those times ... See Vasari._" "Vasari is an ass with
+     precious things in his panniers; but you must not ask his opinion
+     on any matter. The round arches new to those times had been the
+     universal structure form in all Italy, Roman or Lombard, feebly and
+     reluctantly pointed in the thirteenth century, and occasionally, as
+     in the Campo Santo of Pisa, and Orcagna's own Or San Michele,
+     standing within three hundred yards of the Loggia arches 'new to
+     those times,' filled with tracery, itself composed of intersecting
+     round arches. Now, it does not matter two soldi to the history of
+     art who _built_, but who designed and carved the Loggia. It is out
+     and out the grandest in Italy, and its archaic virtues themselves
+     are impracticable and inconceivable. I don't vouch for its being
+     Orcagna's, nor do I vouch for the Campo Santo frescoes being his. I
+     have never specially studied him; nor do I know what men of might
+     there were to work with or after him. But I know the Loggia to be
+     mighty architecture of Orcagna's style and time, and the Last
+     Judgment and Triumph of Death in the Campo Santo to be the sternest
+     lessons written on the walls of Tuscany, and worth more study alone
+     than English travelers usually give to Pisa, Lucca, Pistoja, and
+     Florence altogether."
+
+     (14) P. 468. "_The Gothic style for churches never took root in
+     Venice._" "Not quite correct. The Ducal Palace traceries are shown
+     in the 'Stones of Venice' (vol. ii.) to have been founded on those
+     of the Frari."
+
+     (15) P. 471. Mantegna. "_No feeling had he for vital beauty of
+     human face, or the lower creatures of the earth._" To this Miss
+     Owen adds in a note, "Professor Ruskin reminds me to notice here,
+     in qualification, Mantegna's power of painting inanimate forms, as,
+     _e. g._, in the trees and leaves of his Madonna of the National
+     Gallery. 'He is,' says Professor Ruskin, 'the most wonderful
+     leaf-painter of Lombardy.'"
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 17: Preface to the above-named book by Miss A. C. Owen, edited
+by Mr. Ruskin. London: Mozley & Smith, 1876.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 18: _The Monthly Packet._--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+THE EXTENSION OF RAILWAYS IN THE LAKE DISTRICT.[19]
+
+A PROTEST.
+
+
+261. The evidence collected in the following pages, in support of their
+pleading, is so complete, and the summary of his cause given with so
+temperate mastery by Mr. Somervell, that I find nothing to add in
+circumstance, and little to re-enforce in argument. And I have less
+heart to the writing even of what brief preface so good work might by
+its author's courtesy be permitted to receive from me, occupied as I so
+long have been in efforts tending in the same direction, because, on
+that very account, I am far less interested than my friend in this local
+and limited resistance to the elsewhere fatally victorious current of
+modern folly, cruelty, and ruin. When the frenzy of avarice is daily
+drowning our sailors, suffocating our miners, poisoning our children,
+and blasting the cultivable surface of England into a treeless waste of
+ashes,[20] what does it really matter whether a flock of sheep, more or
+less, be driven from the slopes of Helvellyn, or the little pool of
+Thirlmere filled with shale, or a few wild blossoms of St. John's vale
+lost to the coronal of English spring? Little to anyone; and--let me say
+this, at least, in the outset of all saying--_nothing_ to _me_. No one
+need charge me with selfishness in any word or action for defense of
+these mossy hills. I do not move, with such small activity as I have yet
+shown in the business, because I live at Coniston (where no sound of the
+iron wheels by Dunmail Raise can reach me), nor because I can find no
+other place to remember Wordsworth by, than the daffodil margin of his
+little Rydal marsh. What thoughts and work are yet before me, such as he
+taught, must be independent of any narrow associations. All my own dear
+mountain grounds and treasure-cities, Chamouni, Interlachen, Lucerne,
+Geneva, Venice, are long ago destroyed by the European populace; and
+now, for my own part, I don't care what more they do; they may drain
+Loch Katrine, drink Loch Lomond, and blow all Wales and Cumberland into
+a heap of slate shingle; the world is wide enough yet to find me some
+refuge during the days appointed for me to stay in it. But it is no less
+my duty, in the cause of those to whom the sweet landscapes of England
+are yet precious, and to whom they may yet teach what they taught me, in
+early boyhood, and would still if I had it now to learn,--it is my duty
+to plead with what earnestness I may, that these sacred sibylline books
+may be redeemed from perishing.
+
+262. But again, I am checked, because I don't know how to speak to the
+persons who _need_ to be spoken to in this matter.
+
+Suppose I were sitting, where still, in much-changed Oxford, I am happy
+to find myself, in one of the little latticed cells of the Bodleian
+Library, and my kind and much-loved friend, Mr. Coxe, were to come to me
+with news that it was proposed to send nine hundred excursionists
+through the library every day, in three parties of three hundred each;
+that it was intended they should elevate their minds by reading all the
+books they could lay hold of while they stayed;--and that practically
+scientific persons accompanying them were to look out for and burn all
+the manuscripts that had any gold in their illuminations, that the said
+gold might be made of practical service; but that he, Mr. Coxe, could
+not, for his part, sympathize with the movement, and hoped I would write
+something in deprecation of it! As I should then feel, I feel now, at
+Mr. Somervell's request that I would write him a preface in defense of
+Helvellyn. What could I say for Mr. Coxe? Of course, that nine hundred
+people should see the library daily, instead of one, is only fair to the
+nine hundred, and if there is gold in the books, is it not public
+property? If there is copper or slate in Helvellyn, shall not the public
+burn or hammer it out--and they say they will, of course--in spite of
+us? What does it signify to _them_ how we poor old quiet readers in this
+mountain library feel? True, we know well enough,--what the nine hundred
+excursionist scholars don't--that the library can't be read quite
+through in a quarter of an hour; also, that there is a pleasure in real
+reading, quite different from that of turning pages; and that gold in a
+missal, or slate in a crag, may be more precious than in a bank or a
+chimney-pot. But how are these practical people to credit us,--these,
+who cannot read, nor ever will; and who have been taught that nothing is
+virtuous but care for their bellies, and nothing useful but what goes
+into them?
+
+263. Whether to be credited or not, the real facts of the matter, made
+clear as they are in the following pages, can be briefly stated for the
+consideration of any candid person.
+
+The arguments in favor of the new railway are in the main four, and may
+be thus answered.
+
+1. "There are mineral treasures in the district capable of development."
+
+_Answer._ It is a wicked fiction, got up by whosoever has got it up,
+simply to cheat shareholders. Every lead and copper vein in Cumberland
+has been known for centuries; the copper of Coniston does not pay; and
+there is none so rich in Helvellyn. And the main central volcanic rocks,
+through which the track lies, produce neither slate nor hematite, while
+there is enough of them at Llanberis and Dalton to roof and iron-grate
+all England into one vast Bedlam, if it honestly perceives itself in
+need of that accommodation.
+
+2. "The scenery must be made accessible to the public."
+
+_Answer._ It is more than accessible already; the public are pitched
+into it head-foremost, and necessarily miss two-thirds of it. The Lake
+scenery really begins, on the south, at Lancaster, where the Cumberland
+hills are seen over Morecambe Bay; on the north, at Carlisle, where the
+moors of Skiddaw are seen over the rich plains between them and the
+Solway. No one who loves mountains would lose a step of the approach,
+from these distances, on either side. But the stupid herds of modern
+tourists let themselves be emptied, like coals from a sack, at
+Windermere and Keswick. Having got there, what the new railway has to do
+is to shovel those who have come to Keswick to Windermere, and to shovel
+those who have come to Windermere to Keswick. And what then?
+
+3. "But cheap and swift transit is necessary for the working population,
+who otherwise could not see the scenery at all."
+
+_Answer._ After all your shrieking about what the operatives spend in
+drink, can't you teach them to save enough out of their year's wages to
+pay for a chaise and pony for a day, to drive Missis and the Baby that
+pleasant twenty miles, stopping when they like, to unpack the basket on
+a mossy bank? If they can't enjoy the scenery that way, they can't any
+way; and all that your railroad company can do for them is only to open
+taverns and skittle grounds round Grasmere, which will soon, then, be
+nothing but a pool of drainage, with a beach of broken gingerbeer
+bottles; and their minds will be no more improved by contemplating the
+scenery of such a lake than of Blackpool.
+
+4. What else is to be said? I protest I can find nothing, unless that
+engineers and contractors must live. Let them live, but in a more useful
+and honorable way than by keeping Old Bartholomew Fair under Helvellyn,
+and making a steam merry-go-round of the lake country.
+
+There are roads to be mended, where the parish will not mend them,
+harbors of refuge needed, where our deck-loaded ships are in helpless
+danger; get your commissions and dividends where you know that work is
+needed, not where the best you can do is to persuade pleasure-seekers
+into giddier idleness.
+
+264. The arguments brought forward by the promoters of the railway may
+thus be summarily answered. Of those urged in the following pamphlet in
+defense of the country as it is, I care only myself to direct the
+reader's attention to one (see pp. 27, 28), the certainty, namely, of
+the deterioration of moral character in the inhabitants of every
+district penetrated by a railway. Where there is little moral character
+to be lost, this argument has small weight. But the Border peasantry of
+Scotland and England, painted with absolute fidelity by Scott and
+Wordsworth (for leading types out of this exhaustless portraiture, I may
+name Dandie Dinmont and Michael), are hitherto a scarcely injured race,
+whose strength and virtue yet survive to represent the body and soul of
+England before her days of mechanical decrepitude and commercial
+dishonor. There are men working in my own fields who might have fought
+with Henry the Fifth at Agincourt without being discerned from among his
+knights; I can take my tradesmen's word for a thousand pounds; my garden
+gate opens on the latch to the public road, by day and night, without
+fear of any foot entering but my own, and my girl-guests may wander by
+road, or moorland, or through every bosky dell of this wild wood, free
+as the heather bees or squirrels.
+
+What effect, on the character of such a population, will be produced by
+the influx of that of the suburbs of our manufacturing towns, there is
+evidence enough, if the reader cares to ascertain the facts, in every
+newspaper on his morning table.
+
+265. And now one final word concerning the proposed beneficial effect on
+the minds of those whom you send to corrupt us.
+
+I have said I take no selfish interest in this resistance to the
+railroad. But I do take an unselfish one. It is precisely because I
+passionately wish to improve the minds of the populace, and because I am
+spending my own mind, strength, and fortune, wholly on that object, that
+I don't want to let them see Helvellyn while they are drunk. I suppose
+few men now living have so earnestly felt--none certainly have so
+earnestly declared--that the beauty of nature is the blessedest and most
+necessary of lessons for men; and that all other efforts in education
+are futile till you have taught your people to love fields, birds, and
+flowers. Come then, my benevolent friends, join with me in that
+teaching. I have been at it all my life, and without pride, do solemnly
+assure you that I know how it is to be managed. I cannot indeed tell
+you, in this short preface, how, completely, to fulfill so glorious a
+task. But I can tell you clearly, instantly, and emphatically, in what
+temper you must set about it. _Here_ are you, a Christian, a gentleman,
+and a trained scholar; _there_ is your subject of education--a Godless
+clown, in helpless ignorance. You can present no more blessed offering
+to God than that human creature, raised into faith, gentleness, and the
+knowledge of the works of his Lord. But observe this--you must not hope
+to make so noble an offering to God of that which doth cost you nothing!
+You must be resolved to labor, and to lose, yourself, before you can
+rescue this overlabored lost sheep, and offer it alive to its Master. If
+then, my benevolent friend, you are prepared to take out your two pence,
+and to give them to the hosts here in Cumberland, saying--"Take care of
+him, and whatsoever thou spendest more, I will repay thee when I come to
+Cumberland myself," on _these_ terms--oh my benevolent friends, I am
+with you, hand and glove, in every effort you wish to make for the
+enlightenment of poor men's eyes. But if your motive is, on the
+contrary, to put two pence into your own purse, stolen between the
+Jerusalem and Jericho of Keswick and Ambleside, out of the poor drunken
+traveler's pocket;--if your real object, in your charitable offering,
+is, not even to lend unto the Lord by _giving_ to the poor, but to lend
+unto the Lord by making a dividend out of the poor;--then, my pious
+friends, enthusiastic Ananias, pitiful Judas, and sanctified Korah, I
+will do my best in God's name, to stay your hands, and stop your
+tongues.
+
+BRANTWOOD, _22nd June, 1876._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 19: Preface to a pamphlet (1876) entitled "A Protest against
+the Extension of Railways in the Lake District," compiled by Robert
+Somervell (Windermere, J. Garnett; London, Simpkin, Marshall & Co.). The
+pamphlet also contained a printed announcement as follows:--"The author
+of 'Modern Painters' earnestly requests all persons who may have taken
+interest in his writings, or who have any personal regard for him, to
+assist him now in the circulation of the inclosed paper, drawn up by his
+friend Mr. Somervell, for the defense of the Lake District of England,
+and to press the appeal, so justly and temperately made in it, on the
+attention of their personal friends."--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See--the illustration being coincidently given as I
+correct this page for press--the description of the horrible service,
+and history of the fatal explosion of dynamite, on the once lovely
+estates of the Duke of Hamilton, in the _Hamilton Advertiser_ of 10th
+and 17th June.]
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDY OF BEAUTY AND ART IN LARGE TOWNS.[21]
+
+
+266. I have been asked by Mr. Horsfall to write a few words of
+introduction to the following papers. The trust is a frank one, for our
+friendship has been long and intimate enough to assure their author that
+my feelings and even practical convictions in many respects differ from
+his, and in some, relating especially to the subjects here treated of,
+are even opposed to his; so that my private letters (which, to speak
+truth, he never attends to a word of) are little more than a series of
+exhortations to him to sing--once for all--the beautiful Cavalier ditty
+of "Farewell, Manchester," and pour the dew of his artistic benevolence
+on less recusant ground. Nevertheless, as assuredly he knows much more
+of his own town than I do, and as his mind is evidently made up to do
+the best he can for it, the only thing left for me to do is to help him
+all I can in the hard task he has set himself, or, if I can't help, at
+least to bear witness to the goodness of the seed he has set himself to
+sow among thorns. For, indeed, the principles on which he is working are
+altogether true and sound; and the definitions and defense of them, in
+this pamphlet, are among the most important pieces of Art teaching which
+I have ever met with in recent English literature; in past
+Art-literature there cannot of course be anything parallel to them,
+since the difficulties to be met and mischiefs to be dealt with are
+wholly of to-day. And in all the practical suggestions and
+recommendations given in the following pages I not only concur, but am
+myself much aided as I read them in the giving form to my own plans for
+the museum at Sheffield; nor do I doubt that they will at once commend
+themselves to every intelligent and candid reader. But, to my own mind,
+the statements of principle on which these recommendations are based are
+far the more valuable part of the writings, for these are true and
+serviceable for all time, and in all places; while in simplicity and
+lucidity they are far beyond any usually to be found in essays on Art,
+and the political significance of the laws thus defined is really, I
+believe, here for the first time rightly grasped and illustrated.
+
+267. Of these, however, the one whose root is deepest and range widest
+will be denied by many readers, and doubted by others, so that it may be
+well to say a word or two farther in its interpretation and defense--the
+saying, namely, that "faith cannot dwell in hideous towns," and that
+"familiarity with beauty is a most powerful aid to belief." This is a
+curious saying, in front of the fact that the primary force of
+infidelity in the Renaissance times was its pursuit of carnal beauty,
+and that nowadays (at least, so far as my own experience reaches) more
+faith may be found in the back streets of most cities than in the fine
+ones. Nevertheless the saying is wholly true, first, because carnal
+beauty is not true beauty; secondly, because, rightly judged, the fine
+streets of most modern towns are more hideous than the back ones;
+lastly--and this is the point on which I must enlarge--because
+universally the first condition to the believing there is Order in
+Heaven is the Sight of Order upon Earth; Order, that is to say, not the
+result of physical law, but of some spiritual power prevailing over it,
+as, to take instances from my own old and favorite subject, the ordering
+of the clouds in a beautiful sunset, which corresponds to a painter's
+invention of them, or the ordering of the colors on a bird's wing, or of
+the radiations of a crystal of hoarfrost or of sapphire, concerning any
+of which matters men, so called of science, are necessarily and forever
+silent, because the distribution of colors in spectra and the relation
+of planes in crystals are final and causeless facts, _orders_, that is
+to say, not _laws_. And more than this, the infidel temper which is
+incapable of perceiving this spiritual beauty has an instant and
+constant tendency to delight in the reverse of it, so that practically
+its investigation is always, by preference, of forms of death or disease
+and every state of disorder and dissolution, the affectionate analysis
+of vice in modern novels being a part of the same science. And, to keep
+to my own special field of study--the order of clouds,--there is a
+grotesquely notable example of the connection between infidelity and the
+sense of ugliness in a paper in the last _Contemporary Review_, in which
+an able writer, who signs Vernon Lee, but whose personal view or purpose
+remains to the close of the essay inscrutable, has rendered with
+considerable acuteness and animation the course of a dialogue between
+one of the common modern men about town who are the parasites of their
+own cigars and two more or less weak and foolish friends of hesitatingly
+adverse instincts: the three of them, however, practically assuming
+their own wisdom to be the highest yet attained by the human race; and
+their own diversion on the mountainous heights of it being by the aspect
+of a so-called "preposterous" sunset, described in the following
+terms:--
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A brilliant light, which seemed to sink out of the landscape all its
+reds and yellows, and with them all life; bleaching the yellowing
+cornfields and brown heath; but burnishing into demoniac[22] energy of
+color the pastures and oak woods, brilliant against the dark sky, as if
+filled with green fire.
+
+Along the roadside the poppies, which an ordinary sunset makes flame,
+were quite extinguished, like burnt-out embers; the yellow hearts of the
+daisies were quite lost, merged into their shining white petals. And,
+striking against the windows of the old black and white checkered farm
+(a ghastly skeleton in this light), it made them not flare, nay, not
+redden in the faintest degree, but reflect a brilliant speck of white
+light. Everything was unsubstantial, yet not as in a mist, nay, rather
+substantial, but flat, as if cut out of paper and pasted on the black
+branches and green leaves, the livid, glaring houses, with roofs of
+dead, scarce perceptible rod (as when an iron turning white-hot from
+red-hot in the stithy grows also dull and dim).
+
+"It looks like the eve of the coming of Antichrist, as described in
+mediaeval hymns," remarked Vere: "the sun, before setting nevermore to
+rise, sucking all life out of the earth, leaving it but a mound of livid
+cinders, barren and crumbling, through which the buried nations will
+easily break their way when they rise."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As I have above said, I do not discern the purpose of the writer of this
+paper; but it would be impossible to illustrate more clearly this
+chronic insanity of infidel thought which makes all nature spectral;
+while, with exactly correspondent and reflective power, whatever _is_
+dreadful or disordered in external things reproduces itself in disease
+of the human mind affected by them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+268. The correspondent relations of beauty to morality are illustrated
+in the following pages in a way which leaves little to be desired, and
+scarcely any room for dissent; but I have marked for my own future
+reference the following passages, of which I think it will further the
+usefulness of the book that the reader should initially observe the
+contents and connection.[23]
+
+1 (p. 15, line 6--10). Our idea of beauty in all things depends on what
+we believe they ought to be and do.
+
+2 (p. 17, line 8--17). Pleasure is most to be found in safe and pure
+ways, and the greatest happiness of life is to have a great many
+_little_ happinesses.
+
+3 (p. 24, line 10--30). The wonder and sorrow that in a country
+possessing an Established Church, no book exists which can be put into
+the hands of youth to show them the best things that can be done in
+life, and prevent their wasting it.
+
+4 (p. 28, line 21--36). There is every reason to believe that
+susceptibility to beauty can be gained through proper training in
+childhood by almost everyone.
+
+5 (p. 29, line 33--35). But if we are to attain to either a higher
+morality or a strong love of beauty, such attainment must be the result
+of a strenuous effort and a strong will.
+
+6 (p. 41, line 16--22). Rightness of form and aspect must first be shown
+to the people in things which interest them, and about the rightness of
+appearance in which it is possible for them to care a great deal.
+
+7 (p. 42, line 1--10). And, therefore, rightness of appearance of the
+bodies, and the houses, and the actions of the people of these large
+towns, is of more importance than rightness of appearance in what is
+usually called art, and pictures of noble action and passion and of
+beautiful scenery are of far greater value than art in things which
+cannot deeply affect human thought and feeling.
+
+The practical suggestions which, deduced from these principles, occupy
+the greater part of Mr. Horsfall's second paper, exhibit an untried
+group of resources in education; and it will be to myself the best
+encouragement in whatever it has been my hope to institute of Art School
+at Oxford if the central influence of the University may be found
+capable of extension by such means, in methods promoting the general
+happiness of the people of England.
+
+BRANTWOOD, _28th June, 1883._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 21: Introduction by Mr. Ruskin to a pamphlet entitled "The
+Study of Beauty and Art in Large Towns, two papers by T. C. Horsfall"
+(London, Macmillan & Co., 1883). The first of the two papers was
+originally read at the Congress at Nottingham of the Social Science
+Association, and the second at the Manchester Field Naturalists'
+Society.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 22: See "Art of England."]
+
+[Footnote 23: The passages referred to are as follows:--
+
+1. "Our idea of what beauty is in human being's, in pictures, in houses,
+in chairs, in animals, in cities, in everything, in short, which we know
+to have a use, in the main depends on what we believe that human beings,
+pictures, and the rest ought to be and do.
+
+2. "Every bank in every country lane, every bush, every tree, the sky by
+day and by night, every aspect of nature, is full of beautiful form or
+color, or of both, for those whose eyes and hearts and brains have been
+opened to perceive beauty. Richter has somewhere said that man's
+_greatest_ defect is that he has such a lot of _small_ ones. With equal
+truth it may be said that the greatest happiness man can have is to have
+a great many little happinesses, and therefore a strong love of beauty,
+which enables almost every square inch of unspoiled country to give us
+pleasant sensations, is one of the best possessions we can have.
+
+3. "It must be evident to everyone who watches life carefully that
+hardly anyone reaches the objects which all should live for who does not
+strive to reach them, and that at present not one person in a hundred so
+much as knows what are the objects which should be sought in life. It is
+astounding, therefore, that in a country which possesses an Established
+Church, richly endowed universities, and even several professors of
+education, no book exists which can be put into the hands of every
+intelligent youth, and of every intelligent father and mother, showing
+what our wisest and best men believe are the best things which can be
+done in life, and what is the kind of training which makes the doing of
+these things most easy. It is often said that each of us can profit only
+by his own experience, but no one believes that. No one can see how many
+well-meaning persons mistake means for ends and drift into error and
+sin, simply because neither they nor their parents have known what
+course should be steered, and what equipment is needed, in the voyage of
+life,--no one can see this and doubt that a 'guidebook to life,'
+containing the results of the comparison of the experiences of even
+half-a-dozen able and sincere men, would save countless people from
+wasting their lives as most lives are now wasted.
+
+4. "That which is true with regard to music is true with regard to
+beauty of form and color. Because a great many grown-up people, in spite
+of great efforts, find it impossible to sing correctly or even to
+perceive any pleasantness in music, it used to be commonly supposed that
+a great many people are born without the power of gaining love of, and
+skill in, music. Now it is known that it is a question of early
+training, that in every thousand children there are very few,--not, I
+believe, on an average, more than two or three,--who cannot gain the
+power of singing correctly and of enjoying music, if they are taught
+well in childhood while their nervous system can still easily form
+habits and has not yet formed the habit of being insensible to
+differences of sound.
+
+"There is every reason to believe that susceptibility to beauty of form
+and color can also be gained through proper training in childhood by
+almost everyone.
+
+5. "In such circumstances as ours there is no such thing as 'a _wise_
+passiveness.' If we are to attain to a high morality or to strong love
+of beauty, attainment must be the result of strenuous effort, of strong
+will.
+
+6. "The principle I refer to is, that, as art is the giving of right or
+beautiful form, or of beautiful or right appearance, if we desire to
+make people take keen interest in art, if we desire to make them love
+good art, we must show it them when applied to things which themselves
+are very interesting to them, and about the rightness of appearance of
+which it is therefore possible for them to care a great deal.
+
+7. "Success in bringing the influence of art to bear on the masses of
+the population in large towns, or on any set of people who have to earn
+their bread and have not time to acquire an unhealthy appetite for
+nonsense verses or nonsense pictures, will certainly only be attained by
+persons who know that art is important just in proportion to the
+importance of that which it clothes, and who themselves feel that
+rightness of appearance of the bodies, and the houses, and the actions,
+in short of the whole life, of the population of those large towns which
+are now, or threaten soon to be, 'England,' is of far greater importance
+than rightness of appearance in all that which is usually called 'art,'
+and who feel, to speak of only the fine arts, that rightness of
+appearance in pictures of noble action and passion, and of beautiful
+scenery, love of which is almost a necessary of mental health, is of far
+greater importance than art can be in things which cannot deeply affect
+human thought and feeling."--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES ON NATURAL SCIENCE.
+
+THE COLOR OF THE RHINE. 1834.
+
+THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC. 1834.
+
+THE INDURATION OF SANDSTONE. 1836.
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF SPRING AND RIVER WATER. 1836.
+
+METEOROLOGY. 1839.
+
+ *       *       *
+
+TREE TWIGS. 1861.
+
+STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY. 1863.
+
+INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION AND ANIMATED LIFE. 1871.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INQUIRIES ON THE CAUSES OF THE COLOR OF THE WATER OF THE RHINE.[24]
+
+
+269. I do not think the causes of the color of transparent water have
+been sufficiently ascertained. I do not mean that effect of color which
+is simply optical, as the color of the sea, which is regulated by the
+sky above or the state of the atmosphere, but I mean the settled color
+of transparent water, which has, when analyzed, been found pure. Now,
+copper will tinge water green, and that very strongly; but water thus
+impregnated will not be transparent, and will deposit the copper it
+holds in solution upon any piece of iron which may be thrown into it.
+There is a lake in a defile on the northwest flank of Snowdon, which is
+supplied by a stream which previously passes over several veins of
+copper; this lake is, of course, of a bright verdigris green, but it is
+not transparent. Now the coloring effect, of which I speak, is well seen
+in the water of the Rhone and Rhine. The former of these rivers, when it
+enters the Lake of Geneva, after having received the torrents descending
+from the mountains of the Valais, is fouled with mud, or white with the
+calcareous matter which it holds in solution. Having deposited this in
+the Lake Leman[25] (thereby gradually forming an immense delta), it
+issues from the lake perfectly pure, and flows through the streets of
+Geneva so transparent, that the bottom can be seen twenty feet below the
+surface, jet so blue, that you might imagine it to be a solution of
+indigo. In like manner, the Rhine, after purifying itself in the Lake of
+Constance, flows forth, colored of a clear green, and this under all
+circumstances and in all weathers. It is sometimes said that this arises
+from the torrents which supply these rivers generally flowing from the
+glaciers, the green and blue color of which may have given rise to this
+opinion; but the color of the ice is purely optical, as the fragments
+detached from the mass appear white. Perhaps some correspondent can
+afford me information on the subject.
+
+  J. R.[26]
+
+_March, 1834._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 24: From London's _Magazine of Natural History_ (London,
+Longmans & Co., 1834), vol. vii., No. 41, pp. 438-9, being its author's
+earliest contribution to literature.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 25: This lake, however, if the poet have spoken truly, is not
+very feculent:--
+
+  "Lake Leman woos me with its crystal face,
+  The mirror where the stars and mountains view
+  The stillness of their aspect in each trace
+  Its clear depth yields of their far height and hue."
+
+BYRON.]
+
+[Footnote 26: In the number of the magazine in which this note appeared
+was an article by "E. L." on the perforation of a leaden pipe by rats,
+upon which, in a subsequent number (Vol. vii., p. 592), J. R. notes as
+follows: "E. S. has been, surely, too inattentive to proportions: there
+is an inconsistency in the dimensions of a leaden pipe about 1-1/4 in. in
+external diameter, with a bore of about 3/4 in. in diameter; thus leaving
+a solid circumference of metal varying from 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. in
+thickness.--_J. R._, _Sept. 1834._"--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STRATA OF MONT BLANC, AND ON SOME
+INSTANCES OF TWISTED STRATA OBSERVABLE IN SWITZERLAND.[27]
+
+
+270. The granite ranges of Mont Blanc are as interesting to the
+geologist as they are to the painter. The granite is dark red, often
+inclosing veins of quartz, crystallized and compact, and likewise
+well-formed crystals of schorl. The average elevation of its range of
+peaks, which extends from Mont Blanc to the Tete Noire, is about 12,000
+English feet above the level of the sea. [The highest culminating point
+is 15,744 feet.] The Aiguille de Servoz, and that of Dru, are excellent
+examples of the pyramidal and spiratory formation which these granite
+ranges in general assume. They rise out of immense fields of snow, but,
+being themselves too steep for snow to rest upon, form red, bare, and
+inaccessible peaks, which even the chamois scarcely dares to climb.
+Their bases appear sometimes abutted (if I may so speak) by mica slate,
+which forms the southeast side of the Valley of Chamonix, whose flanks,
+if intersected, might appear as (in _fig._ 72), _a_, granite, forming on
+the one side (B) the Mont Blanc, on the other (C) the Mont Breven; _b_,
+mica slate resting on the base of Mont Blanc, and which contains
+amianthus and quartz, in which capillary crystals of titanium occur;
+_c_, calcareous rock; _d_, alluvium, forming the Valley of Chamonix. I
+should have mentioned that the granite appears to contain a small
+quantity of gold, as that metal is found among the granite debris and
+siliceous sand of the river Arve [_Bakewell_, i. 375]; and I have two
+or three specimens in which chlorite (both compact and in minute
+crystals) occupies the place of mica.
+
+  J. R.
+
+_March_, 1834.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+With this paper were printed some observations on it by the Rev. W. B.
+Clarke, after which (p. 648) appears the following note by J. R.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+271. "TWISTED STRATA.--The contortions of the limestone at the
+fall of the Nant d'Arpenaz, on the road from Geneva to Chamonix, are
+somewhat remarkable. The rock is a hard dark brown limestone, forming
+part of a range of secondary cliffs, which rise from 500 feet to 1000
+feet above the defile which they border. The base itself is about 800
+feet high. The strata bend very regularly except at _e_ and _f_,[28]
+where they appear to have been fractured.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_To what Properties in Nature is it owing that the Stones in Buildings,
+formed originally of the frailest Materials, gradually become indurated
+by Exposure to the Atmosphere and by Age, and stand the Wear and Tear of
+Time and Weather every bit as well, in some instances much better, than
+the hardest and most compact Limestones and Granite?_[29]
+
+272. In addition to the fact mentioned by Mr. Hunter[30] relative to the
+induration of soft sandstone, I would adduce an excellent example of the
+same effect in the cathedral of Basle, in Switzerland. The cathedral is
+wholly built of a soft coarse-grained sandstone, of so deep a red as to
+resemble long-burned brick. The numerous and delicate ornaments and fine
+tracery on the exterior are in a state of excellent preservation, and
+present none of the moldering appearance so common in old cathedrals
+that are built of stone which, when quarried, was much harder than this
+sandstone. The pavement in the interior is composed of the same
+material; and, as almost every slab is a tomb, it is charged with the
+arms, names, and often statues in low relief, of those who lie below,
+delicately sculptured in the soft material. Yet, though these sculptures
+have been worn for ages by the feet of multitudes, they are very little
+injured; they still stand out in bold and distinct relief: not an
+illegible letter, not an untraceable ornament is to be found; and it is
+said, and I believe with truth, that they have now grown so hard as not
+to be in the least degree farther worn by the continual tread of
+thousands; and that the longer the stone is exposed to the air, the
+harder it becomes. The cathedral was built in 1019.
+
+273. The causes of the different effects of air on stone must be
+numerous, and the investigation of them excessively difficult. With
+regard, first, to rocks _en masse_, if their structure be crystalline,
+or their composition argillaceous, the effect of the air will, I think,
+ordinarily, be found injurious. Thus, in granite, which has a kind of
+parallelogrammatic cleavage, water introduces itself into the fissures,
+and the result, in a sharp frost, will be a disintegration of the rocks
+_en masse_; and, if the felspar be predominant in the composition of the
+granite, it will be subject to a rapid decomposition. The morvine of
+some of the Chamouni and Allee Blanche glaciers is composed of a white
+granite, being chiefly composed of quartz and felspar, with a little
+chlorite. The sand and gravel at the edge of these glaciers appears far
+more the result of decomposition than attrition. All finely foliated
+rocks, slates, etc., are liable to injury from frost or wet weather. The
+road of the Simplon, on the Italian side, is in some parts dangerous in,
+or after, wet weather, on account of the rocks of slate continually
+falling from the overhanging mountains above; this, however, is mere
+disintegration, not decomposition. Not so with the breccias of Central
+Switzerland. The rock of Righi is composed of pebbles of different
+kinds, joined by a red argillaceous gluten. When this rock has not been
+exposed to the air, it is very hard: you may almost as easily break the
+pebbles as detach them from their matrix; but, when exposed for a few
+years to wind and weather, the matrix becomes soft, and the pebbles may
+be easily detached. I was struck with the difference between this rock
+and a breccia at Epinal, in France, where the matrix was a red
+sandstone, like that of the cathedral at Basle. Here, though the rock
+had every appearance of having been long exposed to the air, it was as
+hard as iron; and it was utterly impossible to detach any of the pebbles
+from the bed: it was difficult even to break the rock at all. I cannot
+positively state that the gluten in these sandstones is calcareous, but
+I suppose it to have been so. Compact calcareous rock, as far as I
+remember, appears to be subject to no injury from the weather. Many
+churches in Italy, and almost the whole cities of Venice and Genoa, are
+built of very fine marble; and the perfection of the delicate carvings,
+however aged, is most remarkable. I remember a church, near Pavia,
+coated with the finest and most expensive marbles; a range of
+beautifully sculptured medallions running round its base, though old,
+were as distinct and fine in their execution as if they had just come
+out of the sculptor's studio. If, therefore, the gluten of the sandstone
+be either calcareous or siliceous, it will naturally produce the effect
+above alluded to, though it is certainly singular that the stone should
+be soft when first quarried. Sandstone is a rock in which you seldom see
+many cracks or fissures in the strata: they are generally continuous and
+solid. Now, there may be a certain degree of density in the mass, which
+could not be increased without producing, as in granite, fissures
+running through it: the particles may be supposed to be held in a
+certain degree of tension, and there may be a tendency to what the
+French call _assaissement_ (I do not know the English term), which is,
+nevertheless, resisted by the stone _en masse_; and a quantity of water
+may likewise be held, not in a state of chemical combination, but in one
+of close mixture with the rock. On being broken or quarried, the
+_assaissement_ may take place, the particles of stone may draw closer
+together, the attraction become stronger; and, on the exposure to the
+air, the water, however intimately combined, will, in a process of
+years, be driven off, occasioning the consolidation of the calcareous,
+and the near approach of the siliceous, particles, and a consequent
+gradual induration of the whole body of the stone. I offer this
+supposition with all diffidence; there may be many other causes, which
+cannot be developed until proper experiments have been made. It would be
+interesting to ascertain the relative hardness of different specimens of
+sandstone, taken from different depths in a bed, the surface of which
+was exposed to the air, as of specimens exposed to the air for different
+lengths of time.
+
+  J. R.
+
+HERNE HILL, _July 25, 1836._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 27: London's _Magazine of Natural History_, Vol. vii., pp.
+644-5. The note was illustrated by engravings from two sketches by the
+author of the Aiguille de Servoz and of the Aiguille Dru, and by a
+diagram explanatory of its last sentence but one.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 28: "A small neat copy of a sketch carefully taken on the
+spot," which, according to the editor of the magazine, accompanied this
+communication, was not, however, published. See the magazine.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Loudon's _Magazine of Natural History_, Vol. ix., No. 65,
+pp. 488-90.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 30: The question here discussed was originally asked in the
+magazine (Vol. ix., pp. 379-80) by Mr. W. Perceval Hunter with reference
+to the condition of Bodiam Castle, in Sussex.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAUSES WHICH OCCASION THE VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE
+BETWEEN SPRING AND RIVER WATER.--BY J. R.[31]
+
+
+274. The difference in temperature between river and spring water, which
+gives rise to the query of your correspondent Indigena (p. 491),[32] may
+be the result of many causes, the principal of which is, however,
+without doubt, the interior heat of the earth. It is a well known fact,
+that this heat increases in a considerable ratio as we descend, making a
+difference of several degrees between the temperature of the earth at
+its surface and at depths of 500 or 600 feet; raising, of course, the
+temperature of all springs which have their source at even moderate
+depths, and entirely securing them from the effects of frost, which, it
+is well known, cannot penetrate the earth to a greater depth than 3 or 4
+ft.
+
+275. Many instances might be given of the strong effect of this interior
+heat. The glaciers of the Alps, for instance, frequently cover an extent
+of three or four square leagues, with a mass of ice 400, 500, or even
+600 feet deep, thus entirely preventing the access of exterior heat to
+the soil; yet the radiation of heat from the ground itself is so
+powerful as to dissolve the ice very rapidly, and to occasion streams of
+no inconsiderable size beneath the ice, whose temperature, in summer,
+is, I believe, as far as can be ascertained, not many degrees below that
+of streams exposed to the air; and the radiation of heat from the water
+of these streams forms vaults under the ice, which are frequently 40 ft.
+or 50 ft. above the water; and which are formed, as a glance will show,
+not by the force of the stream, which would only tear itself a broken
+cave sufficient for its passage, but by the heat which radiates from it,
+and gives the arch its immense height, and beautifully regular form.
+
+These streams continue to flow in winter as well as in summer, although
+in less quantity; and it is this process which chiefly prevents the
+glacier from increasing in size; for the melting at the surface is, in
+comparison, very inconsiderable, even in summer, the wind being cold,
+the sun having little power, and slight frosts being frequent during the
+night. It is also this melting beneath the ice (subglacial, suppose we
+call it) which loosens the ice from the ground, and occasions, or rather
+permits, the perpetual downward movement, with which
+
+  "The glacier's cold and restless mass
+  Moves onward day by day."
+
+276. But more forcible and striking evidence is afforded by experiments
+made in mines of great depth. Between 60 ft. and 80 ft. down, the
+temperature of the earth is, I believe, the same at all times and in all
+places; and below this depth it gradually increases. Near Bex, in the
+Valais, there is a perpendicular shaft 677 ft. deep, or about 732 ft.
+English, with water at the bottom, the temperature of which was
+ascertained by Saussure. He does not tell us whether he used Reaumur's
+or the centesimal thermometer; but the result of his experiment was
+this:--In a lateral gallery, connected with the main shaft, but
+deserted, and, therefore, unaffected by breath or the heat of lamps, at
+321 ft. 10 in. below the surface, the temperature of the water and the
+air was exactly the same, 11-1/2 deg.; or, if the centesimal thermometer was
+used, 52-4/5 Fahr.; if Reaumur's, 57-7/8 Fahr.
+
+277. In another gallery, 564 feet below the surface, the water and air
+had likewise the same temperature, 12-1/2 deg., either 54-4/5 or 6O-1/4
+Fahr. The water at the bottom, 677 feet, was 14 deg., 57-1/2 or 63-1/4 Fahr.
+The ratio in which the heat increases, therefore, increased as we
+descend, since a difference of 113 feet between the depth of the bottom
+of the shaft and the lowest gallery makes a greater difference in
+temperature than the difference of 243 feet between the lowest and upper
+gallery. This heat is the more striking when it is considered that the
+water is impregnated with salt; indeed, Saussure appears inclined to
+consider it accidental, perhaps occasioned by the combustion of pyrites,
+or other causes in the interior of the mountain ("Voyages dans les
+Alpes," tom. iv., c. 50). All experiments of this kind, indeed, are
+liable to error, from the frequent occurrence of warm springs, and other
+accidental causes of increase in temperature. The water at the bottom of
+deep lakes is always found several degrees colder than the atmosphere,
+even when the water at the surface is warmer: but that may be accounted
+for by the difference in the specific gravity of water at different
+temperatures; and, as the heat of the sun and atmosphere in summer is
+greater than the mean heat of the earth at moderate depths, the water at
+the bottom, even if it becomes of the same heat with the earth, must be
+colder than that at the surface, which, from its exposure to the sun,
+becomes frequently warmer than the air. The same causes affect the
+temperature of the sea; and the greater saturation of the water below
+with salt renders it yet more susceptible of cold. Under-currents from
+the poles, and the sinking of the water of low temperature, which
+results from the melting of the icebergs which float into warmer
+latitudes, contribute still farther to lower the temperature of the deep
+sea. If, then, the temperature of the sea at great depths is found not
+many degrees lower than that at the surface, it would be a striking
+proof of the effect produced by the heat of the earth; but I am not
+aware of the results of the experiments which have been made on this
+subject.
+
+278. We must, then, rest satisfied with the well-ascertained fact, that
+the temperature of the earth, even at depths of a few feet, never
+descends, in temperate latitudes, to the freezing point; and that at the
+depth of 60 feet it is always the same, in winter much higher, in summer
+considerably lower, than that of the atmosphere. Spring water, then,
+which has its source at a considerable depth, will, when it first rises,
+be of this mean temperature; while, after it has flowed for some
+distance, it becomes of the temperature of the atmosphere, or, in
+summer, even warmer, owing to the action of the sun, both directly and
+reflected or radiated from its bottom. Besides this equable temperature
+in the water itself, spring or well water is usually covered; and, even
+if exposed, if the well is very deep, the water will not freeze, or at
+least very slightly; for frost does not act with its full power, except
+where there is a free circulation of air. In open ponds, wherever bushes
+hang over the water, the ice is weak. Indigena's supposition, that there
+are earthy particles in river water, which render it more susceptible of
+cold than spring water, cannot be true; for then the relative
+temperatures would be the same in winter and in summer, which is not the
+case; and, besides, there are frequently more earthy particles in
+mineral springs, or even common land springs, than in clear river water,
+provided it has not been fouled by extraneous matter; for it has a
+tendency to deposit the earthy particles which it holds in suspension.
+
+279. It is evident, also, that the supposition of Mr. Carr (Vol. v., p.
+395) relative to anchor frosts, that the stones at the bottom acquire a
+greater degree of cold, or, to speak more correctly, lose more heat,
+than the water, is erroneous. J. G. has given the reasons at p. 770; and
+the glaciers of Switzerland afford us an example. When a stone is
+deposited on a glacier of any considerable size, but not larger than 1
+foot or 18 inches in diameter, it becomes penetrated with the heat of
+the sun, melts the ice below it, and sinks into the glacier. But this
+effect does not cease, as might be supposed, when the stone sinks
+beneath the water which it has formed; on the contrary, it continues to
+absorb heat from the rays of the sun, to keep the water above it liquid
+by its radiation, and to sink deeper into the body of the glacier, until
+it gets down beyond the reach of the sun's rays, when the water of the
+well which it has formed is no longer kept liquid, and the stone is
+buried in the ice. In summer, however, the water is kept liquid; and
+circular wells, formed in this manner, are of frequent occurrence on the
+glaciers, sometimes, in the morning, covered by a thin crust of ice.
+
+Thus, the stones at the bottom of streams must tend to raise, rather
+than lower, this temperature. Is it possible that, in the agitation of a
+stream at its bottom, if violent, momentary and minute vacua may be
+formed, tending to increase the intensity of the cold?
+
+HERNE HILL, _Sept. 2, 1836._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 31: London's _Magazine of Natural History_, vol. ix., pp.
+533-536.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 32: The query was as follows:--
+
+_An Inquiry for the Cause of the Difference in Temperature of River
+Water and Spring Water, both in Summer and Winter._--In the summer time
+the river water is much warmer than that from a spring; during the
+severe frosts of winter it is colder; and when the stream is covered
+over with ice, the spring, that is, well or pump water is unaffected by
+frost. Does this difference proceed from the exposure of the surface of
+the river water, in summer, to the sun's direct influence, and, in
+winter, to that of frost; while the well water, being covered, is
+protected from their power? Or is there in river water, from the earthy
+particles it contains, a greater susceptibility of heat and
+cold?--_Indigena_. _April 19, 1836._--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+METEOROLOGY.[33]
+
+
+280. The comparison and estimation of the relative advantages of
+separate departments of science is a task which is always partially
+executed, because it is never entered upon with an unbiased mind; for,
+since it is only the accurate knowledge of a science which can enable us
+to present its beauty, or estimate its utility, the branches of
+knowledge with which we are most familiar will always appear the most
+important. The endeavor, therefore, to judge of the relative _beauty_ or
+_interest_ of the sciences is utterly hopeless. Let the astronomer boast
+of the magnificence of his speculations, the mathematician of the
+immutability of his facts, the chemist of the infinity of his
+combinations, and we will admit that they all have equal ground for
+their enthusiasm. But the highest standard of estimation is that of
+utility. The far greater proportion of mankind, the uninformed, who are
+unable to perceive the beauty of the sciences whose benefits they
+experience, are the true, the just, the only judges of their relative
+importance. It is they who feel what impartial men of learning know,
+that the mass of general knowledge is a perfect and beautiful body,
+among whose members there should be no schism, and whose prosperity must
+always be greatest when none are partially pursued, and none unduly
+rejected. We do not, therefore, advance any proud and unjustifiable
+claims to the superiority of that branch of science for the furtherance
+of which this society has been formed over all others; but we zealously
+come forward to deprecate the apathy with which it has long been
+regarded, to dissipate the prejudices which that apathy alone could have
+engendered, and to vindicate its claims to an honorable and equal
+position among the proud thrones of its sister sciences. We do not bring
+meteorology forward as a pursuit adapted for the occupation of tedious
+leisure, or the amusement of a careless hour. Such qualifications are no
+inducements to its pursuit by men of science and learning, and to these
+alone do we now address ourselves. Neither do we advance it on the
+ground of its interest or beauty, though it is a science possessing both
+in no ordinary degree. As to its beauty, it may be remarked that it is
+not calculated to harden the mind it strengthens, and bind it down to
+the measurement of magnitudes and estimation of quantities, destroying
+all higher feelings, all finer sensibilities: it is not to be learned
+among the gaseous exhalations of the deathful laboratory; it has no
+dwelling in the cold caves of the dark earth; it is not to be followed
+up among the charnel houses of creation. But it is a science of the pure
+air, and of the bright heaven; its thoughts are amidst the loveliness of
+creation; it leads the mind, as well as the eye, to the morning mist,
+and the noonday glory, and the twilight-cloud, to the purple peace of
+the mountain heaven, to the cloudy repose of the green valley; now
+expatiating in the silence of stormless ether, now on the rushing of the
+wings of the wind. It is indeed a knowledge which must be felt to be, in
+its very essence, full of the soul of the beautiful. For its interest,
+it is universal, unabated in every place, and in all time. He, whose
+kingdom is the heaven, can never meet with an uninteresting space, can
+never exhaust the phenomena of an hour; he is in a realm of perpetual
+change, of eternal motion, of infinite mystery. Light and darkness, and
+cold and heat, are to him as friends of familiar countenance, but of
+infinite variety of conversation; and while the geologist yearns for the
+mountain, the botanist for the field, and the mathematician for the
+study, the meteorologist, like a spirit of a higher order than any,
+rejoices in the kingdoms of the air.
+
+281. But, as we before said, it is neither for its interest, nor for its
+beauty, that we recommend the study of meteorology. It involves
+questions of the highest practical importance, and the solution of which
+will be productive of most substantial benefit to those classes who can
+least comprehend the speculations from which these advantages are
+derived. Times and seasons and climates, calms and tempests, clouds and
+winds, whose alternations appear to the inexperienced mind the confused
+consequences of irregular, indefinite, and accidental causes, arrange
+themselves before the meteorologist in beautiful succession of
+undisturbed order, in direct derivation from definite causes; it is for
+him to trace the path of the tempest round the globe, to point out the
+place whence it arose, to foretell the time of its decline, to follow
+the hours around the earth, as she "spins beneath her pyramid of night,"
+to feel the pulses of ocean, to pursue the course of its currents and
+its changes, to measure the power, direction, and duration of mysterious
+and invisible influences, and to assign constant and regular periods to
+the seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and
+night, which we know shall not cease, till the universe be no more. It
+may be thought we are exaggerating the effects of a science which is yet
+in its infancy. But it must be remembered that we are not speaking of
+its attained, but of its attainable power: it is the young Hercules for
+the fostering of whose strength the Meteorological Society has been
+formed.
+
+282. There is one point, it must now be observed, in which the science
+of meteorology differs from all others. A Galileo, or a Newton, by the
+unassisted workings of his solitary mind, may discover the secrets of
+the heavens, and form a new system of astronomy. A Davy in his lonely
+meditations on the crags of Cornwall, or in his solitary laboratory,
+might discover the most sublime mysteries of nature, and trace out the
+most intricate combinations of her elements. But the meteorologist is
+impotent if alone; his observations are useless; for they are made upon
+a point, while the speculations to be derived from them must be on
+space. It is of no avail that he changes his position, ignorant of what
+is passing behind him and before; he desires to estimate the movements
+of space, and can only observe the dancing of atoms; he would calculate
+the currents of the atmosphere of the world, while he only knows the
+direction of a breeze. It is perhaps for this reason that the cause of
+meteorology has hitherto been so slightly supported; no progress can be
+made by the most gigantic efforts of a solitary intellect, and the
+co-operation demanded was difficult to obtain, because it was necessary
+that the individuals should think, observe, and act simultaneously,
+though separated from each other by distances on the greatness of which
+depended the utility of the observations.
+
+283. The Meteorological Society, therefore, has been formed, not for a
+city, nor for a kingdom, but for the world. It wishes to be the central
+point, the moving power of a vast machine, and it feels that unless it
+can be this, it must be powerless; if it cannot do all, it can do
+nothing. It desires to have at its command, at stated periods, perfect
+systems of methodical and simultaneous observations,--it wishes its
+influence and its power to be omnipotent over the globe, so that it may
+be able to know, at any given instant, the state of the atmosphere at
+every point on its surface. Let it not be supposed that this is a
+chimerical imagination, the vain dream of a few philosophical
+enthusiasts. It is co-operation which we now come forward to request, in
+full confidence, that if our efforts are met with a zeal worthy of the
+cause, our associates will be astonished, _individually_, by the result
+of their labors in a body. Let none be discouraged because they are
+alone, or far distant from their associates. What was formerly weakness
+will now have become strength. Let the pastor of the Alps observe the
+variations of his mountain winds; let the voyagers send us notes of the
+changes on the surface of the sea; let the solitary dweller in the
+American prairie observe the passages of the storms, and the variations
+of the climate; and each, who alone would have been powerless, will find
+himself a part of one mighty mind, a ray of light entering into one vast
+eye, a member of a multitudinous power, contributing to the knowledge,
+and aiding the efforts, which will be capable of solving the most deeply
+hidden problems of nature, penetrating into the most occult causes, and
+reducing to principle and order the vast multitude of beautiful and
+wonderful phenomena by which the wisdom and benevolence of the Supreme
+Deity regulates the course of the times and the seasons, robes the globe
+with verdure and fruitfulness, and adapts it to minister to the wants,
+and contribute to the felicity, of the innumerable tribes of animated
+existence.
+
+  OXFORD UNIVERSITY.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 33: From the "Transactions of the Meteorological Society,"
+Vol. i., pp. 56-9 (London, 1839). The full title of the paper was
+"Remarks on the Present State of Meteorological Science." The Society
+was instituted in 1823, but appears to have published no previous
+transactions.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ON TREE TWIGS.[34]
+
+
+284. The speaker's purpose was to exhibit the development of the common
+forms of branch, in dicotyledonous trees, from the fixed type of the
+annual shoot. Three principal modes of increase and growth might be
+distinguished in all accumulative change, namely:--
+
+1. Simple aggregation, having no periodical or otherwise defined limit,
+and subject only to laws of cohesion and crystallization, as in
+inorganic matter.
+
+2. Addition of similar parts to each other, under some law fixing their
+limits and securing their unity.
+
+3. Enlargement, or systematic change in arrangement, of a typical form,
+as in the growth of the members of an animal.
+
+285. The growth of trees came under the second of these heads. A tree
+did not increase in stem or boughs as the wrist and hand of a child
+increased to the wrist and hand of a man; but it was built up by
+additions of similar parts, as a city is increased by the building of
+new rows of houses.
+
+Any annual shoot was most conveniently to be considered as a single rod,
+which would always grow vertically if possible.
+
+Every such rod or pillar was, in common timber trees, typically either
+polygonal in section, or rectangular.
+
+If polygonal, the leaves were arranged on it in a spiral order, as in
+the elm or oak.
+
+If rectangular, the leaves were arranged on it in pairs, set alternately
+at right angles to each other.
+
+Intermediate forms connected each of these types with those of
+monocotyledonous trees. The structure of the _arbor vitae_ might be
+considered as typically representing the link between the rectangular
+structure and that of monocotyledons; and that of the pine between the
+polygonal structure and that of monocotyledons.
+
+Every leaf during its vitality secreting carbon from the atmosphere,
+with the elements of water, formed a certain quantity of woody tissue,
+which extended down the outside of the tree to the ground, and farther
+to the extremities of the roots. The mode in which this descending
+masonry was added appeared to depend on the peculiar functions of
+cambium, and (the speaker believed) was as yet unexplained by botanists.
+
+286. Every leaf, besides forming this masonry all down the tree,
+protected a bud at the base of its own stalk. From this bud, unless
+rendered abortive, a new shoot would spring next year. Now, supposing
+that out of the leaf-buds on each shoot of a pentagonal tree, only five
+at its extremity or on its side were permitted to develop themselves,
+even under this limitation the number of shoots developed from a single
+one in the seventh year would be 78,125. The external form of a
+healthily grown tree at any period of its development was therefore
+composed of a mass of sprays, whose vitality was approximately
+distributed over the _surface_ of the tree to an equal depth. The
+branches beneath at once supported, and were fed by, this orbicular
+field, or animated external garment of vegetation, from every several
+leaf of which, as from an innumerable multitude of small green
+fountains, the streams of woody fiber descended, met, and united as
+rivers do, and gathered their full flood into the strength of the stem.
+
+287. The principal errors which had been committed by artists in drawing
+trees had arisen from their regarding the bough as ramifying
+irregularly, and somewhat losing in energy towards the extremity;
+whereas the real boughs threw their whole energy, and multiplied their
+substance, towards the extremities, ranking themselves in more or less
+cup-shaped tiers round the trunk, and forming a compact united surface
+at the exterior of the tree.
+
+288. In the course of arrival at this form, the bough, throughout its
+whole length, showed itself to be influenced by a force like that of an
+animal's instinct. Its minor curves and angles were all subjected to one
+strong ruling tendency and law of advance, dependent partly on the aim
+of every shoot to raise itself upright, partly on the necessity which
+each was under to yield due place to the neighboring leaves, and obtain
+for itself as much light and air as possible. It had indeed been
+ascertained that vegetable tissue was liable to contractions and
+expansion (under fixed mechanical conditions) by light, heat, moisture,
+etc. But vegetable tissue in the living branch did not contract nor
+expand under external influence alone. The principle of life manifested
+itself either by contention with, or felicitous recognition of, external
+force. It accepted with a visible, active, and apparently joyful
+concurrence, the influences which led the bough towards its due place in
+the economy of the tree; and it obeyed reluctantly, partially, and with
+distorted curvatures, those which forced it to violate the typical
+organic form. The attention of painters of foliage had seldom been drawn
+with sufficient accuracy to the lines either of branch curvature, or
+leaf contour, as expressing these subtle laws of incipient volition; but
+the relative merit of the great schools of figure design might, in
+absence of all other evidence, be determined, almost without error, by
+observing the precision of their treatment of leaf curvature. The
+leaf-painting round the head of Ariosto by Titian, in the National
+Gallery, might be instanced.
+
+289. The leaf thus differed from the flower in forming and protecting
+behind it, not only the bud in which was the form of a new shoot like
+itself, but a piece of permanent work, and produced substance, by which
+every following shoot could be placed under different circumstances from
+its predecessor. Every leaf labored to solidify this substance during
+its own life; but the seed left by the flower matured only as the flower
+perished.
+
+This difference in the action and endurance of the flower and leaf had
+been applied by nearly all great nations as a type of the variously
+active and productive states of life among individuals or commonwealths.
+Chaucer's poem of the "Flower and Leaf" is the most definite expression
+of the mediaeval feeling in this respect, while the fables of the rape of
+Proserpine and of Apollo and Daphne embody that of the Greeks. There is
+no Greek goddess corresponding to the Flora of the Romans. Their Flora
+is Persephone, "the bringer of death." She plays for a little while in
+the Sicilian fields, gathering flowers, then snatched away by Pluto,
+receives her chief power as she vanishes from our sight, and is crowned
+in the grave. Daphne, on the other hand, is the daughter of one of the
+great Arcadian river gods, and of the earth; she is the type of the
+river mist filling the rocky vales of Arcadia; the sun, pursuing this
+mist from dell to dell, is Apollo pursuing Daphne; where the mist is
+protected from his rays by the rock shadows, the laurel and other
+richest vegetation spring by the river-sides, so that the laurel-leaf
+becomes the type, in the Greek mind, of the beneficent ministry and
+vitality of the rivers and the earth, under the beams of sunshine; and
+therefore it is chosen to form the signet-crown of highest honor for
+gods or men, honor for work born of the strength and dew of the earth
+and informed by the central light of heaven; work living, perennial, and
+beneficent.
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 34: Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see _Proceedings_, vol. iii., pp. 358-60), April 19,
+1861.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+ON THE FORMS OF THE STRATIFIED ALPS OF SAVOY.[35]
+
+
+290. The purpose of the discourse was to trace some of the influences
+which have produced the present external forms of the stratified
+mountains of Savoy, and the probable extent and results of the future
+operation of such influences.
+
+The subject was arranged under three heads:--
+
+  I. The Materials of the Savoy Alps.
+  II. The Mode of their Formation.
+  III. The Mode of their subsequent Sculpture.
+
+291. I. _Their Materials._--The investigation was limited to those Alps
+which consist, in whole or in part, either of Jura limestone, of
+Neocomian beds, or of the Hippurite limestone, and include no important
+masses of other formations. All these rocks are marine deposits; and the
+first question to be considered with respect to the development of
+mountains out of them is the kind of change they must undergo in being
+dried. Whether prolonged through vast periods of time, or hastened by
+heat and pressure, the drying and solidification of such rocks involved
+their contraction, and usually, in consequence, their being traversed
+throughout by minute fissures. Under certain conditions of pressure,
+these fissures take the aspect of slaty cleavage; under others, they
+become irregular cracks, dividing all the substance of the stone. If
+these are not filled, the rock would become a mere heap of debris, and
+be incapable of establishing itself in any bold form. This is provided
+against by a metamorphic action, which either arranges the particles of
+the rock, throughout, in new and more crystalline conditions, or else
+causes some of them to separate from the rest, to traverse the body of
+the rock, and arrange themselves in its fissures; thus forming a cement,
+usually of finer and purer substance than the rest of the stone. In
+either case the action tends continually to the purification and
+segregation of the elements of the stone. The energy of such action
+depends on accidental circumstances: first, on the attractions of the
+component elements among themselves; secondly, on every change of
+external temperature and relation. So that mountains are at different
+periods in different stages of health (so to call it) or disease. We
+have mountains of a languid temperament, mountains with checked
+circulations, mountains in nervous fevers, mountains in atrophy and
+decline.
+
+292. This change in the structure of existing rocks is traceable through
+continuous gradations, so that a black mud or calcareous slime is
+imperceptibly modified into a magnificently hard and crystalline
+substance, inclosing nests of beryl, topaz, and sapphire, and veined
+with gold. But it cannot be determined how far, or in what localities,
+these changes are yet arrested; in the plurality of instances they are
+evidently yet in progress. It appears rational to suppose that as each
+rock approaches to its perfect type the change becomes slower; its
+perfection being continually neared, but never reached; its change being
+liable also to interruption or reversal by new geological phenomena. In
+the process of this change, rocks expand or contract; and, in portions,
+their multitudinous fissures give them a ductility or viscosity like
+that of glacier-ice on a larger scale. So that many formations are best
+to be conceived as glaciers, or frozen fields of crag, whose depth is to
+be measured in miles instead of fathoms, whose crevasses are filled with
+solvent flame, with vapor, with gelatinous flint, or with crystallizing
+elements of mingled natures; the whole mass changing its dimensions and
+flowing into new channels, though by gradations which cannot be
+measured, and in periods of time of which human life forms no
+appreciable unit.
+
+293. II. _Formation._--Mountains are to be arranged, with respect to
+their structure, under two great classes--those which are cut out of the
+beds of which they are composed, and those which are formed by the
+convolution or contortion of the beds themselves. The Savoy mountains
+are chiefly of this latter class. When stratified formations are
+contorted, it is usually either by pressure from below, which raises one
+part of the formation above the rest, or by lateral pressure, which
+reduces the whole formation into a series of waves. The ascending
+pressure may be limited in its sphere of operation; the lateral one
+necessarily affects extensive tracts of country, and the eminences it
+produces vanish only by degrees, like the waves left in the wake of a
+ship. The Savoy mountains have undergone both these kinds of violence in
+very complex modes and at different periods, so that it becomes almost
+impossible to trace separately and completely the operation of any given
+force at a given point.
+
+294. The speaker's intention was to have analyzed, as far as possible,
+the action of the forming forces in one wave of simple elevation, the
+Mont Saleve, and in another of lateral compression, the Mont Brezon: but
+the investigation of the Mont Saleve had presented unexpected
+difficulty. Its facade had been always considered to be formed by
+vertical beds, raised into that position during the tertiary periods;
+the speaker's investigations had, on the contrary, led him to conclude
+that the appearance of vertical beds was owing to a peculiarly sharp and
+distinct cleavage, at right angles with the beds, but nearly parallel to
+their strike, elsewhere similarly manifested in the Jurassic series of
+Savoy, and showing itself on the fronts of most of the precipices formed
+of that rock. The attention of geologists was invited to the
+determination of this question.
+
+The compressed wave of the Brezon, more complex in arrangement, was more
+clearly defined. A section of it was given, showing the reversed
+position of the Hippurite limestone in the summit and lower precipices.
+This limestone wave was shown to be one of a great series, running
+parallel with the Alps, and constituting an undulatory district,
+chiefly composed of chalk beds, separated from the higher limestone
+district of the Jura and Lias by a long trench or moat, filled with
+members of the tertiary series--chiefly nummulite limestones and flysch.
+This trench might be followed from Faverges, at the head of the lake of
+Annecy, across Savoy. It separated Mont Vergi from the Mont Dorons, and
+the Dent d'Oche from the Dent du Midi; then entered Switzerland,
+separating the Moleson from the Diablerets; passed on through the
+districts of Thun and Brientz, and, dividing itself into two, caused the
+zigzagged form of the lake of Lucerne. The principal branch then passed
+between the high Sentis and the Glarnisch, and broke into confusion in
+the Tyrol. On the north side of this trench the chalk beds were often
+vertical, or cast into repeated folds, of which the escarpments were
+mostly turned away from the Alps; but on the south side of the trench,
+the Jurassic, Triassic, and Carboniferous beds, though much distorted,
+showed a prevailing tendency to lean towards the Alps, and turn their
+escarpments to the central chain.
+
+295. Both these systems of mountains are intersected by transverse
+valleys, owing their origin, in the first instance, to a series of
+transverse curvilinear fractures, which affect the forms even of every
+minor ridge, and produce its principal ravines and boldest rocks, even
+where no distinctly excavated valleys exist. Thus, the Mont Vergi and
+the Aiguilles of Salouvre are only fragmentary remains of a range of
+horizontal beds, once continuous, but broken by this transverse system
+of curvilinear cleavage, and worn or weathered into separate summits.
+
+The means of this ultimate sculpture or weathering were lastly to be
+considered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+296. III. _Sculpture._--The final reductions of mountainform are owing
+either to disintegration, or to the action of water, in the condition of
+rain, rivers, or ice, aided by frost and other circumstances of
+temperature and atmosphere.
+
+All important existing forms are owing to disintegration, or the action
+of water. That of ice had been curiously over-rated. As an instrument of
+sculpture, ice is much less powerful than water; the apparently
+energetic effects of it being merely the exponents of disintegration. A
+glacier did not produce its moraine, but sustained and exposed the
+fragments which fell on its surface, pulverizing these by keeping them
+in motion, but producing very unimportant effects on the rock below; the
+roundings and striation produced by ice were superficial; while a
+torrent penetrated into every angle and cranny, undermining and wearing
+continually, and carrying stones, at the lowest estimate, six hundred
+thousand times as fast as the glacier. Had the quantity of rain which
+has fallen on Mont Blanc in the form of snow (and descended in the
+ravines as ice) fallen as rain, and descended in torrents, the ravines
+would have been much deeper than they are now, and the glacier may so
+far be considered as exercising a protective influence. But its power of
+carriage is unlimited, and when masses of earth or rock are once
+loosened, the glacier carries them away, and exposes fresh surfaces.
+Generally, the work of water and ice is in mountain surgery like that of
+lancet and sponge--one for incision, the other for ablution. No
+excavation by ice was possible on a large scale, any more than by a
+stream of honey; and its various actions, with their limitations, were
+only to be understood by keeping always clearly in view the great law of
+its motion as a viscous substance, determined by Professor James Forbes.
+
+297. The existing forms of the Alps are, therefore, traceable chiefly to
+denudation as they rose from the sea, followed by more or less violent
+aqueous action, partly arrested during the glacial periods, while the
+produced diluvium was carried away into the valley of the Rhine or into
+the North Sea. One very important result of denudation had not yet been
+sufficiently regarded; namely, that when portions of a thick bed (as the
+Rudisten-kalk) had been entirely removed, the weight of the remaining
+masses, pressing unequally on the inferior beds, would, when these were
+soft (as the Neocomian marls), press them up into arched conditions,
+like those of the floors of coal-mines in what the miners called
+"creeps." Many anomalous positions of the beds of Spatangenkalk in the
+district of the Lake of Annecy were in all probability owing to this
+cause: they might be studied advantageously in the sloping base of the
+great Rochers de Lanfon, which, disintegrating in curved, nearly
+vertical flakes, each a thousand feet in height, were nevertheless a
+mere outlying remnant of the great horizontal formation of the Parmelan,
+and formed, like it, of very thin horizontal beds of Rudisten-kalk,
+imposed on shaly masses of Neocomian, modified by their pressure. More
+complex forms of harder rock were wrought by the streams and rains into
+fantastic outlines; and the transverse gorges were cut deep where they
+had been first traced by fault or distortion. The analysis of this
+aqueous action would alone require a series of discourses; but the sum
+of the facts was that the best and most interesting portions of the
+mountains were just those which were finally left, the centers and
+joints, as it were, of the Alpine anatomy. Immeasurable periods of time
+would be required to wear these away; and to all appearances, during the
+process of their destruction, others were rising to take their place,
+and forms of perhaps far more nobly organized mountain would witness the
+collateral progress of humanity.
+
+  J. R.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 35: Read by Mr. Ruskin at the weekly evening meeting of the
+Royal Institution (see _Proceedings_, vol. iv., pp. 142-46), June 5,
+1863.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+THE RANGE OF INTELLECTUAL CONCEPTION PROPORTIONED TO THE RANK IN
+ANIMATED LIFE.[36]
+
+A THEOREM.
+
+
+298. I suppose this theorem to be a truism; but I venture to state it,
+because it is surely desirable that it should be recognized as an axiom
+by metaphysicians, and practically does not seem to me yet to have been
+so. I say "animated life" because the word "life" by itself might have
+been taken to include that of vegetables; and I say "animated" instead
+of "spiritual" life because the Latin "anima," and pretty Italian
+corruption of it, "alma," involving the new idea of nourishment of the
+body as by the Aliment or Alms of God, seems to me to convey a better
+idea of the existence of conscious creatures than any derivative of
+"spiritus," "pneuma," or "psyche."
+
+I attach, however, a somewhat lower sense to the word "conception" than
+is, I believe, usual with metaphysicians, for, as a painter, I belong to
+a lower rank of animated being than theirs, and can only mean by
+conception what I know of it. A painter never conceives anything
+absolutely, and is indeed incapable of conceiving anything at all,
+except as a phenomenon or sensation, or as the mode or locus of a
+phenomenon or sensation. That which is not an appearance, or a feeling,
+or a mode of one or the other, is to him nothing.
+
+299. For instance, he would deny the definition of the phenomenon which
+he is himself first concerned in producing--a line--as "length without
+breadth." He would say, "That which has no breadth is nothing, and
+nothing cannot be long." He would define a line as a narrow and long
+phenomenon, and a mathematician's idea of it as an idea of the
+direction of such a phenomenon.
+
+The act of conception or imagination with him, therefore, is merely the
+memory, simple or combined, of things that he has seen or felt. He has
+no ray, no incipience of faculty beyond this. No quantity of the
+sternest training in the school of Hegel, would ever enable him to think
+the Absolute. He would persist in an obstinate refusal to use the word
+"think" at all in a transitive sense. He would never, for instance, say,
+"I think the table," but "I think the table is turning," or is not, as
+the case might be. And if he were to be taught in any school whatever to
+conceive a table, his first demand would be that he should be shown one,
+or referred to other things that had the qualities of one in
+illustrative degree.
+
+300. And even respecting the constant methods or laws of phenomena, he
+cannot raise the statement of them into an act of conception. The
+statement that two right lines can never inclose a space merely appears
+to him another form of verbal definition, or, at the grandest, a
+definition in prophetic extent, saying in other words that a line which
+incloses, or ever may inclose, a space, is not, and never will be, a
+right one. He would admit that what he now conceives as two things,
+doubled, would always be what he now conceives as four things. But
+assuming the existence of a world in which, whenever two things were
+actually set in juxtaposition with other two things, they became
+actually three times, or actually five, he supposes that the practice of
+arithmetic, and laws of it, would change in relation to this new
+condition in matter; and he accepts, therefore, the statement that twice
+two are four only as an accident of the existing phenomena of matter.
+
+301. A painter therefore may, I think, be looked upon as only
+representing a high order of sensational creatures, incapable of any but
+physical ideas and impressions; and I continue my paper, therefore, only
+in the name of the docile, and therefore improvable, part of the Brute
+Creation.
+
+And in their name I would suggest that we should be much more docile
+than we are if we were never occupied in efforts to conceive things
+above our natures. To take an instance, in a creature somewhat lower
+than myself. I came by surprise the other day on a cuttle-fish in a pool
+at low tide. On being touched with the point of my umbrella, he first
+filled the pool with ink, and then finding himself still touched in the
+darkness, lost his temper, and attacked the umbrella with much psyche or
+anima, hugging it tightly with all his eight arms, and making efforts,
+like an impetuous baby with a coral, to get it into his mouth. On my
+offering him a finger instead, he sucked that with two or three of his
+arms with an apparently malignant satisfaction, and on being shaken off,
+retired with an air of frantic misanthropy into the cloud of his ink.
+
+302. Now, it seems to me not a little instructive to reflect how
+entirely useless such a manifestation of a superior being was to his
+cuttle-fish mind, and how fortunate it was for his fellow-octopods that
+he had no command of pens as well as ink, nor any disposition to write
+on the nature of umbrellas or of men.
+
+It may be observed, further, that whatever ideas he was able to form
+respecting either were positively false--so contrary to truth as to be
+worse than none, and simply dangerous to himself, so far as he might be
+induced to act upon them--that, namely, an umbrella was an eatable
+thing, or a man a conquerable one, that the individual man who looked at
+him was hostile to him or that his purposes could be interfered with by
+ejection of ink. Every effort made by the fish under these convictions
+was harmful to himself; his only wisdom would have been to lie quietly
+and unreflectively in his pool.
+
+And with us painters also, the only result of any efforts we make to
+acquaint ourselves with the subjects of metaphysical inquiry has been an
+increased sense of the prudence of lying placidly and unreflectively in
+our pools, or at least limiting ourselves to such gentle efforts of
+imagination as may be consistent with the as yet imperfectly developed
+powers, I do not say even of cephalopodic, but of Ascidian nervous
+centers.
+
+303. But it may be easily imagined how pleasantly, to persons thus
+subdued in self-estimation, the hope presents itself which is involved
+in the Darwinian theory, that their pools themselves may be capable of
+indefinite extension, and their natures of indefinite development--the
+hope that our descendants may one day be ashamed of us, and debate the
+question of their parentage with astonishment and disgust.
+
+And it seems to me that the aim of elementary metaphysical study might
+henceforth become more practical than that of any other science. For in
+hitherto taking little cognizance of the limitation of thought by the
+structure of the body, we have surely also lost sight of the power of
+certain modes of thought over the processes of that structure. Taking,
+for instance, the emotion of anger, of which the cephalopoda are indeed
+as capable as we are, but inferior to us in being unable to decide
+whether they do well to be angry or not, I do not think the chemical
+effect of that emotion on the particles of the blood, in decomposing and
+otherwise paralyzing or debilitating them, has been sufficiently
+examined, nor the actual quantity of nervous energy which a fit of anger
+of given violence withdraws from the body and restores to space, neither
+the correlative power of volition in restraining the passion, or in
+directing the choice of salutary thought, as of salutary herbs on
+streams. And even we painters, who dare not call ourselves capable of
+thought, are capable of choice in more or less salutary vision. In the
+degree in which we lose such power of choice in vision, so that the
+spectral phenomena which are the materials of our industry present
+themselves under forms beyond our control, we become insane; and
+although for all our best work a certain degree of this insanity is
+necessary, and the first occurring conceptions are uncommanded, as in
+dreams, we have, when in health, always instantaneous power of accepting
+some, refusing others, perfecting the outlines and colors of those we
+wish to keep, and arranging them in such relations as we choose.
+
+304. And unquestionably the forms of the body which painters
+instinctively recognize as best, and call "beautiful," are so far under
+the command of the plastic force of voluntary thought, that the
+original and future authority of such a plastic force over the whole of
+creation cannot but seem to painters a direct, though not a certain
+influence; and they would at once give their adherence to the statement
+made many years since in his opening lectures in Oxford by the present
+Regius Professor of Medicine (as far as I can recollect approximately,
+in these terms)--that "it is quite as logical, and far more easy, to
+conceive of original anima as adapting itself to forms of substance,
+than of original substance as adapting to itself modes of mind."
+
+305. It is surely, therefore, not too much to expect of future schools
+of metaphysicians that they will direct mankind into methods of thought
+which will be at once happy, unerring, and medicinal, and therefore
+entirely wise; that they will mark the limits beyond which uniformity
+must be dangerous, and speculation vain; and that they will at no
+distant period terminate the acrimony of theologians, and the
+insolences, as well as the sorrows, of groundless faith, by showing that
+it is appointed for us, in common with the rest of the animal creation,
+to live in the midst of an universe the nature of which is as much
+better than we can believe, as it is greater than we can understand.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 36: Contemporary Review, June, 1871.--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+FICTION--FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+(_Nineteenth Century, June, August, Sept., Nov. 1880, and Oct. 1881._)
+
+
+FAIRY STORIES.
+
+(_Preface to "German Popular Stories," 1868._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+
+1.[37]
+
+1. On the first mild--or, at least, the first bright--day of March, in
+this year, I walked through what was once a country lane, between the
+hostelry of the Half-moon at the bottom of Herne Hill, and the secluded
+College of Dulwich.
+
+In my young days, Croxsted Lane was a green byroad traversable for some
+distance by carts; but rarely so traversed, and, for the most part,
+little else than a narrow strip of untilled field, separated by
+blackberry hedges from the better-cared-for meadows on each side of it:
+growing more weeds, therefore, than they, and perhaps in spring a
+primrose or two--white archangel--daisies plenty, and purple thistles in
+autumn. A slender rivulet, boasting little of its brightness, for there
+are no springs at Dulwich, yet fed purely enough by the rain and morning
+dew, here trickled--there loitered--through the long grass beneath the
+hedges, and expanded itself, where it might, into moderately clear and
+deep pools, in which, under their veils of duckweed, a fresh-water shell
+or two, sundry curious little skipping shrimps, any quantity of tadpoles
+in their time, and even sometimes a tittlebat, offered themselves to my
+boyhood's pleased, and not inaccurate, observation. There, my mother and
+I used to gather the first buds of the hawthorn; and there, in after
+years, I used to walk in the summer shadows, as in a place wilder and
+sweeter than our garden, to think over any passage I wanted to make
+better than usual in _Modern Painters_.
+
+So, as aforesaid, on the first kindly day of this year, being thoughtful
+more than usual of those old times, I went to look again at the place.
+
+2. Often, both in those days, and since, I have put myself hard to it,
+vainly, to find words wherewith to tell of beautiful things; but beauty
+has been in the world since the world was made, and human language can
+make a shift, somehow, to give account of it, whereas the peculiar
+forces of devastation induced by modern city life have only entered the
+world lately; and no existing terms of language known to me are enough
+to describe the forms of filth, and modes of ruin, that varied
+themselves along the course of Croxsted Lane. The fields on each side of
+it are now mostly dug up for building, or cut through into gaunt corners
+and nooks of blind ground by the wild crossings and concurrencies of
+three railroads. Half a dozen handfuls of new cottages, with Doric
+doors, are dropped about here and there among the gashed ground: the
+lane itself, now entirely grassless, is a deep-rutted, heavy-hillocked
+cart-road, diverging gatelessly into various brickfields or pieces of
+waste; and bordered on each side by heaps of--Hades only knows
+what!--mixed dust of every unclean thing that can crumble in drought,
+and mildew of every unclean thing that can rot or rust in damp: ashes
+and rags, beer-bottles and old shoes, battered pans, smashed crockery,
+shreds of nameless clothes, door-sweepings, floor-sweepings, kitchen
+garbage, back-garden sewage, old iron, rotten timber jagged with
+out-torn nails, cigar-ends, pipe-bowls, cinders, bones, and ordure,
+indescribable; and, variously kneaded into, sticking to, or fluttering
+foully here and there over all these,--remnants broadcast, of every
+manner of newspaper, advertisement or big-lettered bill, festering and
+flaunting out their last publicity in the pits of stinking dust and
+mortal slime.
+
+3. The lane ends now where its prettiest windings once began; being cut
+off by a cross-road leading out of Dulwich to a minor railway station:
+and on the other side of this road, what was of old the daintiest
+intricacy of its solitude is changed into a straight, and evenly
+macadamized carriage drive between new houses of extreme respectability,
+with good attached gardens and offices--most of these tenements being
+larger--all more pretentious, and many, I imagine, held at greatly
+higher rent than my father's, tenanted for twenty years at Herne Hill.
+And it became matter of curious meditation to me what must here become
+of children resembling my poor little dreamy quondam self in temper, and
+thus brought up at the same distance from London, and in the same or
+better circumstances of worldly fortune; but with only Croxsted Lane in
+its present condition for their country walk. The trimly kept road
+before their doors, such as one used to see in the fashionable suburbs
+of Cheltenham or Leamington, presents nothing to their study but gravel,
+and gas-lamp posts; the modern addition of a vermilion letter-pillar
+contributing indeed to the splendor, but scarcely to the interest of the
+scene; and a child of any sense or fancy would hastily contrive escape
+from such a barren desert of politeness, and betake itself to
+investigation, such as might be feasible, of the natural history of
+Croxsted Lane.
+
+4. But, for its sense or fancy, what food, or stimulus, can it find, in
+that foul causeway of its youthful pilgrimage? What would have happened
+to myself, so directed, I cannot clearly imagine. Possibly, I might have
+got interested in the old iron and wood-shavings; and become an engineer
+or a carpenter: but for the children of to-day, accustomed, from the
+instant they are out of their cradles, to the sight of this infinite
+nastiness, prevailing as a fixed condition of the universe, over the
+face of nature, and accompanying all the operations of industrious man,
+what is to be the scholastic issue? unless, indeed, the thrill of
+scientific vanity in the primary analysis of some unheard-of process of
+corruption--or the reward of microscopic research in the sight of worms
+with more legs, and acari of more curious generation than ever vivified
+the more simply smelling plasma of antiquity.
+
+One result of such elementary education is, however, already certain;
+namely, that the pleasure which we may conceive taken by the children of
+the coming time, in the analysis of physical corruption, guides, into
+fields more dangerous and desolate, the expatiation of an imaginative
+literature: and that the reactions of moral disease upon itself, and
+the conditions of languidly monstrous character developed in an
+atmosphere of low vitality, have become the most valued material of
+modern fiction, and the most eagerly discussed texts of modern
+philosophy.
+
+5. The many concurrent reasons for this mischief may, I believe, be
+massed under a few general heads.[38]
+
+I. There is first the hot fermentation and unwholesome secrecy of the
+population crowded into large cities, each mote in the misery lighter,
+as an individual soul, than a dead leaf, but becoming oppressive and
+infectious each to his neighbor, in the smoking mass of decay. The
+resulting modes of mental ruin and distress are continually new; and in
+a certain sense, worth study in their monstrosity: they have accordingly
+developed a corresponding science of fiction, concerned mainly with the
+description of such forms of disease, like the botany of leaf-lichens.
+
+In De Balzac's story of _Father Goriot_, a grocer makes a large fortune,
+of which he spends on himself as much as may keep him alive; and on his
+two daughters, all that can promote their pleasures or their pride. He
+marries them to men of rank, supplies their secret expenses, and
+provides for his favorite a separate and clandestine establishment with
+her lover. On his death-bed, he sends for this favorite daughter, who
+wishes to come, and hesitates for a quarter of an hour between doing so,
+and going to a ball at which it has been for the last month her chief
+ambition to be seen. She finally goes to the ball.
+
+The story is, of course, one of which the violent contrasts and spectral
+catastrophe could only take place, or be conceived, in a large city. A
+village grocer cannot make a large fortune, cannot marry his daughters
+to titled squires, and cannot die without having his children brought to
+him, if in the neighborhood, by fear of village gossip, if for no better
+cause.
+
+6. II. But a much more profound feeling than this mere curiosity of
+science in morbid phenomena is concerned in the production of the
+carefulest forms of modern fiction. The disgrace and grief resulting
+from the mere trampling pressure and electric friction of town life,
+become to the sufferers peculiarly mysterious in their undeservedness,
+and frightful in their inevitableness. The power of all surroundings
+over them for evil; the incapacity of their own minds to refuse the
+pollution, and of their own wills to oppose the weight, of the
+staggering mass that chokes and crushes them into perdition, brings
+every law of healthy existence into question with them, and every
+alleged method of help and hope into doubt. Indignation, without any
+calming faith in justice, and self-contempt, without any curative
+self-reproach, dull the intelligence, and degrade the conscience, into
+sullen incredulity of all sunshine outside the dunghill, or breeze
+beyond the wafting of its impurity; and at last a philosophy develops
+itself, partly satiric, partly consolatory, concerned only with the
+regenerative vigor of manure, and the necessary obscurities of fimetic
+Providence; showing how everybody's fault is somebody else's, how
+infection has no law, digestion no will, and profitable dirt no
+dishonor.
+
+And thus an elaborate and ingenious scholasticism, in what may be called
+the Divinity of Decomposition, has established itself in connection with
+the more recent forms of romance, giving them at once a complacent tone
+of clerical dignity, and an agreeable dash of heretical impudence; while
+the inculcated doctrine has the double advantage of needing no laborious
+scholarship for its foundation, and no painful self-denial for its
+practice.
+
+7. III. The monotony of life in the central streets of any great modern
+city, but especially in those of London, where every emotion intended to
+be derived by men from the sight of nature, or the sense of art, is
+forbidden forever, leaves the craving of the heart for a sincere, yet
+changeful, interest, to be fed from one source only. Under natural
+conditions the degree of mental excitement necessary to bodily health is
+provided by the course of the seasons, and the various skill and
+fortune of agriculture. In the country every morning of the year brings
+with it a new aspect of springing or fading nature; a new duty to be
+fulfilled upon earth, and a new promise or warning in heaven. No day is
+without its innocent hope, its special prudence, its kindly gift, and
+its sublime danger; and in every process of wise husbandry, and every
+effort of contending or remedial courage, the wholesome passions, pride,
+and bodily power of the laborer are excited and exerted in happiest
+unison. The companionship of domestic, the care of serviceable, animals,
+soften and enlarge his life with lowly charities, and discipline him in
+familiar wisdoms and unboastful fortitudes; while the divine laws of
+seedtime which cannot be recalled, harvest which cannot be hastened, and
+winter in which no man can work, compel the impatiences and coveting of
+his heart into labor too submissive to be anxious, and rest too sweet to
+be wanton. What thought can enough comprehend the contrast between such
+life, and that in streets where summer and winter are only alternations
+of heat and cold; where snow never fell white, nor sunshine clear; where
+the ground is only a pavement, and the sky no more than the glass roof
+of an arcade; where the utmost power of a storm is to choke the gutters,
+and the finest magic of spring, to change mud into dust: where--chief
+and most fatal difference in state--there is no interest of occupation
+for any of the inhabitants but the routine of counter or desk within
+doors, and the effort to pass each other without collision outside; so
+that from morning to evening the only possible variation of the monotony
+of the hours, and lightening of the penalty of existence, must be some
+kind of mischief, limited, unless by more than ordinary godsend of
+fatality, to the fall of a horse, or the slitting of a pocket?
+
+8. I said that under these laws of inanition, the craving of the human
+heart for some kind of excitement could be supplied from _one_ source
+only. It might have been thought by any other than a sternly tentative
+philosopher, that the denial of their natural food to human feelings
+would have provoked a reactionary desire for it; and that the
+dreariness of the street would have been gilded by dreams of pastoral
+felicity. Experience has shown the fact to be otherwise; the thoroughly
+trained Londoner can enjoy no other excitement than that to which he has
+been accustomed, but asks for _that_ in continually more ardent or more
+virulent concentration; and the ultimate power of fiction to entertain
+him is by varying to his fancy the modes, and defining for his dullness
+the horrors, of Death. In the single novel of "Bleak House" there are
+nine deaths (or left for death's, in the drop scene) carefully wrought
+out or led up to, either by way of pleasing surprise, as the baby's at
+the brick-maker's, or finished in their threatenings and sufferings,
+with as much enjoyment as can be contrived in the anticipation, and as
+much pathology as can be concentrated in the description. Under the
+following varieties of method:--
+
+  One by assassination               Mr. Tulkinghorn.
+  One by starvation, with phthisis   Joe.
+  One by chagrin                     Richard.
+  One by spontaneous combustion      Mr. Krook.
+  One by sorrow                      Lady Dedlock's lover.
+  One by remorse                     Lady Dedlock.
+  One by insanity                    Miss Flite.
+  One by paralysis                   Sir Leicester.
+
+Besides the baby, by fever, and a lively young Frenchwoman left to be
+hanged.
+
+And all this, observe, not in a tragic, adventurous, or military story,
+but merely as the further enlivenment of a narrative intended to be
+amusing; and as a properly representative average of the statistics of
+civilian mortality in the center of London.
+
+9. Observe further, and chiefly. It is not the mere number of deaths
+(which, if we count the odd troopers in the last scene, is exceeded in
+"Old Mortality," and reached, within one or two, both in "Waverley" and
+"Guy Mannering") that marks the peculiar tone of the modern novel. It is
+the fact that all these deaths, but one, are of inoffensive, or at least
+in the world's estimate, respectable persons; and that they are all
+grotesquely either violent or miserable, purporting thus to illustrate
+the modern theology that the appointed destiny of a large average of our
+population is to die like rats in a drain, either by trap or poison.
+Not, indeed, that a lawyer in full practice can be usually supposed as
+faultless in the eye of Heaven as a dove or a woodcock; but it is not,
+in former divinities, thought the will of Providence that he should be
+dropped by a shot from a client behind his fire-screen, and retrieved in
+the morning by his housemaid under the chandelier. Neither is Lady
+Dedlock less reprehensible in her conduct than many women of fashion
+have been and will be: but it would not therefore have been thought
+poetically just, in old-fashioned morality, that she should be found by
+her daughter lying dead, with her face in the mud of a St. Giles's
+churchyard.
+
+10. In the work of the great masters death is always either heroic,
+deserved, or quiet and natural (unless their purpose be totally and
+deeply tragic, when collateral meaner death is permitted, like that of
+Polonius or Roderigo). In "Old Mortality," four of the deaths,
+Bothwell's, Ensign Grahame's, Macbriar's, and Evandale's, are
+magnificently heroic; Burley's and Oliphant's long deserved, and swift;
+the troopers', met in the discharge of their military duty, and the old
+miser's as gentle as the passing of a cloud, and almost beautiful in its
+last words of--now unselfish--care.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Ailie" (he aye ca'd me Ailie, we were auld acquaintance), "Ailie, take
+ye care and hand the gear weel thegither; for the name of Morton of
+Milnwood's gane out like the last sough of an auld sang." And sae he
+fell out o' ae dwam into another, and ne'er spak a word mair, unless it
+something we you'dna mak out, about a dipped candle being gude eneugh
+to see to dee wi'. He cou'd ne'er bide to see a molded ane, and there
+was ane, by ill luck, on the table.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In "Guy Mannering," the murder, though unpremeditated, of a single
+person, (himself not entirely innocent, but at least by heartlessness in
+a cruel function earning his fate,) is avenged to the uttermost on all
+the men conscious of the crime; Mr. Bertram's death, like that of his
+wife, brief in pain, and each told in the space of half a dozen lines;
+and that of the heroine of the tale, self-devoted, heroic in the
+highest, and happy.
+
+Nor is it ever to be forgotten, in the comparison of Scott's with
+inferior work, that his own splendid powers were, even in early life,
+tainted, and in his latter years destroyed, by modern conditions of
+commercial excitement, then first, but rapidly, developing themselves.
+There are parts even in his best novels colored to meet tastes which he
+despised; and many pages written in his later ones to lengthen his
+article for the indiscriminate market.
+
+11. But there was one weakness of which his healthy mind remained
+incapable to the last. In modern stories prepared for more refined or
+fastidious audiences than those of Dickens, the funereal excitement is
+obtained, for the most part, not by the infliction of violent or
+disgusting death; but in the suspense, the pathos, and the more or less
+by all felt, and recognized, mortal phenomena of the sick-room. The
+temptation, to weak writers, of this order of subject is especially
+great, because the study of it from the living--or dying--model is so
+easy, and to many has been the most impressive part of their own
+personal experience; while, if the description be given even with
+mediocre accuracy, a very large section of readers will admire its
+truth, and cherish its melancholy. Few authors of second or third rate
+genius can either record or invent a probable conversation in ordinary
+life; but few, on the other hand, are so destitute of observant faculty
+as to be unable to chronicle the broken syllables and languid movements
+of an invalid. The easily rendered, and too surely recognized, image of
+familiar suffering is felt at once to be real where all else had been
+false; and the historian of the gestures of fever and words of delirium
+can count on the applause of a gratified audience as surely as the
+dramatist who introduces on the stage of his flagging action a carriage
+that can be driven or a fountain that will flow. But the masters of
+strong imagination disdain such work, and those of deep sensibility
+shrink from it.[39] Only under conditions of personal weakness,
+presently to be noted, would Scott comply with the cravings of his lower
+audience in scenes of terror like the death of Front-de-Boeuf. But he
+never once withdrew the sacred curtain of the sick-chamber, nor
+permitted the disgrace of wanton tears round the humiliation of
+strength, or the wreck of beauty.
+
+12. IV. No exception to this law of reverence will be found in the
+scenes in Coeur de Lion's illness introductory to the principal
+incident in the "Talisman." An inferior writer would have made the king
+charge in imagination at the head of his chivalry, or wander in dreams
+by the brooks of Aquitaine; but Scott allows us to learn no more
+startling symptoms of the king's malady than that he was restless and
+impatient, and could not wear his armor. Nor is any bodily weakness, or
+crisis of danger, permitted to disturb for an instant the royalty of
+intelligence and heart in which he examines, trusts and obeys the
+physician whom his attendants fear.
+
+Yet the choice of the main subject in this story and its companion--the
+trial, to a point of utter torture, of knightly faith, and several
+passages in the conduct of both, more especially the exaggerated scenes
+in the House of Baldringham, and hermitage of Engedi, are signs of the
+gradual decline in force of intellect and soul which those who love
+Scott best have done him the worst injustice in their endeavors to
+disguise or deny. The mean anxieties, moral humiliations, and
+mercilessly demanded brain-toil, which killed him, show their sepulchral
+grasp for many and many a year before their final victory; and the
+states of more or less dulled, distorted, and polluted imagination which
+culminate in "Castle Dangerous" cast a Stygian hue over "St. Ronan's
+Well," "The Fair Maid of Perth," and "Anne of Geierstein," which lowers
+them, the first altogether, the other two at frequent intervals, into
+fellowship with the normal disease which festers throughout the whole
+body of our lower fictitious literature.
+
+13. Fictitious! I use the ambiguous word deliberately; for it is
+impossible to distinguish in these tales of the prison-house how far
+their vice and gloom are thrown into their manufacture only to meet a
+vile demand, and how far they are an integral condition of thought in
+the minds of men trained from their youth up in the knowledge of
+Londinian and Parisian misery. The speciality of the plague is a delight
+in the exposition of the relations between guilt and decrepitude; and I
+call the results of it literature "of the prison-house," because the
+thwarted habits of body and mind, which are the punishment of reckless
+crowding in cities, become, in the issue of that punishment, frightful
+subjects of exclusive interest to themselves; and the art of fiction in
+which they finally delight is only the more studied arrangement and
+illustration, by colored fire-lights, of the daily bulletins of their
+own wretchedness, in the prison calendar, the police news, and the
+hospital report.
+
+14. The reader will perhaps be surprised at my separating the greatest
+work of Dickens, "Oliver Twist," with honor, from the loathsome mass to
+which it typically belongs. That book is an earnest and uncaricatured
+record of states of criminal life, written with didactic purpose, full
+of the gravest instruction, nor destitute of pathetic studies of noble
+passion. Even the "Mysteries of Paris" and Gaboriau's "Crime d'Orcival"
+are raised, by their definiteness of historical intention and
+forewarning anxiety, far above the level of their order, and may be
+accepted as photographic evidence of an otherwise incredible
+civilization, corrupted in the infernal fact of it, down to the genesis
+of such figures as the Vicomte d'Orcival, the Stabber,[40] the Skeleton,
+and the She-wolf. But the effectual head of the whole cretinous school
+is the renowned novel in which the hunchbacked lover watches the
+execution of his mistress from the tower of Notre-Dame; and its strength
+passes gradually away into the anatomical preparations, for the general
+market, of novels like "Poor Miss Finch," in which the heroine is blind,
+the hero epileptic, and the obnoxious brother is found dead with his
+hands dropped off, in the Arctic regions.[41]
+
+15. This literature of the Prison-house, understanding by the word not
+only the cell of Newgate, but also and even more definitely the cell of
+the Hotel-Dieu, the Hopital des Fous, and the grated corridor with the
+dripping slabs of the Morgue, having its central root thus in the Ile de
+Paris--or historically and pre-eminently the "Cite de Paris"--is, when
+understood deeply, the precise counter-corruption of the religion of the
+Sainte Chapelle, just as the worst forms of bodily and mental ruin are
+the corruption of love. I have therefore called it "Fiction mecroyante,"
+with literal accuracy and precision: according to the explanation of the
+word, which the reader may find in any good French dictionary,[42] and
+round its Arctic pole in the Morgue, he may gather into one Caina of
+gelid putrescence the entire product of modern infidel imagination,
+amusing itself with destruction of the body, and busying itself with
+aberration of the mind.
+
+16. Aberration, palsy, or plague, observe, as distinguished from normal
+evil, just as the venom of rabies or cholera differs from that of a wasp
+or a viper. The life of the insect and serpent deserves, or at least
+permits, our thoughts; not so the stages of agony in the fury-driven
+hound. There is some excuse, indeed, for the pathologic labor of the
+modern novelist in the fact that he cannot easily, in a city population,
+find a healthy mind to vivisect: but the greater part of such amateur
+surgery is the struggle, in an epoch of wild literary competition, to
+obtain novelty of material. The varieties of aspect and color in healthy
+fruit, be it sweet or sour, may be within certain limits described
+exhaustively. Not so the blotches of its conceivable blight: and while
+the symmetries of integral human character can only be traced by
+harmonious and tender skill, like the branches of a living tree, the
+faults and gaps of one gnawed away by corroding accident can be shuffled
+into senseless change like the wards of a Chubb lock.
+
+17. V. It is needless to insist on the vast field for this dice-cast or
+card-dealt calamity which opens itself in the ignorance, money-interest,
+and mean passion, of city marriage. Peasants know each other as
+children--meet, as they grow up in testing labor; and if a stout
+farmer's son marries a handless girl, it is his own fault. Also in the
+patrician families of the field, the young people know what they are
+doing, and marry a neighboring estate, or a covetable title, with some
+conception of the responsibilities they undertake. But even among these,
+their season in the confused metropolis creates licentious and
+fortuitous temptation before unknown; and in the lower middle orders, an
+entirely new kingdom of discomfort and disgrace has been preached to
+them in the doctrines of unbridled pleasure which are merely an apology
+for their peculiar forms of ill-breeding. It is quite curious how often
+the catastrophe, or the leading interest, of a modern novel, turns upon
+the want, both in maid and bachelor, of the common self-command which
+was taught to their grandmothers and grandfathers as the first element
+of ordinarily decent behavior. Rashly inquiring the other day the plot
+of a modern story[43] from a female friend, I elicited, after some
+hesitation, that it hinged mainly on the young people's "forgetting
+themselves in a boat;" and I perceive it to be accepted as nearly an
+axiom in the code of modern civic chivalry that the strength of amiable
+sentiment is proved by our incapacity on proper occasions to express,
+and on improper ones to control it. The pride of a gentleman of the old
+school used to be in his power of saying what he meant, and being silent
+when he ought (not to speak of the higher nobleness which bestowed love
+where it was honorable, and reverence where it was due); but the
+automatic amours and involuntary proposals of recent romance acknowledge
+little further law of morality than the instinct of an insect, or the
+effervescence of a chemical mixture.
+
+18. There is a pretty little story of Alfred de Musset's--"La Mouche,"
+which, if the reader cares to glance at it, will save me further trouble
+in explaining the disciplinarian authority of mere old-fashioned
+politeness, as in some sort protective of higher things. It describes,
+with much grace and precision, a state of society by no means
+pre-eminently virtuous, or enthusiastically heroic; in which many people
+do extremely wrong, and none sublimely right. But as there are heights
+of which the achievement is unattempted, there are abysses to which fall
+is barred; neither accident nor temptation will make any of the
+principal personages swerve from an adopted resolution, or violate an
+accepted principle of honor; people are expected as a matter of course
+to speak with propriety on occasion, and to wait with patience when they
+are bid: those who do wrong, admit it; those who do right don't boast of
+it; everybody knows his own mind, and everybody has good manners.
+
+19. Nor must it be forgotten that in the worst days of the
+self-indulgence which destroyed the aristocracies of Europe, their
+vices, however licentious, were never, in the fatal modern sense,
+"unprincipled." The vainest believed in virtue; the vilest respected it.
+"Chaque chose avait son nom,"[44] and the severest of English moralists
+recognizes the accurate wit, the lofty intellect, and the unfretted
+benevolence, which redeemed from vitiated surroundings the circle of
+d'Alembert and Marmontel.[45]
+
+I have said, with too slight praise, that the vainest, in those days,
+"believed" in virtue. Beautiful and heroic examples of it were always
+before them; nor was it without the secret significance attaching to
+what may seem the least accidents in the work of a master, that Scott
+gave to both his heroines of the age of revolution in England the name
+of the queen of the highest order of English chivalry.[46]
+
+20. It is to say little for the types of youth and maid which alone
+Scott felt it a joy to imagine, or thought it honorable to portray, that
+they act and feel in a sphere where they are never for an instant
+liable to any of the weaknesses which disturb the calm, or shake the
+resolution, of chastity and courage in a modern novel. Scott lived in a
+country and time, when, from highest to lowest, but chiefly in that
+dignified and nobly severe[47] middle class to which he himself
+belonged, a habit of serene and stainless thought was as natural to the
+people as their mountain air. Women like Rose Bradwardine and Ailie
+Dinmont were the grace and guard of almost every household (God be
+praised that the race of them is not yet extinct, for all that Mall or
+Boulevard can do), and it has perhaps escaped the notice of even
+attentive readers that the comparatively uninteresting character of Sir
+Walter's heroes had always been studied among a class of youths who were
+simply incapable of doing anything seriously wrong; and could only be
+embarrassed by the consequences of their levity or imprudence.
+
+21. But there is another difference in the woof of a Waverley novel from
+the cobweb of a modern one, which depends on Scott's larger view of
+human life. Marriage is by no means, in his conception of man and woman,
+the most important business of their existence;[48] nor love the only
+reward to be proposed to their virtue or exertion. It is not in his
+reading of the laws of Providence a necessity that virtue should, either
+by love or any other external blessing, be rewarded at all;[49] and
+marriage is in all cases thought of as a constituent of the happiness of
+life, but not as its only interest, still less its only aim. And upon
+analyzing with some care the motives of his principal stories, we shall
+often find that the love in them is merely a light by which the sterner
+features of character are to be irradiated, and that the marriage of the
+hero is as subordinate to the main bent of the story as Henry the
+Fifth's courtship of Katherine is to the battle of Agincourt. Nay, the
+fortunes of the person who is nominally the subject of the tale are
+often little more than a background on which grander figures are to be
+drawn, and deeper fates forthshadowed. The judgments between the faith
+and chivalry of Scotland at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge owe little of
+their interest in the mind of a sensible reader to the fact that the
+captain of the Popinjay is carried a prisoner to one battle, and returns
+a prisoner from the other: and Scott himself, while he watches the white
+sail that bears Queen Mary for the last time from her native land, very
+nearly forgets to finish his novel, or to tell us--and with small sense
+of any consolation to be had out of that minor circumstance,--that
+"Roland and Catherine were united, spite of their differing faiths."
+
+22. Neither let it be thought for an instant that the slight, and
+sometimes scornful, glance with which Scott passes over scenes which a
+novelist of our own day would have analyzed with the airs of a
+philosopher, and painted with the curiosity of a gossip, indicates any
+absence in his heart of sympathy with the great and sacred elements of
+personal happiness. An era like ours, which has with diligence and
+ostentation swept its heart clear of all the passions once known as
+loyalty, patriotism, and piety, necessarily magnifies the apparent force
+of the one remaining sentiment which sighs through the barren chambers,
+or clings inextricably round the chasms of ruin; nor can it but regard
+with awe the unconquerable spirit which still tempts or betrays the
+sagacities of selfishness into error or frenzy which is believed to be
+love.
+
+That Scott was never himself, in the sense of the phrase as employed by
+lovers of the Parisian school, "ivre d'amour," may be admitted without
+prejudice to his sensibility,[50] and that he never knew "l'amor che
+move 'l sol e l'altre stelle," was the chief, though unrecognized,
+calamity of his deeply checkered life. But the reader of honor and
+feeling will not therefore suppose that the love which Miss Vernon
+sacrifices, stooping for an instant from her horse, is of less noble
+stamp, or less enduring faith, than that which troubles and degrades the
+whole existence of Consuelo; or that the affection of Jeanie Deans for
+the companion of her childhood, drawn like a field of soft blue heaven
+beyond the cloudy wrack of her sorrow, is less fully in possession of
+her soul than the hesitating and self-reproachful impulses under which a
+modern heroine forgets herself in a boat, or compromises herself in the
+cool of the evening.
+
+23. I do not wish to return over the waste ground we have traversed,
+comparing, point by point, Scott's manner with those of Bermondsey and
+the Faubourgs; but it may be, perhaps, interesting at this moment to
+examine, with illustration from those Waverley novels which have so
+lately _re_tracted the attention of a fair and gentle public,[51] the
+universal conditions of "style," rightly so called, which are in all
+ages, and above all local currents or wavering tides of temporary
+manners, pillars of what is forever strong, and models of what is
+forever fair.
+
+But I must first define, and that within strict horizon, the works of
+Scott, in which his perfect mind may be known, and his chosen ways
+understood.
+
+His great works of prose fiction, excepting only the first half-volume
+of "Waverley," were all written in twelve years, 1814-26 (of his own age
+forty-three to fifty-five), the actual time employed in their
+composition being not more than a couple of months out of each year; and
+during that time only the morning hours and spare minutes during the
+professional day. "Though the first volume of 'Waverley' was begun long
+ago, and actually lost for a time, yet the other two were begun and
+finished between the 4th of June and the 1st of July, during all which I
+attended my duty in court, and proceeded without loss of time or
+hindrance of business."[52]
+
+Few of the maxims for the enforcement of which, in "Modern Painters,"
+long ago, I got the general character of a lover of paradox, are more
+singular, or more sure, than the statement, apparently so encouraging to
+the idle, that if a great thing can be done at all, it can be done
+easily. But it is that kind of ease with which a tree blossoms after
+long years of gathered strength, and all Scott's great writings were the
+recreations of a mind confirmed in dutiful labor, and rich with organic
+gathering of boundless resource.
+
+Omitting from our count the two minor and ill-finished sketches of the
+"Black Dwarf" and "Legend of Montrose," and, for a reason presently to
+be noticed, the unhappy "St. Ronan's," the memorable romances of Scott
+are eighteen, falling into three distinct groups, containing six each.
+
+24. The first group is distinguished from the other two by characters of
+strength and felicity which never more appeared after Scott was struck
+down by his terrific illness in 1819. It includes "Waverley," "Guy
+Mannering," "The Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old Mortality," and "The Heart
+of Midlothian."
+
+The composition of these occupied the mornings of his happiest days,
+between the ages of forty-three and forty-eight. On the 8th of April,
+1819 (he was forty-eight on the preceding 15th of August), he began for
+the first time to dictate--being unable for the exertion of
+writing--"The Bride of Lammermuir," "the affectionate Laidlaw beseeching
+him to stop dictating when his audible suffering filled every pause.
+'Nay, Willie,' he answered, 'only see that the doors are fast. I would
+fain keep all the cry as well as all the wool to ourselves; but as for
+giving over work, that can only be when I am in woolen.'"[53] From this
+time forward the brightness of joy and sincerity of inevitable humor,
+which perfected the imagery of the earlier novels, are wholly absent,
+except in the two short intervals of health unaccountably restored, in
+which he wrote "Redgauntlet" and "Nigel."
+
+It is strange, but only a part of the general simplicity of Scott's
+genius, that these revivals of earlier power were unconscious, and that
+the time of extreme weakness in which he wrote "St. Ronan's Well," was
+that in which he first asserted his own restoration.
+
+25. It is also a deeply interesting characteristic of his noble nature
+that he never gains anything by sickness; the whole man breathes or
+faints as one creature: the ache that stiffens a limb chills his heart,
+and every pang of his stomach paralyzes the brain. It is not so with
+inferior minds, in the workings of which it is often impossible to
+distinguish native from narcotic fancy, and the throbs of conscience
+from those of indigestion. Whether in exaltation or languor, the colors
+of mind are always morbid which gleam on the sea for the "Ancient
+Mariner," and through the casements on "St. Agnes' Eve"; but Scott is at
+once blinded and stultified by sickness; never has a fit of the cramp
+without spoiling a chapter, and is perhaps the only author of vivid
+imagination who never wrote a foolish word but when he was ill.
+
+It remains only to be noticed on this point that any strong natural
+excitement, affecting the deeper springs of his heart, would at once
+restore his intellectual powers to their fullness, and that, far towards
+their sunset: but that the strong will on which he prided himself,
+though it could trample upon pain, silence grief, and compel industry,
+never could warm his imagination, or clear the judgment in his darker
+hours.
+
+I believe that this power of the heart over the intellect is common to
+all great men: but what the special character of emotion was, that alone
+could lift Scott above the power of death, I am about to ask the
+reader, in a little while, to observe with joyful care.
+
+26. The first series of romances then, above-named, are all that exhibit
+the emphasis of his unharmed faculties. The second group, composed in
+the three years subsequent to illness all but mortal, bear every one of
+them more or less the seal of it.
+
+They consist of the "Bride of Lammermuir," "Ivanhoe," the "Monastery,"
+the "Abbot," "Kenilworth," and the "Pirate."[54] The marks of broken
+health on all these are essentially twofold--prevailing melancholy, and
+fantastic improbability. Three of the tales are agonizingly tragic, the
+"Abbot" scarcely less so in its main event, and "Ivanhoe" deeply wounded
+through all its bright panoply; while even in that most powerful of the
+series the impossible archeries and ax-strokes, the incredibly opportune
+appearances of Locksley, the death of Ulrica, and the resuscitation of
+Athelstane, are partly boyish, partly feverish. Caleb in the "Bride,"
+Triptolemus and Halcro in the "Pirate," are all laborious, and the first
+incongruous; half a volume of the "Abbot" is spent in extremely dull
+detail of Roland's relations with his fellow-servants and his mistress,
+which have nothing whatever to do with the future story; and the lady of
+Avenel herself disappears after the first volume, "like a snaw-wreath
+when it's thaw, Jeanie." The public has for itself pronounced on the
+"Monastery," though as much too harshly as it has foolishly praised the
+horrors of "Ravenswood" and the nonsense of "Ivanhoe"; because the
+modern public finds in the torture and adventure of these, the kind of
+excitement which it seeks at an opera, while it has no sympathy whatever
+with the pastoral happiness of Glendearg, or with the lingering
+simplicities of superstition which give historical likelihood to the
+legend of the White Lady.
+
+But both this despised tale and its sequel have Scott's heart in them.
+The first was begun to refresh himself in the intervals of artificial
+labor on "Ivanhoe." "It was a relief," he said, "to interlay the scenery
+most familiar to me[55] with the strange world for which I had to draw
+so much on imagination." Through all the closing scenes of the second he
+is raised to his own true level by his love for the queen. And within
+the code of Scott's work to which I am about to appeal for illustration
+of his essential powers, I accept the "Monastery" and "Abbot," and
+reject from it the remaining four of this group.
+
+27. The last series contains two quite noble ones, "Redgauntlet" and
+"Nigel"; two of very high value, "Durward" and "Woodstock"; the slovenly
+and diffuse "Peveril," written for the trade;[56] the sickly "Tales of
+the Crusaders," and the entirely broken and diseased "St. Ronan's Well."
+This last I throw out of count altogether, and of the rest, accept only
+the four first named as sound work; so that the list of the novels in
+which I propose to examine his methods and ideal standards, reduces
+itself to these following twelve (named in order of production):
+"Waverley," "Guy Mannering," the "Antiquary," "Rob Roy," "Old
+Mortality," the "Heart of Midlothian," the "Monastery," the "Abbot,"
+"Redgauntlet," the "Fortunes of Nigel," "Quentin Durward," and
+"Woodstock."[57]
+
+28. It is, however, too late to enter on my subject in this article,
+which I may fitly close by pointing out some of the merely verbal
+characteristics of his style, illustrative in little ways of the
+questions we have been examining, and chiefly of the one which may be
+most embarrassing to many readers, the difference, namely, between
+character and disease.
+
+One quite distinctive charm in the Waverleys is their modified use of
+the Scottish dialect; but it has not generally been observed, either by
+their imitators, or the authors of different taste who have written for
+a later public, that there is a difference between the dialect of a
+language, and its corruption.
+
+A dialect is formed in any district where there are persons of
+intelligence enough to use the language itself in all its fineness and
+force, but under the particular conditions of life, climate, and temper,
+which introduce words peculiar to the scenery, forms of word and idioms
+of sentence peculiar to the race, and pronunciations indicative of their
+character and disposition.
+
+Thus "burn" (of a streamlet) is a word possible only in a country where
+there are brightly running waters, "lassie," a word possible only where
+girls are as free as the rivulets, and "auld," a form of the southern
+"old," adopted by a race of finer musical ear than the English.
+
+On the contrary, mere deteriorations, or coarse, stridulent, and, in the
+ordinary sense of the phrase, "broad" forms of utterance, are not
+dialects at all, having nothing dialectic in them; and all phrases
+developed in states of rude employment, and restricted intercourse, are
+injurious to the tone and narrowing to the power of the language they
+affect. Mere breadth of accent does not spoil a dialect as long as the
+speakers are men of varied idea and good intelligence; but the moment
+the life is contracted by mining, millwork, or any oppressive and
+monotonous labor, the accents and phrases become debased. It is part of
+the popular folly of the day to find pleasure in trying to write and
+spell these abortive, crippled, and more or less brutal forms of human
+speech.
+
+29. Abortive, crippled, or brutal, are however not necessarily
+"corrupted" dialects. Corrupt language is that gathered by ignorance,
+invented by vice, misused by insensibility, or minced and mouthed by
+affectation, especially in the attempt to deal with words of which only
+half the meaning is understood or half the sound heard. Mrs. Gamp's
+"aperiently so"--and the "underminded" with primal sense of undermine,
+of--I forget which gossip, in the "Mill on the Floss," are master-and
+mistress-pieces in this latter kind. Mrs. Malaprop's "allegories on the
+banks of the Nile" are in somewhat higher order of mistake: Mrs. Tabitha
+Bramble's ignorance is vulgarized by her selfishness, and Winifred
+Jenkins' by her conceit. The "wot" of Noah Claypole, and the other
+degradations of cockneyism (Sam Weller and his father are in nothing
+more admirable than in the power of heart and sense that can purify even
+these); the "trewth" of Mr. Chadband, and "natur" of Mr. Squeers, are
+examples of the corruption of words by insensibility: the use of the
+word "bloody" in modern low English is a deeper corruption, not altering
+the form of the word, but defiling the thought in it.
+
+Thus much being understood, I shall proceed to examine thoroughly a
+fragment of Scott's Lowland Scottish dialect; not choosing it of the
+most beautiful kind; on the contrary, it shall be a piece reaching as
+low down as he ever allows Scotch to go--it is perhaps the only unfair
+patriotism in him, that if ever he wants a word or two of really
+villainous slang, he gives it in English or Dutch--not Scotch.
+
+I had intended in the close of this paper to analyze and compare the
+characters of Andrew Fairservice and Richie Moniplies, for examples, the
+former of innate evil, unaffected by external influences, and
+undiseased, but distinct from natural goodness as a nettle is distinct
+from balm or lavender; and the latter of innate goodness, contracted and
+pinched by circumstance, but still undiseased, as an oak-leaf crisped by
+frost, not by the worm. This, with much else in my mind, I must put off;
+but the careful study of one sentence of Andrew's will give us a good
+deal to think of.
+
+30. I take his account of the rescue of Glasgow Cathedral at the time of
+the Reformation.
+
+     Ah! it's a brave kirk--nane o' yere whigmaleeries an curliewurlies
+     and opensteek hems about it--a' solid, weel-jointed mason-wark,
+     that will stand as lang as the warld, keep hands and gunpowther aff
+     it. It had amaist a douncome lang syne at the Reformation, when
+     they pu'd doun the kirks of St. Andrews and Perth, and thereawa',
+     to cleanse them o' Papery, and idolatry, and image-worship, and
+     surplices, and sic-like rags o' the muckle hure that sitteth on
+     seven hills, as if ane wasna braid eneugh for her auld hinder end.
+     Sae the commons o' Renfrew, and o' the Barony, and the Gorbals, and
+     a' about, they behoved to come into Glasgow ae fair morning, to try
+     their hand on purging the High Kirk o' Popish nicknackets. But the
+     townsmen o' Glasgow, they were feared their auld edifice might slip
+     the girths in gaun through siccan rough physic, sae they rang the
+     common bell, and assembled the train-bands wi' took o' drum. By
+     good luck, the worthy James Rabat was Dean o' Guild that year--(and
+     a gude mason he was himsell, made him the keener to keep up the
+     auld bigging), and the trades assembled, and offered downright
+     battle to the commons, rather than their kirk should coup the
+     crans, as others had done elsewhere. It wasna for luve o'
+     Paperie--na, na!--nane could ever say that o' the trades o'
+     Glasgow--Sae they sune came to an agreement to take a' the
+     idolatrous statues of sants (sorrow be on them!) out o' their
+     neuks--And sae the bits o' stane idols were broken in pieces by
+     Scripture warrant, and flung into the Molendinar burn, and the auld
+     kirk stood as crouse as a cat when the flaes are kaimed aff her,
+     and a'body was alike pleased. And I hae heard wise folk say, that
+     if the same had been done in ilka kirk in Scotland, the Reform wad
+     just hae been as pure as it is e'en now, and we wad hae mair
+     Christianlike kirks; for I hae been sae lang in England, that
+     naething will drived out o' my head, that the dog-kennel at
+     Osbaldistone-Hall is better than mony a house o' God in Scotland.
+
+31. Now this sentence is in the first place a piece of Scottish
+history of quite inestimable and concentrated value. Andrew's temperament
+is the type of a vast class of Scottish--shall we call it
+"_sow_-thistlian"--mind, which necessarily takes the view of either Pope
+or saint that the thistle in Lebanon took of the cedar or lilies in
+Lebanon; and the entire force of the passions which, in the Scottish
+revolution, foretold and forearmed the French one, is told in this one
+paragraph; the coarseness of it, observe, being admitted, not for the
+sake of the laugh, any more than an onion in broth merely for its
+flavor, but for the meat of it; the inherent constancy of that
+coarseness being a fact in this order of mind, and an essential part of
+the history to be told.
+
+Secondly, observe that this speech, in the religious passion of it, such
+as there may be, is entirely sincere. Andrew is a thief, a liar, a
+coward, and, in the Fair service from which he takes his name, a
+hypocrite; but in the form of prejudice, which is all that his mind is
+capable of in the place of religion, he is entirely sincere. He does not
+in the least pretend detestation of image worship to please his master,
+or anyone else; he honestly scorns the "carnal morality[58] as dowd and
+fusionless as rue-leaves at Yule" of the sermon in the upper cathedral;
+and when wrapt in critical attention to the "real savor o' doctrine" in
+the crypt, so completely forgets the hypocrisy of his fair service as
+to return his master's attempt to disturb him with hard punches of the
+elbow.
+
+Thirdly. He is a man of no mean sagacity, quite up to the average
+standard of Scottish common sense, not a low one; and, though incapable
+of understanding any manner of lofty thought or passion, is a shrewd
+measurer of weaknesses, and not without a spark or two of kindly
+feeling. See first his sketch of his master's character to Mr.
+Hammorgaw, beginning: "He's no a'thegither sae void o' sense, neither";
+and then the close of the dialogue: "But the lad's no a bad lad after
+a', and he needs some careful body to look after him."
+
+Fourthly. He is a good workman; knows his own business well, and can
+judge of other craft, if sound, or otherwise.
+
+All these four qualities of him must be known before we can understand
+this single speech. Keeping them in mind, I take it up, word by word.
+
+32. You observe, in the outset, Scott makes no attempt whatever to
+indicate accents or modes of pronunciation by changed spelling, unless
+the word becomes a quite definitely new, and securely writable one. The
+Scottish way of pronouncing "James," for instance, is entirely peculiar,
+and extremely pleasant to the ear. But it is so, just because it does
+_not_ change the word into Jeems, nor into Jims, nor into Jawms. A
+modern writer of dialects would think it amusing to use one or other of
+these ugly spellings. But Scott writes the name in pure English, knowing
+that a Scots reader will speak it rightly, and an English one be wise in
+letting it alone. On the other hand he writes "weel" for "well," because
+that word is complete in its change, and may be very closely expressed
+by the double _e_. The ambiguous _u_'s in "gude" and "sune" are
+admitted, because far liker the sound than the double _o_ would be, and
+that in "hure," for grace' sake, to soften the word; so also "flaes" for
+"fleas." "Mony" for "many" is again positively right in sound, and
+"neuk" differs from our "nook" in sense, and is not the same word at
+all, as we shall presently see.
+
+Secondly, observe, not a word is corrupted in any indecent haste,
+slowness, slovenliness, or incapacity of pronunciation. There is no
+lisping, drawling, slobbering, or snuffling: the speech is as clear as a
+bell and as keen as an arrow: and its elisions and contractions are
+either melodious, ("na," for "not,"--"pu'd," for "pulled,") or as normal
+as in a Latin verse. The long words are delivered without the slightest
+bungling; and "bigging" finished to its last _g_.
+
+33. I take the important words now in their places.
+
+_Brave._ The old English sense of the word in "to go brave," retained,
+expressing Andrew's sincere and respectful admiration. Had he meant to
+insinuate a hint of the church's being too fine, he would have said
+"braw."
+
+_Kirk._ This is of course just as pure and unprovincial a word as
+"Kirche," or "eglise."
+
+_Whigmaleerie._ I cannot get at the root of this word, but it is one
+showing that the speaker is not bound by classic rules, but will use any
+syllables that will enrich his meaning. "Nipperty-tipperty" (of his
+master's "poetry-nonsense") is another word of the same class.
+"Curliewurlie" is of course just as pure as Shakespeare's "Hurlyburly."
+But see first suggestion of the idea to Scott at Blair-Adam (L. vi.
+264).
+
+_Opensteek hems._ More description, or better, of the later Gothic
+cannot be put into four syllables. "Steek," melodious for stitch, has a
+combined sense of closing or fastening. And note that the later Gothic
+being precisely what Scott knew best (in Melrose) and liked best, it is,
+here as elsewhere, quite as much himself[59] as Frank, that he is
+laughing at, when he laughs _with_ Andrew, whose "opensteek hems" are
+only a ruder metaphor for his own "willow-wreaths changed to stone."
+
+_Gunpowther._ "-Ther" is a lingering vestige of the French "-dre."
+
+_Syne._ One of the melodious and mysterious Scottish words which have
+partly the sound of wind and stream in them, and partly the range of
+softened idea which is like a distance of blue hills over border land
+("far in the distant Cheviot's blue"). Perhaps even the least
+sympathetic "Englisher" might recognize this, if he heard "Old Long
+Since" vocally substituted for the Scottish words to the air. I do not
+know the root; but the word's proper meaning is not "since," but before
+or after an interval of some duration, "as weel sune as syne." "But
+first on Sawnie gies a ca', Syne, bauldly in she enters."
+
+_Behoved_ (_to come_). A rich word, with peculiar idiom, always used
+more or less ironically of anything done under a partly mistaken and
+partly pretended notion of duty.
+
+_Siccan._ Far prettier, and fuller in meaning than "such." It contains
+an added sense of wonder; and means properly "so great" or "so unusual."
+
+_Took_ (_o' drum_). Classical "tuck" from Italian "toccata," the
+preluding "touch" or flourish, on any instrument (but see Johnson under
+word "tucket," quoting "Othello"). The deeper Scottish vowels are used
+here to mark the deeper sound of the bass drum, as in more solemn
+warning.
+
+_Bigging._ The only word in all the sentence of which the Scottish form
+is less melodious than the English, "and what for no," seeing that
+Scottish architecture is mostly little beyond Bessie Bell's and Mary
+Gray's? "They biggit a bow're by yon burnside, and theekit it ow're wi'
+rashes." But it is pure Anglo-Saxon in roots; see glossary to
+Fairbairn's edition of the Douglas "Virgil," 1710.
+
+_Coup._ Another of the much-embracing words; short for "upset," but with
+a sense of awkwardness as the inherent cause of fall; compare Richie
+Moniplies (also for sense of "behoved"): "Ae auld hirplin deevil of a
+potter behoved just to step in my way, and offer me a pig (earthen
+pot--etym. dub.), as he said 'just to put my Scotch ointment in'; and I
+gave him a push, as but natural, and the tottering deevil coupit owre
+amang his own pigs, and damaged a score of them." So also Dandie Dinmont
+in the postchaise: "'Od! I hope they'll no coup us."
+
+_The Crans._ Idiomatic; root unknown to me, but it means in this use,
+fall total, and without recovery.[60]
+
+_Molendinar._ From "molendinum," the grinding-place. I do not know if
+actually the local name,[61] or Scott's invention. Compare Sir Piercie's
+"Molinaras." But at all events used here with by-sense of degradation of
+the formerly idle saints to grind at the mill.
+
+_Crouse._ Courageous, softened with a sense of comfort.
+
+_Ilka._ Again a word with azure distance, including the whole sense of
+"each" and "every." The reader must carefully and reverently distinguish
+these comprehensive words, which gather two or more perfectly understood
+meanings into one _chord_ of meaning, and are harmonies more than words,
+from the above-noted blunders between two half-hit meanings, struck as a
+bad piano-player strikes the edge of another note. In English we have
+fewer of these combined thoughts; so that Shakespeare rather plays with
+the distinct lights of his words, than melts them into one. So again
+Bishop Douglas spells, and doubtless spoke, the word "rose,"
+differently, according to his purpose; if as the chief or governing
+ruler of flowers, "rois," but if only in her own beauty, rose.
+
+_Christianlike._ The sense of the decency and order proper to
+Christianity is stronger in Scotland than in any other country, and the
+word "Christian" more distinctly opposed to "beast." Hence the
+back-handed cut at the English for their over-pious care of dogs.
+
+34. I am a little surprised myself at the length to which this
+examination of one small piece of Sir Walter's first-rate work has
+carried us, but here I must end for this time, trusting, if the Editor
+of the _Nineteenth Century_ permit me, yet to trespass, perhaps more
+than once, on his readers' patience; but, at all events, to examine in a
+following paper the technical characteristics of Scott's own style, both
+in prose and verse, together with Byron's, as opposed to our fashionably
+recent dialects and rhythms; the essential virtues of language, in both
+the masters of the old school, hinging ultimately, little as it might be
+thought, on certain unalterable views of theirs concerning the code
+called "of the Ten Commandments," wholly at variance with the dogmas of
+automatic morality which, summed again by the witches' line, "Fair is
+foul, and foul is fair," hover through the fog and filthy air of our
+prosperous England.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 37: _Nineteenth Century_, June, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 38: See _Time and Tide_, Sec. 72.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Nell, in the "Old Curiosity Shop," was simply killed for
+the market, as a butcher kills a lamb (see Forster's "Life,") and Paul
+was written under the same conditions of illness which affected Scott--a
+part of the ominous palsies, grasping alike author and subject both in
+"Dombey" and "Little Dorrit."]
+
+[Footnote 40: "Chourineur" not striking with dagger-point, but ripping
+with knife-edge. Yet I do him, and La Louve, injustice in classing them
+with the two others; they are put together only as parts in the same
+phantasm. Compare with La Louve, the strength of wild virtue in the
+"Louvecienne" (Lucienne) of Gaboriau--she, province-born and bred; and
+opposed to Parisian civilization in the character of her seamstress
+friend. "De ce Paris, ou elle etait nee, elle savait tout--elle
+connaissait tout. Rien ne l'etonnait, nul ne l'intimidait. Sa science
+des details materiels de l'existence etait inconcevable. Impossible de
+la duper!--Eh bien! cette fille si laborieuse et si econome n'avait meme
+pas la plus vague notion des sentiments qui sont l'honneur de la femme.
+Je n'avais pas idee d'une si complete absence de sens moral; d'une si
+inconscience depravation, d'une impudence si effrontement
+naive."--"L'Argent des autres," vol. i. p. 358.]
+
+[Footnote 41: The reader who cares to seek it may easily find medical
+evidence of the physical effects of certain states of brain disease in
+producing especially images of truncated and Hermes-like deformity,
+complicated with grossness. Horace, in the "Epodes," scoffs at it, but
+not without horror. Luca Signorelli and Raphael in their arabesques are
+deeply struck by it: Duerer, defying and playing with it alternately, is
+almost beaten down again and again in the distorted faces, hewing
+halberts, and suspended satyrs of his arabesques round the polyglot
+Lord's Prayer; it takes entire possession of Balzac in the "Contes
+Drolatiques"; it struck Scott in the earliest days of his childish
+"visions" intensified by the ax-stroke murder of his grand aunt (L. i.
+142, and see close of this note). It chose for him the subject of the
+"Heart of Midlothian," and produced afterwards all the recurrent ideas
+of executions, tainting "Nigel," almost spoiling "Quentin
+Durward"--utterly the "Fair Maid of Perth": and culminating in "Bizarro"
+(L. x. 149). It suggested all the deaths by falling, or sinking, as in
+delirious sleep--Kennedy, Eveline Neville (nearly repeated in Clara
+Mowbray), Amy Robsart, the Master of Ravenswood in the quicksand,
+Morris, and Corporal Grace-be-here--compare the dream of Gride, in
+"Nicholas Nickleby," and Dickens's own last words, _on the ground_ (so
+also, in my own inflammation of the brain, two years ago, I dreamed that
+I fell through the earth and came out on the other side). In its
+grotesque and distorting power, it produced all the figures of the Lay
+Goblin, Pacolet, Flibbertigibbet, Cockledemoy, Geoffrey Hudson, Fenella,
+and Nectabanus; in Dickens it in like manner gives Quilp, Krook, Smike,
+Smallweed, Miss Mowcher, and the dwarfs and wax-work of Nell's caravan;
+and runs entirely wild in "Barnaby Budge," where, with a corps de drame
+composed of one idiot, two madmen, a gentleman-fool who is also a
+villain, a shop-boy fool who is also a blackguard, a hangman, a
+shriveled virago, and a doll in ribbons--carrying this company through
+riot and fire, till he hangs the hangman, one of the madmen, his mother,
+and the idiot, runs the gentleman-fool through in a bloody duel, and
+burns and crushes the shop-boy fool into shapelessness, he cannot yet be
+content without shooting the spare lover's leg off, and marrying him to
+the doll in a wooden one; the shapeless shop-boy being finally also
+married in _two_ wooden ones. It is this mutilation, observe, which is
+the very sign manual of the plague; joined, in the artistic forms of it,
+with a love of thorniness--(in their mystic root, the truncation of the
+limbless serpent and the spines of the dragon's wing. Compare "Modern
+Painters," vol. iv., "Chapter on the Mountain Gloom," s. 19); and in
+_all_ forms of it, with petrifaction or loss of power by cold in the
+blood, whence the last Darwinian process of the witches' charm--"cool it
+with a baboon's _blood, then_ the charm is firm and good." The two
+frescoes in the colossal handbills which have lately decorated the
+streets of London (the baboon with the mirror, and the Maskelyne and
+Cooke decapitation) are the final English forms of Raphael's arabesque
+under this influence; and it is well worth while to get the number for
+the week ending April 3, 1880, of "Young Folks--a magazine of
+instructive and entertaining literature for boys and girls of all ages,"
+containing "A Sequel to Desdichado" (the modern development of Ivanhoe),
+in which a quite monumental example of the kind of art in question will
+be found as a leading illustration of this characteristic sentence,
+"See, good Cerberus," said Sir Rupert, "_my hand has been struck off.
+You must make me a hand of iron, one with springs in it, so that I can
+make it grasp a dagger_." The text is also, as it professes to be,
+instructive; being the ultimate degeneration of what I have above called
+the "folly" of "Ivanhoe"; for the folly begets folly down, and down; and
+whatever Scott and Turner did wrong has thousands of imitators--their
+wisdom none will so much as hear, how much less follow!
+
+In both of the Masters, it is always to be remembered that the evil and
+good are alike conditions of literal _vision_: and therefore also,
+inseparably connected with the state of the health. I believe the first
+elements of all Scott's errors were in the milk of his consumptive
+nurse, which all but killed him as an infant (L. i. 19)--and was without
+doubt the cause of the teething fever that ended in his lameness (L. i.
+20). Then came (if the reader cares to know what I mean by "Fors," let
+him read the page carefully) the fearful accidents to his only sister,
+and her death (L. i. 17); then the madness of his nurse, who planned his
+own murder (21), then the stories continually told him of the executions
+at Carlisle (24), his aunt's husband having seen them; issuing, he
+himself scarcely knows how, in the unaccountable terror that came upon
+him at the sight of statuary (31)--especially Jacob's ladder; then the
+murder of Mrs. Swinton, and finally the nearly fatal bursting of the
+blood vessel at Kelso, with the succeeding nervous illness
+(65-67)--solaced, while he was being "bled and blistered till he had
+scarcely a pulse left," by that history of the Knights of Malta--fondly
+dwelt on and realized by actual modeling of their fortress, which
+returned to his mind for the theme of its last effort in passing away.]
+
+[Footnote 42: "Se dit par denigrement, d'un chretien qui ne croit pas
+les dogmes de sa religion."--Fleming, vol. ii. p. 659.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The novel alluded to is "The Mill on the Floss." See
+below, p. 272, Sec. 108.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 44: "A son nom," properly. The sentence is one of Victor
+Cherbuliez's, in "Prosper Randoce," which is full of other valuable
+ones. See the old nurse's "ici bas les choses vont de travers, comme un
+chien qui va a vepres," p. 93; and compare Prosper's treasures, "la
+petite Venus, et le petit Christ d'ivoire," p. 121; also Madame
+Brehanne's request for the divertissement of "quelque belle batterie a
+coups de couteau" with Didier's answer. "Helas! madame, vous jouez de
+malheur, ici dans la Drome, l'on se massacre aussi peu que possible," p.
+33.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Edgeworth's "Tales," (Hunter, 1827), "Harrington and
+Ormond," vol. iii. p. 260.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Alice of Salisbury, Alice Lee, Alice Bridgnorth.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Scott's father was habitually ascetic. "I have heard his
+son tell that it was common with him, if any one observed that the soup
+was good, to taste it again, and say, 'Yes--it is too good, bairns,' and
+dash a tumbler of cold water into his plate."--Lockhart's "Life" (Black,
+Edinburgh, 1869), vol. i. p. 312. In other places I refer to this book
+in the simple form of "L."]
+
+[Footnote 48: A young lady sang to me, just before I copied out this
+page for press, a Miss Somebody's "great song," "Live, and Love, and
+Die." Had it been written for nothing better than silkworms, it should
+at least have added--Spin.]
+
+[Footnote 49: See passage of introduction to "Ivanhoe," wisely quoted in
+L. vi. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 50: See below, note, p. 199, on the conclusion of
+"Woodstock."]
+
+[Footnote 51: The reference is to a series of "Waverley Tableaux" given
+in London shortly before the publication of this paper.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 52: L. iv. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 53: L. vi. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 54: "One other such novel, and there's an end; but who can
+last forever? who ever lasted so long?"--Sydney Smith (of the _Pirate_)
+to Jeffrey, December 30, 1821. (_Letters_, vol. ii. p. 223.)]
+
+[Footnote 55: L. vi. p. 188. Compare the description of Fairy Dean, vii.
+192.]
+
+[Footnote 56: All, alas! were now in a great measure so written.
+"Ivanhoe," "The Monastery," "The Abbot," and "Kenilworth" were all
+published between December 1819 and January 1821, Constable & Co. giving
+five thousand guineas for the remaining copyright of them, Scott
+clearing ten thousand before the bargain was completed; and before the
+"Fortunes of Nigel" issued from the press Scott had exchanged
+instruments and received his bookseller's bills for no less than four
+"works of fiction," not one of them otherwise described in the deeds of
+agreement, to be produced in unbroken succession, _each of them to fill
+up at least three volumes, but with proper saving clauses as to increase
+of copy money in case any of them should run to four_; and within two
+years all this anticipation had been wiped off by "Peveril of the Peak,"
+"Quentin Durward," "St. Ronan's Well," and "Redgauntlet."]
+
+[Footnote 57: "Woodstock" was finished 26th March, 1826. He knew then of
+his ruin; and wrote in bitterness, but not in weakness. The closing
+pages are the most beautiful of the book. But a month afterwards Lady
+Scott died; and he never wrote glad word more.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Compare Mr. Spurgeon's not unfrequent orations on the same
+subject.]
+
+[Footnote 59: There are three definite and intentional portraits of
+himself, in the novels, each giving a separate part of himself: Mr.
+Oldbuck, Frank Osbaldistone, and Alan Fairford.]
+
+[Footnote 60: See note, p. 224.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Andrew knows Latin, and might have coined the word in his
+conceit; but, writing to a kind friend in Glasgow, I find the brook was
+called "Molyndona" even before the building of the Subdean Mill in 1446.
+See also account of the locality in Mr. George's admirable volume, "Old
+Glasgow," pp. 129, 149, etc. The Protestantism of Glasgow, since
+throwing that powder of saints into her brook Kidron, has presented it
+with other pious offerings; and my friend goes on to say that the brook,
+once famed for the purity of its waters (much used for bleaching), "has
+for nearly a hundred years been a crawling stream of loathsomeness. It
+is now bricked over, and a carriage-way made on the top of it;
+underneath the foul mess still passes through the heart of the city,
+till it falls into the Clyde close to the harbor."]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.[62]
+
+II.
+
+
+35. _"He hated greetings in the market-place_, and there were generally
+loiterers in the streets to persecute him _either about the events of
+the day_, or about some petty pieces of business."
+
+These lines, which the reader will find near the beginning of the
+sixteenth chapter of the first volume of the "Antiquary," contain two
+indications of the old man's character, which, receiving the ideal of
+him as a portrait of Scott himself, are of extreme interest to me. They
+mean essentially that neither Monkbarns nor Scott had any mind to be
+called of men, Rabbi, in mere hearing of the mob; and especially that
+they hated to be drawn back out of their far-away thoughts, or forward
+out of their long-ago thoughts, by any manner of "daily" news, whether
+printed or gabbled. Of which two vital characteristics, deeper in both
+men, (for I must always speak of Scott's creations as if they were as
+real as himself,) than any of their superficial vanities, or passing
+enthusiasms, I have to speak more at another time. I quote the passage
+just now, because there was one piece of the daily news of the year 1815
+which did extremely interest Scott, and materially direct the labor of
+the latter part of his life; nor is there any piece of history in this
+whole nineteenth century quite so pregnant with various instruction as
+the study of the reasons which influenced Scott and Byron in their
+opposite views of the glories of the battle of Waterloo.
+
+36. But I quote it for another reason also. The principal greeting which
+Mr. Oldbuck on this occasion receives in the market-place, being
+compared with the speech of Andrew Fairservice, examined in my first
+paper, will furnish me with the text of what I have mainly to say in the
+present one.
+
+     "'Mr. Oldbuck,' said the town-clerk (a more important person, who
+     came in front and ventured to stop the old gentleman), 'the
+     provost, understanding you were in town, begs on no account that
+     you'll quit it without seeing him; he wants to speak to ye about
+     bringing the water frae the Fairwell spring through a part o' your
+     lands.'
+
+     "'What the deuce!--have they nobody's land but mine to cut and
+     carve on?--I won't consent, tell them.'
+
+     "'And the provost,' said the clerk, going on, without noticing the
+     rebuff, 'and the council, wad be agreeable that you should hae the
+     auld stanes at Donagild's Chapel, that ye was wussing to hae.'
+
+     "'Eh?--what?--Oho! that's another story--Well, well, I'll call upon
+     the provost, and we'll talk about it.'
+
+     "'But ye maun speak your mind on't forthwith, Monkbarns, if ye want
+     the stanes; for Deacon Harlewalls thinks the carved through-stanes
+     might be put with advantage on the front of the new council
+     house--that is, the twa cross-legged figures that the callants used
+     to ca' Robbin and Bobbin, ane on ilka door-cheek; and the other
+     stane, that they ca'd Ailie Dailie, abune the door. It will be very
+     tastefu', the Deacon says, and just in the style of modern Gothic.'
+
+     "'Good Lord deliver me from this Gothic generation!' exclaimed the
+     Antiquary,--'a monument of a knight-templar on each side of a
+     Grecian porch, and a Madonna on the top of it!--_O crimini!_--Well,
+     tell the provost I wish to have the stones, and we'll not differ
+     about the water-course.--It's lucky I happened to come this way
+     to-day.'
+
+     "They parted mutually satisfied; but the wily clerk had most reason
+     to exult in the dexterity he had displayed, since the whole
+     proposal of an exchange between the monuments (which the council
+     had determined to remove as a nuisance, because they encroached
+     three feet upon the public road) and the privilege of conveying the
+     water to the burgh, through the estate of Monkbarns, was an idea
+     which had originated with himself upon the pressure of the moment."
+
+37. In this single page of Scott, will the reader please note the kind
+of prophetic instinct with which the great men of every age mark and
+forecast its destinies? The water from the Fairwell is the future
+Thirlmere carried to Manchester; the "auld stanes"[63] at Donagild's
+Chapel, removed as a _nuisance_, foretell the necessary view taken by
+modern cockneyism, Liberalism, and progress, of all things that remind
+them of the noble dead, of their fathers' fame, or of their own duty;
+and the public road becomes their idol, instead of the saint's shrine.
+Finally, the roguery of the entire transaction--the mean man seeing the
+weakness of the honorable, and "besting" him--in modern slang, in the
+manner and at the pace of modern trade--"on the pressure of the moment."
+
+But neither are these things what I have at present quoted the passage
+for.
+
+I quote it, that we may consider how much wonderful and various history
+is gathered in the fact recorded for us in this piece of entirely fair
+fiction, that in the Scottish borough of Fairport (Montrose, really), in
+the year 17--of Christ, the knowledge given by the pastors and teachers
+provided for its children by enlightened Scottish Protestantism, of
+their fathers' history, and the origin of their religion, had resulted
+in this substance and sum;--that the statues of two crusading knights
+had become, to their children, Bobbin and Bobbin; and the statue of the
+Madonna, Ailie Dailie.
+
+A marvelous piece of history, truly: and far too comprehensive for
+general comment here. Only one small piece of it I must carry forward
+the readers' thoughts upon.
+
+38. The pastors and teachers aforesaid, (represented typically in
+another part of this errorless book by Mr. Blattergowl,) are not,
+whatever else they may have to answer for, answerable for these names.
+The names are of the children's own choosing and bestowing, but not of
+the children's own inventing. "Robin" is a classically endearing
+cognomen, recording the _errant_ heroism of old days--the name of the
+Bruce and of Rob Roy. "Bobbin" is a poetical and symmetrical fulfillment
+and adornment of the original phrase. "Ailie" is the last echo of "Ave,"
+changed into the softest Scottish Christian name familiar to the
+children, itself the beautiful feminine form of royal "Louis"; the
+"Dailie" again symmetrically added for kinder and more musical
+endearment. The last vestiges, you see, of honor for the heroism and
+religion of their ancestors, lingering on the lips of babes and
+sucklings.
+
+But what is the meaning of this necessity the children find themselves
+under of completing the nomenclature rhythmically and rhymingly? Note
+first the difference carefully, and the attainment of both qualities by
+the couplets in question. Rhythm is the syllabic and quantitative
+measure of the words, in which Robin both in weight and time, balances
+Bobbin; and Dailie holds level scale with Ailie. But rhyme is the added
+correspondence of sound; unknown and undesired, so far as we can learn,
+by the Greek Orpheus, but absolutely essential to, and, as special
+virtue, becoming titular of, the Scottish Thomas.
+
+39. The "Ryme,"[64] you may at first fancy, is the especially childish
+part of the work. Not so. It is the especially chivalric and Christian
+part of it. It characterizes the Christian chant or canticle, as a
+higher thing than a Greek ode, melos, or hymnos, or than a Latin carmen.
+
+Think of it; for this again is wonderful! That these children of
+Montrose should have an element of music in their souls which Homer had
+not,--which a melos of David the Prophet and King had not,--which
+Orpheus and Amphion had not,--which Apollo's unrymed oracles became mute
+at the sound of.
+
+A strange new equity this,--melodious justice and judgment, as it
+were,--in all words spoken solemnly and ritualistically by Christian
+human creatures;--Robin and Bobbin--by the Crusader's tomb, up to "Dies
+irae, dies illa," at judgment of the crusading soul.
+
+You have to understand this most deeply of all Christian minstrels, from
+first to last; that they are more musical, because more joyful, than any
+others on earth: ethereal minstrels, pilgrims of the sky, true to the
+kindred points of heaven and home; their joy essentially the sky-lark's,
+in light, in purity; but, with their human eyes, looking for the
+glorious appearing of something in the sky, which the bird cannot.
+
+This it is that changes Etruscan murmur into Terza rima--Horatian Latin
+into Provencal troubadour's melody; not, because less artful, less wise.
+
+40. Here is a little bit, for instance, of French ryming just before
+Chaucer's time--near enough to our own French to be intelligible to us
+yet.
+
+  "O quant tres-glorieuse vie,
+  Quant cil qui tout peut et maistrie,
+  Veult esprouver pour necessaire,
+  Ne pour quant il ne blasma mie
+  La vie de Marthe sa mie:
+  Mais il lui donna exemplaire
+  D'autrement vivre, et de bien plaire
+  A Dieu; et plut de bien a faire:
+  Pour se conclut-il que Marie
+  Qui estoit a ses piedz sans braire,
+  Et pensoit d'entendre et de taire,
+  Estleut la plus saine partie.
+
+  La meilleur partie esleut-elle
+  Et la plus saine et la plus belle,
+  Qui ja ne luy sera ostee
+  Car par verite se fut celle
+  Qui fut tousjours fresche et nouvelle,
+  D'aymer Dieu et d'en estre aymee;
+  Car jusqu'au cueur fut entamee,
+  Et si ardamment enflamee,
+  Que tousjours ardoit I'estincelle;
+  Par quoi elle fut visitee
+  Et de Dieu premier confortee;
+  Car charite est trop ysnelle."
+
+41. The only law of _meter_, observed in this song, is that each line
+shall be octosyllabic:
+
+  Qui fut | tousjours | fresche et | nouvelle,
+  D'autre | ment vi | vret de | bien (ben) plaire
+  Et pen | soit den | tendret | de taire.
+
+But the reader must note that words which were two-syllabled in Latin
+mostly remain yet so in the French.
+
+  La _vi_ | _e_ de | Marthe | sa mie,
+
+although _mie_, which is pet language, loving abbreviation of _amica_
+through _amie_, remains monosyllabic. But _vie_ elides its _e_ before a
+vowel:
+
+  Car Mar- | the me | nait vie | active
+  Et Ma- | ri-e | contemp | lative;
+
+and custom endures many exceptions. Thus _Marie_ may be three-syllabled,
+as above, or answer to _mie_ as a dissyllable; but _vierge_ is always, I
+think, dissyllabic, _vier-ge_, with even stronger accent on the _-ge_,
+for the Latin _-go_.
+
+Then, secondly, of quantity, there is scarcely any fixed law. The meters
+may be timed as the minstrel chooses--fast or slow--and the iambic
+current checked in reverted eddy, as the words chance to come.
+
+But, thirdly, there is to be rich ryming and chiming, no matter how
+simply got, so only that the words jingle and tingle together with due
+art of interlacing and answering in different parts of the stanza,
+correspondent to the involutions of tracery and illumination. The whole
+twelve-line stanza is thus constructed with two rymes only, six of each,
+thus arranged:
+
+  A A B | A A B | B B A | B B A |
+
+dividing the verse thus into four measures, reversed in ascent and
+descent, or _descant_ more properly; and doubtless with correspondent
+phases in the voice-given, and duly accompanying, or following, music;
+Thomas the Rymer's own precept, that "tong is chefe in mynstrelsye,"
+being always kept faithfully in mind.[65]
+
+42. Here then you have a sufficient example of the pure chant of the
+Christian ages; which is always at heart joyful, and divides itself into
+the four great forms; Song of Praise, Song of Prayer, Song of Love, and
+Song of Battle; praise, however, being the keynote of passion through
+all the four forms; according to the first law which I have already
+given in the "Laws of Fesole"; "all great Art is Praise," of which the
+contrary is also true, all foul or miscreant Art is accusation, [Greek:
+diabole]: "She gave me of the tree and I did eat" being an entirely
+museless expression on Adam's part, the briefly essential contrary of
+Love-song.
+
+With these four perfect forms of Christian chant, of which we may take
+for pure examples the "Te Deum," the "Te Lucis Ante," the "Amor che
+nella mente,"[66] and the "Chant de Roland," are mingled songs of
+mourning, of Pagan origin (whether Greek or Danish), holding grasp still
+of the races that have once learned them, in times of suffering and
+sorrow; and songs of Christian humiliation or grief, regarding chiefly
+the sufferings of Christ, or the conditions of our own sin: while
+through the entire system of these musical complaints are interwoven
+moralities, instructions, and related histories, in illustration of
+both, passing into Epic and Romantic verse, which gradually, as the
+forms and learnings of society increase, becomes less joyful, and more
+didactic, or satiric, until the last echoes of Christian joy and melody
+vanish in the "Vanity of human wishes."
+
+43. And here I must pause for a minute or two to separate the different
+branches of our inquiry clearly from one another. For one thing, the
+reader must please put for the present out of his head all thought of
+the progress of "civilization"--that is to say, broadly, of the
+substitution of wigs for hair, gas for candles, and steam for legs. This
+is an entirely distinct matter from the phases of policy and religion.
+It has nothing to do with the British Constitution, or the French
+Revolution, or the unification of Italy. There are, indeed, certain
+subtle relations between the state of mind, for instance, in Venice,
+which makes her prefer a steamer to a gondola, and that which makes her
+prefer a gazetteer to a duke; but these relations are not at all to be
+dealt with until we solemnly understand that whether men shall be
+Christians and poets, or infidels and dunces, does not depend on the way
+they cut their hair, tie their breeches, or light their fires. Dr.
+Johnson might have worn his wig in fullness conforming to his dignity,
+without therefore coming to the conclusion that human wishes were vain;
+nor is Queen Antoinette's civilized hair-powder, as opposed to Queen
+Bertha's savagely loose hair, the cause of Antoinette's laying her head
+at last in scaffold dust, but Bertha in a pilgrim-haunted tomb.
+
+44. Again, I have just now used the words "poet" and "dunce," meaning
+the degree of each quality possible to average human nature. Men are
+eternally divided into the two classes of poet (believer, maker, and
+praiser) and dunce (or unbeliever, unmaker, and dispraiser). And in
+process of ages they have the power of making faithful and formative
+creatures of themselves, or unfaithful and _de_-formative. And this
+distinction between the creatures who, blessing, are blessed, and
+evermore _benedicti_, and the creatures who, cursing, are cursed, and
+evermore maledicti, is one going through all humanity; antediluvian in
+Cain and Abel, diluvian in Ham and Shem. And the question for the public
+of any given period is not whether they are a constitutional or
+unconstitutional vulgus, but whether they are a benignant or malignant
+vulgus. So also, whether it is indeed the gods who have given any
+gentleman the grace to despise the rabble, depends wholly on whether it
+is indeed the rabble, or he, who are the malignant persons.
+
+45. But yet again. This difference between the persons to whom Heaven,
+according to Orpheus, has granted "the hour of delight,"[67] and those
+whom it has condemned to the hour of detestableness, being, as I have
+just said, of all times and nations,--it is an interior and more
+delicate difference which we are examining in the gift of _Christian_ as
+distinguished from unchristian, song. Orpheus, Pindar, and Horace are
+indeed distinct from the prosaic rabble, as the bird from the snake; but
+between Orpheus and Palestrina, Horace and Sidney, there is another
+division, and a new power of music and song given to the humanity which
+has hope of the Resurrection.
+
+_This_ is the root of all life and all rightness in Christian harmony,
+whether of word or instrument; and so literally, that in precise manner
+as this hope disappears, the power of song is taken away, and taken away
+utterly. "When the Christian falls back out of the bright hope of the
+Resurrection, even the Orpheus song is forbidden him. Not to have known
+the hope is blameless: one may sing, unknowing, as the swan, or
+Philomela. But to have known and fall away from it, and to declare that
+the human wishes, which are summed in that one--"Thy kingdom come"--are
+vain! The Fates ordain there shall be no singing after that denial.
+
+46. For observe this, and earnestly. The old Orphic song, with its dim
+hope of yet once more Eurydice,--the Philomela song--granted after the
+cruel silence,--the Halcyon song--with its fifteen days of peace, were
+all sad, or joyful only in some vague vision of conquest over death. But
+the Johnsonian vanity of wishes is on the whole satisfactory to
+Johnson--accepted with gentlemanly resignation by Pope--triumphantly and
+with bray of penny trumpets and blowing of steam-whistles, proclaimed
+for the glorious discovery of the civilized ages, by Mrs. Barbauld, Miss
+Edgeworth, Adam Smith, and Co. There is no God, but have we not invented
+gunpowder?--who wants a God, with that in his pocket?[68] There is no
+Resurrection, neither angel nor spirit; but have we not paper and pens,
+and cannot every blockhead print his opinions, and the Day of Judgment
+become Republican, with everybody for a judge, and the flat of the
+universe for the throne? There is no law, but only gravitation and
+congelation, and we are stuck together in an everlasting hail, and
+melted together in everlasting mud, and great was the day in which our
+worships were born. And there is no gospel, but only, whatever we've
+got, to get more, and, wherever we are, to go somewhere else. And are
+not these discoveries, to be sung of, and drummed of, and fiddled of,
+and generally made melodiously indubitable in the eighteenth century
+song of praise?
+
+47. The Fates will not have it so. No word of song is possible, in that
+century, to mortal lips. Only polished versification, sententious
+pentameter and hexameter, until, having turned out its toes long enough
+without dancing, and pattered with its lips long enough without piping,
+suddenly Astraea returns to the earth, and a Day of Judgment of a sort,
+and there bursts out a song at last again, a most curtly melodious
+triplet of Amphisbaenic ryme, "_Ca ira_."
+
+Amphisbaenic, fanged in each ryme with fire, and obeying Ercildoune's
+precept, "Tong is chefe of mynstrelsye," to the syllable.--Don
+Giovanni's hitherto fondly chanted "Andiam, andiam," become
+suddenly impersonal and prophetic: IT shall go, and you also. A
+cry--before it is a song, then song and accompaniment
+together--perfectly done; and the march "towards the field of Mars. The
+two hundred and fifty thousand--they to the sound of stringed
+music--preceded by young girls with tricolor streamers, they have
+shouldered soldierwise their shovels and picks, and with one throat are
+singing _Ca ira_."[69]
+
+Through all the springtime of 1790, from Brittany to Burgundy, on most
+plains of France, under most city walls, there march and
+constitutionally wheel to the Ca-iraing mood of fife and drum--our clear
+glancing phalanxes;--the song of the two hundred and fifty thousand,
+virgin-led, is in the long light of July. Nevertheless, another song is
+yet needed, for phalanx, and for maid. For, two springs and summers
+having gone--amphisbaenic,--on the 28th of August, 1792, "Dumouriez rode
+from the camp of Maulde, eastwards to _Sedan_."[70]
+
+48. "And Longwi has fallen basely, and Brunswick and the Prussian king
+will beleaguer Verdun, and Clairfait and the Austrians press deeper in
+over the northern marches, Cimmerian Europe behind. And on that same
+night Dumouriez assembles council of war at his lodgings in Sedan.
+Prussians here, Austrians there, triumphant both. With broad highway to
+Paris and little hindrance--_we_ scattered, helpless here and
+there--what to advise?" The generals advise retreating, and retreating
+till Paris be sacked at the latest day possible. Dumouriez, silent,
+dismisses _them_,--keeps only, with a sign, Thouvenot. Silent thus, when
+needful, yet having voice, it appears, of what musicians call tenor
+quality, of a rare kind. Rubini-esque, even, but scarcely producible to
+the fastidious ears at opera. The seizure of the forest of Argonne
+follows--the cannonade of Valmy. The Prussians do not march on Paris
+_this_ time, the autumnal hours of fate pass on--_ca ira_--and on the
+6th of November, Dumouriez meets the Austrians also. "Dumouriez
+wide-winged, they wide-winged--at and around Jemappes, its green heights
+fringed and maned with red fire. And Dumouriez is swept back on this
+wing and swept back on that, and is like to be swept back utterly, when
+he rushes up in person, speaks a prompt word or two, and then, with
+clear tenor-pipe, uplifts the hymn of the Marseillaise, ten thousand
+tenor or bass pipes joining, or say some forty thousand in all, for
+every heart leaps up at the sound; and so, with rhythmic march melody,
+they rally, they advance, they rush death-defying, and like the fire
+whirlwind sweep all manner of Austrians from the scene of action." Thus,
+through the lips of Dumouriez, sings Tyrtaeus, Rouget de Lisle.[71] "Aux
+armes--marchons." Iambic measure with a witness! in what wide strophe
+here beginning--in what unthought-of antistrophe returning to that
+council chamber in Sedan!
+
+49. While these two great songs were thus being composed, and sung, and
+danced to in cometary cycle, by the French nation, here in our less
+giddy island there rose, amidst hours of business in Scotland and of
+idleness in England, three troubadours of quite different temper.
+Different also themselves, but not opponent; forming a perfect chord,
+and adverse all the three of them alike to the French musicians, in this
+main point--that while the _Ca ira_ and Marseillaise were essentially
+songs of blame and wrath, the British bards wrote, virtually, always
+songs of praise, though by no means psalmody in the ancient keys. On the
+contrary, all the three are alike moved by a singular antipathy to the
+priests, and are pointed at with fear and indignation by the pietists,
+of their day;--not without latent cause. For they are all of them, with
+the most loving service, servants of that world which the Puritan and
+monk alike despised; and, in the triple chord of their song, could not
+but appear to the religious persons around them as respectively and
+specifically the praisers--Scott of the world, Burns of the flesh, and
+Byron of the devil.
+
+To contend with this carnal orchestra, the religious world, having long
+ago rejected its Catholic Psalms as antiquated and unscientific, and
+finding its Puritan melodies sunk into faint jar and twangle from their
+native trumpet-tone, had nothing to oppose but the innocent, rather than
+religious, verses of the school recognized as that of the English Lakes;
+very creditable to them; domestic at once and refined; observing the
+errors of the world outside of the Lakes with a pitying and tender
+indignation, and arriving in lacustrine seclusion at many valuable
+principles of philosophy, as pure as the tarns of their mountains, and
+of corresponding depth.[72]
+
+50. I have lately seen, and with extreme pleasure, Mr. Matthew Arnold's
+arrangement of Wordsworth's poems; and read with sincere interest his
+high estimate of them. But a great poet's work never needs arrangement
+by other hands; and though it is very proper that Silver How should
+clearly understand and brightly praise its fraternal Rydal Mount, we
+must not forget that, over yonder, are the Andes, all the while.
+
+Wordsworth's rank and scale among poets were determined by himself, in a
+single exclamation:
+
+  "What was the great Parnassus' self to thee,
+  Mount Skiddaw?"
+
+Answer his question faithfully, and you have the relation between the
+great masters of the Muse's teaching and the pleasant fingerer of his
+pastoral flute among the reeds of Rydal.
+
+Wordsworth is simply a Westmoreland peasant, with considerably less
+shrewdness than most border Englishmen or Scotsmen inherit; and no sense
+of humor: but gifted (in this singularly) with vivid sense of natural
+beauty, and a pretty turn for reflections, not always acute, but, as far
+as they reach, medicinal to the fever of the restless and corrupted life
+around him. Water to parched lips may be better than Samian wine, but do
+not let us therefore confuse the qualities of wine and water. I much
+doubt there being many inglorious Miltons in our country churchyards;
+but I am very sure there are many Wordsworths resting there, who were
+inferior to the renowned one only in caring less to hear themselves
+talk.
+
+With an honest and kindly heart, a stimulating egoism, a wholesome
+contentment in modest circumstances, and such sufficient ease, in that
+accepted state, as permitted the passing of a good deal of time in
+wishing that daisies could see the beauty of their own shadows, and
+other such profitable mental exercises, Wordsworth has left us a series
+of studies of the graceful and happy shepherd life of our lake country,
+which to me personally, for one, are entirely sweet and precious; but
+they are only so as the mirror of an existent reality in many ways more
+beautiful than its picture.
+
+51. But the other day I went for an afternoon's rest into the cottage of
+one of our country people of old statesman class; cottage lying nearly
+midway between two village churches, but more conveniently for downhill
+walk towards one than the other. I found, as the good housewife made tea
+for me, that nevertheless she went up the hill to church. "Why do not
+you go to the nearer church?" I asked. "Don't you like the clergyman?"
+"Oh no, sir," she answered, "it isn't that; but you know I couldn't
+leave my mother." "Your mother! she is buried at H---- then?" "Yes, sir;
+and you know I couldn't go to church anywhere else."
+
+That feelings such as these existed among the peasants, not of
+Cumberland only, but of all the tender earth that gives forth her fruit
+for the living, and receives her dead to peace, might perhaps have been,
+to our great and endless comfort, discovered before now, if Wordsworth
+had been content to tell us what he knew of his own villages and people,
+not as the leader of a new and only correct school of poetry, but simply
+as a country gentleman of sense and feeling, fond of primroses, kind to
+the parish children, and reverent of the spade with which Wilkinson had
+tilled his lands: and I am by no means sure that his influence on the
+stronger minds of his time was anywise hastened or extended by the
+spirit of tunefulness under whose guidance he discovered that heaven
+rymed to seven, and Foy to boy.
+
+52. Tuneful nevertheless at heart, and of the heavenly choir, I gladly
+and frankly acknowledge him; and our English literature enriched with a
+new and a singular virtue in the aerial purity and healthful rightness
+of his quiet song;--but _aerial_ only,--not ethereal; and lowly in its
+privacy of light.
+
+A measured mind, and calm; innocent, unrepentant; helpful to sinless
+creatures and scathless, such of the flock as do not stray. Hopeful at
+least, if not faithful; content with intimations of immortality such as
+may be in skipping of lambs, and laughter of children--incurious to see
+in the hands the print of the Nails.
+
+A gracious and constant mind; as the herbage of its native hills,
+fragrant and pure;--yet, to the sweep and the shadow, the stress and
+distress, of the greater souls of men, as the tufted thyme to the
+laurel wilderness of Tempe,--as the gleaming euphrasy to the dark
+branches of Dodona.
+
+     [I am obliged to defer the main body of this paper to next
+     month,--revises penetrating all too late into my lacustrine
+     seclusion; as chanced also unluckily with the preceding paper, in
+     which the reader will perhaps kindly correct the consequent
+     misprints [now corrected, ED.], p. 203, l. 23, of
+     "scarcely" to "securely," and p. 206, l. 6, "full," with comma to
+     "fall," without one; noticing besides that "Redgauntlet" has been
+     omitted in the list, pp. 198, 199; and that the reference to note
+     should not be at the word "imagination," p. 198, l. 6, but at the
+     word "trade," l. 15. My dear old friend, Dr. John Brown, sends me,
+     from Jamieson's _Dictionary_, the following satisfactory end to one
+     of my difficulties:--"Coup the crans." The language is borrowed
+     from the "cran," or trivet on which small pots are placed in
+     cookery, which is sometimes turned with its feet uppermost by an
+     awkward assistant. Thus it signifies to be _completely_ upset.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 62: August, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 63: The following fragments out of the letters in my own
+possession, written by Scott to the builder of Abbotsford, as the outer
+decorations of the house were in process of completion, will show how
+accurately Scott had pictured himself in Monkbarns.
+
+
+  "ABBOTSFORD: _April_ 21, 1817.
+
+     "DEAR SIR,--Nothing can be more obliging than your
+     attention to the old stones. You have been as true as the sundial
+     itself." [The sundial had just been erected.] "Of the two I would
+     prefer the larger one, as it is to be in front of a parapet quite
+     in the old taste. But in case of accidents it will be safest in
+     your custody till I come to town again on the 12th of May. Your
+     former favors (which were weighty as acceptable) have come safely
+     out here, and will be disposed of with great effect."
+
+
+  "ABBOTSFORD: _July_ 30th.
+
+     "I fancy the Tolbooth still keeps its feet, but, as it must soon
+     descend, I hope you will remember me. I have an important use for
+     the niche above the door; and though many a man has got a niche
+     _in_ the Tolbooth by building, I believe I am the first that ever
+     got a niche out of it on such an occasion. For which I have to
+     thank your kindness, and to remain very much your obliged humble
+     servant,
+
+  "WALTER SCOTT."
+
+
+  "_August 16._
+
+     "MY DEAR SIR,--I trouble you with this [_sic_] few lines
+     to thank you for the very accurate drawings and measurements of the
+     Tolbooth door, and for your kind promise to attend to my interest
+     and that of Abbotsford in the matter of the Thistle and Fleur de
+     Lis. Most of our scutcheons are now mounted, and look very well, as
+     the house is something after the model of an old hall (not a
+     castle), where such things are well in character." [Alas--Sir
+     Walter, Sir Walter!] "I intend the old lion to predominate over a
+     well which the children have christened the Fountain of the Lions.
+     His present den, however, continues to be the hall at Castle
+     Street."
+
+
+  "_September 5._
+
+     "DEAR SIR,--I am greatly obliged to you for securing the
+     stone. I am not sure that I will put up the gate quite in the old
+     form, but I would like to secure the means of doing so. The
+     ornamental stones are now put up, and have a very happy effect. If
+     you will have the kindness to let me know when the Tolbooth door
+     comes down, I will send in my carts for the stones; I have an
+     admirable situation for it. I suppose the door itself" [he means
+     the wooden one] "will be kept for the new jail; if not, and not
+     otherwise wanted, I would esteem it curious to possess it.
+     Certainly I hope so many sore hearts will not pass through the
+     celebrated door when in my possession as heretofore."
+
+
+  "_September 8._
+
+     "I should esteem it very fortunate if I could have the door also,
+     though I suppose it is modern, having been burned down at the time
+     of Porteous-mob.
+
+     "I am very much obliged to the gentlemen who thought these remains
+     of the Heart of Midlothian are not ill bestowed on their intended
+     possessor."]
+
+[Footnote 64: Henceforward, not in affectation, but for the reader's
+better convenience, I shall continue to spell "Ryme" without our wrongly
+added _h_.]
+
+[Footnote 65: L. ii. 278.]
+
+[Footnote 66: "Che nella mente mia _ragiona_." Love--you observe, the
+highest _Reasonableness_, instead of French _ivresse_, or even
+Shakespearian "mere folly"; and Beatrice as the Goddess of Wisdom in
+this third song of the _Convito_, to be compared with the Revolutionary
+Goddess of Reason; remembering of the whole poem chiefly the line:--
+
+  "Costei penso chi che mosso l'universo."
+
+(See Lyell's "Canzoniere," p. 104.)]
+
+[Footnote 67: [Greek: horan tes terpsios]--Plato, "Laws," ii., Steph.
+669. "Hour" having here nearly the power of "Fate" with added sense of
+being a daughter of Themis.]
+
+[Footnote 68: "Gunpowder is one of the greatest inventions of modern
+times, _and what has given such a superiority to civilized nations over
+barbarous_"! ("Evenings at Home"--fifth evening.) No man can owe more
+than I both to Mrs. Barbauld and Miss Edgeworth; and I only wish that in
+the substance of what they wisely said, they had been more listened to.
+Nevertheless, the germs of all modern conceit and error respecting
+manufacture and industry, as rivals to Art and to Genius, are
+concentrated in "Evenings at Home" and "Harry and Lucy"--being all the
+while themselves works of real genius, and prophetic of things that have
+yet to be learned and fulfilled. See for instance the paper, "Things by
+their Right Names," following the one from which I have just quoted
+("The Ship"), and closing the first volume of the old edition of the
+"Evenings."]
+
+[Footnote 69: Carlyle, "French Revolution" (Chapman, 1869), vol. ii. p.
+70; conf. p. 25, and the _Ca ira_ at Arras, vol. iii. p. 276.]
+
+[Footnote 70: _Ibid._ iii. 26.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Carlyle, "French Revolution," iii. 106, the last sentence
+altered in a word or two.]
+
+[Footnote 72: I have been greatly disappointed, in taking soundings of
+our most majestic mountain pools, to find them, in no case, verge on the
+unfathomable.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+III.[73]
+
+[BYRON]
+
+  "Parching summer hath no warrant
+    To consume this crystal well;
+  Rains, that make each brook a torrent,
+    Neither sully it, nor swell."
+
+
+53. So was it year by year, among the unthought-of hills. Little Duddon
+and child Rotha ran clear and glad; and laughed from ledge to pool, and
+opened from pool to mere, translucent, through endless days of peace.
+
+But eastward, between her orchard plains, Loire locked her embracing
+dead in silent sands; dark with blood rolled Iser; glacial-pale,
+Beresina-Lethe, by whose shore the weary hearts forgot their people, and
+their father's house.
+
+Nor unsullied, Tiber; nor unswoln, Arno and Aufidus; and Euroclydon high
+on Helle's wave; meantime, let our happy piety glorify the garden rocks
+with snowdrop circlet, and breathe the spirit of Paradise, where life is
+wise and innocent.
+
+Maps many have we, nowadays clear in display of earth constituent, air
+current, and ocean tide. Shall we ever engrave the map of meaner
+research, whose shadings shall content themselves in the task of showing
+the depth, or drought,--the calm, or trouble, of Human Compassion?
+
+54. For this is indeed all that is noble in the life of Man, and the
+source of all that is noble in the speech of Man. Had it narrowed itself
+then, in those days, out of all the world, into this peninsula between
+Cockermouth and Shap?
+
+Not altogether so; but indeed the _Vocal_ piety seemed conclusively to
+have retired (or excursed?) into that mossy hermitage, above Little
+Langdale. The _Un_vocal piety, with the uncomplaining sorrow, of Man,
+may have a somewhat wider range, for aught we know: but history
+disregards those items; and of firmly proclaimed and sweetly canorous
+religion, there really seemed at that juncture none to be reckoned upon,
+east of Ingleborough, or north of Criffel. Only under Furness Fells, or
+by Bolton Priory, it seems we can still write Ecclesiastical Sonnets,
+stanzas on the force of Prayer, Odes to Duty, and complimentary
+addresses to the Deity upon His endurance for adoration. Far otherwise,
+over yonder, by Spezzia Bay, and Ravenna Pineta, and in ravines of
+Hartz. There, the softest voices speak the wildest words; and Keats
+discourses of Endymion, Shelley of Demogorgon, Goethe of Lucifer, and
+Burger of the Resurrection of Death unto Death--while even Puritan
+Scotland and Episcopal Anglia produce for us only these three minstrels
+of doubtful tone, who show but small respect for the "unco guid," put
+but limited faith in gifted Gilfillan, and translate with unflinching
+frankness the _Morgante Maggiore_.[74]
+
+55. Dismal the aspect of the spiritual world, or at least the sound of
+it, might well seem to the eyes and ears of Saints (such as we had) of
+the period--dismal in angels' eyes also assuredly! Yet is it possible
+that the dismalness in angelic sight may be otherwise quartered, as it
+were, from the way of mortal heraldry; and that seen, and heard, of
+angels,--again I say--hesitatingly--_is_ it possible that the goodness
+of the Unco Guid, and the gift of Gilfillan, and the word of Mr.
+Blattergowl, may severally not have been the goodness of God, the gift
+of God, nor the word of God: but that in the much blotted and broken
+efforts at goodness, and in the careless gift which they themselves
+despised,[75] and in the sweet ryme and murmur of their unpurposed
+words, the Spirit of the Lord had, indeed, wandering, as in chaos days
+on lightless waters, gone forth in the hearts and from the lips of those
+other three strange prophets, even though they ate forbidden bread by
+the altar of the poured-out ashes, and even though the wild beast of the
+desert found them, and slew.
+
+This, at least, I know, that it had been well for England, though all
+her other prophets, of the Press, the Parliament, the Doctor's chair,
+and the Bishop's throne, had fallen silent; so only that she had been
+able to understand with her heart here and there the simplest line of
+these, her despised.
+
+56. I take one at mere chance:
+
+  "Who thinks of self, when gazing on the sky?"[76]
+
+Well, I don't know; Mr. Wordsworth certainly did, and observed, with
+truth, that its clouds took a sober coloring in consequence of his
+experiences. It is much if, indeed, this sadness be unselfish, and our
+eyes _have_ kept loving watch o'er Man's Mortality. I have found it
+difficult to make anyone nowadays believe that such sobriety can be; and
+that Turner saw deeper crimson than others in the clouds of Goldau. But
+that any should yet think the clouds brightened by Man's _Im_mortality
+instead of dulled by his death,--and, gazing on the sky, look for the
+day when every eye must gaze also--for behold, He cometh with
+clouds--this it is no more possible for Christian England to apprehend,
+however exhorted by her gifted and guid.
+
+57. "But Byron was not thinking of such things!"--He, the reprobate! how
+should such as he think of Christ?
+
+Perhaps not wholly as you or I think of Him. Take, at chance, another
+line or two, to try:
+
+  "Carnage (so Wordsworth tells you) is God's daughter;[77]
+  If he speak truth, she is Christ's sister, and
+  Just now, behaved as in the Holy Land."
+
+Blasphemy, cry you, good reader? Are you sure you understand it? The
+first line I gave you was easy Byron--almost shallow Byron--these are of
+the man in his depth, and you will not fathom them, like a tarn--nor in
+a hurry.
+
+"Just now behaved as in the Holy Land." How _did_ Carnage behave in the
+Holy Land then? You have all been greatly questioning, of late, whether
+the sun, which you find to be now going out, ever stood still. Did you
+in any lagging minute, on those scientific occasions, chance to reflect
+what he was bid stand still _for_? or if not--will you please look--and
+what also, going forth again as a strong man to run his course, he saw,
+rejoicing?
+
+"Then Joshua passed from Makkedah unto Libnah--and fought against
+Libnah. And the Lord delivered it and the king thereof into the hand of
+Israel, and he smote it with the edge of the sword, and all the souls
+that were therein." And from Lachish to Eglon, and from Eglon to
+Kirjath-Arba, and Sarah's grave in the Amorites' land, "and Joshua smote
+all the country of the hills and of the south--and of the vale and of
+the springs, and all their kings: he left none remaining, but utterly
+destroyed all that breathed--as the Lord God of Israel commanded."
+
+58. Thus, "it is written": though you perhaps do not so often hear
+_these_ texts preached from, as certain others about taking away the
+sins of the world. I wonder how the world would like to part with them!
+hitherto it has always preferred parting first with its life--and God
+has taken it at its word. But Death is not _His_ Begotten Son, for all
+that; nor is the death of the innocent in battle carnage His "instrument
+for working out a pure intent" as Mr. Wordsworth puts it; but Man's
+instrument for working out an impure one, as Byron would have you to
+know. Theology perhaps less orthodox, but certainly more
+reverent;--neither is the Woolwich Infant a Child of God; neither does
+the iron-clad "Thunderer" utter thunders of God--which facts if you had
+had the grace or sense to learn from Byron, instead of accusing him of
+blasphemy, it had been better at this day for _you_, and for many a
+savage soul also, by Euxine shore, and in Zulu and Afghan lands.
+
+59. It was neither, however, for the theology, nor the use, of these
+lines that I quoted them; but to note this main point of Byron's own
+character. He was the first great Englishman who felt the cruelty of
+war, and, in its cruelty, the shame. Its guilt had been known to George
+Fox--its folly shown practically by Penn. But the _compassion_ of the
+pious world had still for the most part been shown only in keeping its
+stock of Barabbases unhanged if possible: and, till Byron came, neither
+Kunersdorf, Eylau, nor Waterloo, had taught the pity and the pride of
+men that
+
+  "The drying up a single tear has more
+  Of honest fame than shedding seas of gore."[78]
+
+Such pacific verse would not indeed have been acceptable to the
+Edinburgh volunteers on Portobello sands. But Byron can write a battle
+song too, when it is _his_ cue to fight. If you look at the introduction
+to the "Isles of Greece," namely the 85th and 86th stanzas of the 3rd
+canto of "Don Juan,"--you will find--what will you _not_ find, if only
+you understand them! "He" in the first line, remember, means the typical
+modern poet.
+
+  "Thus usually, when he was asked to sing,
+    He gave the different nations something national.
+  'Twas all the same to him--'God save the King'
+    Or 'Ca ira' according to the fashion all;
+  His muse made increment of anything
+    From the high lyric down to the low rational:
+  If Pindar sang horse-races, what should hinder
+    Himself from being as pliable as Pindar?
+
+  In France, for instance, he would write a chanson;
+    In England a six-canto quarto tale;
+  In Spain, he'd make a ballad or romance on
+    The last war--much the same in Portugal;
+  In Germany, the Pegasus he'd prance on
+    Would be old Goethe's--(see what says de Stael)
+  In Italy, he'd ape the 'Trecentisti';
+  In Greece, he'd sing some sort of hymn like this t'ye."
+
+60. Note first here, as we did in Scott, the concentrating and
+foretelling power. The "God Save the Queen" in England, fallen hollow
+now, as the "Ca ira" in France--not a man in France knowing where either
+France or "that" (whatever "that" may be) is going to; nor the Queen of
+England daring, for her life, to ask the tiniest Englishman to do a
+single thing he doesn't like;--nor any salvation, either of Queen or
+Realm, being any more possible to God, unless under the direction of the
+Royal Society: then, note the estimate of height and depth in poetry,
+swept in an instant, "high lyric to low rational." Pindar to Pope
+(knowing Pope's height, too, all the while, no man better); then, the
+poetic power of France--resumed in a word--Beranger; then the cut at
+Marmion, entirely deserved, as we shall see, yet kindly given, for
+everything he names in these two stanzas is the best of its kind; then
+'Romance in Spain on--the _last_ war, (_present_ war not being to
+Spanish poetical taste,) then, Goethe the real heart of all Germany, and
+last, the aping of the Trecentisti which has since consummated itself in
+Pre-Raphaelitism! that also being the best thing Italy has done through
+England, whether in Rossetti's "blessed damozels" or Burne Jones's "days
+of creation." Lastly comes the mock at himself--the modern English
+Greek--(followed up by the "degenerate into hands like mine" in the song
+itself); and then--to amazement, forth he thunders in his
+Achilles-voice. We have had one line of him in his clearness--five of
+him in his depth--sixteen of him in his play. Hear now but these, out of
+his whole heart:--
+
+  "What,--silent yet? and silent _all_?
+    Ah no, the voices of the dead
+  Sound like a distant torrent's fall,
+    And answer, 'Let _one_ living head,
+  But one, arise--we come--we come:'
+  --'Tis but the living who are dumb."
+
+Resurrection, this, you see like Buerger's; but not of death unto death.
+
+61. "Sound like a distant torrent's fall." I said the _whole_ heart of
+Byron was in this passage. First its compassion, then its indignation,
+and the third element, not yet examined, that love of the beauty of this
+world in which the three--unholy--children, of its Fiery Furnace were
+like to each other; but Byron the widest-hearted. Scott and Burns love
+Scotland more than Nature itself: for Burns the moon must rise over
+Cumnock Hills,--for Scott, the Rymer's glen divide the Eildons; but,
+for Byron, Loch-na-Gar _with Ida_, looks o'er Troy, and the soft murmurs
+of the Dee and the Bruar change into voices of the dead on distant
+Marathon.
+
+Yet take the parallel from Scott, by a field of homelier rest:--
+
+  "And silence aids--though the steep hills
+  Send to the lake a thousand rills;
+  In summer tide, so soft they weep,
+  The sound but lulls the ear asleep;
+  Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,
+  So stilly is the solitude.
+
+  Nought living meets the eye or ear,
+  But well I ween the dead are near;
+  For though, in feudal strife, a foe
+  Hath laid our Lady's Chapel low,
+  Yet still beneath the hallowed soil,
+  The peasant rests him from his toil,
+  And, dying, bids his bones be laid
+  Where erst his simple fathers prayed."
+
+And last take the same note of sorrow--with Burns's finger on the fall
+of it:
+
+  "Mourn, ilka grove the cushat kens,
+  Ye hazly shaws and briery dens,
+  Ye burnies, wimplin' down your glens
+                Wi' toddlin' din,
+  Or foamin' strang wi' hasty stens
+                Frae lin to lin."
+
+62. As you read, one after another, these fragments of chant by the
+great masters, does not a sense come upon you of some element in their
+passion, no less than in their sound, different, specifically, from that
+of "Parching summer hath no warrant"? Is it more profane, think you--or
+more tender--nay, perhaps, in the core of it, more true?
+
+For instance, when we are told that
+
+      "Wharfe, as he moved along,
+  To matins joined a mournful voice,"
+
+is this disposition of the river's mind to pensive psalmody quite
+logically accounted for by the previous statement, (itself by no means
+rythmically dulcet,) that
+
+  "The boy is in the arms of Wharfe,
+  And strangled by a merciless force"?
+
+Or, when we are led into the improving reflection,
+
+  "How sweet were leisure, could it yield no more
+  Than 'mid this wave-washed churchyard to recline,
+  From pastoral graves extracting thoughts divine!"
+
+--is the divinity of the extract assured to us by its being made at
+leisure, and in a reclining attitude--as compared with the meditations
+of otherwise active men, in an erect one? Or are we perchance, many of
+us, still erring somewhat in our notions alike of Divinity and
+Humanity,--poetical extraction, and moral position?
+
+63. On the chance of its being so, might I ask hearing for just a few
+words more of the school of Belial?
+
+Their occasion, it must be confessed, is a quite unjustifiable one. Some
+very wicked people--mutineers, in fact--have retired, misanthropically,
+into an unfrequented part of the country, and there find themselves safe
+indeed, but extremely thirsty. Whereupon Byron thus gives them to drink:
+
+  "A little stream came tumbling from the height
+  And straggling into ocean as it might.
+  Its bounding crystal frolicked in the ray
+  And gushed from cliff to crag with saltless spray,
+  Close on the wild wide ocean,--yet as pure
+  And fresh as Innocence; and more secure.
+  Its silver torrent glittered o'er the deep
+  As the shy chamois' eye o'erlooks the steep,
+  While, far below, the vast and sullen swell
+  Of ocean's Alpine azure rose and fell."[79]
+
+Now, I beg, with such authority as an old workman may take concerning
+his trade, having also looked at a waterfall or two in my time, and not
+unfrequently at a wave, to assure the reader that here is entirely
+first-rate literary work. Though Lucifer himself had written it, the
+thing is itself good, and not only so, but unsurpassedly good, the
+closing line being probably the best concerning the sea yet written by
+the race of the sea-kings.
+
+64. But Lucifer himself _could_ not have written it; neither any servant
+of Lucifer. I do not doubt but that most readers were surprised at my
+saying, in the close of my first paper, that Byron's "style" depended in
+any wise on his views respecting the Ten Commandments. That so
+all-important a thing as "style" should depend in the least upon so
+ridiculous a thing as moral sense: or that Allegra's father, watching
+her drive by in Count G.'s coach and six, had any remnant of so
+ridiculous a thing to guide,--or check,--his poetical passion, may alike
+seem more than questionable to the liberal and chaste philosophy of the
+existing British public. But, first of all, putting the question of who
+writes or speaks aside, do you, good reader, _know_ good "style" when
+you get it? Can you say, of half a dozen given lines taken anywhere out
+of a novel, or poem, or play, That is good, essentially, in style, or
+bad, essentially? and can you say why such half-dozen lines are good, or
+bad?
+
+65. I imagine that in most cases, the reply would be given with
+hesitation, yet if you will give me a little patience, and take some
+accurate pains, I can show you the main tests of style in the space of a
+couple of pages.
+
+I take two examples of absolutely perfect, and in manner highest, _i.
+e._, kingly, and heroic, style: the first example in expression of
+anger, the second of love.
+
+  (1)
+
+  "We are glad the Dauphin is so pleasant with us,
+  His present, and your pains, we thank you for.
+  When we have match'd our rackets to these balls,
+  We will in France, by God's grace, play a set
+  Shall strike his father's crown into the hazard."
+
+  (2)
+
+  "My gracious Silence, hail!
+  Would'st thou have laughed, had I come coffin'd home
+  That weep'st to see me triumph? Ah, my dear,
+  Such eyes the widows in Corioli wear
+  And mothers that lack sons."
+
+66. Let us note, point by point, the conditions of greatness common to
+both these passages, so opposite in temper.
+
+A. Absolute command over all passion, however intense; this the
+first-of-first conditions, (see the King's own sentence just before, "We
+are no tyrant, but a Christian King, Unto _whose grace_ our passion is
+as subject As are our wretches fettered in our prisons"); and with this
+self-command, the supremely surveying grasp of every thought that is to
+be uttered, before its utterance; so that each may come in its exact
+place, time, and connection. The slightest hurry, the misplacing of a
+word, or the unnecessary accent on a syllable, would destroy the "style"
+in an instant.
+
+B. Choice of the fewest and simplest words that can be found in the
+compass of the language, to express the thing meant: these few words
+being also arranged in the most straightforward and intelligible way;
+allowing inversion only when the subject can be made primary without
+obscurity: (thus, "his present, and your pains, we thank you for" is
+better than "we thank you for his present and your pains," because the
+Dauphin's gift is by courtesy put before the Ambassador's pains; but
+"when to these balls our rackets we have matched" would have spoiled the
+style in a moment, because--I was going to have said, ball and racket
+are of equal rank, and therefore only the natural order proper; but also
+here the natural order is the desired one, the English racket to have
+precedence of the French ball). In the fourth line the "in France" comes
+first, as announcing the most important resolution of action; the "by
+God's grace" next, as the only condition rendering resolution possible;
+the detail of issue follows with the strictest limit in the final word.
+The King does not say "danger," far less "dishonor," but "hazard" only;
+of _that_ he is, humanly speaking, sure.
+
+67. C. Perfectly emphatic and clear utterance of the chosen words;
+slowly in the degree of their importance, with omission however of every
+word not absolutely required; and natural use of the familiar
+contractions of final dissyllable. Thus "play a set shall strike" is
+better than "play a set _that_ shall strike," and "match'd" is kingly
+short--no necessity of meter could have excused "matched" instead. On
+the contrary, the three first words, "We are glad," would have been
+spoken by the king more slowly and fully than any other syllables in the
+whole passage, first pronouncing the kingly "we" at its proudest, and
+then the "are" as a continuous state, and then the "glad," as the exact
+contrary of what the ambassadors expected him to be.[80]
+
+D. Absolute spontaneity in doing all this, easily and necessarily as the
+heart beats. The king _cannot_ speak otherwise than he does--nor the
+hero. The words not merely come to them, but are compelled to them. Even
+lisping numbers "come," but mighty numbers are ordained, and inspired.
+
+E. Melody in the words, changeable with their passion, fitted to it
+exactly, and the utmost of which the language is capable--the melody in
+prose being Eolian and variable--in verse, nobler by submitting itself
+to stricter law. I will enlarge upon this point presently.
+
+F. Utmost spiritual contents in the words; so that each carries not only
+its instant meaning, but a cloudy companionship of higher or darker
+meaning according to the passion--nearly always indicated by metaphor:
+"play a set"--sometimes by abstraction--(thus in the second passage
+"silence" for silent one) sometimes by description instead of direct
+epithet ("coffined" for dead) but always indicative of there being more
+in the speaker's mind than he has said, or than he can say, full though
+his saying be. On the quantity of this attendant fullness depends the
+majesty of style; that is to say, virtually, on the quantity of
+contained thought in briefest words, such thought being primarily loving
+and true: and this the sum of all--that nothing can be well said, but
+with truth, nor beautifully, but by love.
+
+68. These are the essential conditions of noble speech in prose and
+verse alike, but the adoption of the form of verse, and especially rymed
+verse, means the addition to all these qualities of one more; of music,
+that is to say, not Eolian merely, but Apolline; a construction or
+architecture of words fitted and befitting, under external laws of time
+and harmony.
+
+When Byron says "rhyme is of the rude,"[81] he means that Burns needs
+it,--while Henry the Fifth does not, nor Plato, nor Isaiah--yet in this
+need of it by the simple, it becomes all the more religious: and thus
+the loveliest pieces of Christian language are all in ryme--the best of
+Dante, Chaucer, Douglas, Shakespeare, Spenser, and Sidney.
+
+69. I am not now able to keep abreast with the tide of modern
+scholarship; (nor, to say the truth, do I make the effort, the first
+edge of its waves being mostly muddy, and apt to make a shallow sweep of
+the shore refuse:) so that I have no better book of reference by me than
+the confused essay on the antiquity of ryme at the end of Turner's
+"Anglo-Saxons." I cannot however conceive a more interesting piece of
+work, if not yet done, than the collection of sifted earliest fragments
+known of rymed song in European languages. Of Eastern I know nothing;
+but, this side Hellespont, the substance of the matter is all given in
+King Canute's impromptu
+
+  "Gaily" (or is it sweetly?--I forget which, and it's no matter)
+      "sang the monks of Ely,
+  As Knut the king came sailing by;"
+
+much to be noted by any who make their religion lugubrious, and their
+Sunday the eclipse of the week. And observe further, that if Milton does
+not ryme, it is because his faculty of Song was concerning Loss,
+chiefly; and he has little more than faculty of Croak, concerning Gain;
+while Dante, though modern readers never go further with him than into
+the Pit, is stayed only by Casella in the ascent to the Rose of Heaven.
+So, Gibbon can write in _his_ manner the Fall of Rome; but Virgil, in
+_his_ manner, the rise of it; and finally Douglas, in _his_ manner,
+bursts into such rymed passion of praise both of Rome and Virgil, as
+befits a Christian Bishop, and a good subject of the Holy See.
+
+  "Master of Masters--sweet source, and springing well,
+  Wide where over all rings thy heavenly bell;
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Why should I then with dull forehead and vain,
+  With rude ingene, and barane, emptive brain,
+  With bad harsh speech, and lewit barbare tongue
+  Presume to write, where thy sweet bell is rung,
+  Or counterfeit thy precious wordis dear?
+  Na, na--not so; but kneel when I them hear.
+  But farther more--and lower to descend
+  Forgive me, Virgil, if I thee offend
+  Pardon thy scolar, suffer him to ryme
+  Since _thou_ wast but ane mortal man sometime."
+
+"Before honor is humility." Does not clearer light come for you on that
+law after reading these nobly pious words? And note you _whose_
+humility? How is it that the sound of the bell comes so instinctively
+into his chiming verse? This gentle singer is the son of--Archibald
+Bell-the-Cat!
+
+70. And now perhaps you can read with right sympathy the scene in
+"Marmion" between his father and King James.
+
+  "His hand the monarch sudden took--
+  'Now, by the Bruce's soul,
+  Angus, my hasty speech forgive,
+  For sure as doth his spirit live
+  As he said of the Douglas old
+  I well may say of you,--
+  That never king did subject hold,
+  In speech more free, in war more bold,
+  More tender and more true:'
+  And while the king his hand did strain
+  The old man's tears fell down like rain."
+
+I believe the most infidel of scholastic readers can scarcely but
+perceive the relation between the sweetness, simplicity, and melody of
+expression in these passages, and the gentleness of the passions they
+express, while men who are not scholastic, and yet are true scholars,
+will recognize further in them that the simplicity of the educated is
+lovelier than the simplicity of the rude. Hear next a piece of Spenser's
+teaching how rudeness itself may become more beautiful even by its
+mistakes, if the mistakes are made lovingly.
+
+  "Ye shepherds' daughters that dwell on the green,
+    Hye you there apace;
+  Let none come there but that virgins been
+    To adorn her grace:
+  And when you come, whereas she in place,
+  See that your rudeness do not you disgrace;
+    Bind your fillets fast,
+    And gird in your waste,
+  For more fineness, with a taudry lace.
+
+  Bring hither the pink and purple cullumbine
+    With gylliflowers;
+  Bring coronatioens, and sops in wine,
+    Worn of paramours;
+  Strow me the ground with daffadowndillies
+  And cowslips, and kingcups, and loved lilies;
+    The pretty paunce
+    And the chevisaunce
+  Shall match with the fair flowre-delice."[82]
+
+71. Two short pieces more only of master song, and we have enough to
+test all by.
+
+  (1)
+
+   "No more, no more, since thou art dead,
+   Shall we e'er bring coy brides to bed,
+   No more, at yearly festivals,
+             We cowslip balls
+   Or chains of columbines shall make,
+   For this or that occasion's sake.
+   No, no! our maiden pleasures be
+   Wrapt in thy winding-sheet with thee."[83]
+
+  (2)
+
+   "Death is now the phoenix nest,
+   And the turtle's loyal breast
+   To eternity doth rest.
+   Truth may seem, but cannot be;
+   Beauty brag, but 'tis not she:
+   Truth and beauty buried be."[84]
+
+72. If now, with the echo of these perfect verses in your mind, you turn
+to Byron, and glance over, or recall to memory, enough of him to give
+means of exact comparison, you will, or should, recognize these
+following kinds of mischief in him. First, if anyone offends him--as for
+instance Mr. Southey, or Lord Elgin--"his manners have not that repose
+that marks the caste," etc. _This_ defect in his Lordship's style, being
+myself scrupulously and even painfully reserved in the use of
+vituperative language, I need not say how deeply I deplore.[85]
+
+Secondly. In the best and most violet-bedded bits of his work there is
+yet, as compared with Elizabethan and earlier verse, a strange taint; an
+indefinable--evening flavor of Covent Garden, as it were;--not to say,
+escape of gas in the Strand. That is simply what it proclaims
+itself--London air. If he had lived all his life in Green-head Ghyll,
+things would of course have been different. But it was his fate to come
+to town--modern town--like Michael's son; and modern London (and Venice)
+are answerable for the state of their drains, not Byron.
+
+Thirdly. His melancholy is without any relief whatsoever; his jest
+sadder than his earnest; while, in Elizabethan work, all lament is full
+of hope, and all pain of balsam.
+
+Of this evil he has himself told you the cause in a single line
+prophetic of all things since and now. "Where _he_ gazed, a gloom
+pervaded space."[86]
+
+So that, for instance, while Mr. Wordsworth, on a visit to town, being
+an exemplary early riser, could walk, felicitous, on Westminster Bridge,
+remarking how the city now did like a garment wear the beauty of the
+morning; Byron, rising somewhat later, contemplated only the garment
+which the beauty of the morning had by that time received for wear from
+the city: and again, while Mr. Wordsworth, in irrepressible religious
+rapture, calls God to witness that the houses seem asleep, Byron, lame
+demon as he was, flying smoke-drifted, unroofs the houses at a glance,
+and sees what the mighty cockney heart of them contains in the still
+lying of it, and will stir up to purpose in the waking business of it,
+
+  "The sordor of civilization, mixed
+  With all the passions which Man's fall hath fixed."[87]
+
+73. Fourthly, with this steadiness of bitter melancholy, there is joined
+a sense of the material beauty, both of inanimate nature, the lower
+animals, and human beings, which in the iridescence, color-depth, and
+morbid (I use the word deliberately) mystery and softness of it,--with
+other qualities indescribable by any single words, and only to be
+analyzed by extreme care,--is found, to the full, only in five men that
+I know of in modern times; namely, Rousseau, Shelley, Byron, Turner, and
+myself,--differing totally and throughout the entire group of us, from
+the delight in clear-struck beauty of Angelico and the Trecentisti; and
+separated, much more singularly, from the cheerful joys of Chaucer,
+Shakespeare, and Scott, by its unaccountable affection for "Rokkes blak"
+and other forms of terror and power, such as those of the ice-oceans,
+which to Shakespeare were only Alpine rheum; and the Via Malas and
+Diabolic Bridges which Dante would have condemned none but lost souls to
+climb, or cross;--all this love of impending mountains, coiled
+thunder-clouds, and dangerous sea, being joined in us with a sulky,
+almost ferine, love of retreat in valleys of Charmettes, gulfs of
+Spezzia, ravines of Olympus, low lodgings in Chelsea, and close
+brushwood at Coniston.
+
+74. And, lastly, also in the whole group of us, glows volcanic instinct
+of Astraean justice returning not to, but up out of, the earth, which
+will not at all suffer us to rest any more in Pope's serene "whatever
+is, is right"; but holds, on the contrary, profound conviction that
+about ninety-nine hundredths of whatever at present is, is wrong:
+conviction making four of us, according to our several manners, leaders
+of revolution for the poor, and declarers of political doctrine
+monstrous to the ears of mercenary mankind; and driving the fifth, less
+sanguine, into mere painted-melody of lament over the fallacy of Hope
+and the implacableness of Fate.
+
+In Byron the indignation, the sorrow, and the effort are joined to the
+death: and they are the parts of his nature (as of mine also in its
+feebler terms), which the selfishly comfortable public have, literally,
+no conception of whatever; and from which the piously sentimental
+public, offering up daily the pure oblation of divine tranquillity,
+shrink with anathema not unembittered by alarm.
+
+75. Concerning which matters I hope to speak further and with more
+precise illustration in my next paper; but, seeing that this present one
+has been hitherto somewhat somber, and perhaps, to gentle readers, not a
+little discomposing, I will conclude it with a piece of light biographic
+study, necessary to my plan, and as conveniently admissible in this
+place as afterwards;--namely, the account of the manner in which
+Scott--whom we shall always find, as aforesaid, to be in salient and
+palpable elements of character, of the World, worldly, as Burns is of
+the Flesh, fleshly, and Byron of the Deuce, damnable,--spent his Sunday.
+
+76. As usual, from Lockhart's farrago we cannot find out the first thing
+we want to know,--whether Scott worked after his week-day custom, on the
+Sunday morning. But, I gather, not; at all events his household and his
+cattle rested (L. iii. 108). I imagine he walked out into his woods, or
+read quietly in his study. Immediately after breakfast, whoever was in
+the house, "Ladies and gentlemen, I shall read prayers at eleven, when
+I expect you all to attend" (vii. 306). Question of college and other
+externally unanimous prayer settled for us very briefly: "if you have no
+faith, have at least manners." He read the Church of England service,
+lessons and all, the latter, if interesting, eloquently (_ibid._). After
+the service, one of Jeremy Taylor's sermons (vi. 188). After sermon, if
+the weather was fine, walk with his family, dogs included and guests, to
+_cold_ picnic (iii. 109), followed by short extempore biblical
+novelettes; for he had his Bible, the Old Testament especially, by
+heart, it having been his mother's last gift to him (vi. 174). These
+lessons to his children in Bible history were always given, whether
+there was picnic or not. For the rest of the afternoon he took his
+pleasure in the woods with Tom Purdie, who also always appeared at his
+master's elbow on Sunday after dinner was over, and drank long life to
+the laird and his lady and all the good company, in a quaigh of whisky
+or a tumbler of wine, according to his fancy (vi. 195). Whatever might
+happen on the other evenings of the week, Scott always dined at home on
+Sunday; and with old friends: never, unless inevitably, receiving any
+person with whom he stood on ceremony (v. 335). He came into the room
+rubbing his hands like a boy arriving at home for the holidays, his
+Peppers and Mustards gamboling about him, "and even the stately Maida
+grinning and wagging his tail with sympathy." For the usquebaugh of the
+less honored week-days, at the Sunday board he circulated the champagne
+briskly during dinner, and considered a pint of claret each man's fair
+share afterwards (v. 339). In the evening, music being to the Scottish
+worldly mind indecorous, he read aloud some favorite author, for the
+amusement or edification of his little circle. Shakespeare it might be,
+or Dryden,--Johnson, or Joanna Baillie,--Crabbe, or Wordsworth. But in
+those days "Byron was pouring out his spirit fresh and full, and if a
+new piece from _his_ hand had appeared, it was _sure to be read by Scott
+the Sunday evening afterwards_; and that with such delighted emphasis
+as showed how completely the elder bard had kept up his enthusiasm for
+poetry at pitch of youth, and all his admiration of genius, free, pure,
+and unstained by the least drop of literary jealousy" (v. 341).
+
+77. With such necessary and easily imaginable varieties as chanced in
+having Dandie Dinmont or Captain Brown for guests at Abbotsford, or
+Colonel Mannering, Counselor Pleydell, and Dr. Robertson in Castle
+Street, such was Scott's habitual Sabbath: a day, we perceive, of eating
+the fat, (_dinner_, presumably not cold, being a work of necessity and
+mercy--thou also, even thou, Saint Thomas of Turnbull, hast thine!) and
+drinking the sweet, abundant in the manner of Mr. Southey's cataract of
+Lodore,--"Here it comes, sparkling." A day bestrewn with coronatioens and
+sops in wine; deep in libations to good hope and fond memory; a day of
+rest to beast, and mirth to man, (as also to sympathetic beasts that can
+be merry,) and concluding itself in an Orphic hour of delight,
+signifying peace on Tweedside, and goodwill to men, there or far
+away;--always excepting the French, and Boney.
+
+"Yes, and see what it all came to in the end."
+
+Not so, dark-virulent Minos-Mucklewrath; the end came of quite other
+things; of _these_, came such length of days and peace as Scott had in
+his Fatherland, and such immortality as he has in all lands.
+
+78. Nathless, firm, though deeply courteous, rebuke, for his sometimes
+overmuch lightmindedness, was administered to him by the more grave and
+thoughtful Byron. For the Lord Abbot of Newstead knew his Bible by heart
+as well as Scott, though it had never been given him by his mother as
+her dearest possession. Knew it, and what was more, had thought of it,
+and sought in it what Scott had never cared to think, nor been fain to
+seek.
+
+And loving Scott well, and always doing him every possible pleasure in
+the way he sees to be most agreeable to him--as, for instance,
+remembering with precision, and writing down the very next morning,
+every blessed word that the Prince Regent had been pleased to say of
+him before courtly audience,--he yet conceived that such cheap ryming as
+his own "Bride of Abydos," for instance, which he had written from
+beginning to end in four days, or even the traveling reflections of
+Harold and Juan on men and women, were scarcely steady enough Sunday
+afternoon's reading for a patriarch-Merlin like Scott. So he dedicates
+to him a work of a truly religious tendency, on which for his own part
+he has done his best,--the drama of "Cain." Of which dedication the
+virtual significance to Sir Walter might be translated thus. Dearest and
+last of Border soothsayers, thou hast indeed told us of Black Dwarfs,
+and of White Maidens, also of Gray Friars, and Green Fairies; also of
+sacred hollies by the well, and haunted crooks in the glen. But of the
+bushes that the black dogs rend in the woods of Phlegethon; and of the
+crooks in the glen, and the bickerings of the burnie where ghosts meet
+the mightiest of us; and of the black misanthrope, who is by no means
+yet a dwarfed one, and concerning whom wiser creatures than Hobbie
+Elliot may tremblingly ask "Gude guide us, what's yon?" hast thou yet
+known, seeing that thou hast yet told, _nothing_.
+
+Scott may perhaps have his answer. We shall in good time hear.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 73: September, 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 74: "It must be put by the original, stanza for stanza, and
+verse for verse; and you will see what was permitted in a Catholic
+country and a bigoted age to Churchmen, on the score of Religion--and so
+tell those buffoons who accuse me of attacking the Liturgy.
+
+"I write in the greatest haste, it being the hour of the Corso, and I
+must go and buffoon with the rest. My daughter Allegra is just gone with
+the Countess G. in Count G.'s coach and six. Our old Cardinal is dead,
+and the new one not appointed yet--but the masquing goes on the same."
+(Letter to Murray, 355th in Moore, dated Ravenna, Feb. 7, 1820.) "A
+dreadfully moral place, for you must not look at anybody's wife, except
+your neighbor's."]
+
+[Footnote 75: See quoted _infra_ the mock, by Byron, of himself and all
+other modern poets, "Juan," canto iii. stanza 80, and compare canto xiv.
+stanza 8. In reference of future quotations the first numeral will stand
+always for canto; the second for stanza; the third, if necessary, for
+line.]
+
+[Footnote 76: "Island," ii. 16, where see context.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Juan," viii. 5; but, by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says "instrument,"--not "daughter." Your Lordship had better
+have said "Infant" and taken the Woolwich authorities to witness: only
+Infant would not have rymed.]
+
+[Footnote 78: "Juan," viii. 3; compare 14, and 63, with all its lovely
+context 61-68: then 82, and afterwards slowly and with thorough
+attention, the Devil's speech, beginning, "Yes, Sir, you forget" in
+scene 2 of "The Deformed Transformed": then Sardanapalus's, act i. scene
+2, beginning, "he is gone, and on his finger bears my signet," and
+finally the "Vision of Judgment," stanzas 3 to 5.]
+
+[Footnote 79: "Island," iii. 3, and compare, of shore surf, the "slings
+its high flakes, shivered into sleet" of stanza 7.]
+
+[Footnote 80: A modern editor--of whom I will not use the expressions
+which occur to me--finding the "we" a redundant syllable in the iambic
+line, prints, "we're." It is a little thing--but I do not recollect, in
+the forty years of my literary experience, any piece of editor's retouch
+quite so base. But I don't read the new editions much: that must be
+allowed for.]
+
+[Footnote 81: "Island," ii. 5. I was going to say, "Look to the
+context," but am fain to give it here; for the stanza, learned by heart,
+ought to be our school-introduction to the literature of the world.
+
+  "Such was this ditty of Tradition's days,
+  Which to the dead a lingering fame conveys
+  In song, where fame as yet hath left no sign
+  Beyond the sound whose charm is half divine;
+  Which leaves no record to the skeptic eye,
+  But yields young history all to harmony;
+  A boy Achilles, with the centaur's lyre
+  In hand, to teach him to surpass his sire.
+  For one long-cherish'd ballad's simple stave,
+  Rung from the rock, or mingled with the wave,
+  Or from the bubbling streamlet's grassy side,
+  Or gathering mountain echoes as they glide,
+  Hath greater power o'er each true heart and ear,
+  Than all the columns Conquest's minions rear;
+  Invites, when hieroglyphics are a theme
+  For sages' labors or the student's dream;
+  Attracts, when History's volumes are a toil--
+  The first, the freshest bud of Feeling's soil,
+  Such was this rude rhyme--rhyme is of the rude,
+  But such inspired the Norseman's solitude,
+  Who came and conquer'd; such, wherever rise
+  Lands which no foes destroy or civilize,
+  Exist; and what can our accomplish'd art
+  Of verse do more than reach the awaken'd heart?"]
+
+[Footnote 82: "Shepherd's Calendar." "Coronatioen," loyal-pastoral for
+Carnation; "sops in wine," jolly-pastoral for double pink; "paunce,"
+thoughtless pastoral for pansy; "chevisaunce," I don't know (not in
+Gerarde); "flowre-delice"--pronounce dellice--half made up of "delicate"
+and "delicious."]
+
+[Footnote 83: Herrick, "Dirge for Jephthah's Daughter."]
+
+[Footnote 84: "Passionate Pilgrim."]
+
+[Footnote 85: In this point compare the "Curse of Minerva" with the
+"Tears of the Muses."]
+
+[Footnote 86: "He,"--Lucifer; ("Vision of Judgment," 24). It is
+precisely because Byron was _not_ his servant, that he could see the
+gloom. To the Devil's true servants, their Master's presence brings both
+cheerfulness and prosperity; with a delightful sense of their own wisdom
+and virtue; and of the "progress" of things in general:--in smooth sea
+and fair weather,--and with no need either of helm touch, or oar toil:
+as when once one is well within the edge of Maelstrom.]
+
+[Footnote 87: "Island," ii. 4; perfectly orthodox theology, you observe;
+no denial of the fall,--nor substitution of Bacterian birth for it. Nay,
+nearly Evangelical theology, in contempt for the human heart; but with
+deeper than Evangelical humility, acknowledging also what is sordid in
+its civilization.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+IV.[88]
+
+
+79. I fear the editor of the _Nineteenth Century_ will get little thanks
+from his readers for allowing so much space in closely successive
+numbers to my talk of old-fashioned men and things. I have nevertheless
+asked his indulgence, this time, for a note or two concerning yet older
+fashions, in order to bring into sharper clearness the leading outlines
+of literary fact, which I ventured only in my last paper to secure in
+_silhouette_, obscurely asserting itself against the limelight of recent
+moral creed, and fiction manufacture.
+
+The Bishop of Manchester, on the occasion of the great Wordsworthian
+movement in that city for the enlargement, adornment, and sale of
+Thirlmere, observed, in his advocacy of these operations, that very few
+people, he supposed, had ever seen Tairlmere. His Lordship might have
+supposed, with greater felicity, that very few people had ever read
+Wordsworth. My own experience in that matter is that the amiable persons
+who call themselves "Wordsworthian" have read--usually a long time
+ago--"Lucy Gray," "The April Mornings," a picked sonnet or two, and the
+"Ode on the Intimations," which last they seem generally to be under the
+impression that nobody else has ever met with: and my further experience
+of these sentimental students is, that they are seldom inclined to put
+in practice a single syllable of the advice tendered them by their model
+poet.
+
+Now, as I happen myself to have used Wordsworth as a daily text-book
+from youth to age, and have lived, moreover, in all essential points
+according to the tenor of his teaching, it was matter of some
+mortification to me, when, at Oxford, I tried to get the memory of Mr.
+Wilkinson's spade honored by some practical spadework at Ferry Hincksey,
+to find that no other tutor in Oxford could see the slightest good or
+meaning in what I was about; and that although my friend Professor
+Rolleston occasionally sought the shades of our Rydalian laurels with
+expressions of admiration, his professorial manner of "from pastoral
+graves extracting thoughts divine" was to fill the Oxford Museum with
+the scabbed skulls of plague-struck cretins.
+
+80. I therefore respectfully venture to intimate to my bucolic friends,
+that I know, more vitally by far than they, what _is_ in Wordsworth, and
+what is not. Any man who chooses to live by his precepts will thankfully
+find in them a beauty and rightness, (_exquisite_ rightness I called it,
+in "Sesame and Lilies,") which will preserve him alike from mean
+pleasure, vain hope, and guilty deed: so that he will neither mourn at
+the gate of the fields which with covetous spirit he sold, nor drink of
+the waters which with yet more covetous spirit he stole, nor devour the
+bread of the poor in secret, nor set on his guest-table the poor man's
+lamb:--in all these homely virtues and assured justices let him be
+Wordsworth's true disciple; and he will then be able with equanimity to
+hear it said, when there is need to say so, that his excellent master
+often wrote verses that were not musical, and sometimes expressed
+opinions that were not profound.
+
+And the need to say so becomes imperative when the unfinished verse, and
+uncorrected fancy, are advanced by the affection of his disciples into
+places of authority where they give countenance to the popular national
+prejudices from the infection of which, in most cases, they themselves
+sprang.
+
+81. Take, for example, the following three and a half lines of the 38th
+Ecclesiastical Sonnet:--
+
+  "Amazement strikes the crowd; while many turn
+  Their eyes away in sorrow, others burn
+  With scorn, invoking a vindictive ban
+  From outraged Nature."
+
+The first quite evident character of these lines is that they are
+extremely bad iambics,--as ill-constructed as they are unmelodious; the
+turning and burning being at the wrong ends of them, and the ends
+themselves put just when the sentence is in its middle.
+
+But a graver fault of these three and a half lines is that the
+amazement, the turning, the burning, and the banning, are all alike
+fictitious; and foul-fictitious, calumniously conceived no less than
+falsely. Not one of the spectators of the scene referred to was in
+reality amazed--not one contemptuous, not one maledictory. It is only
+our gentle minstrel of the meres who sits in the seat of the
+scornful--only the hermit of Rydal Mount who invokes the malison of
+Nature.
+
+What the scene verily was, and how witnessed, it will not take long to
+tell; nor will the tale be useless: but I must first refer the reader to
+a period preceding, by nearly a century, the great symbolic action under
+the porch of St. Mark's.
+
+82. The Protestant ecclesiastic, and infidel historian, who delight to
+prop their pride, or edge their malice, in unveiling the corruption
+through which Christianity has passed, should study in every fragment of
+authentic record which the fury of their age has left, the lives of the
+three queens of the Priesthood, Theodora, Marozia, and Matilda, and the
+foundation of the merciless power of the Popes, by the monk Hildebrand.
+And if there be any of us who would satisfy with nobler food than the
+catastrophes of the stage, the awe at what is marvelous in human sorrow
+which makes sacred the fountain of tears in authentic tragedy, let them
+follow, pace by pace, and pang by pang, the humiliation of the fourth
+Henry at Canossa, and his death in the church he had built to the Virgin
+at Spire.
+
+His antagonist, Hildebrand, died twenty years before him; captive to the
+Normans in Salerno, having seen the Rome in which he had proclaimed his
+princedom over all the earth, laid in her last ruin; and forever. Rome
+herself, since her desolation by Guiscard, has been only a grave and a
+wilderness[89]--what _we_ call Rome, is a mere colony of the stranger
+in her "Field of Mars." This destruction of Rome by the Normans is
+accurately and utterly the end of her Capitoline and wolf-suckled power;
+and from that day her Leonine or Christian power takes its throne in the
+Leonine city, sanctified in tradition by its prayer of safety for the
+Saxon Borgo, in which the childhood of our own Alfred had been trained.
+
+And from this date forward, (recollected broadly as 1090, the year of
+the birth of St. Bernard,) no longer oppressed by the remnants of Roman
+death,--Christian faith, chivalry, and art possess the world, and
+recreate it, through the space of four hundred years--the twelfth,
+thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries.
+
+And, necessarily, in the first of these centuries comes the main debate
+between the powers of Monk and Knight which was reconciled in this scene
+under the porch of St. Mark's.
+
+83. That debate was brought to its crisis and issue by the birth of the
+new third elemental force of the State--the Citizen. Sismondi's
+republican enthusiasm does not permit him to recognize the essential
+character of this power. He speaks always of the Republics and the
+liberties of Italy, as if a craftsman differed from a knight only in
+political privileges, and as if his special virtue consisted in
+rendering obedience to no master. But the strength of the great cities
+of Italy was no more republican than that of her monasteries, or
+fortresses. The Craftsman of Milan, Sailor of Pisa, and Merchant of
+Venice are all of them essentially different persons from the soldier
+and the anchorite:--but the city, under the banner of its _caroccio_,
+and the command of its _podesta_, was disciplined far more strictly than
+any wandering military squadron by its leader, or any lower order of
+monks under their abbot. In the founding of civic constitutions, the
+Lord of the city is usually its Bishop:--and it is curious to hear the
+republican historian--who, however in judgment blind, is never in heart
+uncandid, prepare to close his record of the ten years' war of Como with
+Milan, with this summary of distress to the heroic mountaineers--that
+"they had lost their Bishop Guido, who was their soul."
+
+84. I perceive for quite one of the most hopeless of the many
+difficulties which Modernism finds, and will find, insuperable either by
+steam or dynamite, that of either wedging or welding into its own
+cast-iron head, any conception of a king, monk, or townsman of the
+twelfth and two succeeding centuries. And yet no syllable of the
+utterance, no fragment of the arts of the middle ages, far less any
+motive of their deeds, can be read even in the letter--how much less
+judged in spirit--unless, first of all, we can somewhat imagine all
+these three Living souls.
+
+First, a king who was the best knight in his kingdom, and on whose own
+swordstrokes hung the fate of Christendom. A king such as Henry the
+Fowler, the first and third Edwards of England, the Bruce of Scotland,
+and this Frederic the First of Germany.
+
+Secondly, a monk who had been trained from youth in greater hardship
+than any soldier, and had learned at last to desire no other life than
+one of hardship;--a man believing in his own and his fellows'
+immortality, in the aiding powers of angels, and the eternal presence of
+God; versed in all the science, graceful in all the literature,
+cognizant of all the policy of his age; and fearless of any created
+thing, on the earth or under it.
+
+And, lastly, a craftsman absolutely master of his craft, and taking such
+pride in the exercise of it as all healthy souls take in putting forth
+their personal powers: proud also of his city and his people; enriching,
+year by year, their streets with loftier buildings, their treasuries
+with rarer possession; and bequeathing his hereditary art to a line of
+successive masters, by whose tact of race, and honor of effort, the
+essential skills of metal-work in gold and steel, of pottery,
+glass-painting, woodwork, and weaving, were carried to a perfectness
+never to be surpassed; and of which our utmost modern hope is to produce
+a not instantly detected imitation.
+
+These three kinds of persons, I repeat, we have to conceive before we
+can understand any single event of the Middle Ages. For all that is
+enduring in them was done by men such as these. History, indeed, records
+twenty undoings for one deed, twenty desolations for one redemption; and
+thinks the fool and villain potent as the wise and true. But Nature and
+her laws recognize only the noble: generations of the cruel pass like
+the darkness of locust plagues; while one loving and brave heart
+establishes a nation.
+
+85. I give the character of Barbarossa in the words of Sismondi, a man
+sparing in the praise of emperors:--
+
+"The death of Frederic was mourned even by the cities which so long had
+been the objects of his hostility, and the victims of his vengeance. All
+the Lombards--even the Milanese--acknowledged his rare courage, his
+constancy in misfortune--his generosity in conquest.
+
+"An intimate conviction of the justice of his cause had often rendered
+him cruel, even to ferocity, against those who still resisted; but after
+victory he took vengeance only on senseless walls; and irritated as he
+had been by the people of Milan, Crema, and Tortona, and whatever blood
+he had shed during battle, he never sullied his triumph by odious
+punishments. In spite of the treason which he on one occasion used
+against Alessandria, his promises were in general respected; and when,
+after the peace of Constance, the towns which had been most inveterately
+hostile to him received him within their walls, they had no need to
+guard against any attempt on his part to suppress the privileges he had
+once recognized."
+
+My own estimate of Frederic's character would be scarcely so favorable;
+it is the only point of history on which I have doubted the authority
+even of my own master, Carlyle. But I am concerned here only with the
+actualities of his wars in Italy, with the people of her cities, and the
+head of her religion.
+
+86. Frederic of Suabia, direct heir of the Ghibelline rights, while
+nearly related by blood to the Guelph houses of Bavaria and Saxony, was
+elected emperor almost in the exact middle of the twelfth century
+(1152). He was called into Italy by the voices of Italians. The then
+Pope, Eugenius III., invoked his aid against the Roman people under
+Arnold of Brescia. The people of Lodi prayed his protection against the
+tyrannies of Milan.
+
+Frederic entered the plain of Verona in 1154, by the valley of the
+Adige,--ravaged the territory of Milan,--pillaged and burned Tortona,
+Asti, and Chieri,--kept his Christmas at Novara; marched on
+Rome,--delivered up Arnold to the Pope[90] (who, instantly killing him,
+ended for that time Protestant reforms in Italy)--destroyed Spoleto; and
+returned by Verona, having scorched his path through Italy like a level
+thunderbolt along the ground.
+
+Three years afterwards, Adrian died; and, chiefly, by the love and will
+of the Roman people, Roland of Siena was raised to the Papal throne,
+under the name of Alexander III. The conclave of cardinals chose another
+Pope, Victor III.; Frederic on his second invasion of Italy (1158)
+summoned both elected heads of the Church to receive judgment of their
+claims before _him_.
+
+The Cardinals' Pope, Victor, obeyed. The people's Alexander, refused;
+answering that the successor of St. Peter submitted himself to the
+judgment neither of emperors nor councils.
+
+The spirit of modern prelacy may perhaps have rendered it impossible for
+an English churchman to conceive this answer as other than that of
+insolence and hypocrisy. But a faithful Pope, and worthy of his throne,
+could answer no otherwise. Frederic of course at once confirmed the
+claims of his rival; the German bishops and Italian cardinals in council
+at Pavia joined their powers to the Emperor's and Alexander, driven from
+Rome, wandered--unsubdued in soul--from city to city, taking refuge at
+last in France.
+
+87. Meantime, in 1159, Frederic took and destroyed Crema, having first
+bound its hostages to his machines of war. In 1161, Milan submitted to
+his mercy, and he decreed that her name should perish. Only a few
+pillars of a Roman temple, and the church of St. Ambrose, remain to us
+of the ancient city. Warned by her destruction, Verona, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, and Venice, joined in the vow--called of the Lombard League--to
+reduce the Emperor's power within its just limits. And, in 1164,
+Alexander, under the protection of Louis VII. of France and Henry II. of
+England, returned to Rome, and was received at Ostia by its senate,
+clergy, and people.
+
+Three years afterwards, Frederic again swept down on the Campagna;
+attacked the Leonine city, where the basilica of the Vatican, changed
+into a fortress, and held by the Pope's guard, resisted his assault
+until, by the Emperor's order, fire was set to the Church of St. Mary of
+Pity.
+
+The Leonine city was taken; the Pope retired to the Coliseum, whence,
+uttering once again his fixed defiance of the Emperor, but fearing
+treachery, he fled in disguise down the Tiber to the sea, and sought
+asylum at Benevento.
+
+The German army encamped round Rome in August of 1166, with the sign
+before their eyes of the ruins of the church of Our Lady of Pity. The
+marsh-fever struck them--killed the Emperor's cousin, Frederic of
+Rothenburg, the Duke of Bavaria, the Archbishop of Cologne, the Bishops
+of Liege, Spire, Ratisbonne, and Verden, and two thousand knights; the
+common dead were uncounted. The Emperor gathered the wreck of his army
+together, retreated on Lombardy, quartered his soldiery at Pavia, and
+escaped in secret over the Mont Cenis with thirty knights.
+
+88. No places of strength remained to him south of the Alps but Pavia
+and Montferrat; and to hold these in check, and command the plains of
+Piedmont, the Lombard League built the fortress city, which, from the
+Pope who had maintained through all adversity the authority of his
+throne and the cause of the Italian people, they named "Alessandria."
+
+Against this bulwark the Emperor, still indomitable, dashed with his
+utmost regathered strength after eight years of pause, and in the temper
+in which men set their souls on a single stake. All had been lost in
+his last war, except his honor--in this, he lost his honor also.
+Whatever may be the just estimate of the other elements of his
+character, he is unquestionably, among the knights of his time, notable
+in impiety. In the battle of Cassano, he broke through the Milanese
+vanguard to their _caroccio_, and struck down with his own hand its
+golden crucifix;--two years afterwards its cross and standard were bowed
+before him--and in vain.[91] He fearlessly claims for himself right of
+decision between contending popes, and camps against the rightful one on
+the ashes of the Church of the Virgin.
+
+Foiled in his first assault on Alessandria, detained before it through
+the inundations of the winter, and threatened by the army of the League
+in the spring, he announced a truce to the besieged, that they might
+keep Good Friday. Then violating alike the day's sanctity and his own
+oath, he attacked the trusting city through a secretly completed mine.
+And, for a second time, the verdict of God went forth against him. Every
+man who had obtained entrance within the city was slain or cast from its
+ramparts;--the Alessandrines threw all their gates open--fell, with the
+broken fugitives, on the investing troops, scattered them in disorder,
+and burned their towers of attack. The Emperor gathered their remains
+into Pavia on Easter Sunday,--spared in his defeat by the army of the
+League.
+
+89. And yet, once more, he brought his cause to combat-trial.
+Temporizing at Lodi with the Pope's legates, he assembled, under the
+Archbishops of Magdebourg and Cologne, and the chief prelates and
+princes of Germany, a seventh army; brought it down to Como across the
+Spluegen, put himself there at its head, and in the early spring of 1176,
+the fifteenth year since he had decreed the effacing of the name of
+Milan, was met at Legnano by the specter of Milan.
+
+Risen from her grave, she led the Lombard League in this final battle.
+Three hundred of her nobles guarded her _caroccio_; nine hundred of her
+knights bound themselves--under the name of the Cohort of Death--to win
+for her, or to die.
+
+The field of battle is in the midst of the plain, now covered with maize
+and mulberry trees, from which the traveler, entering Italy by the Lago
+Maggiore, sees first the unbroken snows of the Rosa behind him and the
+white pinnacles of Milan Cathedral in the south. The Emperor, as was his
+wont, himself led his charging chivalry. The Milanese knelt as it
+came;--prayed aloud to God, St. Peter, and St. Ambrose--then advanced
+round their _caroccio_ on foot. The Emperor's charge broke through their
+ranks nearly up to their standard--then the Cohort of Death rode against
+him.
+
+90. And all his battle changed before them into flight. For the first
+time in stricken field, the imperial standard fell, and was taken. The
+Milanese followed the broken host until their swords were weary; and the
+Emperor, struck fighting from his horse, was left, lost among the dead.
+The Empress, whose mercy to Milan he had forbidden, already wore
+mourning for him in Pavia, when her husband came, solitary and
+suppliant, to its gate.
+
+The lesson at last sufficed; and Barbarossa sent his heretic bishops to
+ask forgiveness of the Pope, and peace from the Lombards.
+
+Pardon and peace were granted--without conditions. "Caesar's successor"
+had been the blight of Italy for a quarter of a century; he had ravaged
+her harvests, burnt her cities, decimated her children with famine, her
+young men with the sword; and, seven times over, in renewed invasion,
+sought to establish dominion over her, from the Alps to the rock of
+Scylla.
+
+She asked of him no restitution;--coveted no province--demanded no
+fortress, of his land. Neither coward nor robber, she disdained alike
+guard and gain upon her frontiers: she counted no compensation for her
+sorrow; and set no price upon the souls of her dead. She stood in the
+porch of her brightest temple--between the blue plains of her earth and
+sea, and, in the person of her spiritual father, gave her enemy pardon.
+
+"Black demons hovering o'er his mitered head," think you, gentle
+sonneteer of the daffodil-marsh? And have Barbarossa's race been taught
+of better angels how to bear themselves to a conquered emperor,--or
+England, by braver and more generous impulses, how to protect his exiled
+son?
+
+The fall of Venice, since that day, was measured by Byron in a single
+line:
+
+  "An Emperor tramples where an emperor knelt."
+
+But what words shall measure the darker humiliation of the German
+pillaging his helpless enemy and England leaving her ally under the
+savage's spear?
+
+91. With the clews now given, and an hour or two's additional reading of
+any standard historian he pleases, the reader may judge on secure
+grounds whether the truce of Venice and peace of Constance were of the
+Devil's making: whereof whatever he may ultimately feel or affirm, this
+at least he will please note for positive, that Mr. Wordsworth, having
+no shadow of doubt of the complete wisdom of every idea that comes into
+his own head, writes down in dogmatic sonnet his first impression of
+black instrumentality in the business; so that his innocent readers,
+taking him for their sole master, far from caring to inquire into the
+thing more deeply, may remain even unconscious that it is disputable,
+and forever incapable of conceiving either a Catholic's feeling, or a
+careful historian's hesitation, touching the centrally momentous crisis
+of power in all the Middle Ages! Whereas Byron, knowing the history
+thoroughly, and judging of Catholicism with an honest and open heart,
+ventures to assert nothing that admits of debate, either concerning
+human motives or angelic presences; but binds into one line of massive
+melody the unerringly counted sum of Venetian majesty and shame.
+
+92. In a future paper, I propose examining his method of dealing with
+the debate, itself on a higher issue: and will therefore close the
+present one by trampling a few of the briers and thorns of popular
+offense out of our way.
+
+The common counts against Byron are in the main, three.
+
+I. That he confessed--in some sort, even proclaimed defiantly (which is
+a proud man's natural manner of confession)[92]--the naughtiness of his
+life.
+
+The hypocrisy[93] even of Pall Mall and Petit Trianon does not, I
+assume, and dares not, go so far as to condemn the naughtiness itself?
+And that he _did_ confess it, is precisely the reason for reading him by
+his own motto "Trust Byron." You always may; and the common
+smooth-countenanced man of the world is guiltier in the precise measure
+of your higher esteem for him.
+
+II. That he wrote about pretty things which ought never to be heard of.
+
+In the presence of the exact proprieties of modern Fiction, Art, and
+Drama, I am shy of touching on the question of what should be mentioned,
+and seen--and should not. All that I care to say, here, is that Byron
+tells you of realities, and that their being pretty ones is, to my
+mind,--at the first (literally) blush, of the matter, rather in his
+favor. If however you have imagined that he means you to think Dudu as
+pretty as Myrrha,[94] or even Haidee, whether in full dress or none, as
+pretty as Marina, it is your fault, not his.
+
+93. III. That he blasphemed God and the King.
+
+Before replying to this count, I must ask the reader's patience in a
+piece of very serious work, the ascertainment of the real and full
+meaning of the word Blasphemy. It signifies simply "Harmful
+speaking"--Male-diction--or shortly "Blame"; and may be committed as
+much against a child or a dog, if you _desire_ to hurt them, as against
+the Deity. And it is, in its original use, accurately opposed to another
+Greek word, "Euphemy," which means a reverent and loving manner of
+benediction--fallen entirely into disuse in modern sentiment and
+language.
+
+Now the compass and character of essential Male-diction, so-called in
+Latin, or Blasphemy, so-called in Greek, may, I think, be best explained
+to the general reader by an instance in a very little thing, first
+translating the short pieces of Plato which best show the meaning of the
+word in codes of Greek morality.
+
+     "These are the things then" (the true order of the Sun, Moon, and
+     Planets), "oh my friends, of which I desire that all our citizens
+     and youths should learn at least so much concerning the Gods of
+     Heaven, as not to blaspheme concerning them, but to eupheme
+     reverently, both in sacrificing, and in every prayer they
+     pray."--Laws, VII. Steph. 821.
+
+     "And through the whole of life, beyond all other need for it, there
+     is need of Euphemy from a man to his parents, for there is no
+     heavier punishment than that of light and winged words," (to
+     _them_)? "for Nemesis, the angel of Divine Recompense, has been
+     throned Bishop over all men who sin in such manner."--IV. Steph.
+     717.
+
+The word which I have translated "recompense" is more strictly that
+"heavenly Justice"--the proper Light of the World, from which nothing
+can be hidden, and by which all who will may walk securely; whence the
+mystic answer of Ulysses to his son, as Athena, herself invisible, walks
+with them, filling the chamber of the house with light, "This is the
+justice of the Gods who possess Olympus." See the context in reference
+to which Plato quotes the line.--Laws, X. Steph. 904. The little story
+that I have to tell is significant chiefly in connection with the second
+passage of Plato above quoted.
+
+94. I have elsewhere mentioned that I was a homebred boy, and that as my
+mother diligently and scrupulously taught me my Bible and Latin Grammar,
+so my father fondly and devotedly taught me my Scott, my Pope, and my
+Byron.[95] The Latin grammar out of which my mother taught me was the
+11th edition of Alexander Adam's--(Edinb.: Bell and Bradfute,
+1823)--namely, that Alexander Adam, Rector of Edinburgh High School,
+into whose upper class Scott passed in October 1782, and who--previous
+masters having found nothing noticeable in the heavy-looking lad--_did_
+find sterling qualities in him, and "would constantly refer to him for
+dates, and particulars of battles, and other remarkable events alluded
+to in Horace, or _whatever other authors the boys were reading_; and
+called him the historian of his class" (L. i. 126). _That_ Alex. Adam,
+also, who, himself a loving historian, remembered the fate of every boy
+at his school during the fifty years he had headed it, and whose last
+words--"It grows dark, the boys may dismiss," gave to Scott's heart the
+vision and the audit of the death of Elspeth of the Craigburn-foot.
+
+Strangely, in opening the old volume at this moment (I would not give it
+for an illuminated missal) I find, in its article on Prosody, some
+things extremely useful to me, which I have been hunting for in vain
+through Zumpt and Matthiae. In all rational respects I believe it to be
+the best Latin Grammar that has yet been written.
+
+When my mother had carried me through it as far as the syntax, it was
+thought desirable that I should be put under a master: and the master
+chosen was a deeply and deservedly honored clergyman, the Rev. Thomas
+Dale, mentioned in Mr. Holbeach's article, "The New Fiction,"
+(_Contemporary Review_ for February of this year), together with Mr.
+Melville, who was our pastor after Mr. Dale went to St. Pancras.
+
+95. On the first day when I went to take my seat in Mr. Dale's
+schoolroom, I carried my old grammar to him, in a modest pride,
+expecting some encouragement and honor for the accuracy with which I
+could repeat, on demand, some hundred and sixty close-printed pages of
+it.
+
+But Mr. Dale threw it back to me with a fierce bang upon his desk,
+saying (with accent and look of seven-times-heated scorn), "That's a
+_Scotch_ thing."
+
+Now, my father being Scotch, and an Edinburgh High School boy, and my
+mother having labored in that book with me since I could read, and all
+my happiest holiday time having been spent on the North Inch of Perth,
+these four words, with the action accompanying them, contained as much
+insult, pain, and loosening of my respect for my parents, love of my
+father's country, and honor for its worthies, as it was possible to
+compress into four syllables and an ill-mannered gesture. Which were
+therefore pure, double-edged and point-envenomed blasphemy. For to make
+a boy despise his mother's care, is the straightest way to make him also
+despise his Redeemer's voice; and to make him scorn his father and his
+father's house, the straightest way to make him deny his God, and his
+God's Heaven.
+
+96. I speak, observe, in this instance, only of the actual words and
+their effect; not of the feeling in the speaker's mind, which was almost
+playful, though his words, tainted with extremity of pride, were such
+light ones as men shall give account of at the Day of Judgment. The real
+sin of blasphemy is not in the saying, nor even in the thinking; but in
+the wishing which is father to thought and word: and the nature of it is
+simply in wishing evil to anything; for as the quality of Mercy is not
+strained, so neither that of Blasphemy, the one distilling from the
+clouds of Heaven, the other from the steam of the Pit. He that is unjust
+in little is unjust in much, he that is malignant to the least is to the
+greatest, he who hates the earth which is God's footstool, hates yet
+more Heaven which is God's throne, and Him that sitteth thereon.
+Finally, therefore, blasphemy is wishing ill to _any_ thing; and its
+outcome is in Vanni Fucci's extreme "ill manners"--wishing ill to God.
+
+On the contrary, Euphemy is wishing well to everything, and its outcome
+is in Burns' extreme "good manners," wishing well to--
+
+  "Ah! wad ye tak a thought, and men'!"
+
+That is the supreme of Euphemy.
+
+97. Fix then, first in your minds, that the sin of malediction, whether
+Shimei's individual, or John Bull's national, is in the vulgar
+malignity, not in the vulgar diction, and then note further that the
+"phemy" or "fame" of the two words, blasphemy and euphemy, signifies
+broadly the bearing of _false_ witness _against_ one's neighbor in the
+one case, and of _true_ witness _for_ him in the other: so that while
+the peculiar province of the blasphemer is to throw firelight on the
+evil in good persons, the province of the euphuist (I must use the word
+inaccurately for want of a better) is to throw sunlight on the good in
+bad ones; such, for instance, as Bertram, Meg Merrilies, Rob Roy, Robin
+Hood, and the general run of Corsairs, Giaours, Turks, Jews, Infidels,
+and Heretics; nay, even sisters of Rahab, and daughters of Moab and
+Ammon; and at last the whole spiritual race of him to whom it was said,
+"If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted?"
+
+98. And being thus brought back to our actual subject, I purpose, after
+a few more summary notes on the luster of the electrotype language of
+modern passion, to examine what facts or probabilities lie at the root
+both of Goethe's and Byron's imagination of that contest between the
+powers of Good and Evil, of which the Scriptural account appears to Mr.
+Huxley so inconsistent with the recognized laws of political economy;
+and has been, by the cowardice of our old translators, so maimed of its
+vitality, that the frank Greek assertion of St. Michael's not daring to
+blaspheme the devil,[96] is tenfold more mischievously deadened and
+caricatured by their periphrasis of "durst not bring against him a
+railing accusation," than by Byron's apparently--and only
+apparently--less reverent description of the manner of angelic encounter
+for an inferior ruler of the people.
+
+          "Between His Darkness and His Brightness
+  There passed a mutual glance of great politeness."
+
+  PARIS, _September 20, 1880._
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+99. I am myself extremely grateful, nor doubt a like feeling in most of
+my readers, both for the information contained in the first of the two
+following letters; and the correction of references in the second, of
+which, however, I have omitted some closing sentences which the writer
+will, I think, see to have been unnecessary.[97]
+
+
+  NORTH STREET, WIRKSWORTH:
+  _August 2, 1880._
+
+DEAR SIR,--When reading your interesting article in the June
+number of the _Nineteenth Century_, and your quotation from Walter
+Scott, I was struck with the great similarity between some of the Scotch
+words and my native tongue (Norwegian). _Whigmaleerie_, as to the
+derivation of which you seem to be in some perplexity, is in Norwegian
+_Vaegmaleri_. _Vaeg_, pronounced "Vegg," signifying wall, and Maleri
+"picture," pronounced almost the same as in Scotch, and derived from _at
+male_, to paint. Siccan is in Danish _sikken_, used more about something
+comical than great, and scarcely belonging to the written language, in
+which _slig_, such, and _slig en_, such a one, would be the equivalent.
+I need not remark that as to the written language Danish and Norwegian
+is the same, only the dialects differ.
+
+Having been told by some English friends that this explanation would
+perhaps not be without interest to yourself, I take the liberty of
+writing this letter. I remain yours respectfully,
+
+  THEA BERG.
+
+
+  INNER TEMPLE: _September 9, 1880._
+
+SIR,--In your last article on Fiction, Foul and Fair
+(_Nineteenth Century_, September 1880) you have the following note:
+
+"Juan viii. 5" (it ought to be 9) "but by your Lordship's quotation,
+Wordsworth says 'instrument' not 'daughter.'"
+
+Now in Murray's edition of Byron, 1837, octavo, his Lordship's quotation
+is as follows:--
+
+  "But thy most dreaded instrument
+  In working out a pure intent
+  Is man arranged for mutual slaughter;
+  Yea, Carnage is thy daughter."
+
+And his Lordship refers you to "Wordsworth's Thanksgiving Ode."
+
+I have no early edition of Wordsworth. In Moxon's, 1844, no such lines
+appear in the Thanksgiving Ode, but in the ode dated 1815, and printed
+immediately before it, the following lines occur.
+
+  "But man is thy most awful instrument
+  In working out a pure intent."
+
+It is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that Wordsworth altered
+the lines after "Don Juan" was written. I am, with great respect, your
+obedient servant,
+
+  RALPH THICKNESSE.
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN, Esq.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 88: November, 1880.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 89: "Childe Harold," iv. 79; compare "Adonais," and Sismondi,
+vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Adrian the Fourth. Eugenius died in the previous year.]
+
+[Footnote 91: "All the multitudes threw themselves on their knees,
+praying mercy in the name of the crosses they bore: the Count of
+Blandrata took a cross from the enemies with whom he had served, and
+fell at the foot of the throne, praying for mercy to them. All the court
+and the witnessing army were in tears--the Emperor alone showed no sign
+of emotion. Distrusting his wife's sensibility, he had forbidden her
+presence at the ceremony; the Milanese, unable to approach her, threw
+towards her windows the crosses they carried, to plead for
+them."--Sismondi (French edition), vol. i. p. 378.]
+
+[Footnote 92: The most noble and tender confession is in Allegra's
+epitaph, "I shall go to her, but she shall not return to me."]
+
+[Footnote 93: Hypocrisy is too good a word for either Pall Mall or
+Trianon, being justly applied (as always in the New Testament), only to
+men whose false religion has become earnest, and a part of their being:
+so that they compass heaven and earth to make a proselyte. There is no
+relation between minds of this order and those of common rogues. Neither
+Tartuffe nor Joseph Surface are hypocrites--they are simply impostors:
+but many of the most earnest preachers in all existing churches are
+hypocrites in the highest; and the Tartuffe-Squiredom and Joseph
+Surface-Masterhood of our virtuous England which build churches and pay
+priests to keep their peasants and hands peaceable, so that rents and
+per cents may be spent, unnoticed, in the debaucheries of the
+metropolis, are darker forms of imposture than either heaven or earth
+have yet been compassed by; and what they are to end in, heaven and
+earth only know. Compare again, "Island," ii. 4, "the prayers of Abel
+linked to deeds of Cain," and "Juan," viii. 25, 26.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Perhaps some even of the attentive readers of Byron may
+not have observed the choice of the three names--Myrrha (bitter
+incense), Marina (sea lady), Angiolina (little angel)--in relation to
+the plots of the three plays.]
+
+[Footnote 95: I shall have lost my wits very finally when I forget the
+first time that I pleased my father with a couplet of English verse
+(after many a year of trials); and the radiant joy on his face as he
+declared, reading it aloud to my mother with emphasis half choked by
+tears,--that "it was as fine as anything that Pope or Byron ever
+wrote!"]
+
+[Footnote 96: Of our tingle-tangle-titmouse disputes in Parliament like
+Robins in a bush, but not a Robin in all the house knowing his great A,
+hear again Plato: "But they, for ever so little a quarrel, uttering much
+voice, blaspheming, speak evil one of another,--and it is not becoming
+that in a city of well-ordered persons, such things should be--no;
+nothing of them nohow nowhere,--and let this be the one law for all--let
+nobody speak mischief of anybody ([Greek: Medena kakegoreito
+medeis])."--Laws, book ii. s. 935; and compare Book iv. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 97: A paragraph beginning "I find press corrections always
+irksome work, and in my last paper trust the reader's kindness to make
+some corrections in the preceding paper," is here omitted, and the
+corrections made.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FICTION, FAIR AND FOUL.
+
+V.[98]
+
+THE TWO SERVANTS.
+
+
+100. I have assumed throughout these papers, that everybody knew what
+Fiction meant; as Mr. Mill assumed in his Political Economy, that
+everybody knew what wealth meant. The assumption was convenient to Mr.
+Mill, and persisted in: but, for my own part, I am not in the habit of
+talking, even so long as I have done in this instance, without making
+sure that the reader knows what I am talking about; and it is high time
+that we should be agreed upon the primary notion of what Fiction is.
+
+A feigned, fictitious, artificial, supernatural,
+put-together-out-of-one's-head, thing. All this it must be, to begin
+with. The best type of it being the most practically fictile--a Greek
+vase. A thing which has two sides to be seen, two handles to be carried
+by, and a bottom to stand on, and a top to be poured out of, this, every
+right fiction _is_, whatever else it may be. Planned rigorously, rounded
+smoothly, balanced symmetrically, handled handily, lipped softly for
+pouring out oil and wine. Painted daintily at last with images of
+eternal things--
+
+  Forever shalt thou love, and she be fair.
+
+101. Quite a different thing from a "cast,"--this work of clay in the
+hands of the potter, as it seemed good to the potter to make it. Very
+interesting, a cast from life may perhaps be; more interesting, to some
+people perhaps, a cast from death;--most modern novels are like
+specimens from Lyme Regis, impressions of skeletons in mud.
+
+"Planned rigorously"--I press the conditions again one by one--it must
+be, as ever Memphian labyrinth or Norman fortress. Intricacy full of
+delicate surprise; covered way in secrecy of accurate purposes, not a
+stone useless, nor a word nor an incident thrown away.
+
+"Rounded smoothly"--the wheel of Fortune revolving with it in unfelt
+swiftness; like the world, its story rising like the dawn, closing like
+the sunset, with its own sweet light for every hour.
+
+"Balanced symmetrically"--having its two sides clearly separate, its war
+of good and evil rightly divided. Its figures moving in majestic law of
+light and shade.
+
+"Handled handily"--so that, being careful and gentle, you can take easy
+grasp of it and all that it contains; a thing given into your hand
+henceforth to have and to hold. Comprehensible, not a mass that both
+your arms cannot get round; tenable, not a confused pebble heap of which
+you can only lift one pebble at a time.
+
+"Lipped softly"--full of kindness and comfort: the Keats line indeed the
+perpetual message of it--"For ever shalt thou love, and she be fair."
+All beautiful fiction is of the Madonna, whether the Virgin of Athens or
+of Judah--Pan-Athenaic always.
+
+And all foul fiction is _leze majeste_ to the Madonna and to womanhood.
+For indeed the great fiction of every human life is the shaping of its
+Love, with due prudence, due imagination, due persistence and perfection
+from the beginning of its story to the end; for every human soul, its
+Palladium. And it follows that all right imaginative work is beautiful,
+which is a practical and brief law concerning it. All frightful things
+are either foolish, or sick, visits of frenzy, or pollutions of plague.
+
+102. Taking thus the Greek vase at its best time, for the symbol of fair
+fiction: of foul, you may find in the great entrance-room of the Louvre,
+filled with the luxurious _orfevrerie_ of the sixteenth century, types
+perfect and innumerable: Satyrs carved in serpentine, Gorgons platted in
+gold, Furies with eyes of ruby, Scyllas with scales of pearl; infinitely
+worthless toil, infinitely witless wickedness; pleasure satiated into
+idiocy, passion provoked into madness, no object of thought, or sight,
+or fancy, but horror, mutilation, distortion, corruption, agony of war,
+insolence of disgrace, and misery of Death.
+
+It is true that the ease with which a serpent, or something that will be
+understood for one, can be chased or wrought in metal, and the small
+workmanly skill required to image a satyr's hoof and horns, as compared
+to that needed for a human foot or forehead, have greatly influenced the
+choice of subject by incompetent smiths; and in like manner, the
+prevalence of such vicious or ugly story in the mass of modern
+literature is not so much a sign of the lasciviousness of the age, as of
+its stupidity, though each react on the other, and the vapor of the
+sulphurous pool becomes at last so diffused in the atmosphere of our
+cities, that whom it cannot corrupt, it will at least stultify.
+
+103. Yesterday, the last of August, came to me from the Fine Art
+Society, a series of twenty black and white scrabbles[99] of which I am
+informed in an eloquent preface that the author was a Michael Angelo of
+the glebe, and that his shepherds and his herdswomen are akin in dignity
+and grandeur to the prophets and Sibyls of the Sistine.
+
+Glancing through the series of these stupendous productions, I find one
+peculiarly characteristic and expressive of modern picture-making and
+novel-writing,--called "Hauling" or more definitely "Paysan rentrant du
+Fumier," which represents a man's back, or at least the back of his
+waistcoat and trousers, and hat, in full light, and a small blot where
+his face should be, with a small scratch where its nose should be,
+elongated into one representing a chink of timber in the background.
+
+Examining the volume farther, in the hope of discovering some trace of
+reasonable motive for the publication of these works by the Society, I
+perceive that this Michael Angelo of the glebe had indeed natural
+faculty of no mean order in him, and that the woeful history of his life
+contains very curious lessons respecting the modern conditions of
+Imagination and Art.
+
+104. I find in the first place, that he was a Breton peasant; his
+grandmother's godson, baptized in good hope, and christened Jean, after
+his father, and Francois after the Saint of Assisi, his godmother's
+patron. It was under her care and guidance and those of his uncle, the
+Abbe Charles, that he was reared; and the dignified and laborious
+earnestness of these governors of his was a chief influence in his life,
+and a distinguishing feature in his character. The Millet family led an
+existence almost patriarchal in its unalterable simplicity and
+diligence; and the boy grew up in an environment of toil, sincerity and
+devoutness. He was fostered upon the Bible, and the great book of
+nature.... When he woke, it was to the lowing of cattle and the song of
+birds; he was at play all day, among "the sights and sounds of the open
+landscape; and he slept with the murmur of the spinning-wheel in his
+ears, and the memory of the evening prayer in his heart.... He learned
+Latin from the parish priest, and from his uncle Charles; and he soon
+came to be a student of Virgil, and while yet young in his teens began
+to follow his father out into the fields, and thenceforward, as became
+the eldest boy in a large family, worked hard at grafting and plowing,
+sowing and reaping, scything and shearing and planting, and all the many
+duties of husbandmen. Meanwhile, he had taken to drawing ... copied
+everything he saw, and produced not only studies but compositions also;
+until at last his father was moved to take him away from farming, and
+have him taught painting."
+
+105. Now all this is related concerning the lad's early life by the
+prefatory and commenting author, as if expecting the general reader to
+admit that there had been some advantage for him in this manner of
+education:--that simplicity and devoutness are wholesome states of mind;
+that parish cures and uncle Abbes are not betrayers or devourers of
+youthful innocence--that there is profitable reading in the Bible, and
+something agreeably soothing--if not otherwise useful--in the sound of
+evening prayer. I may observe also in passing, that his education, thus
+far, is precisely what, for the last ten years, I have been describing
+as the most desirable for all persons intending to lead an honest and
+Christian life: (my recommendation that peasants should learn Latin
+having been, some four or five years ago, the subject of much merriment
+in the pages of _Judy_ and other such nurses of divine wisdom in the
+public mind.) It however having been determined by the boy's father that
+he should be a painter, and that art being unknown to the Abbe Charles
+and the village Cure (in which manner of ignorance, if the infallible
+Pope did but know it, he and his _now_ artless shepherds stand at a
+fatal disadvantage in the world as compared with monks who could
+illuminate with color as well as word)--the simple young soul is sent
+for the exalting and finishing of its artistic faculties to Paris.
+
+106. "Wherein," observers my prefatory author, "the romantic movement
+was in the full tide of prosperity."
+
+Hugo had written "Notre Dame," and Musset had published "Rolla" and the
+"Nuits"; Balzac the "Lys dans la Vallee"; Gautier the "Comedie de la
+Mort"; Georges Sand "Leone Leonie"; and a score of wild and eloquent
+novels more; and under the instruction of these romantic authors, his
+landlady, to whom he had intrusted the few francs he possessed, to dole
+out to him as he needed, fell in love with him, and finding he could
+not, or would not, respond to her advances, confiscated the whole
+deposit, and left him penniless. The preface goes on to tell us how, not
+feeling himself in harmony with these forms of Romanticism, he takes to
+the study of the Infinite, and Michael Angelo; how he learned to paint
+the Heroic Nude; how he mixed up for imitation the manners of Rubens,
+Ribera, Mantegna, and Correggio; how he struggled all his life with
+neglect, and endured with his family every agony of poverty; owed his
+butcher and his grocer, was exposed to endless worry and annoyance from
+writs and executions; and when first his grandmother died, and then his
+mother, neither death-bed was able to raise the money that would have
+carried him from Barbizon to Gruchy.
+
+The work now laid before the public by the Fine Art Society is to be
+considered, therefore--whatever its merits or defects may be--as an
+expression of the influence of the Infinite and Michael Angelo on a mind
+innocently prepared for their reception. And in another place I may take
+occasion to point out the peculiar adaptability of modern etching to the
+expression of the Infinite, by the multitude of scratches it can put on
+a surface without representing anything in particular; and to
+illustration of the majesty of Michael Angelo by preference of the backs
+and legs of people to their faces.
+
+107. But I refer to the book in this paper, partly indeed because my
+mind is full of its sorrow, and I may not be able to find another
+opportunity of saying so; but chiefly, because the author of the preface
+has summed the principal authors of depraved Fiction in a single
+sentence; and I want the reader to ask himself why, among all the forms
+of the picturesque which were suggested by this body of literary
+leaders, none were acceptable by, none helpful to, the mind of a youth
+trained in purity and faith.
+
+He will find, if he reflect, that it is not in romantic, or any other
+healthy aim, that the school detaches itself from those called sometimes
+by recent writers "classical"; but first by Infidelity, and an absence
+of the religious element so total that at last it passes into the hatred
+of priesthood which has become characteristic of Republicanism; and
+secondly, by the taint and leprosy of animal passion idealized as a
+governing power of humanity, or at least used as the chief element of
+interest in the conduct of its histories. It is with the _Sin_ of Master
+Anthony that Georges Sand (who is the best of them) overshadows the
+entire course of a novel meant to recommend simplicity of life--and by
+the weakness of Consuelo that the same authoress thinks it natural to
+set off the splendor of the most exalted musical genius.
+
+I am not able to judge of the degree of moral purpose, or conviction,
+with which any of the novelists wrote. But I am able to say with
+certainty that, whatever their purpose, their method is mistaken, and
+that no good is ever done to society by the pictorial representation of
+its diseases.
+
+108. All healthy and helpful literature sets simple bars between right
+and wrong; assumes the possibility, in men and women, of having healthy
+minds in healthy bodies, and loses no time in the diagnosis of fever or
+dyspepsia in either; least of all in the particular kind of fever which
+signifies the ungoverned excess of any appetite or passion. The
+"dullness" which many modern readers inevitably feel, and some modern
+blockheads think it creditable to allege, in Scott, consists not a
+little in his absolute purity from every loathsome element or excitement
+of the lower passions; so that people who live habitually in Satyric or
+hircine conditions of thought find him as insipid as they would a
+picture of Angelico's. The accurate and trenchant separation between him
+and the common railroad-station novelist is that, in his total method of
+conception, only lofty character is worth describing at all; and it
+becomes interesting, not by its faults, but by the difficulties and
+accidents of the fortune through which it passes, while, in the railway
+novel, interest is obtained with the vulgar reader for the vilest
+character, because the author describes carefully to his recognition the
+blotches, burrs and pimples in which the paltry nature resembles his
+own. The "Mill on the Floss" is perhaps the most striking instance
+extant of this study of cutaneous disease. There is not a single person
+in the book of the smallest importance to anybody in the world but
+themselves, or whose qualities deserved so much as a line of printer's
+type in their description. There is no girl alive, fairly clever, half
+educated, and unluckily related, whose life has not at least as much in
+it as Maggie's, to be described and to be pitied. Tom is a clumsy and
+cruel lout, with the making of better things in him (and the same may be
+said of nearly every Englishman at present smoking and elbowing his way
+through the ugly world his blunders have contributed to the making of);
+while the rest of the characters are simply the sweepings out of a
+Pentonville omnibus.[100]
+
+109. And it is very necessary that we should distinguish this
+essentially Cockney literature, developed only in the London suburbs,
+and feeding the demand of the rows of similar brick houses, which branch
+in devouring cancer round every manufacturing town,--from the really
+romantic literature of France. Georges Sand is often immoral; but she is
+always beautiful, and in the characteristic novel I have named, "Le
+Peche de Mons. Antoine," the five principal characters, the old Cavalier
+Marquis,--the Carpenter,--M. de Chateaubrun,--Gilberte,--and the really
+passionate and generous lover, are all as heroic and radiantly ideal as
+Scott's Colonel Mannering, Catherine Seyton, and Roland Graeme; while
+the landscape is rich and true with the emotion of years of life passed
+in glens of Norman granite and beside bays of Italian sea. But in the
+English Cockney school, which consummates itself in George Eliot, the
+personages are picked up from behind the counter and out of the gutter;
+and the landscape, by excursion train to Gravesend, with return ticket
+for the City-road.
+
+110. But the second reason for the dullness of Scott to the uneducated
+or miseducated reader lies far deeper; and its analysis is related to
+the most subtle questions in the Arts of Design.
+
+The mixed gayety and gloom in the plan of any modern novel fairly clever
+in the make of it, may be likened, almost with precision, to the
+patchwork of a Harlequin's dress, well spangled; a pretty thing enough,
+if the human form beneath it be graceful and active. Few personages on
+the stage are more delightful to me than a good Harlequin; also, if I
+chance to have nothing better to do, I can still read my Georges Sand or
+Alfred de Musset with much contentment, if only the story end well.
+
+But we must not dress Cordelia or Rosalind in robes of triangular
+patches, covered with spangles, by way of making the _coup d'oeil_ of
+them less dull; and so the story-telling of Scott is like the robe of
+the Sistine Zipporah--embroidered only on the edges with gold and blue,
+and the embroidery involving a legend written in mystic letters.
+
+And the interest and joy which he intends his reader to find in his
+tale, are in taking up the golden thread here and there in its intended
+recurrence--and following, as it rises again and again, his melody
+through the disciplined and unaccented march of the fugue.
+
+111. Thus the entire charm and meaning of the story of the Monastery
+depend on the degree of sympathy with which we compare the first and
+last incidents of the appearance of a character, whom perhaps not one in
+twenty readers would remember as belonging to the dramatis
+personae--Stawarth Bolton.
+
+Childless, he assures safety in the first scene of the opening tale to
+the widow of Glendinning and her two children--the elder boy challenging
+him at the moment, "I will war on thee to the death, when I can draw my
+father's sword." In virtually the last scene, the grown youth, now in
+command of a small company of spearmen in the Regent Murray's service,
+is on foot, in the first pause after the battle at Kennaquhair, beside
+the dead bodies of Julian Avenel and Christie, and the dying
+Catherine.[101]
+
+Glendinning forgot for a moment his own situation and duties, and was
+first recalled to them by a trampling of horse, and the cry of St.
+George for England, which the English soldiers still continued to use.
+His handful of men, for most of the stragglers had waited for Murray's
+coming up, remained on horseback, holding their lances upright, having
+no command either to submit or resist.
+
+"There stands our captain," said one of them, as a strong party of
+English came up, the vanguard of Foster's troop.
+
+"Your captain! with his sword sheathed, and on foot in the presence of
+his enemy? a raw soldier, I warrant him," said the English leader. "So!
+ho! young man, is your dream out, and will you now answer me if you will
+fight or fly?"
+
+"Neither," answered Halbert Glendinning, with great tranquillity.
+
+"Then throw down thy sword and yield thee," answered the Englishman.
+
+"Not till I can help myself no otherwise," said Halbert, with the same
+moderation of tone and manner.
+
+"Art thou for thine own hand, friend, or to whom dost thou owe service?"
+demanded the English captain.
+
+"To the noble Earl of Murray."
+
+"Then thou servest," said the Southron, "the most disloyal nobleman who
+breathes--false both to England and Scotland."
+
+"Thou liest," said Glendinning, regardless of all consequences.
+
+"Ha! art thou so hot now, and wert so cold but a minute since? I lie, do
+I? Wilt thou do battle with me on that quarrel?"
+
+"With one to one, one to two, or two to five, as you list," said Halbert
+Glendinning; "grant me but a fair field."
+
+"That thou shalt have. Stand back, my mates," said the brave
+Englishman. "If I fall, give him fair play, and let him go off free with
+his people."
+
+"Long life to the noble captain!" cried the soldiers, as impatient to
+see the duel as if it had been a bull.
+
+"He will have a short life of it, though," said the sergeant, "if he, an
+old man of sixty, is to fight for any reason, or for no reason, with
+every man he meets, and especially the young fellows he might be father
+to. And here comes the warden, besides, to see the sword-play."
+
+In fact, Sir John Foster came up with a considerable body of his
+horsemen, just as his captain, whose age rendered him unequal to the
+combat with so strong and active a youth as Glendinning, lost his
+sword.[102]
+
+"Take it up for shame, old Stawarth Bolton," said the English warden;
+"and thou, young man, get you gone to your own friends, and loiter not
+here."
+
+Notwithstanding this peremptory order, Halbert Glendinning could not
+help stopping to cast a look upon the unfortunate Catherine, who lay
+insensible of the danger and of the trampling of so many horses around
+her--insensible, as the second glance assured him, of all and forever.
+Glendinning almost rejoiced when he saw that the last misery of life was
+over, and that the hoofs of the war-horses, amongst which he was
+compelled to leave her, could only injure and deface a senseless corpse.
+He caught the infant from her arms, half ashamed of the shout of
+laughter which rose on all sides, at seeing an armed man in such a
+situation assume such an unwonted and inconvenient burden.
+
+"Shoulder your infant!" cried a harquebusier.
+
+"Port your infant!" said a pikeman.
+
+"Peace, ye brutes!" said Stawarth Bolton, "and respect humanity in
+others, if you have none yourselves. I pardon the lad having done some
+discredit to my gray hairs, when I see him take care of that helpless
+creature, which ye would have trampled upon as if ye had been littered
+of bitch-wolves, not born of women."
+
+The infant thus saved is the heir of Avenel, and the intricacy and
+fateful bearing of every incident and word in the scene, knitting into
+one central moment all the clews to the plot of two romances, as the
+rich boss of a Gothic vault gathers the shaft moldings of it, can only
+be felt by an entirely attentive reader; just as (to follow out the
+likeness on Scott's own ground) the willow-wreaths changed to stone of
+Melrose tracery can only be caught in their plighting by the keenest
+eyes. The meshes are again gathered by the master's own hand when the
+child now in Halbert's arms, twenty years hence, stoops over him to
+unlace his helmet, as the fallen knight lies senseless on the field of
+Carberry Hill.[103]
+
+112. But there is another, and a still more hidden method in Scott's
+designing of story, in which, taking extreme pains, he counts on much
+sympathy from the reader, and can assuredly find none in a modern
+student. The moral purpose of the whole, which he asserted in the
+preface to the first edition of Waverley, was involved always with the
+minutest study of the effects of true and false religion on the
+conduct;--which subject being always touched with his utmost lightness
+of hand and stealthiness of art, and founded on a knowledge of the
+Scotch character and the human heart, such as no other living man
+possessed, his purpose often escapes first observation as completely as
+the inner feelings of living people do; and I am myself amazed, as I
+take any single piece of his work up for examination, to find how many
+of its points I had before missed or disregarded.
+
+113. The groups of personages whose conduct in the Scott romance is
+definitely affected by religious conviction, may be arranged broadly, as
+those of the actual world, under these following heads:
+
+1. The lowest group consists of persons who, believing in the general
+truths of Evangelical religion, accommodate them to their passions, and
+are capable, by gradual increase in depravity, of any crime or violence.
+I am not going to include these in our present study. Trumbull ("Red
+Gauntlet"), Trusty Tomkyns ("Woodstock"), Burley ("Old Mortality"), are
+three of the principal types.
+
+2. The next rank above these consists of men who believe firmly and
+truly enough to be restrained from any conduct which they clearly
+recognize as criminal, but whose natural selfishness renders them
+incapable of understanding the morality of the Bible above a certain
+point; and whose imperfect powers of thought leave them liable in many
+directions to the warping of self-interest or of small temptations.
+
+Fairservice. Blattergowl. Kettledrummle. Gifted Gilfillan.
+
+3. The third order consists of men naturally just and honest, but with
+little sympathy and much pride, in whom their religion, while in the
+depth of it supporting their best virtues, brings out on the surface all
+their worst faults, and makes them censorious, tiresome, and often
+fearfully mischievous.
+
+Richie Moniplies. Davie Deans. Mause Hedrigg.
+
+4. The enthusiastic type, leading to missionary effort, often to
+martyrdom.
+
+Warden, in "Monastery." Colonel Gardiner. Ephraim Macbriar. Joshua
+Geddes.
+
+5. Highest type, fulfilling daily duty; always gentle, entirely firm,
+the comfort and strength of all around them; merciful to every human
+fault, and submissive without anger to every human oppression.
+
+Rachel Geddes. Jeanie Deans. Bessie Maclure, in "Old Mortality"--the
+Queen of all.
+
+114. In the present paper, I ask the reader's patience only with my
+fulfillment of a promise long since made, to mark the opposition of the
+effects of an entirely similar religious faith in two men of inferior
+position, representing in perfectness the commonest types in Scotland
+of the second and third order of religionists here distinguished, Andrew
+Fairservice ("Rob Roy"), and Richie Moniplies ("Nigel").
+
+The names of both the men imply deceitfulness of one kind or
+another--Fairservice, as serving fairly only in pretense; Moniplies, as
+having many windings, turns, and ways of escape. Scott's names are
+themselves so Moniplied that they need as much following out as
+Shakespeare's; and as their roots are pure Scotch, and few people have a
+good Scottish glossary beside them, or would use it if they had, the
+novels are usually read without any turning of the first keys to them. I
+did not myself know till very lately the root of Dandie Dinmont's
+name--"Dinmont," a two-year-old sheep; still less that of Moniplies,
+which I had been always content to take Master George Heriot's rendering
+of: "This fellow is not ill-named--he has more plies than one in his
+cloak." ("Nigel," i. 72.) In its first sense, it is the Scotch word for
+tripe, Moniplies being a butcher's son.
+
+115. Cunning, then, they both are, in a high degree--but Fairservice
+only for himself, Moniplies for himself and his friend; or, in grave
+business, even for his friend first. But it is one of Scott's first
+principles of moral law that cunning never shall succeed, unless
+definitely employed _against an enemy_ by a person whose essential
+character is wholly frank and true; as by Roland against Lady Lochleven,
+or Mysie Happer against Dan of the Howlet-hirst; but consistent cunning
+in the character always fails: Scott allows no Ulyssean hero.
+
+Therefore the cunning of Fairservice fails always, and totally; but that
+of Moniplies precisely according to the degree of its selfishness:
+wholly, in the affair of the petition--("I am sure I had a' the right
+and a' the risk," i. 73)--partially, in that of the carcanet. This he
+himself at last recognizes with complacency:--
+
+"I think you might have left me," says Nigel in their parting scene (i.
+286), "to act according to my own judgment."
+
+"Mickle better not," answered Richie; "mickle better not. We are a'
+frail creatures, and can judge better for ilk ither than in our own
+cases. And for me--even myself--I have always observed myself to be much
+more prudential in what I have done in your lordship's behalf, than even
+in what I have been able to transact for my own interest--whilk last, I
+have, indeed, always postponed, as in duty I ought."
+
+"I do believe thou hast," answered Lord Nigel, "having ever found thee
+true and faithful."
+
+And his final success is entirely owing to his courage and fidelity, not
+to his cunning.
+
+To this subtlety both the men join considerable power of penetration
+into the weaknesses of character; but Fairservice only sees the
+surface-failings, and has no respect for any kind of nobleness; while
+Richie watches the gradual lowering of his master's character and
+reputation with earnest sorrow.
+
+     "My lord," said Richie, "to be round with you, the grace of God is
+     better than gold pieces, and, if they were my last words," he said,
+     raising his voice, "I would say you are misled, and are forsaking
+     the paths your honorable father trode in; and what is more, you are
+     going--still under correction--to the devil with a dishclout, for
+     ye are laughed at by them that lead you into these disordered
+     bypaths" (i. 282).
+
+116. In the third place, note that the penetration of
+Moniplies,--though, as aforesaid, more into faults than virtues,--being
+yet founded on the truth of his own nature, is undeceivable. No rogue
+can escape him for an instant; and he sees through all the machinations
+of Lord Glenvarloch's enemies from the first; while Fairservice, shrewd
+enough in detecting the follies of good people, is quite helpless before
+knaves, and is deceived three times over by his own chosen
+friends--first by the lawyer's clerk, Touthope (ii. 21), then by the
+hypocrite MacVittie, and finally by his true blue Presbyterian friend
+Laurie.
+
+In these first elements of character the men are thus broadly
+distinguished; but in the next, requiring analysis, the differences are
+much more subtle. Both of them have, in nearly equal degree, the
+peculiar love of doing or saying what is provoking, by an exact
+contrariety to the wishes of the person they are dealing with, which is
+a fault inherent in the rough side of uneducated Scottish character; but
+in Andrew, the habit is checked by his self-interest, so that it is only
+behind his master's back that we hear his opinion of him; and only when
+he has lost his temper that the inherent provocativeness comes out--(see
+the dark ride into Scotland).
+
+On the contrary, Moniplies never speaks but in praise of his _absent_
+master; but exults in mortifying him in direct colloquy: yet never
+indulges this amiable disposition except with a really kind purpose, and
+entirely knowing what he is about. Fairservice, on the other hand,
+gradually falls into an unconscious fatality of varied blunder and
+provocation; and at last causes the entire catastrophe of the story by
+bringing in the candles when he has been ordered to stay downstairs.
+
+117. We have next to remember that with Scott, Truth and Courage are
+one. He somewhat overvalued _animal_ courage--holding it the basis of
+all other virtue--in his own words, "Without courage there can be no
+truth, and without truth no virtue." He would, however, sometimes allow
+his villains to possess the basis, without the super-structure, and thus
+Rashleigh, Dalgarno, Balfour, Varney, and other men of that stamp are to
+be carefully distinguished from his erring _heroes_, Marmion, Bertram,
+Christie of the Clinthill, or Nanty Ewart, in whom loyalty is always the
+real strength of the character, and the faults of life are owing to
+temporary passion or evil fate. Scott differs in this standard of
+heroism materially from Byron,[104] in whose eyes mere courage, with
+strong affections, are enough for admiration: while Bertram, and even
+Marmion, though loyal to his country, are meant only to be pitied--not
+honored. But neither Scott nor Byron will ever allow any grain of mercy
+to a coward; and the final difference, therefore, between Fairservice
+and Moniplies, which decides their fate in Scott's hands, is that
+between their courage and cowardice. Fairservice is driven out at the
+kitchen door, never to be heard of more, while Richie rises into Sir
+Richie of Castle-Collop--the reader may perhaps at the moment think by
+too careless grace on the King's part; which, indeed, Scott in some
+measure meant;--but the grotesqueness and often evasiveness of Richie's
+common manner make us forget how surely his bitter word is backed by his
+ready blow, when need is. His first introduction to us (i. 33), is
+because his quick temper overcomes his caution,--
+
+     "I thought to mysel', 'Ye are owre mony for me to mell with; but
+     let me catch ye in Barford's Park, or at the fit of the vennel, I
+     could gar some of ye sing another sang.' Sae, ae auld hirpling
+     deevil of a potter behoved just to step in my way and offer me a
+     pig, as he said, just to pit my Scotch ointment in, and _I gave him
+     a push, as but natural_, and the tottering deevil couped owre amang
+     his ain pigs, and damaged a score of them. And then the
+     reird[105] raise"--
+
+while in the close of the events (ii. 365), he wins his wife by a piece
+of hand-to-hand fighting, of the value of which his cool and stern
+estimate, in answer to the gay Templar, is one of the great sentences
+marking Scott's undercurrent of two feelings about war, in spite of his
+love of its heroism.
+
+"Bravo, Richie," cried Lowestoffe, "why, man, there lies Sin struck down
+like an ox, and Iniquity's throat cut like a calf."
+
+"I know not why you should upbraid me with my upbringing, Master
+Lowestoffe," answered Richie, with great composure; "but I can tell you,
+the shambles is not a bad place for training one to this work."
+
+
+118. These then being the radical conditions of native character in the
+two men, wholly irrespective of their religious persuasion, we have to
+note what form their Presbyterian faith takes in each, and what effect
+it has on their consciences.
+
+In Richie, it has little to do; his conscience being, in the deep of it,
+frank and clear. His religion commands him nothing which he is not at
+once ready to do, or has not habitually done; and it forbids him nothing
+which he is unwilling to forego. He pleads no pardon from it for known
+faults; he seeks no evasions in the letter of it for violations of its
+spirit. We are scarcely therefore aware of its vital power in him,
+unless at moments of very grave feeling and its necessary expression.
+
+     "Wherefore, as the letter will not avail you with him to whom it is
+     directed, you may believe that Heaven hath sent it to _me_, who
+     have a special regard for the writer--have besides, as much mercy
+     and honesty within me as man can weel mak' his bread with, and am
+     willing to aid any distressed creature, that is my friend's
+     friend."
+
+So, again, in the deep feeling which rebukes his master's careless ruin
+of the poor apprentice--
+
+     "I say, then, as I am a true man, when I saw that puir creature
+     come through the ha' at that ordinary, whilk is accurst (Heaven
+     forgive me for swearing) of God and man, with his teeth set, and
+     his hands clenched, and his bonnet drawn over his brows...." He
+     stopped a moment, and looked fixedly in his master's face.
+
+--and again in saving the poor lad himself when he takes the street to
+his last destruction "with burning heart and bloodshot eye":
+
+     "Why do you stop my way?" he said fiercely.
+
+     "Because it is a bad one, Master Jenkin," said Richie.
+
+     "Nay, never start about it, man; you see you are known.
+     Alack-a-day! that an honest man's son should live to start at
+     hearing himself called by his own name."
+
+     "I pray you in good fashion to let me go," said Jenkin. "I am in
+     the humor to be dangerous to myself, or to anyone."
+
+     "I will abide the risk," said the Scot, "if you will but come with
+     me. You are the very lad in the world whom I most wish to
+     meet."[106]
+
+     "And you," answered Vincent, "or any of your beggarly countrymen,
+     are the last sight I should ever wish to see. You Scots are ever
+     fair and false."
+
+     "As to our poverty, friend," replied Richie, "that is as Heaven
+     pleases; but touching our falsity, I'll prove to you that a
+     Scotsman bears as leal and true a heart to his friend as ever beat
+     in an English doublet."
+
+119. In these, and other such passages, it will be felt that I have done
+Richie some injustice in classing him among the religionists who have
+little sympathy! For all real distress, his compassion is instant; but
+his doctrinal religion becomes immediately to him a cause of failure in
+charity.
+
+     "Yon divine has another air from powerful Master Rollock, and Mess
+     David Black of North Leith, and sic like. Alack-a-day, wha can ken,
+     if it please your lordship, whether sic prayers as the Southrons
+     read out of their auld blethering black mess-book there, may not be
+     as powerful to invite fiends, as a right red-het prayer warm from
+     the heart may be powerful to drive them away; even as the evil
+     spirit was driven by the smell of the fish's liver from the bridal
+     chamber of Sara, the daughter of Raguel!"
+
+The scene in which this speech occurs is one of Scott's most finished
+pieces, showing with supreme art how far the weakness of Richie's
+superstitious formality is increased by his being at the time partially
+drunk!
+
+It is on the other hand to be noted to his credit, for an earnest and
+searching Bible-reader, that he quotes the Apocrypha. Not so gifted
+Gilfillan,--
+
+     "But if your honor wad consider the case of Tobit--!"
+
+     "Tobit!" exclaimed Gilfillan with great heat; "Tobit and his dog
+     baith are altogether heathenish and apocryphal, and none but a
+     prelatist or a papist would draw them into question. I doubt I hae
+     been mista'en in you, friend."
+
+Gilfillan and Fairservice are exactly alike, and both are distinguished
+from Moniplies in their scornfully exclusive dogmatism, which is indeed
+the distinctive plague-spot of the lower evangelical sect everywhere,
+and the worst blight of the narrow natures, capable of its zealous
+profession. In Blattergowl, on the contrary, as his name implies, the
+_doctrinal_ teaching has become mere Blather, Blatter, or patter--a
+string of commonplaces spoken habitually in performance of his clerical
+function, but with no personal or sectarian interest in them on his
+part.
+
+"He said fine things on the duty o' resignation to the will of God--that
+did he"; but his own mind is fixed under ordinary circumstances only on
+the income and privilege of his position. Scott however indicates this
+without severity as one of the weaknesses of an established church, to
+the general principle of which, as to all other established and
+monarchic law, he is wholly submissive, and usually affectionate (see
+the description of Colonel Mannering's Edinburgh Sunday), so that
+Blattergowl, _out of the pulpit_, does not fail in his serious pastoral
+duty, but gives real comfort by his presence and exhortation in the
+cottage of the Mucklebackits.
+
+On the other hand, to all kinds of Independents and Nonconformists
+(unless of Roderick Dhu type) Scott is adverse with all his powers; and
+accordingly, Andrew and Gilfillan are much more sternly and scornfully
+drawn than Blattergowl.
+
+120. In all the three, however, the reader must not for an instant
+suspect what is commonly called "hypocrisy." Their religion is no
+assumed mask or advanced pretense. It is in all a confirmed and intimate
+faith, mischievous by its error, in proportion to its sincerity (compare
+"Ariadne Florentina," paragraph 87), and although by his cowardice,
+petty larceny,[107] and low cunning, Fairservice is absolutely separated
+into a different class of men from Moniplies--in his fixed religious
+principle and primary conception of moral conduct, he is exactly like
+him. Thus when, in an agony of terror, he speaks for once to his master
+with entire sincerity, one might for a moment think it was a lecture by
+Moniplies to Nigel.
+
+     "O, Maister Frank, a' your uncle's follies and your cousin's
+     fliskies, were nothing to this! Drink clean cap-out, like Sir
+     Hildebrand; begin the blessed morning with brandy-taps like Squire
+     Percy; rin wud among the lasses like Squire John; gamble like
+     Richard; win souls to the Pope and the deevil, like Rashleigh;
+     rive, rant, _break the Sabbath_, and do the Pope's bidding, like
+     them a' put thegither--but merciful Providence! tak' care o' your
+     young bluid, and gang na near Rob Roy."
+
+I said, one might for a moment think it was a Moniplies' lecture to
+Nigel. But not for two moments, if we indeed can think at all. We could
+not find a passage more concentrated in expression of Andrew's total
+character; nor more characteristic of Scott in the calculated precision
+and deliberate appliance of every word.
+
+121. Observe first, Richie's rebuke, quoted above, fastens Nigel's mind
+instantly on the _nobleness_ of his father. But Andrew's to Frank
+fastens as instantly on the _follies_ of his uncle and cousins.
+
+Secondly, the sum of Andrew's lesson is--"do anything that is rascally,
+if only you save your skin." But Richie's is summed in "the grace of God
+is better than gold pieces."
+
+Thirdly, Richie takes little note of creeds, except when he is drunk,
+but looks to conduct always; while Andrew clinches his catalogue of
+wrong with "doing the Pope's bidding" and Sabbath-breaking; these
+definitions of the unpardonable being the worst absurdity of all Scotch
+wickedness to this hour--everything being forgiven to people who go to
+church on Sunday, and curse the Pope. Scott never loses sight of this
+marvelous plague-spot of Presbyterian religion, and the last words of
+Andrew Fairservice are:--
+
+     "The villain Laurie! to betray an auld friend that sang aff the
+     same psalm-book wi' him _every Sabbath_ for twenty years,"
+
+and the tragedy of these last words of his, and of his expulsion from
+his former happy home--"a jargonelle pear-tree at one end of the
+cottage, a rivulet and flower plot of a rood in extent in front, a
+kitchen garden behind, and a paddock for a cow" (viii. 6, of the 1830
+edition) can only be understood by the reading of the chapter he quotes
+on that last Sabbath evening he passes in it--the 5th of Nehemiah.
+
+122. For--and I must again and again point out this to the modern
+reader, who, living in a world of affectation, suspects "hypocrisy" in
+every creature he sees--the very plague of this lower evangelical piety
+is that it is _not_ hypocrisy; that Andrew and Laurie _do_ both expect
+to get the grace of God by singing psalms on Sunday, whatever rascality
+they practice during the week. In the modern popular drama of
+"School,"[108] the only religious figure is a dirty and malicious usher
+who appears first reading Hervey's "Meditations," and throws away the
+book as soon as he is out of sight of the company. But when Andrew is
+found by Frank "perched up like a statue by a range of beehives in an
+attitude of devout contemplation, with one eye watching the motions of
+the little irritable citizens, and the other fixed on a book of
+devotion," you will please observe, suspicious reader, that the devout
+gardener has no expectation whatever of Frank's approach, nor has he any
+design upon him, nor is he reading or attitudinizing for effect of any
+kind on any person. He is following his own ordinary customs, and his
+book of devotion has been already so well used that "much attrition had
+deprived it of its corners, and worn it into an oval shape"; its
+attractiveness to Andrew being twofold--the first, that it contains
+doctrine to his mind; the second, that such sound doctrine is set forth
+under figures properly belonging to his craft. "I was e'en taking a
+spell o' worthy Mess John Quackleben's 'Flower of a Sweet Savour sown on
+the Middenstead of this World'" (note in passing Scott's easy, instant,
+exquisite invention of the name of author and title of book); and it is
+a question of very curious interest how far these sweet "spells" in
+Quackleben, and the like religious exercises of a nature compatible with
+worldly business (compare Luckie Macleary, "with eyes employed on
+Boston's 'Crook in the Lot,' while her ideas were engaged in summing up
+the reckoning"--Waverley, i. 112)--do indeed modify in Scotland the
+national character for the better or the worse; or, not materially
+altering, do at least solemnize and confirm it in what good it may be
+capable of. My own Scottish nurse described in "Fors Clavigera" for
+April, 1873, would, I doubt not, have been as faithful and affectionate
+without her little library of Puritan theology; nor were her minor
+faults, so far as I could see, abated by its exhortations; but I cannot
+but believe that her uncomplaining endurance of most painful disease,
+and steadiness of temper under not unfrequent misapprehension by those
+whom she best loved and served, were in great degree aided by so much of
+Christian faith and hope as she had succeeded in obtaining, with little
+talk about it.
+
+123. I knew however in my earlier days a right old Covenanter in my
+Scottish aunt's house, of whom, with Mause Hedrigg and David Deans, I
+may be able perhaps to speak further in my next paper.[109] But I can
+only now write carefully of what bears on my immediate work: and must
+ask the reader's indulgence for the hasty throwing together of materials
+intended, before my illness last spring, to have been far more
+thoroughly handled. The friends who are fearful for my reputation as an
+"ecrivain" will perhaps kindly recollect that a sentence of "Modern
+Painters" was often written four or five times over in my own hand, and
+tried in every word for perhaps an hour--perhaps a forenoon--before it
+was passed for the printer. I rarely now fix my mind on a sentence, or a
+thought, for five minutes in the quiet of morning, but a telegram comes
+announcing that somebody or other will do themselves the pleasure of
+calling at eleven o'clock, and that there's two shillings to pay.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: October 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 99: "Jean Francois Millet." Twenty Etching's and Woodcuts
+reproduced in Facsimile, and Biographical Notice by William Ernest
+Henley. London, 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 100: I am sorry to find that my former allusion to the boating
+expedition in this novel has been misconstrued by a young authoress of
+promise into disparagement of her own work; not supposing it possible
+that I could only have been forced to look at George Eliot's by a
+friend's imperfect account of it.]
+
+[Footnote 101: I am ashamed to exemplify the miserable work of "review"
+by mangling and mumbling this noble closing chapter of the "Monastery,"
+but I cannot show the web of work without unweaving it.]
+
+[Footnote 102: With ludicrously fatal retouch in the later edition "was
+deprived of" his sword.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Again I am obliged, by review necessity, to omit half the
+points of the scene.]
+
+[Footnote 104: I must deeply and earnestly express my thanks to my
+friend Mr. Hale White for his vindication of Goethe's real opinion of
+Byron from the mangled representation of it by Mr. Matthew Arnold
+(_Contemporary Review_, August, 1881).]
+
+[Footnote 105: "Reirde, rerde, Anglo-Saxon reord, lingua, sermo, clamor,
+shouting" (Douglas glossary). No Scottish sentence in the Scott novels
+should be passed without examining every word in it, his dialect, as
+already noticed, being always pure and classic in the highest degree,
+and his meaning always the fuller, the further it is traced.]
+
+[Footnote 106: The reader must observe that in quoting Scott for
+illustration of particular points I am obliged sometimes to alter the
+succession and omit much of the context of the pieces I want, for Scott
+never lets you see his hand, nor get at his points without remembering
+and comparing far-away pieces carefully. To collect the evidence of any
+one phase of character, is like pulling up the detached roots of a
+creeper.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Note the "wee business of my ain," i. 213.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Its "hero" is a tall youth with handsome calves to his
+legs, who shoots a bull with a fowling-piece, eats a large lunch, thinks
+it witty to call Othello a "nigger," and, having nothing to live on, and
+being capable of doing nothing for his living, establishes himself in
+lunches and cigars forever, by marrying a girl with a fortune. The
+heroine is an amiable governess, who, for the general encouragement of
+virtue in governesses, is rewarded by marrying a lord.]
+
+[Footnote 109: The present paper was, however, the last.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+FAIRY STORIES.[110]
+
+
+124. Long since, longer ago than the opening of some fairy tales, I was
+asked by the publisher who has been rash enough, at my request, to
+reprint these my favorite old stories in their earliest English form, to
+set down for him my reasons for preferring them to the more polished
+legends, moral and satiric, which are now, with rich adornment of every
+page by very admirable art, presented to the acceptance of the Nursery.
+
+But it seemed to me to matter so little to the majestic independence of
+the child-public, who, beside themselves, liked, or who disliked, what
+they pronounced entertaining, that it is only on strict claims of a
+promise unwarily given that I venture on the impertinence of eulogy; and
+my reluctance is the greater, because there is in fact nothing very
+notable in these tales, unless it be their freedom from faults which for
+some time have been held to be quite the reverse of faults by the
+majority of readers.
+
+125. In the best stories recently written for the young, there is a
+taint which it is not easy to define, but which inevitably follows on
+the author's addressing himself to children bred in schoolrooms and
+drawing-rooms, instead of fields and woods--children whose favorite
+amusements are premature imitations of the vanities of elder people, and
+whose conceptions of beauty are dependent partly on costliness of dress.
+The fairies who interfere in the fortunes of these little ones are apt
+to be resplendent chiefly in millinery and satin slippers, and appalling
+more by their airs than their enchantments.
+
+The fine satire which, gleaming through every playful word, renders some
+of these recent stories as attractive to the old as to the young, seems
+to me no less to unfit them for their proper function. Children should
+laugh, but not mock; and when they laugh, it should not be at the
+weaknesses and the faults of others. They should be taught, as far as
+they are permitted to concern themselves with the characters of those
+around them, to seek faithfully for good, not to lie in wait maliciously
+to make themselves merry with evil: they should be too painfully
+sensitive to wrong to smile at it; and too modest to constitute
+themselves its judges.
+
+126. With these minor errors a far graver one is involved. As the
+simplicity of the sense of beauty has been lost in recent tales for
+children, so also the simplicity of their conception of love. That word
+which, in the heart of a child, should represent the most constant and
+vital part of its being; which ought to be the sign of the most solemn
+thoughts that inform its awakening soul and, in one wide mystery of pure
+sunrise, should flood the zenith of its heaven, and gleam on the dew at
+its feet; this word, which should be consecrated on its lips, together
+with the Name which it may not take in vain, and whose meaning should
+soften and animate every emotion through which the inferior things and
+the feeble creatures, set beneath it in its narrow world, are revealed
+to its curiosity or companionship; this word, in modern child-story, is
+too often restrained and darkened into the hieroglyph of an evil
+mystery, troubling the sweet peace of youth with premature gleams of
+uncomprehended passion, and flitting shadows of unrecognized sin.
+
+These great faults in the spirit of recent child-fiction are connected
+with a parallel folly of purpose. Parents who are too indolent and
+self-indulgent to form their children's characters by wholesome
+discipline, or in their own habits and principles of life are conscious
+of setting before them no faultless example, vainly endeavor to
+substitute the persuasive influence of moral precept, intruded in the
+guise of amusement, for the strength of moral habit compelled by
+righteous authority:--vainly think to inform the heart of infancy with
+deliberative wisdom, while they abdicate the guardianship of its
+unquestioning innocence; and warp into the agonies of an immature
+philosophy of conscience the once fearless strength of its unsullied and
+unhesitating virtue.
+
+127. A child should not need to choose between right and wrong. It
+should not be capable of wrong; it should not conceive of wrong.
+Obedient, as bark to helm, not by sudden strain or effort, but in the
+freedom of its bright course of constant life; true, with an
+undistinguished, praiseless, unboastful truth, in a crystalline
+household world of truth; gentle, through daily entreatings of
+gentleness, and honorable trusts, and pretty prides of child-fellowship
+in offices of good; strong, not in bitter and doubtful contest with
+temptation, but in peace of heart, and armor of habitual right, from
+which temptation falls like thawing hail; self-commanding, not in sick
+restraint of mean appetites and covetous thoughts, but in vital joy of
+unluxurious life, and contentment in narrow possession, wisely esteemed.
+
+Children so trained have no need of moral fairy tales; but they will
+find in the apparently vain and fitful courses of any tradition of old
+time, honestly delivered to them, a teaching for which no other can be
+substituted, and of which the power cannot be measured; animating for
+them the material world with inextinguishable life, fortifying them
+against the glacial cold of selfish science, and preparing them
+submissively, and with no bitterness of astonishment, to behold, in
+later years, the mystery--divinely appointed to remain such to all human
+thought--of the fates that happen alike to the evil and the good.
+
+128. And the effect of the endeavor to make stories moral upon the
+literary merit of the work itself, is as harmful as the motive of the
+effort is false. For every fairy tale worth recording at all is the
+remnant of a tradition possessing true historical value;--historical, at
+least in so far as it has naturally arisen out of the mind of a people
+under special circumstances, and risen not without meaning, nor removed
+altogether from their sphere of religious faith. It sustains afterwards
+natural changes from the sincere action of the fear or fancy of
+successive generations; it takes new color from their manner of life,
+and new form from their changing moral tempers. As long as these changes
+are natural and effortless, accidental and inevitable, the story remains
+essentially true, altering its form, indeed, like a flying cloud, but
+remaining a sign of the sky; a shadowy image, as truly a part of the
+great firmament of the human mind as the light of reason which it seems
+to interrupt. But the fair deceit and innocent error of it cannot be
+interpreted nor restrained by a willful purpose, and all additions to it
+by act do but defile, as the shepherd disturbs the flakes of morning
+mist with smoke from his fire of dead leaves.
+
+129. There is also a deeper collateral mischief in this indulgence of
+licentious change and retouching of stories to suit particular tastes,
+or inculcate favorite doctrines. It directly destroys the child's power
+of rendering any such belief as it would otherwise have been in his
+nature to give to an imaginative vision. How far it is expedient to
+occupy his mind with ideal forms at all may be questionable to many,
+though not to me; but it is quite beyond question that if we do allow of
+the fictitious representation, that representation should be calm and
+complete, possessed to the full, and read down its utmost depth. The
+little reader's attention should never be confused or disturbed, whether
+he is possessing himself of fairy tale or history. Let him know his
+fairy tale accurately, and have perfect joy or awe in the conception of
+it as if it were real; thus he will always be exercising his power of
+grasping realities: but a confused, careless, or discrediting tenure of
+the fiction will lead to as confused and careless reading of fact. Let
+the circumstances of both be strictly perceived and long dwelt upon, and
+let the child's own mind develop fruit of thought from both. It is of
+the greatest importance early to secure this habit of contemplation, and
+therefore it is a grave error, either to multiply unnecessarily, or to
+illustrate with extravagant richness, the incidents presented to the
+imagination. It should multiply and illustrate them for itself; and, if
+the intellect is of any real value, there will be a mystery and
+wonderfulness in its own dreams which would only be thwarted by external
+illustration. Yet I do not bring forward the text or the etchings in
+this volume as examples of what either ought to be in works of the kind:
+they are in many respects common, imperfect, vulgar; but their vulgarity
+is of a wholesome and harmless kind. It is not, for instance, graceful
+English, to say that a thought "popped into Catherine's head"; but it
+nevertheless is far better, as an initiation into literary style, that a
+child should be told this than that "a subject attracted Catherine's
+attention." And in genuine forms of minor tradition, a rude and more or
+less illiterate tone will always be discernible; for all the best fairy
+tales have owed their birth, and the greater part of their power, to
+narrowness of social circumstances; they belonged properly to districts
+in which walled cities are surrounded by bright and unblemished country,
+and in which a healthy and bustling town life, not highly refined, is
+relieved by, and contrasted with, the calm enchantment of pastoral and
+woodland scenery, either under humble cultivation by peasant masters, or
+left in its natural solitude. Under conditions of this kind the
+imagination is enough excited to invent instinctively (and rejoice in
+the invention of) spiritual forms of wildness and beauty, while yet it
+is restrained and made cheerful by the familiar accidents and relations
+of town life, mingling always in its fancy humorous and vulgar
+circumstances with pathetic ones, and never so much impressed with its
+supernatural fantasies as to be in danger of retaining them as any part
+of its religious faith. The good spirit descends gradually from an
+angel into a fairy, and the demon shrinks into a playful grotesque of
+diminutive malevolence, while yet both keep an accredited and vital
+influence upon the character and mind. But the language in which such
+ideas will be usually clothed, must necessarily partake of their
+narrowness; and art is systematically incognizant of them, having only
+strength under the conditions which awake them to express itself in an
+irregular and gross grotesque, fit only for external architectural
+decoration.
+
+130. The illustrations of this volume are almost the only exceptions I
+know to the general rule. They are of quite sterling and admirable art,
+in a class precisely parallel in elevation to the character of the tales
+which they illustrate; and the original etchings, as I have before said
+in the Appendix to my "Elements of Drawing," were quite unrivaled in
+masterfulness of touch since Rembrandt (in some qualities of delineation
+unrivaled even by him). These copies have been so carefully executed,
+that at first I was deceived by them, and supposed them to be late
+impressions from the plates (and what is more, I believe the master
+himself was deceived by them, and supposed them to be his own); and
+although on careful comparison with the first proofs they will be found
+no exception to the terrible law that literal repetition of entirely
+fine work shall be, even to the hand that produced it,--much more to any
+other,--forever impossible, they still represent, with sufficient
+fidelity to be in the highest degree instructive, the harmonious light
+and shade, the manly simplicity of execution, and the easy, unincumbered
+fancy, of designs which belonged to the best period of Cruikshank's
+genius. To make somewhat enlarged copies of them, looking at them
+through a magnifying glass, and never putting two lines where Cruikshank
+has put only one, would be an exercise in decision and severe drawing
+which would leave afterwards little to be learnt in schools, I would
+gladly also say much in their praise as imaginative designs; but the
+power of genuine imaginative work, and its difference from that which is
+compounded and patched together from borrowed sources, is of all
+qualities of art the most difficult to explain; and I must be content
+with the simple assertions of it.
+
+And so I trust the good old book, and the honest work that adorns it, to
+such favor as they may find with children of open hearts and lowly
+lives.
+
+  DENMARK HILL, _Easter_, 1868.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 110: This paper forms the introduction to a volume entitled
+"German Popular Stories, with Illustrations after the original designs
+of George Cruikshank, edited by Edgar Taylor, with Introduction by John
+Ruskin, M.A." London: Chatto and Windus, 1868. The book is a reprint of
+Mr. Edgar Taylor's original (1823) selections of the "Hausmaerchen," or
+"German Popular Stories" of the Brothers Grimm. The original selections
+were in two octavo volumes; the reprint in one of smaller size, it being
+(the publisher states in his preface) "Mr. Ruskin's wish that the new
+edition should appeal to young readers rather than to adults."--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ECONOMY.
+
+
+HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, May_ 1873.)
+
+
+USURY. A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, February_ 1880.)
+
+
+USURY. A PREFACE.
+
+(_Pamphlet_, 1885.)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+HOME, AND ITS ECONOMIES.[111]
+
+
+131. In the March number of the _Contemporary Review_ appeared two
+papers,[112] by writers of reputation, which I cannot but hope their
+authors will perceive upon reflection to have involved errors only the
+more grave in that they have become, of late, in the minds of nearly all
+public men, facile and familiar. I have, therefore, requested the
+editor's permission to offer some reply to both of these essays, their
+subjects being intimately connected.
+
+The first of which I speak was Mr. Herbert Spencer's, which appeared
+under the title of "The Bias of Patriotism." But the real subject of the
+paper (discussed in its special extent, with singular care and equity)
+was only the bias of National vanity; and the debate was opened by this
+very curious sentence,--"Patriotism is nationally, that which Egoism is
+individually."
+
+Mr. Spencer would not, I think, himself accept this statement, if put
+into the clear form, "What is Egoism in one man, is Patriotism in two or
+more, and the vice of an individual, the virtue of a multitude."[113]
+But it is strange,--however strictly Mr. Spencer may of late have
+confined his attention to metaphysical or scientific subjects,
+disregarding the language of historical or imaginative literature--it
+is strange, I repeat, that so careful a student should be unaware that
+the term "patriotism" cannot, in classical usage, be extended to the
+action of a multitude. No writer of authority ever speaks of a nation as
+having felt, or acted, patriotically. Patriotism is, by definition, a
+virtue of individuals; and so far from being in those individuals a mode
+of egoism, it is precisely in the sacrifice of their egoism that it
+consists. It is the temper of mind which determines them to defer their
+own interests to those of their country.
+
+132. Supposing it possible for any parallel sentiment to animate a
+nation as one body, it could have reference only to the position it held
+among other families of the world. The name of the emotion would then be
+properly "Cosmism," and would signify the resolution of such a people to
+sacrifice its own special interests to those of Mankind. Cosmism
+hitherto has indeed generally asserted itself only in the desire of the
+Cosmic nation that all others should adopt its theological opinions, and
+permit it to adopt their personal property; but Patriotism has truly
+existed, and even as a dominant feeling, in the minds of many persons
+who have been greatly influential on the fates of their races, and that
+one of our leading philosophers should be unconscious of the nature of
+this sentiment, and ignorant of its political power, is to be noted as
+painfully characteristic of the present state of England itself.
+
+It does not indeed follow that a feeling of which we are unaware is
+necessarily extinguished in us; and the faculties of perception and
+analysis are always so paralyzed by the lingual ingenuities of logic
+that it is impossible to say, of any professed logician, whether he may
+not yet be acting under the real force of ideas of which he has lost
+both the consciousness and conception. No man who has once entangled
+himself in what Mr. Spencer defines, farther on, as the "science of the
+relations implied by the conclusions, exclusions, and overlappings of
+classes," can be expected during the rest of his life to perceive more
+of any one thing than that it is included, excluded, or overlapped by
+something else; which is in itself a sufficiently confused state of
+mind, and especially harmful in that it permits us to avoid considering
+whether our intellectual linen is itself clean, while we concern
+ourselves only to ascertain whether it is included, excluded, or
+overlapped by our coat collar. But it is a grave phenomenon of the time
+that patriotism--of all others--should be the sentiment which an English
+logician is not only unable to define, but attempts to define as its
+precise contrary. In every epoch of decline, men even of high
+intellectual energy have been swept down in the diluvium of public life,
+and the crystalline edges of their minds worn away by friction with
+blunted ones; but I had not believed that the whole weight of the
+depraved mob of modern England, though they have become incapable alike
+of fidelity to their own country, and alliance with any other, could so
+far have perplexed one of our exactest students as to make him confuse
+heroism with conceit, and the loves of country and of home with the
+iniquities of selfishness. Can it be only a quarter of a century since
+the Last Minstrel died--and have we already answered his "Lives there a
+man?" with the calm assertion that there live no other than such; and
+that the "wretch concentered all in self "is the "Patriot" of our
+generation?
+
+133. Be it so. Let it even be admitted that egoism is the only power
+conceivable by a modern metaphysician to be the spring of mental energy;
+just as chemical excitement may be the only power traceable by the
+modern physician as the source of muscular energy. And still Mr.
+Spencer's subsequent analysis is inaccurate, and unscholarly. For egoism
+does not necessarily imply either misapprehension or mismeasurement.
+There are modes of the love of our country which are definitely selfish,
+as a cat's of the hearthrug, yet entirely balanced and calm in judicial
+faculty; passions which determine conduct, but have no influence on
+opinion. For instance, I have bought for my own exclusive gratification,
+the cottage in which I am writing, near the lake-beach on which I used
+to play when I was seven years old. Were I a public-spirited scientific
+person, or a benevolently pious one, I should doubtless, instead, be
+surveying the geographical relations of the Mountains of the Moon, or
+translating the Athanasian Creed into Tartar-Chinese. But I hate the
+very name of the public, and labor under no oppressive anxiety either
+for the advancement of science, or the salvation of mankind. I therefore
+prefer amusing myself with the lake-pebbles, of which I know nothing but
+that they are pretty; and conversing with people whom I can understand
+without pains, and who, so far from needing to be converted, seem to me
+on the whole better than myself. This is moral egoism, but it is not
+intellectual error. I never form, much less express, any opinion as to
+the relative beauties of Yewdale crag and the Mountains of the Moon; nor
+do I please myself by contemplating, in any exaggerated light, the
+spiritual advantages which I possess in my familiarity with the
+Thirty-nine Articles. I know the height of my neighboring mountains to a
+foot; and the extent of my real possessions, theological and material,
+to an article. Patriotic egoism attaches me to the one; personal egoism
+satisfies me in the other; and the calm selfishness with which Nature
+has blessed all her unphilosophical creatures, blinds me to the
+attractions--as to the faults--of things with which I have no concern,
+and saves me at once from the folly of contempt, and the discomfort of
+envy. I might have written, as accurately, "The discomfort of contempt";
+for indeed the forms of petulant rivalry and self-assertion which Mr.
+Spencer assumes to be developments of egoism, are merely its diseases;
+(taking the word "disease" in its most literal meaning). A man of sense
+is more an egoist in modesty than a blockhead is in boasting; and it is
+neither pride nor self-respect, but only ignorance and ill-breeding,
+that either disguise the facts of life, or violate its courtesies.
+
+134. It will not, I trust, be thought violation of courtesy to a writer
+of Mr. Spencer's extending influence, if I urge on his attention the
+danger under which metaphysicians are always placed of supposing that
+the investigation of the processes of thought will enable them to
+distinguish its forms. 'As well might the chemist, who had exhaustively
+examined the conditions of vitreous fusion, imagine himself therefore
+qualified to number or class the vases bent by the breath of Venice. Mr.
+Spencer has determined, I believe, to the satisfaction of his readers,
+in what manner thoughts and feelings are constructed; it is time for him
+now to observe the results of the construction, whether native to his
+own mind, or discoverable in other intellectual territories. Patriotism
+is, however, perhaps the last emotion he can now conveniently study in
+England, for the temper which crowns the joy of life with the sweetness
+and decorum of death can scarcely be manifested clearly in a country
+which is fast rendering herself one whose peace is pollution, and whose
+battle, crime; within whose confines it is loathsome to live, and in
+whose cause it is disgraceful to die.
+
+135. The chief causes of her degradation were defended, with delicate
+apology, in the second paper to which I have above referred; the
+modification by Mr. W. R. Greg of a letter which he had addressed, on
+the subject of luxurious expenditure and its economical results, to the
+_Pall Mall Gazette_; and which Mr. Greg states to have given rise in
+that journal to a controversy in which four or five combatants took
+part, the looseness of whose notions induced him to express his own more
+coherent ones in the _Contemporary Review_.[114]
+
+I am sorry to find that Mr. Greg looked upon my own poor part in that
+correspondence as controversial. I merely asked him a question which he
+declared to be insidious and irrelevant (not considering that if it were
+the one, it could not be the other), and I stated a few facts respecting
+which no controversy was possible, and which Mr. Greg, in his own terms,
+"sedulously abstained" from noticing.
+
+But Mr. Greg felt my question to be insidious because it made him partly
+conscious that he had only examined one half of the subject he was
+discussing, and even that half without precision.
+
+Mr. Goldwin Smith had spoken of a rich man as consuming the means of
+living of the poor. Mr. Greg, in reply, pointed out how beneficially the
+rich man spent what he had got. Upon which I ventured to inquire "how he
+got it"; which is indeed precisely the first of all questions to be
+asked when the economical relations of any man with his neighbor are to
+be examined.
+
+Dick Turpin is blamed--suppose--by some plain-minded person for
+consuming the means of other people's living. "Nay," says Dick to the
+plain-minded person, "observe how beneficently and pleasantly I spend
+whatever I get!"
+
+"Yes, Dick," persists the plain-minded person; "but how do you get it?"
+
+"The question," says Dick, "is insidious and irrelevant."
+
+Do not let it be supposed that I mean to assert any irregularity or
+impropriety in Dick's profession--I merely assert the necessity for Mr.
+Greg's examination, if he would be master of his subject, of the manner
+of Gain in every case, as well as the manner of Expenditure. Such
+accounts must always be accurately rendered in a well-regulated society.
+
+     136. "Le lieutenant adressa la parole au capitaine, et lui dit
+     qu'il venait d'enlever ces mannequins, remplis de sucre, de
+     cannelle, d'amandes, et de raisins sees, a un epicier de Benavente.
+     Apres qu'il eut rendu compte de son expedition au bureau, les
+     depouilles de l'epicier furent portees dans l'office. Alors il ne
+     fut plus question que de se rejouir; je debutai par le buffet, que
+     je parai de plusieurs bouteilles de ce bon vin que le Seigneur
+     Rolando m'avoit vante."
+
+Mr. Greg strictly confines himself to an examination of the benefits
+conferred on the public by this so agreeable festivity; but he must not
+be surprised or indignant that some inquiry should be made as to the
+resulting condition of the epicier de Benavente.
+
+And it is all the more necessary that such inquiry be instituted when
+the captain of the expedition is a minion, not of the moon, but of the
+sun; and dazzling, therefore, to all beholders. "It is heaven which
+dictates what I ought to do upon this occasion,"[115] says Henry of
+Navarre; "my retreat out of this city,[116] before I have made myself
+master of it, will be the retreat of my soul out of my body."
+"Accordingly all the quarter which still held out, we forced," says M.
+de Rosny, "after which the inhabitants, finding themselves no longer
+able to resist, laid down their arms, and the city was given up to
+plunder. My good fortune threw a small iron chest in my way, in which I
+found about four thousand gold crowns."
+
+I cannot doubt that the Baron's expenditure of this sum would be in the
+highest degree advantageous to France and to the Protestant religion.
+But complete economical science must study the effect of its abstraction
+on the immediate prosperity of the town of Cahors; and even beyond
+this--the mode of its former acquisition by the town itself, which
+perhaps, in the economies of the nether world, may have delegated some
+of its citizens to the seventh circle.[117]
+
+137. And the most curious points in the partiality of modern economical
+science are that while it always waives this question of ways and means
+with respect to rich persons, it studiously pushes it in the case of
+poor ones; and while it asserts the consumption of such an article of
+luxury as wine (to take that which Mr. Greg himself instances) to be
+economically expedient, when the wine is drunk by persons who are not
+thirsty, it asserts the same consumption to be altogether inexpedient,
+when the privilege is extended to those who are. Thus Mr. Greg
+dismisses, in one place, with compassionate disdain, the extremely
+vulgar notion "that a man who drinks a bottle of champagne worth five
+shillings, while his neighbor is in want of actual food, is in some way
+wronging his neighbor"; and yet Mr. Greg himself, elsewhere,[118]
+evidently remains under the equally vulgar impression that the
+twenty-four millions of such thirstier persons who spend fifteen per
+cent of their incomes in drink and tobacco, are wronging their neighbors
+by that expenditure.
+
+138. It cannot, surely, be the difference in degree of refinement
+between malt liquor and champagne which causes Mr. Greg's undefined
+sensation of moral delinquency and economical error in the one case, and
+of none in the other; if that be all, I can relieve him from his
+embarrassment by putting the cases in more parallel form. A clergyman
+writes to me, in distress of mind, because the able-bodied laborers who
+come begging to him in winter, drink port wine out of buckets in summer.
+Of course Mr. Greg's logical mind will at once admit (as a consequence
+of his own very just _argumentum ad hominem_ in a previous page[119])
+that the consumption of port wine out of buckets must be as much a
+benefit to society in general as the consumption of champagne out of
+bottles; and yet, curiously enough, I am certain he will feel my
+question, "Where does the drinker get the means for his drinking?" more
+relevant in the case of the imbibers of port than in that of the
+imbibers of champagne. And although Mr. Greg proceeds, with that lofty
+contempt for the dictates of nature and Christianity which radical
+economists cannot but feel, to observe that "while the natural man and
+the Christian would have the champagne drinker forego his bottle, and
+give the value of it to the famishing wretch beside him, the radical
+economist would condemn such behavior as distinctly criminal and
+pernicious," he would scarcely, I think, carry out with the same
+triumphant confidence the conclusions of the unnatural man and the
+anti-christian, with respect to the laborer as well as the idler; and
+declare that while the extremely simple persons who still believe in the
+laws of nature, and the mercy of God, would have the port-drinker forego
+his bucket, and give the value of it to the famishing wife and child
+beside him, "the radical economist would condemn such behavior as
+distinctly criminal and pernicious."
+
+Mr. Greg has it indeed in his power to reply that it is proper to
+economize for the sake of one's own wife and children, but not for the
+sake of anybody else's. But since, according to another exponent of the
+principles of Radical Economy, in the _Cornhill Magazine_,[120] a
+well-conducted agricultural laborer must not marry till he is
+forty-five, his economies, if any, in early life, must be as offensive
+to Mr. Greg on the score of their abstract humanity, as those of the
+richest bachelor about town.
+
+139. There is another short sentence in this same page, of which it is
+difficult to overrate the accidental significance.
+
+"The superficial observer," says Mr. Greg, "recollects a text which he
+heard in his youth, but of which he never considered the precise
+applicability--'He that hath two coats, let him impart to him that hath
+none.'"
+
+The assumptions that no educated Englishman can ever have heard that
+text except in his youth, and that those who are old enough to remember
+having heard it, "never considered its precise applicability," are
+surely rash, in the treatment of a scientific subject. I can assure Mr.
+Greg that a few gray-headed votaries of the creed of Christendom still
+read--though perhaps under their breath--the words which early
+associations have made precious to them; and that in the bygone days,
+when that Sermon on the Mount was still listened to with respect by many
+not illiterate persons, its meaning was not only considered, but very
+deliberately acted upon. Even the readers of the _Contemporary Review_
+may perhaps have some pleasure in retreating from the sunshine of
+contemporary science, for a few quiet moments, into the shadows of that
+of the past, and hearing in the following extracts from two letters of
+Scott's (the first describing the manner of life of his mother, whose
+death it announces to a friend, the second, anticipating the verdict of
+the future on the management of his estate by a Scottish nobleman) what
+relations between rich and poor were possible, when philosophers had not
+yet even lisped in the sweet numbers of Radical Sociology.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+140. "She was a strict economist, which she said, enabled her to be
+liberal; out of her little income of about L300 a year she bestowed at
+least a third in well-chosen charities, and with the rest, lived like a
+gentlewoman, and even with hospitality more general than seemed to suit
+her age; yet I could never prevail on her to accept of any assistance.
+You cannot conceive how affecting it was to me to see the little
+preparations of presents which she had assorted for the New Year, for
+she was a great observer of the old fashions of her period--and to think
+that the kind heart was cold which delighted in all these arts of kindly
+affection."
+
+141. "The Duke is one of those retired and high-spirited men who will
+never be known until the world asks what became of the huge oak that
+grew on the brow of the hill, and sheltered such an extent of ground.
+During the late distress, though his own immense rents remained in
+arrears, and though I know he was pinched for money, as all men were,
+but more especially the possessors of entailed estates, he absented
+himself from London in order to pay, with ease to himself, the laborers
+employed on his various estates. These amounted (for I have often seen
+the roll and helped to check it) to nine hundred and fifty men, working
+at day wages, each of whom on a moderate average might maintain three
+persons, since the single men have mothers, sisters, and aged or very
+young relations to protect and assist. Indeed it is wonderful how much
+even a small sum, comparatively, will do in supporting the Scottish
+laborer, who in his natural state is perhaps one of the best, most
+intelligent, and kind-hearted of human beings; and in truth I have
+limited my other habits of expense very much since I fell into the habit
+of employing mine honest people. I wish you could have seen about a
+hundred children, being almost entirely supported by their fathers' or
+brothers' labor, come down yesterday to dance to the pipes, and get a
+piece of cake and bannock, and pence apiece (no very deadly largess) in
+honor of hogmanay. I declare to you, my dear friend, that when I thought
+the poor fellows, who kept these children so neat, and well taught, and
+well behaved, were slaving the whole day for eighteen pence or twenty
+pence at most, I was ashamed of their gratitude, and of their becks and
+bows. But after all, one does what one can, and it is better twenty
+families should be comfortable according to their wishes and habits,
+than that half that number should be raised above their situation."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+142. I must pray Mr. Greg farther to observe, if he has condescended to
+glance at these remains of almost prehistoric thought, that although the
+modern philosopher will never have reason to blush for any man's
+gratitude, and has totally abandoned the romantic idea of making even so
+much as one family comfortable according to their wishes and habits, the
+alternative suggested by Scott, that half "the number should be raised
+above their situation" may become a very inconvenient one if the
+doctrines of Modern Equality and competition should render the other
+half desirous of parallel promotion.
+
+143. It is now just sixteen years since Mr. Greg's present philosophy of
+Expenditure was expressed with great precision by the Common Councilmen
+of New York, in their report on the commercial crisis of 1857, in the
+following terms:--[121]
+
+     "Another erroneous idea is that luxurious living, extravagant
+     dressing, splendid turn-outs and fine houses, are the cause of
+     distress to a nation, No more erroneous impression could exist.
+     Every extravagance that the man of 100.000 or 1,000,000 dollars
+     indulges in, adds to the means, the support, the wealth of ten or a
+     hundred who had little or nothing else but their labor, their
+     intellect, or their taste. If a man of 1,000,000 dollars spends
+     principal and interest in ten years, and finds himself beggared at
+     the end of that time, he has actually made a hundred who have
+     catered to his extravagance, employers or employed, so much richer
+     by the division of his wealth. He may be ruined, but the nation is
+     better off and richer, for one hundred minds and hands, with 10,000
+     dollars apiece, are far more productive than one with the whole."
+
+Now that is precisely the view also taken of the matter by a large
+number of Radical Economists in England as well as America; only they
+feel that the time, however short, which the rich gentleman takes to
+divide his property among them in his own way, is practically wasted;
+and even worse, because the methods which the gentleman himself is
+likely to adopt for the depression of his fortune will not, in all
+probability, be conducive to the elevation of his character. It appears,
+therefore, on moral as well as economical grounds, desirable that the
+division and distribution should at once be summarily effected; and the
+only point still open to discussion in the views of the Common
+Councilmen is to what degree of minuteness they would think it advisable
+to carry the subsequent subdivision.
+
+144. I do not suppose, however, that this is the conclusion which Mr.
+Greg is desirous that the general Anti-Christian public should adopt;
+and in that case, as I see by his paper in the last number of the
+_Contemporary_,[122] that he considers the Christian life itself
+virtually impossible, may I recommend his examination of the manners of
+the Pre-Christian? For I can certify him that this important subject,
+of which he has only himself imperfectly investigated one side, had been
+thoroughly investigated on all sides, at least seven hundred years
+before Christ; and from that day to this, all men of wit, sense, and
+feeling have held precisely the same views on the subjects of economy
+and charity, in all nations under the sun. It is of no consequence
+whether Mr. Greg chooses the experience of Boeotia, Lombardy, or
+Yorkshire, nor whether he studies the relation of work to-day or under
+Hesiod, Virgil, or Sydney Smith. But it is desirable that at least he
+should acquaint himself with the opinions of some such persons, as well
+as with those of the Common Councilmen of New York; for though a man of
+superior sagacity may be pardoned for thinking, with the friends of Job,
+that Wisdom will die with him, it can only be through neglect of the
+existing opportunities of general culture that he remains distinctly
+under the impression that she was born with him.
+
+145. It may perhaps be well that in conclusion, I should state briefly
+the causes and terms of the economical crisis of our own day, which has
+been the subject of the debate between Mr. Goldwin Smith and Mr. Greg.
+
+No man ever became, or can become, largely rich merely by labor and
+economy.[123] All large fortunes (putting treasure-trove and gambling
+out of consideration) are founded either on occupation of land, usury,
+or taxation of labor. Whether openly or occultly, the landlord,
+money-lender, and capitalist employer, gather into their possession a
+certain quantity of the means of existence which other people produce by
+the labor of their hands. The effect of this impost upon the condition
+of life of the tenant, borrower, and workman, is the first point to be
+studied;--the results, that is to say, of the mode in which Captain
+Roland fills his purse.
+
+Secondly, we have to study the effects of the mode in which Captain
+Roland empties his purse. The landlord, usurer, or labor-master, does
+not, and cannot, himself consume all the means of life he collects. He
+gives them to other persons, whom he employs for his own behoof--growers
+of champagne, jockeys, footmen, jewelers, builders, painters, musicians,
+and the like. The division of the labor of these persons from the
+production of food to the production of articles of luxury is very
+frequently, and at the present day, very grievously the cause of famine.
+But when the luxuries are produced, it becomes a quite separate question
+who is to have them, and whether the landlord and capitalist are
+entirely to monopolize the music, the painting, the architecture, the
+hand-service, the horse-service, and the sparkling champagne of the
+world.
+
+146. And it is gradually, in these days, becoming manifest to the
+tenants, borrowers, and laborers, that instead of paying these large
+sums into the hands of the landlords, lenders, and employers, for them
+to purchase music, painting, etc., with, the tenants, borrowers, and
+workers had better buy a little music and painting for themselves. That,
+for instance, instead of the capitalist-employer paying three hundred
+pounds for a full-length portrait of himself, in the attitude of
+investing his capital, the united workmen had better themselves pay the
+three hundred pounds into the hands of the ingenious artist, for a
+painting in the antiquated manner of Leonardo or Raphael, of some
+subject more religiously or historically interesting to them; and placed
+where they can always see it. And again instead of paying three hundred
+pounds to the obliging landlord, for him to buy a box at the opera with,
+whence to study the refinements of music and dancing, the tenants are
+beginning to think that they may as well keep their rents to themselves,
+and therewith pay some Wandering Willie to fiddle at their own doors, or
+bid some gray-haired minstrel
+
+  "Tune, to please a peasant's ear,
+  The harp a king had loved to hear."
+
+And similarly the dwellers in the hut of the field and garret of the
+city are beginning to think that instead of paying half a crown for the
+loan of half a fire-place, they had better keep their half-crown in
+their pockets till they can buy for themselves a whole one.
+
+147. These are the views which are gaining ground among the poor; and it
+is entirely vain to endeavor to repress them by equivocations. They are
+founded on eternal laws; and although their recognition will long be
+refused, and their promulgation, resisted as it will be, partly by
+force, partly by falsehood, can only be through incalculable confusion
+and misery, recognized they must be eventually; and with these three
+ultimate results:--that the usurer's trade will be abolished
+utterly,--that the employer will be paid justly for his superintendence
+of labor, but not for his capital, and the landlord paid for his
+superintendence of the cultivation of land, when he is able to direct it
+wisely: that both he, and the employer of mechanical labor, will be
+recognized as beloved masters, if they deserve love, and as noble guides
+when they are capable of giving discreet guidance; but neither will be
+permitted to establish themselves any more as senseless conduits through
+which the strength and riches of their native land are to be poured into
+the cup of the fornication of its capital.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 111: _Contemporary Review_, May 1873.]
+
+[Footnote 112: These were, first, Mr. Herbert Spencer's "Bias of
+Patriotism," being the ninth chapter of his "Study of Sociology," first
+published in the _Contemporary Review_; and, secondly, Mr. W. R. Greg's
+"What is culpable luxury?" See below, p. 303, Sec. 135.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 113: I take due note that Mr. Spencer partly means by his
+adverbial sentence that Patriotism is individual Egoism, expecting its
+own central benefit through the Nation's circumferent benefit, as
+through a funnel: but, throughout, Mr. Spencer confuses this sentiment,
+which he calls "reflex egoism," with the action of "corporate
+conscience."]
+
+[Footnote 114: See the letters on "How the Rich Spend their Money"
+(reprinted from the _Pall Mall_) in "Arrows of the Chace," vol. ii.,
+where the origin of the discussion is explained.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 115: I use the current English of Mrs. Lennox's translation,
+but Henry's real saying was (see the first--green leaf--edition of
+Sully), "It is written above what is to happen to me on every occasion."
+"Toute occasion" becomes "cette occasion" in the subsequent editions,
+and finally "what is to happen to me" (ce que doit etre fait de moi)
+becomes "what I ought to do" in the English.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Cahors. See the "Memoirs of the Duke of Sully," Book 1.
+(Bohn's 1856 Edition, vol. i., pp. 118-9.)--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Where violence and brutality are punished. See Dante's
+"Inferno," Canto xii.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See the _Contemporary Review_ at pp. 618 and
+624.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Viz.:--That if the expenditure of an income of L30,000 a
+year upon luxuries is to rob the poor, so _pro tanto_ is the expenditure
+of so much of an income of L300 as is spent on anything beyond "the
+simplest necessaries of life."--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Referring to two anonymous articles on "The Agricultural
+Laborer," in the _Cornhill Magazine_, vol. 27, Jan. and June 1873, pp.
+215 and 307.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 121: See the Times of November 23rd of that year.]
+
+[Footnote 122: "Is a Christian life feasible in these
+days?"--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 123: See _Munera Pulveris_, Sec. 139: "No man can become largely
+rich by his personal will.... It is only by the discovery of some method
+of taxing the labor of others that he can become opulent." And see also
+_Time and Tide_, Sec. 81.--ED.]
+
+
+
+
+USURY.[124]
+
+A REPLY AND A REJOINDER.
+
+
+148. I have been honored by the receipt of a letter from the Bishop of
+Manchester, which, with his Lordship's permission, I have requested the
+editor of the _Contemporary Review_ to place before the large circle of
+his readers, with a brief accompanying statement of the circumstances by
+which the letter has been called forth, and such imperfect reply as it
+is in my power without delay to render.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  MANCHESTER, _December_ 8, 1879.
+
+DEAR SIR,--In a letter from yourself to the Rev. F. A.
+Malleson,[125] published in the _Contemporary Review_ of the current
+month, I observe the following passage:--"I have never yet heard so much
+as _one_ (preacher) heartily proclaiming against all those 'deceivers
+with vain words,' that no 'covetous person, which is an idolater, hath
+_any_ inheritance in the Kingdom of Christ and of God;' and on myself
+personally and publicly challenging the Bishops of England generally,
+and by name the Bishop of Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was
+not, according to the will of God, I have received no answer from any
+one of them." I confess, for myself, that until I saw this passage in
+print a few days ago, I was unaware of the existence of such challenge,
+and therefore I could not answer it. It appears to have been delivered
+(A) in No. 82 of a series of letters which, under the title of _Fors
+Clavigera_, you have for some time been addressing to the working
+classes of England, but which, from the peculiar mode of their
+publication, are not easily accessible to the general reader and which I
+have only caught a glimpse of, on the library-table of the Athenaeum
+Club, on the rare occasions when I am able to use my privileges as a
+member of that Society. I have no idea why I had the honor of being
+specially mentioned by name (B); but I beg to assure you that my silence
+did not arise from any discourtesy towards my challenger, nor from that
+discretion which, some people may think, is usually the better part of
+episcopal valor, and which consists in ignoring inconvenient questions
+from a sense of inability to answer them; but simply from the fact that
+I was not conscious that your lance had touched my shield.
+
+149. The question you have asked is just one of those to which
+Aristotle's wise caution applies: "We must distinguish and define such
+words, if we would know how far, and in what sense, the opposite views
+are true" (_Eth. Nic._, ix, c. viii. Sec. 3). What do you mean by "usury"?
+(C) Do you comprehend under it _any_ payment of money as interest for
+the use of borrowed capital? or only exorbitant, inequitable, grinding
+interest, such as the money-lender, Fufidius, extorted?
+
+  Quinas hic capiti mercedes exsecat, atque
+  Quanto perditior quisque est, tanto acrius urget:
+  Nomina sectatur modo sumta veste virili
+  Sub patribus duris tironum. Maxime, quis non,
+  Jupiter, exclamat, simul atque audivit?
+
+  --_Hor. Sat._ i. 2, 14-18.
+
+Usury, in itself, is a purely neutral word, carrying with it, in its
+primary meaning, neither praise nor blame; and a "usurer" is defined in
+our dictionaries as "a person accustomed to lend money and take interest
+for it"--which is the ordinary function of a banker, without whose
+help great commercial undertakings could not be carried out; though it
+is obvious how easily the word may pass into a term of reproach, so that
+to have been "called a usurer" was one of the bitter memories that
+rankled most in Shylock's catalogue of his wrongs.
+
+150. I do not believe that anything has done more harm to the practical
+efficacy of religions sanctions than the extravagant attempts that are
+frequently made to impose them in cases which they never originally
+contemplated, or to read into "ordinances," evidently "imposed for a
+time"--[Greek: dikaiomata mechri kairou] (Heb. ix. 10)--a law of
+eternal and immutable obligation. Just as we are told (D) not to expect
+to find in the Bible a scheme of physical science, so I do not expect to
+find there a scheme of political economy. What I do expect to find, in
+relation to my duty to my neighbor, are those unalterable principles of
+equity, fairness, truthfulness, honesty (E), which are the indispensable
+bases of civil society. I am sure I have no need to remind you that,
+while a Jew was forbidden by his law to take usury--_i.e._, interest for
+the loan of money--from his brother, if he were waxen poor and fallen
+into decay with him, and this generous provision was extended even to
+strangers and sojourners in the land (Lev. xxv. 35-38), and the
+interesting story in Nehemiah (v. 1-13), tells us how this principle was
+recognized in the latest days of the commonwealth--still in that old law
+there is no denunciation of usury in general, and it was expressly
+permitted in the case of ordinary strangers[126] (Deut. xxiii. 20).
+
+It seems to me plain also that our Blessed Lord's precept about
+"lending, hoping for nothing again" (Luke vi. 35), has the same, or a
+similar, class of circumstances in view, and was intended simply to
+govern a Christian man's conduct to the poor and needy, and "such as
+have no helper," and cannot, without a violent twist (F), be construed
+into a general law determining forever and in all cases the legitimate
+use of capital. Indeed, on another occasion, and in a very memorable
+parable, the great Founder of Christianity recognizes, and impliedly
+sanctions, the practice of lending money at interest. "Thou oughtest,"
+says the master, addressing his unprofitable servant, "thou
+oughtest"--[Greek: edei se]--"to have put my money to the exchangers;
+and then, at my coming, I should have received mine own _with usury_."
+
+151. "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." (G) But who is the
+[Greek: pleonektes]? Not the man who may happen to have money out on
+loan at a fair rate of interest; but, as Liddell and Scott give the
+meaning of the word, "one who has or claims _more than his share_;
+hence, greedy, grasping, selfish." Of such men, whose affections are
+wholly set on things of the earth, and who are not very scrupulous how
+they gratify them, it may, perhaps, not improperly be said (H) that they
+"have no inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God." But here,
+again, it would be a manifest "wresting" of the words to make them apply
+to a case which we have no proof that the Apostle had in contemplation
+when he uttered them. Rapacity, greed of gain, harsh and oppressive
+dealing, taking unfair advantage of our own superior knowledge and
+another's ignorance, shutting up the bowels of compassion towards a
+brother who we see has need--all these and the like things are forbidden
+by the very spirit of Christianity, and are manifestly "_not_ according
+to the will of God," for they are all of them forms of injustice or
+wrong. But money may be lent at interest without one of these bad
+passions being brought in to play, and in these cases I confess my
+inability to see where, either in terms or in spirit, such use of money
+is condemned either by the Christian code of charity, or by that natural
+law of conscience which we are told (I) is written on the hearts of men.
+
+152. Let me take two or three simple instances by way of illustration.
+The following has happened to myself. All my life through--from the time
+when my income was not a tenth part of what it is now--I have felt it a
+duty, while endeavoring to discharge all proper claims, to live within
+that income, so to adjust my expenditure to it that there should be a
+margin on the right side. This margin, of course, accumulated, and
+reached in time, say, L1000. Just then, say, the London and
+North-Western Railway Company proposed to issue Debenture Stock,
+bearing four per cent. interest, for the purpose of extending the
+communications, and so increasing the wealth, of the country. Whom in
+the world am I injuring--what conceivable wrong am I doing--where or how
+am I thwarting "the Will of God"--if I let the Company have my L1000,
+and have been receiving from them L40 a year for the use of it ever
+since? Unless the money had been forthcoming from some quarter or other,
+a work which was absolutely necessary for the prosperity of the nation,
+and which finds remunerative employment (K) for an immense number of
+Englishmen, enabling them to bring up their families in respectability
+and comfort, would never have been accomplished. Will you tell me that
+this method of carrying out great commercial enterprises, sanctioned by
+experience (L) as the most, if not the only, practicable one, is "not
+according to the Will of God"?
+
+153. Take another instance. In Lancashire a large number of cotton mills
+have been erected on the joint-stock principle with limited liability.
+The thing has been pushed too far probably, and at one time there was a
+good deal of unwholesome speculation in floating companies. But that is
+not the question before us; and the enterprises gave working men an
+opportunity of investing their savings, which was a great stimulus to
+thrift, and, so far, an advantage to the country. In a mill, which it
+would perhaps cost L50,000 to build and fit with machinery, the
+subscribed capital, which would be entitled to a division of profits
+after all other demands had been satisfied, would not amount probably to
+more than L20,000. The rest would be borrowed at rates of interest
+varying according to the conditions of the market. You surely would not
+maintain that those who lent their money for such a purpose, and were
+content with 5 or 6 per cent, for the use of it, thus enabling, in good
+times, the shareholders to realize 20 or 25 per cent, on their
+subscribed capital, were doing wrong either to the shareholders or
+anyone else, or could in any sense be charged with acting "not according
+to the will of God"?
+
+154. Take yet one case more. A farmer asks his landlord to drain his
+land. "Gladly," says his squire, "if you will pay me five per cent on
+the outlay." In other words, "if you will let me share the increased
+profits to this extent." The bargain is agreeable to both sides; the
+productiveness of the land is largely increased; who is wronged? Surely
+such a transaction could not fairly be described as "not according to
+the will of God"; surely, unless the commerce and productive industries
+of the country are to be destroyed, and, with the destruction, its
+population is to be reduced to what it was in the days of Elizabeth,
+these and similar transactions--which can be kept entirely clear of the
+sin of covetousness, and rest upon the well-understood basis of mutual
+advantage, each and all being gainers by them--are not only legitimate,
+but inevitable (M). And now that I have taken up your challenge, and, so
+far as my ability goes, answered it, may I, without staying to inquire
+how far your charge against the clergy can be substantiated, that they
+"generally patronize and encourage all the iniquity of the world by
+steadily preaching away the penalties of it" (N), be at least allowed to
+demur to your wholesale denunciation of the great cities of the earth,
+which you say "have become loathsome centers of fornication and
+covetousness, the smoke of their sin going up into the face of Heaven,
+like the furnace of Sodom, and the pollution of it rotting and raging
+through the bones and souls of the peasant people round them, as if they
+were each a volcano, whose ashes brake out in blains upon man and
+beast."[127] Surely, Sir, your righteous indignation at evil has caused
+you to overcharge your language. No one can have lived in a great city,
+as I have for the last ten years, without being aware of its sins and
+its pollutions. But unless you can prevent the aggregation of human
+beings into great cities, these are evils which must necessarily exist;
+at any rate, which always have existed. The great cities of to-day are
+not worse than great cities always have been (O). In one capital
+respect, I believe they are better. There is an increasing number of
+their citizens who are aware of these evils, and who are trying their
+best, with the help of God, to remedy them. In Sodom there was but one
+righteous man who "vexed his soul" at the unlawful deeds that he
+witnessed day by day, on every side; and he, apparently, did no more
+than vex his soul. In Manchester, the men and women, of all ranks and
+persuasions, who are actively engaging in some Christian or
+philanthropic work, to battle against these gigantic evils, are to be
+reckoned by hundreds. Nowhere have I seen more conspicuous instances of
+Christian effort, and of single-hearted devotion to the highest
+interests of mankind. And though, no doubt, if these efforts were better
+organized, more might be achieved, and elements, which one could wish
+absent, sometimes mingle with and mar the work, still a great city, even
+"with the smoke of its sin going up into the face of Heaven," is the
+noblest field of the noblest virtues, because it gives the amplest scope
+for the most varied exercise of them.
+
+If you will teach us clergy how better to discharge our office as
+ministers of a Kingdom of Truth and Righteousness, we shall all owe you
+a deep debt of gratitude; which no one will be more forward to
+acknowledge than, my dear Sir, yours faithfully and with much respect,
+
+  J. MANCHESTER.
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN, Esq.
+
+155. The foregoing letter, to which I would fain have given my undivided
+and unwearied attention, reached my hands, as will be seen by its date,
+only in the close of the year, when my general correspondence always far
+overpasses my powers of dealing with it, and my strength--such as now is
+left me--had been spent, nearly to lowest ebb, in totally unexpected
+business arising out of the threatened mischief at Venice. But I am
+content that such fragmentary reply as, under this pressure, has been
+possible to me, should close the debate as far as I am myself concerned.
+The question at issue is not one of private interpretation; and the
+interests concerned are too vast to allow its decision to be long
+delayed.
+
+The Bishop will, I trust, not attribute to disrespect the mode of reply
+in the form of notes attached to special passages, indicated by
+inserted letters, which was adopted in _Fors Clavigera_ in all cases of
+important correspondence, as more clearly defining the several points
+under debate.
+
+156. (A) "The challenge appears to have been delivered." May I
+respectfully express my regret that your lordship should not have read
+the letter you have honored me by answering. The number of _Fors_
+referred to does not deliver--it only reiterates--the challenge given in
+the _Fors_ for January 1st, 1875, with reference to the prayer "Have
+mercy upon all Jews, Turks, infidels, and heretics, and so fetch them
+home, blessed Lord, to Thy flock, that they may be saved among the
+remnant of the true Israelites," in these following terms: "Who _are_
+the true Israelites, my Lord of Manchester, on your Exchange? Do they
+stretch their cloth, like other people?--have they any underhand
+dealings with the liable-to-be-damned false Israelites--Rothschilds and
+the like? or are they duly solicitous about those wanderers' souls? and
+how often, on the average, do your Manchester clergy preach from the
+delicious parable, savoriest of all Scripture to rogues (at least since
+the eleventh century, when I find it to have been specially headed with
+golden title in my best Greek MS.) of the Pharisee and Publican,--and
+how often, on the average, from those objectionable First and Fifteenth
+Psalms?"
+
+(B) "I have no idea why I had the honor of being specially mentioned by
+name." By diocese, my Lord; not name, please observe; and for this very
+simple reason: that I have already fairly accurate knowledge of the
+divinity of the old schools of Canterbury, York, and Oxford; but I
+looked to your Lordship as the authoritative exponent of the more
+advanced divinity of the school of Manchester, with which I am not yet
+familiar.
+
+157. (C) "What do you mean by usury?" What _I_ mean by that word, my
+Lord, is surely of no consequence to anyone but my few readers, and
+fewer disciples. What David and his Son meant by it I have prayed your
+Lordship to tell your flock, in the name of the Church which dictates
+daily to them the songs of the one, and professes to interpret to them
+the commands of the other.
+
+And although I can easily conceive that a Bishop at the court of the
+Third Richard might have paused in reply to a too curious layman's
+question of what was meant by "Murder"; and can also conceive a Bishop
+at the court of the Second Charles hesitating as to the significance of
+the word "Adultery"; and farther, in the present climacteric of the
+British Constitution, an elder of the Church of Glasgow debating within
+himself whether the Commandment which was severely prohibitory of Theft
+might not be mildly permissive of Misappropriation;--at no time, nor
+under any conditions, can I conceive any question existing as to the
+meaning of the words [Greek: tokos], _foenus_; _usura_, or usury: and
+I trust that your Lordship will at once acquit me of wishing to attach
+any other significance to the word than that which it was to the full
+intended to convey on every occasion of its use by Moses, by David, by
+Christ, and by the Doctors of the Christian Church, down to the
+seventeenth century.
+
+Nor, even since that date, although the commercial phrase "interest" has
+been adopted in order to distinguish an open and unoppressive rate of
+usury from a surreptitious and tyrannical one, has the debate of
+lawfulness or unlawfulness ever turned seriously on that distinction. It
+is neither justified by its defenders only in its mildness, nor
+condemned by its accusers only in its severity. Usury in any degree is
+asserted by the Doctors of the early Church to be sinful, just as theft
+and adultery are asserted to be sinful, though neither may have been
+accompanied with violence; and although the theft may have been on the
+most splendid scale, and the fornication of the most courtly refinement.
+
+So also, in modern days, though the voice of the Bank of England in
+Parliament declares a loan without interest to be a monster,[128] and a
+loan made below the current rate of interest, a monster in its degree,
+the increase of dividends above that current rate is not, as far as I
+am aware, shunned by shareholders with an equally religious horror.
+
+158. But--this strange question being asked--I give its simple and broad
+answer in the words of Christ: "The taking up that thou layedst not
+down;"--or, in explained and literal terms, usury is any money paid, or
+other advantage given, for the loan of anything which is restored to its
+possessor uninjured and undiminished. For simplest instance, taking a
+cabman the other day on a long drive, I lent him a shilling to get his
+dinner. If I had kept thirteen pence out of his fare, the odd penny
+would have been usury.
+
+Or again. I lent one of my servants, a few years ago, eleven hundred
+pounds, to build a house with, and stock its ground. After some years he
+paid me the eleven hundred pounds back. If I had taken eleven hundred
+pounds and a penny, the extra penny would have been usury.
+
+I do not know whether by the phrase, presently after used by your
+Lordship, "religious sanctions," I am to understand the Law of God which
+David loved, and Christ fulfilled, or whether the splendor, the
+commercial prosperity, and the familiar acquaintance with all the
+secrets of science and treasures of art, which we admire in the City of
+Manchester, must in your Lordship's view be considered as "cases" which
+the intelligence of the Divine Lawgiver could not have originally
+contemplated. Without attempting to disguise the narrowness of the
+horizon grasped by the glance of the Lord from Sinai, nor the
+inconvenience of the commandments which Christ has directed those who
+love Him to keep, am I too troublesome or too exigent in asking from one
+of those whom the Holy Ghost has made our overseers, at least a distinct
+chart of the Old World as contemplated by the Almighty; and a clear
+definition of even the inappropriate tenor of the orders of Christ: if
+only that the modern scientific Churchman may triumph more securely in
+the circumference of his heavenly vision, and accept more gratefully the
+glorious liberty of the free-thinking children of God?
+
+159. To take a definite, and not impertinent, instance, I observe in
+the continuing portion of your letter that your Lordship recognizes in
+Christ Himself, as doubtless all other human perfections, so also the
+perfection of an usurer; and that, confidently expecting one day to hear
+from His lips the convicting sentence, "Thou knewest that I was an
+austere man," your Lordship prepares for yourself, by the disposition of
+your capital no less than of your talents, a better answer than the
+barren, "Behold, there thou hast that is thine!" I would only observe in
+reply, that although the conception of the Good Shepherd, which in your
+Lordship's language is "implied" in this parable, may indeed be less
+that of one who lays down his life for his sheep, than of one who takes
+up his money for them, the passages of our Master's instruction, of
+which the meaning is not implicit, but explicit, are perhaps those which
+His simpler disciples will be safer in following. Of which I find, early
+in His teaching, this, almost, as it were, in words of one syllable:
+"Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee
+turn not thou away."
+
+There is nothing more "implied" in this sentence than the probable
+disposition to turn away, which might be the first impulse in the mind
+of a Christian asked to lend for nothing, as distinguished from the
+disciple of the Manchester school, whose principal care is rather to
+find, than to avoid, the enthusiastic and enterprising "him that would
+borrow of thee." We of the older tradition, my Lord, think that
+prudence, no less than charity, forbids the provocation or temptation of
+others into the state of debt, which some time or other we might be
+called upon, not only to allow the payment of without usury, but even
+altogether to forgive.
+
+160. (D) "Just as we are told." Where, my Lord, and by whom? It is
+possible that some of the schemers in physical science, of whom, only a
+few days since, I heard one of the leading doctors explain to a pleased
+audience that serpents once had legs, and had dropped them off in the
+process of development, may have advised the modern disciple of progress
+of a new meaning in the simple phrase, "upon thy belly shalt thou go";
+and that the wisdom of the serpent may henceforth consist, for true
+believers of the scientific Gospel, in the providing of meats for that
+spiritual organ of motion. It is doubtless also true that we shall look
+vainly among the sayings of Solomon for any expression of the opinions
+of Mr. John Stuart Mill; but at least this much of Natural science,
+enough for our highest need, we may find in the Scriptures--that by the
+Word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the
+breath of His mouth;--and this much of Political, that the Blessing of
+the Lord, _it_ maketh rich--and He addeth no sorrow with it.
+
+(E) "What I do expect to find." Has your Lordship _no_ expectations
+loftier than these, from severer scrutiny of the Gospel? As for
+instance, of some ordinance of Love, built on the foundation of Honesty?
+
+161. (F) "Cannot without a violent twist." I have never myself found any
+person sincerely desirous of obeying the Word of the Lord, who had the
+least wish, or occasion, to twist it; nay, even those who study it only
+that they may discover methods of pardonable disobedience, recognize the
+unturnable edge of its sword--and in the worst extremity of their need,
+strive not to avert, but to evade. The utmost deceivableness of
+unrighteousness cannot deceive itself into satisfactory
+misinterpretation; it is reduced always to a tremulous omission of the
+texts it is resolved to disobey. But a little while since, I heard an
+entirely well-meaning clergyman, taken by surprise in the course of
+family worship in the house of a wealthy friend, and finding himself
+under the painful necessity of reading the fifteenth Psalm, omit the
+first sentence of the closing verse. I chanced afterwards to have an
+opportunity of asking him why he had done so, and received for answer,
+that the lowliness of Christian attainment was not yet "up" to that
+verse. The harmonies of iniquity are thus curiously perfect:--the
+economies of spiritual nourishment approve the same methods of
+adulteration which are found profitable in the carnal; until the prudent
+pastor follows the example of the well-instructed dairyman; and
+provides for his new-born babes the _in_sincere Milk of the Word, that
+they may _not_ grow thereby.
+
+162. (G) "St. Paul, no doubt, denounces the covetous." Am I to
+understand your Lordship as considering this undeniable denunciation an
+original and peculiar view taken by the least of the Apostles--perhaps,
+in this particular opinion, not worthy to be called an Apostle? The
+traditions of my earlier days were wont to refer me to an earlier source
+of the idea; which does not, however, appear to have occurred to your
+Lordship's mind--else the reference to the authority of Liddell and
+Scott, for the significance of the noun [Greek: pleonektes], ought to
+have been made also for that of the verb [Greek: epithumeo] And your
+Lordship's frankness in referring me to the instances of your own
+practice in the disposal of your income, must plead my excuse for what
+might have otherwise seemed impertinent--in noting that the
+blamelessness of episcopal character, even by that least of the
+Apostles, required in his first Epistle to Timothy, consists not merely
+in contentment with an episcopal share of Church property, but in being
+in no respect either [Greek: aischrokordes]--a taker of gain in a base
+or vulgar manner, or [Greek: philarguros]--a "lover of silver," this
+latter word being the common and proper word for covetous, in the
+Gospels and Epistles; as of the Pharisees in Luke xvi. 14; and
+associated with the other characters of men in perilous times, 2 Timothy
+iii. 2, and its relative noun [Greek: philarguria, given in sum for the
+root of _all_ evil in 2 Timothy vi. 10, while even the authority of
+Liddell and Scott in the interpretation of [Greek: pleonexia] itself as
+only the desire of getting more than our share, may perhaps be bettered
+by the authority of the teacher, who, declining the appeal made to him
+as an equitable [Greek: meristes] (Luke xii. 14-46), tells his disciples
+to beware of coveteousness, simply as the desire of getting more than we
+have got. "For a man's life consisteth not in the _abundance_ of the
+things which he possesseth."
+
+163. Believe me, my Lord, it is not without some difficulty that I check
+my natural impulse to follow you, as a scholar, into the interesting
+analysis of the distinctions which may be drawn between Rapacity and
+Acquisitiveness; between the Avarice, or the prudent care, of
+possession; between the greed, and the modest expectation, of gain;
+between the love of money, which is the root of all evil; and the
+commercial spirit, which is in England held to be the fountain of all
+good. These delicate adjustments of the balance, by which we strive to
+weigh to a grain the relative quantities of devotion which we may render
+in the service of Mammon and of God, are wholly of recent invention and
+application; nor have they the slightest bearing, either on the
+spiritual purport of the final commandment of the Decalogue, or on the
+distinctness of the subsequent prohibition of practical usury.
+
+It must be remembered, also, how difficult it has become to define the
+term "filthy" with precision, in the present state, moral and physical,
+of the English atmosphere; and still more so, to judge how far, in that
+healthy element, a moderate and delicately sanctified appetite for gold
+may be developed into livelier qualms of hunger for righteousness. It
+may be matter of private opinion how far the lucre derived by your
+Lordship from commission on the fares and refreshments of the passengers
+by the North-Western may be odoriferous or precious, in the same sense
+as the ointment on the head of Aaron; or how far that received by the
+Primate of England in royalties on the circulation of improving
+literature[129] may enrich--as with perfumes out of broken
+alabaster--the empyreal air of Addington. But the higher class of
+laborers in the Lord's vineyard might surely, with true grace, receive,
+from the last unto the first, the reflected instruction so often given
+by the first unto the last, "Be content with your wages."
+
+(H) "It may, perhaps, not improperly be said," The Bible Society will
+doubtless in future gratefully prefix this guarantee to their
+publications.
+
+(I) "Which we are told." Can we then no more find for ourselves this
+writing on our hearts--or has it ceased to be legible?
+
+164. (K) "Remunerative employment." I cannot easily express the
+astonishment with which I find a man of your Lordship's intelligence
+taking up the common phrase of "giving employment," as if, indeed, labor
+were the best gift which the rich could bestow on the poor. Of course,
+every idle vagabond, be he rich or poor, "gives employment" to some
+otherwise enough burdened wretch, to provide his dinner and clothes for
+him; and every vicious vagabond, in the destructive power of his vice,
+gives sorrowful occupation to the energies of resisting and renovating
+virtue. The idle child who litters its nursery and tears its frock,
+gives employment to the housemaid and seamstress; the idle woman, who
+litters her drawing-room with trinkets, and is ashamed to be seen twice
+in the same dress, is, in your Lordship's view, the enlightened
+supporter of the arts and manufactures of her country. At the close of
+your letter, my Lord, you, though in measured terms, indignantly dissent
+from my statement of the power of great cities for evil, and indeed I
+have perhaps been led, by my prolonged study of the causes of the Fall
+of Venice, into clearer recognition of some of these urban influences
+than may have been possible to your Lordship in the center of the
+virtues and proprieties which have been blessed by Providence in the
+rise of Manchester. But the Scriptural symbol of the power of temptation
+in the hand of the spiritual Babylon--"all kings have been drunk with
+the wine of her Fornication"--is perfectly literal in its exposition of
+the special influence of cities over a vicious, that is to say, a
+declining, people. They are the foci of its fornication, and the
+practical meaning is that the lords of the soil take the food and labor
+of the peasants, who are their slaves, and spend them especially in
+forms of luxury perfected by the definitely so-called "women of the
+_town_" who, whether East-cheap Doll, or West--much the reverse of
+cheap--Nell, are, both in the color which they give to the Arts, and in
+the tone which they give to the Manners, of the State, a literal plague,
+pestilence and burden to it, quite otherwise malignant and maleficent
+than the poor country lassie who loses her snood among the heather. And
+when, at last, _real_ political economy shall exhibit the exact sources
+and consequences of the expenditure of the great capitals of
+civilization on their own indulgences, your Lordship will be furnished,
+in the statistics of their most splendid and most impious pleasure, with
+record of precisely the largest existing source of "remunerative
+employment"--(if _that_ were all the poor had to ask for), next after
+the preparation and practice of war. I believe it is, indeed, probable
+that "facility of intercourse" gives the next largest quantity of
+occupation; and, as your Lordship rightly observes, to most respectable
+persons. And if the entire population of Manchester lost the use of its
+legs, your Lordship would similarly have the satisfaction of observing,
+and might share in the profits of providing, the needful machinery of
+porterage and stretchers. But observe, my Lord--and observe as a final
+and inevitable truth--that whether you lend your money to provide an
+invalided population with crutches, stretchers, hearses, or the railroad
+accommodation which is so often synonymous with the three, the _tax on
+the use_ of these, which constitutes the shareholder's dividend, is a
+permanent burden upon them, exacted by avarice, and by no means an aid
+granted by benevolence.
+
+165. (L) "Sanctioned by experience." The experience of twenty-three
+years, my Lord, and with the following result:--
+
+"We have now had an opportunity of practically testing the theory. Not
+more than seventeen" (now twenty-three--I quote from a letter dated
+1875) "years have passed since" (by the final abolition of the Usury
+laws) "all restraint was removed from the growth of what Lord Coke calls
+'this pestilent weed,'" and we see Bacon's words verified--"the rich
+becoming richer, and the poor poorer, throughout the civilized world."
+Letter from Mr. R. Sillar, quoted in _Fors Clavigera_, No. 43.
+
+(M) "Inevitable." Neither "impossible" nor "inevitable" were words of
+old Christian Faith. But see the closing paragraph of my letter.
+
+(N) Before you call on me to substantiate this charge, my Lord, I
+should like to insert after the words, "steadily preaching," the phrase,
+"and politely explaining"--with the Pauline qualification, "whether by
+word, or our epistle."
+
+166. (O) "The great cities of to-day are not worse than great cities
+always have been," I do not remember having said that they were, my
+Lord; I have never anticipated for Manchester a worse fate than that of
+Sardis or Sodom; nor have I yet observed any so mighty works shown forth
+in her by her ministers, as to make her impenitence less pardonable than
+that of Sidon or Tyre. But I used the particular expression which your
+Lordship supposes me to have overcharged in righteous indignation, "a
+boil breaking forth with blains on man and beast," because that
+particular plague was the one which Moses was ordered, in the Eternal
+Wisdom, to connect with the ashes of the Furnace--literally, no less
+than spiritually, when he brought the Israelites forth out of Egypt,
+_from the midst of the Furnace of Iron_. How literally, no less than in
+faith and hope, the smoke of "the great city, which spiritually is
+called Sodom and Egypt," has poisoned the earth, the waters, and the
+living creatures, flocks and herds, and the babes that know not their
+right hand from their left--neither Memphis, Gomorrah, nor Cahors are
+themselves likely to recognize: but, as I pause in front of the
+infinitude of the evil that I cannot find so much as thought to
+follow--how much less words to speak!--a letter is brought to me which
+gives what perhaps may be more impressive in its single and historical
+example, than all the general evidence gathered already in the pages of
+_Fors Clavigera_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+167. "I could never understand formerly what you meant about usury, and
+about its being wrong to take interest. I said, truly, then that I
+'trusted you,' meaning I knew that in such matters you did not
+'opine'--and that innumerable things were within your horizon which had
+no place within mine.
+
+"But as I did not understand I could only watch and ponder. Gradually I
+came to see a little--as when I read current facts about India--about
+almost every country, and about our own trade, etc. Then (one of several
+circumstances that could be seen more closely) among my mother's kindred
+in the north, I watched the ruin of two lives. They began married life
+together, with good prospects and sufficient means, in a lovely little
+nest among the hills, beyond the Rochdale smoke. Soon this became too
+narrow. 'A splendid trade,' more mills, frequent changes into even finer
+dwellings, luxurious living, ostentation, extravagance, increasing year
+by year, all, as now appears, made possible by usury--borrowed capital.
+The wife was laid in her grave lately, and her friends are _thankful_.
+The husband, with ruin threatening his affairs, is in a worse, and
+living, grave of evil habits."
+
+     "These are some of the loopholes through which light has fallen
+     upon your words, giving them a new meaning, and making me wonder
+     how I could have missed seeing it from the first. Once alive to it,
+     I recognize the evil on all sides, and how we are entangled by it;
+     and though I am still puzzled at one or two points, I am very clear
+     about the principle--that usury is a deadly thing,"
+
+Yes; and deadly always with the vilest forms of destruction both to soul
+and body.
+
+168. It happens strangely, my Lord, that although throughout the seven
+volumes of _Fors Clavigera_, I never have set down a sentence without
+chastising it first into terms which could be _literally_ as well as in
+their widest bearing justified against all controversy, you could
+perhaps not have found in the whole book, had your Lordship read it for
+the purpose, any saying quite so literally and terrifically demonstrable
+as this which you have chanced to select for attack. For, in the first
+place, of all the calamities which in their apparently merciless
+infliction paralyzed the wavering faith of mediaeval Christendom, the
+"boil breaking forth into blains," in the black plagues of Florence and
+London, was the fatalest messenger of the fiends: and, in the second
+place, the broad result of the Missionary labors of the cities of
+Madrid, Paris, and London, for the salvation of the wild tribes of the
+New World, since the vaunted discovery of it, may be summed in the stem
+sentence--Death, by drunkenness and smallpox.
+
+The beneficent influence of recent commercial enterprise in the
+communication of such divine grace, and divine blessing (not to speak of
+other more dreadful and shameful conditions of disease), may be studied
+to best advantage in the history of the two great French and English
+Companies, who have enjoyed the monopoly of clothing the nakedness of
+the Old World with coats of skins from the New.
+
+The charter of the English one, obtained from the Crown in 1670, was in
+the language of modern Liberalism--" wonderfully liberal,"[130]
+comprising not only the grant of the exclusive trade, but also of full
+territorial possession, to all perpetuity, of the vast lands within the
+watershed of Hudson's Bay. The Company at once established some forts
+along the shores of the great inland sea from which it derived its name,
+and opened a very lucrative trade with the Indians, _so that it never
+ceased paying rich dividends_ to the fortunate shareholders, until
+towards the close of the last century.
+
+Up to this time, with the exception of the voyage of discovery which
+Herne (1770-71) made under its auspices to the mouth of the Coppermine
+River, it had done but little for the promotion of geographical
+discovery in its vast territory.
+
+169. Meanwhile, the Canadian (French) fur traders had become so hateful
+to the Indians, that these savages formed a conspiracy for their total
+extirpation. _Fortunately for the white men_, the smallpox broke out
+about this time among the redskins, and swept them away as the fire
+consumes the parched grass of the prairies. Their unburied corpses were
+torn by the wolves and wild dogs, and the survivors were too weak and
+dispirited to be able to undertake anything against the foreign
+intruders. The Canadian fur traders now also saw the necessity of
+combining their efforts for their mutual benefit, instead of ruining
+each other by an insane competition; and consequently formed in 1783 a
+society which, under the name of the North-West Company of Canada,
+ruled over the whole continent from the Canadian lakes to the Rocky
+Mountains, and in 1806 it even crossed the barrier and established its
+forts on the northern tributaries of the Columbia river. To the north it
+likewise extended its operations, encroaching more and more upon the
+privileges of the Hudson's Bay Company, which, roused to energy, now
+also pushed on its posts further and further into the interior, and
+established, in 1812, a colony on the Red River to the south of Winnipeg
+Lake, thus driving, as it were, a sharp thorn into the side of its
+rival. But a power like the North-West Company, which had no less than
+50 agents, 70 interpreters, and 1120 "voyageurs" in its pay, and whose
+chief managers used to appear at their annual meetings at Fort William,
+on the banks of Lake Superior, with all the pomp and pride of feudal
+barons, was not inclined to tolerate this encroachment; and thus, after
+many quarrels, a regular war broke out between the two parties, which,
+after two years' duration, led to the expulsion of the Red River
+colonists, and the murder of their governor Semple. This event took
+place in the year 1816, and is but one episode of the bloody feuds which
+continued to reign between the two rival Companies until 1821.
+
+170. The dissension's of the fur traders had most deplorable
+consequences for the redskins; for both Companies, to swell the number
+of their adherents, lavishly distributed spirituous liquors--a
+temptation which no Indian can resist. The whole of the meeting-grounds
+of the Saskatchewan and Athabasca were but one scene of revelry and
+bloodshed. Already decimated by the smallpox, the Indians now became the
+victims of drunkenness and discord, and it was to be feared that if the
+war and its consequent demoralization continued, the most important
+tribes would soon be utterly swept away.
+
+At length wisdom prevailed over passion, and the enemies came to a
+resolution which, if taken from the very beginning, would have saved
+them both a great deal of treasure and many crimes. Instead of
+continuing to swing the tomahawk, they now smoked the calumet, and
+amalgamated in 1821, under the name of "Hudson's Bay Company," and
+under the wing of the Charter.
+
+The British Government, as a dowry to the impoverished couple, presented
+them with a license of exclusive trade throughout the whole of that
+territory which, under the name of the "Hudson's Bay and North-West
+territories," extends from Labrador to the Pacific, and from the Red
+River to the Polar Ocean.
+
+171. Such, my Lord, have been the triumphs of the modern Evangel of
+Usury, Competition, and Private Enterprise, in a perfectly clear
+instance of their action, chosen I hope with sufficient candor, since
+"History," says Professor Hind, "does not furnish another example of an
+association of private individuals exerting a powerful influence over so
+large an extent of the earth's surface and administering their affairs
+with such consummate skill, and unwavering devotion to the original
+objects of their incorporation."
+
+That original object being, of course, that poor naked America, having
+yet in a manner two coats, might be induced by these Christian merchants
+to give to him that had none?
+
+In like manner, may any Christian householder, who has two houses or
+perchance two parks, ever be induced to give to him that hath none? My
+temper and my courtesy scarcely serve me, my Lord, to reply to your
+assertion of the "inevitableness" that, while half of Great Britain is
+laid out in hunting-grounds for sport more savage than the Indians, the
+poor of our cities must be swept into incestuous heaps; or into dens and
+caves which are only tombs disquieted, so changing the whiteness of
+Jewish sepulchers into the blackness of Christian ones, in which the
+hearts of the rich and the homes of the poor are alike as graves that
+appear not;--only their murmur, that sayeth "it is not enough," sounds
+deeper beneath us every hour; nay, the whole earth, and not only the
+cities of it, sends forth that ghastly cry; and her fruitful plains have
+become slime-pits, and her fair estuaries, gulfs of death; for _us_, the
+Mountain of the Lord has become only Golgotha, and the sound of the new
+song before the Throne is drowned in the rolling death-rattle of the
+nations, "Oh Christ; where is thy victory?"
+
+These are thy glorious works, Mammon parent of Good,--and this the true
+debate, my Lord of Manchester, between the two Angels of your
+Church,--whether the "Dreamland" of its souls be now, or
+hereafter,--now, the firelight in the cave, or hereafter, the sunlight
+of Heaven.
+
+172. How, my Lord, am I to receive, or reply to, the narrow concessions
+of your closing sentence? The Spirit of Truth was breathed even from the
+Athenian Acropolis, and the Law of Justice thundered even from the
+Cretan Sinai; but for _us_, He who said, "I am the Truth," said also, "I
+am the Way, and the Life;" and for _us_, He who reasoned of
+Righteousness, reasoned also of Temperance and Judgment to come. Is this
+the sincere milk of the Word, which takes the hope from the Person of
+Christ, and the fear from the charge of His apostle, and forbids to
+English heroism the perilous vision of Immortality? God be with you, my
+Lord, and exalt your teaching to that quality of Mercy which, distilling
+as the rain from Heaven--not strained as through channels from a sullen
+reservoir-may soften the hearts of your people to receive the New
+Commandment, that they Love one another. So, round the cathedral of your
+city, shall the merchant's law be just, and his weights true; the table
+of the money-changer not overthrown, and the bench of the money-lender
+unbroken.
+
+And to as many as walk according to this rule, Peace shall be on them,
+and Mercy, and upon the Israel of God.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+173. With the preceding letter must assuredly end--for the present, if
+not forever--my own notes on a subject of which my strength no longer
+serves me to endure the stress and sorrow; but I may possibly be able to
+collect, eventually, into more close form, the already manifold and
+sufficient references scattered through _Fors Clavigera_: and perhaps to
+reprint for the St. George's Guild the admirable compendium of British
+ecclesiastical and lay authority on the subject, collected by John
+Blaxton, preacher of God's Word at Osmington in Dorsetshire, printed by
+John Norton under the title of "The English Usurer," and sold by Francis
+Bowman, in Oxford, 1631. A still more precious record of the fierce
+struggle of usury into life among Christians, and of the resistance to
+it by Venice and her "Anthony,"[131] will be found in the dialogue
+"della Usura," of Messer Speron Sperone (Aldus, in Vinegia, MDXIII.),
+followed by the dialogue "del Cathaio," between "Portia, sola, e
+fanciulla, fame, e cibo, vita, e morte, di ciascuno che la conosce," and
+her lover Moresini, which is the source of all that is loveliest in the
+_Merchant of Venice_. Readers who seek more modern and more scientific
+instruction may consult the able abstract of the triumph of usury, drawn
+up by Dr. Andrew Dickson White, President of Cornell University ("The
+Warfare of Science," H. S. King & Co., 1877), in which the victory of
+the great modern scientific principle, that two and two make five, is
+traced exultingly to the final overthrow of St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome,
+St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, Luther, and Bossuet, by "the
+establishment of the Torlonia family in Rome." A better collection of
+the most crushing evidence cannot be found than this, furnished by an
+adversary; a less petulant and pompous, but more earnest voice from
+America, "Usury the Giant Sin of the Age," by Edward Palmer (Perth
+Amboys, 1865), should be read together with it. In the meantime, the
+substance of the teaching of the _former_ Church of England, in the
+great sermon against usury of Bishop Jewell, may perhaps not uselessly
+occupy one additional page of the _Contemporary Review_:--
+
+174. "Usury is a kind of lending of money, or corne, or oyle, or wine,
+or of any other thing, wherein, upon covenant and bargaine, we receive
+againe the whole principall which we delivered, and somewhat more, for
+the use and occupying of the same; as if I lend 100 pound, and for it
+covenant to receive 105 pound, or any other summe, greater then was the
+summe which I did lend: this is that which we call usury: such a kind of
+bargaining as no good man, or godly man ever used. Such a kind of
+bargaining as all men that ever feared God's judgments have alwaies
+abhorred and condemned. It is filthy gaines, and a worke of darkenesse,
+it is a monster in nature: the overthrow of mighty kingdoms, the
+destruction of flourishing States, the decay of wealthy cities, the
+plagues of the world, and the misery of the people: it is theft, it is
+the murthering of our brethren, its the curse of God, and the curse of
+the people. This is Usury. By these signes and tokens you may know it.
+For wheresoever it raigneth all those mischiefes ensue.
+
+"Whence springeth usury? Soone shewed. Even thence whence theft, murder,
+adultery, the plagues, and destruction of the people doe spring. All
+these are the workes of the divell, and the workes of the flesh. Christ
+telleth the Pharisees, You are of your father the divell, and the lusts
+of your father you will doe. Even so may it truely be sayd to the
+usurer, Thou art of thy father the divell, and the lusts of thy father
+thou wilt doe, and therefore thou hast pleasure in his workes. The
+divell entered into the heart of Judas, and put in him this greedinesse,
+and covetousnesse of game, for which he was content to sell his master.
+Judas's heart was the shop, the divell was the foreman to worke in it.
+They that will be rich fall into tentation and snares, and into many
+foolish and noysome lusts, which drowne men in perdition and
+destruction. For the desire of money is the roote of all evil. And St.
+John saith, Whosoever committeth sinne is of the Divell, 1 Joh. 3-8.
+Thus we see that the divell is the planter, and the father of usury.
+
+"What are the fruits of usury? A. 1. It dissolveth the knot and
+fellowship of mankind. 2. It hardeneth man's heart. 3. It maketh men
+unnaturall, and bereaveth them of charity, and love to their dearest
+friends. 4. It breedeth misery and provoketh the wrath of God from
+heaven. 5. It consumeth rich men, it eateth up the poore, it maketh
+bankrupts, and undoeth many householders. 6. The poore occupiers are
+driven to flee, their wives are left alone, their children are
+hopelesse, and driven to beg their bread, through the unmercifull
+dealing of the covetous usurer.
+
+175. "He that is an usurer, wisheth that all others may lacke and come
+to him and borrow of him; that all others may lose, so that he may have
+gaine. Therefore our old forefathers so much abhorred this trade, that
+they thought an usurer unworthy to live in the company of Christian men.
+They suffered not an usurer to be witnesse in matters of Law. They
+suffer him not to make a Testament, and to bestow his goods by will.
+When an usurer dyed, they would not suffer him to be buried in places
+appointed for the buriall of Christians. So highly did they mislike this
+unmercifull spoyling and deceiving our brethren.
+
+"But what speak I of the ancient Fathers of the Church? There was never
+any religion, nor sect, nor state, nor degree, nor profession of men,
+but they have disliked it. Philosophers, Greekes, Latins, lawyers,
+divines, Catholikes, heretics; all tongues and nations have ever thought
+an usurer as dangerous as a theefe. The very sense of nature proves it
+to be so. If the stones could speak they would say as much. But some
+will say all kindes of usury are not forbidden. There may be cases where
+usury may stand with reason and equity, and herein they say so much as
+by wit may be devised to paint out a foule and ugly idoll, and to shadow
+themselves in manifest and open wickednesse. Whatsoever God sayeth, yet
+this or this kind of usury, say they, which is done in this or this
+sort, is not forbidden. It proffiteth the Commonwealth, it relieveth
+great numbers, the poore should otherwise perish, none would lend them.
+By like good reason, there are some that defend theft and murder; they
+say, there may be some case where it is lawful to kill or to steale;
+for God willed the Hebrews to rob the AEgyptians, and Abraham to kill his
+owne sonne Isaac. In these cases the robbery and the killing of his
+sonne were lawfull. So say they. Even so by the like reason doe some of
+our countrymen maintayne concubines, curtizans, and brothel-houses, and
+stand in defence of open stewes. They are (say they) for the benefit of
+the country, they keepe men from more dangerous inconveniences; take
+them away, it will be worse. Although God say, there shall be no whore
+of the daughters of Israel, neither shall there be a whorekeeper of the
+sonnes of Israel: yet these men say all manner of whoredom is not
+forbidden. In these and these cases it is not amisse to alow it."
+
+     "As Samuel sayd to Saul, so may we say to the usurer, Thou hast
+     devised cases and colours to hide thy shame, but what regard hath
+     God to thy cases? What careth He for thy reasons? the Lord would
+     have more pleasure, if when thou heareth His voyce thou wouldest
+     obey Him. For what is thy device against the counsell, and
+     ordinance of God? What bold presumption is it for a mortall man to
+     controule the commandments of immortall God? And to weigh his
+     heavenly wisdome in the ballance of humane foolishnesse? When God
+     sayth, Thou shalt not take usury, what creature of God art thou
+     which canst take usury? When God maketh it unlawfull, what art
+     thou, oh man, that sayst, it is lawfull? This is a token of a
+     desperate mind. It is found true in thee, that Paul sayd, the love
+     of money is the root of all ill. Thou art so given over unto the
+     wicked Mammon, that thou carest not to doe the will of God."
+
+Thus far, the theology of Old England. Let it close with the calm law,
+spoken four hundred years before Christ, [Greek: a me katethou, me anele].
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 124: _Contemporary Review_, February 1880.]
+
+[Footnote 125: See below (p. 393, Sec. 236), in the eighth letter on the
+Lord's Prayer.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 126: In Proverbs xxviii. 8, "usury" is coupled with "unjust
+gain," and a pitiless spirit towards the poor, which shows in what sense
+the word is to be understood there, and in such other passages as Ps.
+xv. 5 and Ezek. xviii. 8, 9.]
+
+[Footnote 127: See post, p. 394, Sec. 237.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Speech of Mr. J. C. Hubbard, M.P. for London, reported in
+_Standard_ of 26th July, 1879.]
+
+[Footnote 129: See the Articles of Association of the East Surrey Hall,
+Museum, and Library Company. (_Fors Clavigera_, Letter lxx.)]
+
+[Footnote 130: "The Polar World," p. 342, Longmans, 1874.]
+
+[Footnote 131:
+
+  "The dearest friend to me, the kindest man,
+  The best conditioned and unwearied spirit,
+  In doing courtesies; and one in whom
+  _The ancient Roman honor more appears,
+  Than any that draws breath in Italy._"
+
+This is the Shakespearian description of that Anthony, whom the modern
+British public, with its new critical lights, calls a "sentimentalist
+and speculator!"--holding Shylock to be the real hero, and innocent
+victim of the drama.]
+
+
+
+
+USURY.[132]
+
+A PREFACE.
+
+
+176. In the wise, practical, and affectionate sermon, given from St.
+Mary's pulpit last autumn to the youth of Oxford, by the good Bishop of
+Carlisle, his Lordship took occasion to warn his eagerly attentive
+audience, with deep earnestness, against the crime of debt; dwelling
+with powerful invective on the cruelty and selfishness with which, too
+often, the son wasted in his follies the fruits of his father's labor,
+or the means of his family's subsistence; and involved himself in
+embarrassments which, said the Bishop, "I have again and again known to
+cause the misery of all subsequent life."
+
+The sin was charged, the appeal pressed, only on the preacher's
+undergraduate hearers. Beneath the gallery, the Heads of Houses sate,
+remorseless; nor from the pulpit was a single hint permitted that any
+measures could be rationally taken for the protection, no less than the
+warning, of the youth under their care. No such suggestion would have
+been received, if even understood, by any English congregation of this
+time;--a strange and perilous time, in which the greatest commercial
+people of the world have been brought to think Usury the most honorable
+and fruitful branch, or rather perennial stem, of commercial industry.
+
+177. But whose the fault that English congregations are in this temper,
+and this ignorance? The saying of mine,[133] which the author of this
+book quotes in the close of his introduction, was written by me with a
+meaning altogether opposite, and far more forcible, than that which it
+might seem to bear to a careless interpreter.[134] In the present state
+of popular revolt against all conception and manner of authority, but
+more especially spiritual authority, the sentence reads as if it were
+written by an adversary of the Church,--a hater of its Prelacy,--an
+advocate of universal liberty of thought and license of crime: whereas
+the sentence is really written in the conviction (I might say knowledge,
+if I spoke without deference to the reader's incredulity) that the
+Pastoral Office must forever be the highest, for good or evil, in every
+Christian land; and that when _it_ fails in vigilance, faith, or
+courage, the sheep _must_ be scattered, and neither King nor law avail
+any more to protect them against the fury of their own passions, nor any
+human sagacity against the deception of their own hearts.
+
+178. Since, however, these things are instantly so, and the Bishops of
+England have now with one accord consented to become merely the highly
+salaried vergers of her Cathedrals, taking care that the choristers do
+not play at leapfrog in the Churchyard, that the Precincts are elegantly
+iron-railed from the profane parts of the town, and that the doors of
+the building be duly locked, so that nobody may pray in it at
+improper times,--these things being so, may we not turn to the
+"every-man-his-own-Bishop" party, with its Bible Society, Missionary
+zeal, and right of infallible private interpretation, to ask at least
+for some small exposition to the inhabitants of their own country, of
+those Scriptures which they are so fain to put in the possession of
+others; and this the rather, because the popular familiar version of the
+New Testament among us, unwritten, seems to be now the exact contrary of
+that which we were once taught to be of Divine authority.
+
+179. I place, side by side, the ancient and modern versions of the seven
+verses of the New Testament which were the beginning, and are indeed the
+heads, of all the teaching of Christ:--
+
+  _Ancient._
+
+  Blessed are the Poor in
+  Spirit, for their's is the
+  kingdom of Heaven.
+
+  Blessed are they that mourn,
+  for they shall be comforted.
+
+  Blessed are the meek, for
+  they shall inherit the
+  earth.
+
+  Blessed are they which do
+  hunger for righteousness,
+  for they shall be filled.
+
+  Blessed are the merciful, for
+  they shall obtain mercy.
+
+  Blessed are the pure in heart,
+  for they shall see God.
+
+  Blessed are the Peacemakers,
+  for they shall be called the
+  children of God.
+
+
+  _Modern._
+
+  Blessed are the Rich in
+  Flesh, for their's is the
+  kingdom of Earth.
+
+  Blessed are they that are
+  merry, and laugh the last.
+
+  Blessed are the proud, in that
+  they _have_ inherited the
+  earth.
+
+  Blessed are they which hunger
+  for unrighteousness, in
+  that they shall divide its
+  mammon.
+
+  Blessed are the merciless, for
+  they shall obtain money.
+
+  Blessed are the foul in heart,
+  for they shall see no God.
+
+  Blessed are the War-makers,
+  for they shall be adored by
+  the children of men.
+
+180. Who are the true "Makers of War," the promoters and supports of it,
+I showed long since in the note to the brief sentence of "Unto this
+last." "It is entirely capitalists' (_i.e._, Usurers') wealth[135] which
+supports unjust Wars." But to what extent the adoration of the Usurer,
+and the slavery consequent upon it, has perverted the soul or bound the
+hands of every man in Europe, I will let the reader hear, from authority
+he will less doubt than mine:--
+
+"Financiers are the mischievous feudalism of the 19th century. A handful
+of men have invented distant, seductive loans, have introduced national
+debts in countries happily ignorant of them, have advanced money to
+unsophisticated Powers on ruinous terms, and then, by appealing to small
+investors all over the world, got rid of the bonds. Furthermore, with
+the difference between the advances and the sale of bonds, they caused a
+fall in the securities which they had issued, and, having sold at 80,
+they bought back at 10, taking advantage of the public panic. Again,
+with the money thus obtained, they bought up consciences, where
+consciences are marketable, and under the pretense of providing the
+country thus traded upon with new means of communication, they passed
+money into their own coffers. They have had pupils, imitators, and
+plagiarists; and at the present moment, under different names, the
+financiers rule the world, are a sore of society, and form one of the
+chief causes of modern crises.
+
+"Unlike the Nile, wherever they pass they render the soil dry and
+barren. The treasures of the world flow into their cellars, and there
+remain. They spend one-tenth of their revenues; the remaining
+nine-tenths they hoard and divert from circulation. They distribute
+favors, and are great political leaders. They have not assumed the place
+of the old nobility, but have taken the latter into their service.
+Princes are their chamberlains, dukes open their doors, and marquises
+act as their equerries when they deign to ride.
+
+"These new grandees canter on their splendid Arabs along Rotten Ron, the
+Bois de Boulogne, the Prospect, the Prater, or Unter den Linden. The
+shopkeepers, and all who save money, bow low to these men, who represent
+their savings, which they will never again see under any other form.
+Proof against sarcasms, sure of the respect of the Continental Press,
+protecting each other with a sort of freemasonry, the financiers dictate
+laws, determine the fate of nations, and render the cleverest political
+combinations abortive. They are everywhere received and listened to, and
+all the Cabinets feel their influence. Governments watch them with
+uneasiness, and even the Iron Chancellor has his gilded Egeria, who
+reports to him the wishes of this the sole modern Autocrat"--_Letter
+from Paris Correspondent_, "_Times_," _30th January_, 1885.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+181. But to this statement, I must add the one made to Sec. 149 (see note)
+of "Munera Pulveris," that if we could trace the innermost of all causes
+of modern war, they would be found, not in the avarice or ambition, but
+the idleness of the upper classes. "They have nothing to do but to teach
+the peasantry to kill each other"--while that the peasantry are thus
+teachable, is further again dependent on their not having been educated
+primarily in the common law of justice. See again "Munera Pulveris,"
+Appendix I.: "Precisely according to the number of just men in a nation
+is their power of avoiding either intestine or foreign war."
+
+I rejoice to see my old friend Mr. Sillar gathering finally together the
+evidence he has so industriously collected on the guilt of usury, and
+supporting it by the always impressive language of symbolical art;[136]
+for indeed I had myself no idea, till I read the connected statement
+which these pictures illustrate, how steadily the system of
+money-lending had gained on the nation, and how fatally every hand and
+foot was now entangled by it. Yet in commending the study of this book
+to every virtuous and patriotic Englishman, I must firmly remind the
+reader, that all these sins and errors are only the branches from one
+root of bitterness--mortal Pride. For this we gather, for this we war,
+for this we die--here and hereafter; while all the while the Wisdom
+which is from above stands vainly teaching us the way to Earthly Riches
+and to Heavenly Peace, "What doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but
+to do justice, to love mercy, and to walk _humbly_ with thy God?"
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _7th March_, 1885.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 132: Introduction to a pamphlet entitled "Usury and the
+English Bishops," or more fully, "Usury, its pernicious effects on
+English agriculture and commerce: An allegory dedicated without
+permission to the Bishops of Manchester, Peterborough and Rochester"
+(London: A. Southey, 146, Fenchurch Street, 1885). By R. J. Sillar. (See
+_Fors Clavigera_, vol. v. Letter 56.)--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 133: "Everything evil in Europe is primarily the fault of her
+Bishops."]
+
+[Footnote 134: "I knew, in using it, perfectly well what you meant."
+(Note by Mr. Sillar.)]
+
+[Footnote 135: "Cash," I should have said, in accuracy--not "wealth."]
+
+[Footnote 136: Mr. Sillar's pamphlet consists of a collection of
+paragraphs, all condemnatory of usury, from the writings of the English
+bishops, from the sixteenth century down to the present time; and is
+illustrated by five emblematic woodcuts representing an oak tree
+(English commerce) gradually overgrown and destroyed by an ivy-plant
+(usury).--ED.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THEOLOGY.
+
+
+NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.
+
+(Pamphlet, 1851.)
+
+
+THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.
+
+(_Letters and Epilogue_, 1879-1881.)
+
+
+THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.
+
+(_Contemporary Review, March_ 1873.)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHEEPFOLDS.[137]
+
+
+PREFACE (CALLED "ADVERTISEMENT") TO THE FIRST EDITION.
+
+_Many persons will probably find fault with me for publishing opinions
+which are not new: but I shall bear this blame contentedly, believing
+that opinions on this subject could hardly be just if they were not 1800
+years old. Others will blame me for making proposals which are
+altogether new: to whom I would answer, that things in these days seem
+not so far right but that they may be mended. And others will simply
+call the opinions false and the proposals foolish--to whose goodwill, if
+they take it in hand to contradict me, I must leave what I have
+written--having no purpose of being drawn, at present, into religious
+controversy. If, however, any should admit the truth, but regret the
+tone of what I have said, lean only pray them to consider how much less
+harm is done in the world by ungraceful boldness, than by untimely
+fear._
+
+  DENMARK HILL,
+
+  _February, 1851._
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND (1851) EDITION.
+
+_Since the publication of these Notes, I have received many letters upon
+the affairs of the Church, from persons of nearly every denomination of
+Christians; for all these letters I am grateful, and in many of them I
+have found valuable information, or suggestion: but I have not leisure
+at present to follow out the subject farther; and no reason has been
+shown me for modifying or altering any part of the text as it stands. It
+is republished, therefore, without change or addition_.
+
+_I must, however, especially thank one of my correspondents for sending
+me a pamphlet, called "Sectarianism, the Bane of Religion and the
+Church,"[138] which I would recommend, in the strongest terms, to the
+reading of all who regard the cause of Christ; and, for help in reading
+the Scriptures, I would name also the short and admirable arrangement of
+parallel passages relating to the offices of the clergy, called "The
+Testimony of Scripture concerning the Christian Ministry."_[139]
+
+
+PREFACE TO THIRD (CALLED SECOND) EDITION.
+
+_I have only to add to this first preface, that the boldness of the
+pamphlet,--ungraceful enough, it must be admitted,--has done no one any
+harm, that I know of; but on the contrary, some definite good, as far as
+I can judge; and that I republish the whole now, letter for letter, as
+originally printed, believing it likely to be still serviceable, and, on
+the ground it takes for argument, (Scriptural authority,)
+incontrovertible as far as it reaches; though it amazes me to find on
+re-reading it, that, so late as 1851, I had only got the length of
+perceiving the schism between sects of Protestants to be criminal, and
+ridiculous, while I still supposed the schism between Protestants and
+Catholics to be virtuous and sublime._
+
+_The most valuable part of the whole is the analysis of governments, Sec.Sec.
+213-15; the passages on Church discipline, Sec.Sec. 204-5, being also
+anticipatory of much that I have to say in Fors, where I hope to
+re-assert the substance of this pamphlet on wider grounds, and with more
+modesty._
+
+  BRANTWOOD,
+
+  _3rd August, 1875._
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 137: This pamphlet was originally published in 1851, under the
+title of "Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds," by John Ruskin,
+M.A., author of the "Seven Lamps of Architecture," etc. (Smith, Elder, &
+Co.). A second edition, with an additional preface, followed in the same
+year, after which the pamphlet remained out of print till 1875, when it
+was reprinted in a third, erroneously called a second, edition (George
+Allen, Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent).--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 138: London: 1846. Nisbet & Co., Berners Street.]
+
+[Footnote 139: London: 1847. T. K. Campbell, 1, Warwick Square.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTES,
+
+ETC., ETC.
+
+
+182. The following remarks were intended to form part of the appendix to
+an essay on Architecture: but it seemed to me, when I had put them into
+order, that they might be useful to persons who would not care to
+possess the work to which I proposed to attach them: I publish them,
+therefore, in a separate form; but I have not time to give them more
+consistency than they would have had in the subordinate position
+originally intended for them. I do not profess to teach Divinity, and I
+pray the reader to understand this, and to pardon the slightness and
+insufficiency of notes set down with no more intention of connected
+treatment of their subject than might regulate an accidental
+conversation. Some of them are simply copied from my private diary;
+others are detached statements of facts, which seem to me significative
+or valuable, without comment; all are written in haste, and in the
+intervals of occupation with an entirely different subject. It may be
+asked of me, whether I hold it right to speak thus hastily and
+insufficiently respecting the matter in question? Yes. I hold it right
+to _speak_ hastily; not to _think_ hastily. I have not thought hastily
+of these things; and, besides, the haste of speech is confessed, that
+the reader may think of me only as talking to him, and saying, as
+shortly and simply as I can, things which, if he esteem them foolish or
+idle, he is welcome to cast aside; but which, in very truth, I cannot
+help saying at this time.
+
+183. The passages in the essay which required notes, described the
+repression of the political power of the Venetian Clergy by the Venetian
+Senate; and it became necessary for me--in supporting an assertion made
+in the course of the inquiry, that the idea of separation of Church and
+State was both vain and impious--to limit the sense in which it seemed
+to me that the word "Church" should be understood, and to note one or
+two consequences which would result from the acceptance of such
+limitation. This I may as well do in a separate paper, readable by any
+person interested in the subject; for it is high time that _some_
+definition of the word should be agreed upon. I do not mean a definition
+involving the doctrine of this or that division of Christians, but
+limiting, in a manner understood by all of them, the sense in which the
+_word_ should thenceforward be used. There is grievous inconvenience in
+the present state of things. For instance, in a sermon lately published
+at Oxford, by an anti-Tractarian divine, I find this sentence,--"It is
+clearly within the province of the State to establish a national
+_church_, or _external institution of certain forms of worship_." Now
+suppose one were to take this interpretation of the word "Church," given
+by an Oxford divine, and substitute it for the simple word in some Bible
+texts, as, for instance, "Unto the angel of the external institution of
+certain forms of worship of Ephesus, write," etc. Or, "Salute the
+brethren which are in Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the external
+institution of certain forms of worship which is in his house,"--what
+awkward results we should have, here and there! Now I do not say it is
+possible for men to agree with each other in their religious _opinions_,
+but it is certainly possible for them to agree with each other upon
+their religious _expressions_; and when a word occurs in the Bible a
+hundred and fourteen times, it is surely not asking too much of
+contending divines to let it stand in the sense in which it there
+occurs; and when they want an expression of something for which it does
+_not_ stand in the Bible, to use some other word. There is no compromise
+of religious opinion in this; it is simply proper respect for the
+Queen's English.
+
+184. The word occurs in the New Testament, as I said, a hundred and
+fourteen times.[140] In every one of those occurrences, it bears one
+and the same grand sense: that of a congregation or assembly of men. But
+it bears this sense under four different modifications, giving four
+separate meanings to the word. These are--
+
+I. The entire Multitude of the Elect; otherwise called the Body of
+Christ; and sometimes the Bride, the Lamb's Wife; including the Faithful
+in all ages;--Adam, and the children of Adam yet unborn.
+
+In this sense it is used in Ephesians v. 25, 27, 32; Colossians i. 18;
+and several other passages.
+
+II. The entire multitude of professing believers in Christ, existing on
+earth at a given moment; including false brethren, wolves in sheep's
+clothing, goats and tares, as well as sheep and wheat, and other forms
+of bad fish with good in the net.
+
+In this sense it is used in 1 Cor. x. 32, xv. 9; Galatians i. 13; 1 Tim.
+iii. 5, etc.
+
+III. The multitude of professed believers, living in a certain city,
+place, or house. This is the most frequent sense in which the word
+occurs, as in Acts vii. 38, xiii. 1; 1 Cor. i. 2, xvi. 19, etc.
+
+IV. Any assembly of men: as in Acts xix. 32, 41.
+
+185. That in a hundred and twelve out of the hundred and fourteen texts,
+the word bears some one of these four meanings, is indisputable.[141]
+But there are two texts in which, if the word had alone occurred, its
+meaning might have been doubtful. These are Matt. xvi. 18, and xviii.
+17.
+
+The absurdity of founding any doctrine upon the inexpressibly minute
+possibility that, in these two texts, the word might have been used with
+a different meaning from that which it bore in all the others, coupled
+with the assumption that the meaning was this or that, is self-evident:
+it is not so much a religious error as a philological solecism;
+unparalleled, so far as I know, in any other science but that of
+divinity.
+
+Nor is it ever, I think, committed with open front by Protestants. No
+English divine, asked in a straightforward manner for a Scriptural
+definition of "the Church," would, I suppose, be bold enough to answer
+"the Clergy." Nor is there any harm in the common use of the word, so
+only that it be distinctly understood to be not the Scriptural one; and
+therefore to be unfit for substitution in a Scriptural text. There is no
+harm in a man's talking of his son's "going into the Church; "meaning
+that he is going to take orders: but there is much harm in his supposing
+this a Scriptural use of the word, and therefore, that when Christ said,
+"Tell it to the Church," He might possibly have meant, "Tell it to the
+Clergy."
+
+186. It is time to put an end to the chance of such misunderstanding.
+Let it but be declared plainly by all men, when they begin to state
+their opinions on matters ecclesiastical, that they will use the word
+"Church" in one sense or the other;--that they will accept the sense in
+which it is used by the Apostles, or that they deny this sense, and
+propose a new definition of their own. We shall then know what we are
+about with them--we may perhaps grant them their new use of the term,
+and argue with them on that understanding; so only that they will not
+pretend to make use of Scriptural authority, while they refuse to employ
+Scriptural language. This, however, it is not my purpose to do at
+present. I desire only to address those who are willing to accept the
+Apostolic sense of the word Church; and with them, I would endeavor
+shortly to ascertain what consequences must follow from an acceptance of
+that Apostolic sense, and what must be our first and most necessary
+conclusions from the common language of Scripture[142] respecting these
+following points:--
+
+  (1) The distinctive characters of the Church,
+  (2) The Authority of the Church.
+  (3) The Authority of the Clergy over the Church.
+  (4) The Connection of the Church with the State.
+
+187. These are four separate subjects of question; but we shall not have
+to put these questions in succession with each of the four Scriptural
+meanings of the word Church, for evidently its second and third meaning
+may be considered together, as merely expressing the general or
+particular conditions of the Visible Church, and the fourth
+signification is entirely independent of all questions of a religious
+kind. So that we shall only put the above inquiries successively
+respecting the Invisible and Visible Church; and as the two last--of
+authority of Clergy, and connection with State--can evidently only have
+reference to the Visible Church, we shall have, in all, these six
+questions to consider:--
+
+  (1) The distinctive characters of the Invisible Church.
+  (2) The distinctive characters of the Visible Church.
+  (3) The Authority of the Invisible Church.
+  (4) The Authority of the Visible Church,
+  (5) The Authority of Clergy over the Visible Church.
+  (6) The Connection of the Visible Church with the State.
+
+188. (1) What are the distinctive characters of the Invisible Church?
+That is to say, What is it which makes a person a member of this Church,
+and how is he to be known for such? Wide question--if we had to take
+cognizance of all that has been written respecting it, remarkable as it
+has been always for quantity rather than carefulness, and full of
+confusion between Visible and Invisible: even the Article of the Church
+of England being ambiguous in its first clause: "The _Visible_ Church is
+a congregation of Faithful men." As if ever it had been possible, except
+for God, to see Faith, or to know a Faithful man by sight! And there is
+little else written on this question, without some such quick confusion
+of the Visible and Invisible Church;--needless and unaccountable
+confusion. For evidently, the Church which is composed of Faithful men
+is the one true, indivisible, and indiscernible Church, built on the
+foundation of Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+chief corner-stone. It includes all who have ever fallen asleep in
+Christ, and all yet unborn, who are to be saved in Him: its Body is as
+yet imperfect; it will not be perfected till the last saved human spirit
+is gathered to its God.
+
+A man becomes a member of this Church only by believing in Christ with
+all his heart; nor is he positively recognizable for a member of it,
+when he has become so, by any one but God, not even by himself.
+Nevertheless, there are certain signs by which Christ's sheep may be
+guessed at. Not by their being in any definite Fold--for many are lost
+sheep at times; but by their sheeplike behavior; and a great many are
+indeed sheep, which, on the far mountain side, in their peacefulness, we
+take for stones. To themselves, the best proof of their being Christ's
+sheep is to find themselves on Christ's shoulders; and, between them,
+there are certain sympathies (expressed in the Apostles' Creed by the
+term "communion of Saints"), by which they may in a sort recognize each
+other, and so become verily visible to each other for mutual comfort.
+
+189. (2) The Limits of the Visible Church, or of the Church in the
+Second Scriptural Sense, are not so easy to define: they are awkward
+questions, these, of stake-nets. It has been ingeniously and plausibly
+endeavored to make Baptism a sign of admission into the Visible Church:
+but absurdly enough; for we know that half the baptized people in the
+world are very visible rogues, believing neither in God nor devil; and
+it is flat blasphemy to call these Visible Christians; we also know that
+the Holy Ghost was sometimes given before Baptism,[143] and it would be
+absurdity to call a man, on whom the Holy Ghost had fallen, an Invisible
+Christian. The only rational distinction is that which practically,
+though not professedly, we always assume. If we hear a man profess
+himself a believer in God and in Christ, and detect him in no glaring
+and willful violation of God's law, we speak of him as a Christian; and,
+on the other hand, if we hear him or see him denying Christ, either in
+his words or conduct, we tacitly assume him not to be a Christian. A
+mawkish charity prevents us from outspeaking in this matter, and from
+earnestly endeavoring to discern who are Christians and who are not; and
+this I hold[144] to be one of the chief sins of the Church in the
+present day; for thus wicked men are put to no shame; and better men are
+encouraged in their failings, or caused to hesitate in their virtues, by
+the example of those whom, in false charity, they choose to call
+Christians. Now, it being granted that it is impossible to know,
+determinedly, who are Christians indeed, that is no reason for utter
+negligence in separating the nominal, apparent, or possible Christian,
+from the professed Pagan or enemy of God. We spend much time in arguing
+about efficacy of sacraments and such other mysteries; but we do not act
+upon the very certain tests which are clear and visible. We know that
+Christ's people are not thieves--not liars--not busybodies--not
+dishonest--not avaricious--not wasteful--not cruel. Let us then get
+ourselves well clear of thieves--liars--wasteful people--avaricious
+people--cheating people--people who do not pay their debts. Let us
+assure them that they, at least, do not belong to the Visible Church;
+and having thus got that Church into decent shape and cohesion, it will
+be time to think of drawing the stake-nets closer.
+
+I hold it for a law, palpable to common sense, and which nothing but the
+cowardice and faithlessness of the Church prevents it from putting in
+practice, that the conviction of any dishonorable conduct or willful
+crime, of any fraud, falsehood, cruelty, or violence, should be ground
+for the excommunication of any man:--for his publicly declared
+separation from the acknowledged body of the Visible Church: and that he
+should not be received again therein without public confession of his
+crime and declaration of his repentance. If this were vigorously
+enforced, we should soon have greater purity of life in the world, and
+fewer discussions about high and low churches. But before we can obtain
+any idea of the manner in which such law could be enforced, we have to
+consider the second respecting the Authority of the Church. Now
+authority is twofold: to declare doctrine, and to enforce discipline;
+and we have to inquire, therefore, in each kind,--
+
+190. (3) What is the authority of the Invisible Church? Evidently, in
+matters of doctrine, all members of the Invisible Church must have been,
+and must ever be, at the time of their deaths, right in the points
+essential to Salvation. But, (A), we cannot tell who _are_ members of
+the Invisible Church.
+
+(B) We cannot collect evidence from death-beds in a clearly stated form.
+
+(C) We can collect evidence, in any form, only from some one or two out
+of every sealed thousand of the Invisible Church. Elijah thought he was
+alone in Israel; and yet there were seven thousand invisible ones around
+him. Grant that we had Elijah's intelligence; and we could only
+calculate on collecting one seven-thousandth part of the evidence or
+opinions of the part of the Invisible Church living on earth at a given
+moment: that is to say, the seven-millionth or trillionth of its
+collective evidence. It is very clear, therefore, we cannot hope to get
+rid of the contradictory opinions, and keep the consistent ones, by a
+general equation. But, it has been said, these are no contradictory
+opinions; the Church is infallible. There was some talk about the
+infallibility of the Church, if I recollect right, in that letter of Mr.
+Bennett's to the Bishop of London. If any Church is infallible, it is
+assuredly the Invisible Church, or Body of Christ: and infallible in the
+main sense it must of course be by its definition. An Elect person must
+be saved, and therefore cannot eventually be deceived on essential
+points: so that Christ says of the deception of such, "If it were
+_possible_" implying it to be impossible. Therefore, as we said, if one
+could get rid of the variable opinions of the members of the Invisible
+Church, the constant opinions would assuredly be authoritative: but, for
+the three reasons above stated, we cannot get at their constant
+opinions: and as for the feelings and thoughts which they daily
+experience or express, the question of Infallibility -which is practical
+only in this bearing--is soon settled. Observe, St. Paul, and the rest
+of the Apostles, write nearly all their epistles to the Invisible
+Church:--those epistles are headed,--Romans, "To the beloved of God,
+called to be saints; "1 Corinthians, "To them that are sanctified in
+Christ Jesus; "2 Corinthians, "To the saints in all Achaia;" Ephesians,
+"To the saints which are at Ephesus, and to the faithful in Christ
+Jesus; "Philippians, "To all the saints which are at Philippi;
+"Colossians, "To the saints and faithful brethren which are at Colosse;"
+1 and 2 Thessalonians, "To the Church of the Thessalonians, which is
+in God the Father, and the Lord Jesus; "1 and 2 Timothy, "To his own son
+in the faith; "Titus, to the same; 1 Peter, "To the Strangers, Elect
+according to the foreknowledge of God;" 2 Peter, "To them that have
+obtained like precious faith with us; " 2 John, "To the Elect lady; "
+Jude, " To them that are sanctified by God the Father, and preserved in
+Jesus Christ, and called."
+
+191. There are thus fifteen epistles, expressly directed to the members
+of the Invisible Church. Philemon and Hebrews, and 1 and 3 John, are
+evidently also so written, though not so expressly inscribed. That of
+James, and that to the Galatians, are as evidently to the Visible
+Church: the one being general, and the other to persons "removed from
+Him that called them." Missing out, therefore, these two epistles, but
+including Christ's words to His disciples, we find in the Scriptural
+addresses to members of the Invisible Church, fourteen, if not more,
+direct injunctions "not to be deceived."[145] So much for the
+"Infallibility of the Church."
+
+Now, one could put up with Puseyism more patiently, if its fallacies
+arose merely from peculiar temperaments yielding to peculiar
+temptations. But its bold refusals to read plain English; its elaborate
+adjustments of tight bandages over its own eyes, as wholesome
+preparation for a walk among traps and pitfalls; its daring trustfulness
+in its own clairvoyance all the time, and declarations that every pit it
+falls into is a seventh heaven; and that it is pleasant and profitable
+to break its legs;--with all this it is difficult to have patience. One
+thinks of the highwayman with his eyes shut in the "Arabian Nights"; and
+wonders whether any kind of scourging would prevail upon the Anglican
+highwayman to open "first one and then the other."
+
+192. (4) So much, then, I repeat, for the infallibility of the
+_In_visible Church, and for its consequent authority. Now, if we want to
+ascertain what infallibility and authority there is in the Visible
+Church, we have to alloy the small wisdom and the light weight of
+Invisible Christians, with the large percentage of the false wisdom and
+contrary weight of Undetected Anti-Christians. Which alloy makes up the
+current coin of opinions in the Visible Church, having such value as we
+may choose--its nature being properly assayed--to attach to it.
+
+There is, therefore, in matters of doctrine, _no such thing_ as the
+Authority of the Church. We might as well talk of the authority of a
+morning cloud. There may be light _in_ it, but the light is not of it;
+and it diminishes the light that it gets; and lets less of it through
+than it receives, Christ being its sun. Or, we might as well talk of the
+authority of a flock of sheep--for the Church is a body to be taught and
+fed, not to teach and feed: and of all sheep that are fed on the earth,
+Christ's Sheep are the most simple, (the children of this generation are
+wiser): always losing themselves; doing little else in this world _but_
+lose themselves;--never finding themselves; always found by Some One
+else; getting perpetually into sloughs, and snows, and bramble thickets,
+like to die there, but for their Shepherd, who is forever finding them
+and bearing them back, with torn fleeces and eyes full of fear.
+
+193. This, then, being the No-Authority of the Church in matter of
+Doctrine, what Authority has it in matters of Discipline?
+
+Much, every way. The sheep have natural and wholesome power (however far
+scattered they may be from their proper fold) of getting together in
+orderly knots; following each other on trodden sheepwalks, and holding
+their heads all one way when they see strange dogs coming; as well as of
+casting out of their company any whom they see reason to suspect of not
+being right sheep, and being among them for no good. All which things
+must be done as the time and place require, and by common consent. A
+path may be good at one time of day which is bad at another, or after a
+change of wind; and a position may be very good for sudden defense,
+which would be very stiff and awkward for feeding in. And common consent
+must often be of such and such a company on this or that hillside, in
+this or that particular danger,--not of all the sheep in the world: and
+the consent may either be literally common, and expressed in assembly,
+or it may be to appoint officers over the rest, with such and such
+trusts of the common authority, to be used for the common advantage.
+Conviction of crimes, and excommunication, for instance, could neither
+be effected except before, or by means of, officers of some appointed
+authority.
+
+194. (5) This then brings us to our fifth question. What is the
+Authority of the Clergy over the Church?
+
+The first clause of the question must evidently be,--Who _are_ the
+Clergy? And it is not easy to answer this without begging the rest of
+the question.
+
+For instance, I think I can hear certain people answering, that the
+Clergy are folk of three kinds;--Bishops, who overlook the Church;
+Priests, who sacrifice for the Church; Deacons, who minister to the
+Church: thus assuming in their answer, that the Church is to be
+sacrificed _for_, and that the people cannot overlook and minister to
+her at the same time;--which is going much too fast. I think, however,
+if we define the Clergy to be the "Spiritual Officers of the
+Church,"--meaning, by Officers, merely People in office,--we shall have
+a title safe enough and general enough to begin with, and corresponding
+too, pretty well, with St. Paul's general expression [Greek:
+proistamenoi], in Rom. xii. 8, and 1 Thess. v. 13.
+
+Now, respecting these Spiritual Officers, or office-bearers, we have to
+inquire, first, What their Office or Authority is, or should be?
+secondly, Who gave, or should give, them that Authority? That is to say,
+first, What is, or should be, the _nature_ of their office? and
+secondly, What the _extent_, or force, of their authority in it? for
+this last depends mainly on its derivation.
+
+195. First, then, What should be the offices, and of what kind should be
+the authority, of the Clergy?
+
+I have hitherto referred to the Bible for an answer to every question. I
+do so again; and, behold, the Bible gives me no answer. I defy you to
+answer me from the Bible. You can only guess, and dimly conjecture, what
+the offices of the Clergy _were_ in the first century. You cannot show
+me a single command as to what they shall be. Strange, this; the Bible
+gives no answer to so apparently important a question! God surely would
+not have left His word without an answer to anything His children ought
+to ask. Surely it must be a ridiculous question--a question we ought
+never to have put, or thought of putting. Let us think of it again a
+little. To be sure,--It _is_ a ridiculous question, and we should be
+ashamed of ourselves for having put it:--What should be the offices of
+the Clergy? That is to say, What are the possible spiritual necessities
+which at any time may arise in the Church, and by what means and men are
+they to be supplied?--evidently an infinite question. Different kinds of
+necessities must be met by different authorities, constituted as the
+necessities arise. Robinson Crusoe, in his island, wants no Bishop, and
+makes a thunderstorm do for an Evangelist. The University of Oxford
+would be ill off without its Bishop; but wants an Evangelist besides;
+and that forthwith. The authority which the Vaudois shepherds need is of
+Barnabas, the Son of Consolation; the authority which the city of London
+needs is of James, the Son of Thunder. Let us then alter the form of our
+question, and put it to the Bible thus: What are the necessities most
+likely to arise in the Church? and may they be best met by different
+men, or in great part by the same men acting in different capacities?
+and are the names attached to their offices of any consequence? Ah, the
+Bible answers now, and that loudly. The Church is built on the
+Foundation of the Apostles and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
+corner-stone. Well; we cannot have two foundations, so we can have no
+more Apostles nor Prophets:--then, as for the other needs of the Church
+in its edifying upon this foundation, there are all manner of things to
+be done daily;--rebukes to be given; comfort to be brought; Scripture to
+be explained; warning to be enforced; threatenings to be executed;
+charities to be administered; and the men who do these things are
+called, and call themselves, with absolute indifference, Deacons,
+Bishops, Elders, Evangelists, according to what they are doing at the
+time of speaking. St. Paul almost always calls himself a deacon, St.
+Peter calls himself an elder, 1 Peter v. 1; and Timothy, generally
+understood to be addressed as a bishop, is called a deacon in 1 Tim. iv.
+6--forbidden to rebuke an elder, in v. 1, and exhorted to do the work of
+an evangelist, in 2 Tim. iv. 5. But there is one thing which, as
+officers, or as separate from the rest of the flock, they _never_ call
+themselves,--which it would have been impossible, as so separate, they
+ever _should_ have called themselves; that is--_Priests_.
+
+196. It would have been just as possible for the Clergy of the early
+Church to call themselves Levites, as to call themselves (ex-officio)
+Priests. The whole function of Priesthood was, on Christmas morning, at
+once and forever gathered into His Person who was born at Bethlehem; and
+thenceforward, all who are united with Him, and who with Him make
+sacrifice of themselves; that is to say, all members of the Invisible
+Church become, at the instant of their conversion, Priests; and are so
+called in 1 Peter ii. 5, and Rev. i. 6, and xx. 6, where, observe, there
+is no possibility of limiting the expression to the Clergy; the
+conditions of Priesthood being simply having been loved by Christ, and
+washed in His blood. The blasphemous claim on the part of the Clergy of
+being _more_ Priests than the godly laity--that is to say, of having a
+higher Holiness than the Holiness of being one with Christ,--is
+altogether a Romanist heresy, dragging after it, or having its origin
+in, the other heresies respecting the sacrificial power of the Church
+officer, and his repeating the oblation of Christ, and so having power
+to absolve from sin:--with all the other endless and miserable
+falsehoods of the Papal hierarchy; falsehoods for which, that there
+might be no shadow of excuse, it has been ordained by the Holy Spirit
+that no Christian minister shall once call himself a Priest from one end
+of the New Testament to the other, except together with his flock; and
+so far from the idea of any peculiar sanctification, belonging to the
+Clergy, ever entering the Apostles' minds, we actually find St. Paul
+defending himself against the possible imputation of inferiority: "If
+any man trust to himself that he is Christ's, let him of himself think
+this again, that, as he is Christ's, even so are we Christ's" (2 Cor. x.
+7). As for the unhappy retention of the term Priest in our English
+Prayer-book, so long as it was understood to mean nothing but an upper
+order of Church officer, licensed to tell the congregation from the
+reading-desk, what (for the rest) they might, one would think, have
+known without being told,--that "God pardoneth all them that truly
+repent,"--there was little harm in it; but, now that this order of
+Clergy begins to presume upon a title which, if it mean anything at all,
+is simply short for Presbyter, and has no more to do with the word
+Hiereus than with the word Levite, it is time that some order should be
+taken both with the book and the Clergy. For instance, in that dangerous
+compound of halting poetry with hollow Divinity, called the "Lyra
+Apostolica," we find much versification on the sin of Korah and his
+company: with suggested parallel between the Christian and Levitical
+Churches, and threatening that there are "Judgment Fires, for
+high-voiced Korahs in their day." There are indeed such fires. But when
+Moses said, "a Prophet shall the Lord raise up unto you, like unto me,"
+did he mean the writer who signs [Greek: g] in the "Lyra Apostolica"?
+The office of the Lawgiver and Priest is now forever gathered into One
+Mediator between God and man; and THEY are guilty of the sin of Korah
+who blasphemously would associate themselves in His Mediatorship.
+
+197. As for the passages in the "Ordering of Priests" and "Visitation of
+the Sick" respecting Absolution, they are evidently pure Romanism, and
+might as well not be there, for any practical effect which they have on
+the consciences of the Laity; and had much better not be there, as
+regards their effect on the minds of the Clergy. It is indeed true that
+Christ promised absolving powers to His Apostles: He also promised to
+those who believed, that they should take up serpents; and if they drank
+any deadly thing, it should not hurt them. His words were fulfilled
+literally; but those who would extend their force to beyond the
+Apostolic times, must extend both promises or neither.
+
+Although, however, the Protestant laity do not often admit the absolving
+power of their clergy, they are but too apt to yield, in some sort, to
+the impression of their greater sanctification; and from this instantly
+results the unhappy consequence that the sacred character of the Layman
+himself is forgotten, and his own Ministerial duty is neglected. Men
+not in office in the Church suppose themselves, on that ground, in a
+sort unholy; and that, therefore, they may sin with more excuse, and be
+idle or impious with less danger, than the Clergy: especially they
+consider themselves relieved from all ministerial function, and as
+permitted to devote their whole time and energy to the business of this
+world. No mistake can possibly be greater. Every member of the Church is
+equally bound to the service of the Head of the Church; and that service
+is pre-eminently the saving of souls. There is not a moment of a man's
+active life in which he may not be indirectly preaching; and throughout
+a great part of his life he ought to be _directly_ preaching, and
+teaching both strangers and friends; his children, his servants, and all
+who in any way are put under him, being given to him as special objects
+of his ministration. So that the only difference between a Church
+officer and a lay member is either a wider degree of authority given to
+the former, as apparently a wiser and better man, or a special
+appointment to some office more easily discharged by one person than by
+many: as, for instance, the serving of tables by the deacons; the
+authority or appointment being, in either case, commonly signified by a
+marked separation from the rest of the Church, and the privilege or
+power[146] of being maintained by the rest of the Church, without being
+forced to labor with his hands, or incumber himself with any temporal
+concerns.
+
+198. Now, putting out of the question the serving of tables, and other
+such duties, respecting which there is no debate, we shall find the
+offices of the Clergy, whatever names we may choose to give to those who
+discharge them, falling mainly into two great heads:--Teaching;
+including doctrine, warning, and comfort: Discipline; including reproof
+and direct administration of punishment. Either of which functions would
+naturally become vested in single persons, to the exclusion of others,
+as a mere matter of convenience: whether those persons were wiser and
+better than others or not; and respecting each of which, and the
+authority required for its fitting discharge, a short inquiry must be
+separately made.
+
+199. I. Teaching.--It appears natural and wise that certain men should
+be set apart from the rest of the Church that they may make Theology the
+study of their lives: and that they should be thereto instructed
+specially in the Hebrew and Greek tongues; and have entire leisure
+granted them for the study of the Scriptures, and for obtaining general
+knowledge of the grounds of Faith, and best modes of its defense against
+all heretics: and it seems evidently right, also, that with this
+Scholastic duty should be joined the Pastoral duty of constant
+visitation and exhortation to the people; for, clearly, the Bible, and
+the truths of Divinity in general, can only be understood rightly in
+their practical application; and clearly, also, a man spending his time
+constantly in spiritual ministrations, must be better able, on any given
+occasion, to deal powerfully with the human heart than one unpracticed
+in such matters. The unity of Knowledge and Love, both devoted
+altogether to the service of Christ and His Church, marks the true
+Christian Minister; who, I believe, whenever he has existed, has never
+failed to receive due and fitting reverence from all men,--of whatever
+character or opinion; and I believe that if all those who profess to be
+such were such indeed, there would never be question of their authority
+more.
+
+200. But, whatever influence they may have over the Church, their
+authority never supersedes that of either the intellect or the
+conscience of the simplest of its lay members. They can assist those
+members in the search for truth, or comfort their over-worn and doubtful
+minds; they can even assure them that they are in the way of truth, or
+that pardon is within their reach: but they can neither manifest the
+truth, nor grant the pardon. Truth is to be discovered, and Pardon to be
+won, for every man by himself. This is evident from innumerable texts of
+Scripture, but chiefly from those which exhort every man to seek after
+Truth, and which connect knowing with doing. We are to seek after
+knowledge as silver, and search for her as for hid treasures; therefore,
+from every man she must be naturally hid, and the discovery of her is
+to be the reward only of personal search. The kingdom of God is as
+treasure hid in a field; and of those who profess to help us to seek for
+it, we are not to put confidence in those who say,--Here is the
+treasure, we have found it, and have it, and will give you some of it;
+but in those who say,--We think that is a good place to dig, and you
+will dig most easily in such and such a way.
+
+201. Farther, it has been promised that if such earnest search be made,
+Truth shall be discovered: as much truth, that is, as is necessary for
+the person seeking. These, therefore, I hold, for two fundamental
+principles of religion,--that, without seeking, truth cannot be known at
+all; and that, by seeking, it may be discovered by the simplest. I say,
+without seeking it cannot be known at all. It can neither be declared
+from pulpits, nor set down in Articles, nor in anywise "prepared and
+sold" in packages, ready for use. Truth must be ground for every man by
+himself out of its husk, with such help as he can get, indeed, but not
+without stern labor of his own. In what science is knowledge to be had
+cheap? or truth to be told over a velvet cushion, in half an hour's talk
+every seventh day? Can you learn chemistry so?--zoology?--anatomy? and
+do you expect to penetrate the secret of all secrets, and to know that
+whose price is above rubies; and of which the depth saith,--It is not in
+me,--in so easy fashion? There are doubts in this matter which evil
+spirits darken with their wings, and that is true of all such doubts
+which we were told long ago--they can "be ended by action alone."[147]
+
+202. As surely as we live, this truth of truths can only so be
+discerned: to those who act on what they know, more shall be revealed;
+and thus, if any man will do His will, he shall know the doctrine
+whether it be of God. Any man,--not the man who has most means of
+knowing, who has the subtlest brains, or sits under the most orthodox
+preacher, or has his library fullest of most orthodox books,--but the
+man who strives to know, who takes God at His word, and sets himself to
+dig up the heavenly mystery, roots and all, before sunset, and the night
+come, when no man can work. Beside such a man, God stands in more and
+more visible presence as he toils, and teaches him that which no
+preacher can teach--no earthly authority gainsay. By such a man, the
+preacher must himself be judged.
+
+203. Doubt you this? There is nothing more certain nor clear throughout
+the Bible: the Apostles themselves appeal constantly to their flocks,
+and actually _claim_ judgment from them, as deserving it, and having a
+right to it, rather than discouraging it. But, first notice the way in
+which the discovery of truth is spoken of in the Old Testament: "Evil
+men understand not judgment; but they that seek the Lord understand all
+things," Proverbs xxviii. 5. God overthroweth, not merely the
+transgressor or the wicked, but even "the words of the transgressor,"
+Proverbs xxii. 12, and "the counsel of the wicked," Job v. 13, xxi. 16;
+observe again, in Proverbs xxiv. 14, "My son, eat thou honey, because it
+is good--so shall the knowledge of wisdom be unto thy soul, when thou
+hast _found it_, there shall be a reward;" and again, "What man is he
+that feareth the Lord? him shall He teach in the way that He shall
+choose;" so Job xxxii. 8, and multitudes of places more; and then, with
+all these places, which express the definite and personal operation of
+the Spirit of God on every one of His people, compare the place in
+Isaiah, which speaks of the contrary of this human teaching: a passage
+which seems as if it had been written for this very day and hour.
+"Because their fear towards me is taught by the _precept of men_;
+therefore, behold, the wisdom of their wise men shall perish, and the
+understanding of their prudent men shall be hid" (xxix. 13,14). Then
+take the New Testament, and observe how St. Paul himself speaks of the
+Romans, even as hardly needing his epistle, but able to admonish one
+another: "_Nevertheless, brethren, I have written the more boldly unto
+you in some sort, as putting you in mind_" (xv. 15). Anyone, we should
+have thought, might have done as much as this, and yet St. Paul
+increases the modesty of it as he goes on; for he claims the right of
+doing as much as this, only "because of the grace given to me of God,
+that I should be the minister of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles." Then
+compare 2 Cor. v. 11, where he appeals to the consciences of the people
+for the manifestation of his having done his duty; and observe in verse
+21 of that, and I of the next chapter, the "pray" and "beseech," not
+"command"; and again in chapter vi. verse 4, "approving ourselves as the
+ministers of God." But the most remarkable passage of all is 2 Cor. iii.
+1, whence it appears that the churches were actually in the habit of
+giving letters of recommendation to their ministers; and St. Paul
+dispenses with such letters, not by virtue of his Apostolic authority,
+but because the power of his preaching was enough manifested in the
+Corinthians themselves. And these passages are all the more forcible,
+because if in any of them St. Paul had claimed absolute authority over
+the Church as a teacher, it was no more than we should have expected him
+to claim, nor could his doing so have in anywise justified a successor
+in the same claim. But now that he has not claimed it,--who,
+following him, shall dare to claim it? And the consideration of the
+necessity of joining expressions of the most exemplary humility, which
+were to be the example of succeeding ministers, with such assertion of
+Divine authority as should secure acceptance for the epistle itself in
+the sacred canon, sufficiently accounts for the apparent inconsistencies
+which occur in 2 Thess. iii. 14, and other such texts.
+
+204. So much, then, for the authority of the Clergy in matters of
+Doctrine. Next, what is their authority in matters of Discipline? It
+must evidently be very great, even if it were derived from the people
+alone, and merely vested in the clerical officers as the executors of
+their ecclesiastical judgments, and general overseers of all the Church.
+But granting, as we must presently, the minister to hold office directly
+from God, his authority of discipline becomes very great indeed; how
+great, it seems to me most difficult to determine, because I do not
+understand what St. Paul means by "delivering a man to Satan for the
+destruction of the flesh." Leaving this question, however, as much too
+hard for casual examination, it seems indisputable that the authority of
+the Ministers or court of Ministers should extend to the pronouncing a
+man Excommunicate for certain crimes against the Church, as well as for
+all crimes punishable by ordinary law. There ought, I think, to be an
+ecclesiastical code of laws; and a man ought to have jury trial,
+according to this code, before an ecclesiastical judge; in which, if he
+were found guilty, as of lying, or dishonesty, or cruelty, much more of
+any actually committed violent crime, he should be pronounced
+excommunicate; refused the Sacrament; and have his name written in some
+public place as an excommunicate person until he had publicly confessed
+his sin and besought pardon of God for it. The jury should always be of
+the laity, and no penalty should be enforced in an ecclesiastical court
+except this of excommunication.
+
+205. This proposal may seem strange to many persons; but assuredly this,
+if not much more than this, is commanded in Scripture, first in the
+(much-abused) text, "Tell it unto the Church;" and most clearly in 1
+Cor. v. 11-13; 2 Thess. iii. 6 and 14; 1 Tim. v. 8 and 20; and Titus
+iii. 10; from which passages we also know the two proper degrees of the
+penalty. For Christ says, Let him who refuses to hear the Church, "be
+unto thee as an heathen man and a publican," But Christ ministered to
+the heathen, and sat at meat with the publican; only always with
+declared or implied expression of their inferiority; here, therefore, is
+one degree of excommunication for persons who "offend" their brethren,
+committing some minor fault against them; and who, having been
+pronounced in error by the body of the Church, refuse to confess their
+fault or repair it; who are then to be no longer considered members of
+the Church; and their recovery to the body of it is to be sought exactly
+as it would be in the case of an heathen. But covetous persons, railers,
+extortioners, idolaters, and those guilty of other gross crimes, are to
+be entirely cut off from the company of the believers; and we are not so
+much as to eat with them. This last penalty, however, would require to
+be strictly guarded, that it might not be abused in the infliction of
+it, as it has been by the Romanists. We are not, indeed, to eat with
+them, but we may exercise all Christian charity towards them, and give
+them to eat, if we see them in hunger, as we ought to all our enemies;
+only we are to consider them distinctly as our _enemies_: that is to
+say, enemies of our Master, Christ; and servants of Satan.
+
+206. As for the rank or name of the officers in whom the authorities,
+either of teaching or discipline, are to be vested, they are left
+undetermined by Scripture. I have heard it said by men who know their
+Bible far better than I, that careful examination may detect evidence of
+the existence of three orders of Clergy in the Church. This may be; but
+one thing is very clear, without any laborious examination, that
+"bishop" and "elder" sometimes mean the same thing; as, indisputably, in
+Titus i. 5 and 7, and I Peter v. I and 2, and that the office of the
+bishop or overseer was one of considerably less importance than it is
+with us. This is palpably evident from I Timothy iii., for what divine
+among us, writing of episcopal proprieties, would think of saying that
+bishops "must not be given to wine," must be "no strikers," and must not
+be "novices"? We are not in the habit of making bishops of novices in
+these days; and it would be much better that, like the early Church, we
+sometimes ran the risk of doing so; for the fact is we have not bishops
+enough--by some hundreds. The idea of overseership has been practically
+lost sight of, its fulfillment having gradually become physically
+impossible, for want of more bishops. The duty of a bishop is, without
+doubt, to be accessible to the humblest clergymen of his diocese, and to
+desire very earnestly that all of them should be in the habit of
+referring to him in all cases of difficulty; if they do not do this of
+their own accord, it is evidently his duty to visit them, live with them
+sometimes, and join in their ministrations to their flocks, so as to
+know exactly the capacities and habits of life of each; and if any of
+them complained of this or that difficulty with their congregations, the
+bishop should be ready to go down to help them, preach for them, write
+general epistles to their people, and so on: besides this, he should of
+course be watchful of their errors--ready to hear complaints from their
+congregations of inefficiency or aught else; besides having general
+superintendence of all the charitable institutions and schools in his
+diocese, and good knowledge of whatever was going on in theological
+matters, both all over the kingdom and on the Continent. This is the
+work of a right overseer; and I leave the reader to calculate how many
+additional bishops--and those hard-working men, too--we should need
+to have it done, even decently. Then our present bishops might all
+become archbishops with advantage, and have general authority over the
+rest.[148]
+
+207. As to the mode in which the officers of the Church should be
+elected or appointed, I do not feel it my business to say anything at
+present, nor much respecting the extent of their authority, either over
+each other or over the congregation, this being a most difficult
+question, the right solution of which evidently lies between two most
+dangerous extremes--insubordination and radicalism on one hand, and
+ecclesiastical tyranny and heresy on the other: of the two,
+insubordination is far the least to be dreaded--for this reason, that
+nearly all real Christians are more on the watch against their pride
+than their indolence, and would sooner obey their clergyman, if
+possible, than contend with him; while the very pride they suppose
+conquered often returns masked, and causes them to make a merit of their
+humility and their abstract obedience, however unreasonable: but they
+cannot so easily persuade themselves there is a merit in abstract
+_dis_obedience.
+
+208. Ecclesiastical tyranny has, for the most part, founded itself on
+the idea of Vicarianism, one of the most pestilent of the Romanist
+theories, and most plainly denounced in Scripture. Of this I have a word
+or two to say to the modern "Vicarian." All powers that be are
+unquestionably ordained of God; so that they that resist the Power,
+resist the ordinance of God. Therefore, say some in these offices, We,
+being ordained of God, and having our credentials, and being in the
+English Bible called ambassadors for God, do, in a sort, represent God.
+We are Vicars of Christ, and stand on earth in place of Christ. I have
+heard this said by Protestant clergymen.
+
+209. Now the word ambassador has a peculiar ambiguity about it, owing to
+its use in modern political affairs; and these clergymen assume that the
+word, as used by St. Paul, means an Ambassador Plenipotentiary;
+representative of his King, and capable of acting for his King. What
+right have they to assume that St. Paul meant this? St. Paul never uses
+the word ambassador at all. He says, simply, "We are in embassage from
+Christ; and Christ beseeches you through us." Most true. And let it
+further be granted, that every word that the clergyman speaks is
+literally dictated to him by Christ; that he can make no mistake in
+delivering his message; and that, therefore, it is indeed Christ
+Himself who speaks to us the word of life through the messenger's lips.
+Does, therefore, the messenger represent Christ? Does the channel which
+conveys the waters of the Fountain represent the Fountain itself?
+Suppose, when we went to draw water at a cistern, that all at once the
+Leaden Spout should become animated, and open its mouth and say to us,
+See, I am Vicarious for the Fountain. Whatever respect you show to the
+Fountain, show some part of it to me. Should we not answer the Spout,
+and say, Spout, you were set there for our service, and may be taken
+away and thrown aside[149] if anything goes wrong with you? But the
+Fountain will flow forever.
+
+210. Observe, I do not deny a most solemn authority vested in every
+Christian messenger from God to men. I am prepared to grant this to the
+uttermost; and all that George Herbert says, in the end of "The
+Church-porch," I would enforce, at another time than this, to the
+uttermost. But the Authority is simply that of a King's _Messenger_; not
+of a King's _Representative_. There is a wide difference; all the
+difference between humble service and blasphemous usurpation.
+
+Well, the congregation might ask, grant him a King's messenger in cases
+of doctrine,--in cases of discipline, an officer bearing the King's
+Commission. How far are we to obey him? How far is it lawful to dispute
+his commands?
+
+For, in granting, above, that the Messenger always gave his message
+faithfully, I granted too much to my adversaries, in order that their
+argument might have all the weight it possibly could. The Messengers
+rarely deliver their message faithfully; and sometimes have declared, as
+from the King, messages of their own invention. How far are we, knowing
+them for King's messengers, to believe or obey them?
+
+211. Suppose, for instance, in our English army, on the eve of some
+great battle, one of the colonels were to give his order to his
+regiment: "My men, tie your belts over your eyes, throw down your
+muskets, and follow me as steadily as you can, through this marsh, into
+the middle of the enemy's line," (this being precisely the order issued
+by our Puseyite Church officers). It might be questioned, in the real
+battle, whether it would be better that a regiment should show an
+example of insubordination, or be cut to pieces. But happily in the
+Church there is no such difficulty; for the King is always with His
+army: not only with His army, but at the right hand of every soldier of
+it. Therefore, if any of their colonels give them a strange command, all
+they have to do is to ask the King; and never yet any Christian asked
+guidance of his King, in any difficulty whatsoever, without mental
+reservation or secret resolution, but he had it forthwith. We conclude
+then, finally, that the authority of the Clergy is, in matters of
+discipline, large (being executive, first, of the written laws of God,
+and secondly, of those determined and agreed upon by the body of the
+Church), in matters of doctrine, dependent on their recommending
+themselves to every man's conscience, both as messengers of God, and as
+themselves men of God, perfect, and instructed to good works.[150]
+
+212. (6) The last subject which we had to investigate was, it will be
+remembered, what is usually called the connection of "Church and State."
+But, by our definition of the term Church, throughout the whole of
+Christendom, the Church (or society of professing Christians) _is_ the
+State, and our subject is therefore, properly speaking, the connection
+of lay and clerical officers of the Church; that is to say, the degrees
+in which the civil and ecclesiastical governments ought to interfere
+with or influence each other.
+
+It would of course be vain to attempt a formal inquiry into this
+intricate subject;--I have only a few detached points to notice
+respecting it.
+
+213. There are three degrees or kinds of civil government. The first and
+lowest, executive merely; the government in this sense being simply the
+National Hand, and composed of individuals who administer the laws of
+the nation, and execute its established purposes.
+
+The second kind of government is deliberative; but in its deliberation,
+representative only of the thoughts and will of the people or nation,
+and liable to be deposed the instant it ceases to express those thoughts
+and that will. This, whatever its form, whether centered in a king or in
+any number of men, is properly to be called Democratic. The third and
+highest kind of government is deliberative, not as representative of the
+people, but as chosen to take separate counsel for them, and having
+power committed to it, to enforce upon them whatever resolution it may
+adopt, whether consistent with their will or not. This government is
+properly to be called Monarchical, whatever its form.
+
+214. I see that politicians and writers of history continually run into
+hopeless error, because they confuse the Form of a Government with its
+Nature. A Government may be nominally vested in an individual; and yet
+if that individual be in such fear of those beneath him, that he does
+nothing but what he supposes will be agreeable to them, the Government
+is Democratic; on the other hand, the Government may be vested in a
+deliberative assembly of a thousand men, all having equal authority, and
+all chosen from the lowest ranks of the people; and yet if that assembly
+act independently of the will of the people, and have no fear of them,
+and enforce its determinations upon them, the Government is Monarchical;
+that is to say, the Assembly, acting as One, has power over the Many,
+while in the case of the weak king, the Many have power over the One.
+
+A Monarchical Government, acting for its own interest, instead of the
+people's, is a tyranny. I said the Executive Government was the hand of
+the nation:--the Republican Government is in like manner its tongue.
+The Monarchical Government is its head.
+
+All true and right government is Monarchical, and of the head. What is
+its best form, is a totally different question; but unless it act _for_
+the people, and not as representative of the people, it is no government
+at all; and one of the grossest blockheadisms of the English in the
+present day, is their idea of sending men to Parliament to "represent
+_their_ opinions." Whereas their only true business is to find out the
+wisest men among them, and send them to Parliament to represent their
+_own_ opinions, and act upon them. Of all puppet-shows in the Satanic
+Carnival of the earth, the most contemptible puppet-show is a Parliament
+with a mob pulling the strings.
+
+215. Now, of these three states of Government, it is clear that the
+merely executive can have no proper influence over ecclesiastical
+affairs. But of the other two, the first, being the voice of the people,
+or voice of the Church, must have such influence over the Clergy as is
+properly vested in the body of the Church. The second, which stands in
+the same relation to the people as a father does to his family, will
+have such farther influence over ecclesiastical matters, as a father has
+over the consciences of his adult children. No absolute authority,
+therefore, to enforce their attendance at any particular place of
+worship, or subscription to any particular Creed. But indisputable
+authority to procure for them such religious instruction as he deems
+fittest,[151] and to recommend it to them by every means in his power;
+he not only has authority, but is under obligation to do this, as well
+as to establish such disciplines and forms of worship in his house as he
+deems most convenient for his family: with which they are indeed at
+liberty to refuse compliance, if such disciplines appear to them clearly
+opposed to the law of God; but not without most solemn conviction of
+their being so, nor without deep sorrow to be compelled to such a
+course.
+
+216. But it may be said, the Government of a people never does stand to
+them in the relation of a father to his family. If it do not, it is no
+Government. However grossly it may fail in its duty, and however little
+it may be fitted for its place, if it be a Government at all, it has
+paternal office and relation to the people. I find it written on the one
+hand,--"Honor thy Father; "on the other,--"Honor the King:" on the one
+hand,--"Whoso smiteth his Father, shall be put to death;"[152] on the
+other,--"They that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." Well,
+but, it may be farther argued, the Clergy are in a still more solemn
+sense the Fathers of the People, and the People are their beloved Sons;
+why should not, therefore, the Clergy have the power to govern the civil
+officers?
+
+217. For two very clear reasons.
+
+In all human institutions certain evils are granted, as of necessity;
+and, in organizing such institutions, we must allow for the consequences
+of such evils, and make arrangements such as may best keep them in
+check. Now, in both the civil and ecclesiastical governments there will
+of necessity be a certain number of bad men. The wicked civilian has
+comparatively little interest in overthrowing ecclesiastical authority;
+it is often a useful help to him, and presents in itself little which
+seems covetable. But the wicked ecclesiastical officer has much interest
+in overthrowing the civilian, and getting the political power into his
+own hands. As far as wicked men are concerned, therefore, it is better
+that the State should have power over the Clergy, than the Clergy over
+the State.
+
+Secondly, supposing both the Civil and Ecclesiastical officers to be
+Christians; there is no fear that the civil officer should underrate the
+dignity or shorten the serviceableness of the minister; but there is
+considerable danger that the religious enthusiasm of the minister might
+diminish the serviceableness of the civilian. (The History of Religious
+Enthusiasm should be written by someone who had a life to give to its
+investigation; it is one of the most melancholy pages in human records,
+and one of the most necessary to be studied.) Therefore, as far as good
+men are concerned, it is better the State should have power over the
+Clergy than the Clergy over the State.
+
+218. This we might, it seems to me, conclude by unassisted reason. But
+surely the whole question is, without any need of human reason, decided
+by the history of Israel. If ever a body of Clergy should have received
+independent authority, the Levitical Priesthood should; for they were
+indeed a Priesthood, and more holy than the rest of the nation. But
+Aaron is always subject to Moses. All solemn revelation is made to
+Moses, the civil magistrate, and he actually commands Aaron as to the
+fulfillment of his priestly office, and that in a necessity of life and
+death: "Go, and make an atonement for the people." Nor is anything more
+remarkable throughout the whole of the Jewish history than the perfect
+subjection of the Priestly to the Kingly Authority. Thus Solomon thrusts
+out Abiathar from being priest, I Kings ii. 27; and Jehoahaz administers
+the funds of the Lord's House, 2 Kings xii. 4, though that money was
+actually the Atonement Money, the Hansom for Souls (Exod. xxx. 12).
+
+219. We have, however, also the beautiful instance of Samuel uniting in
+himself the offices of Priest, Prophet, and Judge; nor do I insist on
+any special manner of subjection of Clergy to civil officers, or _vice
+versa_; but only on the necessity of their perfect unity and influence
+upon each other in every Christian kingdom. Those who endeavor to effect
+the utter separation of ecclesiastical and civil officers, are striving,
+on the one hand, to expose the Clergy to the most grievous and most
+subtle of temptations from their own spiritual enthusiasm and spiritual
+pride; on the other, to deprive the civil officer of all sense of
+religious responsibility, and to introduce the fearful, godless,
+conscienceless, and soulless policy of the Radical and the (so-called)
+Socialist. Whereas, the ideal of all government is the perfect unity of
+the two bodies of officers, each supporting and correcting the other;
+the Clergy having due weight in all the national councils; the civil
+officers having a solemn reverence for God in all their acts; the Clergy
+hallowing all worldly policy by their influence; and the magistracy
+repressing all religious enthusiasm by their practical wisdom. To
+separate the two is to endeavor to separate the daily life of the nation
+from God, and to map out the dominion of the soul into two
+provinces--one of Atheism, the other of Enthusiasm. These, then, were
+the reasons which caused me to speak of the idea of separation of Church
+and State as Fatuity; for what Fatuity can be so great as the not having
+God in our thoughts; and, in any act or office of life, saying in our
+hearts, "There is no God"?
+
+220. Much more I would fain say of these things, but not now: this only
+I must emphatically assert, in conclusion:--That the schism between the
+so-called Evangelical and High Church Parties in Britain, is enough to
+shake many men's faith in the truth or existence of Religion at all. It
+seems to me one of the most disgraceful scenes in Ecclesiastical
+history, that Protestantism should be paralyzed at its very heart by
+jealousies, based on little else than mere difference between high and
+low breeding. For the essential differences in the religious opinions of
+the two parties are sufficiently marked in two men whom we may take as
+the highest representatives of each--George Herbert and John Milton; and
+I do not think there would have been much difficulty in atoning those
+two, if one could have got them together. But the real difficulty,
+nowadays, lies in the sin and folly of both parties; in the
+superciliousness of the one, and the rudeness of the other. Evidently,
+however, the sin lies most at the High Church door, for the Evangelicals
+are much more ready to act with Churchmen than they with the
+Evangelicals; and I believe that this state of things cannot continue
+much longer; and that if the Church of England does not forthwith unite
+with herself the entire Evangelical body, both of England and Scotland,
+and take her stand with them against the Papacy, her hour has struck.
+She cannot any longer serve two masters; nor make courtesies alternately
+to Christ and Antichrist. That she _has_ done this is visible enough by
+the state of Europe at this instant. Three centuries since Luther--three
+hundred years of Protestant knowledge--and the Papacy not yet
+overthrown! Christ's truth still restrained, in narrow dawn, to the
+white cliffs of England and white crests of the Alps;--the morning star
+paused in its course in heaven;--the sun and moon stayed, with Satan
+for their Joshua.
+
+221. But how to unite the two great sects of paralyzed Protestants? By
+keeping simply to Scripture. The members of the Scottish Church have not
+a shadow of excuse for refusing Episcopacy; it has indeed been abused
+among them, grievously abused; but it is in the Bible; and that is all
+they have a right to ask.
+
+They have also no shadow of excuse for refusing to employ a written form
+of prayer. It may not be to their taste--it may not be the way in which
+they like to pray; but it is no question, at present, of likes or
+dislikes, but of duties; and the acceptance of such a form on their part
+would go half-way to reconcile them with their brethren. Let them allege
+such objections as they can reasonably advance against the English form,
+and let these be carefully and humbly weighed by the pastors of both
+churches: some of them ought to be at once forestalled. For the English
+Church, on the other hand, _must_ cut the term Priest entirely out of
+her Prayer-book, and substitute for it that of Minister or Elder; the
+passages respecting Absolution must be thrown out also, except the
+doubtful one in the Morning Service, in which there is no harm; and then
+there would be only the Baptismal question left, which is one of words
+rather than of things, and might easily be settled in Synod, turning the
+refractory Clergy out of their offices, to go to Rome if they chose.
+Then, when the Articles of Faith and form of worship had been agreed
+upon between the English and Scottish Churches, the written forms and
+articles should be carefully translated into the European languages, and
+offered to the acceptance of the Protestant churches on the Continent,
+with earnest entreaty that they would receive them, and due
+entertainment of all such objections as they could reasonably allege;
+and thus the whole body of Protestants, united in one great Fold, would
+indeed go in and out, and find pasture; and the work appointed for them
+would be done quickly, and Antichrist overthrown.
+
+222. Impossible: a thousand times impossible!--I hear it exclaimed
+against me. No--not impossible. Christ does not order impossibilities,
+and He _has_ ordered us to be at peace one with another. Nay, it is
+answered--He came not to send peace, but a sword. Yes, verily: to send a
+sword upon earth, but not within His Church; for to His Church He said,
+"My Peace I leave with you."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 140: I may, perhaps, have missed count of one or two
+occurrences of the word; but not, I think, in any important passages.]
+
+[Footnote 141: The expression "House of God," in 1 Tim. iii. 15, is
+shown to be used of the congregation by 1 Cor. iii. 16, 17.
+
+I have not noticed the word [Greek: kyriake (oikia)] from which the
+German "Kirche," the English "Church," and the Scotch "Kirk" are
+derived, as it is not used with that signification in the New
+Testament.]
+
+[Footnote 142: Any reference _except_ to Scripture, in notes of this
+kind would, of course, be useless: the argument from, or with, the
+Fathers is not to be compressed into fifty pages. I have something to
+say about Hooker; but I reserve that for another time, not wishing to
+say it hastily, or to leave it without support.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Acts x. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 144: Let not the reader be displeased with me for these short
+and apparently insolent statements of opinion. I am not writing
+insolently, but as shortly and clearly as I can; and when I seriously
+believe a thing, I say so in a few words, leaving the reader to
+determine what my belief is worth. But I do not choose to temper down
+every expression of personal opinion into courteous generalities, and so
+lose space, and time, and intelligibility at once. We are utterly
+oppressed in these days by our courtesies, and considerations, and
+compliances, and proprieties. Forgive me them, this once, or rather let
+us all forgive them to each other, and learn to speak plainly first,
+and, if it may be, gracefully afterwards; and not only to speak, but to
+stand by what we have spoken. One of my Oxford friends heard, the other
+day, that I was employed on these notes, and forthwith wrote to me, in a
+panic, not to put my name to them, for fear I should "compromise
+myself." I think we are most of us compromised to some extent already,
+when England has sent a Roman Catholic minister to the second city in
+Italy, and remains herself for a week without any government, because
+her chief men cannot agree upon the position which a Popish cardinal is
+to have leave to occupy in London.]
+
+[Footnote 145: Matt. xxiv. 4; Mark xiii. 5; Luke xxi. 8; 1 Cor. iii. 18,
+vi. 9, xv. 33; Eph. iv. 14, v. 6; Col. ii. 8; 2 Thess. ii. 3; Heb. iii.
+13; 1 John i. 8, iii. 7; 2 John 7, 8.]
+
+[Footnote 146: [Greek: exousia] in 1 Cor. ix. 12. 2 Thess, iii. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 147: (Carlyle, "Past and Present," chapter xi.) Can anything
+be more striking than the repeated warnings of St. Paul against strife
+of words; and his distinct setting forth of Action as the only true
+means of attaining knowledge of the truth, and the only sign of men's
+possessing the true faith? Compare 1 Timothy vi. 4, 20, (the latter
+verse especially, in connection with the previous three,) and 2 Timothy
+ii. 14, 19, 22, 23, tracing the connection here also; add Titus i. 10,
+14, 16, noting "_in works_ they deny him," and Titus iii. 8, 9, "affirm
+constantly that they be careful to maintain good works; but avoid
+foolish questions;" and finally, 1 Timothy i. 4-7: a passage which seems
+to have been especially written for these times.]
+
+[Footnote 148: I leave, in the main text, the abstract question of the
+fitness of Episcopacy unapproached, not feeling any call to speak of it
+at length at present; all that I feel necessary to be said is, that
+bishops being granted, it is clear that we have too few to do their
+work. But the argument from the practice of the Primitive Church appears
+to me to be of enormous weight,--nor have I ever heard any rational
+plea alleged against Episcopacy, except that, like other things, it is
+capable of abuse, and has sometimes been abused; and as, altogether
+clearly and indisputably, there is described in the Bible an episcopal
+office, distinct from the merely ministerial one; and, apparently, also
+an episcopal officer attached to each church, and distinguished in the
+Revelation as an Angel, I hold the resistance of the Scotch Presbyterian
+Church to Episcopacy to be unscriptural, futile, and schismatic.]
+
+[Footnote 149: "By just judgment be deposed," Art. 26.]
+
+[Footnote 150: The difference between the authority of doctrine and
+discipline is beautifully marked in 2 Timothy ii. 25, and Titus ii.
+12-15. In the first passage, the servant of God, teaching divine
+doctrine, must not strive, but must "in _meekness_ instruct those that
+oppose themselves;" in the second passage, teaching us "that denying
+ungodliness and worldly lusts he _is to live soberly, righteously, and
+godly_ in this _present world_," the minister is to speak, exhort, and
+rebuke with ALL AUTHORITY--both functions being expressed as united in 2
+Timothy iv. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 151: Observe, this and the following conclusions depend
+entirely on the supposition that the Government is part of the Body of
+the Church, and that some pains have been taken to compose it of
+religious and wise men. If we choose, knowingly and deliberately, to
+compose our Parliament, in great part, of infidels and Papists, gamblers
+and debtors, we may well regret its power over the Clerical officer; but
+that we should, at any time, so compose our Parliament, is a sign that
+the Clergy themselves have failed in their duty, and the Church in its
+watchfulness;--thus the evil accumulates in reaction. Whatever I say of
+the responsibility or authority of Government, is therefore to be
+understood only as sequent on what I have said previously of the
+necessity of closely circumscribing the Church, and then composing the
+Civil Government out of the circumscribed Body. Thus, all Papists would
+at once be rendered incapable of share in it being subjected to the
+second or most severe degree of excommunication--first, as idolaters, by
+1 Cor. v. 10; then as covetous and extortioners (selling absolution,) by
+the same text; and, finally, as heretics and maintainers of falsehoods,
+by Titus iii. 10, and 1 Tim. iv. 1.
+
+I do not write this hastily, nor without earnest consideration both, of
+the difficulty and the consequences of such Church Discipline. But
+either the Bible is a superannuated book, and is only to be read as a
+record of past days; or these things follow from it, clearly and
+inevitably. That we live in days when the Bible has become
+impracticable, is (if it be so) the very thing I desire to be
+considered. I am not setting down these plans or schemes as at present
+possible. I do not know how far they are possible; but it seems to me
+that God has plainly commanded them, and that, therefore, their
+impracticability is a thing to be meditated on.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Exod. xxi. 15.]
+
+
+
+
+THE LORD'S PRAYER AND THE CHURCH.[153]
+
+LETTERS.
+
+
+I.[154]
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, LANCASHIRE,
+  _20th June, 1879._
+
+223. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I could not at once answer your
+important letter; for, though I felt at once the impossibility of my
+venturing to address such an audience as you proposed, I am unwilling to
+fail in answering to any call relating to matters respecting which my
+feelings have been long in earnest, if in any wise it may be possible
+for me to be of service therein. My health--or want of it--now utterly
+forbids my engagement in any duty involving excitement or acute
+intellectual effort; but I think, before the first Tuesday in August, I
+might be able to write one or two letters to yourself, referring to,
+and more or less completing, some passages already printed in _Fors_ and
+elsewhere, which might, on your reading any portions you thought
+available, become matter of discussion during the meeting at some
+leisure time, after its own main purposes had been answered.
+
+At all events, I will think over what I should like, and be able, to
+represent to such a meeting, and only beg you not to think me insensible
+of the honor done me by your wish, and of the gravity of the trust
+reposed in me.
+
+  Ever most faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  THE REV. F. A. MALLESON.
+
+
+II.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, _23rd June, 1879._
+
+224. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Walking, and talking, are now alike
+impossible to me;[155] my strength is gone for both; nor do I believe
+talking on such matters to be of the least use except to promote,
+between sensible people, kindly feeling and knowledge of each other's
+personal characters. I have every trust in _your_ kindness and truth;
+nor do I fear being myself misunderstood by you; what I may be able to
+put into written form, so as to admit of being laid before your friends
+in council, must be set down without any question of personal
+feeling--as simply as a mathematical question or demonstration.
+
+225. The first exact question which it seems to me such an assembly may
+be earnestly called upon by laymen to solve, is surely axiomatic: the
+definition of themselves as a body, and of their business as such.
+
+Namely: as clergymen of the Church of England, do they consider
+themselves to be so called merely as the attached servants of a
+particular state? Do they, in their quality of guides, hold a position
+similar to that of the guides of Chamouni or Grindelwald, who, being a
+numbered body of examined and trustworthy persons belonging to those
+several villages, have nevertheless no Chamounist or Grindelwaldist
+opinions on the subject of Alpine geography or glacier walking; but are
+prepared to put into practice a common and universal science of Locality
+and Athletics, founded on sure survey and successful practice? Are the
+clergymen of the Ecclesia of England thus simply the attached and
+salaried guides of England and the English, in the way, known of all
+good men, that leadeth unto life?--or are they, on the contrary, a body
+of men holding, or in any legal manner required, or compelled to hold,
+opinions on the subject--say, of the height of the Celestial Mountains,
+the crevasses which go down quickest to the pit, and other cognate
+points of science--differing from, or even contrary to, the tenets of
+the guides of the Church of France, the Church of Italy, and other
+Christian countries?
+
+Is not this the first of all questions which a Clerical Council has to
+answer in open terms?
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+III.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _6th July._
+
+226. My first letter contained a Layman's plea for a clear answer to the
+question, "What is a clergyman of the Church of England?" Supposing the
+answer to this first to be, that the clergy of the Church of England are
+teachers, not of the Gospel to England, but of the Gospel to all
+nations; and not of the Gospel of Luther, nor of the Gospel of
+Augustine, but of the Gospel of Christ,--then the Layman's second
+question would be:
+
+Can this Gospel of Christ be put into such plain words and short terms
+as that a plain man may understand it?--and, if so, would it not be, in
+a quite primal sense, desirable that it should be so, rather than left
+to be gathered out of Thirty-nine Articles, written by no means in
+clear English, and referring, for further explanation of exactly the
+most important point in the whole tenor of their teaching,[156] to a
+"Homily of Justification,"[157] which is not generally in the
+possession, or even probably within the comprehension, of simple
+persons?
+
+  Ever faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+IV.
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _8th July._
+
+227. I am so very glad that you approve of the letter plan, as it
+enables me to build up what I would fain try to say, of little stones,
+without lifting too much for my strength at once; and the sense of
+addressing a friend who understands me and sympathizes with me prevents
+my being brought to a stand by continual need for apology, or fear of
+giving offense.
+
+But yet I do not quite see why you should feel my asking for a simple
+and comprehensible statement of the Christian Gospel at starting. Are
+you not bid to go into _all_ the world and preach it to every creature?
+(I should myself think the clergyman most likely to do good who accepted
+the [Greek: pase the ktisei] so literally as at least to sympathize with
+St. Francis' sermon to the birds, and to feel that feeding either sheep
+or fowls, or unmuzzling the ox, or keeping the wrens alive in the snow,
+would be received by their Heavenly Feeder as the _perfect_ fulfillment
+of His "Feed my sheep" in the higher sense.)[158]
+
+228. That's all a parenthesis; for although I should think that your
+good company would all agree that kindness to animals was a kind of
+preaching to them, and that hunting and vivisection were a kind of
+blasphemy to them, I want only to put the sterner question before your
+council, _how_ this Gospel is to be preached either [Greek: pantachou]"
+or to "[Greek: panta ta ethne] if first its preachers have not
+determined quite clearly what it _is_? And might not such definition,
+acceptable to the entire body of the Church of Christ, be arrived at by
+merely explaining, in their completeness and life, the terms of the
+Lord's Prayer--the first words taught to children all over the Christian
+world?
+
+I will try to explain what I mean of its several articles, in following
+letters; and in answer to the question with which you close your last, I
+can only say that you are at perfect liberty to use any, or all, or any
+parts of them, as you think good. Usually, when I am asked if letters of
+mine may be printed, I say: "Assuredly, provided only that you print them
+entire." But in your hands, I withdraw even this condition, and trust
+gladly to your judgment, remaining always
+
+  Faithfully and affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  THE REV. F. A. MALLESON.
+
+
+V.
+
+  [Greek: pater hemon ho en tois ouranois]
+
+  _Pater noster qui es in caelis._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _10th July._
+
+229. My meaning, in saying that the Lord's Prayer might be made a
+foundation of Gospel-teaching, was not that it contained all that
+Christian ministers have to teach; but that it contains what all
+Christians are agreed upon as first to be taught; and that no good
+parish-working pastor in any district of the world but would be glad to
+take his part in making it clear and living to his congregation.
+
+And the first clause of it, of course rightly explained, gives us the
+ground of what is surely a mighty part of the Gospel--its "first and
+great commandment," namely, that we have a Father whom we _can_ love,
+and are required to love, and to desire to be with Him in Heaven,
+wherever that may be.
+
+And to declare that we have such a loving Father, whose mercy is over
+_all_ His works, and whose will and law is so lovely and lovable that it
+is sweeter than honey, and more precious than gold, to those who can
+"taste" and "see" that the Lord is Good--this, surely, is a most
+pleasant and glorious good message and _spell_ to bring to men--as
+distinguished from the evil message and accursed spell that Satan has
+brought to the nations of the world instead of it, that they have no
+Father, but only "a consuming fire" ready to devour them, unless they
+are delivered from its raging flame by some scheme of pardon for all,
+for which they are to be thankful, not to the Father, but to the Son.
+
+Supposing this first article of the true Gospel agreed to, how would the
+blessing that closes the epistles of that Gospel become intelligible and
+living, instead of dark and dead: "The grace of Christ, and the _love_
+of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost,"--the most _tender_ word
+being that used of the Father?
+
+
+VI.
+
+  [Greek: hagiastheto to onoma sou]
+
+  _Sanctificetur nomen tuum._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _12th July, 1879._
+
+230. I wonder how many, even of those who honestly and attentively join
+in our Church services, attach any distinct idea to the second clause of
+the Lord's Prayer, the _first petition_ of it, the first thing that they
+are ordered by Christ to seek of their Father?
+
+Am I unjust in thinking that most of them have little more notion on the
+matter than that God has forbidden "bad language," and wishes them to
+pray that everybody may be respectful to Him?
+
+Is it any otherwise with the Third Commandment? Do not most look on it
+merely in the light of the statute of swearing? and read the words "will
+not hold him guiltless" merely as a passionless intimation that however
+carelessly a man may let out a round oath, there really _is_ something
+wrong in it?
+
+On the other hand, can anything be more tremendous than the words
+themselves--double-negatived:
+
+  [Greek: "ou gar me katharise ... kurios"]
+
+For _other_ sins there is washing;--for this, none! the seventh verse,
+Ex. xx., in the Septuagint, marking the real power rather than the
+English, which (I suppose) is literal to the Hebrew.
+
+To my layman's mind, of practical needs in the present state of the
+Church, nothing is so immediate as that of explaining to the
+congregation the meaning of being gathered in His name, and having Him
+in the midst of them; as, on the other hand, of being gathered in
+blasphemy of His name, and having the devil in the midst of
+them--presiding over the prayers which have become an abomination.
+
+231. For the entire body of the texts in the Gospel against hypocrisy
+are one and all nothing but the expansion of the threatening that closes
+the Third Commandment. For as "the name whereby He shall be called is
+THE LORD OUR RIGHTEOUSNESS,"--so the taking that name in vain
+is the sum of "the deceivableness of _un_righteousness in them that
+perish."
+
+Without dwelling on the possibility--which I do not myself, however, for
+a moment doubt--of an honest clergyman's being able actually to prevent
+the entrance among his congregation of persons leading openly wicked
+lives, could any subject be more vital to the purposes of your meetings
+than the difference between the present and the probable state of the
+Christian Church which would result, were it more the effort of zealous
+parish priests, instead of getting wicked _poor_ people to _come_ to
+church, to get wicked rich ones to stay out of it?
+
+Lest, in any discussion of such question, it might be, as it too often
+is, alleged that "the Lord looketh upon the heart," etc., let me be
+permitted to say--with as much positiveness as may express my deepest
+conviction--that, while indeed it is the Lord's business to look upon
+the heart, it is the pastor's to look upon the hands and the lips; and
+that the foulest oaths of the thief and the street-walker are, in the
+ears of God, sinless as the hawk's cry, or the gnat's murmur, compared
+to the responses in the Church service, on the lips of the usurer and
+the adulterer, who have destroyed, not their own souls only, but those
+of the outcast ones whom they have made their victims.
+
+It is for the meeting of clergymen themselves--not for a layman
+addressing them--to ask further, how much the name of God may be taken
+in vain, and profaned instead of hallowed--_in_ the pulpit, as well as
+under it.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+VII
+
+  [Greek: eltheto e basilheia sou]
+
+  _Adveniat regnum tuum._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _14th July, 1879._
+
+232. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--Sincere thanks for both your letters
+and the proofs[159] sent. Your comment and conducting link, when needed,
+will be of the greatest help and value, I am well assured, suggesting
+what you know will be the probable feeling of your hearers, and the
+point that will come into question.
+
+Yes, certainly, that "His" in the fourth line was meant to imply that
+eternal presence of Christ; as in another passage,[160] referring to
+the Creation, "when His right hand strewed the snow on Lebanon, and
+smoothed the slopes of Calvary," but in so far as we dwell on that
+truth, "Hast thou seen _Me_, Philip, and not the Father?"[161] we are
+not teaching the people what is specially the Gospel of _Christ_ as
+having a distinct function--namely, to _serve_ the Father, and do the
+Father's will. And in all His human relations to us, and commands to us,
+it is as the Son of Man, not as the "power of God and wisdom of God,"
+that He acts and speaks. Not as the Power; for _He_ must pray, like one
+of us. Not as the Wisdom; for He must not know "if it be possible" His
+prayer should be heard.
+
+233. And in what I want to say of the third clause of His prayer (_His_,
+not merely as His ordering, but His using), it is especially this
+comparison between _His_ kingdom, and His Father's, that I want to see
+the disciples guarded against. I believe very few, even of the most
+earnest, using that petition, realize that it is the Father's--not the
+Son's--kingdom, that they pray may come,--although the whole prayer is
+foundational on that fact: "_For_ Thine is the kingdom, the power, and
+the glory." And I fancy that the mind of the most faithful Christian is
+quite led away from its proper hope, by dwelling on the reign--or the
+coming again--of Christ; which, indeed, they are to look for, and
+_watch_ for, but not to pray for. Their prayer is to be for the greater
+kingdom to which He, risen and having all His enemies under His feet, is
+to surrender _His_, "that God may be All in All."
+
+And, though the greatest, it is that everlasting kingdom which the
+poorest of us can advance. We cannot hasten Christ's coming. "Of the day
+and hour, knoweth none." But the kingdom of God is as a grain of mustard
+seed:--we can sow of it; it is as a foam-globe of leaven:--we can mingle
+it; and its glory and its joy are that even the birds of the air can
+lodge in the branches thereof.
+
+Forgive me for getting back to my sparrows; but truly, in the present
+state of England, the fowls of the air are the only creatures, tormented
+and murdered as they are, that yet have here and there nests, and peace,
+and joy in the Holy Ghost. And it would be well if many of us, in
+reading that text, "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink," had even
+got so far as to the understanding that it was at least _as much_, and
+that until we had fed the hungry, there was no power in us to inspire
+the unhappy.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+I will write my feeling about the pieces of the Life of Christ you have
+sent me, in a private letter. I may say at once that I am sure it will
+do much good, and will be upright and intelligible, which how few
+religious writings are!
+
+
+VIII.
+
+  [Greek: genetheto to thelema sou hos en ourano, kai epi ges.]
+
+  _Fiat voluntas tua sicut in caelo et in terra._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _9th August, 1879._
+
+234. I was reading the second chapter of Malachi this morning by chance,
+and wondering how many clergymen ever read it, and took to heart the
+"commandment for _them_."
+
+For they are always ready enough to call themselves priests (though they
+know themselves to be nothing of the sort) whenever there is any dignity
+to be got out of the title; but, whenever there is any good, hot
+scolding or unpleasant advice given them by the prophets, in that
+self-assumed character of theirs, they are as ready to quit it as ever
+Dionysus his lion-skin, when he finds the character of Herakles
+inconvenient. "Ye have wearied the Lord with your words" (yes, and some
+of His people, too, in your time): "yet ye say, Wherein have we wearied
+Him? When ye say, Everyone that doeth evil is good in the sight of the
+Lord, and He delighteth in them; or, Where is the God of judgment?"
+
+How many, again and again I wonder, of the lively young ecclesiastics
+supplied to the increasing demand of our west-ends of flourishing Cities
+of the Plain, ever consider what sort of sin it is for which God (unless
+they lay it to heart) will "curse their blessings, and spread dung upon
+their faces," or have understood, even in the dimmest manner, what part
+_they_ had taken, and were taking, in "corrupting the covenant of the
+Lord with Levi, and causing many to stumble at the Law"?
+
+235. Perhaps the most subtle and unconscious way which the religious
+teachers upon whom the ends of the world are come, have done this, is in
+never telling their people the meaning of the clause in the Lord's
+Prayer, which, of all others, their most earnest hearers have oftenest
+on their lips: "Thy will be done." They allow their people to use it as
+if their Father's will were always to kill their babies, or do
+something unpleasant to them, instead of explaining to them that the
+first and intensest article of their Father's will was their own
+sanctification, and following comfort and wealth; and that the one only
+path to national prosperity and to domestic peace was to understand what
+the will of the Lord was, and to do all they could to get it done.
+Whereas one would think, by the tone of the eagerest preachers nowadays,
+that they held their blessed office to be that, not of showing men how
+to do their Father's will on earth, but how to get to heaven without
+doing any of it either here or there!
+
+236. I say, especially, the most eager preachers; for nearly the whole
+Missionary body (with the hottest Evangelistic sect of the English
+Church) is at this moment composed of men who think the Gospel they are
+to carry to mend the world with, forsooth, is that, "If any man sin, he
+hath an Advocate with the Father;" while I have never yet, in my own
+experience, met either with a Missionary or a Town Bishop who so much as
+professed himself "to understand what the will of the Lord" was, far
+less to teach anybody else to do it; and for fifty preachers, yes, and
+fifty hundreds whom I have heard proclaiming the Mediator of the New
+Testament, that "they which were called might receive the promise of
+eternal inheritance," I have never yet heard so much as _one_ heartily
+proclaiming against all those "deceivers with vain words" (Eph. v. 6),
+that "no covetous person which is an idolater hath _any_ inheritance in
+the kingdom of Christ, or of God;" and on myself personally and publicly
+challenging the Bishops of England generally, and by name the Bishop of
+Manchester, to say whether usury was, or was not, according to the will
+of God, I have received no answer from any one of them.[162]
+
+  _13th August._
+
+237. I have allowed myself, in the beginning of this letter, to dwell on
+the equivocal use of the word "Priest" in the English Church (see
+Christopher Harvey, Grosart's edition, p. 38), because the assumption of
+the mediatorial, in defect of the pastoral, office by the clergy fulfill
+itself, naturally and always, in their pretending to absolve the sinner
+from his punishment, instead of purging him from his sin; and
+practically, in their general patronage and encouragement of all the
+iniquity of the world, by steadily preaching away the penalties of it.
+So that the great cities of the earth, which ought to be the places set
+on its hills, with the temple of the Lord in the midst of them, to which
+the tribes should go up,[163]--centers to the Kingdoms and Provinces of
+Honor, Virtue, and the Knowledge of the law of God,--have become,
+instead, loathsome centers of fornication and covetousness--the smoke of
+their sin going up into the face of Heaven like the furnace of Sodom,
+and the pollution of it rotting and raging through the bones and the
+souls of the peasant people round them, as if they were each a volcano
+whose ashes broke out in blains upon man and upon beast.[164]
+
+And in the midst of them, their freshly-set-tip steeples ring the crowd
+to a weekly prayer that the rest of their lives may be pure and holy,
+while they have not the slightest intention of purifying, sanctifying,
+or changing their lives in any the smallest particular; and their clergy
+gather, each into himself, the curious dual power, and Janus-faced
+majesty in mischief, of the prophet that prophesies falsely, and the
+priest that bears rule by his means.
+
+And the people love to have it so.
+
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _12th August._
+
+I am very glad of your little note from Brighton. I thought it needless
+to send the two letters there, which you will find at home; and they
+pretty nearly end all _I_ want to say; for the remaining clauses of the
+prayer touch on things too high for me. But I will send you one
+concluding letter about them.
+
+
+IX.
+
+  [Greek: ton arton emon ton epiousion dos hemin semeron.]
+
+  _Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _19th August._
+
+238. I retained the foregoing letter by me till now, lest you should
+think it written in any haste or petulance; but it is every word of it
+deliberate, though expressing the bitterness of twenty years of vain
+sorrow and pleading concerning these things. Nor am I able to write,
+otherwise, anything of the next following clause of the prayer;--for no
+words could be burning enough to tell the evils which have come on the
+world from men's using it thoughtlessly and blasphemously, praying God
+to give them what they are deliberately resolved to steal. For all true
+Christianity is known--as its Master was--in breaking of bread, and all
+false Christianity in stealing it.
+
+Let the clergyman only apply--with impartial and level sweep--to his
+congregation the great pastoral order: "The man that will not work,
+neither should he eat;" and be resolute in requiring each member of his
+flock to tell him _what_--day by day--they do to earn their
+dinners;--and he will find an entirely new view of life and its
+sacraments open upon him and them.
+
+239. For the man who is not--day by day--doing work which will earn his
+dinner, must be stealing his dinner;[165] and the actual fact is that
+the great mass of men, calling themselves Christians, do actually live
+by robbing the poor of their bread, and by no other trade whatsoever:
+and the simple examination of the mode of the produce and consumption of
+European food--who digs for it, and who eats it--will prove that to any
+honest human soul.
+
+Nor is it possible for any Christian Church to exist but in pollutions
+and hypocrisies beyond all words, until the virtues of a life moderate
+in its self-indulgence, and wide in its offices of temporal ministry to
+the poor, are insisted on as the normal conditions in which, only, the
+prayer to God for the harvest of the earth is other than blasphemy.
+
+In the second place. Since in the parable in Luke, the bread asked for
+is shown to be also, and chiefly, the Holy Spirit (Luke xi. 13), and the
+prayer, "Give us each day our daily bread," is, in its fullness, the
+disciples', "Lord, evermore give us _this_ bread,"--the clergyman's
+question to his whole flock, primarily literal: "Children, have ye here
+any meat?" must ultimately be always the greater spiritual one:
+"Children, have ye here any Holy Spirit?" or, "Have ye not heard yet
+whether there _be_ any? and, instead of a Holy Ghost the Lord and Giver
+of Life, do you only believe in an unholy mammon, Lord and Giver of
+Death?"
+
+The opposition between the two Lords has been, and will be as long as
+the world lasts, absolute, irreconcilable, mortal; and the clergyman's
+first message to his people of this day is--if he be faithful--"Choose
+ye this day whom ye will serve."
+
+  Ever faithfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+X.
+
+  [Greek: kai aphes hemin ta opheilemata hemon, os kai hemeis aphiemen
+  tois opheiletais hemon.]
+
+  _Et dimitte nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus
+  nostris._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _3rd September._
+
+240. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I have been very long before trying to
+say so much as a word about the sixth clause of the Pater; for whenever
+I began thinking of it, I was stopped by the sorrowful sense of the
+hopeless task you poor clergymen had, nowadays, in recommending and
+teaching people to love their enemies, when their whole energies were
+already devoted to swindling their friends.
+
+But, in any days, past or now, the clause is one of such difficulty,
+that, to understand it, means almost to know the love of God which
+passeth knowledge.
+
+But, at all events, it is surely the pastor's duty to prevent his flock
+from _mis_understanding it; and above all things to keep them from
+supposing that God's forgiveness is to be had simply for the asking, by
+those who "willfully sin after they have received the knowledge of the
+truth."
+
+241. There is one very simple lesson also, needed especially by people
+in circumstances of happy life, which I have never heard fully enforced
+from the pulpit, and which is usually the more lost sight of, because
+the fine and inaccurate word "trespasses" is so often used instead of
+the single and accurate one "debts." Among people well educated and
+happily circumstanced it may easily chance that long periods of their
+lives pass without any such conscious sin as could, on any discovery or
+memory of it, make them cry out, in truth and in pain,--"I have sinned
+against the Lord." But scarcely an hour of their happy days can pass
+over them without leaving--were their hearts open--some evidence written
+there that they have "left undone the things that they ought to have
+done," and giving them bitterer and heavier cause to cry, and cry
+again--forever, in the pure words of their Master's prayer, "Dimitte
+nobis _debita_ nostra."
+
+In connection with the more accurate translation of "debts" rather than
+"trespasses,"[166] it would surely be well to keep constantly in the
+mind of complacent and inoffensive congregations that in Christ's own
+prophecy of the manner of the last judgment, the condemnation is
+pronounced only on the sins of omission: "I was hungry, and ye gave Me
+no meat."
+
+242. But, whatever the manner of sin, by offense or defect, which the
+preacher fears in his people, surely he has of late been wholly remiss
+in compelling their definite recognition of it, in its several and
+personal particulars. Nothing in the various inconsistency of human
+nature is more grotesque than its willingness to be taxed with any
+quantity of sins in the gross, and its resentment at the insinuation of
+having committed the smallest parcel of them in detail. And the English
+Liturgy, evidently drawn up with the amiable intention of making
+religion as pleasant as possible, to a people desirous of saving their
+souls with no great degree of personal inconvenience, is perhaps in no
+point more unwholesomely lenient than in its concession to the popular
+conviction that we may obtain the present advantage, and escape the
+future punishment, of any sort of iniquity, by dexterously concealing
+the manner of it from man, and triumphantly confessing the quantity of
+it to God.
+
+243. Finally, whatever the advantages and decencies of a form of prayer,
+and how wide soever the scope given to its collected passages, it cannot
+be at one and the same time fitted for the use of a body of well-taught
+and experienced Christians, such as should join the services of a Church
+nineteen centuries old,--and adapted to the needs of the timid sinner
+who has that day first entered its porch, or of the remorseful publican
+who has only recently become sensible of his call to a pew.
+
+And surely our clergy need not be surprised at the daily increasing
+distrust in the public mind of the efficacy of Prayer, after having so
+long insisted on their offering supplication, _at least_ every Sunday
+morning at eleven o'clock, that the rest of their lives hereafter might
+be pure and holy, leaving them conscious all the while that they would
+be similarly required to inform the Lord next week, at the same hour,
+that "there was no health in them!"
+
+Among, the much-rebuked follies and abuses of so-called "Ritualism,"
+none that I have heard of are indeed so dangerously and darkly "Ritual"
+as this piece of authorized mockery of the most solemn act of human
+life, and only entrance of eternal life--Repentance.
+
+Believe me, dear Mr. Malleson,
+
+  Ever faithfully and respectfully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+XI.
+
+[Greek: kai me eisenenkes hemas eis peirasmon, alla rhysai hemas apo tou
+ponerou; hoti sou estin he basileia, kai he dynamis, kai he doxa, eis
+tous aionas. Amen.]
+
+_Et ne nos inducas in tentationem; sed libera nos a malo; quia tuum est
+regnum, potentia, et gloria in sceeula sceculorum. Amen._
+
+  BRANTWOOD, _14th September, 1879._
+
+244. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--The gentle words in your last letter
+referring to the difference between yourself and me in the degree of
+hope with which you could regard what could not but appear to the
+general mind Utopian in designs for the action of the Christian Church,
+surely might best be answered by appeal to the consistent tone of the
+prayer we have been examining.
+
+Is not every one of its petitions for a perfect state? and is not this
+last clause of it, of which we are to think to-day--if fully
+understood--a petition not only for the restoration of Paradise, but of
+Paradise in which there shall be no deadly fruit, or, at least, no
+tempter to praise it? And may we not admit that it is probably only for
+want of the earnest use of this last petition that not only the
+preceding ones have become formal with us, but that the private and
+simply restricted prayer for the little things we each severally desire,
+has become by some Christians dreaded and unused, and by others used
+faithlessly, and therefore with disappointment?
+
+245. And is it not for want of this special directness and simplicity of
+petition, and of the sense of its acceptance, that the whole nature of
+prayer has been doubted in our hearts, and disgraced by our lips; that
+we are afraid to ask God's blessing on the earth, when the scientific
+people tell us He has made previous arrangements to curse it; and that,
+instead of obeying, without fear or debate, the plain order, "Ask, and
+ye shall receive, that your joy may be full," we sorrowfully sink back
+into the apology for prayer, that "it is a wholesome exercise, even when
+fruitless," and that we ought piously always to suppose that the text
+really means no more than "Ask, and ye shall _not_ receive, that your
+joy may be _empty_"?
+
+Supposing we were first all of us quite sure that we _had_ prayed,
+honestly, the prayer against temptation, and that we would thankfully be
+refused anything we had set our hearts upon, if indeed God saw that it
+would lead us into evil, might we not have confidence afterwards that He
+in whose hand the king's heart is, as the rivers of water, would turn
+our tiny little hearts also in the way that they should go, and that
+_then_ the special prayer for the joys He taught them to seek would be
+answered to the last syllable, and to overflowing?
+
+246. It is surely scarcely necessary to say, farther, what the holy
+teachers of all nations have invariably concurred in showing,--that
+faithful prayer implies always correlative exertion; and that no man can
+ask honestly or hopefully to be delivered from temptation, unless he has
+himself honestly and firmly determined to do the best he can to keep out
+of it. But, in modern days, the first aim of all Christian parents is to
+place their children in circumstances where the temptations (which they
+are apt to call "opportunities") may be as great and as many as
+possible; where the sight and promise of "all these things" in Satan's
+gift may be brilliantly near; and where the act of "falling down to
+worship me" may be partly concealed by the shelter, and partly excused,
+as involuntary, by the pressure, of the concurrent crowd.
+
+In what respect the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of _them_,
+differ from the Kingdom, the Power, and the Glory, which are God's
+forever, is seldom, as far as I have heard, intelligibly explained from
+the pulpit; and still less the irreconcilable hostility between the two
+royalties and realms asserted in its sternness of decision.
+
+Whether it be, indeed, Utopian to believe that the kingdom we are taught
+to pray for _may_ come--verily come--for the asking, it is surely not
+for man to judge; but it is at least at his choice to resolve that he
+will no longer render obedience, nor ascribe glory and power, to the
+Devil. If he cannot find strength in himself to advance towards Heaven,
+he may at least say to the power of Hell, "Get thee behind me;" and
+staying himself on the testimony of Him who saith, "Surely I come
+quickly," ratify his happy prayer with the faithful "Amen, even so,
+come, Lord Jesus."
+
+  Ever, my dear friend,
+  Believe me affectionately and gratefully yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+NOTE.--The following further letters from Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in "Letters to the Clergy."
+
+  _Sept. 13th._
+
+247. DEAR MR. MALLESON,--I am so very grateful for your
+proposal to edit the letters without any further reference to me. I
+think that will be exactly the right way; and I believe I can put you at
+real ease in the doing of it, by explaining, as I can in very few words,
+the kind of _carte blanche_ I should rejoicingly give you.
+
+Interrupted to-day! more to-morrow with, I hope, the last letter.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  _14th Sept._
+
+I've nearly done the last letter, but will keep it till to-morrow,
+rather than finish hurriedly, for the first post. Your nice little note
+has just come; and I can only say that you cannot please me better than
+by acting with perfect freedom in all ways; and that I only want to see,
+or reply to, what you wish me for the matter's sake. And surely there is
+no occasion for any thought or waste of type about _me_ personally,
+except only to express your knowledge of my real desire for the health
+and power of the Church, More than this praise you must not give me; for
+I have learned almost everything, I may say, that I know, by my errors.
+
+  I am affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+  _17th Oct._
+
+248. I am thankful to see that the letters read clearly and easily, and
+contain all that was in my mind to get said; and nothing can possibly be
+more right in every way than the printing and binding,[167] nor more
+courteous and firm than your preface.
+
+Yes, there _will_ be a chasm to cross--a _tauriformis
+Aufidus_[168]--greater than Rubicon, and the roar of it for many a year
+has been heard in the distance, through the gathering fog on the earth,
+more loudly.
+
+The River of spiritual Death to this world, and entrance to Purgatory in
+the other, come down to us.
+
+When will the feet of the Priests be dipped in the still brim of the
+water? Jordan overflows his banks already.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+When you have put your large edition, with its correspondence, into
+press, I should like to read the sheets as they are issued; and put
+merely letters of reference to be taken up in a short "Epilogue." But I
+don't want to do or say anything more till you have all in perfect
+readiness for publication. I should merely add my reference letters in
+the margin, and the shortest possible notes at the end.
+
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 153: These letters were written by Mr. Ruskin to the Rev. F.
+A. Malleson, Vicar of Broughton-in-Furness, by whom they were read,
+after a few introductory remarks, before the Furness Clerical Society.
+They originated, as may be gathered from the first of them, in a request
+by Mr. Malleson that Mr. Ruskin would address the society on the
+subject. They have been printed in three forms:--(1) in a small pamphlet
+(October 1879) "for private circulation only," among the members of the
+Furness and one or two other clerical societies; (2) in the
+_Contemporary Review_ of December 1879; (3) in a volume (Strahan & Co.,
+1880) entitled "The Lord's Prayer and the Church," and containing also
+various replies to Mr, Ruskin's letters, and an epilogue by way of
+rejoinder by Mr. Ruskin himself. This volume was edited by Mr. Malleson,
+with whose concurrence Mr. Ruskin's contributions to it are reprinted
+here.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Called Letter II. in the Furness pamphlet,--where a note
+is added to the effect that there was a previous unpublished
+letter.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 155: In answer to the proposal of discussing the subject
+during a mountain walk.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 156: Art, xi.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Homily xi. of the Second Table.]
+
+[Footnote 158: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 159: See postscript to this letter.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Referring to the closing sentence of the third paragraph
+of the fifth 'ter, which _seemed_ to express what I felt could not be
+Mr. Ruskin's full meaning, I pointed out to him the following sentence
+in "Modern Painters:"--
+
+"When, in the desert, Jesus was girding Himself for the work of life,
+angels of life came and ministered unto Him; now, in the fair world,
+when He is girding Himself for the work of death, the ministrants come
+to Him from the grave; but from the grave conquered. One from the tomb
+under Abarim, which _His_ own hand had sealed long ago; the other from
+the rest which He had entered without seeing corruption."
+
+On this I made a remark somewhat to the following effect: that I felt
+sure Mr. Ruskin regarded the loving work of the Father and of the Son to
+be _equal_ in the forgiveness of sins and redemption of mankind; that
+what is done by the Father is in reality done also by the Son; and that
+it is by a mere accommodation to human infirmity of understanding that
+the doctrine of the Trinity is revealed to us in language, inadequate
+indeed to convey divine truths, but still the only language possible;
+and I asked whether some such feeling was not present in his mind when
+he used the pronoun "His," in the above passage from "Modern Painters,"
+of the Son, where it would be usually understood of the Father; and as a
+corollary, whether, in the letter, he does not himself fully recognize
+the fact of the redemption of the world by the loving self-sacrifice of
+the Son in entire concurrence with the equally loving will of the
+Father. This, as well as I can recollect, is the origin of the passage
+in the second paragraph in the seventh letter.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 161: The "Letters to the Clergy" adds note: "Yet hast thou not
+known Me, Philip? he that hath seen Me hath seen the Father" (John xiv.
+9).--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 162: _Fors Clavigera_, Letter lxxxii. (See _ante_, Sec.
+148.--ED.)]
+
+[Footnote 163: "Bibliotheca Pastorum," Vol. i. "The Economist of
+Xenophon," Pref., p. xii--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 164: See _ante_, p. 319, Sec. 154; p. 330, Sec. 166.--ED.]
+
+[Footnote 165: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 166: "_Arrows of the Chace._"]
+
+[Footnote 167: Referring to the first edition, printed for private
+circulation.--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 168:
+
+  "Sic tauriformis volvitur Aufidus,
+  Qua regna Dauni praefluit Appuli
+    Quum saevit, horrendamque cultis
+     Diluviem meditatur agris."
+
+    --HOR., _Carm._, iv. 14.]
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE.
+
+
+  BRANTWOOD, CONISTON, _June 1880._
+
+249. MY DEAR MALLESON,--I have glanced at the proofs you send;
+and _can_ do no more than glance, even if it seemed to me desirable that
+I should do more,--which, after said glance, it does in no wise. Let me
+remind you of what it is absolutely necessary that the readers of the
+book should clearly understand--that I wrote these Letters at your
+request, to be read and discussed at the meeting of a private society of
+clergymen. I declined then to be present at the discussion, and I
+decline still. You afterwards asked leave to print the Letters, to which
+I replied that they were yours, for whatever use you saw good to make of
+them: afterwards your plans expanded, while my own notion remained
+precisely what it had been--that the discussion should have been
+private, and kept within the limits of the society, and that its
+conclusions, if any, should have been announced in a few pages of clear
+print, for the parishioners' exclusive reading.
+
+I am, of course, flattered by the wider course you have obtained for the
+Letters, but am not in the slightest degree interested by the debate
+upon them, nor by any religious debates whatever, undertaken without
+serious conviction that there is a jot wrong in matters as they are, or
+serious resolution to make them a tittle better. Which, so far as I can
+read the minds of your correspondents, appears to me the substantial
+state of them.[169]
+
+250. One thing I cannot pass without protest--the quantity of talk about
+the writer of the Letters. What I am, or am not, is of no moment
+whatever to the matters in hand. I observe with comfort, or at least
+with complacency, that on the strength of a couple of hours' talk, at a
+time when I was thinking chiefly of the weatherings of slate you were
+good enough to show me above Goat's Water, you would have ventured to
+baptize me in the little lake--as not a goat, but a sheep. The best I
+can be sure of, myself, is that I am no wolf, and have never aspired to
+the dignity even of a Dog of the Lord.
+
+You told me, if I remember rightly, that one of the members of the
+original meeting denounced me as an arch-heretic[170]--meaning,
+doubtless, an arch-pagan; for a heretic, or sect-maker, is of all terms
+of reproach the last that can be used of me. And I think he should have
+been answered that it was precisely as an arch-pagan that I ventured to
+request a more intelligible and more unanimous account of the Christian
+Gospel from its preachers.
+
+251. If anything in the Letters offended those of you who hold me a
+brother, surely it had been best to tell me between ourselves, or to
+tell it to the Church, or to let me be Anathema Maranatha in peace,--in
+any case, I must at present so abide, correcting only the mistakes about
+myself which have led to graver ones about the things I wanted to speak
+of.[171]
+
+The most singular one, perhaps, in all the Letters is that of Mr.
+Wanstall's, that I do not attach enough weight to antiquity. I have only
+come upon the sentence to-day (29th May), but my reply to it is partly
+written already, with reference to the wishes of some other of your
+correspondents to know more of my reasons for finding fault with the
+English Liturgy.
+
+252. If people are taught to use the Liturgy rightly and reverently, it
+will bring them all good; and for some thirty years of my life I used to
+read it always through to my servant and myself, if we had no Protestant
+church to go to, in Alpine or Italian villages. One can always tacitly
+pray of it what one wants, and let the rest pass. But, as I have grown
+older, and watched the decline in the Christian faith of all nations, I
+have got more and more suspicious of the effect of this particular form
+of words on the truthfulness of the English mind (now fast becoming a
+salt which has lost his savor, and is fit only to be trodden underfoot
+of men). And during the last ten years, in which my position at Oxford
+has compelled me to examine what authority there was for the code of
+prayer, of which the University is now so ashamed that it no more dares
+compel its youths so much as to hear, much less to utter it, I got
+necessarily into the habit of always looking to the original forms of
+the prayers of the fully developed Christian Church. Nor did I think it
+a mere chance which placed in my own possession a manuscript of the
+perfect Church service of the thirteenth century, written by the monks
+of the Sainte Chapelle for St. Louis; together with one of the same
+date, written in England, probably for the Diocese of Lincoln; adding
+some of the Collects, in which it corresponds with St. Louis's, and the
+Latin hymns so much beloved by Dante, with the appointed music for them.
+
+253. And my wonder has been greater every hour, since I examined closely
+the text of these and other early books, that in any state of declining,
+or captive, energy, the Church of England should have contented itself
+with a service which cast out, from beginning to end, all these
+intensely spiritual and passionate utterances of chanted prayer (the
+whole body, that is to say, of the authentic _Christian_ Psalms), and in
+adopting what it timidly preserved of the Collects, mangled or blunted
+them down to the exact degree which would make them either
+unintelligible or inoffensive--so vague that everybody might use them,
+or so pointless that nobody could be offended by them. For a special
+instance: The prayer for "our bishops and curates, and all congregations
+committed to their charge," is, in the Lincoln Service-book, "for our
+bishop, and all congregations committed to _his_ charge." The change
+from singular to plural seems a slight one. But it suffices to take the
+eyes of the people off their own bishop into infinite space; to change a
+prayer which was intended to be uttered in personal anxiety and
+affection, into one for the general good of the Church, of which nobody
+could judge, and for which nobody would particularly care; and, finally,
+to change a prayer to which the answer, if given, would be visible, into
+one of which nobody could tell whether it were answered or not.
+
+254. In the Collects, the change, though verbally slight, is thus
+tremendous in issue. But in the Litany--word and thought go all wild
+together. The first prayer of the Litany in the Lincoln Service-book is
+for the Pope and all ranks beneath him, implying a very noteworthy piece
+of theology--that the Pope might err in religious matters, and that the
+prayer of the humblest servant of God would be useful to him:--"Ut
+Dompnum Apostolicum, et omnes gradus ecclesie in sancta religione
+conservare digneris." Meaning that whatever errors particular persons
+might, and must, fall into, they prayed God to keep the Pope right, and
+the collective testimony and conduct of the ranks below him. Then
+follows the prayer for their own bishop and _his_ flock--then for the
+king and the princes (chief lords), that they (not all nations) might be
+kept in concord--and then for _our_ bishops and abbots,--the Church of
+England proper; every one of these petitions being direct, limited, and
+personally heartfelt;--and then this lovely one for themselves:--
+
+"Ut obsequium servitutis nostre rationabile facias."--"That Thou wouldst
+make the obedience of our service reasonable" ("which is your reasonable
+service").
+
+This glorious prayer is, I believe, accurately an "early English" one.
+It is not in the St. Louis Litany, nor in a later elaborate French
+fourteenth century one; but I find it softened in an Italian MS. of the
+fifteenth century into "ut nosmet ipsos in tuo sancto servitio
+confortare et conservare digneris,"--"that Thou wouldst deign to keep
+and comfort us ourselves in Thy sacred service" (the comfort, observe,
+being here asked for whether reasonable or not!); and in the best and
+fullest French service-book I have, printed at Rouen in 1520, it
+becomes, "ut congregationes omnium sanctorum in tuo sancto servitio
+conservare digneris;" while victory as well as concord is asked for the
+king and the princes,--thus leading the way to that for our own Queen's
+victory over all her enemies, a prayer which might now be advisedly
+altered into one that she--and in her, the monarchy of England--might
+find more fidelity in their friends.
+
+255. I give one more example of the corruption of our Prayer-Book, with
+reference to the objections taken by some of your correspondents to the
+distinction implied in my Letters between the Persons of the Father and
+the Christ.
+
+The "Memoria de Sancta Trinitate," in the St. Louis service-book, runs
+thus:--
+
+"Omnipotens sempiterne Deus, qui dedisti famulis tuis in confessione
+vere fidei eterne Trinitatis gloriam agnoscere, et in potentia
+majestatis adorare unitatem, quesumus ut ejus fidei firmitate ab omnibus
+semper muniemur adversis. Qui vivis et regnas Deus, per omnia secula
+seculorum. Amen."
+
+"Almighty and everlasting God, who has given to Thy servants, in
+confession of true faith to recognize the glory of the Eternal Trinity,
+and in the power of Majesty to pray to the Unity; we ask that by the
+firmness of that faith we may be always defended from all adverse
+things, who livest and reignest God through all ages. Amen."
+
+256. Turning to our Collect, we find we have first slipped in the word
+"us" before "Thy servants," and by that little insertion have slipped in
+the squire and his jockey, and the public-house landlord--and anyone
+else who may chance to have been coaxed, swept, or threatened into
+Church on Trinity Sunday, and required the entire company of them to
+profess themselves servants of God, and believers in the mystery of the
+Trinity. And we think we have done God a service!
+
+"Grace." Not a word about grace in the original. You don't believe by
+having grace, but by having wit.
+
+"To acknowledge." "Agnosco" is to recognize, not to acknowledge. To
+_see_ that there are three lights in a chandelier is a great deal more
+than to acknowledge that they are there.
+
+"To worship." "Adorare" is to pray to, not to worship. You may worship a
+mere magistrate; but you _pray_ to the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
+
+The last sentence in the English is too horribly mutilated to be dealt
+with in any patience. The meaning of the great old collect is that by
+the shield of that faith we may quench all the fiery darts of the devil.
+The English prayer means, if it means anything, "Please keep us in our
+faith without our taking any trouble; and, besides, please don't let us
+lose our money, nor catch cold."
+
+"Who livest and reignest." Right; but how many of any extant or instant
+congregations understand what the two words mean? That God is a living
+God, not a dead Law; and that He is a reigning God, putting wrong things
+to rights, and that, sooner or later, with a strong hand and a rod of
+iron; and not at all with a soft sponge and warm water, washing
+everybody as clean as a baby every Sunday morning, whatever dirty work
+they may have been about all the week.
+
+257. On which latter supposition your modern Liturgy, in so far as it
+has supplemented instead of corrected the old one, has entirely modeled
+itself,--producing in its first address to the congregation before the
+Almighty precisely the faultfulest and foolishest piece of English
+language that I know in the whole compass of English or American
+literature. In the seventeen lines of it (as printed in my
+old-fashioned, large-print Prayer-Book), there are seven times over two
+words for one idea.
+
+  1. Acknowledge and confess.
+
+  2. Sins and wickedness.
+
+  3. Dissemble nor cloke.
+
+  4. Goodness and mercy.
+
+  5. Assemble and meet.
+
+  6. Requisite and necessary.
+
+  7. Pray and beseech.
+
+There is, indeed, a shade of difference in some of these ideas for a
+good scholar, none for a general congregation;[172] and what difference
+they can guess at merely muddles their heads: to acknowledge sin is
+indeed different from confessing it, but it cannot be done at a minute's
+notice; and goodness is a different thing from mercy, but it is by no
+means God's infinite goodness that forgives our badness, but that judges
+it.
+
+258. "The faultfulest," I said, "and the foolishest." After using
+fourteen words where seven would have done, what is it that the whole
+speech gets said with its much speaking? This Morning Service of all
+England begins with the assertion that the Scripture moveth us in sundry
+places to confess our sins before God. _Does_ it so? Have your
+congregations ever been referred to those sundry places? Or do they take
+the assertion on trust, or remain under the impression that, unless with
+the advantage of their own candor, God must remain ill-informed on the
+subject of their sins?
+
+"That we should not dissemble nor cloke them." _Can_ we then? Are these
+grown-up congregations of the enlightened English Church in the
+nineteenth century still so young in their nurseries that the "Thou,
+God, seest me" is still not believed by them if they get under the bed?
+
+259. Let us look up the sundry moving passages referred to.
+
+(I suppose myself a simple lamb of the flock, and only able to use my
+English Bible.)
+
+I find in my concordance (confess and confession together) forty-two
+occurrences of the word. Sixteen of these, including John's confession
+that he was not the Christ, and the confession of the faithful fathers
+that they were pilgrims on the earth, do indeed move us strongly to
+confess Christ before men. Have you ever taught your congregations what
+that confession means? They are ready enough to confess Him in church,
+that is to say, in their own private synagogue. Will they in
+Parliament? Will they in a ballroom? Will they in a shop? Sixteen of the
+texts are to enforce their doing _that_.
+
+The most important one (1 Tim. vi. 13) refers to Christ's own good
+confession, which I suppose was not of His sins, but of His obedience.
+How many of your congregations can make any such kind of confession, or
+wish to make it?
+
+The eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth (1 Kings viii. 33, 2 Chron.
+vi. 26, Heb. xiii. 15) speak of confessing thankfully that God is God
+(and not a putrid plasma nor a theory of development), and the
+twenty-first (Job xl. 14) speaks of God's own confession, that no doubt
+we are the people, and that wisdom shall die with us, and on what
+conditions He will make it.
+
+260. There remains twenty-one texts which do speak of the confession of
+our sins--very moving ones indeed--and Heaven grant that some day the
+British public may be moved by them.
+
+(1.) The first is Lev. v. 5, "He shall confess that he hath sinned _in
+that thing_." And if you can get any soul of your congregation to say he
+has sinned in _any_thing, he may do it in two words for one if he likes,
+and it will yet be good liturgy.
+
+(2.) The second is indeed general--Lev. xvi. 21: the command that the
+whole nation should afflict its soul on the great day of atonement once
+a year. The Church of England, I believe, enjoins no such unpleasant
+ceremony. Her festivals are passed by her people often indeed in the
+extinction of their souls, but by no means in their intentional
+affliction.
+
+(3, 4, 5.) The third, fourth, and fifth (Lev. xxvi. 40, Numb. v. 7,
+Nehem. i. 6) refer all to national humiliation for definite idolatry,
+accompanied with an entire abandonment of that idolatry, and of
+idolatrous persons. How soon _that_ form of confession is likely to find
+a place in the English congregations the defenses of their main idol,
+mammon, in the vilest and cruelest shape of it--usury--with which this
+book has been defiled, show very sufficiently.
+
+261. (6.) The sixth is Psalm xxxii. 5--virtually the whole of that
+psalm, which does, indeed, entirely refer to the greater confession,
+once for all opening the heart to God, which can be by no means done
+fifty-two times a year, and which, once done, puts men into a state in
+which they will never again say there is no health in them; nor that
+their hearts are desperately wicked; but will obey forever the instantly
+following order, "Rejoice in the Lord, ye righteous, and shout for joy,
+all ye that are true of heart."
+
+(7.) The seventh (Acts xxiv. 14) is the one confession in which I can
+myself share:--"After the way which they call heresy, so worship I the
+Lord God of my fathers."
+
+(8.) The eighth (James v. 16) tells us to confess our faults--not to
+God, but "one to another"--a practice not favored by English
+catechumens--(by the way, what _do_ you all mean by "auricular"
+confession--confession that can be heard? and is the Protestant
+pleasanter form one that can't be?)
+
+(9.) The ninth is that passage of St. John (i. 9), the favorite
+evangelical text, which is read and preached by thousands of false
+preachers every day, without once going on to read its great companion,
+"Beloved, if our heart condemn us, God is greater than our heart, and
+knoweth all things; but if our heart condemn us _not_, then have we
+confidence toward God." Make your people understand the second text, and
+they will understand the first. At present you leave them understanding
+neither.
+
+262. And the entire body of the remaining texts is summed in Joshua vii.
+19 and Ezra x. 11, in which, whether it be Achan, with his Babylonish
+garment, or the people of Israel, with their Babylonish lusts, the
+meaning of confession is simply what it is to every brave boy, girl,
+man, and woman, who knows the meaning of the word "honor" before God or
+man--namely, to say what they have done wrong, and to take the
+punishment of it (not to get it blanched over by any means), and to do
+it no more--which is so far from being a tone of mind generally enforced
+either by the English, or any other extant Liturgy, that, though all my
+maids are exceedingly pious, and insist on the privilege of going to
+church as a quite inviolable one, I think it a scarcely to be hoped for
+crown and consummation of virtue in them that they should tell me when
+they have broken a plate; and I should expect to be met only with looks
+of indignation and astonishment if I ventured to ask one of them how she
+had spent her Sunday afternoon.
+
+"Without courage," said Sir Walter Scott, "there is no truth; and
+without truth there is no virtue." The sentence would have been itself
+more true if Sir Walter had written "candor" for "truth," for it is
+possible to be true in insolence, or true in cruelty. But in looking
+back from the ridges of the Hill Difficulty in my own past life, and in
+all the vision that has been given me of the wanderings in the ways of
+others--this, of all principles, has become to me surest--that the first
+virtue to be required of man is frankness of heart and lip: and I
+believe that every youth of sense and honor, putting himself to faithful
+question, would feel that he had the devil for confessor, if he had not
+his father or his friend.
+
+263. That a clergyman should ever be so truly the friend of his
+parishioners as to deserve their confidence from childhood upwards, may
+be flouted as a sentimental ideal; but he is assuredly only their enemy
+in showing his Lutheran detestation of the sale of indulgences by
+broadcasting these gratis from his pulpit.
+
+The inconvenience and unpleasantness of a catechism concerning itself
+with the personal practice as well as the general theory of duty, are
+indeed perfectly conceivable by me: yet I am not convinced that such
+manner of catechism would therefore be less medicinal; and during the
+past ten years it has often been matter of amazed thought with me, while
+our President at Corpus read prayers to the chapel benches, what might
+by this time have been the effect on the learning as well as the creed
+of the University, if, forty years ago, our stern old Dean Gaisford, of
+the House of Christ, instead of sending us to chapel as to the house of
+correction, when we missed a lecture, had inquired, before he allowed us
+to come to chapel at all, whether we were gamblers, harlot-mongers, or
+in concealed and selfish debt.
+
+264. I observe with extreme surprise in the preceding letters the
+unconsciousness of some of your correspondents, that there ever was such
+a thing as discipline in the Christian Church. Indeed, the last
+wholesome instance of it I can remember was when my own great-great
+uncle Maitland lifted Lady ---- from his altar-rails, and led her back to
+her seat before the congregation, when she offered to take the
+Sacrament, being at enmity with her son.[173] But I believe a few hours
+honestly spent by any clergyman on his Church history would show him
+that the Church's confidence in her prayer has been always exactly
+proportionate to the strictness of her discipline; that her present
+fright at being caught praying by a chemist or an electrician, results
+mainly from her having allowed her twos and threes gathered in the name
+of Christ to become sixes and sevens gathered in the name of Belial; and
+that therefore her now needfulest duty is to explain to her stammering
+votaries, extremely doubtful as they are of the effect of their
+supplications either on politics or the weather, that although Elijah
+was a man subject to like passions as we are, he had them better under
+command; and that while the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man
+availeth much, the formal and lukewarm one of an iniquitous man
+availeth--much the other way.
+
+Such an instruction, coupled with due explanation of the nature of
+righteousness and iniquity, directed mainly to those who have the power
+of both in their own hands, being makers of law, and holders of
+property, would, without any further debate, bring about a very singular
+change in the position and respectability of English clergymen.
+
+265. How far they may at present be considered as merely the Squire's
+left hand, bound to know nothing of what he is doing with his right, it
+is for their own consciences to determine.
+
+For instance, a friend wrote to me the other day, "Will you not come
+here? You will see a noble duke destroying a village as old as the
+Conquest, and driving out dozens of families whose names are in Domesday
+Book, because, owing to the neglect of his ancestors and rackrenting for
+a hundred years, the place has fallen out of repair, and the people are
+poor, and may become paupers. A local paper ventured to tell the truth.
+The duke's agent called on the editor, and threatened him with
+destruction if he did not hold his tongue." The noble duke, doubtless,
+has proper Protestant horror of auricular confession. But suppose,
+instead of the local editor, the local parson had ventured to tell the
+truth from his pulpit, and even to intimate to his Grace that he might
+no longer receive the Body and Blood of the Lord at the altar of that
+parish! The parson would scarcely--in these days--have been therefore
+made bonfire of, and had a pretty martyr's memorial by Mr. Scott's
+pupils; but he would have lighted a goodly light, nevertheless, in this
+England of ours, whose pettifogging piety has now neither the courage to
+deny a duke's grace in its church, nor to declare Christ's in its
+Parliament.
+
+266. Lastly. Several of your contributors, I observe, have rashly dipped
+their feet in the brim of the water of that raging question of Usury;
+and I cannot but express my extreme regret that you should yourself have
+yielded to the temptation of expressing opinions which you have had no
+leisure either to sound or to test. My assertion, however, that the
+rich lived mainly by robbing the poor, referred not to Usury, but to
+Rent; and the facts respecting both these methods of extortion are
+perfectly and indubitably ascertainable by any person who himself wishes
+to ascertain them, and is able to take the necessary time and pains. I
+see no sign, throughout the whole of these letters, of any wish
+whatever, on the part of one of their writers, to ascertain the facts,
+but only to defend practices which they hold to be convenient in the
+world, and are afraid to blame in their congregations. Of the
+presumption with which several of the writers utter their notions on the
+subject, I do not think it would be right to speak farther, in an
+epilogue to which there is no reply, in the terms which otherwise would
+have been deserved. In their bearing on other topics, let me earnestly
+thank you (so far as my own feelings may be permitted voice in the
+matter) for the attention with which you have examined, and the courage
+with which you have ratified, or at least endured, letters which
+could not but bear at first the aspect of being written in a
+hostile--sometimes even in a mocking spirit. That aspect is untrue, nor
+am I answerable for it: the things of which I had to speak could not be
+shortly described but in terms which might sound satirical; for all
+error, if frankly shown, is precisely most ridiculous when it is most
+dangerous, and I have written no word which is not chosen as the
+exactest for its occasion, whether it move sigh or smile. In my earlier
+days I wrote much with the desire to please, and the hope of influencing
+the reader. As I grow older and older, I recognize the truth of the
+Preacher's saying, "Desire shall fail, and the mourners go about the
+streets;" and I content myself with saying, to whoso it may concern,
+that the thing is verily thus, whether they will hear or whether they
+will forbear. No man more than I has ever loved the places where God's
+honor dwells, or yielded truer allegiance to the teaching of His evident
+servants. No man at this time grieves more for the danger of the Church
+which supposes him her enemy, while she whispers procrastinating _pax
+vobiscum_ in answer to the spurious kiss of those who would fain toll
+curfew over the last fires of English faith, and watch the sparrow find
+nest where she may lay her young, around the altars of the Lord.
+
+  Ever affectionately yours,
+  J. RUSKIN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 169: The following extracts from letters of Mr. Ruskin to Mr.
+Malleson were printed in the "Letters to the Clergy":--
+
+"_14th May_, 1880.--My dear Malleson, ... I had never seen _yours_ at
+all when I wrote last. I fell first on ----, whom I read with some
+attention, and commented on with little favor; went on to the next, and
+remained content with that taste till I had done my Scott (_Nineteenth
+Century_).
+
+"I have this morning been reading your own, on which I very earnestly
+congratulate you. God knows it is not because they are friendly or
+complimentary, but because you _do_ see what I mean; and people hardly
+ever do; and I think it needs very considerable power and feeling to
+forgive and understand as you do. You have said everything I want to
+say, and much more, except on the one point of excommunication, which
+will be the chief, almost the only, subject of my final note."
+
+"_16th May._--Yes, the omission of the 'Mr.' meant much change in all my
+feelings towards you and estimates of you; for which change, believe me,
+I am more glad and thankful than I can well tell you.
+
+"J. RUSKIN."]
+
+[Footnote 170: Only a heretic!--F. A. M.]
+
+[Footnote 171: I may perhaps be pardoned for vindicating-at least my
+arithmetic, which, with Bishop Colenso, I rather pride myself upon. One
+of your correspondents greatly doubts my having heard five thousand
+asserters of evangelical principles (Catholic-absolvent or
+Protestant-detergent are virtually the same). I am now sixty years old,
+and for forty-five of them was in church at least once on the
+Sunday,--say once a month also in afternoons,--and you have above three
+thousand church services. When I am abroad I am often in half-a-dozen
+churches in the course of a single day, and never lose a chance of
+listening to anything that is going on. Add the conversations pursued,
+not unearnestly, with every sort of reverend person I can get to talk to
+me--from the Bishop of Strasburg (as good a specimen of a town bishop as
+I have known), with whom I was studying ecstatic paintings in the year
+1850--down to the simplest traveling tinker inclined Gospelwards, whom I
+perceive to be sincere, and your correspondent will perceive that my
+rapid numerical expression must be far beneath the truth. He subjoins
+his more rational doubt of my acquaintance with many town missionaries;
+to which I can only answer, that as I do not live in town, nor set up
+for a missionary myself, my spiritual advantages have certainly not been
+great in that direction. I simply assert that of the few I have
+known,--beginning with Mr. Spurgeon, under whom I sat with much
+edification for a year or two,--I have not known any such teaching as I
+speak of.]
+
+[Footnote 172: The only explanation ever offered for this exuberant
+wordiness is that if worshipers did not understand one term they would
+the other, and in some cases, in the Exhortation and elsewhere, one word
+is of Latin and the other of Saxon derivation.[1] But this is surely a
+very feeble excuse for bad composition. Of a very different kind is that
+beautiful climax which is reached in the three admirably chosen pairs of
+words in the Prayer for the Parliament, "peace and happiness, truth and
+justice, religion and piety."--F. A. M.
+
+(Note 1: The repetition of synonymous terms is of very frequent
+occurrence in sixteenth century writing, as "for ever and aye," "Time
+and the hour run through the roughest day" (_Macbeth_, i. 3).)]
+
+[Footnote 173: In some of the country districts of Scotland the right of
+the Church to interfere with the lives of private individuals is still
+exercised. Only two years ago, a wealthy gentleman farmer was rebuked by
+the "Kirk Session" of the Dissenting Church to which he belonged, for
+infidelity to his wife.
+
+At the Scottish half-yearly Communion the ceremony of "fencing the
+tables" used to be observed; that is, turning away all those whose lives
+were supposed to have made them unfit to receive the Sacrament.]
+
+
+
+
+THE NATURE AND AUTHORITY OF MIRACLE.[174]
+
+
+267. Every age of the world has its own special sins, and special
+simplicities; and among our own most particular humors in both kinds
+must be reckoned the tendency to parade our discoveries of the laws of
+Nature, as if nobody had ever heard of a law of Nature before.
+
+The most curious result of this extremely absurd condition of mind is
+perhaps the alarm of religious persons on subjects of which one would
+have fancied most of the palpable difficulties had been settled before
+the nineteenth century. The theory of prayer, for instance, and of
+Miracles. I noticed a lengthy discussion in the newspapers a month or
+two ago, on the propriety of praying for, or against rain. It had
+suddenly, it seems, occurred to the public mind, and to that of the
+gentlemen who write the theology of the breakfast-table, that rain was
+owing to natural causes; and that it must be unreasonable to expect God
+to supply on our immediate demand what could not be provided but by
+previous evaporation. I noticed farther that this alarming difficulty
+was at least softened to some of our Metropolitan congregations by the
+assurances of their ministers, that, although, since the last lecture by
+Professor Tyndall at the Royal Institution, it had become impossible to
+think of asking God for any temporal blessing, they might still hope
+their applications for spiritual advantages would occasionally be
+successful;--thus implying that though material processes were
+necessarily slow, and the laws of Heaven respecting matter, inviolable,
+mental processes might be instantaneous, and mental laws at any moment
+disregarded by their Institutor: so that the spirit of a man might be
+brought to maturity in a moment, though the resources of Omnipotence
+would be overtaxed, or its consistency abandoned, in the endeavor to
+produce the same result On a greengage.
+
+More logically, though not more wisely, other divines have asserted that
+prayer is medicinally beneficial to ourselves, whether we obtain what we
+ask for or not; and that our moral state is gradually elevated by the
+habit of praying daily that the Kingdom of God may come,--though nothing
+would more astonish us than its coming.
+
+268. With these doubts respecting the possibility or propriety of
+miracle, a more immediate difficulty occurs as to its actual nature or
+definition. What is the quality of any event which may be properly
+called "miraculous"? What are the degrees of wonderfulness?--what the
+surpassing degree of it, which changes the wonder into the sign, or may
+be positively recognized by human intelligence as an interruption,
+instead of a new operation, of those laws of Nature with which, of late,
+we have become so exhaustively acquainted? For my own part, I can only
+say that I am so haunted by doubt of the security of our best knowledge,
+and by discontent in the range of it, that it seems to me contrary to
+modesty, whether in a religious or scientific point of view, to regard
+_any_thing as miraculous. I know so little, and this little I know is so
+inexplicable, that I dare not say anything is wonderful because it is
+strange to me, or not wonderful because it is familiar. I have not the
+slightest idea how I compel my hand to write these words, or my lips to
+read them: and the question which was the thesis of Mr. Ward's very
+interesting paper, "Can Experience prove the Uniformity of Nature?"[175]
+is, in my mind, so assuredly answerable with the negative which the
+writer appeared to desire, that, precisely on that ground, the
+performance of any so-called miracle whatever would be morally
+unimpressive to me. If a second Joshua to-morrow commanded the sun to
+stand still, and it obeyed him; and he therefore claimed deference as a
+miracle-worker, I am afraid I should answer, "What! a miracle that the
+sun stands still?--not at all. I was always expecting it would. The only
+wonder, to me, was its going on."
+
+269. But even assuming the demonstrable uniformity of the laws or
+customs of Nature which are known to us, it remains a difficult question
+what manner of interference with such law or custom we might logically
+hold miraculous, and what, on the contrary, we should treat only as
+proof of the existence of some other law, hitherto undiscovered.
+
+For instance, there is a case authenticated by the signatures of several
+leading physicists in Paris, in which a peasant girl, under certain
+conditions of morbid excitement, was able to move objects at some
+distance from her without touching them. Taking the evidence for what it
+may be worth, the discovery of such a faculty would only, I suppose,
+justify us in concluding that some new vital energy was developing
+itself under the conditions of modern bodily health; and not that any
+interference with the laws of Nature had taken place. Yet the generally
+obstinate refusal of men of science to receive any verbal witness of
+such facts is a proof that they believe them contrary to a code of law
+which is more or less complete in their experience, and altogether
+complete in their conception; and I think it is therefore their province
+to lay down for us the true principle by which we may distinguish the
+miraculous violation of a known law from the sudden manifestation of an
+unknown one.
+
+270. In the meantime, supposing ourselves ever so incapable of defining
+law, or discerning its interruption, we need not therefore lose our
+conception of the one, nor our faith in the other. Some of us may no
+more be able to know a genuine miracle, when we see it, than others to
+know a genuine picture; but the ordinary impulse to regard, therefore,
+all claim to miraculous power as imposture, or self-deception, reminds
+me always of the speech of a French lady to me, whose husband's
+collection of old pictures had brought unexpectedly low prices in the
+auction-room,--"How can you be so senseless," she said, "as to attach
+yourself to the study of an art in which you see that all excellence is
+a mere matter of opinion?" Some of us have thus come to imagine that
+the laws of Nature, as well as those of Art, may be matters of opinion;
+and I recollect an ingenious paper by Mr. Frederic Harrison, some two
+years ago, on the "Subjective Synthesis,"--which, after proving, what
+does not seem to stand in need of so elaborate proof, that we can only
+know, of the universe, what we can see and understand, went on to state
+that the laws of Nature "were not objective realities, any more than
+they were absolute truths."[176] Which decision, it seems to me, is as
+if some modest and rational gnat, who had submitted to the humiliating
+conviction that it could know no more of the world than might be
+traversed by flight, or tasted by puncture, yet, in the course of an
+experiment on a philosopher with its proboscis, hearing him speak of the
+Institutes of Justinian, should observe, on its return to the society of
+gnats, that the Institutes of Justinian were not objective realities,
+any more than they were absolute truths. And, indeed, the careless use
+of the word "Truth" itself, often misleads even the most accurate
+thinkers. A law cannot be spoken of as a truth, either absolute or
+concrete. It is a law of nature, that is to say, of my own particular
+nature, that I fall asleep after dinner, and my confession of this fact
+is a truth; but the bad habit is no more a truth than the statement of
+it is a bad habit.
+
+271. Nevertheless, in spite of the treachery of our conceptions and
+language, and in just conclusion even from our narrow experience, the
+conviction is fastened in our hearts that the habits or laws of Nature
+are more constant than our own and sustained by a firmer Intelligence:
+so that, without in the least claiming the faculty of recognition of
+miracle, we may securely define its essence. The phenomena of the
+universe with which we are acquainted are assumed to be, under general
+conditions, constant, but to be maintained in that constancy by a
+supreme personal Mind; and it is farther supposed that, under
+particular conditions, this ruling Person interrupts the constancy of
+these phenomena, in order to establish a particular relation with
+inferior creatures.
+
+272. It is, indeed, singular how ready the inferior creatures are to
+imagine such a relation, without any very decisive evidence of its
+establishment. The entire question of miracle is involved with that of
+the special providences which are supposed, in some theories of
+religion, sometimes to confound the enemies, and always to protect the
+darlings of God: and in the minds of amiable persons, the natural and
+very justifiable sense of their own importance to the well-being of the
+world may often encourage the pleasant supposition that the Deity,
+however improvident for others, will be provident for _them_. I
+recollect a paper on this subject by Dr. Guthrie, published not long ago
+in some religious periodical, in which the writer mentioned, as a
+strikingly Providential circumstance, the catching of his foot on a
+ledge of rock which averted what might otherwise have been a fatal fall.
+Under the sense of the loss to the cause of religion and the society of
+Edinburgh, which might have been the consequence of the accident, it is
+natural that Dr. Guthrie should refer to it with strongly excited
+devotional feelings: yet, perhaps, with better reason, a junior member
+of the Alpine Club, less secure of the value of his life, would have
+been likely on the same occasion rather to be provoked by his own
+awkwardness, than impressed by the providential structure of the rock.
+At the root of every error on these subjects we may trace either an
+imperfect conception of the universality of Deity, or an exaggerated
+sense of individual importance: and yet it is no less certain that every
+train of thought likely to lead us in a right direction must be founded
+on the acknowledgment that the personality of a Deity who has commanded
+the doing of Justice and the showing of Mercy can be no otherwise
+manifested than in the signal support of causes which are just, and
+favor of persons who are kind. The beautiful tradition of the deaths of
+Cleobis and Bito, indeed, expresses the sense proper to the wisest men,
+that we are unable either to discern or decide for ourselves in what
+the favor of God consists: but the promises of the Christian religion
+imply that its true disciples will be enabled to ask with prudence what
+is to be infallibly granted.
+
+273. And, indeed, the relations between God and His creatures which it
+is the function of miracle to establish, depend far more on the
+correspondence of events with human volition than on the marvelous
+character of the events themselves. These relations are, in the main,
+twofold. Miracles are either to convince, or to assist. We are apt to
+think of them as meant only to establish faith, but many are for mere
+convenience of life. Elisha's making the ax-head swim, and the poisoned
+soup wholesome, were not to convince anybody, but merely to give help in
+the quickest way. Conviction is, indeed, in many of the most interesting
+miracles, quite a secondary end, and often an unattained one. The hungry
+multitude are fed, the ship in danger relieved by sudden calm. The
+disciples disregard the multiplying of the loaves, yet are strongly
+affected by the change in the weather.
+
+But whether for conviction, aid (or aid in the terrific form of
+punishment), the essence of miracle is as the manifestation of a Power
+which can direct or modify the otherwise constant phenomena of Nature;
+and it is, I think, by attaching too great importance to what may be
+termed the missionary work of miracle, instead of what may in
+distinction be called its pastoral work, that many pious persons, no
+less than infidels, are apt to despise, and therefore to deny,
+miraculous power altogether.
+
+274. "We do not need to be convinced," they say, "of the existence of
+God by the capricious exertion of His power. We are satisfied in the
+normal exertion of it; and it is contrary to the idea of His Excellent
+Majesty that there should be any other."
+
+But all arguments and feelings must be distrusted which are founded on
+our own ideas of what it is proper for Deity to do. Nor can I, even
+according to our human modes of judgment, find any impropriety in the
+thought that an energy may be natural without being normal, and Divine
+without being constant. The wise missionary may indeed require no
+miracle to confirm his authority; but the despised pastor may need
+miracle to enforce it, or the compassionate governor to make it
+beneficial. And it is quite possible to conceive of Pastoral Miracle as
+resulting from a power as natural as any other, though not as perpetual.
+The wind bloweth where it listeth, and some of the energies granted to
+men born of the Spirit may be manifested only on certain conditions and
+on rare occasions; and therefore be always wonderful or miraculous,
+though neither disorderly nor unnatural.
+
+Thus St. Paul's argument to Agrippa, "Why should it be thought with you
+a thing impossible that God should raise the dead?" would be suicidal,
+if he meant to appeal to the miracle as a proof of the authority of his
+mission. But, claiming no authority, he announces as a probable and
+acceptable fact the opening of a dispensation in which it was as natural
+for the dead to be raised as for the Gospel to be preached to the poor,
+though both the one and the other were miraculous signs that the Master
+of Nature had come down to be Emmanuel among men, and that no prophet
+was in future to look for another.
+
+We have indeed fallen into a careless habit of using the words
+supernatural and superhuman, as if equivalent. A human act may be
+super-doggish, and a Divine act superhuman, yet all three acts
+absolutely Natural. It is, perhaps, as much the virtue of a Spirit to be
+inconstant as of a poison to be sure, and therefore always impossible to
+weigh the elements of moral force in the balance of an apothecary.
+
+275. It is true that, in any abstract reflection on these things, one is
+instantly brought to pause by questions of the reasonableness, the
+necessity, or the expedient degree of miracle. Christ walks on the
+water, overcoming gravity to that extent. Why not have flown, and
+overcome it altogether? He feeds the multitude by breaking existent
+loaves; why not have commanded the stones into bread? Or, instead of
+miraculously feeding either an assembly or a nation, why not enable
+them, like Himself, miraculously to fast, for the needful time? And in
+generally admitting the theories of pastoral miracle the instant
+question submits itself,--Supposing a nation wisely obedient to divinely
+appointed ministers of a sensible Theocracy, how much would its
+government be miraculously assisted, and how many of its affairs brought
+to miraculous prosperity of issue? Would its enemies be destroyed by
+angels, and its food poured down upon it from the skies, or would the
+supernatural aid be limited to diminishing the numbers of its slain in
+battle,[177] or to conducting its merchant ships safely, or
+instantaneously, to the land whither they would go?
+
+But no progress can be made, and much may be prevented, in the
+examination of any really difficult human problem, by thus approaching
+it on the hypothetical side. Such approach is easy to the foolish,
+pleasant to the proud, and convenient to the malicious, but absolutely
+fruitless of practical result. Our modesty and wisdom consist alike in
+the simple registry of the facts cognizable by us, and our duty, in
+making active use of them for the present, without concerning ourselves
+as to the possibilities of the future. And the two main facts we have to
+deal with are that the historical record of miracle is always of
+inconstant power, and that our own actual energies are inconstant almost
+in exact proportion to their worthiness.
+
+276. First, I say, the history of miracle is of inconstant power. St.
+Paul raises Eutychus from death, and his garments effect miraculous
+cure; yet he leaves Trophimus sick at Miletum, recognizes only the mercy
+of God in the recovery of Epaphroditus, and, like any uninspired
+physician, recommends Timothy wine for his infirmities. And in the
+second place, our own energies are inconstant almost in proportion to
+their nobleness. We breathe with regularity, and can calculate upon the
+strength necessary for common tasks. But the record of our best work,
+and of our happiest moments, is always one of success which we did not
+expect, and of enthusiasm which we could not prolong.
+
+277. And therefore we can only look for an imperfect and interrupted,
+but may surely insist on an occasional, manifestation of miraculous
+credentials by every minister of religion. There is no practical
+difficulty in the discernment of marvel properly to be held superhuman.
+It is indeed frequently alleged by the admirers of scientific discovery
+that many things which were wonderful fifty years ago, have ceased to be
+so now; and I am perfectly ready to concede to them that what they now
+themselves imagine to be admirable, will not in the future be admired.
+But the petty sign, said to have been wrought by the augur Attus before
+Tarquin, would be as impressive at this instant as it was then; while
+the utmost achievements of recent scientific miracle have scarcely yet
+achieved the feeding of Lazarus their beggar, still less the
+resurrection of Lazarus their friend. Our Christian faith, at all
+events, stands or falls by this test. "These signs shall follow them
+that believe," are words which admit neither of qualification nor
+misunderstanding; and it is far less arrogant in any man to look for
+such Divine attestation of his authority as a teacher, than to claim,
+without it, any authority to teach. And assuredly it is no proof of any
+unfitness or unwisdom in such expectations, that, for the last thousand
+years, miraculous powers seem to have been withdrawn from, or at least
+indemonstrably possessed, by a Church which, having been again and again
+warned by its Master that Riches were deadly to Religion, and Love
+essential to it, has nevertheless made wealth the reward of Theological
+learning, and controversy its occupation. There are states of moral
+death no less amazing than physical resurrection; and a church which
+permits its clergy to preach what they have ceased to believe, and its
+people to trust what they refuse to obey, is perhaps more truly
+miraculous in impotence, than it would be miraculous in power, if it
+could move the fatal rocks of California to the Pole, and plant the
+sycamore and the vine between the ridges of the sea.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 174: _Contemporary Review_, March, 1873.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Read at the November meeting of the Metaphysical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 176: I quote from memory but am sure of the purport of the
+sentence, though not of its expression.]
+
+
+[Footnote 177: "And be it death proclaimed through our host to boast of
+this."--_Henry V._]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+AN OXFORD LECTURE.
+
+(_Nineteenth Century, January 1878._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+AN OXFORD LECTURE.[178]
+
+
+278. I am sure that all in this audience who were present yesterday at
+Dr. Acland's earnest and impressive lecture must have felt how deeply I
+should be moved by his closing reference to the friendship begun in our
+undergraduate days;--of which I will but say that, if it alone were all
+I owed to Oxford, the most gracious kindness of the Alma Mater would in
+that gift have been fulfilled to me.
+
+But his affectionate words, in their very modesty, as if even standing
+on the defense of his profession, the noblest of human occupations! and
+of his science--the most wonderful and awful of human intelligences!
+showed me that I had yet not wholly made clear to you the exactly
+limited measure in which I have ventured to dispute the fitness of
+method of study now assigned to you in this University.
+
+279. Of the dignity of physical science, and of the happiness of those
+who are devoted to it for the healing and the help of mankind, I never
+have meant to utter, and I do not think I _have_ uttered, one irreverent
+word. But against the curiosity of science, leading us to call virtually
+nothing gained but what is new discovery, and to despise every use of
+our knowledge in its acquisition; of the insolence of science, in
+claiming for itself a separate function of that human mind which in its
+perfection is one and indivisible, in the image of its Creator; and of
+the perversion of science, in hoping to discover by the analysis of
+death, what can only be discovered by the worship of life,--of these I
+have spoken, not only with sorrow, but with a fear which every day I
+perceive to be more surely grounded, that such labor, in effacing from
+within you the sense of the presence of God in the garden of the earth,
+may awaken within you the prevailing echo of the first voice of its
+Destroyer, "_Ye_ shall be as gods."
+
+280. To-day I have little enough time to conclude,--none to review--what
+I have endeavored thus to say; but one instance, given me directly in
+conversation after lecture, by one of yourselves, will enable me to
+explain to you precisely what I _mean_.
+
+After last lecture, in which you remember I challenged our physiologists
+to tell me how a bird flies, one of you, whose pardon, if he thinks it
+needful, I ask for this use of his most timely and illustrative
+statement, came to me, saying, "You know the way in which we are shown
+how a bird flies, is, that any one, a dove for instance, is given to us,
+plucked, and partly skinned, and incised at the insertion of the wing
+bone; and then, with a steel point, the ligament of the muscle at the
+shoulder is pulled up, and out, and made distinct from other ligaments,
+and we are told 'that is the way a bird flies,' and on that matter it is
+thought we have been told enough."
+
+I say that this instance given me was timely; I will say more--in the
+choice of this particular bird, providential. Let me take, in their
+order, the two subjects of inquiry and instruction, which are indeed
+offered to us in the aspect and form of that one living creature.
+
+281. Of the splendor of your own true life, you are told, in the words
+which, to-day, let me call, as your Fathers did, words of
+inspiration--"Yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove, that is covered
+with silver wings and her feathers with gold." Of the manifold iris of
+color in the dove's plumage, watched carefully in sunshine as the bird
+moves, I cannot hope to give you any conception by words; but that it is
+the most exquisite, in the modesty of its light, and in the myriad
+mingling of its hue, of all plumage, I may partly prove to you in this
+one fact, that out of all studies of color, the one which I would
+desire most to place within your reach in these schools, is Turner's
+drawing of a dove, done when he was in happy youth at Farnley. But of
+the causes of this color, and of the peculiar subtlety in its
+iridescence, nothing is told you in any scientific book I have ever seen
+on ornithology.
+
+282. Of the power of flight in these wings, and the tender purpose of
+their flight, you hear also in your Fathers' book. To the Church, flying
+from her enemies into desolate wilderness, there were indeed given two
+wings as of a great eagle. But the weary saint of God, looking forward
+to his home in calm of eternal peace, prays rather--"Oh that I had wings
+like a dove, for then should I flee away, and be at rest." And of these
+wings, and this mind of hers, this is what reverent science should teach
+you: first, with what parting of plume, and what soft pressure and
+rhythmic beating of divided air, she reaches that miraculous swiftness
+of undubious motion, compared with which the tempest is slow, and the
+arrow uncertain; and secondly, what clew there is, visible, or
+conceivable to thought of man, by which, to her living conscience and
+errorless pointing of magnetic soul, her distant home is felt afar
+beyond the horizon, and the straight path, through concealing clouds,
+and over trackless lands, made plain to her desire, and her duty, by the
+finger of God.
+
+283. And lastly, since in the tradition of the Old Covenant she was made
+the messenger of forgiveness to those eight souls saved through the
+baptism unto death, and in the Gospel of the New Covenant, under her
+image, was manifested the well-pleasing of God, in the fulfillment of
+all righteousness by His Son in the Baptism unto life,--surely alike all
+Christian people, old and young, should be taught to be gladdened by her
+sweet presence; and in every city and village in Christendom she should
+have such home as in Venice she has had for ages, and be, among the
+sculptured marbles of the temple, the sweetest sculpture; and,
+fluttering at your children's feet, their never-angered friend. And
+surely also, therefore, of the thousand evidences which any carefully
+thoughtful person may see, not only of the ministration of good, but of
+the deceiving and deadly power of the evil angels, there is no one more
+distinct in its gratuitous, and unreconcilable sin, than that this--of
+all the living creatures between earth and sky--should be the one chosen
+to amuse the apathy of our murderous idleness, with skill-less,
+effortless, merciless slaughter.
+
+284. I pass to the direct subject on which I have to speak finally
+to-day;--the reality of that ministration of the good angels, and of
+that real adversity of the principalities and powers of Satan, in which,
+without exception, all earnest Christians have believed, and the
+appearance of which, to the imagination of the greatest and holiest of
+them, has been the root, without exception, of all the greatest art
+produced by the human mind or hand in this world.
+
+That you have at present no art properly so called in England at
+all--whether of painting, sculpture, or architecture[179]--I, for one,
+do not care. In midst of Scottish Lothians, in the days of Scott, there
+was, by how much less art, by so much purer life, than in the midst of
+Italy in the days of Raphael. But that you should have lost, not only
+the skill of Art, but the simplicity of Faith and life, all in one, and
+not only here deface your ancient streets by the Ford of the waters of
+sacred learning, but also deface your ancient hills with guilt of
+mercenary desolation, driving their ancient shepherd life into exile,
+and diverting the waves of their streamlets into the cities which are
+the very centers of pollution, of avarice, and impiety: for this I _do_
+care,--for this you have blamed me for caring, instead of merely trying
+to teach you drawing. I have nevertheless yet done my best to show you
+what real drawing is; and must yet again bear your blame for trying to
+show you, through that, somewhat more.
+
+285. I was asked, as we came out of chapel this morning, by one of the
+Fellows of my college, to say a word to the Undergraduates, about
+Thirlmere. His request, being that of a faithful friend, came to enforce
+on me the connection between this form of spoliation of our native land
+of its running waters, and the gaining disbelief in the power of prayer
+over the distribution of the elements of our bread and water, in rain,
+and sunshine,--seedtime, and harvest. Respecting which, I must ask you
+to think with me to-day what is the meaning of the myth, if you call it
+so, of the great prophet of the Old Testament, who is to be again sent
+before the coming of the day of the Lord. For truly, you will find that
+if any part of your ancient faith be true, it is needful for every soul
+which is to take up its cross, with Christ, to be also first
+transfigured in the light of Christ,--talking with Moses and with Elias.
+
+The contest of Moses is with the temporal servitude,--of Elijah, with
+the spiritual servitude, of the people; and the war of Elijah is with
+their servitude essentially to two Gods, Baal, or the Sun God, in whose
+hand they thought was their life, and Baalzebub--the Fly God,--of
+Corruption, in whose hand they thought was the arbitration of death.
+
+The entire contest is summed in the first assertion by Elijah, of his
+authority as the Servant of God, over those elemental powers by which
+the heart of Man, whether Jew or heathen, was filled with food and
+gladness.
+
+And Elijah the Tishbite; who was of the inhabitants of Gilead, said unto
+Ahab, "As the Lord God of Israel liveth, before whom I stand, there
+shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word."
+
+286. Your modern philosophers have explained to you the absurdity of all
+that: you think? Of all the shallow follies of this age, that
+proclamation of the vanity of prayer for the sunshine and rain; and the
+cowardly equivocations, to meet it, of the clergy who never in their
+lives really prayed for anything, I think, excel. Do these modern
+scientific gentlemen fancy that nobody, before they were born, knew the
+laws of cloud and storm, or that the mighty human souls of former ages,
+who every one of them lived and died by prayer, and in it, did not know
+that in every petition framed on their lips they were asking for what
+was not only fore-ordained, but just as probably fore-_done_? or that
+the mother pausing to pray before she opens the letter from Alma or
+Balaclava, does not know that already he is saved for whom she prays, or
+already lies festering in his shroud? The whole confidence and glory of
+prayer is in its appeal to a Father who knows our necessities before we
+ask, who knows our thoughts before they rise in our hearts, and whose
+decrees, as unalterable in the eternal future as in the eternal past,
+yet in the close verity of visible fact, bend, like reeds, before the
+fore-ordained and faithful prayers of His children.
+
+287. Of Elijah's contest on Carmel with that Sun-power in which,
+literally, you again now are seeking your life, you know the story,
+however little you believe it. But of his contest with the Death-power,
+on the Hill of Samaria, you read less frequently, and more doubtfully.
+
+"Oh, thou Man of God, the King hath said, Come down. And Elijah answered
+and said, If I be a man of God, let fire come down from Heaven, and
+consume thee, and thy fifty."
+
+How monstrous, how revolting, cries your modern religionist, that a
+prophet of the Lord should invoke death on fifty men. And he sits
+himself, enjoying his muffin and _Times_, and contentedly allows the
+slaughter of fifty thousand men, so it be in the interests of England,
+and of his own stock on Exchange.
+
+But note Elijah's message. "Because thou hast sent to inquire of
+Baalzebub the God of Ekron, therefore, thou shalt not go down from the
+bed on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die."
+
+"Because thou hast sent to inquire:" he had not sent to _pray_ to the
+God of Ekron, only to _ask_ of him. The priests of Baal _prayed_ to
+Baal, but Ahaziah only _questions_ the fly-god.
+
+He does not pray "Let me recover," but he asks "_Shall_ I recover of
+this disease?"
+
+The scientific mind again, you perceive,--Sanitary investigation; by
+oracle of the God of Death. Whatever can be produced of disease, by
+flies, by aphides, by lice, by communication of corruption, shall not we
+moderns also wisely inquire, and so recover of our diseases?
+
+All which may, for aught I know, be well; and when I hear of the vine
+disease or potato disease being stayed, I will hope also that plague may
+be, or diphtheria, or aught else of human plague, by due sanitary
+measures.
+
+288. In the meantime, I see that the common cleanliness of the earth and
+its water is despised, as if _it_ were a plague; and after myself
+laboring for three years to purify and protect the source of the
+loveliest stream in the English midlands, the Wandel, I am finally
+beaten, because the road commissioners insist on carrying the road
+washings into it, at its source. But that's nothing. Two years ago, I
+went, for the first time since early youth, to see Scott's country by
+the shores of Yarrow, Teviot, and Gala waters. I will read you once
+again, though you will remember it, his description of one of those
+pools which you are about sanitarily to draw off into your
+engine-boilers, and then I will tell you what I saw myself in that
+sacred country.
+
+  Oft in my mind such thoughts awake,
+  By lone Saint Mary's silent lake;
+  Thou know'st it well,--nor fen, nor sedge,
+  Pollute the pure lake's crystal edge;
+  Abrupt and sheer, the mountains sink
+  At once upon the level brink;
+  And just a trace of silver sand
+  Marks where the water meets the land.
+
+  Far in the mirror, bright and blue,
+  Each hill's huge outline you may view;
+  Shaggy with heath, but lonely, bare,
+  Nor tree, nor bush, nor brake, is there,
+  Save where, of land, yon slender line
+  Bears thwart the lake the scatter'd pine.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  And silence aids--though the steep hills
+  Send to the lake a thousand rills
+  In summer tide, so soft they weep,
+  The sound but lulls the ear asleep;
+  Your horse's hoof-tread sounds too rude,
+  So stilly is the solitude.
+
+  Nought living meets the eye or ear,
+  But well I ween the dead are near;
+  For though, in feudal strife, a foe
+  Hath laid Our Lady's chapel low,
+  Yet still beneath the hallow'd soil,
+  The peasant rests him from his toil,
+  And, dying, bids his bones be laid,
+  Where erst his simple fathers pray'd.
+
+289. What I saw myself, in that fair country, of which the sight remains
+with me, I will next tell you. I saw the Teviot oozing, not flowing,
+between its wooded banks, a mere sluggish injection, among the filthy
+stones, of poisonous pools of scum-covered ink; and in front of Jedburgh
+Abbey, where the foaming river used to dash round the sweet ruins as if
+the rod of Moses had freshly cleft the rock for it, bare and foul
+nakedness of its bed, the whole stream carried to work in the mills, the
+dry stones and crags of it festering unseemly in the evening sun, and
+the carcass of a sheep, brought down in the last flood, lying there in
+the midst of the children at their play, literal and ghastly symbol, in
+the sweetest pastoral country in the world, of the lost sheep of the
+house of Israel.
+
+That is your symbol to-day, of the Lamb as it had been slain; and that
+the work of your prayerless science;--the issues, these, of your
+enlightened teaching, and of all the toils and the deaths of the
+Covenanters on those barren hills, of the prophetic martyrs here in your
+crossing streets, and of the highest, sincerest, simplest patriot of
+Catholic England, Sir Thomas More, within the walls of England's central
+Tower. So is ended, with prayer for the bread of this life, also the
+hope of the life that is to come. Yet I will take leave to show you the
+light of that hope, as it shone on, and guided, the children of the ages
+of faith.
+
+290. Of that legend of St. Ursula which I read to you so lately, you
+remember, I doubt not, that the one great meaning is the victory of her
+faith over all fears of death. It is the laying down of all the joy, of
+all the hope, nay of all the Love, of this life, in the eager
+apprehension of the rejoicing and the love of Eternity. What truth there
+was in such faith I dare not say that I know; but what manner of human
+souls it made, you may for yourselves _see_. Here are enough brought to
+you, of the thoughts of a believing people.[180] This maid in her purity
+is no fable; this is a Venetian maid, as she was seen in the earthly
+dawn, and breathed on by the breeze of her native sea. And here she is
+in her womanhood, in her courage and perfect peace, waiting for her
+death.
+
+I have sent for this drawing for you, from Sheffield, where it is to
+stay, they needing it more than you. It is the best of all that my
+friend did with me at Venice, for St. George, and with St. George's help
+and St. Ursula's. It shows you only a piece of the great picture of the
+martyrdom--nearly all have fallen around the maid, and she kneels with
+her two servant princesses, waiting for her own death. Faithful behind
+their mistress, they wait with her,--not feebler, but less raised in
+thought, as less conceiving their immortal destiny; the one, a gentle
+girl, conceiving not in her quiet heart any horror of death, bows her
+fair head towards the earth, almost with a smile; the other, fearful
+lest her faith should for an instant fail, bursts into passion of prayer
+through burning tears. St. Ursula kneels, as daily she knelt, before the
+altar, giving herself up to God forever.
+
+And so you see her, here in the days of childhood, and here in her
+sacred youth, and here in her perfect womanhood, and here borne to her
+grave.
+
+Such creatures as these _have_ lived--do live yet, thank God, in the
+faith of Christ.
+
+291. You hear it openly said that this, their faith, was a foolish
+dream. Do you choose to find out whether it was or not? You may if you
+will, but you can find it out in one way only.
+
+Take the dilemma in perfect simplicity. Either Christianity is true or
+not. Let us suppose it first one, then the other, and see what follows.
+
+Let it first be supposed untrue. Then rational investigation will in all
+probability discover that untruth; while, on the other hand, irrational
+submission to what we are told may lead us into any form of absurdity or
+insanity; and, as we read history, we shall find that this insanity has
+perverted, as in the Crusades, half the strength of Europe to its ruin,
+and been the source of manifold dissension and misery to society.
+
+Start with the supposition that Christianity is untrue, much more with
+the desire that it should be, and that is the conclusion at which you
+will certainly arrive.
+
+But, on the other hand, let us suppose that it is, or may be, true.
+Then, in order to find out whether it is or not, we must attend to what
+it says of itself. And its first saying is an order to adopt a certain
+line of conduct. _Do_ that first, and you shall know more. Its promise
+is of blessing and of teaching, more than tongue can utter, or mind
+conceive, if you choose to do this; and it refuses to teach or help you
+on any other terms than these.
+
+292. You may think it strange that such a trial is required of you.
+Surely the evidences of our future state might have been granted on
+other terms--nay, a plain account might have been given, with all
+mystery explained away in the clearest language. _Then_, we should have
+believed at once.
+
+Yes, but, as you see and hear, that, if it be our way, is not God's. He
+has chosen to grant knowledge of His truth to us on one condition and no
+other. If we refuse that condition, the rational evidence around us is
+all in proof of our death, and that proof is true, for God also tells
+us that in such refusal we shall die.
+
+You see, therefore, that in either case, be Christianity true or false,
+death is demonstrably certain to us in refusing it. As philosophers, we
+can expect only death, and as unbelievers, we are condemned to it.
+
+There is but one chance of life--in admitting so far the possibility of
+the Christian verity as to try it on its own terms. There is not the
+slightest possibility of finding out whether it be true, or not, first.
+
+"Show me a sign first and I will come," you say. "No," answers God.
+"Come first, then you shall see a sign."
+
+Hard, you think? You will find it is not so, on thinking more. For this,
+which you are commanded, is not a thing unreasonable in itself. So far
+from that, it is merely the wisest thing you could do for your own and
+for others' happiness, if there were no eternal truth to be discovered.
+
+You are called simply to be the servant of Christ, and of other men for
+His sake; that is to say, to hold your life and all its faculties as a
+means of service to your fellows. All you have to do is to be sure it
+_is_ the service you are doing them, and not the service you do
+yourself, which is uppermost in your minds.
+
+293. Now you continually hear appeals to you made in a vague way, which
+you don't know how far you can follow. You shall not say that, to-day; I
+both can and will tell you what Christianity requires of you in simplest
+terms.
+
+Read your Bible as you would any other book--with strictest criticism,
+frankly determining what you think beautiful, and what you think false
+or foolish. But be sure that you try accurately to understand it, and
+transfer its teaching to modern need by putting other names for those
+which have become superseded by time. For instance, in such a passage as
+that which follows and supports the "Lie not one to another" of
+Colossians iii.--"seeing that ye have put on the new man, which is
+renewed in knowledge after the spirit of Him that created him, where"
+(meaning in that great creation where) "there is neither Greek nor Jew,
+circumcision nor uncircumcision, barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free." In
+applying that verse to the conduct and speech of modern policy, it falls
+nearly dead, because we suffer ourselves to remain under a vague
+impression--vague, but practically paralyzing,--that though it was very
+necessary to speak the truth in the countries of Scythians and Jews,
+there is no objection to any quantity of lying in managing the affairs
+of Christendom. But now merely substitute modern for ancient names, and
+see what a difference it will make in the force and appeal of the
+passage, "Lie not one to another, brethren, seeing that ye have put off
+the old man, with his deeds, and have put on the new man, which is
+renewed to knowledge," [Greek: eis epignosin], according to the
+knowledge of Him that created him, in that great creation where there is
+neither Englishman nor German, baptism nor want of baptism, Turk nor
+Russian, slave nor free, but Christ is all, and in all.
+
+294. Read your Bible, then, making it the first morning business of your
+life to understand some piece of it clearly, and your daily business to
+obey of it all that you understand, beginning first with the most human
+and most dear obedience--to your father and mother. Doing all things as
+they would have you do, for the present: if they want you to be
+lawyers--be lawyers; if soldiers--soldiers; if to get on in the
+world--even to get money--do as they wish, and that cheerfully, after
+distinctly explaining to them in what points you wish otherwise. Theirs
+is for the present the voice of God to you.
+
+But, at the same time, be quite clear about your own purpose, and the
+carrying out of that so far as under the conditions of your life you
+can. And any of you who are happy enough to have wise parents will find
+them contented in seeing you do as I now tell you.
+
+295. First cultivate all your personal powers, not competitively, but
+patiently and usefully. You have no business to read in the long
+vacation. Come _here_ to make scholars of yourselves, and go to the
+mountains or the sea to make men of yourselves. Give at least a month in
+each year to rough sailor's work and sea fishing. Don't lounge and
+flirt on the beach, but make yourselves good seamen. Then, on the
+mountains, go and help the shepherd at his work, the wood-men at theirs,
+and learn to know the hills by night and day. If you are staying in
+level country, learn to plow, and whatever else you can that is useful.
+Then here in Oxford, read to the utmost of your power, and practice
+singing, fencing, wrestling, and riding. No rifle practice, and no
+racing--boat or other. Leave the river quiet for the naturalist, the
+angler, and the weary student like me.
+
+You may think all these matters of no consequence to your studies of art
+and divinity; and that I am merely crotchety and absurd. Well, that is
+the way the devil deceives you. It is not the sins which we _feel_
+sinful, by which he catches us; but the apparently healthy ones,--those
+which nevertheless waste the time, harden the heart, concentrate the
+passions on mean objects, and prevent the course of gentle and fruitful
+thought.
+
+296. Having thus cultivated, in the time of your studentship, your
+powers truly to the utmost, then, in your manhood, be resolved they
+shall be spent in the true service of men--not in being ministered unto,
+but in ministering. Begin with the simplest of all ministries--breaking
+of bread to the poor. Think first of that, not of your own pride,
+learning, comfort, prospects in life: nay, not now, once come to
+manhood, may even the obedience to parents check your own conscience of
+what is your Master's work. "Whoso loveth father and mother more than me
+is not worthy of me." Take the perfectly simple words of the Judgment,
+"Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of the least of these, ye did it unto
+me:" but you must _do_ it, not preach it. And you must not be resolved
+that it shall be done only in a gentlemanly manner. Your pride must be
+laid down, as your avarice, and your fear. Whether as fishermen on the
+sea, plowmen on the earth, laborers at the forge, or merchants at the
+shop-counter, you must break and distribute bread to the poor, set down
+in companies--for that also is literally told you--upon the green
+grass, not crushed in heaps under the pavement of cities. Take Christ at
+His literal word, and, so sure as His word is true, He will be known of
+you in breaking of bread. Refuse that servant's duty because it is
+plain,--seek either to serve God, or know Him, in any other way: your
+service will become mockery of Him, and your knowledge darkness. Every
+day your virtues will be used by the evil spirits to conceal, or to make
+respectable, national crime; every day your felicities will become baits
+for the iniquity of others; your heroisms, wreckers' beacons, betraying
+them to destruction; and before your own deceived eyes and wandering
+hearts every false meteor of knowledge will flash, and every perishing
+pleasure glow, to lure you into the gulf of your grave.
+
+297. But obey the word in its simplicity, in wholeness of purpose and
+with serenity of sacrifice, like this of the Venetian maids', and truly
+you shall receive sevenfold into your bosom in this present life, as in
+the world to come, life everlasting. All your knowledge will become to
+you clear and sure, all your footsteps safe; in the present brightness
+of domestic life you will foretaste the joy of Paradise, and to your
+children's children bequeath, not only noble fame, but endless virtue.
+"He shall give his angels charge over you to keep you in all your ways;
+and the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your
+hearts and minds through Christ Jesus."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 178: Left, at the Editor's request, with only some absolutely
+needful clearing of unintelligible sentences, as it was written for free
+delivery. It was the last of a course of twelve given this
+autumn;--refers partly to things already said, partly to drawings on the
+walls; and needs the reader's pardon throughout, for faults and
+abruptness incurable but by re-writing the whole as an essay instead of
+a lecture.--(_Nineteenth Century_, January, 1878.)]
+
+[Footnote 179: Of course, this statement is merely a generalization of
+many made in the preceding lectures, the tenor of which any readers
+acquainted with my recent writings may easily conceive.]
+
+[Footnote 180: The references were to the series of drawings lately
+made, in Venice, for the Oxford and Sheffield schools, from the works of
+Carpaccio, by Mr. Fairfax Murray.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's On the Old Road, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Ruskin
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