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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Society
+       Its Origin and Development
+
+Author: Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2007 [EBook #21609]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jeannie Howse and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                           SOCIETY
+
+                  ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+
+                              BY
+                  HENRY KALLOCH ROWE, Ph.D.
+
+    ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY IN NEWTON
+                   THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION
+
+
+
+                   CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+                  NEW YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON
+
+
+
+
+                     COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
+                   CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In studying biology it is convenient to make cross-sections of
+laboratory specimens in order to determine structure, and to watch
+plants and animals grow in order to determine function. There seems to
+be no good reason why social life should not be studied in the same
+way. To take a child in the home and watch it grow in the midst of the
+life of the family, the community, and the larger world, and to cut
+across group life so as to see its characteristics, its interests, and
+its organization, is to study sociology in the most natural way and to
+obtain the necessary data for generalization. To attempt to study
+sociological principles without this preliminary investigation is to
+confuse the student and leave him in a sea of vague abstractions.
+
+It is not because of a lack of appreciation of the abstract that the
+emphasis of this book is on the concrete. It is written as an
+introduction to the study of the principles of sociology, and it may
+well be used as a prelude to the various social sciences. It is
+natural that trained sociologists should prefer to discuss the
+profound problems of their science, and should plunge their pupils
+into material for study where they are soon beyond their depth; much
+of current life seems so obvious and so simple that it is easy to
+forget that the college man or woman has never looked upon it with a
+discriminating eye or with any attempt to understand its meaning. If
+this is true of the college student, it is unquestionably true of the
+men and women of the world. The writer believes that there is need of
+a simple, untechnical treatment of human society, and offers this book
+as a contribution to the practical side of social science. He writes
+with the undergraduate continually in mind, trying to see through his
+eyes and to think with his mind, and the references are to books that
+will best meet his needs and that are most readily accessible. It is
+expected that the pupil will read widely, and that the instructor will
+show how principles and laws are formulated from the multitude of
+observations of social phenomena. The last section of the book sums up
+briefly some of the scientific conclusions that are drawn from the
+concrete data, and prepares the way for a more detailed and technical
+study.
+
+If sociology is to have its rightful place in the world it must become
+a science for the people. It must not be permitted to remain the
+possession of an aristocracy of intellect. The heart of thousands of
+social workers who are trying to reform society and cure its ills is
+throbbing with sympathy and hope, but there is much waste of energy
+and misdirection of zeal because of a lack of understanding of the
+social life that they try to cure. They and the people to whom they
+minister need an interpretation of life in social terms that they can
+understand. Professional persons of all kinds need it. A world that is
+on the verge of despair because of the breakdown of harmonious human
+relations needs it to reassure itself of the value and the possibility
+of normal human relations. Doubtless the presentation of the subject
+is imperfect, but if it meets the need of those who find difficulty in
+using more technical discussions and opens up a new field of interest
+to many who hitherto have not known the difference between sociology
+and socialism, the effort at interpretation will have been worth
+while.
+
+                                                    HENRY K. ROWE
+
+  NEWTON CENTRE, MASSACHUSETTS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART ONE--INTRODUCTORY
+
+CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+      I. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL LIFE                         1
+
+     II. UNORGANIZED GROUP LIFE                                16
+
+
+PART TWO--LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP
+
+    III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE FAMILY                             24
+
+     IV. THE HISTORY OF THE FAMILY                             29
+
+      V. THE MAKING OF THE HOME                                37
+
+     VI. CHILDREN IN THE HOME                                  42
+
+    VII. WORK, PLAY, AND EDUCATION                             51
+
+   VIII. HOME ECONOMICS                                        60
+
+     IX. CHANGES IN THE FAMILY                                 67
+
+      X. DIVORCE                                               74
+
+     XI. THE SOCIAL EVIL                                       81
+
+    XII. CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES                        88
+
+
+PART THREE--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+   XIII. THE COMMUNITY AND ITS HISTORY                         91
+
+    XIV. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE                               99
+
+     XV. OCCUPATIONS                                          104
+
+    XVI. RECREATION                                           108
+
+   XVII. RURAL INSTITUTIONS                                   115
+
+  XVIII. RURAL EDUCATION                                      120
+
+    XIX. THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL                                 127
+
+     XX. RURAL GOVERNMENT                                     136
+
+    XXI. HEALTH AND BEAUTY                                    144
+
+   XXII. MORALS IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY                        151
+
+  XXIII. THE RURAL CHURCH                                     156
+
+   XXIV. A NEW TYPE OF RURAL INSTITUTION                      162
+
+
+PART FOUR--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY
+
+    XXV. FROM COUNTRY TO CITY                                 169
+
+   XXVI. THE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE                         180
+
+  XXVII. THE INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM                               186
+
+ XXVIII. EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION                          201
+
+   XXIX. THE PEOPLE WHO WORK                                  212
+
+    XXX. THE IMMIGRANT                                        221
+
+   XXXI. HOW THE WORKING PEOPLE LIVE                          230
+
+  XXXII. THE DIVERSIONS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE                 238
+
+ XXXIII. CRIME AND ITS CURE                                   248
+
+  XXXIV. AGENCIES OF CONTROL                                  256
+
+   XXXV. DIFFICULTIES OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORK                  263
+
+  XXXVI. CHARITY AND THE SETTLEMENTS                          271
+
+ XXXVII. EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES                                 280
+
+XXXVIII. THE CHURCH                                           287
+
+  XXXIX. THE CITY IN THE MAKING                               294
+
+
+PART FIVE--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION
+
+     XL. THE BUILDING OF A NATION                             300
+
+    XLI. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PEOPLE AS
+         A NATION                                             305
+
+   XLII. THE STATE                                            313
+
+  XLIII. PROBLEMS OF THE NATION                               324
+
+   XLIV. INTERNATIONALISM                                     333
+
+
+PART SIX--SOCIAL ANALYSIS
+
+    XLV. PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF
+         SOCIETY                                              340
+
+   XLVI. SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS                               348
+
+  XLVII. SOCIAL THEORIES                                      357
+
+ XLVIII. THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY                             364
+
+         INDEX                                                373
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SOCIETY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+PART I--INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL LIFE
+
+
+1. =Man and His Social Relations.=--A study of society starts with the
+obvious fact that human beings live together. The hermit is abnormal.
+However far back we go in the process of human evolution we find the
+existence of social relations, and sociability seems a quality
+ingrained in human nature. Every individual has his own personality
+that belongs to him apart from every other individual, but the
+perpetuation and development of that personality is dependent on
+relations with other personalities and with the physical environment
+which limits his activity.
+
+As an individual his primary interest is in self, but he finds by
+experience that he cannot be independent of others. His impulses, his
+feelings, and his ideas are due to the relations that he has with that
+which is outside of himself. He may exercise choice, but it is within
+the limits set by these outside relations. He may make use of what
+they can do for him or he may antagonize them, at least he cannot
+ignore them. Experience determines how the individual may best adapt
+himself to his environment and adapt the environment to his own needs,
+and he thus establishes certain definite relationships. Any group of
+individuals, who have thus consciously established relationships with
+one another and with their social environment is a society. The
+relations through whose channels the interplay of social forces is
+constantly going on make up the social organization. The
+readjustments of these relations for the better adaptation of one
+individual to another, or of either to their environment, make up the
+process of social development. A society which remains in equilibrium
+is termed static, that which is changing is called dynamic.
+
+2. =The Field and the Purpose of Sociology.=--Life in society is the
+subject matter of sociological study. Sociology is concerned with the
+origin and development of that life, with its present forms and
+activities, and with their future development. It finds its material
+in the every-day experiences of men, women, and children in whatever
+stage of progress they may be; but for practical purposes its chief
+interest is in the normal life of civilized communities, together with
+the past developments and future prospects of that life. The purpose
+of sociological study is to discover the active workings and
+controlling principles of life, its essential meaning, and its
+ultimate goal; then to apply the principles, laws, and ideals
+discovered to the imperfect social process that is now going on in the
+hope of social betterment.
+
+3. =Source Material for Study.=--The source material of social life
+lies all about us. For its past history we must explore the primitive
+conduct of human beings as we learn it from anthropology and
+archæology, or as we infer it from the lowest human races or from
+animal groups that bear the nearest physical and mental resemblance to
+mankind. For present phenomena we have only to look about us, and
+having seen to attempt their interpretation. Life is mirrored in the
+daily press. Pick up any newspaper and examine its contents. It
+reveals social characteristics both local and wide-spread.
+
+4. =Social Characteristics--Activity.=--The first fact that stands out
+clearly as a characteristic of social life is _activity_. Everybody
+seems to be doing something. There are a few among the population,
+like vagrants and the idle rich, who are parasites, but even they
+sustain relations to others that require a certain sort of effort.
+Activity seems fundamental. It needs but a hasty survey to show how
+general it is. Farmers are cultivating their broad acres, woodsmen are
+chopping and hewing in the forest, miners are drilling in underground
+chambers, and the products of farm, forest, and mine are finding their
+way by river, road, and rail to the great distributing centres. In the
+town the machinery of mill and factory keeps busy thousands of
+operatives, and turns out manufactured products to compete with the
+products of the soil for right of way to the cities of the New World
+and the Old. Busiest of all are the throngs that thread the streets of
+the great centres, and pour in and out of stores and offices. Men rush
+from one person to another, and interview one after another the
+business houses with which they maintain connection; women swarm about
+the counters of the department stores and find at the same time social
+satisfaction and pecuniary reward; children in hundreds pour into the
+intellectual hopper of the schoolroom and from there to the
+playground. Everybody is busy, and everybody is seeking personal
+profit and satisfaction.
+
+5. =Mental Activity.=--There is another kind of activity of which
+these economic and social phases are only the outward expression, an
+activity of the mind which is busy continually adjusting the needs of
+the individual or social organism and the environment to each other.
+Some acts are so instinctive or habitual that they do not require
+conscious mental effort; others are the result of reasoning as to this
+or that course of action. The impulse of the farmer may be to remain
+inactive, or the schoolboy may feel like going fishing; the call of
+nature stimulates the desire; but reason reaches out and takes control
+and directs outward activity into proper channels. On the other hand,
+reason fortifies worthy inclinations. The youth feels an inclination
+to stretch his muscles or to use his brains, and reason re-enforces
+feeling. The physical need of food, clothing, and shelter acts as a
+goad to drive a man to work, and reason sanctions his natural
+response. This mental activity guides not only individual human
+conduct but also that of the group. Instinct impels the man to defend
+his family from hardship or his clan from defeat, and reason confirms
+the impulse. His sociable disposition urges him to co-operate in
+industry, and reason sanctions his inclination. The history of society
+reveals an increasing influence of the intellect in thus directing
+instinct and feeling. It is a law of social activity that it tends to
+become more rational with the increase of education and experience.
+But it is never possible to determine the quantitative influence of
+the various factors that enter into a decision, or to estimate the
+relative pressure of the forces that urge to activity. Alike in mental
+and in physical activity there is a union of all the causative
+factors. In an act of the will impulse, feeling, and reflection all
+have their part; in physical activity it is difficult to determine how
+compelling is any one of the various forces, such as heredity and
+environment, that enter into the decision.
+
+6. =The Valuation of Social Activities.=--The importance to society of
+all these activities is not to be measured by their scope or by their
+vigor or volume, but by the efficiency with which they perform their
+function, and the value of the end they serve. Domestic activities,
+such as the care of children, may be restricted to the home, and a
+woman's career may seem to be blighted thereby, but no more important
+work can be accomplished than the proper training of the child.
+Political activity may be national in scope, but if it is vitiated by
+corrupt practices its value is greatly diminished. Certain activities
+carry with them no important results, because they have no definite
+function, but are sporadic and temporary, like the coming together of
+groups in the city streets, mingling in momentary excitement and
+dissolving as quickly.
+
+The true valuation of activities is to be determined by their social
+utility. The employment of working men in the brewing of beer or the
+manufacture of chewing-gum may give large returns to an individual or
+a corporation, but the social utility of such activity is small.
+Business enterprise is naturally self-centred; the first interest of
+every individual or group is self-preservation, and business must pay
+for itself and produce a surplus for its owner or it is not worth
+continuing from the economic standpoint; but a business enterprise
+has no right selfishly to disregard the interests of its employees and
+of the public. Its social value must be reckoned as small or great,
+not by the amount of business carried on, but by its contribution to
+human welfare.
+
+Take a department store as an illustration. It may be highly
+profitable to its owners, giving large returns on the investment,
+while distributing cheap and defective goods and paying its employees
+less than a decent living wage. Its value is to be determined as small
+because its social utility is of little worth. When the value of
+activity is estimated on this basis, it will be seen that among the
+noblest activities are those of the philanthropist who gives his time
+and interest without stint to the welfare of other folk; of the
+minister who lends himself to spiritual ministry, and the physician
+who gives up his own comfort and sometimes his own life to save those
+who are physically ill; of the housewife who bears and rears children
+and keeps the home as her willing contribution to the life of the
+world; and of the nurses, companions, and teachers who are mothers,
+sisters, and wives to those who need their help.
+
+7. =Results of Activity.=--The product of activity is achievement. The
+workers of the world are continually transforming energy into material
+products. To clear away a forest, to raise a thousand bushels of
+grain, to market a herd of cattle or a car-load of shoes, to build a
+sky-scraper or an ocean liner, is an achievement. But it is a greater
+achievement to take a child mind and educate it until it learns how to
+cultivate the soil profitably, how to make a machine or a building of
+practical value, and how to save and enrich life.
+
+The history of human folk shows that achievement has been gradual, and
+much of it without conscious planning, but the great inventors, the
+great architects, the great statesmen have been men of vision, and
+definite purpose is sure to fill a larger place in the story of
+achievement. Purposive progress rather than unconscious, telic rather
+than genetic, is the order of the evolution of society.
+
+The highest achievement of the race is its moral uplift. The man or
+woman who has a noble or kindly thought, who has consecrated life to
+unselfish ends and has spent constructive effort for the common good,
+is the true prince among men. He may be a leader upon whom the common
+people rely in time of stress, or only a private in the ranks--he is a
+hero, for his achievement is spiritual, and his mastery of the inner
+life is his supreme victory.
+
+8. =Association.=--A second characteristic of social life is that
+activity is not the activity of isolated individuals, but it is
+_activity in association_. Human beings work together, play together,
+talk together, worship together, fight together. If they happen to act
+alone, they are still closely related to one another. Examine the
+daily newspaper record and see how few items have to do with
+individuals acting in isolation. Even if a person sits down alone to
+think, his mind is working along the line on which it received the
+push of another mind shortly before. A large part of the work of the
+world is done in concert. The ship and the train have their crew, the
+factory its hands, the city police and fire departments their force.
+Men shout together on the ball field, and sing folk-songs in chorus.
+As an audience they listen to the play or the sermon, as a mob they
+rush the jail to lynch a prisoner, or as a crowd they riot in high
+carnival on Mardi Gras. The normal individual belongs to a family, a
+community, a political party, a nation; he may belong, besides, to a
+church, a few learned societies, a trade-union, or any number of clubs
+or fraternities.
+
+Human beings associate because they possess common interests and means
+of intercourse. They are affected by the same needs. They have the
+power to think in the same grooves and to feel a common sympathy.
+Members of the same race or community have a common fund of custom or
+tradition; they are conscious of like-mindedness in morals and
+religion; they are subject to the same kind of mental suggestion; they
+have their own peculiar language and literature. As communication
+between different parts of the world improves and ability to speak in
+different languages increases, there comes a better understanding
+among the world's peoples and an increase of mutual sympathy.
+
+Experience has taught the value of association. By it the individual
+makes friends, gains in knowledge, enlarges interests. Knowing this,
+he seeks acquaintances, friends, and companions. He finds the world
+richer because of family, community, and national life, and if
+necessary he is willing to sacrifice something of his own comfort and
+peace for the advantages that these associations will bring.
+
+9. =Causes of Association.=--It is the nature of human beings to enjoy
+company, to be curious about what they see and hear, to talk together,
+and to imitate one another. These traits appear in savages and even in
+animals, and they are not outgrown with advance in civilization. These
+inborn instincts are modified or re-enforced by the conscious workings
+of the mind, and are aided or restricted by external circumstances. It
+is a natural instinct for men to seek associates. They feel a liking
+for one and a dislike for another, and select their friends
+accordingly. But the choice of most men is within a restricted field,
+for their acquaintance is narrow. College men are thrown with a
+certain set or join a certain fraternity. They play on the same team
+or belong to the same class. They may have chosen their college, but
+within that institution their environment is limited. It is similar in
+the world at large. Individuals do not choose the environment in which
+at first they find themselves, and the majority cannot readily change
+their environment. Within its natural limits and the barriers which
+caste or custom have fixed, children form their play groups according
+to their liking for each other, and adults organize their societies
+according to their mutual interests or common beliefs. With increasing
+acquaintance and ease of communication and transportation there comes
+a wider range of choice, and environment is less controlling. The will
+of the individual becomes freer to choose friends and associates
+wherever he finds them. He may have widely scattered business and
+political connections. He may be a member of an international
+association. He may even take a wife from another city or a distant
+nation. Mental interaction flows in international channels.
+
+10. =Forms of Association.=--It is possible to classify all forms of
+association in two groups as natural, like a gang of boys, or
+artificial, like a political party. Or it is possible to arrange them
+according to the interests they serve, as economic, scientific, and
+the like. Again they may be classified according to thoroughness of
+organization, ranging from the crowd to the closely knit corporation.
+But whatever the form may be, the value of the association is to be
+judged according to the degree of social worth, as in the case of
+activities. On that basis a company of gladiators or a pugilist's club
+ranks below a village improvement society; that in turn yields in
+importance to a learned association of physicians discussing the best
+means of relieving human suffering. In the slow process of social
+evolution those forms that do not contribute to the welfare of the
+race will lose their place in society.
+
+11. =Results of Association.=--The results of association are among
+the permanent assets of the race. Man has become what he is because of
+his social relations, and further progress is dependent upon them. The
+arts that distinguish man from his inferiors are the products of
+inter-communication and co-operation. The art of conversation and the
+accompanying interchange of ideas and thought stimulus are to be
+numbered among the benefits. The art of conciliation that calms
+ruffled tempers and softens conflict belongs here. The art of
+co-operation, that great engine of achievement, depends on learning
+through social contact how to think and feel sympathetically. Finally,
+there is the product of social organization. Chance meetings and
+temporary assemblies are of small value, though they must be noted as
+phenomena of association. More important are the fixed institutions
+that have grown out of relations continually tested by experience
+until they have become sanctioned by society as indispensable. Such
+are the organized forms of business, education, government, and
+religion. But all groups require organization of a sort. The gang has
+its recognized leader, the club its officers and by-laws. Even such
+antisocial persons as outlaws frequently move in bands and have their
+chiefs. Organization goes far to determine success in war or
+politics, in work or play. Like achievement, organization is the
+result of a gradual growth in collective experience, and must be
+continually adapted to the changing requirements of successive periods
+by the wisdom of master minds. It must also gradually include larger
+groups within its scope until, like the International Young Men's
+Christian Association or the Universal Postal Union, it reaches out to
+the ends of the earth.
+
+12. =Control.=--The public mirror of the press reveals a third
+characteristic of social life. Activity and association are both under
+_control_. Activity would result in exploitation of the weak by the
+strong, and finally in anarchy, if there were no exercise of control.
+Under control activities are co-ordinated, individuals and classes are
+brought to work in co-operation and not in antagonism, and under an
+enlightened and sanctioned authority life becomes richer, fuller, and
+more truly free.
+
+Social control begins in the individual mind. Instincts and feelings
+are held in the leash of rational thought. Intelligence is the guide
+to action. Control is exerted externally upon the individual from
+early childhood. Parental authority checks the independence of the
+child and compels conformity to the will of his elders. Family
+tradition makes its power felt in many homes, and family pride is a
+compelling reason for moral rectitude. Every member of the family is
+restrained by the rights of the others, and often yields his own
+preferences for the common good. When the child goes out from the home
+he is still under restraint, and rigid regulations become even more
+pronounced. The rules of the schoolroom permit little freedom. The
+teacher's authority is absolute during the hours when school is in
+session. In the city when school hours are over there are municipal
+regulations enforced by watchful police that restrict the activity of
+a boy in the streets, and if he visits the playground he is still
+under the reign of law. Similarly the adult is hedged about by social
+control. Custom decrees that he must dress appropriately for the
+street, that he must pass to the right when he meets another person,
+and that he must raise his hat to an acquaintance of the opposite sex.
+The college youth finds it necessary to acquaint himself with the
+customs and traditions that have been handed down from class to class,
+and these must be observed under pain of ostracism. Faculty and
+trustees stand in the way of his unlimited enjoyment. His moral
+standards are affected by the atmosphere of the chapter house, the
+athletic field, and the examination hall. In business and civil
+relations men find themselves compelled to recognize laws that have
+been formulated for the public good. State and national governments
+have been able to assert successfully their right to control corporate
+action, however large and powerful the corporation might be. But
+government itself is subject to the will of the people in a democratic
+nation, and public opinion sways officials and determines local and
+national policies. Religious beliefs have the force of law upon whole
+peoples like the Mohammedans.
+
+Social control is exercised in large measure without the mailed fist.
+Moral suasion tends to supersede the birch stick and the policeman's
+billy. Within limits there is freedom of action, and the tacit appeal
+of society is to a man's self-control. But the newspaper with its
+sensation and police-court gossip never lets us forget that back of
+self-control is the court of judicial authority and the bar of public
+opinion.
+
+The result of the constant exercise of control is the existence of
+order. The normal individual becomes accustomed to restraint from his
+earliest years, and it is only the few who are disorderly in the
+schoolroom, on the streets, or in the broader relations of life.
+Criminals make up a small part of the population; anarchy never has
+appealed to many as a social philosophy; unconventional people are
+rare enough to attract special attention.
+
+13. =Change.=--A fourth characteristic of social life is _change_.
+Control tends to keep society static, but there are powerful dynamic
+forces that are continually upsetting the equilibrium. In spite of the
+natural conservatism of institutions and agencies of control, group
+life is as continually changing as the physical elements in nature.
+Continued observation recorded over a considerable period of time
+reveals changing habits, changing occupations, changing interests,
+even changing laws and governments. Inside the group individuals are
+continually readjusting their modes of thought and activity to one
+another, and between groups there is a similar adjustment of social
+habits. Without such change there can be no progress. War or other
+catastrophe suddenly alters wide human relations. External influences
+are constantly making their impression upon us, stimulating us to
+higher attainment or dragging us down to individual and group
+degeneration.
+
+14. =Causes of Change.=--The factors that enter into social life to
+produce change are numerous. Conflict of ideas among individuals and
+groups compels frequent readjustment of thought. The free expression
+of opinion in public debate and through the press is a powerful
+factor. Travel alters modes of conduct, and wholesale migration
+changes the characteristics of large groups of population. Family
+habits change with accumulation of wealth or removal from the farm to
+the city. The introduction of the telephone and the free mail delivery
+with its magazines and daily newspapers has altered currents of
+thought in the country. Summer visitors have introduced country and
+city to each other; the automobile has enlarged the horizon of
+thousands. New modes of agriculture have been adopted through the
+influence of a state agricultural college, new methods of education
+through a normal school, new methods of church work through a
+theological seminary. Whole peoples, as in China and Turkey, have been
+profoundly affected by forces that compelled change. Growth in
+population beyond comfortable means of subsistence has set tribes in
+motion; the need of wider markets has compelled nations to try
+forcible expansion into disputed areas. The desire for larger
+opportunities has sent millions of emigrants from Europe to America,
+and has been changing rapidly the complexion of the crowds that walk
+the city streets and enter the polling booths. Certain outstanding
+personalities have moulded life and thought through the centuries,
+and have profoundly changed whole regions of country. Mohammed and
+Confucius put their personal stamp upon the Orient; Cæsar and Napoleon
+made and remade western Europe; Adam Smith and Darwin swayed economic
+and scientific England; Washington and Lincoln were makers of America.
+
+Through such social processes as these--through unconscious
+suggestion, through communication and discussion that mould public
+opinion, through changes in environment and the influence of new
+leaders of thought and action--the evolution of folk life has carried
+whole races, sometimes to oblivion, but generally out of savagery and
+barbarism into a material and cultural civilization.
+
+15. =Results of the Process.=--The results of the process of social
+change are so far-reaching as to be almost incalculable. Particularly
+marked are the changes of the last hundred years. The best way to
+appreciate them is by a comparison of periods. Take college life in
+America as an example. Scores of colleges now large and prosperous
+were not then in existence, and even in the older colleges conditions
+were far inferior to what they are in the newer and smaller colleges
+to-day. There were few preparatory schools, and the young man--of
+course there were no college women--fitted himself as best he could by
+private instruction. To reach the college it was necessary to drive by
+stage or private conveyance to the college town, to find rooms in an
+ill-equipped dormitory or private house, to be content with plain food
+for the body and a narrow course of study for the mind. The method of
+instruction was tedious and uninspiring; text-books were unattractive
+and dull. There were no libraries worthy of the name, no laboratories
+or observatories for research. Scientific instruction was conspicuous
+by its absence; the social sciences were unknown. Gymnasiums had not
+been evolved from the college wood-pile; intercollegiate sports were
+unknown. Glee clubs, dramatic societies, college journalism, and the
+other arts and pastimes that give color and variety to modern
+university life were unknown.
+
+In the same period modes of thinking have changed. Scientific
+discoveries and the principles that have been based on them have
+wrought a revolution. Evolution has become a word to conjure with.
+Scholars think in terms of process. Biological investigation has opened
+wide the whole realm of life and emphasized the place of development in
+the physical organism. Psychological study has changed the basis of
+philosophy. Sociology has come with new interpretations of human life.
+Rapid changes are taking place at the present time in education, in
+religion, and in social adjustments. The rate of progress varies in
+different parts of the world; there are handicaps in the form of race
+conservatism, local and individual self-satisfaction and independence,
+maladjustments and isolation; sometimes the process leads along a
+downward path. On the whole, however, the history is a story of
+progress.
+
+16. =Weaknesses.=--In the thinking of not a few persons the handicaps
+that lie in the path of social development bulk larger than the
+engines of progress. They are pessimistic over the _weaknesses_ that
+constitute a fifth characteristic of social life. These are certainly
+not to be overlooked, but they are an inevitable result of incomplete
+adaptations during a constant process of change. There are numerous
+illustrations of weakness. Social activity is not always wisely
+directed. Association frequently develops antagonism instead of
+co-operation. In trade and industry individuals do not "play fair."
+Corporations are sometimes unjust. Politics are liable to become
+corrupt. In the various associations of home and community life
+indifference, cruelty, unchastity, and crime add to the burdens of
+poverty, disease, and wretchedness. A yellow press mirrors a
+scandalous amount of intrigue, immorality, and misdemeanor. Government
+abuses its power; public opinion is intolerant and unjust; fashion is
+tyrannical; law is uncompromising. In times like our own economic
+interests frequently overshadow cultural interests. In college
+estimation athletics appear to bulk larger than the curriculum. In the
+public mind prejudice and hasty judgments take precedence over
+carefully weighed opinions and judicial decisions. Conservatism blocks
+the wheels of progress, or radicalism, in its unbalanced enthusiasm,
+destroys by injudiciousness the good that has been gradually
+accumulating. The social machinery gets out of gear, or proves
+inefficient for the new burdens that frequently are imposed upon it.
+The social order is not perfect and needs occasional amendment.
+
+17. =Resultant Problems.=--These weaknesses precipitate specific
+social problems. Some of them are bound up in the family
+relationships, like the better regulation of marriage and divorce, the
+prevention of desertion, and the rights of women and children. Others
+are questions that relate to industry, such as the rights of employees
+with reference to wages and hours of labor, or the unhealthy
+conditions in which working people live and toil. Certain matters are
+issues in every community. It is not easy to decide what shall be done
+with the poor, the unfortunate, and the weak-willed members of
+society. Some problems are peculiar to the country, the city, or the
+nation, like the need of rural co-operation, the improvement of
+municipal efficiency, or the regulation of immigration. A few are
+international, like the scourge of war. Besides such specific problems
+there are always general issues demanding the attention of social
+thinkers and reformers, such as the adjustment of individual rights to
+social duties, and the improvement of moral and religious efficiency.
+
+18. =The Social Groups.=--A broad survey of the current life of
+society leads naturally to the questions: How is this social life
+organized? and How did it come to be? The answers to these questions
+appear in certain social groupings, each of which has a history and
+life of its own, but is only a segment of the whole circle of active
+association. These groupings include the family, the rural community,
+the city, and the nation. In the natural environment of the home
+social life finds its apprenticeship. When the child has become in a
+measure socialized, he enters into the larger relations of the
+neighborhood. Half the people of the United States live in country
+communities, but an increasing proportion of the population is found
+in the midst of the associations and activities of the larger civic
+community. All are citizens or wards of the nation, and have a part
+in the social life of America. Consciously or not they have still
+wider relations in a world life that is continually growing in social
+content. Each of these groups reveals the same fundamental
+characteristics, but each has its peculiar forms and its dominant
+energies; each has its perplexing problems and each its possibilities
+of greater good. Through the environment the forces of the mind are
+moulding a life that is gradually becoming more nearly like the social
+ideal.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 363-399.
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      237-240.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 58-73.
+
+  ROSS: _Social Control_, pages 49-61.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 182-255.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 271-282.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+UNORGANIZED GROUP LIFE
+
+
+19. =Temporary Groups.=--A study of the organization and development
+of social life is mainly a study of the mental and physical activities
+of individuals associated in permanent groups. Conditions change and
+there is a continual shifting of contacts as in a kaleidoscope, but
+the group is a fixed institution in the life of society. But besides
+the permanent groups there are temporary unorganized associations that
+have a place in social life too important to be overlooked. They vary
+in size from a chance meeting of two or three friends who stop on the
+street corner and separate after a few minutes of conversation, to the
+great mass-meeting, that is called for a special purpose and interests
+a whole neighborhood, but adjourns _sine die_. Such groups are subject
+to the same physical and psychic forces that affect the family, the
+community, and the nation, but they tend to act more on impulse,
+because there is no habitual subordination to an established rule or
+order. A simple illustration will show the influences that work to
+produce these temporary groupings and that govern conduct.
+
+20. =How the Group Forms.=--Imagine a working man on the morning of a
+holiday. Without a fixed purpose how he will spend the day, his mind
+works along the line of least resistance, inviting physical or mental
+stimulus, and sensitive to respond. He is not accustomed to remain at
+home, nor does he wish to be alone. He is used to the companionship of
+the factory, and instinctively he longs for the association of his
+kind. He is most likely to meet his acquaintances on the street, and
+he feels the pull of the out-of-doors. The influences of instinct and
+habit impel him to activity, and he makes a definite choice to leave
+the house. Once on the street he feels the zest of motion and the
+anticipation of the pleasure that he will find in the companionship
+of his fellows. Reason assures him from past experience that he has
+made a good choice, and on general principles asserts that exercise is
+good for him, whatever may be the social result of his stroll. Thus
+the various factors that produce individual activity are at work in
+him. They are similarly at work in others of his kind. Presently these
+factors will bring them together.
+
+Unconsciously the working man and his friend are moving toward each
+other. The attention and discrimination of each man is brought into
+play with every person that he meets, but there is no recognition of
+acquaintance until each comes within the range of vision of the other.
+They greet each other with a hail of good-fellowship and a cordial
+hand-shake and stop for conversation. An analysis of the psychological
+elements that enter into such an incident would make plain the part of
+sense-perception and memory, of feeling and volition in the act of
+each, but the significant fact in the incident is that these mental
+factors are set to work because of the contact of one mind upon the
+other. It is the mental interaction arising from the moment's
+association that produces the social phenomenon. What are the social
+phenomena of this particular occasion? They are the acts that have
+taken place because of association. The individual would not greet
+himself or shake hands with himself, or stop to talk with himself.
+They are dependent upon the presence of more than one person; they are
+phenomena of the group. Why do they shake hands and talk? First,
+because they feel alike and think alike, and sympathy and
+like-mindedness seek expression in gesture and language, and,
+secondly, because their mode of action is under the control of a
+social custom that directs specific acts. If the meeting was on the
+continent of Europe the men might embrace, if it was in the jungle of
+Africa they might raise a yell at sight of each other, but American
+custom limits the greeting to a hand-clasp, supplemented on occasion
+by a slap on the shoulder. In Italy the language used is peculiar to
+the race and is helped out by many gestures; in New England of the
+Puritans the language used would be of a type peculiar to itself, and
+would hardly have the assistance of a changing facial expression.
+To-day two men have formed a temporary group, group action has taken
+place, and the action, while impulsive, is under the constraint of
+present custom. What happens next?
+
+21. =The Working of the Social Mind.=--Conversation in the group
+develops a common purpose. The two men are conscious of common desires
+and interests, or through a conflict of ideas the will of one
+subordinates the will of the other, and under the control of the joint
+purpose, which is now the social mind, they move toward one goal. This
+goal soon appears to be the objective point of a larger social mind,
+for other men and boys are converging in the same direction. At the
+corner of another street the two companions meet other friends, and
+after a mutual greeting the augmented party finds its way to the
+entrance of a ball park. The same instincts and habits and the same
+feelings and thoughts have stirred in every member of the group; they
+have felt the pull of the same desires and interests; they have put
+themselves in motion toward the same goal; they have greeted one
+another in similar fashion, and they find satisfaction in talking
+together on a common topic; but they do not constitute a permanent or
+organized group, and once separated they may never repeat this chance
+meeting.
+
+22. =The Impulse of the Crowd.=--Once within the ball park and seated
+on the long benches they are part of a far larger group of like-minded
+human beings, and they feel a common thrill in anticipation of the
+pleasure of the sport. They feel the stimulus that comes from
+obedience to a common impulse. A shout or a joke arouses a sympathetic
+outburst from hundreds. When they came together at first most of them
+were strangers, but common interests and emotions have produced a
+group consciousness. The game is called, and hundreds in unison fix
+their attention on the men in action. A hit is made, in breathless
+suspense the crowd watches to see the result, and with a common
+impulse cries out simultaneously in approbation or disgust over the
+play. As the game proceeds primitive passions play over the crowd and
+emotions find free expression in the language that habit and custom
+provide. The crowd is in a state of high suggestibility; it responds
+to the stimulus of a chance remark, the misplay of a player, or the
+misjudgment of an umpire; one moment it is thrown into panic by the
+prospect of defeat, and the next into paroxysms of delight as the tide
+of victory turns. On sufficient provocation the crowd gets into
+motion, impelled by a common excitement to unreasoning action; it
+pours upon the field, and, unless prevented, wreaks its anger upon
+team or umpire that has aroused it to fury, but met with superior
+force the crowd melts away, dissolving into its smaller groups and
+then into its individual elements. A crowd of the sort described
+constitutes one type of the incomplete group. It is a chance assembly,
+moved by a common purpose but coalescing only temporarily, guided by
+elemental impulses, and readily breaking up without permanent
+achievement other than obtaining the recreation sought.
+
+23. =The Mass-Meeting.=--Another and more orderly type appears in a
+meeting of American residents in a foreign city to protest against an
+outrage to their flag or an injustice to one of their number. Those
+who assemble are not members of a definite organization with a regular
+machinery for action. They are, however, moved by common emotion and
+purpose, because they are conscious of a permanent bond that creates
+mutual sympathy. They are citizens of the same country. They are
+mindful of a national history that is their common heritage. They are
+proud of the position of eminence that belongs to the Western
+republic. There is a peculiar quality to the patriotism that they all
+feel and that calls out a unanimous expression. Their minds work
+alike, and they come together to give expression to their feelings and
+convictions. They are under the direction of a presiding officer and
+the procedure of the meeting is according to the parliamentary rules
+that guide civilized assemblies. However urgent of purpose, the
+speakers hold themselves in leash, and the listeners content
+themselves with conventional applause when their enthusiasm is
+aroused. After a reasonable amount of discussion has taken place, the
+assembly crystallizes its opinions in the form of resolutions couched
+in earnest but dignified language and disperses to await the action of
+those in authority.
+
+24. =International Association.=--Still another type is the incomplete
+group that is composed of men and women of similar moral or religious
+convictions who never assemble in one place, but constitute a certain
+kind of association. Kipling could sing,
+
+    "The East is East and the West is West
+    And never the twain shall meet,"
+
+yet through missionary efforts people of very different races and
+habits of living and thinking have been brought to cherish the same
+beliefs and to adopt similar customs. Thousands of such people in all
+parts of the world constitute a unified group because of their mental
+interaction, though they may never meet and are not organized in
+common. The only medium through which one section has influenced
+another may be a single missionary or book, but the electric current
+of sympathy passes from one to another as effectively as the wireless
+carries a message across leagues of space. In the same way sentiment
+and opinion spread and reproduce themselves, even through long periods
+of time. Before the middle of the nineteenth century Chinese sentiment
+was so strong against the importation of opium from India that war
+broke out with England, with the result that the curse was fastened
+upon the Orient. The evil increased, spreading through many countries.
+Meantime international fortunes brought the United States to the
+Philippines and trade carried opium to the United States. Foreigners
+in China combated the evil. The nation took a determined stand, and
+finally, through international agreement under American leadership,
+the trade and the consumption of opium were checked. Similarly slavery
+was put under the opprobrium of Christendom, public opinion in one
+nation after another was formed against it, laws were passed
+condemning it, and at last it received an international ban. At the
+present time, through agitation and conference, a world sentiment
+against war is increasing, and pacifists in every land constitute an
+expanding group of like-minded men and women who are determined that
+wars shall cease in the future. These are all examples of unorganized
+associations or incomplete groups.
+
+25. =Experiments in Association.=--In the history of human kind
+numerous experiments in association have been made; those which have
+served well in the competition between groups have survived, and have
+tended to become permanent types of association, receiving the
+sanction of society, and so to be reckoned as social institutions;
+others have been thrown on the rubbish heap as worthless. It is
+generally believed, for example, that many related families in
+primitive times associated in a loosely connected horde, but the horde
+could not compete successfully with an organized state and gave way
+before it. The local community in New England once carried on its
+affairs satisfactorily in yearly mass-meeting, where every citizen had
+an equal privilege of speaking and voting directly upon a proposed
+measure, but there proved to be a limit to the efficiency of such
+government when the population increased, so that a meeting of all the
+citizens was impossible, and a constitutional assembly of
+representative citizens was devised. Similarly national governments
+have been organized for greater efficiency and machinery is being
+invented frequently to increase their value.
+
+26. =Kinds of Unorganized Groups.=--Unorganized groups are of three
+kinds: There are first the normal groups that are continually being
+formed and dissolved, but that perform a useful function while they
+exist. Such are the chance meetings and conversations of friends in
+all walks of life, and the crowds that gather occasionally to help
+forward a good cause. They promote general intelligence, provide a
+free exchange of ideas, and help to form a body of public opinion for
+social guidance. There is often an open-mindedness among the common
+people that is not vitiated by the grip of vested interests upon their
+unwarped judgments, and the people can be trusted in the long run to
+make good. Democracy is based upon the reliability of public opinion.
+
+The second kind of unorganized group is one that is on the way to
+becoming a permanent group sanctioned by society. A group of this type
+is the boy's gang. By most persons the spontaneous association of a
+dozen boys who live near together and range over a certain district
+has been condemned as a social evil; recently it has become recognized
+as a normal group, forming naturally at a certain period of boy life
+and falling to pieces of its own accord a few years later. The
+tendency of boy leaders is not only to give it recognition as
+legitimate, but to use the gang instinct to promote definite
+organizations of greater value to their members and to the community.
+Another group of the same type is a so-called "movement," composed of
+a few individuals who associate themselves in a loose way to further a
+definite purpose, like the promotion of temperance, hold
+mass-meetings, and create public opinion, but do not at once proceed
+to a permanent organization. Eventually, when the movement has
+gathered sufficient headway or has shown that it is permanently
+valuable, a fixed organization may be accomplished.
+
+The third kind of unorganized group is an abnormality in the midst of
+civilization, a relic of the primitive days when impulse rather than
+reason swayed the mind of a group. Such is the crowd that gathers in a
+moment of excitement and yields to a momentary passion to lynch a
+prisoner, or a revolutionary mob that loots and burns out of a sheer
+desire for destruction. Such a group has not even the value of a
+safety-valve, for its passion gathers momentum as it goes, and, like a
+conflagration, it cannot be stopped until it has burned itself out or
+met a solid wall of military authority.
+
+27. =The Popular Crowd vs. the Organized Group.=--In the routine life
+of a disciplined society there is always to be found at least one of
+these types. Even the abnormal type of the passionate crowd is not
+unusual in its milder form. Any unusual event like a fire or a circus
+will draw scores and hundreds together, and the crowd is always liable
+to fall into disorder unless officers of the law are in attendance.
+This is so well understood that the police are always in evidence
+where there are large congregations of people at church or theatre,
+where a prominent man is to be seen or a procession is to pass. But
+the popular mass is a volatile thing, and in proportion to its size it
+expends little useful energy. It is never to be reckoned as equal in
+importance to the organized company, however small it may be, that has
+a definite purpose guiding its regular action, and that persists in
+its purpose for years together. It is the fixed group, the social
+institution, that does the work of the world and carries society
+forward from lower to higher levels of civilization. Social efficiency
+belongs to the organized type.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 149-156.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Elements of Sociology_, pages 129-140.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 120-138.
+
+  ROSS: _Social Psychology_, pages 43-82.
+
+  MÜNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pages 269-273.
+
+  DAVENPORT: _Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals_, pages 25-31.
+
+
+
+
+PART II--LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FOUNDATIONS OF THE FAMILY
+
+
+28. =The Fundamental Importance of the Family.=--Social life can be
+understood best by taking the simplest organized group of human beings
+and analyzing its activities, its organization, and its development.
+The family is such a group and is, therefore, a natural basis for
+study. It illustrates most of the phases of social activity, it is
+simple in its organization, its history goes back to primitive times,
+and it is rapidly changing in the present. Family life is made up of
+the interactions of individual life, and, therefore, the individual in
+his social relations and not the family is the unit of sociological
+investigation, but until recent years the family group has been
+regarded as of greater importance than the individual, and in the
+Orient the family still occupies the place of importance. Out of the
+family have developed such institutions as property, law, and
+government, and on the maintenance of the family rests the future
+welfare of society. It has been claimed that "the study of the single
+family on its homestead would yield richer scientific knowledge and
+more practical results in the great social sciences than almost any
+other single object in the social world. Pursued historically, the
+student would find himself at the roots of property, separate
+ownership of land, inheritance, taxation, free trade and tariff, and
+discover the germs of international law and the state. The great
+questions of the day, as we call them, are little more than incidents
+to the working out of the great social institutions, and these are the
+expansions and modified forms of the family amid its unceasing support
+and activity."
+
+29. =The Family on the Farm.=--The best environment in which to study
+the family is the farm. There the relations and activities of the
+larger world appear in miniature, but with a greater simplicity and
+unity than elsewhere. There the family gets closer to the soil, and
+its members feel their relation to nature and the restrictions that
+nature imposes upon human activity. There appear the occupations of
+the successive stages of history--hunting, the care of domesticated
+animals, agriculture, and manufacturing; there are the activities of
+production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods. There a
+consciousness of mutual dependence is developed, and the value of
+co-operation is illustrated. There the mind ranges less fettered than
+in the town, yet is less inclined toward radical changes. There the
+family preserves and hands down from one generation to another the
+heritage of the past, and stimulates its members to further progress.
+In the family on the farm children learn how to live in association
+with their kin and with hired employees; there much of the mental,
+moral, and religious training is begun; and there is found most of the
+sympathy and encouragement that nerves the boy to go out from home for
+the struggle of life in the larger community and the world.
+
+30. =Physical Conditions of Farm Life.=--Every group, like every
+individual, is dependent in a measure on its physical environment. The
+prosperity of the family on the farm and the daily activities of its
+members wait often upon the quality of climate and soil and the temper
+of the weather. The rocky hillsides of mountain lands like Switzerland
+breed a hardy, self-reliant people, who make the most of small
+opportunities for agriculture. A well-watered, rolling country pours
+its riches into the lap of the husbandman; in such surroundings he is
+likely to be more cheerful but less gritty than the Scottish
+highlander. The pioneer settlers of America, in their trek into the
+ulterior, faced the forest and its terrors, and every member of the
+family who was old enough added his ounce of effort to the struggle to
+subdue it. Their descendants enjoy the fruits of the earlier victory.
+The well-trimmed woodland and fertile field are attractive to him;
+nature in varying moods interests him. Even on the edge of the Western
+desert the farmer is the master of a process of dry farming or
+irrigation, so that he can smile at nature's effort to drive him out.
+Science and education have helped to make man more independent of
+natural forces and natural moods, but still it is nature that provides
+the raw materials, that supplies the energy of wind and water and
+sunshine, and that hastens prosperity if man learns to co-operate with
+it. Success in the economic struggle of the family has always been
+conditioned upon the physical environment, and it will always remain
+one of the factors that shape human destiny.
+
+31. =Inheritance of Family Traits.=--Another factor that enters into
+family life is the physical nature of its members, the quality of the
+stock from which the family is descended. Heredity is as important in
+sociological study as environment. It is well known that a child
+inherits racial and family traits from his ancestors, and these he
+cannot shake off altogether as he grows older. Families have their
+peculiarities that continue from one generation to another. The family
+endowment is often the foundation of individual success. Without
+physical sturdiness the man and woman on the farm are seriously
+handicapped and are liable to succumb in the struggle for existence;
+without mental ability and moral stamina members of the family fail to
+make a broad mark on the community, and the family influence declines.
+Mere acquisition or transmission of wealth does not constitute good
+fortune. This fact of heredity must therefore be reckoned with in all
+the activities of the family, and cannot be overlooked in a study of
+the psychic factors which are the real social forces.
+
+32. =The Domestic Function of the Family.=--The farm family for the
+purpose of study may be thought of as composed of husband and wife,
+children and servants, but the makers of the family are of first
+importance for its understanding. The family has a long history, but
+it exists, not because it is a long-established institution, but
+because it satisfies present human needs, as all institutions must if
+they are to survive. The family serves many ends, but as the primary
+social instincts are to mate and to eat, so the principal functions of
+the family are the _domestic_ and the _economic_. The normal adult
+desires to mate, to have and rear children, and to make a home. To
+this his sexual and parental instincts impel him; they are nature's
+provision for the perpetuation of the race. The sex instinct attracts
+the man and the woman to each other, and marriage is the sanction of
+society to their union; the parental instinct gives birth to children
+and leads the father and mother to protect the child through the long
+years of dependence. Marriage and parenthood are twin obligations that
+the individual owes to the race. Celibacy makes no contribution to the
+perpetuation of the race, and unregulated sexual intercourse is a
+blight upon society. Marriage lays the foundation of the home and
+makes possible the values that belong to that institution. Children
+hold the family together; separation and divorce are most common in
+childless homes. Personal service and sacrifice are engendered in the
+care of children; therefore it is that the family without children is
+not a perfect family, but an abnormality as a social institution. For
+these reasons custom and law protect the home, and religion declares
+marriage a sacred bond and reproduction a sacred function.
+
+It is the long experience of the race that has made plain the
+fundamental importance of the marriage relation, and history shows how
+step by step man and woman have struggled toward higher standards of
+mutual appreciation and co-operation. From past history and present
+tendencies it is possible to determine values and weaknesses and to
+point out dangers and possibilities. As the family group is
+fundamental to an understanding of the community, so the relation of
+man and woman are essential to a comprehension of the complete family,
+and investigation of their relations must precede a study of the
+social development of the child in the home, or of the economic
+relations of the farmer and his assistants. Nothing more clearly
+illustrates the factors that enter into all human relations than the
+story of how the family came to be.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 62-70.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, 1913 edition,
+      pages 74-82.
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 241-259.
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 1-11.
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: "Rural Life and the Family," _American Journal of
+      Sociology_, vol. 14, pages 721-725.
+
+  HENDERSON: "Are Modern Industry and City Life Unfavorable to the
+      Family?" _American Journal of Sociology_, vol. 14, pages
+      668-675.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE FAMILY
+
+
+33. =How the Family Came to Be.=--The modern family among civilized
+peoples is based almost universally on the union of one man and one
+woman. There is good reason to believe that this practice of monogamy
+was in vogue among primitive human beings, but marriage was unstable
+and it was only through long experimentation that monogamy proved
+itself best fitted to survive. At first conjugal affection, which has
+become intelligent and moral, was merely a sexual desire that led the
+man to seek a mate and the maid to choose among her suitors. Unbound
+by long-continued custom or legal and ceremonial restriction, the
+primitive couple were free to separate if they pleased, but the
+instinctive feeling that they belonged to each other, the habits of
+association, adaptation, and co-operation, and jealousy at any
+attention shown by another tended to preserve the relationship. The
+presence of offspring sealed the bond as long as the children were
+dependent, and strengthened the sense of mutual responsibility. The
+children were peculiarly the mother's children since she gave them
+birth, but the father instinctively protected the family that was
+growing up around him, and procured food and shelter for its members,
+though it is doubtful if he had any realization of his part in giving
+life to a new generation.
+
+During this period of social development, when the mother's presence
+constituted the home and the children were regarded as belonging
+primarily to her, descent was reckoned in the female line, the
+children were attached to the maternal clan of blood relatives, and
+such relatives began to move in bands, for the same reason that
+animals move in packs and herds. Some writers speak of it as a
+matriarchal period, but it does not appear that women governed; it is
+more proper to speak of the family as metronymic, for the children
+bore the mother's name and maternity outweighed paternity in social
+estimate.
+
+34. =The Patriarchal Household.=--When population increased and food
+consequently became more difficult to obtain, the domestication of
+animals was achieved, and nomadic habits carried the family from
+pasture to pasture; rival clans wanted the same regions, wars broke
+out, and physical superiority asserted its claims. The man supplanted
+the woman as the important member of the household, reduced the others
+to submission, added to his wives and servants by capture or purchase,
+and established the patriarchal system. Descent henceforth was
+reckoned in the paternal line, and society had become patronymic
+instead of metronymic. It must not be supposed that this change
+occurred very suddenly. It may have taken many centuries to bring it
+about, but as the man learned his part in procreation and his power in
+society, he delighted in his self-importance to lord it over the woman
+and her children. The marriage relation ceased to be free and
+reciprocal. The wife no longer had a choice in marriage. Bought or
+captured, she was no longer wooed for a companion, but was valued
+according to her economic worth. As population pressed, the
+domestication of plants followed the taming of animals, but the
+agricultural settlement of the family only made the woman's lot
+harder, for she was the burden bearer on the farm.
+
+35. =Polygyny.=--a better term than polygamy--was the inevitable
+result of the patriarchal system. Man made the law and the law
+recognized no restraint upon his sexual and parental instincts.
+Improvements in living added to the resources of the family and made
+it possible to maintain large households of wives, children, and
+slaves. Polygyny had some social utility, because it increased the
+number of children, and this gave added prestige and power to the
+family, as slavery had utility because it provided a labor force; but
+both were weaknesses in ancient society, because they did not tend in
+the long run to human welfare. Polygyny brutalized men, degraded
+women, and destroyed that affection and comradeship between parents
+and their offspring that are the proper heritage of children. Wherever
+it has survived as a system, polygyny has hindered progress, and
+wherever it exists in the midst of monogamy it tends to break down
+civilization.
+
+Another variety of marriage that has been less common than polygyny is
+polyandry. It is a term that signifies the marriage of one woman to
+several husbands, and seems to have occurred, as in the interior of
+Asia, only where subsistence was especially difficult or women
+comparatively few. Neither polygyny nor polyandry were universal, even
+where they were a frequent practice. Only the few could afford the
+indulgence, much the largest percentage of the people remained
+monogamous.
+
+36. =Conflict and Social Selection.=--The supreme business of the
+social group is to adapt itself to the conditions that affect its
+life. It must learn to get on with its physical environment and with
+other social groups with which it comes into relation. The methods of
+adaptation are conflict and co-operation. The primitive savage and his
+wife learned to work together, and his family and hers very likely
+kept the peace, until through the increase of population they felt the
+pinch of hunger when the supply did not equal the demand. Then came
+conflict. Conflict is an essential element in all progress. There is
+conflict between the lower and higher impulses in the human mind,
+conflict between selfish ambition and the welfare of the group,
+conflict among individuals and races for a place in the sun. It is
+conceivable that the baser impulses that provoke much social conflict
+may give way to more rational and altruistic purpose, but it is
+difficult to see how all friction can be avoided in social relations.
+It is certainly to be reckoned with in the history of group life.
+
+The story of human progress shows that in the social conflict those
+groups survive which have become best adapted to life conditions and
+so are fitted to cope with their enemies. In the story of the family
+male leadership proved most useful and was perpetuated, but the
+practice of polygyny and polyandry proved in the long run to be
+hurtful to success in the sturdy struggle for existence.
+
+37. =Ancestor-Worship.=--When a practice or institution is seen to
+work well it soon becomes indorsed by social custom, law, or religion.
+The patriarchal system became fortified by ancestor-worship, which
+helped to keep the family subordinate to its male head. Even the dead
+hand of the patriarch ruled. The paternal ancestors of the family were
+believed to have the power to bless or curse their descendants, and
+they were faithfully placated with gifts and veneration, as has
+continued to be the custom in China. Among the Romans the household
+gods were cherished at the hearth long before Jupiter became king of
+heaven; Æneas must save his ancestral-images if he lost all else in
+the fall of Troy. At Rome the worship of a common ancestor was the
+strongest family bond. The marriage ceremony consisted of a solemn
+transfer of the bride from her duties to her own ancestors over to the
+adoption of her husband's gods. This transfer of allegiance helped to
+perpetuate the patriarchal system, and the sanction of religion
+greatly strengthened the wedded relation, so that divorce and polygyny
+were unknown in the old Roman period. But the absolute patriarchal
+control of wife and children made the man selfish and arbitrary and
+weakened the bond of affection and mutual interests, while Roman
+political conquest strengthened the pride and power of the imperial
+masters. Religion lost its prestige and the family bond loosened,
+until from being one of the purest of social institutions in the early
+days of the republic, the Roman family became one of the most
+degenerate. This boded ill for the future of the race and empire.
+
+38. =The Mediæval Family.=--The Roman family seemed in danger of
+disintegrating, for the matron claimed rights that ran counter to the
+rights of the man, when two new forces entered Roman society and
+checked this tendency toward disintegration. The first was
+Christianity, the second was Teutonic conquest. Christianity taught
+consideration for women and children, but it taught submission to the
+man in the home, and so was a constructive force in the conservation
+of the family. Teutonic custom was similar to the early Roman. When
+Teutonic enterprise pushed a new race over the goal of race conflict
+and took in charge the administration of affairs in Roman society,
+there was a restoration of the rule of force and so of masculine
+supremacy. In the lord's castle and the peasant's hut the authority of
+the man continued unquestioned through the Middle Ages, and the church
+made monogamous marriage a binding sacrament; but sexual infidelity
+was common, especially of the husband, and divorce was not unknown. In
+the civilized lands of Christendom monogamy was the only form of
+marriage recognized by civil law, and with the slow growth toward
+higher standards of civilization the harshness of patriarchal custom
+has become softened and the rights of women and children have been
+increased by law, though not without endangering the solidarity of the
+family. Similarly, the standards of sex conduct have improved.
+
+39. =Advantages of Monogamy.=--The advantages of monogamy are so many
+that in spite of the present restiveness under restraint it seems
+certain to become the permanent and universal type as reason asserts
+its right and controls impulse. Nature seems to have predetermined it
+by maintaining approximately an equal number of the sexes, and nature
+frowns upon promiscuity by penalizing it with sterility and neglect of
+the few children that are born, so that in the struggle for existence
+the fittest survive by a process of natural selection. A study of
+biology and anthropology gives added evidence that nature favors
+monogamy, for in the highest grade of animals below man the monogamic
+relation holds almost without exception, and low-grade human races
+follow the same practice.
+
+There are moral advantages in monogamy that alone are sufficient to
+insure its permanence. It is to the advantage of society that
+altruistic and kindly feelings should outweigh jealousy, anger, and
+selfishness. Monogamy encourages affection and mutual consideration,
+and in that atmosphere children learn the graces and virtues that make
+social life wholesome and attractive. Welcomed in the home, they
+receive the care and instruction of both parents and become socialized
+for the larger and later responsibilities of the social order. In the
+altruism thus developed lie the roots of morals and religion. It is
+well agreed that the essence of each is the right motive to conduct.
+Love to men and to God is an accepted definition of religion, and
+ethics is grounded on that principle. Love is the ruling principle of
+the monogamic family; from the narrower domestic circle it extends to
+the community and to all mankind.
+
+40. =Marriage Laws.=--In spite of the general practice of monogamy as
+a form of marriage and the noble principles that underlie the
+monogamic type of family, sex relations need the restraint of law.
+Human desires are selfish and ideals too often give way before them
+unless there is some kind of external control. There have been times
+when the church had such control, and in certain countries individual
+rulers have determined the law; but since the eighteenth century there
+has been a steady trend in the direction of popular control of all
+social relations. This tendency has been carried farthest in the
+United States, where public opinion voices its convictions and compels
+legislative action. It is natural that the people of certain States
+should be more progressive or radical than others, and therefore in
+the absence of a national law, there is considerable variety in the
+marriage and divorce laws, but no other country has higher ideals of
+the married relation and at the same time as large a measure of
+freedom.
+
+At present marriage laws in the United States agree generally on the
+following provisions:
+
+(1) Every marriage must be licensed by the State and the act of
+marriage must be reported to the State and registered.
+
+(2) Marriage is not legal below a certain age, and consent of parents
+must be obtained usually until the man is twenty-one and the woman
+eighteen.
+
+(3) Certain persons are forbidden marriage because of near
+relationship or personal defect. Such marriage if performed may be
+annulled.
+
+(4) Remarriage may take place after the death of husband or wife,
+after disappearance for a period varying from three to seven years, or
+a certain time after divorce.
+
+In the twenty-year period between 1886 and 1906 covered by the United
+States Census of Marriage and Divorce slow improvements were made in
+legislation, but a number of States are far behind others in the
+enactment of suitable laws, and most of the States do not make the
+provisions that are desirable for law enforcement. Yet there is a
+limit of strictness beyond which marriage laws cannot safely go,
+because they hinder marriage and provoke illicit relations. That limit
+is fixed by the sanction of public opinion. After all, there is less
+need of better regulation than of the education of public opinion to
+the sacredness of marriage and to its importance for human welfare.
+Without the restraints put upon impulse by the education of the
+understanding and the will, young people often assume family
+obligations thoughtlessly and even flippantly, when they are ill-mated
+and often unacquainted with each other's characteristic qualities.
+Such marriages usually bring distress and divorce instead of growing
+affection and unity. Without education in the obligation of marriage
+many well-qualified persons delay it or avoid it altogether, because
+they are unwilling to bear the burdens of family support,
+childbearing, and housekeeping. Society suffers loss in both cases.
+
+41. =Reforms and Ideals.=--Because of all these deficiencies several
+remedies have been proposed and certain of them adopted. Because of
+the economic difficulties, it is urged that as far as possible by
+legislation, illegitimate ways of heaping up wealth for the few at the
+expense of the many should be checked, and that by vocational training
+boys should be fitted for a trade and girls prepared for housekeeping.
+To meet other difficulties it is proposed that popular instruction be
+given from press and pulpit, in order that the moral and spiritual
+plane of married life may be uplifted. The marriage ideal is a
+well-mated pair, physically and intellectually qualified, who through
+affection are attracted to marriage and through mutual consideration
+are ready unselfishly to seek each other's welfare, and who recognize
+in marriage a divinely ordered provision for human happiness and for
+the perpetuation of the race. Such a marriage does not plant the seeds
+of discord and neighborly scandal or compel a speedy resort to the
+divorce court.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 12-84.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, II, pages 388-497.
+
+  GOODSELL: _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_,
+      pages 5-47.
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, part I. "Report on Marriage and Divorce,
+      1906," _Bureau of the Census_, I, pages 224-226.
+
+  BLISS: _Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Family."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE MAKING OF THE HOME
+
+
+42. =The Story of the Home.=--Marriage is the gateway of the home; the
+home is the shelter of the family. It is the cradle of children, the
+nursery of mutual affection, and the training-school for citizenship
+in the community. The physical comfort of its inmates depends upon the
+house and its furnishings, but fondness for the home develops only in
+an atmosphere of good-will and kindness.
+
+The home has a story of its own, as has the family. In primitive days
+there was little necessity of a dwelling-place, except as a nest for
+young or a cache for provisions. A cave or a rough shelter of boughs
+was a makeshift for a home. Thither the hunter brought the game that
+he had killed, and there slept the glutton's sleep or went supperless
+to bed. When the hunter became a herdsman and shepherd and moved from
+place to place in search of pasture, he found it convenient to fashion
+a tent for his home, as the Hebrew patriarchs did when they roamed
+over Canaan and as the Bedouin of the desert does still.
+
+A settled life with a measure of civilization demanded a better and a
+stationary home, the degree of comfort varying with the desire and
+ambition of the householder and the amount of his wealth. To thousands
+home was little more than a place to sleep. Even in imperial Rome the
+proletariat occupied tall, ramshackle tenements, like the submerged
+poor who exist in the slums of modern cities. In mediæval Europe the
+peasant lived in a one-room hovel, clustered with others in a squalid
+hamlet upon the estate of a great landowner. The hut was poorly built,
+often of no better material than wattled sticks, cemented with mud,
+covered over with turf or thatch, usually without chimneys or even
+windows. The place was absolutely without conveniences. Summer and
+winter the family huddled together in the single room of the hut,
+faring forth to work in the morning, sleeping at night on bundles of
+straw, each person in the single garment that he wore through the day,
+and at convenient intervals breaking fast on black bread, salt meat,
+and home-brewed beer. There was no inducement for a landless serf to
+spend care or labor upon houses or surroundings; pigs and babies were
+permitted to tumble about both indiscriminately.
+
+Peasant homes in the Orient are little if any better now than European
+homes in the Middle Ages. The houses are rude structures and ill-kept.
+In the villages of India it is not unusual to occupy one house until
+it becomes so unsanitary as to be uninhabitable, and then to move
+elsewhere. Even royal courts in mediæval Europe moved from palace to
+palace for the same reason. It is a mistake to suppose that the
+squalid conditions found in the slums are peculiar to them; they are
+survivals of a lower stage of human existence found in all parts of
+the world, due to psychical, social, and economic conditions that are
+not easily changed, but conspicuous in the midst of modern progress.
+
+43. =The Ancestral Type.=--In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome only the
+higher classes enjoyed any degree of comfort. Accustomed to
+inconveniences, few even among them knew such luxuries as are common
+to middle-class Americans. The castle and manor-house of the mediæval
+lord were still more comfortless. In America the colonial log cabin
+and the sod house of the prairie pioneer were primitively incomplete.
+The struggle for existence and the difficulty of manufacture and
+transportation allowed few comforts. American homes, even a hundred
+years ago, knew nothing of furnaces and safety-matches, refrigerators
+and electric fans, bathtubs and sanitary accommodations,
+carpet-sweepers and vacuum cleaners, screen doors and double windows,
+hammocks and verandas. Neither law nor social custom required a good
+water or drainage system. A healthful or attractive location for the
+house received little thought; outbuildings were in close proximity to
+the house, if not attached to it. The furnishings of the house lacked
+comfort and beauty. Interior decorations of harmonious design were
+absent. Instruments of music were rare; statuary and paintings were
+beyond the reach of any but the richest purse.
+
+44. =Social Values.=--On the other hand, there was in many a dwelling
+a home atmosphere that made up for the lack of conveniences. There was
+a bond of unity that was felt by every member of the family, and a
+spirit of mutual affection and self-sacrifice that stood a hard strain
+through poverty, sickness, and ill fortune of every sort. Father and
+mother, boys and girls were not afraid to work, and when the time came
+for relaxation there was little to attract away from the home circle.
+People had less to enjoy, but they were better contented with what
+they had. They had little money to spend, but their frugal tastes and
+habits of thrift fortified them against want, and there was little
+need of public or private charity.
+
+The home was frequently a school of moral and religious education.
+Selfishness in all its forms was discountenanced. There was no room
+for the idler, no time for laziness. Social hygiene and domestic
+science were not taught as such, but young people learned their
+responsibilities and grew up equipped to establish homes of their own.
+Parents were faithful instructors in the homely virtues of
+truthfulness, honesty, faithfulness, kindness, and love. Religion in
+the family was by no means universal, but in hundreds of homes
+religion was recognized as having legitimate demands upon the
+individual; religious exercises were observed at the mother's knee,
+the table, and the family altar; all the family attended church
+together, and were expected to take upon themselves the
+responsibilities of church membership.
+
+45. =Gains and Losses.=--In the making of a modern home there have
+been both addition and subtraction. Life has gained immeasurably in
+comfort and convenience for the well-to-do, but the comfortless
+quarters of the poor drive the man to the saloon and the child to the
+streets. For the fortunate the home has become enriched with music,
+art, and literature, but it has lost much of the earlier simplicity,
+economic thrift, moral sturdiness, and religious principle and
+practice. For the poor life is so hard that the good qualities, if
+they ever existed, have tended to disappear without any compensation
+in culture.
+
+It is well understood that the home environment has most to do with
+shaping individual character. If the homely virtues are not cultivated
+there, society will suffer; if cold and cheerlessness are
+characteristic of its atmosphere, there will be little warmth in the
+disposition of its inmates toward society. Every home of the right
+sort is an asset to the community. It is an experiment station for
+social progress. Every married couple that sets up housekeeping starts
+a new centre of group life. If they diffuse a helpful atmosphere
+social virtues will develop and social efficiency increase. On the
+other hand, many homes are a menace to the community, because an
+ill-mated pair, poorly equipped for the struggle of existence, create
+a centre of group life in which the individual is handicapped
+physically and morally and too often becomes a curse to society at
+large. When it is remembered that the home is at the same time the
+power-house that generates the forces that push society forward, and
+the channel through which are transmitted the ideas and achievements
+of all the past, it will seem to be the supremely important
+institution that human experience has devised and sanctioned.
+
+46. =The Ideal Home.=--The ideal home toward which the average home
+will be gradually approximating will be housed in a well-built
+dwelling of approved architecture; erected in a healthy location with
+room enough around it to give air space, and a bit of out-of-doors to
+enjoy; tastefully furnished and decorated inside, but without
+ostentation or extravagance; occupied by a healthy, happy family of
+parents and children who care more for each other and for their
+neighbors than for selfish pleasure and display, and who are learning
+how to play a worthy part in the folk life of their community and
+nation, and how to appreciate the highest and finest qualities that
+mind and spirit can develop in themselves or others. If for economic
+or social reasons any of this is impossible, there is a weakness in
+society that calls for prompt repair.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STARR: _First Steps in Human Progress_, pages 149-158.
+
+  JESSOPP: _The Coming of the Friars_, pages 87-104.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Constructive Rural Sociology_, pages 170-178.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 18-38.
+
+  RICHARDS: "The Farm Home," art. in _Cyclopedia of Agriculture_,
+      IV, pages 280-284.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CHILDREN IN THE HOME
+
+
+47. =Children Complete the Home.=--If the legend of the Pied Piper of
+Hameln should come true and all the children should run away from
+home, or if by some strange stroke of fortune no children should be
+born in a village or town for ten years or more, the tragedy of the
+childless home would be realized. There are localities and even
+nations where the birth-rate is so small that population is little
+more than stationary. In the United States the native birth-rate tends
+to decline, while the rate of immigrant foreigners greatly exceeds it.
+The higher the degree of comfort and luxury in the home the smaller
+the birth-rate seems to be a principle of social experience. There are
+selfish people who shirk the responsibilities and troubles of
+parenthood, and there are social diseases that tend to sterility, but
+the childless home is always an incomplete home. Children are the
+crown of marriage, the enrichment of the home, the hope of society in
+the future. The needs of the children stimulate parents to unselfish
+endeavor. Children are the comfort of the poor and distressed. The
+wedded life of a human pair may be ideal in every other respect, but
+one of the main functions of marriage is unaccomplished when the
+family remains incomplete.
+
+48. =The Right to be Well-Born.=--The child comes into the home in
+obedience to the same primary instinct that draws the parents to each
+other. He calls out the affections of the parents and their
+intellectual resources, for he is dependent upon them, and often taxes
+their best judgment in coping with the difficulties that beset child
+life. But they often fail to realize that the child has certain
+inalienable rights as an individual and a potential member of society
+that demand their best gifts.
+
+There is first the right to be well-born. There is so much to contend
+with when once ushered into the world, that a child needs the best
+possible bodily inheritance. He needs to be rid of every encumbrance
+of physical unfitness if he is to live long and become a blessing and
+not a burden to society. Handicapped at the start, he cannot hope to
+achieve a high level of attainment. It is little short of criminal for
+a child to be condemned to lifelong weakness or suffering, because his
+parents were not fit to give him birth. Yet large numbers of parents
+make the thought of child welfare subordinate to their own desires. A
+man's primary concern in choosing a wife is his own personal
+satisfaction, not the birth and mothering of his children. Many young
+women regard the attractiveness, social position, or wealth of a young
+man as of greater consequence than his physical or moral fitness to
+become the father of her children. There are thousands of persons who
+are mentally deficient or unmoral, who nevertheless are unrestrained
+by society from association and even marriage. It is a social
+misfortune that the unfit should be taken care of by the tender
+mercies of philanthropists and even permitted to propagate their kind,
+while no special encouragement is given to those who are supremely fit
+to give their best to the upbuilding of the race. The principle of
+brotherly kindness requires that the weak and unfortunate be taken
+care of, but they should not be permitted to increase. It is a
+principle of social welfare that those who are incapable of exercising
+self-control should be placed under the control of the larger group.
+
+49. =Eugenics in Legislation.=--It is the conviction that the right to
+be well-born is a valid one, that has given rise to the science of
+eugenics. As a science it was first discussed by Francis Gallon, and
+it has interested writers, investigators, and legislators in all
+progressive countries. Various specific proposals have been made in
+the interest of posterity, and agitation has resulted in certain
+experiments in legislation. It is not proposed that any should be
+required to marry, but it is thought possible to encourage the well
+qualified and to discourage and restrain the incapable. Some of these
+proposals, such as the offering of a premium by the State for healthy
+children, or endowing mothers as public functionaries, are not widely
+approved, but Great Britain in a National Insurance Act in 1911
+included the provision of maternity benefits in recognition of the
+mother's contribution to the citizenship of the nation. Restrictive
+laws have been passed by certain of the States in America, which are
+eugenic experiments. Feeble-mindedness, in so many ways a social evil,
+is readily reproduced, and the weak-minded are easily controlled by
+the sex instinct. To prevent this certain State legislatures have
+forbidden the marriage of any feeble-minded or epileptic woman under
+the age of forty-five. It is well known that insanity is a family
+trait, and that criminal insanity is liable to recur if those who are
+afflicted are permitted to indulge in parenthood. Certain States
+accordingly annul the marriage of insane persons. Venereal disease is
+easily transmitted; there has been a beginning of legislation
+prohibiting persons thus tainted to marry. It is well established that
+very many persons, while not actually tainted with such diseases as
+tuberculosis and alcoholism, are predisposed to yield to their attack.
+For this reason the scope of eugenic legislation is likely to be
+extended. Some States have gone so far as to sterilize the unfit, that
+they may not by any chance exercise the powers of parenthood; it is
+urged in many quarters that clergymen require a medical certificate of
+good health before sanctioning marriage.
+
+50. =Family Degeneracy.=--Several impressive illustrations have been
+published of degenerate families that show the far-reaching effects of
+heredity. In contrast to these pictures, has been set the life story
+of families who have won renown in successive generations because of
+unusual ability. Nothing so effective is presented by any argument as
+that of concrete cases. Perhaps the best known of these stories is
+that of the Jukes family. About the middle of the eighteenth century a
+normal man with a coarse, lazy vein in his nature built himself a hut
+in the woods of central New York. In five generations he had several
+hundred descendants. A study of twelve hundred persons who belonged
+to the family by kinship or marriage was made carefully, with the
+following findings. Nearly all of the family were lazy, ignorant, and
+coarse. Four hundred were physically diseased by their own fault. Two
+hundred were criminals; seven of them murderers. Fifty of the women
+were notoriously immoral. Three hundred of the children died from
+inherited weakness or neglect. More than three hundred members of the
+family were chronic paupers. It is estimated that they cost the State
+a thousand dollars apiece for pauperism and crime.
+
+Another family called the Kallikak family, which has been made the
+subject of investigation, is a still better example of heredity. The
+family was descended from a Revolutionary soldier, who had an
+illegitimate feeble-minded son by an imbecile young woman. The line
+continued by feeble-minded descent and marriage until four hundred and
+eighty descendants have been traced. Of these one hundred and
+forty-three were positively defective, thirty-six were illegitimate,
+thirty-three sexually immoral, mostly prostitutes, eight kept houses
+of ill repute, three were criminal, twenty-four were confirmed
+drunkards, and eighty-two died in infancy.
+
+On the other hand, there are striking examples of what good birth and
+breeding can do. It happened that the ancestor of the Kallikak family,
+after he had sown his wild oats, married well and had about five
+hundred descendants. All of them were normal, only two were alcoholic,
+and one sexually loose. The family has been prominent socially and in
+every way creditable in its history. In contrast to the Jukes family,
+the history of the Edwards family has been written. Its members
+married well, were well-bred, and gave much attention to education.
+Out of fourteen hundred individuals more than one hundred and twenty
+were Yale graduates, and one hundred and sixty-five more completed
+their education at other colleges; thirteen were college presidents,
+and more than a hundred college professors; they were founders of
+schools of all grades; more than one hundred were clergymen,
+missionaries, and theological professors; seventy-five were officers
+in the army and navy; more than eighty have been elected to public
+office; more than one hundred were lawyers, thirty judges, sixty
+physicians, and sixty prominent in literature. Not a few of them have
+been active in philanthropy, and many have been successful in
+business. It is impossible to escape from the conviction that whatever
+may be the physical and social environment, heredity perpetuates
+physical and mental worth or defectiveness and tends to produce social
+good or evil, and that the right to a worthy parentage belongs with
+the other rights to which individuals lay claim. It is as important as
+the right to a living, to an education, to a good home, or to the
+franchise. Without it society is incalculably poorer and the ultimate
+effects of failure are startling to consider.
+
+51. =Marriage and Education.=--Some enthusiasts have demanded that to
+make sure of a good bodily inheritance, individuals be permitted to
+produce children without the trammels of marriage if they are well
+fitted for parenthood, but such persons seem ignorant or forgetful
+that free love has never proved otherwise than disastrous in the
+history of the race, and that physical perfection is not the sole good
+with which the child needs to be endowed, but that it must be
+supplemented with moral, mental, and spiritual endowment, and with the
+permanent affection and care of both parents in the home. Galton
+himself acknowledges marriage as a prerequisite in eugenics by saying:
+"Marriage, as now sanctified by religion and safeguarded by law in the
+more highly civilized nations, may not be ideally perfect, nor may it
+be universally accepted in future times, but it is the best that has
+hitherto been devised for the parties primarily concerned, for their
+children, for home life, and for society."
+
+The greatest hope of eugenics lies in social education. Sex hygiene
+must in some way become a part of the child's stock of information,
+but knowledge alone does not fortify action. More important is it to
+deal with the springs of action, to teach the equal standard of purity
+for men and women, and the moral responsibility of parenthood to
+adolescent youth, and at the same time to impress upon the whole
+community its responsibility of oversight of morals for the good of
+the next generation. Conviction of personal and social responsibility
+as superior to individual preferences is the only safety of society in
+all its relations, from eugenics through economics to ethics and
+religion.
+
+52. =Euthenics.=--Euthenics is the science of controlled environment,
+as eugenics is the science of controlled heredity. The health and good
+fortune of the child depend on his surroundings as well as on his
+inheritance, and the gift of a perfect physique may be vitiated by an
+unwholesome environment. Environment acts directly upon the physical
+system of the individual through climate, home conditions, and
+occupation; it acts indirectly by affecting the personal desires,
+idiosyncrasies, and possible conduct. When the child of an early
+settler was carried away from home on an Indian raid, and brought up
+in the wigwam of the savage, he forgot his civilized heritage, and
+love for his foster-parents sometimes proved stronger than his natural
+affections. The child of the Russian Jew in Europe has little ambition
+and rises to no high level, but in America he gains distinction in
+school and success in business. A natural environment of forest or
+plain may determine the occupation of a whole community; a fickle
+climate vitally affects its prosperity. Whole races have entered upon
+a new future by migration.
+
+It is necessary to be cautious and not to ascribe to environment, as
+some do, the sole influence. Every individual is the creature of
+heredity plus environment plus his own will. But it is not possible to
+overlook environment as some do, and expect by a miracle to make or
+preserve character in the midst of conditions of spiritual
+asphyxiation. If social life is to be pure and strong, communities and
+families, through the official care of overseers of health and
+industry and through the loving care of parents in the homes, must see
+that children grow up with the advantages of nourishing food, pure
+air, proper clothing, and means for cleanliness; that at the proper
+age they be given mental and moral instruction and fitted for a worthy
+vocation; that wholesome social relations be established by means of
+playgrounds, clubs, and societies; that industrial conditions be
+properly supervised, and young people be able to earn not alone a
+living but a marriageable wage; and that some means of social
+insurance be provided sufficient to prevent suffering and want in
+sickness and old age. In such an environment there is opportunity to
+realize the value that will accrue from a good inheritance, and there
+is incentive to make the most of life's possibilities as they come and
+go.
+
+Ever since the importance of environment was made plain in the
+nineteenth century, social physicians have been trying all sorts of
+experiments in community therapeutics. Many of the remedies will be
+discussed in various connections. It is enough to remark here that
+social education, social regulation, and social idealism are all
+necessary, and that a social Utopia cannot be obtained in a day.
+
+53. =The Right to Proper Care.=--Granted the right of the child to be
+well-born and the right to a favorable environment, there follows the
+right to be taken care of. This may be involved in the subject of a
+proper environment, but it deserves consideration by itself. There is
+more danger to the race from neglect than from race suicide. It is
+better that a child should not be born at all, than that he should be
+condemned to the hard knocks of a loveless home or a callous
+neighborhood. There is first the case of the child born out of
+wedlock, often a foundling with parentage unacknowledged. Then there
+is the child who is legitimately born as far as the law is concerned,
+but whose parents had no legitimate right to bring him into the world,
+because they had no reasonable expectation that they could provide
+properly for his wants. The wretched pauper recks nothing of the
+future of his offspring. Since the family group can never remain
+independent of the community, it may well be debated whether society
+is not under obligation to interfere and either by prohibition of
+excessive parenthood or by social provision for the care of such
+children, to secure to the young this right of proper care.
+
+Cruelty is a twin evil of neglect. The history of childhood deserves
+careful study side by side with the history of womanhood. In primitive
+times not even the right to existence was recognized. Abortion and
+infanticide, especially in the case of females, were practices used at
+will to dispose of unwelcome children, and these practices persisted
+among the backward peoples of Asia and Africa, until they were
+compelled to recognize the law of the white master when he extended
+his dominion over them. In the patriarchal household of classic lands,
+the child was under the absolute control of his father. Religious
+regulations might demand that he be instructed in the history and
+obligations of the race, as in the case of the Hebrew child, or the
+interests of the state might require physical training for its own
+defense, as in the case of Sparta, but there was no consideration of
+child rights in the home. Until the eighteenth century European
+children shared the hardships of poverty and discomfort common to the
+age, and often the cruelty of brutal and degraded parents; they were
+often condemned to long hours of industry in factories after the new
+industrial order caught them in its toils. In the mine and the mill
+and on the farm children have been bound down to labor for long and
+weary hours, until modern legislation has interfered.
+
+There are a number of reasons why child labor has been common.
+Hereditary custom has decreed it. Children have been looked upon by
+many races as a care and a burden rather than a responsibility and a
+blessing. Their economic value was their one claim to be regarded as a
+family asset. Even the religious teaching of Jews and Christians about
+the value and responsibility of children has not been influential
+enough to compel a recognition of their worth, though their innocence
+and purity, their faith and optimism are qualities indispensable to
+the race of mankind if social relations are to approach the ideal.
+
+54. =The Value of Work.=--Labor is a social blessing rather than a
+curse. There can be no doubt that habits of industry are desirable for
+the child as well as for the adult. Idleness is the forerunner of
+ignorance, laziness, and general incapacity. It is no kindness to a
+child to permit him to spend all his time out of school in play. It
+gives him skill, a new respect for labor, and a new conception of the
+value of money, if he has a paper route, mows a lawn, shovels snow, or
+hoes potatoes. Especially is it desirable that a boy should have some
+sort of an occupation for a few hours a day during the long summer
+vacation. The child on the farm has no lack of opportunity, but for
+the boy of the city streets there is little that is practicable,
+outside of selling papers or serving as messenger boy or bootblack;
+for the girl there is little but housework or department-store
+service. Both need steady employment out of doors, and he who devises
+a method by which boys and girls can be taught such an occupation as
+gardening on vacant lots or in the city outskirts, and at the same
+time can be given a love for work and for the growing things of the
+country, will help to solve the problem of child labor and,
+incidentally, may contribute to the solution of poverty, incipient
+crime, and even of the rural problem and the high cost of living.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 299-314.
+
+  GODDARD: _The Kallikak Family._
+
+  EAMES: _Principles of Eugenics._
+
+  SALEEBY: _Parenthood and Race Culture_, pages 213-236.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 171-196.
+
+  GALTON: _Inquiries into Human Faculty._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+WORK, PLAY AND EDUCATION.
+
+
+55. =Child Labor and Its Effects.=--Excessive child labor away from
+home is one of the evils that has called for reform more than the lack
+of employment. The child has a right to the home life. It is injurious
+for him to be kept at a monotonous task under physical or mental
+strain for long hours in a manufacturing establishment, or to be
+deprived of time to study and to play. Yet there are nearly two
+million children in the United States under sixteen years of age who
+are denied the rights of childhood through excessive labor.
+
+This evil began with the adoption of the factory system in modern
+industry. The introduction of light machinery into the textile mills
+of England made it possible to employ children at low wages, and it
+was profitable for the keepers of almshouses to apprentice pauper
+children to the manufacturers. Some of them were not more than five or
+six years old, but were kept in bondage more than twelve hours a day.
+Children were compelled to hard labor in the coal-mines, and to the
+dirty work of chimney sweeping. In the United States factory labor for
+children did not begin so soon, but by 1880 children eight years old
+were being employed in Massachusetts for more than twelve hours a day,
+and in parts of the country children are still employed at long hours
+in such occupations as the manufacture of cotton, glass, silk, and
+candy, in coal-mines and canning factories. Besides these are the
+newsboys, bootblacks, and messengers of the cities, children in
+domestic and personal service, and the child laborers on the farms.
+
+The causes of child labor lie in the poverty and greed of parents, the
+demands of employers, and often the desire of the children to escape
+from school and earn money. In spite of agitation and legislation, the
+indifference of the public permits it to continue and in some
+sections to increase.
+
+The harmful effects of child employment are numerous. It is true that
+two-thirds of the boys and nearly one-half of the girls employed in
+the United States are occupied with agriculture, most of them with
+their own parents, an occupation that is much healthier than indoor
+labor, yet agriculture demands long hours and wearisome toil. In the
+cities there is much night-work and employment in dangerous or
+unhealthy occupations. The sweating system has carried its bad effects
+into the homes of the very poor, for the younger members of the family
+can help to manufacture clothing, paper boxes, embroidery, and
+artificial flowers, and in spite of the law, such labor goes on far
+into the night in congested, ill-ventilated tenements. Children cannot
+work in this way day after day for long hours without serious physical
+deterioration. Some of them drop by the way and die as victims of an
+economic system and the social neglect that permits it. Others lose
+the opportunity of an education, and so are mentally less trained than
+the normal American child, and ultimately prove less efficient as
+industrial units. For the time they may add to the family income, but
+they react upon adult labor by lowering the wage of the head of the
+family, and they make it impossible for the child when grown to earn a
+high wage, because of inefficiency. The associations and influences of
+the street are morally degrading, and in the associations of the
+workroom and the factory yard the whole tone of the life of
+individuals is frequently lowered.
+
+56. =Child-Labor Legislation.=--Friends of the children have tried to
+stop abuses. Trade-unions, consumers' leagues, and State bureaus have
+taken the initiative. Voluntary organizations, like the National Child
+Labor Committee, make the regulation of child labor their special
+object. They have succeeded in the establishment of a Federal
+Children's Bureau in Washington, and have encouraged State and
+national legislation. Most of the States forbid the employment of
+children under a certain age, usually twelve or fourteen years, and
+require attention to healthful conditions and moderate hours. They
+insist also that children shall not be deprived of education, but
+there is often inadequate provision made for inspection and proper
+enforcement of laws.
+
+The friends of the children are desirous of a uniform child-labor law
+which, if adopted and enforced by competent inspectors, would prevent
+factory work for all under fourteen years of age, and for weak
+children under sixteen would prescribe a limited number of hours and
+allow no night-work, would require certain certificates of age and
+health before employment is given, and would compel school attendance
+and the attainment of a limited education before permission is granted
+to go into the factory. Without doubt, it is a hardship to families in
+poverty that strong, growing children should not be permitted to go to
+work and help support those in need, but it is better for the social
+body to take care of its weak members in some other way, and for its
+own sake, as well as for the sake of the child, to make sure that he
+is physically and mentally equipped before he takes a regular place in
+the ranks of the wage-earners.
+
+57. =The Right to Play.=--The play group is the first social
+training-ground for the child outside of the home, and it continues to
+be a desirable form of association, even into adult life, but it is
+only in recent years that adults have recognized the legitimacy of
+such a claim as the right to play. It was thought desirable that a boy
+should work off his restlessness, but the wood-pile provided the usual
+safety-valve for surplus energy. Play was a waste of time. Now it is
+more clearly understood that play has a distinct value. It is
+physically beneficial, expanding the lungs, strengthening muscle and
+nerve, and giving poise and elasticity to the whole body. It is
+mentally educational in developing qualities of quickness, skill, and
+leadership. It is socially valuable, for it requires honesty, fair
+play, mutual consideration, and self-control. Co-operation of effort
+is developed as well in team-play as in team-work, and the child
+becomes accustomed to act with thought of the group. The play group is
+a temporary form of association, varying in size and content as the
+whim of the child or the attraction of the moment moves its members.
+It is an example of primitive groupings swayed by instinctive
+impulses. Children turn quickly from one game to another, but for the
+time are absorbed in the particular play that is going on. No
+achievement results from the activity, no organization from the
+association. The rapid shifting of the scenes and the frequent
+disputes that arise indicate lack of control. Yet it is out of such
+association that the social mind develops and organized action becomes
+possible.
+
+If these are the advantages of play, the right to play may properly
+demand an opportunity for games and sports in the home and the yard,
+and the necessary equipment of gymnasium and field. It may call for
+freedom from the school and home occupations sufficient to give the
+recreative impulse due scope. As its importance becomes universally
+recognized, there will be no neighborhood, however congested, that
+lacks its playground for the children, and no industry, however
+insistent, that will deprive the boy or girl of its right to enjoy a
+certain part of every day for play.
+
+58. =The Right to Liberty.=--The present tendency is to give large
+liberty to the child. Not only is there freedom on the playground; but
+social control in the home also has been giving place during the last
+generation to a recognition of the right of the individual child to
+develop his own personality in his own way, without much interference
+from authority. It is true that there is a nominal control in the
+home, in the school, and in the State, but in an increasing degree
+that control is held in abeyance while parent, teacher, and constable
+leniently indulge the child. This is a natural reaction from the
+discipline of an earlier time, and is a welcome indication that
+children's rights are to find recognition. Like most reactions, there
+is danger of its going too far. An inexperienced and headstrong child
+needs wise counsel and occasional restraint, and within the limits of
+kindness is helped rather than harmed by a deep respect for authority.
+Lawlessness is one of the dangers of the current period. It appears in
+countless minor misdemeanors, in the riotous acts of gangs and mobs,
+in the recklessness of corporations and labor unions, and in national
+disregard for international law; and its destructive tendency is
+disastrous for the future of civilized society unless a new restraint
+from earliest childhood keeps liberty from degenerating into license.
+
+59. =The Right to Learn.=--There is one more right that belongs to
+children--the right of an opportunity to learn. Approximately three
+million children are born annually in the United States. Each one
+deserves to be well-born and well-reared. He needs the affectionate
+care of parents who will see that he learns how to live. This
+instruction need not be long delayed, and should not be relegated
+altogether to the school. There is first of all physical education. It
+is the mother's task to teach the child the principles of health, to
+inculcate proper habits of eating, drinking, and bathing. It is for
+her to see that he learns how to play with pleasure and profit, and is
+permitted to give expression to his natural energies. It is her
+privilege to make him acquainted with nature, and in a natural way
+with the illustration of flower and bird and squirrel she can give the
+child first lessons in sex hygiene. It is the function of the mother
+in the child's younger years and of the father in adolescent boyhood
+to open the mind of the child to understand the life processes. The
+lack of knowledge brings sorrow and sin to the family and injures
+society. Seeking information elsewhere, the boy and girl fall into bad
+habits and lay the foundation of permanent ills. The adolescent boy
+should be taught to avoid self-abuse, to practise healthful habits,
+and to keep from contact with physical and moral impurity; the
+adolescent girl should be given ample instruction in taking care of
+herself and in preparing for the responsibility of adult life.
+
+60. =Mental and Moral Education.=--Mental education in the home is no
+less important. It is there that the child's instinctive impulses
+first find expression and he learns to imitate the words and actions
+of other members of the home. The things he sees and handles make
+their impressions upon him. He feels and thinks and wills a thousand
+times a day. The channels of habit are being grooved in the brain. It
+is the function of the home to protect him from that which is evil, to
+stimulate in him that which is good. Mental and moral education are
+inseparably interwoven. The first stories told by the mother's lips
+not only produce answering thoughts in the child mind, but answering
+modes of conduct also. The chief function of the intellect is to guide
+to right choice.
+
+Character building is the supreme object of life. It begins early.
+Learning to obey the parent is the first step toward self-control.
+Learning to know the beautiful from the ugly, the true from the false,
+the good from the evil is the foundation of a whole system of ethics.
+Learning to judge others according to character and attainment rather
+than according to wealth or social position cultivates the naturally
+democratic spirit of the child, and makes him a true American. Sharing
+in the responsibility of the home begets self-reliance and
+dependableness in later life.
+
+The supreme lesson of life is to learn to be unselfish. The child in
+the home is often obliged to yield his own wishes, and finds that he
+gets greater satisfaction than if he had contended successfully for
+his own claims. In the home the compelling motive of his life may be
+consecrated to the highest ideals, long before childhood has merged
+into manhood. Such consecration of motive is best secured through a
+knowledge of the concrete lives of noble men and women. The noble
+characters of history and literature are portraits of abstract
+excellences. It is the task of moral education in the home to make the
+ideal actual in life, to show that it is possible and worth while to
+be noble-minded, and that the highest ambition that a person can
+cherish is to be a social builder among his fellows.
+
+61. =Child Dependents.=--Many children are not given the rights that
+belong to them in the home. They come into the world sickly or
+crippled, inheriting a weak constitution or a tendency toward that
+which is ill. They have little help from environment. One of a
+numerous family on a dilapidated farm or in an unhealthy tenement, the
+child struggles for an existence. Poverty, drunkenness, crime,
+illegitimacy stamp themselves upon the home life. Neglect and cruelty
+take the place of care and education. The death of one or both parents
+robs the children of home altogether. The child becomes dependent on
+society. The number of such children in the United States approximates
+one hundred and fifty thousand.
+
+In the absence of proper home care and training, society for its own
+protection and for the welfare of the child must assume charge. The
+State becomes a foster-parent, and as far as possible provides a
+substitute for the home. The earlier method was to place the
+individual child, with many other similar unfortunates, in a public or
+private philanthropic institution. In such an environment it was
+possible to maintain discipline, to secure instruction and a wholesome
+atmosphere for social development, and to have the advantage of
+economical management. But experience proved that a large institution
+of that kind can never be a true home or provide the proper
+opportunity for the development of individuality. The placing-out
+system, therefore, grew in favor. Results were better when a child was
+adopted into a real home, and received a measure of family affection
+and individual care. Even where a public institution must continue to
+care for dependent children, it is plainly preferable to distribute
+them in cottages instead of herding them in one large building. The
+principle of child relief is that life shall be made as nearly normal
+as possible.
+
+It is an accepted principle, also, that children shall be kept in
+their own home whenever possible, and if removal is necessary that
+they be restored to home associations at the earliest possible moment.
+In case of poverty, a charity organization society will help a needy
+family rather than allow it to disintegrate; in case of cruelty or
+neglect such an organization as the Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children will investigate, and if necessary find a better
+guardian; but the case must be an aggravated one before the society
+takes that last step, so important does the function of the home seem
+to be.
+
+62. =Special Institutions.=--It is, of course, inevitable that some
+children should be misplaced and that some should be neglected by the
+civil authorities, but public interest should not allow such
+conditions to persist. Social sensitiveness to the hard lot of the
+child is a product of the modern conscience. Time was when the State
+remanded all chronic dependents to the doubtful care of the almshouse,
+and children were herded indiscriminately with their elders, as child
+delinquents were herded in the prisons with hardened criminals.
+Idiots, epileptics, and deformed and crippled children were given no
+special consideration. A kindlier public policy has provided special
+institutions for those special cases where under State officials they
+may receive adequate and permanent attention, and for normal dependent
+children there is a variety of agencies. The most approved form is the
+State school. This is virtually a temporary home where the needy child
+is placed by investigation and order of the court, is given a training
+in elementary subjects, manual arts, and domestic science, and after
+three or four years is placed in a home, preferably on a farm, where
+he can fill a worthy place in society.
+
+63. =Children's Aid Societies.=--Another aid society is the private
+aid society supervised and sometimes subsidized by the State. This is
+a philanthropic organization supported by private gifts, making public
+reports, managed by a board of directors, with a secretary or
+superintendent as executive officer, and often with a temporary home
+for the homeless. With these private agencies the placing-out
+principle obtains, and children are soon removed to permanent homes.
+The work of the aid societies is by no means confined to finding
+homes. It aids parents to find truant children, it gives outings in
+the summer season, it shelters homeless mothers with their children,
+it administers aid in time of sickness. In industrial schools it
+teaches children to help themselves by training them in such practical
+arts as carpentry, caning chairs, printing, cooking, dressmaking, and
+millinery.
+
+Efficient oversight and management, together with co-operation among
+child-saving agencies, is a present need. A national welfare bureau is
+a decided step in advance. Prevention of neglect and cruelty in the
+homes of the children themselves is the immediate goal of all
+constructive effort. The education of public opinion to demand
+universal consideration for child life is the ultimate aim.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  MANGOLD: _Problems of Child Welfare_, pages 166-184, 271-341.
+
+  CLOPPER: _Child Labor in the City Street._
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Training the Boy_, pages 203-213.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 26-36.
+
+  LEE: _Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy_, pages 123-184.
+
+  FOLKS: _Care of Destitute and Neglected Children._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOME ECONOMICS
+
+
+64. =The Economic Function of the Home.=--Up to this point the
+domestic function of the family has been under consideration. Marriage
+and parenthood must hold first place, because they are fundamental to
+the family and to the welfare of the race. But the family has an
+economic as well as a domestic function. The primitive instinct of
+hunger finds satisfaction in the home, and economic needs are supplied
+in clothing, shelter, and bodily comforts. Production, distribution,
+and consumption are all a part of the life of the farm. Domestic
+economy is the foundation of all economics, and the family on the farm
+presents the fundamental principles and phenomena that belong to the
+science of economics as it presents the fundamentals of sociology. The
+hunger for food demands satisfaction even more insistently than the
+mating instinct. Birds must eat while they woo each other and build
+their nests, and when the nest is full of helpless young both parents
+find their time occupied in foraging for food. Similarly, when human
+mating is over and the family hearth is built, and especially when
+children have entered into the home life, the main occupation of man
+and wife is to provide maintenance for the family. The need of food,
+clothing, and shelter is common to the race. The requirements of the
+family determine largely both the amount and the kind of work that is
+done to meet them. However broad and elevated may be the interests of
+the modern gentleman and his cultured wife, they cannot forget that
+the physical needs of their family are as insistent as those of the
+unrefined day laborer.
+
+65. =Primitive Economics.=--In primitive times the family provided
+everything for itself. In forest and field man and woman foraged for
+food, cooked it at the camp-fire that they made, and rested under a
+temporary shelter. If they required clothing they robbed the wild
+beasts of their hide and fur or wove an apron of vegetable fibre.
+Physical wants were few and required comparatively little labor. In
+the pastoral stage the flocks and herds provided food and clothing.
+Under the patriarchal system the woman was the economic slave. She was
+goatherd and milkmaid, fire-tender and cook, tailor and tent-maker. It
+was she who coaxed the grains to grow in the first cultivated field,
+and experimented with the first kitchen garden. She was the dependable
+field-hand for the sowing and reaping, when agriculture became the
+principal means of subsistence. But woman's position has steadily
+improved. She is no longer the slave but the helper. The peasant woman
+of Europe still works in the fields, but American women long ago
+confined themselves to indoor tasks, except in the gathering of
+special crops like cotton and cranberries. Home economics have taught
+the advantage of division of labor and co-operation.
+
+66. =Division of Labor.=--Because of greater fitness for the heavy
+labor of the field and barn, the man and his sons naturally became the
+agriculturists and stock-breeders as civilization improved. It was
+man's function to produce the raw material for home manufacture. He
+ploughed and fertilized the soil, planted the various seeds,
+cultivated the growing crops, and gathered in the harvest. It was his
+task to perform the rougher part of preparing the raw material for
+use. He threshed the wheat and barley on the threshing-floor and
+ground the corn at the mill, and then turned over the product to his
+wife. He bred animals for dairy or market, milked his cows, sheared
+his sheep, and butchered his hogs and beeves; it was her task to turn
+then to the household's use. She learned how to take the wheat and
+corn, the beef and pork, and to prepare healthful and appetizing meals
+for the household; she practised making butter and cheese for home use
+and exchange. She took the flax and wool and spun and wove them into
+cloth, and with her needle fashioned garments for every member of the
+household and furnishings for the common home. She kept clean and tidy
+the home and its manufacturing tools.
+
+When field labor was slack the man improved the opportunity to fashion
+the plough and the horseshoe at the forge, to build the boat or the
+cart in the shop, to hew store or cut timber for building or firewood,
+to erect a mill for sawing lumber or grinding grain. Similarly the
+woman used her spare time in knitting and mending, and if time and
+strength permitted added to her duties the care of the poultry-house.
+
+67. =The Servant of the Household.=--Long before civilization had
+advanced the household included servants. When wars broke out the
+victor found himself possessed of human spoil. With passion
+unrestrained, he killed the man or woman who had come under his power,
+but when reason had a chance to modify emotion he decided that it was
+more sensible to save his captives alive and to work them as his
+slaves. The men could satisfy his economic interest, the women his sex
+desire. The men were useful in the field, the women in the house.
+Ancient material prosperity was built on the slave system of industry.
+The remarkable culture of Athens was possible because the citizens,
+free from the necessity of labor, enjoyed ample leisure. Lords and
+ladies could live in their mediæval castles and practise chivalry with
+each other, because peasants slaved for them in the fields without
+pay. Slowly the servant class improved its status. Slaves became serfs
+and serfs became free peasants, but the relation of master and servant
+based on mutual service lasted for many centuries.
+
+The time came when it was profitable for both parties to deal on a
+money basis, and the workman began to know the meaning of
+independence. The actual relation of master and servant remained about
+the same, for the workman was still dependent upon his employer. It
+took him a long time to learn to think much for himself, and he did
+not know how to find employment outside of the community or even the
+household where he had grown up. In the growing democracy of England,
+and more fully in America, the workman learned to negotiate for
+himself as a free man, and even to become himself a freeholder of
+land.
+
+68. =Hired Labor on the Farm.=--In the process of production in doors
+and out it was impossible on a large farm for the independent farmer
+and his wife to get on alone. There must be help in the cultivation of
+many acres and in the care of cattle and sheep. There must be
+assistance in the home when the birth and care of children brought an
+added burden to the housewife. Later the growing boys and girls could
+have their chores and thus add their contribution to the co-operative
+household, but for a time at least success on the farm depended on the
+hired laborer. Husband and wife became directors of industry as well
+as laborers themselves. In the busy summer season it was necessary to
+employ one or more assistants in the field, less often indoors, and
+the employee became for a time a member of the family. Often a
+neighbor performed the function of farm assistant, and as such stood
+on the same level as his employer; there was no servant class or
+servant problem, except the occasional shortage of laborers. Young men
+and women were glad of an opportunity to earn a little money and to
+save it in anticipation of the time when they would set up farming in
+homes of their own. The spirit and practice of co-operation dignified
+the employment in which all were engaged.
+
+69. =Co-operation.=--The control of the manufacturing industry on a
+large scale by corporations makes hearty co-operation between the
+employing group and the employees difficult, but on the farm the
+personal relations of the persons engaged made it easy and natural.
+The art of working together as well as living together was an
+achievement of the home, at first beginning unconsciously, but later
+with a definite purpose. The practice of co-operation is a continual
+object-lesson to the children, as they become conscious of the mutual
+dependence of each and all. The farmer has no time to do the small
+tasks, and so the boy must do the chores. There is a limit to the
+strength of the mother, and so the daughter or housemaid must
+supplement her labors. Without the grain and vegetables the housewife
+cannot provide the meals, but the man is equally dependent upon the
+woman for the preparation of the food. Without the care and industry
+of the parents through the helpless years of childhood, the children
+could not win in the struggle for existence. Nor is it merely an
+economic matter, but health and happiness depend upon the mutual
+consideration and helpfulness of every member of the household.
+
+70. =Economic Independence of the Farm.=--Until well into the
+nineteenth century the American farm household provided for most of
+its own economic needs. A country store, helped out if necessary by an
+occasional visit to town, supplied the few goods that were not
+produced at home. Economic wants were simple and means of purchase
+were not abundant. On the other hand, most of the products of the farm
+were consumed there. In the prevailing extensive agriculture the
+returns per acre were not great, methods of efficiency were not known
+or were given little attention, families were large and children and
+farm-hands enjoyed good appetites, and production and consumption
+tended to equalize themselves. In the process of the home manufacture
+of clothing it was difficult to keep the family provided with the
+necessary comforts; there was no thought of laying by a surplus beyond
+the anticipated needs of the family and provision for the wedding
+store of marriageable daughters.
+
+The distribution of any accumulated surplus was effected by the
+simplest mechanism of exchange. If the supply of young cattle was
+large or the wood-lot furnished more firewood than was needed, the
+product was bartered for seed corn or hay. There was swapping of
+horses by the men or of fruit or vegetable preserves by the women.
+Eggs and butter disposed of at the store helped to pay for sugar,
+salt, and spices. New incentives to larger production came with the
+extension of markets. When wood and hay could be shipped to a distance
+on the railroad, when a milk route in the neighborhood or a milk-train
+to the city made dairy products more profitable, or when market
+gardening became possible on an extensive scale, better methods of
+distribution were provided to take care of the more numerous
+products.
+
+71. =Social and Economic Changes in the Family.=--The fundamental
+principles that govern the economic activities of the family are the
+same as they used to be. Industry, thrift, and co-operation are still
+the watchwords of prosperity. But with the development of civilization
+and the improvements in manufacture, communication, and
+transportation, the economic function of the family has changed.
+Instead of producing all the crops that he may need or the tools of
+his occupation, the farmer tends to produce the particular crops that
+he can best cultivate and that will bring him the largest returns.
+Because of increasing facilities of exchange he can sell his surplus
+and purchase the goods that will satisfy his other needs. The farmer's
+wife no longer spins and weaves the family's supply of clothing; the
+men buy their supply at the store and often even she turns over the
+task of making up her own gowns to the village dressmaker. Where there
+is a local creamery she is relieved of the manufacture of butter and
+cheese, and the cannery lays down its preserves at her door. Household
+manufacturing is confined almost entirely to the preparation of food,
+with a varying amount of dressmaking and millinery. In the towns and
+cities the needs of the family are even more completely supplied from
+without. Children are relieved of all responsibility, women's care are
+lightened by the stock of material in the shops, and the bakery and
+restaurant help to supply the table. Family life loses thereby much of
+its unity of effort and sympathy. The economic task falls mainly upon
+the male producer. Even he lives on the land and in the house of
+another man; he owns not the tools of his industry and does business
+in another's name. He hires himself to a superior for wage or salary,
+and thereby loses in a measure his own independence. But there is a
+gain in social solidarity, for the chain of mutual dependence reached
+farther and binds more firmly; there is gain in community
+co-operation, for each family is no longer self-sufficient.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 221-227, 324-333.
+
+  THOMAS: _Sex and Society_, pages 123-146.
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      105-108.
+
+  MASON: _Woman's Share in Primitive Culture._
+
+  WEEDEN: _Economic and Social History of New England_, I, pages
+      324-326.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CHANGES IN THE FAMILY
+
+
+72. =Causes of Changes in the Family.=--The family at the present time
+is in a transition era. Its machinery is not working smoothly. Its
+environment is undergoing transformation. A hundred years ago the
+family was strictly rural; not more than three per cent of the people
+lived in large communities. Now nearly one-half are classified as
+urban by the United States census of 1910, and those who remain rural
+feel the influences of the town. There is far less economic
+independence on the farm than formerly, and in the towns and cities
+the home is little more than a place in which to sleep and eat for an
+increasing number of workers, both men and women. The family on the
+farm is no longer a perfectly representative type of the family in the
+more populous centres.
+
+These changes are due mainly to the requirements of industry, but
+partly at least to the desire of all members of the family to share in
+urban life. The increasing ease of communication and travel extends
+the mutual acquaintance of city and country people and, as the city is
+brought nearer, its pull upon the young people of the community
+strengthens. There is also an increasing tendency of the women folk to
+enter the various departments of industry outside of the home. It is
+increasingly difficult for one person to satisfy the needs of a large
+family. This tends to send the family to the city, where there are
+wider opportunities, and to drive women and children into socialized
+industry; at the same time, it tends to restrict the number of
+children in families that have high ideals for women and children.
+Family life everywhere is becoming increasingly difficult, and at the
+same time every member of the family is growing more independent in
+temper. The result is the breaking up of a large number of homes,
+because of the departure of the children, the separation of husband
+and wife, the desertion of parents, or the legal divorce of married
+persons. The maintenance of the family as a social institution is
+seriously threatened.
+
+73. =Static vs. Dynamic Factors.=--There are factors entering into
+family life that act as bonds to cement the individual members
+together. Such are the material goods that they enjoy in common, like
+the home with its comforts and the means of support upon which they
+all rely. In addition to these there are psychical elements that enter
+into their relations and strengthen these bonds. The inheritance of
+the peculiar traits, manners, and customs that differentiate one
+family from another; the reputation of the family name and pride in
+its influence; an affection, understanding, and sympathy that come
+from the intimacy of the home life and the appreciation of one
+another's best qualities are ties that do not easily rend or loosen.
+
+On the other hand, there are centrifugal forces that are pushing the
+members of the family apart. At the bottom is selfish desire, which
+frets at restriction, and which is stimulated by the current emphasis
+upon personal pleasure and individual independence. The family
+solidarity which made the sons Democrats because their father voted
+that party ticket, or the daughters Methodists because their mother's
+religious preferences were for that denomination, has ceased to be
+effective. Every member of the family has his daily occupations in
+diverse localities. The head of the household may find his business
+duties in the city twenty miles away, or on the road that leads him
+far afield across the continent. For long hours the children are in
+school. The housewife is the only member of the family who remains at
+home and her outside interests and occupations have multiplied so
+rapidly as to make her, too, a comparative stranger to the home life.
+Modern industrialism has laid its hand upon the women and children,
+and thousands of them know the home only at morning and night.
+
+74. =The Strain on the Urban Family.=--The rapid growth of cities,
+with the increase of buildings for the joint occupancy of a number of
+families, tends to disunity in each particular family and to a
+reduction in the size of families. The privacy and sense of intimate
+seclusion of the detached home is violated. The modern apartment-house
+has a common hall and stairway for a dozen families and a common
+dining-room and kitchen on the model of a hotel. The tenements are
+human incubators from which children overflow upon the streets,
+boarders invade the privacy of the family bedroom, and even sanitary
+conveniences are public. Home life is violated in the tenement by the
+pressure of an unfavorable environment; it perishes on the avenue
+because of a compelling desire to gain as much freedom as possible
+from household care.
+
+The care of a modern household grows in difficulty. Although the
+housekeeper has been relieved of performing certain economic functions
+that added to the burden of her grandmother, her responsibilities have
+been complicated by a number of conditions that are peculiar to the
+modern life of the town. Social custom demands of the upper classes a
+far more careful observance of fashion in dress and household
+furnishings, and in the exchange of social courtesies. The increasing
+cost of living due to these circumstances, and to a constantly rising
+standard of living, reacts upon the mind and nerves of the housewife
+with accelerating force. And not the least of her difficulties is the
+growing seriousness of the servant problem. Custom, social
+obligations, and nervous strain combine to make essential the help of
+a servant in the home. But the American maid is too independent and
+high-minded to make a household servant, and the American matron in
+the main has not learned how to be a just and considerate mistress.
+The result has been an influx of immigrant labor by servants who are
+untrained and inefficient, yet soon learn to make successful demands
+upon the employer for larger wages and more privileges because they
+are so essential to the comfort and even the existence of the family.
+Family life is increasingly at the mercy of the household employee. It
+is not strange that many women prefer the comfort and relief of an
+apartment or hotel, that many more hesitate to assume the
+responsibility of marriage and children, preferring to undertake their
+own self-support, and that not a few seek divorce.
+
+75. =Family Desertion.=--While the burden of housekeeping rests upon
+the wife, there are corresponding weights and annoyances that fall
+upon the man. Business pressure and professional responsibility are
+wearying; he, too, feels the strain upon his nerves. When he returns
+home at evening he is easily disturbed by a worried wife, tired and
+fretful children, and the unmistakable atmosphere of gloom and
+friction that permeates many homes. He contrasts his unenviable
+position with the freedom and good-fellowship of the club, and chafes
+under the family bonds. In many cases he breaks them and sets himself
+free by way of the divorce court. The course of men of the upper class
+is paralleled by that of the working man or idler who meets similar
+conditions in a home where the servant does not enter, but where there
+is a surplus of children. He finds frequent relief in the saloon, and
+eventually escapes by deserting his family altogether, instead of
+having recourse to the law. This practice of desertion, which is the
+poor man's method of divorce, is one of the continual perplexities of
+organized charity, and constitutes one of the serious problems of
+family life. There are gradations in the practice of desertion, and it
+is not confined to men. The social butterfly who neglects her children
+to flutter here and there is a temporary deserter, little less
+culpable than the lazy husband who has an attack of _wanderlust_
+before the birth of each child, and who returns to enjoy the comforts
+of home as soon as his wife is again able to assume the function of
+bread-winner for the growing family. From these it is but a step to
+the mutual desertion of a man and a woman, who from incompatibility of
+temper find it advisable to separate and go their own selfish ways, to
+wait until the law allows a final severance of the marriage bond.
+
+It is indisputable that this breaking up of the home is reacting
+seriously upon the moral character of the present generation; there is
+a carelessness in assuming the responsibility of marriage, and too
+much shirking of responsibility when the burden weighs heavily. There
+is a weakening of real affection and a consequent lack of mutual
+forbearance; there is an increasing feeling that marriage is a lottery
+and not worth while unless it promises increased satisfaction of
+sexual, economic, or social desires and ambitions.
+
+76. =Feminism.=--There can be no question that the growing
+independence of woman has complicated the family situation. In
+reaction against the long subjection that has fallen to her lot, the
+modern woman in many cases rebels against the control of custom and
+the expectations of society, refuses to regard herself as strictly a
+home-keeper, and in some cases is unwilling to become a mother. She
+seeks wider associations and a larger range of activities outside of
+the home, she demands the same rights and privileges that belong to
+man, and she dreams of the day when her power as well as her influence
+will help to mould social institutions. The feminist movement is in
+the large a wholesome reaction against an undeserved subserviency to
+the masculine will. Undoubtedly it contains great social potencies. It
+deserves kindly reception in the struggle to reform and reconstruct
+society where society is weak.
+
+The present situation deserves not abuse, but the most careful
+consideration from every man. In countless cases woman has not only
+been repressed from activities outside of the family group, but has
+been oppressed in her own home also. America prides itself on its
+consideration for woman in comparison with the general European
+attitude toward her, but too often chivalry is not exercised in the
+home. Often the wife has been a slave in the household where she
+should have been queen. She has been subject to the passion of an hour
+and the whim of a moment. She has been servant rather than helpmeet.
+Upon her have fallen the reproaches of the unbridled temper of other
+members of the family; upon her have rested the burdens that others
+have shirked. Husband and children have been free to find diversion
+elsewhere; family responsibilities or broken health have confined her
+at home. Her husband might even find sex satisfaction away from home,
+but public opinion would be more lenient with him than with her if
+she offended. The time has come when it is right that these
+inequalities and injustices should cease. Society owes to woman not
+only her right to her own person and property, but the right to bear,
+also, her fair share of social responsibility in this modern world.
+
+Yet in the process of coming to her own, there is danger that the wife
+will forget that marriage is the most precious of human relations;
+that the home has the first claim upon her; that motherhood is the
+greatest privilege to which any woman, however socially gifted, can
+aspire; and that social institutions of tried worth are not lightly to
+be cast upon the rubbish heap. It is by no means certain that society
+can afford or that women ought to demand individualistic rights that
+will put in jeopardy the welfare of the remainder of the family. The
+average woman has not the strength to carry properly the burden of
+home cares plus large political and social responsibilities, nor has
+she the money to employ in the home all the modern improvements of
+labor-saving devices and skilled service that might in a measure take
+her place. Nor is it at all certain that the granting of individual
+rights to women would tend to purify sex relations, but it is quite
+conceivable that the old moral and religious sanctions of marriage may
+disappear and the State assume the task of caring for all children. It
+is clear that the rights and duties of women constitute a very serious
+part of the problem of family life.
+
+77. =Individual Rights vs. Social Duties.=--The greatest weakness to
+be found in twentieth-century society is the disposition on the part
+of almost all individuals to place personal rights ahead of social
+duties. The modern spirit of individualism has grown strong since the
+Renaissance and the Reformation. It has forced political changes until
+absolutism has been yielding everywhere to democracy. It has extended
+social privileges until it has become possible for any one with push
+and ability to make his way to the top rung of the ladder of social
+prestige. It has permitted freedom to profess and practise any
+religion, and to advocate the most bizarre ideas in ethics and
+philosophy. It has brought human individuals to the place where they
+feel that nothing may be permitted to stand between them and the
+satisfaction of personal desire. The disciples of Nietzsche do not
+hesitate to stand boldly for the principle that might makes right,
+that he who can crush his competitors in the race for pleasure and
+profit has an indisputable claim on whatever he can grasp, and that
+the principle of mutual consideration is antiquated and ridiculous.
+Such principles and privileges may comport with the elemental
+instincts and interests of unrestrained, primitive creatures, but they
+do not harmonize with requirements of social solidarity and
+efficiency. Social evolution in the past has come only as the struggle
+for individual existence was modified by consideration for the needs
+of another, and social welfare in the future can be realized only as
+men and women both are willing to sacrifice age-long prejudice or
+momentary pleasure and profit to the permanent good of the larger
+group.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 356-371.
+
+  BRANDT AND BALDWIN: _Family Desertion._
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 85-95,
+      109-118.
+
+  GOODSELL: _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_,
+      pages 456-477.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 239-250.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+DIVORCE
+
+
+78. =The Main Facts About Divorce.=--An indication of the emphasis on
+individual rights is furnished by the increase of divorce, especially
+in the United States, where the demands of individualism and
+industrialism are most insistent. The divorce record is the
+thermometer that measures the heat of domestic friction. Statistics of
+marriage and divorce made by the National Government in 1886 and again
+in 1906 make possible a comparison of conditions which reveal a rapid
+increase in the number of divorces granted by the courts. Certain
+outstanding facts are of great importance.
+
+(1) The number of divorces in twenty years increased from 23,000 to
+72,000, which is three times the rate of increase of the population of
+the country. If this rate of progress continues, more than half the
+marriages in the United States will terminate in divorce by the end of
+the present century.
+
+(2) In the first census it was discovered that the number of divorces
+in the United States exceeded the total number of divorces in all the
+European countries; in the second census it was shown that the United
+States had increased its divorces three times, while Japan, with the
+largest divorce rate in the world, had reduced its rate one-half.
+
+(3) Divorces in the United States are least common among people of the
+middle class; they are higher among native whites than among
+immigrants, and they are highest in cities and among childless
+couples.
+
+(4) Two-thirds of the divorces are granted on the demands of the wife.
+
+(5) Divorce laws are very variable in the different States, but most
+divorces are obtained from the States where the applicants reside.
+
+79. =Causes of Divorce.=--The causes recorded in divorce cases do not
+represent accurately the real causes, for the reason that it is easier
+to get an uncontested decision when the charges are not severe, and
+also for the reason that State laws vary and that which best fits the
+law will be put forward as the principal cause. Divorce laws in the
+United States generally recognize adultery, desertion, cruelty,
+drunkenness, lack of support, and crime as legitimate grounds for
+divorce. In the five years from 1902 to 1906 desertion was given as
+the ground for divorce in thirty-eight per cent of the cases, cruelty
+in twenty-three per cent, and adultery in fifteen per cent.
+Intemperance was given as the direct cause in only four per cent, and
+neglect approximately the same. The assignment of marital
+unfaithfulness in less than one-sixth of the cases, as compared with
+one-fourth twenty years before does not mean, however, that there is
+less unfaithfulness, but that minor offenses are considered sufficient
+on which to base a claim; the small percentage of charges of
+intemperance as the principal cause ought not to obscure the fact that
+it was an indirect cause in one-fifth of the cases.
+
+It is natural that the countries of Europe should present greater
+variety of laws and of causes assigned. In England, where the law has
+insisted on adultery as a necessary cause, divorces have been few. In
+Ireland, where the church forbids it, divorce is rare, less than one
+to thirty-five marriages. In Scotland fifty per cent of the cases
+reported are due to adultery. Cruelty was the principal cause ascribed
+in France, Austria, and Rumania; desertion in Russia and Sweden. The
+tendency abroad is to ascribe more rather than less to adultery.
+
+The real causes for divorce are more remote than the specific acts of
+adultery, desertion, or cruelty that are mentioned as grounds for
+divorce. The primary cause is undoubtedly the spirit of individual
+independence that demands its rights at the expense of others. In the
+case of women there is less hesitancy than formerly in seeking
+freedom from the marriage bond because of the increasing opportunity
+of self-support. The changing conditions of home life in the city,
+with the increasing cost of living, coupled with the ease of divorce,
+encourage resort to the courts. The unscrupulousness of some lawyers,
+who fatten their purses at the expense of marital happiness, and the
+meddlesomeness of relatives are also contributing causes. Finally the
+restraint of religion has relaxed, and unhappy and ill-mated persons
+do not shrink from taking a step which was formerly condemned by the
+church.
+
+80. =History of Divorce.=--The history of divorce presents various
+opinions and practices. The Hebrews had high ideals, but frequently
+fell into lax practices; the Greeks began well but degenerated sadly
+to the point where marriage was a mere matter of convenience; the
+Romans, noted for their sterling qualities in the early days of the
+republic, practised divorce without restraint in the later days of the
+empire.
+
+The influence of Christianity was greatly to restrict divorce. The
+teaching of the Bible was explicit that the basis of marriage was the
+faithful love of the heart, and that impure desire was the essence of
+adultery. Illicit intercourse was the only possible moral excuse for
+divorce. True to this teaching, the Christian church tried hard to
+abolish divorce, as it attempted to check all sexual evils, and the
+Catholic Church threw about marriage the veil of sanctity by making it
+one of the seven sacraments. As a sacrament wedlock was indissoluble,
+except as money or influence induced the church to turn back the key
+which it alone possessed. Separation was allowed by law, but not
+divorce. Greater stability was infused into the marriage relation. Yet
+it is not possible to purify sex relations by tying tightly the
+marriage bond. Unfaithfulness has been so common in Europe among the
+higher classes that it occasioned little remark, until the social
+conscience became sensitive in recent decades, and among the lower
+classes divorce was often unnecessary, because so many unions took
+place without the sanction of the church. In Protestant countries
+there has been a variable recession from the extreme Catholic ground.
+The Episcopal Church in England and in colonial America recognized
+only the one Biblical cause of unfaithfulness; the more radical
+Protestants turned over the whole matter to the state. In New England
+desertion and cruelty were accepted alongside adultery as sufficient
+grounds for divorce, and the legislature sometimes granted it by
+special enactment.
+
+81. =Investigation and Legislation in the United States and
+England.=--The divorce question provoked some discussion in this
+country about the time of the Civil War, and some statistics were
+gathered. Twenty years later the National Government was induced by
+the National Divorce Reform League to take a careful census of
+marriage and divorce. This was published in 1889, and revised and
+reissued in 1909. These reports aroused the States which controlled
+the regulation of marriage and divorce to attempt improved
+legislation. Almost universally among them divorce was made more
+difficult instead of easier. The term of residence before divorce
+could be obtained was lengthened; certain changes were made in the
+legal grounds for divorce; in less than twenty years fourteen States
+limited the privilege of divorced persons to remarry until after a
+specified time had elapsed, varying from three months to two years.
+Congress passed a uniform marriage law for all the territories. It was
+believed almost universally that the Constitution should be amended so
+as to secure a federal divorce law, but experience proved that it was
+better that individual States should adopt a uniform law. The later
+tendency has been in this direction.
+
+At the same time, the churches of the country interested themselves in
+the subject. The Protestant Episcopal Church took strong ground
+against its ministers remarrying a divorced person, and the National
+Council of Congregational Churches appointed a special committee which
+reported in 1907 in favor of strictness. Fourteen Protestant churches
+combined in an Interchurch Committee to secure united action, and the
+Federal Council of Churches recorded itself against the prevailing
+laxness. The purpose of all this group action was to check abuses and
+to create a more sensitive public opinion, especially among moral and
+religious leaders.
+
+In Great Britain, on the other hand, divorce had always been
+difficult. There the strictness of the law led to a demand for a study
+of the subject and a report to Parliament. The result was the
+appointment of a Royal Commission on Divorce and Matrimonial Causes,
+consisting of twelve members, which investigated for three years, and
+in 1912 presented its report. It recognized the fact that severe
+restrictions were in force, and a majority of the commission regarding
+marriage as a legal rather than a sacramental bond, favored easier
+divorce and a single standard of morality for both sexes. It was
+proposed that the grounds for legal divorce should be adultery,
+desertion extending over three years, cruelty, incurable insanity
+after confinement for five years, habitual drunkenness found incurable
+after three years, or imprisonment carrying with it a sentence of
+death. A minority of the committee still regarding marriage as a
+sacrament, favored no relaxation of the law as it stood.
+
+82. =Proposed Remedies.=--Various remedies have been proposed to stem
+the tide of excessive divorce. There are many who see in divorce
+nothing more than a healthy symptom of individual independence, a
+revolt against conditions of the home that are sometimes almost
+intolerable. Many others are alarmed at the rapid increase of divorce,
+especially in the United States, and believe that checks are necessary
+for the continued existence of the family and the well-being of
+society. The first reform proposed as a means of prevention of divorce
+is the revision of the marriage laws on a higher model. The second is
+a stricter divorce law, made as uniform as possible. The third is the
+adoption of measures of reconciliation which will remove the causes
+that provoke divorce.
+
+The proposed laws include such provisions as the prohibition of
+marriage for those who are criminal, degenerate, or unfitted to
+perform the sex function; the requirement of six months' publication
+of matrimonial banns and a physical certificate before marriage; a
+strictly provisional decree of divorce; the establishment of a court
+of domestic relations, and a prohibition of remarriage of the
+defendant during the life of the plaintiff. These are reasonable
+restrictions and seem likely to be adopted gradually, as practicable
+improvements over the existing laws. It is also proposed that the
+merits of every case shall be more carefully considered, and the
+judicial procedure improved by the appointment of a divorce proctor in
+connection with every court trying divorce cases, whose business it
+shall be to make investigations and to assist in trying or settling
+specific cases. Experiment has proved the value of such an officer.
+
+83. =Court of Domestic Relations.=--One of the most significant
+improvements that has taken place is the establishment of a court of
+domestic relations, which already exists in several cities, and has
+made an enviable record. In the early experiments it seemed
+practicable in Kansas to make such a court a branch of the circuit and
+juvenile courts, so arranged that it would be possible to deal with
+the relations of the whole family; in Chicago the new tribunal was
+made a part of the municipal court. By means of patient questioning,
+first by a woman assistant and then by the judge himself, and by good
+advice and explicit directions as to conduct, with a warning that
+failure would be severely treated, it has been possible to unravel
+hundreds of domestic entanglements.
+
+84. =Tendencies.=--There can be no question that the present tendency
+is in the direction of greater freedom in the marriage relation.
+Society will not continue to sanction inhumanity and immorality in the
+relations of man to woman. Marriage is ideally a sacred relation, but
+when it is not so treated, when love is dead and repulsion has taken
+its place, and especially when physical contact brings disease and
+suffering, public opinion is likely to consider that marriage is
+thereby virtually annulled, and to permit ratification of the fact by
+a decree of divorce. On the other hand, it is probable that increasing
+emphasis will be put on serious and well-prepared marriage, on the
+inculcation of a spirit of mutual love and forbearance through the
+agency of the church, and on the exhaustion of every effort to
+restore right relations, if they have not been irreparably destroyed,
+before any grant of divorce will be allowed. In this, as in all
+problems of the family, the spirit of mutual consideration for the
+interests of all concerned is that which must be invoked for a speedy
+and permanent solution. Education of young people in the importance of
+the family as a social institution and in the responsibility which
+every individual member should feel to make and keep the family pure
+and strong as a bulwark of social stability, is the surest means of
+preventing altogether its dissolution.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  "Report on Marriage and Divorce," 1906, _Bureau of the Census_,
+      I, pages 272-274, 331-333.
+
+  "Reports of the National League for the Protection of the Family."
+
+  POST: _Ethics of Marriage and Divorce_, pages 62-84.
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 96-108.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 3-160.
+
+  WILLCOX: _The Divorce Problem._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE SOCIAL EVIL
+
+
+85. =Sexual Impurity.=--A prime factor in the breaking up of the home
+is sexual impurity. The sex passion, an elemental instinct of
+humanity, is sanctified by the marriage relation, but unbridled in
+those who seek above all else their own pleasure, becomes a curse in
+body and soul. It is not limited to either sex, but men have been more
+self-indulgent, and have been treated more leniently than erring
+women. Sexual impurity is wide-spread, but public opinion against it
+is steadily strengthening, and the tendency is to hold men and women
+equally responsible. For the sake of clearness it is advisable to
+distinguish between various forms of impurity, and to observe the
+proper terms. The sexual evil appears in aggravated form in commercial
+prostitution, but is more prevalent as an irregularity among
+non-professionals. Sexual intercourse before marriage, or fornication,
+was not infrequent in colonial days, and in Europe is startlingly
+common; very frequently among the lower classes there is no marriage
+until a child is born. Sexual infidelity after marriage, or adultery,
+is the cause of the ruin of many homes. In the cities and among the
+well-to-do classes the keeping of mistresses is an occasional
+practice, but it is far less common than was the case in former days,
+when it was the regular custom at royal courts and imitated by those
+lower in the social scale.
+
+86. =Prostitution.=--Prostitution, softened in common speech to "the
+social evil," is a term for promiscuity of sex relationship for pay or
+its equivalent. It is a very old practice, and has existed in the East
+as a part of religious worship in veneration of the power of
+generation. In the West it is a frequent accompaniment of intemperance
+and crime. Modern prostitutes are recruited almost entirely from the
+lower middle class, both in Europe and America. Ignorant and helpless
+immigrant girls are seduced on the journey, in the streets of American
+cities, and in the tenements. Domestic servants and employees in
+factories and department stores seem to be most subject to
+exploitation, but no class or employment is immune. A great many
+girls, while still in their teens, have begun their destructive
+career. They are peculiarly susceptible in the evening, after the
+strain of the day's labor, when they are hunting for fun and
+excitement in theatres, dance-halls, and moving-picture shows. In
+summer they are themselves hunted on excursion steamers, and at the
+parks and recreation grounds. The seduction and exploitation of young
+women has become a distinct occupation of certain worthless young men,
+commonly known as cadets, who live upon the earnings of the women they
+procure. Three-fourths of the prostitutes have such men dependent on
+them, to whom they remain attached through fear or need of pecuniary
+relief in case of arrest, or even through a species of affection,
+though they receive nothing but abuse in return. Once secured, the
+victim is not permitted to escape. Not many women enter the life of
+prostitution from choice, but when they have once yielded to
+temptation or force, they lose their self-respect and usually sink
+into hopeless degradation, and then do not shrink from soliciting
+business within doors or on the streets.
+
+87. =Promotion and Regulation of Vice.=--The social evil is centred in
+houses of ill fame managed by unprincipled women. The business is
+financed and the profits enjoyed by men who constantly stimulate the
+trade to make it more profitable. As a result of investigations in New
+York, it is estimated that the number of prostitutes would be not more
+than one-fourth of what it is were it not for the ruthless greed of
+these men. The houses are usually located in the poorer parts of the
+city, but they are also to be found scattered elsewhere. In cases
+where public opinion does not warrant rigid enforcement of the law
+against it, the illicit traffic is disregarded by the police, and
+often they are willing to share in the gains as the price of their
+leniency. As a rule the business is kept under cover and not
+permitted to flaunt itself on the streets. Definite segregation in a
+particular district has been attempted, and has sometimes been favored
+as a means of checking vice, but this means is not practised or
+favored after experiment has shown its uselessness as a check upon the
+trade. Government regulation by a system of license, with registration
+of prostitutes and regular though superficial examination of health,
+is in vogue in parts of western and southern Europe, but it is not
+favored by vice commissions that have examined into its workings.
+
+88. =Extent of the Social Evil.=--It is probable that estimates as to
+the number of prostitutes in the great urban centres has been much
+exaggerated. In the nature of the case it is very difficult to get
+accurate reports, but when it is remembered that the number of men who
+frequent the resorts is not less than fifteen times the number of
+women, and that in most cases the proportion is larger, it is not
+difficult to conceive of the immense profits to the exploiters, but
+also of the enormous economic waste, the widely prevalent physical
+disease, and the untold misery of the women who sin, and of the
+innocent women at home who are sinned against by those who should be
+their protectors.
+
+A "white-slave traffic" seems to have developed in recent years that
+has not only increased the number of local prostitutes, but has united
+far-distant urban centres. It is very difficult to prove an intercity
+trade, but investigation has produced sufficient evidence to show that
+there is an organized business of procuring victims and that they have
+been exported to distant parts of the world, including South America,
+South Africa, and the Far East.
+
+89. =The Causes.=--The social evil has usually been blamed upon the
+perversity of women and their pecuniary need, but investigation makes
+it plain that the causes go deeper than that. The first cause is the
+ignorance of girls who are permitted to grow up and go out into the
+world innocently, unaware of the snares in which they are liable to
+become enmeshed. Added to this ignorance is the lack of moral and
+religious training, so that there is often no firm conviction of right
+and wrong, an evil which is intensified in the city tenements by the
+conditions of congested population. A third grave cause is the public
+neglect of persons of defective mentality and morality. Women who are
+not capable of taking care of themselves are allowed full liberty of
+conduct, and frequently fall victims to the seducer. An investigation
+of cases in the New York Reformatory for Women at Bedford in 1913
+showed one-third very deficient mentally; the Massachusetts Vice
+Commission in 1914 reported one-half to three-fourths of three hundred
+cases to be of the same class. It seems clear that a large proportion
+of prostitutes generally belong in this category. It has been
+estimated that there are now (1915) as many defective women at large
+in Massachusetts as there are in public institutions.
+
+Poverty is an important factor in the extension of the sexual evil. It
+is notorious that thousands of women workers are underpaid. In
+factories, restaurants, and department stores they frequently receive
+wages much less than the eight dollars a week required by women to
+maintain themselves, if dependent on their own resources. The American
+woman's pride in a good appearance, the natural human love of ease,
+luxury, and excitement, the craving for relaxation and thrill, after
+the exacting labor of a long day, all contribute to the welcome of an
+opportunity for an indulgence that brings money in return. The agency
+of the dance-hall and the saloon has also an important place in the
+downfall of the tempted. Intemperance and prostitution go together,
+and places where they can be enjoyed are factories of vice and crime.
+Many so-called hotels with bar attachment are little more than houses
+of evil resort. Especially notorious for a time were the Raines Law
+hotels in New York City, designed to check intemperance, but proving
+nurseries of prostitution. Commercial profit is large from both kinds
+of traffic, and one stimulates the other.
+
+Among minor causes of the social evil is the postponement or
+abandonment of marriage by many young people, the celibate life
+imposed upon students and soldiers, the declaration of some physicians
+that continence is injurious, and lax opinion, especially in Europe.
+
+90. =The Consequences.=--It is impossible to measure adequately the
+consequences of sexual indulgence. It is destructive of physical
+health among women and of morals among both sexes. It results in a
+weakening of the will and a blunting of moral discernment. It is an
+economic waste, as is intemperance, for even on the level of economic
+values it is plain that money could be much better spent for that
+which would benefit rather than curse. But the great evil that looms
+large in public view is the legacy of physical disease that falls upon
+self-indulgent men and their families. The presence of venereal
+disease in Europe is almost unbelievable; so great has it been in
+continental armies that governments have become alarmed as to its
+effects upon the health and morale of the troops. College men have
+been reckless in sowing wild oats, and have suffered serious physical
+consequences. Most pathetic is the suffering that is caused to
+innocent wives and children in blindness, sterility, and frequent
+abdominal disease. This is a subject that demands the attention of
+every person interested in human happiness and social welfare.
+
+91. =History of Reform.=--Spasmodic efforts to suppress the social
+evil have occurred from time to time. The result has been to scatter
+rather than to suppress it, and after a little it has crept back to
+its old haunts. Scattering it in tenements and residential districts
+has been very unfortunate. The cure is not so simple a process.
+Neither will segregation help. It is now generally agreed, especially
+as a result of recent investigations by vice commissioners in the
+large cities, that there must be a brave, sustained effort at
+suppression, and then the patient task of reclaiming the fallen and
+preventing the evil in future.
+
+Organization and investigation are the two words that give the key to
+the history of reform. International societies are agitating abroad;
+other associations are directly engaged in checking vice in the United
+States, most prominent of which is the American Vigilance Association.
+Rescue organizations are scattered through the cities. Especially
+active have been the commissions of investigation appointed privately
+and by municipal, State, and Federal Governments, which have issued
+illuminating reports. The United States in 1908 joined in an
+international treaty to prevent the world-wide traffic in white
+slaves, and in 1910 Congress passed the Mann White Slave Act to
+prevent interstate traffic in America.
+
+92. =Measures of Prevention and Cure.=--The social evil is one about
+which there have been all sorts of wild opinions, but the facts are
+becoming well substantiated by investigations, and these
+investigations are the basis upon which all scientific conclusions
+must rest, alike for public education and for constructive
+legislation. No one remedy is adequate. There are those who believe
+that the church has it in its power to stir a wave of indignation that
+would sweep the whole traffic from the land, but it is not so simple a
+process. It is generally agreed that both education and legislation
+are necessary to check the evil. The first is necessary for the public
+health, and to support repressive laws. As a helpful means of
+repression it is proposed that the social evil, along with questions
+of social morals, like gambling, excise, and amusements, shall be
+taken out of the hands of the municipal police and the politicians,
+and lodged with an unpaid morals commission, which shall have its own
+special corps of expert officers and a morals court for the trial of
+cases appropriate to its jurisdiction. This experiment actually has
+been tried in Berlin. Measures of prevention as well as measures of
+repression are needed. Restraint is needed for defectives; protection
+for immigrants and young people, especially on shipboard, in the
+tenements, and in the moving-picture houses; better housing, better
+amusements, and better wages for all the people. Finally, the wrecks
+must be taken care of. Rescue homes and other agencies manage to save
+a few to reformed lives; homes are needed constantly for temporary
+residence. Private philanthropy has provided them thus far, but the
+United States Government has discussed the advisability of building
+them in sufficient numbers to meet every local need. Many old and
+hardened offenders need reformatories with farm and hospital where
+they can be cared for during a long time; some of the States have
+provided these already. The principles upon which a permanent cure of
+the social evil must be based are similar to those that underlie all
+family reform, namely, the rescue as far as possible of those already
+fallen, the social and moral education of youth to nobler purpose and
+will, the removal of unfavorable economic and social conditions, and
+the improvement of family life until it can satisfy the human cravings
+that legitimately belong to it.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ADDAMS: _A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil._
+
+  WILLSON: _The American Boy and the Social Evil._
+
+  MORROW: _Social Diseases and Marriage_, pages 331-353.
+
+  KNEELAND: _Commercialized Prostitution in New York City_, pages
+      253-271.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES
+
+
+93. =Social Characteristics Illustrated by the Family.=--A study of
+the family such as has been made illustrates the characteristics of
+social life that were noted in the introductory chapter. There is
+activity in the performance of every domestic, economic, and social
+function. There is association in various ways for various purposes
+between all members of the family. Control is exercised by paternal
+authority, family custom, and personal and family interest. The
+history of the family shows gradual changes that have produced
+varieties of organization, and the present situation discloses
+weaknesses that are precipitating upon society very serious problems.
+Present characteristics largely determine future processes; always in
+planning for the future it is necessary to take into consideration the
+forces that produce and alter social characteristics. Specific
+measures meet with much scepticism, and enthusiastic reformers must
+always reckon with inertia, frequent reactions, and slow social
+development. In the face of sexualism, divorce, and selfish
+individualism, it requires patience and optimism to believe that the
+family will continue to exist and the home be maintained.
+
+94. =Principles of Family Reform.=--It is probably impossible to
+restore the home life of the past, as it is impossible to turn back
+the tide of urban migration and growth. But it is possible on the
+basis of certain fundamental principles to improve the conditions of
+family life by means of methods that lie at hand. The first principle
+is that the home must function properly. There must be domestic and
+economic satisfactions. Without the satisfaction of the sexual and
+parental instincts and an atmosphere of comfort and freedom from
+anxiety, the home is emptied of its attractions. The second principle
+is that social sympathy and service rather than individual
+independence shall be the controlling motive in the home. As long as
+every member of the family consults first his own pleasure and comfort
+and contributes only half-heartedly to create a home atmosphere and to
+perform his part of the home functions, there can be no real gain in
+family life. The home is built on love; it can survive on nothing less
+than mutual consideration.
+
+95. =The Method of Economic Adjustment.=--The first method by which
+these principles can be worked out is economic adjustment. It is
+becoming imperative that the family income and the family requirements
+shall be fitted together. Less extravagance and waste of expenditure
+and a living wage to meet legitimate needs, are both demanded by
+students of economic reform. It is not according to the principles of
+social righteousness that any family should suffer from cold or
+hunger, nor is it right that any social group should be wasteful of
+the portion of economic goods that has come to it. There is great
+need, also, that the expense of living should be reduced while the
+standards of living shall not be lowered. The business world has been
+trying to secure economies in production; there is even greater need
+of economies in distribution. Millions are wasted in advertising and
+in the profits of middlemen. Some method of co-operative buying and
+selling will have to be devised to stop this economic leakage. It
+would relieve the housewife from some of the worries of housekeeping
+and lighten the heart of the man who pays the bills. A third
+adjustment is that of the household employee to the remainder of the
+household. The servant problem is first an economic problem, and
+questions of wages, hours, and privileges must be based on economic
+principles; but it is also a social problem. The servant bears a
+social relation to the family. The family home is her home, and she
+must have a certain share in home comforts and privileges. A fourth
+reform is better housing and equipment. Attractive and comfortable
+houses in a wholesome environment of light, air, and sunshine, built
+for economical and easy housekeeping, are not only desirable but
+essential for a permanent and happy family life.
+
+96. =The Method of Social Education.=--A second general method by
+which the principles of home life may be carried out is social
+education. Given the material accessories, there must be the education
+of the family in their use. Children in the home need to know the
+fundamentals of personal and sex hygiene and the principles of
+eugenics. In home and in school the emphasis in education should be
+upon social rather than economic values, on the significance of social
+relationships and the opportunities of social intercourse in the home
+and the community, on the personal and social advantages of
+intellectual culture, on the importance of moral progress in the
+elimination of drunkenness, sexualism, poverty, crime, and war, if
+there is to be future social development, and on the value of such
+social institutions as the home, the school, the church, and the state
+as agencies for individual happiness and group progress. Especially
+should there be impressed upon the child mind the transcendent
+importance of affectionate co-operation in the home circle, parents
+sacrificing personal preferences and anticipations of personal
+enjoyment for the good of children, and children having consideration
+for the wishes and convictions of their elders, and recognizing their
+own responsibility in rendering service for the common good.
+Sanctioned by law, by the custom of long tradition, by economic and
+social valuations, the home calls for personal devotion of will and
+purpose from every individual for the welfare of the group of which he
+is a privileged member. The family tie is the most sacred bond that
+links individuals in human society; to strengthen it is one of the
+noblest aspirations of human endeavor.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 119-134.
+
+  POST: _Ethics of Marriage and Divorce_, pages 105-127.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 253-259.
+
+  THWING: _The Recovery of the Home._ A Pamphlet.
+
+
+
+
+PART III--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE COMMUNITY AND ITS HISTORY
+
+
+97. =Broadening the Horizon.=--Out of the kindergarten of the home the
+child graduates into the larger school of the community. Thus far
+through his early years the child's environment has been restricted
+almost entirely to the four walls of the home or the limits of the
+farm. His horizon has been bounded by garden, pasture, and orchard,
+except as he has enjoyed an occasional visit to the village centre or
+has found playmates on neighboring farms. He has shared in the
+isolation of the farm. The home of the nearest neighbor is very likely
+out of sight beyond the hill, or too far away for children's feet to
+travel the intervening distance; on the prairie the next door may be
+over the edge of the horizon. The home has been his social world. It
+has supplied for him a social group, persons to talk with, to play
+with, to work with. Inevitably he takes on their characteristics, and
+his life will continue to be narrow and to grow conservative and hard,
+unless he enlarges his experience, broadens his horizon, tries new
+activities, enjoys new associations, tests new methods of social
+control, and lets the forces that produce social change play upon his
+own life.
+
+Happy is he when he enters definitely into community life by taking
+his place in the district school. The schoolhouse may be at the
+village centre or it may stand aloof among the trees or stark on a
+barren hillside along the country road; physical environment is of
+small consequence as compared with the new social environment of the
+schoolroom itself. The child has come into contact with others of his
+kind in a permanent social institution outside the home, and this
+social contact has become a daily experience. Every child that goes to
+school is one of many representatives from the homes of the
+neighborhood. He brings with him the habits and ideas that he has
+gathered from his own home, and he finds that they do not agree or
+fuse easily with the ideas and habits of the other children. In the
+schoolroom and on the playground he repeats the process of social
+adjustments which the race has passed through. Conflicts for
+ascendancy are frequent. He must prove his physical prowess on the
+playground and his intellectual ability in the schoolroom. He must
+test his body of knowledge and the value of his mental processes by
+the mind of his teacher. He must have strength of conviction to defend
+his own opinions, but he must have an open mind to receive truths that
+are new to him. One of the great achievements of the school is to fuse
+dissimilar elements into common custom and opinion, and thus to
+socialize the independent units of community life.
+
+98. =Learning Social Values in the Community.=--The school is the door
+to larger social opportunity than the home can provide, but it is not
+the only door. The child in passing to and from school comes into touch
+with other institutions and activities. He passes other homes than his
+own. He sees each in the midst of its own peculiar surroundings, and he
+makes comparisons of one with another and of each with his own. He
+estimates more or less consciously the value of that which he sees, not
+so much in terms of economic as of social worth, and congratulates or
+pities himself or his schoolmates, according to the judgments that he
+has made. He stops at the store, the mill, or the blacksmith shop,
+through frequent contact becomes familiar with their functions, and
+thinks in turn that he would like to be storekeeper, miller, and
+blacksmith. He sees the farmer on other farms than his own gathering
+his harvest in the fall, hauling wood in the winter, or ploughing his
+field in the spring, and he becomes conscious of common habits and
+occupations in this rural community. He gets acquainted with the
+variety of activities that enter into life in the country district in
+which his home is located, and he learns to appreciate the importance
+of the instruments upon which such activity depends for travel from
+place to place. By all these means the child is learning social values.
+After a little he comes to understand that the community, with its
+roads, its public buildings, and its established institutions, exists
+to satisfy certain economic and social needs that the single family
+cannot supply. By and by he learns that, like the family, it has grown
+out of the experience of relationships, and can be traced far back in
+history, and that as time passes it is slowly changing to adapt itself
+to the changing wants and wishes of its inhabitants. He becomes aware
+of a present tendency for the community to imitate the larger social
+life outside, to make its village centre a reproduction in miniature of
+the urban centres; later he realizes that the introduction of foreign
+elements into the population is working for the destruction of the
+simple, unified life of former days, and is introducing a certain
+flavor of cosmopolitanism.
+
+It is this growth of social consciousness in a single child,
+multiplied by the number of children in the community, that
+constitutes the process of social education. A community with no
+dynamic influences impinging upon it reproduces itself in this way
+generation after generation, and at best seems to maintain but a
+static existence. In reality, few communities stand still. The
+principle of change that is characteristic of social life is
+continually working to build up or tear down the community structure
+and to modify community functioning. The causes of change and their
+methods of operation appear in the history of the rural community.
+
+99. =Rural History.=--The history of the rural community falls into
+two periods--first, when the village was necessary to the life of the
+individual; second, when the individual pioneer pushed out into the
+forest or prairie, and the village followed as a convenient social
+institution. The community came into existence through the bond of
+kinship. Every clan formed a village group with its own peculiar
+customs. These were primitive, even among semi-civilized peoples.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the village elders sat by the gate to
+administer justice in the name of the clan; in China the old men still
+bask on a log in the sun and pronounce judgment in neighborly gossip.
+The village existed for sociability and safety. The mediæval Germans
+left about each village a broad strip of waste land called the mark,
+and over this no stranger could come as a friend without sounding a
+trumpet. Later the village was surrounded by a wall called a tun, and
+by a transfer of terms the village frequently came to be called a
+mark, or tun, later changed to town. Place names even in the United
+States are often survivals of such a custom, as Charlestown or
+Chilmark. The Indian village in colonial America was similarly
+protected with a palisade, and village dogs heralded the approach of a
+stranger, as they do still in the East.
+
+100. =The Mediæval Village.=--The peasant village of the Middle Ages
+constitutes a distinct type of rural community. A consciousness of
+mutual dependence between the owner of the land and the peasants who
+were his serfs produced a feudal system in which the landlord
+undertook to furnish protection and to permit the peasant to use
+portions of his land in exchange for service. Strips of fertile soil
+were allotted to the village families for cultivation, while
+pasture-land, meadow, and forest were kept for community use. Even in
+the heart of the city Boston Common remains as a relic of the old
+custom. On the mediæval manor people lived and worked together, most
+of them on the same social level, the lord in his manor-house and the
+peasants in a hamlet or larger village on his land, huddling together
+in rude huts and in crude fashion performing the social and economic
+functions of a rural community. In the village church the miller or
+the blacksmith held his head a little higher than his neighbors, and
+sometimes the lord of the manor did not deign to worship in the common
+parish church, but the mass of the people were fellow serfs, owning a
+common master, working at the same tasks, by custom sowing and reaping
+the same kind of grain on the same kind of land in the same week of
+the year. They attended the court of the master, who exercised the
+functions of government. They worshipped side by side in the church.
+The same customs bound them and the same superstitions worried their
+waking hours. There was thus a community solidarity that less commonly
+exists under modern conditions.
+
+There was no stimulus to progress on the manor itself. There were no
+schools for the peasant's children, and there was little social
+intelligence. The finer side of life was undeveloped, except as the
+love of music was stirred by the travelling bard, or martial fervor or
+the love of movement aroused the dance. There was no desire for
+religious independence or understanding of religious experience. The
+mass in the village church satisfied the religious instinct. There was
+no dynamic factor in the community itself. Besides all this, the
+community lived a self-centred life, because the people manufactured
+their own cloth and leather garments and most of the necessary tools,
+and, except for a few commodities like iron and salt, they were
+independent of trade. The result was that every stimulus of social
+exchange between villages was lacking.
+
+The broadening influence of the Crusades with their stimulus to
+thought, their creation of new economic wants, and their contact of
+races and nationalities, set in motion great changes. Out of the
+manorial villages went ambitious individuals, making their way as
+industrial pioneers to the opportunity of the larger towns, as now
+young people push out from the country to the city. New towns were
+founded and new enterprises were begun. Trade routes were opened up.
+The feudal principality grew into the modern state. Cultural interests
+demanded their share of attention. Schools were founded, and art and
+literature began again to develop. Even law and religion, most
+conservative among social institutions, underwent change.
+
+101. =The Village in American History.=--The spirit of enterprise and
+the disturbed political and religious conditions impelled many groups
+in western Europe to emigrate to new lands after the geographical
+discoveries that ushered in the sixteenth century. They were free to
+go, for serfdom was disappearing from most of the European countries.
+The village life of Europe was transplanted to America. In the South
+the mediæval feudal village became the agricultural plantation, where
+the planter lived on his own estate surrounded by the rude cabins of
+his dusky peasantry. The more democratic, homogeneous village life of
+middle-class Englishmen reproduced itself in New England, where the
+houses of the settlers clustered about the village meeting-house and
+schoolhouse, and where habits of industry, frugality, and sobriety
+characterized every local group. In this new village life there came
+to be a stronger feeling of self-respect, and under the hard
+conditions of life in a new continent there developed a self-reliance
+that was destined to work wonders in days to come. The New World bred
+a spirit of independence that suited well the individualistic
+philosophy and religion of the modern Englishman. All these qualities
+prophesied much of individual achievement. Yet this tendency toward
+individualism threatened the former social solidarity, though there
+was a recognition of mutual interests and a readiness to show
+neighborly kindness in time of stress, and a perception of the social
+value of democracy in church and state.
+
+102. =Individual Pioneering.=--The pioneer American colonies were
+group settlements, but they produced a new race of individual pioneers
+for the West. Occasionally a whole community emigrated, but usually
+hardy, venturesome individuals pushed out into the wilderness, opening
+up the frontier continually farther toward the setting sun. By the
+brookside the pioneer made a clearing and erected his log house; later
+on the unbroken prairie he built a rude hut of sod. On the land that
+was his by squatter's right or government claim he planted and reaped
+his crops. About him grew up a brood of children, and as the years
+passed, others like himself followed in the path that he had made,
+single men to work for a time as hired laborers, families to break new
+ground, until the countryside became sparsely settled and the nucleus
+of a village was made.
+
+Such pioneers were hard-working people, lonely and introspective.
+They knew little of the comforts and none of the refinements of life.
+They prescribed order and administered justice at the weapon's point.
+They were emotional in religion. They required the stimulus of
+abundant food and often of strong drink to goad them to their various
+tasks. Frontier pioneering in America reproduced many of the features
+of former ages of primitive life and compressed centuries into the
+space of a generation. It was distinctly individualistic, and needed
+socializing. The large farm or cattle-range kept men apart, the
+freedom of the open country attracted an unruly population, and in
+consequence frontier life tended to rough manners and lawlessness.
+Isolation and loneliness produced despondency and inertia, and tended
+to individual and group degeneration.
+
+Even in a growing village men and women of this type had few social
+institutions. There was little time for schooling or recreation. A
+circuit-riding preacher held religious services once or twice a month,
+and in certain regions at a certain season religious enthusiasm found
+vent in a camp-meeting, but religion often had little effect on habits
+and morals. Local government and industry were home-made. The settlers
+brought with them customs and traditions which they cherished, but in
+the mingling of pioneers from different districts there was continual
+change and fusion, until the West became the most enterprising and
+progressive part of the nation, continually open to new ideas and new
+methods. There was a wholesome respect for church and school, and as
+villages grew the settlers did not neglect the organization and
+housing of such institutions; store, mill, and smithy found their
+place as farther east, and later the lawyer and physician came, but
+the pioneer could do without them for a time. Inventiveness and
+individual initiative were characteristics of the rural people, made
+necessary by their remoteness and isolation.
+
+103. =The Development of the West.=--With increasing settlement the
+rural pioneer gave place to the farmer. It was no longer necessary for
+him to break new ground, for arable acres could be purchased; neither
+was it necessary to turn from one occupation to another to satisfy
+personal or household needs, for division of labor provided
+specialists. Hardship gave way to comfort, for the land was fertile
+and experience had taught its values for the cultivation of particular
+crops. Loneliness and isolation were felt less severely as neighbors
+became more frequent and travelled roads made communication easier.
+Group life expanded and institutions became fixed. Every neighborhood
+had its school-teacher, and even the academy and college began to dot
+the land. Churches of various denominations found root in rural soil,
+and a settled minister became more common. A general store and
+post-office found place at the cross-roads, and the permanent
+machinery of local government was set up. Out of the forest clearings
+and prairie settlements evolved the prosperous farm life that has been
+so characteristic of the Middle West.
+
+But the prosperous life of these rural communities has not remained
+unchanged. Speculation in land has been creating a class of
+non-resident agricultural capitalists and tenant cultivators, and has
+been transforming the type of agricultural population over large
+sections of country. Soil exhaustion is leading to abandonment of the
+poorest land and is compelling methods of scientific agriculture on
+the remainder. These conditions are producing their own social
+problems for the rural community.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      112-126.
+
+  CHEYNEY: _Industrial and Social History of England_, pages 31-56.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 1-62.
+
+  WILSON: _Evolution of the Country Community_, pages 1-61.
+
+  CARVER: _Principles of Rural Economics_, pages 74-116.
+
+  ROSS: "The Agrarian Revolution in the Middle West," _North
+      American Review_, September, 1909.
+
+  GILLETTE: "The Drift to the City in Relation to the Rural
+      Problem," _American Journal of Sociology_, March, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
+
+
+104. =Physical Types.=--To understand the continually changing rural
+life of the present, it is necessary to examine into the physical
+characteristics of the country districts, the elements of the
+population, the functions of the rural community, and its social
+institutions.
+
+The physical characteristics have a large part in determining
+occupations and in fashioning social life. A natural harbor,
+especially if it is at the mouth of a river, seems destined by nature
+for a centre of commerce, as the falls of a swift-flowing stream
+indicate the location of a manufacturing plant. A mineral-bearing
+mountain invites to mining, and miles of forest land summon the
+lumberman. Broad and well-watered plains seem designed for
+agriculture, and on them acres of grain slowly mature through the
+summer months to turn into golden harvests in the fall. The
+Mississippi valley and the Western plain into which it blends have
+become the granary of the American nation. The railroad-train that
+rushes day and night from the Great Lakes toward the setting sun moves
+hour after hour through the extensive rural districts that
+characterize the great West. There are the mammoth farms that are
+given to the one enormous crop of wheat or corn. Alongside the
+railroad loom the immense elevators where the grain is stored to be
+shipped to market. Here and there are the farm-buildings where the
+owner or tenant lives, but villages are small and scattered and
+community activity is slight.
+
+Similarly, in the South before the Civil War there were large
+plantations of cotton and tobacco, dotted only here and there with the
+planter's mansion and clumps of negro cabins. Village life was not a
+characteristic of Southern society. The old South had its picturesque
+plantation life, and the aristocracy made its sociable visits from
+family to family, but that rural type disappeared with the war. With
+the breaking up of the old plantations there came a greater
+diversification of agriculture, which is going on at an accelerated
+pace, and social centres are increasing, but there is still much rural
+isolation. Among the remoter mountains lingers the most conservative
+American type of citizens in the arrested development of a century
+ago, with antique tools and ancient methods, scratching a few acres
+for a garden and corn-field, and living their backward, isolated life,
+without comfort or even peace, and almost without social institutions.
+
+In the East the country is more broken. Large farms are few, and
+agriculture is carried on intensively as a business, or is united with
+another occupation or as a diversion from the cares and tasks of the
+town. Farms of a score to a few hundred acres, only part of which are
+cultivated, form rural communities among the hills or along a river
+valley. Here and there a few houses cluster in village or hamlet,
+where each house yard has its garden patch, but the inhabitants of the
+village depend on other means than agriculture for a living. On the
+farms dairy and poultry products share with agriculture in rural
+importance, and no one crop constitutes an agricultural staple. In New
+England the villages are comparatively near together, and social life
+needs only prodding to produce a healthy development.
+
+105. =Characteristics of Population.=--Rural life feels in each region
+the reactions of nature. The narrow life of the hills, the open life
+of the plains, the peaceful life of the comfortable plantation with
+its lazy river and its delightful climate, each has its peculiar
+characteristics that are due in part at least to nature. But these
+features are complicated by social elements of population. The
+American rural community of to-day is composed of individuals who
+differ in age and fortune and kinship, and who vary in qualities and
+resemblances. There are old and young and middle-aged persons, men and
+women, married and single, persons with many relatives and others with
+few, native and foreign born, strong and weak, well and ill, good and
+bad, educated and illiterate. Yet there are certain characteristics
+that are typical.
+
+In the first place, for example, there is a considerable uniformity of
+age in the population of a certain type of community. In those
+agricultural districts where individuals own their own homes, the
+number of elderly people is larger than it is in the city, and the
+young people are comparatively few, for the reason that their
+ambitions carry them to the city for its larger opportunities, and in
+the older States many a farm becomes abandoned on the death of the old
+people. In districts where tenant-farming is largely in vogue, gray
+hairs are much fewer. The tendency is for the original farmers who
+have been successful to sell or rent their property and move to town
+to enjoy its comforts and attractions, leaving the tenants and their
+families of children.
+
+In the second place, it is characteristic of long-settled rural
+communities that there is an interlocking of family relationship, with
+a number of prevailing family names and a great preponderance of
+native Americans; but in portions of the West and in rural districts
+not very remote from the large cities of the East there is a large
+mixture, and in spots a predominance of the foreign element. In the
+third place, small means rather than wealth and a sluggish contentment
+rather than ambition is characteristic of the older rural sections; in
+newer districts ambition to push ahead is more common, and prosperity
+and an air of opulence are not unusual.
+
+106. =The Composition of Rural Communities.=--In an analysis of
+population it is proper to consider its composition and its manner of
+growth. In making a survey or taking a census of a community there are
+included at least statistics as to age, sex, number and size of
+families, degree of kinship, race parentage, and occupations. Records
+of age, sex, and size of family show the tendencies of a community as
+to growth or race suicide; kinship and race parentage indicate whether
+population is homogeneous; and occupations indicate the place that
+agriculture holds in a particular section of country. By a comparative
+study of statistics it is easy to determine whether a community is
+advancing, retrograding, or standing still, and what its position is
+relative to its neighbors; also to find out whether or not its
+occupations and characteristics are changing.
+
+107. =Manner of Growth.=--The manner of growth of a community is by
+natural excess of births over deaths, and by immigration of persons
+from outside. As long as the former condition obtains, population is
+homogeneous, and the community is conservative in customs and beliefs;
+when immigration is extensive, and more especially when it goes on at
+the same time with a declining birth-rate and a considerable
+emigration of the native element, the population is becoming
+heterogeneous, and the customs and interests of the people are growing
+continually more divergent. The immigration of an earlier day was from
+one American community to another, or from northern Europe, but rural
+communities East and West are feeling the effects of the large foreign
+immigration of the last decade from southern and eastern Europe and
+from Asia.
+
+108. =Decline of the Rural Population.=--The rural exodus to the
+cities is even more impressive and more serious in its consequences
+than the foreign influx into the country, though both are dynamic in
+their effects. This exodus is partly a matter of numbers and partly of
+quality. A distinction must be made first between the relative loss
+and the actual loss. The rural population in places of less than
+twenty-five hundred persons is steadily falling behind in proportion
+to the urban population in the country at large. There are many
+localities where there is also an actual loss in population, and in
+the North and Middle West the States generally are making no rural
+gain. But the most disheartening element in the movement of population
+from the point of view of rural communities is the loss of the most
+substantial of the older citizens, who move to the city to enjoy the
+reward of years of toil, and of the most ambitious of the young people
+who hope to get on faster in the city. Loss of such as these means
+loss of competent, progressive leaders. Added to this is the loss of
+laborers needed to cultivate the farms to their capacity for urban as
+well as rural supply. The loss of labor is not a serious economic
+misfortune, for it can be remedied to a large extent by the
+introduction of more machinery and new methods, but the loss of
+population reproduces in a measure the isolation of earlier days, and
+so tends to social degeneration. It is idle to expect that the
+far-reaching causes that are contributing to city growth will stop
+working for the sake of the rural community, but it is possible to
+enrich community life so that there will be less relative attraction
+in the city, and so that those who remain may enjoy many of the
+advantages that hitherto have been associated with the city alone.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 11-37.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 32-46, 281-292.
+
+  ANDERSON: _The Country Town_, pages 57-91.
+
+  SEMPLE: _Influences of Geographic Environment._
+
+  GALPIN: "Method of Making a Social Survey in a Rural Community,"
+      _University of Wisconsin Circular of Information_, No. 29.
+
+  CARROLL: _The Community Survey._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+109. =Rural Occupations.=--An important part of the study of the rural
+community is its social functions. These do not differ greatly in name
+from the functions of the family, but they have wider scope. The
+domestic functions are confined almost entirely to the homes. The
+village usually includes a boarding-house or a country inn for the
+homeless few, and here and there an almshouse shelters the few
+derelicts whom the public must support.
+
+Economic activities in the main are associated with the farm home. The
+common occupation in the country is agriculture. Individuals are born
+into country homes, learn the common occupation, and of necessity in
+most cases make it their means of livelihood. Rural people are
+accustomed to hard labor for long hours. There are seasons when
+comparative inactivity renders life dull; there are individuals who
+enjoy pensions or the income of inherited or accumulated funds, and so
+are not compelled to resort to manual labor, and there are directors
+of agricultural industry; there are always a shiftless few who are
+lazy and poor; but these are only exceptions to the general rule of
+active toil. Not all rural districts are agricultural. Some are
+frontier settlements where lumbering or mining are the chief
+interests. Even where agriculture prevails there are varieties such as
+corn-raising or fruit-growing regions; there are communities that are
+progressively making use of the latest results of scientific
+agriculture, and communities that are almost as antique in their
+methods as the ancient Hebrews. Also, even in homogeneous districts,
+like those devoted to cotton-growing or tobacco-culture, there are
+always individuals who choose or inherit an occupation that supplies a
+special want to the community, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, and
+masters of other crafts. Occupations indicate an attempt to gear
+personal energies to the opportunities or requirements of a physical
+or social environment.
+
+All these occupations have more than economic value; they are
+fundamental to social prosperity. It is self-evident that the
+physician and the school-teacher render community service, but it is
+not so clear that the farmer who keeps his house well painted and his
+grounds in order, and who is improving his cattle and increasing the
+yield of his fields and woodland by scientific methods, and who
+organizes his neighbors for co-operative endeavor, is doing more than
+an economic service. Yet it is by means of inspiration, information,
+and co-operation that the community moves forward, and he who supplies
+these is a social benefactor.
+
+110. =Differentiation of Occupation.=--If community life is to
+continue there must be the producers who farm or mine or manufacture;
+in rural districts they are farmers, hired laborers, woodcutters,
+threshers, and herdsmen. In the co-operation of village life there
+must be the craftsmen and tradesmen who finish and distribute the
+products that the others have secured, such as the miller, the
+carpenter, the teamster, and the storekeeper. For comfort and peace in
+the neighborhood there must be added the physician, the minister, the
+school-teacher, the justice of the peace, and such public
+functionaries as postmaster, mail-carrier, stage-driver, constable or
+sheriff, and other town or county officials. Without specific
+allotment of lands as on the feudal estate, or distribution of tasks
+as in a socialistic commonwealth, the community accomplishes a natural
+division of labor and diversification of industry, supports its own
+institutions by self-imposed taxes and voluntary contributions, and
+supplies its quota to the larger State of which it forms a democratic
+part. In spite of the constant exercise of individual independence and
+competition, there is at the foundation of every rural community the
+principle of co-operation and service as the only working formula for
+human life.
+
+111. =Co-operation.=--One great advantage of community life over the
+home is the increased opportunity for co-operation. In new
+communities families work together to erect buildings, make roads,
+support schools, and organize and maintain a church. They aid each
+other in sickness, accident, and distress. Farmers find it profitable
+to unite for purposes of production, distribution, communication,
+transportation, and insurance. It may not seem worth while for a
+single farmer to buy an expensive piece of agricultural machinery for
+his own use, but it is well worth while for four or five to club
+together and buy it. The cost of an irrigation plant is much too high
+for one man, but a community can afford it when it will add materially
+to the production of all the farms in a district. In a region
+interested mainly in dairying a co-operative creamery can be made very
+profitable; in grain-producing sections co-operative elevator service
+makes possible the storage of grain until the demand increases values;
+in fruit-raising regions co-operation in selling has made the
+difference between success and failure. A co-operative telephone
+company has been the means of supplying several adjacent communities
+with easy communication. Co-operative banks are a convenient means of
+securing capital for agricultural use, and co-operative insurance
+companies have proved serviceable in carrying mutual risks.
+
+The advantages of such co-operation are by no means confined to
+economic interests. The best result is the increasing realization of
+mutual dependence and common concern. Co-operation is an antidote to
+the evils of isolation and independence. A co-operative telephone
+company may not pay large dividends, and may eventually sell out to a
+larger corporation, but it has introduced people to one another,
+brightened circumscribed lives, and taught the people social
+understanding and sympathy. But aside from all such artificial forms
+of co-operation, the very custom of providing such common institutions
+as the school and the church is a valuable form of social service,
+entirely apart from the specific results that come from the exercises
+of the schoolroom and the meeting-house.
+
+112. =Why Co-operation May Fail.=--Many co-operative enterprises fail,
+and this is not strange. There is always the natural conservatism and
+individualism of the American people to contend with; there is
+jealousy of the men who have been elected to responsible offices, and
+there is lack of experience and good judgment by those who undertake
+to engineer the active organization. Sometimes the method of
+organization or financing is faulty. Such enterprises work best among
+foreigners who have a good opinion of them, and know how to conduct
+them because they have seen them work well in Europe. Every successful
+attempt at economic co-operation is a distinct gain for rural
+community betterment, for upon co-operation depends the success of the
+efforts being put forth for rural improvement generally.
+
+113. =Competition Within the Group.=--Co-operation is of greatest
+value when it includes within it a wholesome amount of individual
+competition for the sake of general as well as individual gain. Boys'
+agricultural clubs, organized in the South and West, have raised the
+standards of corn and tomato production by stimulating a friendly
+spirit of rivalry among boys, and as a result the fathers of the boys
+have adopted new and more scientific methods to increase their own
+production. Agricultural fairs may be made powerful agencies for a
+similar stimulus. At State and county fairs agricultural colleges and
+experiment stations find it worth while to exhibit their methods and
+processes with the results obtained; wide-awake farmers get new ideas,
+which they try out subsequently at home; young people are encouraged
+to try for the premiums offered the next year, and steadily the
+general level of excellence rises throughout the district.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 171-196, 275-305.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 20-31.
+
+  "Country Life," _Annals of American Academy_, pages 58-68.
+
+  KERN: _Among Country Schools_, pages 129-157.
+
+  FORD: _Co-operation in New England_, pages 87-185.
+
+  COULTER: _Co-operation Among Farmers_, pages 3-23.
+
+  HERRICK: _Rural Credits_, pages 456-480.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+RECREATION
+
+
+114. =Recreation and Culture.=--Besides the economic function the
+community has recreative and cultural functions to perform, and these
+need recognition and improvement. As the child in the home has a right
+to time and means for play, so the community, especially the young
+people, may lay claim to an opportunity for recreation; as the child
+has the right to learn in the home, so the people of the community
+should have cultural privileges. These demands are the more
+imperative, because the city has so much of this sort to offer, and
+the country community cannot hold its young people unless it provides
+a reasonable amount of attractions. It needs no particular institution
+to bring this about, but it needs a new spirit to recognize and enjoy
+the advantages that are possible even in thinly settled localities.
+Every opportunity for sociability strengthens just so much a natural
+instinct, increases the sense of social values, and enlarges the
+sphere of relationships.
+
+In the community, as in the home, children have the first claim to
+consideration. The recreative impulse is strong in them. When they
+graduate from the home into the school they find opportunity for the
+expression of this impulse through their new associations. On the way
+to and from school and at recess they have opportunity to indulge
+their impulses and to use their powers of invention. Among the younger
+children the desire for muscular activity makes running games of all
+sorts popular; as boys grow older they imitate the primitive impulse
+to hit and run, so well provided for in games of ball; girls enjoy
+their recreation in a quieter way as they grow older, and show a
+tendency to association in pairs. Associations formed in play are not
+usually lasting ones, but the playground reveals individual
+temperament and personal qualities that are likely to determine
+popularity or unpopularity. These play associations develop qualities
+of leadership, loyalty, honesty, and co-operation that tend to label a
+child among his mates with a reputation that he carries into later
+life.
+
+115. =The Gang.=--Since play is a natural instinct it is to be
+expected that children will seek a natural rather than an artificial
+way of expressing the instinct. Organization at best can only direct
+activities, giving recognition to the social inclinations of
+childhood. For example, it is not easy for a school-teacher to
+organize a boys' society and to direct it in such activities as appeal
+to him. The boys prefer to choose their own mates and their own chief,
+and the activities that appeal to them are not the same as those that
+seem to their elders to be most suitable. Between the ages of ten and
+sixteen the boy tends to gang life. He may work on the farm all day,
+but evenings and Sundays, if he is permitted to amuse himself, he
+joins a gang. Obviously the characteristics of the gang are seen best
+in the city, but they are not materially different in the country.
+Hunting and fishing may be enjoyed at odd times of leisure by the boy
+without companions, but the delights of the swimming-hole can be
+enjoyed thoroughly only as he has the companionship of other boys, and
+skating gains in virtue as a sport with the possibility of hockey on
+the ice. This liking for companionship exhibits itself in the habitual
+association of boys of a certain district for mutual enjoyment. On
+every possible opportunity they get together in the woods, pretend
+they are Indians, hunt, fish, and fight in company, build their own
+camps and plunder the camps of other gangs, and practise other
+activities characteristic of the savage age through which they are
+passing. Gangs exhibit a love of cruelty to those whom they may
+plague, a fondness for appropriating property which does not belong to
+them, and if possible provoking chase for the sake of the thrill that
+comes from the attempt to get away. Group athletics of various sorts
+are popular. Six out of seven gangs have physical activities as the
+purpose of their organization. The boys do not necessarily adopt any
+particular organization or choose a leader; on the contrary, they are
+a natural group, tacitly acknowledging the leadership of the most
+masterly and versatile individual, finding their own headquarters and
+adopting the forms of activity that appeal most to the group,
+according to the season and the opportunities of the region of country
+where they belong.
+
+116. =Leadership of Boys.=--The gang is but one expression of the
+group instinct. It is often a nursery of bad habits that sometimes
+lead to crime and degeneracy, but it is capable of being used for the
+good of boyhood. The gang develops the virtues of loyalty to the group
+and loyalty to the group principles. It stimulates self-sacrifice and
+co-operation, honor and courage. These virtues can be cultivated by
+the man who aspires to boy leadership and directed into channels of
+usefulness as the boy passes on toward manhood. But there must be a
+frank recognition of the place of the gang in boy life, and not only a
+remembrance of one's own boyhood days, but also an appreciation of
+them. One of the best ways that has been devised for securing adult
+leadership without loss of the gang spirit and characteristics is the
+Boy Scout movement. It transforms the unorganized gang into the
+organized patrol, and affiliates it with other patrols in a wide
+organization, adopts the natural activities of boys as a part of its
+programme, and adds others of absorbing interest. Obedience is added
+to the boy's other virtues, and social education is acquired rapidly.
+
+117. =Varieties of Boys' Clubs.=--The gang is one of the few natural
+groups of the community, and should be related to other institutions.
+It should not be hampered by them, but should receive the
+encouragement and assistance of home, school, and church. The Boy
+Scout movement has been associated with the churches; other boys'
+organizations have been connected with the Sunday-schools; the home
+and the day-school may well provide resources or quarters for the
+gang, and recognize its activities. But the gang is not the only
+organization suited to the boys of a community. There are special
+interests provided for in more artificial groups, such as athletic,
+debating, agricultural, or natural history clubs. These attract
+like-minded individuals from all parts of the community, and help to
+balance the clan spirit developed by the gang. These clubs may centre
+in school or meeting-house or have quarters of their own. One
+provision that is needed for the satisfaction of boy life in the rural
+community is the field or green where two rival gangs may contend
+legitimately for supremacy in sport, or clubs from different
+neighborhoods may test their prowess and arouse local pride and
+enthusiasm. The green needs little or no equipment, but it gains
+recognition as the boys' own training-field and serves as a safeguard
+to the health and morals of the youth of the community. The gang and
+the green are the proper social institutions of boy life in the rural
+community.
+
+118. =Girls' Clubs.=--The instinct of the girl is not the same as that
+of the boy. She has other interests that require different
+organization. Her disposition is less active, and she does not so
+readily form a group organization. She associates with other girls in
+a set that is less democratic than her brother's gang. It has its
+rivalries and enmities, but hateful thoughts, angry words, and
+slighting attitudes take the place of the active warfare of the boys.
+Girls enjoy clubs that are adapted to their interests. Reading clubs,
+cooking clubs, sewing clubs, musical organizations, and philanthropic
+societies are useful forms of neighborhood association, and their
+activities may be correlated with the work of the home, the school,
+and the church more easily than those of their brothers.
+
+In the country girls' organizations are very properly based on the
+interests of the farm, with which they are so closely related. They
+combine, as their brothers do, on the economic principle, organizing
+their poultry clubs, preserving clubs, or knitting clubs, but the
+social purpose is not lost sight of in the particular economic
+concern. An hour of sociability properly follows an hour of economic
+discussion or activity. Schoolgirls are very willing to accept the
+leadership of their teacher in a nature or culture club which will
+broaden their interests and stimulate their ambitions. One of the
+organizations that has sprung into existence on the model of the Boy
+Scout movement is the organization of Camp-Fire Girls. It is designed
+to meet the demand for companionship in a wholesome, pleasant way, and
+by its incentives to healthy activity and womanly virtue it helps to
+build character.
+
+119. =Recreation in the Country.=--The recreative instinct is not
+confined to children. For the adult labor is lightened, worries
+banished, and carking care is less corroding, if now and then an
+evening of diversion interrupts the monotony of rural life, or a day
+off is devoted to a picnic or neighborhood frolic. There is the same
+interest in the country that there is in the city in methods of
+entertainment that satisfy primitive instincts. The instinct for human
+society enters into all of them. Other specific causes produce a
+fondness for the various forms of diversion indulged in. Among
+uncultured people especially an evening gathering soon proves dull
+unless there is something to do. Cards occupy the mind and hands and
+create a mild excitement that banishes troublesome thoughts and
+anxieties. Dancing breaks up the stiffness of a party, brings the
+sexes together, and provides the exhilaration of rhythmic motion. Barn
+frolics at maple-sugar or harvest time accomplish the same end, only
+less satisfactorily. Musicales and amateur theatricals provide an
+exhibition of skill, cultivate the æsthetic nature, gratify the
+dramatic instinct, and furnish opportunity for mutual acquaintance
+among the people of the community, who meet all too seldom in social
+gatherings, and at the same time they furnish wholesome entertainment
+for the community at small expense. The proceeds are used for local
+advantage, instead of being carried out of town. The passing show and
+moving pictures are less desirable. They are often cheap and
+degrading, though the kinetoscope can be made valuable for education.
+
+The out-of-door gatherings that occur when the countryside is not too
+busy to plan or enjoy them are a helpful means of cultivating a
+community spirit. Athletic contests on the boys' own field readily
+become a community affair, with a speech and refreshments afterward,
+and the award of a prize or pennant to the victorious individual or
+team. The old-fashioned picnic to lake or woods or hilltop is one of
+the best means for forming and strengthening friendships and for
+giving persons of all ages a good time. Friendly contests of various
+sorts all come into play to add to the pleasure of the day. Fourth of
+July, Arbor Day, Old Home Week, and other occasions, give opportunity
+for recreation and the cultivation of neighborhood interests.
+
+120. =A Community Centre.=--Aside from the natural isolation and lack
+of energy and social interest among country people, the lack of
+efficient leadership is the most serious handicap to organized
+sociability. Added to these is the want of a neighborhood centre both
+convenient and suitable. A community building, tasteful in
+architecture and equipped for community use, is a great desideratum,
+but is not often available. There seems to be no good reason why the
+schoolhouse should not be such a social centre as the community needs,
+but most school buildings are not adapted to such use. In the absence
+of any other provision it is the privilege of the rural church to
+furnish the opportunity for neighborhood gatherings, and there is a
+growing conviction that this is one of the opportunities of the church
+to ally itself to general community interests. The church represents,
+or should represent, the whole community of men, women, young people,
+and children. It has all their interests at heart. It makes provision
+for them in Sunday-school, young people's societies, and other groups.
+It recognizes the social interests in festivals and sociables. It may
+usefully add to its functions that of raising the standards of
+community recreation, if no other proper provision for it exists; it
+is under obligation to find wholesome substitutes for the abuses that
+exist in the field of amusement which it commonly condemns.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CURTIS: _Play and Recreation for the Open Country._
+
+  PUFFER: _The Boy and His Gang._
+
+  _Boy Scout Handbook; Handbook for Scout Masters._
+
+  _The Book of the Campfire Girls._
+
+  STERN: _Neighborhood Entertainments._
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 117-126.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+RURAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+
+121. =The Complexity of Social Life.=--Closely allied to the agencies
+of recreation are the institutions that promote sociability and
+incidentally provide means of culture. It is not possible to separate
+social life into compartments and designate an institution as purely
+recreational or cultural or religious. There is a blending of
+interests and of functions in such an organization as the grange or
+the church, as there is in one individual or group a variety of
+interests and activities. The whole social system is complex,
+interwoven with a multitude of separate strands of personal desires
+and prejudices, group clannishness and conservatism, rival
+institutions developing friction and continually compelled to find new
+adjustments. Society in constantly in motion like the sea, its units
+continually striking against one another in perpetual conflict, and as
+continually melting into the harmony of a mighty wave breaking against
+the shore and forming anew to repeat the process. The difference is
+that social life is on an upward plane, its activities are not mere
+repetitions of a process, but they result in definite achievement,
+which in the process of centuries becomes an accumulated asset for the
+race. The most lasting achievements are the social institutions.
+
+122. =The Village and the Country Store.=--Of all the social
+institutions of the rural community, the most important is the village
+itself. There scattered homesteads find their common centre of
+attraction; there houses are located nearer together and the spirit of
+neighborliness develops; there tradesmen and professional persons make
+their homes and at the same time diversify interests and provide for
+the wants of the community. The school and the church are often
+located in the open country, but the village forms the nucleus of
+social intercourse and there are most of the institutions of the
+community.
+
+The most primitive among these institutions is the country store. It
+has economic, social, and educational functions. It supplies goods
+that cannot be produced in the community, it serves as a mercantile
+exchange for local produce. It helps to remove the necessity of home
+manufacture of many articles. On occasion it may include an agency for
+insurance or real estate; it is frequently the village post-office; it
+contains the public bulletin-board; often the proprietor undertakes to
+perform the banking function to the extent of cashing checks. Socially
+the store serves a useful purpose, for it is the centre to which all
+the inhabitants come, and from which radiate lines of communication
+all over the neighborhood. It is a clearing-house for news and gossip,
+and takes the place of a local press. It was formerly, and to some
+extent is still, the social club of the men of the community during
+the long winter evenings. As such it performed in the past an
+educational function. Boxes, firkins, bales of goods, superannuated
+chairs, and the end of a counter constituted the sittings, and men of
+all ages occupied them, as they listened to harangues and joined in
+the discussions. The group constituted the forum of democracy, where
+politics were frequently on debate, where public opinion was formed,
+where conservatism and progressivism fought their battles before they
+tested conclusions at the ballot-box, where science and religion
+entered the lists, where local interests were threshed out in the
+absence of more general excitement and crops and agricultural methods
+filled in the pauses. In recent years the store circle has
+degenerated. The better class of habitual members has organized its
+lodges or found satisfaction in the grange, while the hangers-on at
+the store, barber-shop, or other loafing-place indulge in small talk
+on matters of no real concern.
+
+123. =The Sewing Circle.=--What the country store has done for the men
+as a means of communication and stimulus, the ladies' aid society or
+church sewing circle has done for the women. Its opportunities are
+less frequent, but it provides an outlet for ideas and opinions that
+without it cannot easily find expression. At the same time it provides
+active occupation for a good cause, which is more than can be said of
+the men's forum. When it adds to its exercises a supper to which the
+other sex is admitted, it performs a yet wider social service.
+
+124. =The Grange.=--The grange is an institution that includes both
+sexes and combines the interests of young people with those of their
+elders. Its primary purpose was to consolidate the common interests of
+a farming community and to stimulate economic prosperity, but it has
+included several social features, and in many localities exists merely
+for social purposes. It is an institution that is well adapted to
+become a social and educational centre for the rural community. When
+the child has advanced from the home to the school and, graduating
+from school, has entered into the adult life of the community, the
+grange serves as a training-school for civic service. In the
+grange-room, in company with his like-minded parents and friends in
+the community, he learns how to hold his own in debate in
+parliamentary fashion, he discusses improved agriculture and listens
+to lectures from masters of the science, he gains literary and
+historical knowledge, and from time to time he participates in the
+social diversions that take place under grange auspices. Music
+enlivens the meetings, and occasionally a feast is spread or an
+entertainment elaborated. The Farmers' Union is a similar
+organization, originating in the South in 1902.
+
+Such rural interests as these have come into existence spontaneously
+and continue to provide social centres of community life because other
+institutions do not satisfy. The home, the school, and the church are
+often spoken of as the essential institutions of the American
+community, but they do not at best perform all the functions of
+neighborhood life. The boys' gang, the circle of men about the stove
+at the corner grocery, the women's sewing circle or club, and the
+grange, each in its own way performs a necessary part of the group
+activities, and deserves recognition among the institutions that are
+worth while. It is scarcely necessary to note that they have their
+evils, but these are not of the nature of the institution. As the gang
+can be guided to worthy ends, so the energies of the store club and
+the sewing circle can be turned into channels of usefulness and low
+talk and scandal-mongering abolished. As for the grange, it is capable
+of becoming the most valuable social centre of the community, if it
+maintains the ideals of its existence and co-operates heartily with
+other social institutions of worth, like the church.
+
+125. =Farmers' Institutes.=--Another type of organization exists which
+can hardly be called institutional, but which performs a useful
+community service. As illustrations may be mentioned the farmers'
+club, the farmers' institute, and the Chautauqua movement. These are
+organizations or movements for stimulating and broadening the
+interests of farm regions. They bring together the farmers and their
+families, sometimes from several neighborhoods and for several days,
+for the consideration of agricultural problems and for entertainment
+and mutual acquaintance. They are able to attract speakers from the
+State agricultural college or board, and even from national halls, and
+they become a valuable clearing-house of ideas and experience. They
+serve much the same purpose as a church or teachers' convention, and
+are restricted to a limited number of persons. Farmers' institutes
+have become a regular part of the State system of agricultural
+education throughout the country, and a large staff of lecturers and
+demonstrators exists for local instruction. The particular interests
+of women and young people are receiving recognition in institutes of
+their own in connection with the larger gatherings. The expense of
+such institutes is met by the government. Their success is, of course,
+dependent on the attendance and intelligent interest of the farm
+people, who gain greatly in inspiration and knowledge from contact
+with one another and from the experts to whom they listen. The
+institutes prove the value of association for the enrichment of
+individual and family life by means of suggestion, communication, and
+concerted activity.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BUCK: _The Granger Movement._
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: _Chapters in Rural Progress_, pages 104-120, 136-161.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 90-107.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 208-213.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 117-159.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RURAL EDUCATION
+
+
+126. =The School as a Social Institution.=--There is one institution
+in every American community that stands as the gateway into the
+promised land of a richer life. This is the school. It supplements
+home training and prepares for the broader experiences of community
+existence. Into it goes the raw material of the bodies and minds of
+the children, and out of it comes the product of years of education
+for the making or marring of the children of the community. The school
+of the present is of two types. One is the relic of an earlier time,
+with few changes in equipment, organization, or function; it has not
+shared in the process of evolution enjoyed by certain other
+institutions of society. The other type is progressive. It has been
+continually finding adjustment to its environment, fitting itself to
+meet local needs, and is therefore abreast of the times in educational
+science. The demand of the age is that the progressive school keep
+advancing, and as fast as possible the backward school work up to the
+standard of efficiency.
+
+It is a sociological principle that every social institution
+approximates to the standards of the community as a whole. If
+community life is static, school and church stay in the ruts; if it is
+retrograding, they are losing ground; if it is progressive, they
+gradually show improvement. On the other hand, the community
+frequently feels external stimulus, first through one of its
+institutions, so that the institution becomes a means of betterment.
+Recent years furnish examples of a new impulse generated in the
+neighborhood by a teacher or a minister who enters the locality with
+new ideas and unquenchable zeal.
+
+127. =Three Fundamental Principles of Education.=--There are three
+fundamental principles that ought to have recognition in every
+school. The first of these is the principle that education is to be
+social. The pupil has to learn how to live in the community. In the
+home he becomes socialized so far as to learn how to get along with
+his own relatives and intimates, but the school teaches him how to
+deal with all sorts of people. He gets acquainted with his
+environment, both social and physical. What kind of people are living
+in the homes of the neighborhood? What are their characteristics,
+their ideals, their failings? What are their occupations, their race
+or nationality, their measure of comfort, poverty, or wealth? How are
+they hindered or helped by their natural surroundings, and have they
+easy means of communication and transit with the outside world? What
+are the principles that govern social intercourse, and how can the
+pupil learn to put them into practice? How is he to reconcile his own
+individual rights with his social obligations? These are fundamental
+questions that deserve careful answer, and that must be made a part of
+the school curriculum if the community is to enjoy social health. It
+matters little how such subjects are named in any course of study, but
+it is essential that the principles of social living should be taught
+under some title.
+
+A second principle of education is that it should be vocational. The
+school children, after graduation, must make their own way in the
+world. Every normal youth looks forward in anticipation to the time
+when he will be earning his own support and the support of a family of
+his own. Every normal girl hopes to be mistress of a home of her own.
+There are certain things that they need to know if they are to make a
+success and to build happy homes. Their first business is to know how
+to make a home. Naturally they want to know the story of the family as
+a social institution, how the home is purchased or rented, the
+essentials of a good home, both in its equipment and in the spirit
+that animates it, the duties and rights of every member of the family,
+and the relations of the family to the community. The question arises:
+How may the home-maker provide for the support of the family? What are
+the available occupations, and how by manual and mental training may
+he equip himself for usefulness? How may the home-keeper do her part
+to make the home attractive and comfortable by a study of domestic
+science and home-management? Obviously, the curriculum should have a
+place for such studies as these that are so essential to peace and
+happiness and comfort in the home.
+
+A third principle is that education is to be cultural. Social and
+vocational knowledge are essential, broad culture of the mind is
+highly desirable. No citizen of the United States is expected to grow
+to maturity ignorant of the simple arts of reading or spelling
+correctly, writing a fair hand, and solving correctly the simple
+problems of arithmetic. Beyond this many schools provide a smattering
+of æsthetic training through music and drawing. These are subjects of
+study in the elementary schools. But culture involves more than these.
+An appreciation of literature, of the meaning and value of history, of
+the importance of science in the modern world, of the life of nations
+and races outside of our own country, of right thinking and right
+conduct with reference to all our individual relations, constitutes
+for all persons a mental training that is almost indispensable. To
+acquire this cultural education requires time and the elimination of
+the less valuable from the accepted course of study. It is a most
+wholesome tendency that is prolonging the terms and the years of
+compulsory education if that education is based on the right
+principles, and that is discussing the possibility, first, of using
+part of the long summer vacation to supplement the work of the present
+school year, and, secondly, of giving to the young people of every
+State a free university education. It is never to be forgotten that
+culture may and should go on through life, but that will not occur
+unless habits of study are formed in early years, and the school years
+will always remain the golden opportunity for an education.
+
+128. =Education as It Is.=--On these fundamental principles every
+educational system should be built. Actual education falls far short
+of the standard. This standard cannot be reached without proper
+educational ideals, expert teaching, and adequate equipment. The
+ideal has been narrow. Stress is put upon one type of education. In
+the past it has been cultural above the lower grades, and, because it
+has been almost exclusively so, more than half the pupils have dropped
+out of school before entering high school. In recent years there has
+been a new emphasis on practical training, and vocational courses have
+tended to crowd out some of the cultural courses. The social education
+which is most important of all has been incidental or omitted
+altogether. Public opinion needs to be educated to the point of
+understanding that all three types of training are imperatively
+needed.
+
+There is a serious difficulty, however, in the way of a supply of
+teachers for this broad education. It is necessary to extend reform
+among the normal schools, but this can take place only after they have
+felt the demand from the grades. Another difficulty is the expense of
+providing the necessary equipment for vocational education. This does
+not prevent the introduction of social teaching or a proper attention
+to culture, but courses in manual training and domestic science
+usually cost more than most school boards are willing to meet. This is
+not an insurmountable obstacle, for cheap appliances are in the market
+and better school boards can be elected when the people want them.
+
+129. =Wanted--a Better Rural Education.=--The school in the rural
+community has its own peculiar weaknesses. First among these
+weaknesses is the fact that education is not in terms of rural
+experience. It is an accepted educational principle of instruction to
+begin with that which is simple and familiar, and to work out to that
+which is complex and more remote. On that principle the rural school
+should make use of local geography, of rural material in arithmetic,
+of literature and music with a rural flavor, of nature study with
+drawings from nature. The opposite has been the case, with the result
+that the child appreciates neither his surroundings nor his
+opportunities, but looks upon them as something to be avoided for the
+more important urban life, with whose activities he has become
+familiar through his daily tasks.
+
+A second weakness is that rural education omits so much of importance
+to the child who must make his living in the country. To discuss rural
+conditions in a natural and systematic way, beginning with the family
+and working out into the social life of the community; to study the
+economic side of life first on the farm and then in the neighborhood,
+getting hold of the underlying principles of agriculture, becoming
+familiar with the action of various soils and crops and the best
+methods of cultivation and protection from harm, to prepare by a few
+simple lessons in household science for the responsibility of the
+home, is to provide the bases of success and happiness for the boys
+and girls of the country. Rural education, therefore, needs
+redirection.
+
+130. =The Quality of Teaching.=--The child in the country has a right
+to as good instruction as the city child, but because of the poverty
+and penuriousness of school districts and the maintenance of too many
+small schools, rural communities pay small salaries and cannot command
+good teaching. There are thousands of schools scattered over the
+country with less than ten pupils in attendance, housed in cheap,
+unattractive buildings, with teachers who have had no normal-school
+training, and who have no enthusiasm for the work they have to do.
+They may hear twenty or more classes recite on numerous subjects in
+the course of a day, but there is no stimulus to teacher or pupil, and
+school hours provide little more than a conventional method for
+passing the time. In such communities as these there is rarely any
+efficient superintendence of teaching by a paid supervisor, and the
+school board is unqualified to judge on any other basis than the cost
+of schooling for a limited number of weeks.
+
+The small district school has the effect of strengthening the
+isolation that is the bane of the country regions. It continues to
+exist because every farmer wants the school near by for the
+convenience of his own family. The history of the "little red
+schoolhouse" throws a glamour of romance about the district
+headquarters, but in actual experience the district school has
+outlived its usefulness. There is a strong movement to consolidate
+district schools and at some conveniently central point, with
+attractive and ample grounds, to build, equip, and man a school
+adequate to the needs of the community. Experience shows that the
+expense need be no greater, because better teachers can be secured for
+a given expenditure when fewer are needed, and with a greater number
+of scholars there may be a regular system of grading and classes large
+enough to arouse enthusiasm and ambition. The district school operates
+on the principle of division of labor in educational production, but
+it does not enjoy the benefits of co-operation or combination for
+efficiency, while the consolidated school secures these advantages and
+at the same time a better division of labor through the grades. Rural
+education needs reorganization.
+
+131. =A Discouraging Environment.=--Too many a rural community, like
+old China, has been facing the past. It has lacked courage and
+ambition. The atmosphere has been one of gloom and discouragement.
+This community temper appears in the social groups; it is felt in the
+home, and it is present in the school. It has been typical of whole
+sections of rural country. Dilapidated school buildings, plain and
+unkempt in appearance and cheap in construction, have been set in the
+midst of barren surroundings, unshaded by trees and unadorned with
+shrubs, without walks or drives to the entrance, and without even a
+flagpole as an evidence of patriotic enthusiasm. Inside the building
+there is insufficient light and ventilation, and the old-fashioned
+furniture is ill adapted to the needs of the pupils. The whole
+structure is almost devoid of the conveniences and modern devices for
+making school life either comfortable or worth while. In such an
+environment there is none of the stimulus that the school should
+furnish. The best pupil, who might respond quickly to stimulus, tends
+to sink to the level of the meanest, the mental horizon, cramped at
+home, is hardly broadened during school hours, and the main purpose
+for the existence of the institution is not achieved.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country_, pages 151-170.
+
+  FOGHT: _The American Rural School_, pages 154-253.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 133-301.
+
+  KERN: _Among Country Schools._
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 233-263.
+
+  BRYAN: _Poems of Country Life._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL
+
+
+132. =Nature Study in the New Rural School.=--In striking contrast to
+such a defective rural institution as has been presented is the new
+rural school and the country-life movement of which it is a vital
+part. The first step in the new education is a growing recognition of
+the function of the school to relate its courses of study and its
+activities to the daily experience of the pupil. The background of
+country life is nature; therefore nature study is fundamental in the
+new curriculum. Careful observation of natural objects comes first,
+until the child is able to identify bird and bee and flower. To
+knowledge is added appreciation. The beauty of fern and leaf, of
+brookside and hillside, of star-dotted and cloud-dappled sky, is not
+appreciated by mere observation, but waits on the education of the
+mind. This is part of the task of the teacher. The economic use of
+natural objects and natural forces is secondary, and should remain so,
+but the new education takes the knowledge which has been gained by
+observation and the enthusiasm which has been distilled through
+appreciation, and applies them to the social need. Agriculture comes
+to seem not only an occupation for economic ends, but a vocation for
+social welfare also. With all the rest there is a moral and religious
+value in nature study. Nature is pre-eminently under the reign of law;
+obedience to that law, adjustment to the inexorable demands of nature,
+are essential to nature's children. No more wholesome moral lesson
+than this can be taught to the present generation of children. Nature
+ministers also to the spiritual. Power, order, beauty, intelligence
+speak through the language of the natural world to the human soul, and
+the thoughtful child can be led to see through nature to nature's
+God. Such a God is not a theory; in nature the divine presence is
+self-evident.
+
+All theory in the new rural school is based on experimentation.
+Together the new teacher and the pupils beautify the grounds and the
+interior of the school building; they plan and make gardens and try
+all sorts of gardening experiments; they grow the plants that they
+study, and, best of all, they see the process of growth; from the use
+of soil and seed and proper care they learn lessons in practical
+agriculture that give satisfaction to all employed as book studies
+alone never could, and they make possible a far better type of
+agriculture when the pupils have fields of their own. Nor is it
+necessary for pupils to wait for their maturity, for many a lesson
+learned at school and demonstrated in the neighborhood is promptly
+applied on the neighboring farms.
+
+133. =The Study of the Individual.=--A second subject of study in the
+new rural schools is the individual. Nature study is essential to a
+rural school, but "the noblest study of mankind is man." Though it is
+highly important that the individual should regard social
+responsibility as out-weighing his own rights, it would be unfortunate
+if the importance of the individual were ever overlooked. The nature
+of the physical self, the requirement of diet and hygiene, the moral
+virtues that belong to noble manhood and womanhood, the possible
+self-development in the midst of the rural environment that is the
+pupil's natural habitat are among the worthy subjects of patient and
+serious study through the grades. Neither physiology, psychology, nor
+ethics need be taught as such, but the elementary principles that
+enter into all of them belong among the mental assets of every
+individual.
+
+134. =Rural Social Science.=--In the same way it is not necessary and
+perhaps may not be advisable to teach rural sociology or economics by
+name, even in the high school. With the extension of the curriculum to
+include agriculture, there is need of some consideration of the
+principles of the ownership and use of land, farm management, and
+marketing. Practical instruction in accounts, manual training, and
+domestic science find place in the new school. Fully as important as
+these is it to explain the social relations that properly exist in the
+home, the school, and the neighborhood, to show the mutual dependence
+of all upon one another, and to point out the advantages of
+co-operation over a prideful individualism and frequent social
+friction. Along with these relationships, or supplementary to them,
+belong the larger relations of country and town and the reciprocal
+service that each can render to the other, the characteristics and
+tendencies of social life in both types of community, and the effects
+of the changes that are taking place in methods of doing business and
+in the nature and characteristics of the people of either community.
+Following these topics come the problems of rural socialization
+through such agencies as the school, the grange, and the church, and
+the application of the principles already learned in a study of social
+relations.
+
+135. =Improvement in Economy and Efficiency.=--While the curriculum of
+the schools is being fitted to the needs of the community, it is
+desirable that there should be improvement of economy and efficiency
+in the whole system of education. This is being accomplished partly by
+better supervision and teaching, but also by a consolidation of
+schools which makes possible better grading, an enlarged curriculum,
+improved teaching, and a deeper interest among the pupils. But one of
+the best results that come from school consolidation is to the
+community itself. A consolidated school means a larger and
+better-equipped building. It often has a large assembly hall, a
+library, and an agricultural laboratory. The new school has within it
+tremendous potencies. It may become under proper direction an
+educational centre for people of all ages and degrees of attainment.
+Continuation schools for adults, especially the young and middle-aged
+people, who were born too soon to enjoy the advantages of the new
+education, are possible in the late autumn and winter. Popular
+lectures and demonstrations on subjects of common concern and
+entertainments based on rural interests find place at this centre.
+Mixed occasionally with a rural programme belongs instruction in wider
+social relations and world affairs.
+
+136. =The Teacher a Community Leader.=--With the consolidated school
+comes the well-trained teacher, and such a teacher deserves new
+recognition as a community leader. In Europe and in some parts of
+rural America the teacher has a permanent home near the schoolhouse,
+as a minister has a parsonage near the meeting-house. Such a teacher
+has an interest in community welfare, and a willingness to aid in
+community betterment. Whether man or woman, he becomes naturally a
+community leader, and with the backing of public sentiment and
+adequate support a distinct community asset. Such a teacher is more
+than a school instructor. He becomes a social educator of the people
+by interpreting to them their community life; he becomes a social
+inspirer to hope, ambition, and courage as he unfolds possible social
+ideals; he becomes a guide to a new prosperity as he defines the
+methods and principles on which other communities have worked out
+their own local successes. Through the medium of the teacher the
+neighborhood may be brought into vital contact with other communities
+in a district or whole county, and may be brought together to consider
+their common interests and to try experiments in co-operation, first
+for educational purposes and then for general community prosperity.
+
+At first the rural teacher in many localities will have enough to do
+with securing proper accommodations for the children in school, for
+good buildings frequently wait for a teacher who has the courage to
+demand and persist in getting them; but the larger work for the
+community is only second in importance and adds greatly to the
+responsiveness of the older people to the suggestions of the teacher.
+One great weakness in the past has been the short term of service of
+the average teacher. It takes time to accomplish changes in a
+conservative community, and the new education will be successful only
+as the new teacher becomes a comparative fixture. To build oneself
+into the life of a rural community as does the physician, and to
+ennoble it with new ideas and higher ideals, is a missionary service
+that can hardly be surpassed at the present time in America.
+
+137. =Higher Education.=--The normal school, the rural academy or
+county high school, and the college have their part in rural
+education. It rests with the normal school to supply the trained
+teacher and the normal schools rapidly are meeting the demands of the
+present situation. Training classes for rural teachers have been
+established in high schools or academies in twelve or more States.
+More and more these higher schools are relating their courses of study
+to the rural life in which so many of them are placed.
+
+138. =What the University Can Do.=--An increasing number of young
+people from the country are going to college. The college was founded
+on the principle of educating American youth in a higher culture than
+local elementary schools could provide. It is the function of the
+college and the university to open wider vistas for the individual
+mind than is otherwise possible, to do on an infinitely larger scale
+what the teacher is attempting in the elementary grades. These higher
+schools are passing through a humanizing process; they are making more
+of the social sciences and the art of living well; and they are
+allying themselves with practical life. In the case of established
+institutions with traditions, and often with trustees and alumni of
+conservative tastes and tendencies, there are difficulties in the way
+of their rapid adaptation to vocational needs. It is probably best
+that a certain class of them should stand primarily for intellectual
+culture, as technical and agricultural schools stand for their
+specialties, but the true university should be representative of all
+the social interests of all the people in the State.
+
+An illustration of what the university can do in social service for a
+whole State occurs in the recent history of the University of
+Wisconsin. It conceived its function to be not solely to educate
+students who came for the full university course. It considered the
+needs of the people of the State, and it planned to provide
+information and intellectual stimulus for as wide a circle as
+possible. It provided correspondence courses. It sent out a corps of
+instructors to carry on extension courses. It made affiliations with
+other State institutions. It reached all classes of the people and
+touched all their social interests. It became especially useful to the
+farmers. In spite of scepticism on the part of the people and some of
+the university officers, those who had faith in the wider usefulness
+of the university pushed their plan until they succeeded in organizing
+a short winter course in agriculture for farmers' sons and then for
+the older farmers, branched out into domestic courses for the women,
+and even made provision for the interests of the boys and girls.
+Reaching out still further, the university organized farmers' courses
+in connection with the county agricultural schools, established
+experiment stations, and encouraged the boys to enter local contests
+for agricultural prizes. By these means the university has become
+widely popular and has been exceedingly beneficial to the people of
+the State.
+
+139. =The Public Library.=--While the school stands out as the leading
+educational institution of the rural community, it is by no means the
+sole agency of culture. Alongside it is the library. Home libraries in
+the country rarely contain books of value, either culturally or for
+practical purposes. Circulating libraries of fiction are little
+better. School libraries and village libraries that contain
+well-selected literature are to be included among the desiderata of
+every countryside. A few of the great books of all time belong there,
+a small collection of current literature, including periodicals, and
+an abundant literature on country life in all its phases. It is the
+function of the library to instruct the people what to read and how to
+read by supplying book lists and book exhibits, and by demonstrating
+occasionally through the school or the church how books may be read to
+get the most out of them. In the days before public libraries were
+common in this country, library associations were formed to secure
+good literature. Such associations are still useful in small
+communities that find it impossible to sustain a public library, and
+they serve as a medium for securing from the State a travelling
+library, which has the special advantage of frequent substitution of
+books. Or the school library may be the nucleus of a literary
+collection for the whole community--advantageously so if the school
+building is kept open as a community centre.
+
+140. =Reading Circles and Musical Clubs.=--The value of the library
+to the public consists, of course, not in the presence of books on the
+shelves, but in their use. Such use is encouraged by the existence of
+literary or art clubs and reading circles. They supply the twofold
+want of companionship and culture. The proper basis of association is
+similarity of interests. Local history or geology, nature study,
+current public events in State or nation, art in some of its phases,
+or the literature of a particular country or period, may be the
+special consideration of a club or reading circle; in every case the
+library is the laboratory of investigation. One of the conspicuously
+successful organizations of the last thirty years, showing how
+organization grows out of social need, is the Chautauqua movement.
+Starting as an undertaking in Sunday-school extension by means of a
+summer assembly and local reading circles, in which the study of
+history, literature, and science was added to Bible study, the
+movement has grown, until it is represented by a thousand summer
+institutes, with numerous popular lectures and entertainments, and it
+is one of the most useful educational agencies anywhere in the United
+States.
+
+Every community is interested in music. Music has a place on every
+programme, whether of church, school, or public assembly. A musical
+club is one of the effective types of organization for those who are
+like-minded in country or town. There are two varieties of
+organization, the first of persons who join for the pleasure that
+comes from agreeable society, the second of those who enter the
+organization for the musical culture to be obtained. Whether for
+diversion or study, a musical club is well worth while. Under the
+influence of music antagonisms soften, moroseness disappears, and
+sociability and good cheer take their place. The old-fashioned
+singing-school was one of the most popular of local social
+institutions; something is needed to fill its place. A club or band
+for the serious study of instrumental music not only gives culture to
+individuals, but is also an asset of increasing value to a church or
+community.
+
+141. =Woman's Clubs.=--These have become so common that they need no
+special description, but as a social phenomenon they have their
+significance. They mark a new era in the emancipation of ideas; they
+are indicative of a new interest and ambition, and they are
+training-schools for future citizenship. They are of special value
+because of the wide areas of human interest that are brought within
+scope of discussion. For rural women they are a great boon, and while
+they have been most numerous in the larger centres, they may easily
+become a universal stimulus and guide to higher culture everywhere. In
+the absence of a grange they may serve as a centre of farm interests,
+and discussion may be made practical by the application of acquired
+knowledge to local problems, but their great value is in broadening
+the women's horizon of thought and interest beyond their own affairs.
+If rural men would organize local associations or brotherhoods for
+similar assembly and discussion of State and national interests they
+could multiply many times the benefits that come from the associations
+and discussions that occur on special days of political rally and
+voting. The rural mind needs frequent stimulus, and it needs frequent
+association with many minds. For this reason the cultural function is
+to be provided for by a method of congregation and organization
+approved by experience, leadership is to be provided and occasional
+stimulus applied, and life is to be enriched at many points. It is for
+the people themselves to carry on such enterprises, but the initiation
+of them often comes from outside. Usually, perhaps, the number of
+people locally who have a real desire for culture are few, but it is
+through the training of these few that judicious, capable leaders of
+the community are to be obtained.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 197-277.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 161-347.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 336-340.
+
+  DAVIS: _Agricultural Education in the Public Schools._
+
+  EGGLESTON AND BRUÉRE: _The Work of the Rural School_, pages
+      193-223.
+
+  HOWE: _Wisconsin: an Experiment in Democracy_, pages 140-182.
+
+  _Country Life_, pages 200-210.
+
+  FOGHT: _The American Rural School_, pages 254-281.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+RURAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+142. =The Necessity of Government.=--Institutions of recreation and
+culture are in most cases the voluntary creation of local groups of
+individuals, except as the state has adopted a system of compulsory
+education. Government may be self-imposed or fixed by external
+authority, in any case it cannot be escaped. It can be changed in form
+and efficiency; it depends for its worth upon standards of public
+opinion; but it cannot cease to exist. As the activity of the child
+needs to be regulated by parental control in the home and by the
+discipline of the teacher in the school, so the activity of the people
+in the community needs to be regulated by the authority of government.
+Self-control on the part of each individual or the existence of custom
+or public opinion without an executive agency for the enforcement of
+the social will, is not sufficient to safeguard and promote the
+interests of all. Government has everywhere been necessary.
+
+143. =The Reign of Law.=--The existence of regulation in the community
+is continually evident. The child comes into relation to law when he
+is sent to school to conform to the law of compulsory education. He
+goes to school along a road built and maintained by law, takes his
+place in a school building provided by a board of education or school
+committee that executes the law, and accepts the instruction of a
+teacher who is employed and paid according to the law. His hours of
+schooling and the length of terms and vacations are determined by the
+same authority. During his periods of recreation he is still under the
+reign of law, for game laws regulate the times when he may or may not
+hunt and fish. When he grows older and assumes the rights of
+citizenship he must bear his part of the burdens of society. He has
+the right to vote as one of the lawmakers of the land, but he is not
+thereby free to cast off the restraints of law. He must pay his
+proportion of the taxes that sustain the government that binds him,
+local, State, and federal taxes. He must perform the public duty of
+sitting on a jury or administering civic office if he is summoned
+thereto. Even in his own domicile, though he be householder and head
+of a family, he may not injure the public health or morals by
+nuisances on his own premises, his financial obligations to creditors
+are secured against him by law, even the possession of his acres is
+made certain only by public record. It makes no difference whether the
+legal restrictions under which he lives are local or national, they
+are all a part of the system for which he and his neighbors are
+responsible, and which as citizens they are under obligation to
+maintain.
+
+144. =Political Terms.=--It is important to understand and use
+correctly certain terms which occur in this connection. The state is
+the people organized for the purpose of exercising the authority of
+social control. In its sociological sense it is not restricted to a
+large or small area, but in political parlance it is used with
+reference to a large district which possesses a certain degree of
+authority over all the people, as the State of New York, or the
+sovereign state of Great Britain. Government is the institution that
+functions for social control in accordance with the will of the people
+or of an individual to whose authority they submit. Politics is the
+science and art of government, and includes statesmanship as its
+highest type and the manipulation of party machinery as its lowest
+type. Law is the body of social regulations administered by government
+ostensibly for the public good. Each of these may be and in the past
+has been prostituted for private advantage. In the state one man or a
+small group has seized and held the sovereign power through the force
+of personal ascendancy or the prestige of birth or wealth, and has
+used it for himself, as history testifies by numerous examples. The
+forms of government in many cases have not been well adapted to the
+functions that they were designed to perform. The despotic
+administrative agencies that were overthrown by the French Revolution
+were ill-adapted to the governmental needs of the lower classes. Much
+of the governmental machinery of the American republic has not matched
+the constitutional forms that were originally provided, and the
+Constitution has had to be stretched or amended if the government of
+the founders of the republic was not to be revolutionized. So law and
+politics have had to be reorganized, revised, and reinterpreted to fit
+into the social need. Law is a conservative factor in progress, but it
+adapts itself of necessity to the demands of equity.
+
+145. =The Will of the People.=--On the continent of Europe rural
+government is arranged usually by the central authority of the nation;
+in America it is more independent of national control. On this side of
+the water the colonial governments often interfered little with local
+freedom, and after the Revolution the people fashioned their own
+national organization, and in giving it certain powers jealously
+guarded their own local privileges. They were willing to sacrifice a
+general lawmaking power and grudgingly to permit the nation to have
+executive and judicial authority, but they retained the management of
+local affairs, including the raising and expenditure of direct taxes.
+Local government, therefore, has continued to reflect the mind of the
+community, a mind occasionally swayed by emotional impulse, but
+usually controlled by a love of order, and by an Anglo-Saxon pride in
+self-restraint. The will of the people has made the government and
+sanctions its actions. It may be that the will is not fixed or united
+enough to force itself effectually upon a set of public officials, and
+may await reform or revolution to become forceful, yet in the last
+resort and in the long run the will of the people prevails. By the
+provisions of a democratic constitution judgment is frequently passed
+by the people upon the administration of government, and it is within
+their power to change the administrative policy or to reject the
+agents of government whom they have previously elected. Locally they
+have the advantage of knowing all candidates for office. The
+efficiency of rural government depends much on its revenue, and
+farmers are reluctant to increase the tax rate; slowly they are
+learning the value of good roads and good schools.
+
+146. =The Ancient History of the Community.=--The government of the
+rural community has a history of its own, as has the community itself.
+This government gradually fits itself to meet local needs, but it is
+slow to put away the survivals of earlier forms and customs that have
+outlived their usefulness. The history of the community goes back to
+primitive times, when the clan group recognized common interests and
+acknowledged the leadership of the chief or head man. Custom was the
+law of the clan, and its older members assisted the chief in
+interpreting custom. Government in the community developed in two
+ways, one along the path of centralization of authority, the other in
+the growth of democracy. One tendency was to attach an undue
+importance to ancient custom, and to throw about it a veil of sanctity
+by connecting it with religion. Such a community in its conservatism
+came to possess in time a static civilization, but it lacked virility
+and commonly fell under the control of a neighboring energetic
+community or prince. This is the usual history of the Oriental
+community. The other tendency was to adapt local law and organization
+to changing circumstances, and to make use of the abilities of all the
+members of the community, to give them a voice in the local assembly,
+and a right to hold public office. Such progressive communities were
+the city states of Greece, the republic of Rome, and the rural
+communities of the barbarian Germans before they settled in the Roman
+Empire. When the Greek communities became decadent they fell under
+foreign dominion; Rome imperialized the republic, but never forgot how
+to rule well in her municipalities; the Germans passed on their
+democratic ways to the English, and from that source they were brought
+to America.
+
+147. =Two Types of Rural Government.=--In America there have been two
+types of rural government growing out of the manner of original
+settlement. In New England the colonists settled near together in
+villages grouped about the meeting-house. One or more villages
+constituted a town for purposes of government. In these small
+districts it was possible for all the citizens to meet frequently, and
+in an annual assembly the voters of the community elected their
+officers and adopted the necessary local regulations. Long custom
+transplanted oversea had kept a close connection between church and
+state, and until the new American principle of separation was
+universally adopted, the annual town meeting in Massachusetts was a
+parish meeting, in which the community voted with reference to the
+needs of the church as well as of the state. In the South community
+life was less closely knit, and town meetings were not in vogue. The
+parish held its vestry meetings for the transaction of ecclesiastical
+business, for episcopacy was the established church; overseers of the
+poor were elected at the same meetings. There were county assemblies
+for social and judicial purposes, but in each a few prominent people
+in the neighborhood managed affairs and perpetuated their privileges,
+as among the landed gentry of England. It was in these ways that
+popular government continued along the path of material and social
+progress in the North, while in the South a plantation aristocracy
+conservatively maintained its colonial ideas and institutions,
+including slavery.
+
+With wider settlement there was an extension of these sectional
+differences, except near the border of both, where a blending of the
+two took place to some extent. County organization was necessary for a
+time, while the country was thinly settled, but neighborhoods
+organized as school districts, and by a natural process the school
+district became the nucleus of a township government, at first for
+school purposes and later for the self-government of the whole
+community. In some cases, as in Illinois, it was made optional with
+the people of a county whether they would organize a township
+government or not, but wherever the two systems entered into
+comparison and competition the township government proved the more
+popular. As long as pure democracy remains there must be a small local
+unit of government, and the New England town meeting seems wonderfully
+well adapted to the purpose of self-government. The recent tendency
+to extend democracy in the form of political primaries and the
+referendum is a stimulus to such organization, and it may be expected
+that the town system will continue to extend, even in the South.
+
+148. =Town and County Officials.=--The town meeting is held in a
+public building. In colonial days the close connection between church
+and state made it proper that the meeting should be in the
+meeting-house; in the West, where the school was the nucleus of local
+organization, the schoolhouse was the natural voting place. In
+present-day New England even a small village has its town house,
+containing a large hall, which serves for town meetings and for
+community assemblies for various social purposes. In the town meeting
+the administrative officers, called selectmen, are chosen annually,
+and minor officers, including clerk, treasurer, constables, and school
+committee; there the community taxes itself for the salaries of its
+officials, for the support of the town poor, for the maintenance of
+highways, and for such modern improvements as street lights and a
+public library. Personal ability counts for more than party
+allegiance, though each political party usually puts its candidates in
+the field. An important function of the local voters is the decision
+under the local-option system that prevails in the East, as to whether
+the sale of intoxicating liquors shall be licensed for the ensuing
+year; under an increasing referendum policy the acts of the State
+legislature are frequently submitted for review to the local voters.
+
+Where the town system does not exist or is part of a larger county,
+officers are elected for more extended responsibility. The functions
+of county officers are mainly judicial. Among the county officers are
+the sheriff elected by the people to preserve order and justice
+throughout the region, the coroner whose duty has been to investigate
+sudden death or disaster, and to hold an inquest to determine the
+origin of crime if it existed. The county commissioners or supervisors
+are executive officers, corresponding to the selectmen of the town;
+the clerk and treasurer of the county have duties similar to the town
+officers with those titles.
+
+149. =Political Relations and Responsibilities.=--The local
+community, alike under township and county government, is a part of a
+larger political unit, and so has relations with and responsibilities
+to the greater State. The town meeting may legislate on such matters
+as the erection of a new schoolhouse or the building of a town
+highway, but it cannot locate the post-office or change the location
+of a State or county road. It may make its local taxes large or small,
+but it cannot increase or diminish the amount of the State tax or
+regulate the national tariff. The townsman lives under the
+jurisdiction of a law that is made by his representatives in the State
+legislature or the national Congress, and he is tried and punished for
+the infraction of law in a county, State, or national court. As a
+citizen of these larger political units he may vote for county, State,
+and national officials, and may himself aspire to the highest office
+in the gift of his countrymen.
+
+150. =Political Standards.=--To a foreigner such a system of
+government may seem exceedingly complex, but by it self-government is
+preserved to the people of the nation, and a good degree of efficiency
+is maintained. There are problems of social control that need study
+and that produce various experiments in one State or another before
+they are widely adopted; there is corruption of party politics with
+unscrupulous methods and machinery that is too well oiled with
+"tainted" money; but local government averages up to the level of the
+intelligence and morals of the community. If the schoolhouse is an
+efficient centre for the proper training of boys and girls to
+understand their social relations and civic responsibilities, and if
+the meeting-house is an efficient centre for the discussion of social
+ethics and a religion that moves on the plane of earth as well as
+heaven, then the town house will give a good account of itself in
+intelligent voting and clean political methods. If the school-teacher
+and the minister have won for themselves positions of community
+leadership, and are educators of a forceful public opinion, and if the
+community is sufficiently in touch with the best constructive forces
+in the national political arena to feel their stimulus, the political
+type locally is not likely to be very low. A self-governing people
+will always have as good a government as it wants, and if the
+government is not what it should be, the will of the people has not
+been well educated.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  FAIRLIE: _Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Villages._
+
+  FISKE: _Civil Government in the United States_, pages 34-95.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 292-317.
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 92-105.
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 402-410.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+HEALTH AND BEAUTY
+
+
+151. =Health and Beauty in the Community.=--Rural government formerly
+limited its range of activity to political and economic concerns. The
+individualism of Americans resented the interference of government in
+other matters. If property was made secure and taxed judiciously for
+the maintenance of public institutions, the duty of government was
+accomplished. The individual man was prepared to assume all further
+responsibility for himself and family. Such matters as the health of a
+rural community and its æsthetic appearance were left to individual
+initiative and generally were neglected. On many occasions the
+housewife showed her sympathy and kindliness by nursing a sick
+neighbor, but the members of the community had little appreciation of
+the seriousness of contagion and infection, no knowledge of germs, and
+small thought of preventive measures. The appearance of their
+buildings and grounds was nobody's business but their own. They had no
+conception of the social obligation of each for all and of all for
+each. The result was an unnecessary amount of illness, especially of
+tuberculosis and typhoid fever, because of insanitary buildings and
+grounds, and a general air of shabbiness and neglect that pervaded
+many communities. It was not that the people lacked the æsthetic
+sense, but it had not been trained, and in the struggle for the
+subjugation of a new continent all such minor considerations must give
+way to the satisfaction of elemental wants.
+
+Slowly it is becoming understood that health and beauty are matters
+that demand public attention and regulation. Good fortune and
+happiness are not purely economic and political concerns. Well-kept
+roads, clean and well-planned public buildings, sanitary farm
+structures, properly drained farm lands, and pure drinking water may
+not add to the number of bushels an acre, but they prolong life and
+add to its comfort and satisfaction.
+
+When it seems no longer strange to bother about health conditions, it
+will be relatively easy to give attention to rural æsthetics. If a
+schoolhouse or a meeting-house is to be erected, it will give greater
+satisfaction to the community if the principles of good architecture
+are observed and the building is set in the midst of trees and
+shrubbery and well-kept lawn. With such an object-lesson, the people
+of the community will presently contrast their own property with that
+of the public, the imitative impulse will begin to work, and
+individuals will begin to make improvements as leisure permits. There
+are villages that are ugly scars on a landscape which nature intended
+should be beautiful. With misdirected energy, farmers have destroyed
+the wild beauty of the fence corners and roadsides, mowing down the
+weeds and clearing out the brush and vines in an effort to make
+practical improvements, while with curious oversight they have
+permitted the weeds to grow in the paths and the grass to lengthen in
+the yard. Many a farm in rural communities has untidy refuse heaps,
+tottering outbuildings, rusting machinery, and general litter that
+reveal the absence of all sense of beauty or even neatness, yet the
+farmer and his wife may be thrifty, hard-working people, and
+scrupulously particular indoors. Their minds have not been sensitized
+to outdoor beauty and hideousness. They forget that nature is
+æsthetic; they live in the midst of her beauty, but their eyes are dim
+and their ears are dull, and it is difficult to instruct them.
+Happily, recent years have brought with them a new sense of the
+possibilities of rural beauty. Children are learning to appreciate it
+in the surroundings of the schoolhouse and the tasteful decorations of
+its interior; their elders are buying lawn-mowers and painting their
+fences, and America may yet rival in attractiveness the fair
+countryside of old England.
+
+152. =Is the Town Healthier than the Country?=--It has been commonly
+believed that country people are healthier than townspeople. Their
+life in the open, with plenty of exercise and hard work, toughens
+fibre and strengthens the body to resist disease. It has also been
+supposed that the city, with its crowded quarters, vitiated air, and
+communicable diseases, has a much larger death-rate. It is true that
+city life is more dangerous to health than a country existence if no
+health precautions are taken, but city ordinances commonly regulate
+community health, while in the country there is greater license.
+Exposure gives birth to colds and coughs in the country; these are
+treated with inadequate home remedies, because physicians are
+inconveniently distant or expensive, and chronic diseases fasten
+themselves upon the individual. Ignorance of hygienic principles,
+absence of bathrooms, poor ventilation, unscreened doors and windows,
+and impure water and milk are among the causes of disease.
+
+There is as much need of pure air, pure water, and pure food in the
+country as in the city, and the danger from disease is no less
+menacing. The farmer loses vitality through long hours of labor, and
+is susceptible to disease scarcely less than is the working man in
+town. And he is more at fault if he suffers, for there is room to
+build the home in a healthful location, where drainage is easy and
+pure air and sunshine are abundant; there is water without price for
+cleansing purposes, and sanitation is possible without excessive cost.
+In most cases it is lack of information that prevents a realization of
+perils that lurk, and every rural community should have instruction in
+hygiene from school-teacher, physician, or resident nurse.
+
+153. =Rural Health Preservers.=--Three health preservers are needed in
+every rural community. These are the health official, the physician,
+and the nurse. There is need first of one whose business it shall be
+to inspect the sanitary conditions of public and private buildings,
+and to watch the health of the people, old and young. It matters
+little whether the official is under State or local authority, if he
+efficiently and fearlessly performs his duty. Constant vigilance alone
+can give security, and it is a small price to pay if the community is
+compelled to bear even the whole expense of such a health official.
+Community health is often intrusted to the town fathers or a district
+board with little interest in the matter; on the other hand, the agent
+of a State board is not always a local resident, and is liable to
+overlook local conditions. It is desirable that the health official be
+an individual of good training, familiar with the locality, and with
+ample authority, for in this way only can safety be reasonably secure.
+
+It is by no means impracticable to give a local physician the
+necessary official authority. He is equipped with information and
+skilled by experience to know bad conditions when he sees them and to
+appreciate their seriousness. Whether or not a physician is the
+official health protector of the community, a physician there should
+be who can be reached readily by those who need him, and who should be
+required to produce a certificate of thorough training in both
+medicine and surgery. If such a medical practitioner does not
+establish himself in the district voluntarily, the community might
+well afford to employ such a physician on a salary and make him
+responsible for the health of all. As civilization advances it will
+become increasingly the custom in the country as well as in the city
+to employ a physician to keep one's general health good, as now one
+employs a dentist to examine and preserve the teeth. Medical practice
+must continually become more preventive and less remedial. It may seem
+as if it were an unwarranted expansion of the social functions of a
+community that it should care for the health of individuals, but as
+the interdependence of individuals becomes increasingly understood,
+the community may be expected to extend its care for its own welfare.
+
+154. =The Village Nurse.=--Alongside the physician belongs the village
+or rural nurse. Already there are many communities that are becoming
+accustomed to such a functionary, who visits the schools, examines the
+children, prescribes for their small ailments or recommends a visit to
+the physician, and who stands ready to perform the duties of a trained
+nurse at the bedside of any sufferer. The support of such a nurse is
+usually maintained by voluntary subscription, but there seems to be no
+good reason why she should not be appointed and paid by the organized
+community as a local official. She is as much needed as a
+road-surveyor, surely as valuable as hog-reeve or pound-keeper. It is
+a valid social principle, though rural observation does not always
+justify it, that human life is not only intrinsically more valuable to
+the individual or family than the life of an animal of the herd, but
+it is actually worth more to the community.
+
+155. =The Village Improvement Society.=--To secure good health
+conditions, interested persons in the community may organize a health
+club. Its feasibility is well proved by the history of the village
+improvement society. There are two hundred such societies in
+Massachusetts alone, and the whole movement is organized nationally in
+the American Civic Federation. Their object is the toning up of the
+community by various methods that have proved practicable. They owe
+their organization to a few public-spirited individuals, to a woman's
+club, or sometimes to a church. Their membership is entirely
+voluntary, but local government may properly co-operate to accomplish
+a desired end. Expenses are met by voluntary contribution or by means
+of public entertainments, and its efforts are limited, of course, by
+the fatness of its purse. Examples of the useful public service that
+they perform are the demolition of unsightly buildings and the
+cleaning up of unkempt premises, the beautification of public
+structures and the building of better roads, the erection of drinking
+troughs or fountains, and the improvement of cemeteries. Besides such
+outdoor interests village improvement societies create public spirit,
+educate the community by means of high-class entertainments, art and
+nature exhibits, and public discussion of current questions of local
+interest. They stand back of community enterprises for recreation,
+fire protection, and other forms of social service, including such
+economic interests as co-operative buying and marketing and the
+extension of telephone or transportation service.
+
+The initial impulse that sets in motion various forms of village
+improvement frequently comes from the summer visitor or from a teacher
+or minister who brings new ideas and a will to carry them into
+action. In certain sections of country, like the mountain region of
+northern New England, summer people are very numerous, through the
+weeks from June to October, and not a few of them revisit their
+favorite rural haunts for a briefer time in the winter. It is not to
+be expected that they are always a force for good. Sometimes they make
+country residents envious and dissatisfied. But it is not unusual that
+they give an intellectual stimulus to the young people and the women,
+compel the men to observe the proprieties of social intercourse, and
+encourage downcast leaders of church and neighborhood to renewed
+industry and hope. They demand multiplied comforts and conveniences,
+and expect attractive and healthful accommodations. Where they
+purchase and improve lands and buildings of their own they provide
+useful models to their less particular neighbors, and thus the leaven
+of a better type of living does its work in the neighborhood.
+
+156. =Principles of Organization.=--The principles that lie at the
+basis of every organization for improvement are simple and practicable
+everywhere. They have been enumerated as a democratic spirit and
+organization, a wide interest in community affairs, and a perennial
+care for the well-being of all the people. Public spirit is the reason
+for its existence, and the same public spirit is the only force that
+can keep the organization alive. Every community in this democratic
+country has its fortunes in its own hands. If it is so permeated with
+individualism or inertia that it cannot awake to its duties and its
+privileges, it will perish in accordance with the law of the survival
+of the fittest; if, on the contrary, it adopts as its controlling
+principles those just mentioned, it will find increasing strength and
+profit for itself, because it keeps alive the spirit of co-operation
+and mutual help.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 66-82, 106-130.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 147-167.
+
+  HARRIS: _Health on the Farm._
+
+  FARWELL: _Village Improvement_, pages 47-53, Appendix.
+
+  WATERS: _Village Nursing in the United States._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+MORALS IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+
+157. =Social Disease and Its Causes.=--Rural morals are a phase of the
+public health of the community. Immorality is a kind of social
+disease, for which the community needs to find a remedy. The amount of
+moral ill varies widely, but it can be increased by neglect or
+lessened by effort, as surely as can the amount of physical disease.
+Moral ill is due to the individual and to the community. The judgment
+of the individual may be warped, his moral consciousness defective, or
+his will weak. He may have low standards and ill-adjusted
+relationships. Selfishness may have blunted his sympathy. All these
+conditions contribute to the common vices of community life. But the
+individual is sometimes less to blame than the community. Much moral
+ill is a consequence of the imperfect functioning of the community. A
+man steals because he is hungry or cold, and the motive to escape pain
+is stronger than the motive to deal lawfully with his neighbor; but if
+the community saw to it that adequate provision was made for all
+economic need, and if moral instruction was not lacking, it would be
+unlikely to happen. Similar reasons may be found for other evils. It
+is as much the business of the community to keep the social atmosphere
+wholesome as it is to keep the air and water of its farms pure. It
+should provide moral training and moral exercise.
+
+158. =How Morals Develop.=--Without attempting a thoroughly scientific
+definition of morals, we may call good morals those habitual acts
+which are in harmony with the best individual and social interests of
+the people of the community, and bad morals the absence of such
+habits. Of course the acts are the consequence of motives, and in the
+last analysis the question of morals is rooted in the field of
+psychology or religion; but the inner motive is revealed in the
+outward act, and it is customary to speak of the act as moral or
+immoral. Moral standards are not unvarying. One race differs from
+another and one period of history differs from another. Primitive
+custom was the first standard, and was determined by what was good for
+the group, and the individual conformed to it from force of
+circumstances. If he was to remain a member of the group and enjoy its
+benefits he must be willing to sacrifice his selfish desires. His
+consciousness of the solidarity of the group deepens with experience,
+and his feelings of sympathy grow stronger, until impulsive altruism
+becomes a habit and eventually a fixed and purposeful patriotism. By
+and by religion throws about conduct its sanctions and interprets the
+meaning of morality. However imperfect may be the relations between
+good morals and pagan religions, Judaism and Christianity have
+combined religion with high moral ideals. The Hebrew prophets declared
+that God demanded justice, kindness, and mercy in human relations
+rather than acts of ceremony and sacrifice to himself, and Jesus made
+love to neighbor as fundamental to holiness as love to God. Such a
+religion becomes dynamic in producing moral deeds.
+
+159. =The Social Stimulus to Morality.=--It is customary to think of
+the homely virtues of truthfulness, sobriety, thrift, and kindliness
+as individual obligations, but they are not wrought out in isolation.
+Isolation is never complete, and virtue is a social product. The
+farmer makes occasional visits to the country store, where he
+experiences social contacts; there is habitual association with
+individual workers on the farm or traders with whom the farmer carries
+on a business transaction. His personal contacts may not be helpful,
+and his wife may lack them almost altogether outside of the home; the
+result is often a tendency toward vice or degeneration, sometimes to
+insanity or suicide, but it is seldom that there are not helpful
+influences and relations available if the individual will put himself
+in the way of enjoying them. Good morals are dependent on right
+associations. Human beings need the stimulus of good society,
+otherwise the mind vegetates or broods upon real or fancied wrongs
+until the moral nature is in danger of atrophy or warping. Family
+feuds develop, as among the Scotch highlanders or the mountain people
+in certain parts of the South. Lack of social sympathy increases as
+the interests become self-centred; out of this characteristic grow
+directly such evils as petty lawlessness, rowdyism, and crime. The
+country districts need the help of high-grade schools and proper
+places of recreation, of the Young Men's Christian Association or an
+association of like principles, and most of all of a virile church
+that will interpret moral obligation and furnish the power that is
+needed to move the will to right action.
+
+160. =Rural Vices.=--The moral problems of the rural community do not
+differ greatly from those of the town. The most common rural vices are
+profanity, drunkenness, and sexual immorality. Profanity is often a
+habit rather than a defect in moral character, and is due sometimes to
+a narrow vocabulary. It is a mark of ignorance and boorishness. In
+many localities it is less common than it used to be. The average
+community life is wholesome. Not more than twenty per cent of American
+rural communities have really bad conditions in any way, according to
+the investigations made by the United States Rural Life Commission in
+1908. Considering the monotony and hardships of rural life, it is much
+to the credit of the people that most communities are temperate and
+law-abiding. Intemperance is one of the most common evils; there is a
+longing for the stimulant of liquor, which appears in some cases in
+moderate drinking and in other cases in the habit of an occasional
+spree in a near-by town, when reason abdicates to appetite. Lumbermen
+and miners, whose work is especially hard and isolation from good
+society complete, have been notorious for their lapses into
+intemperance, but it is not a serious problem in three out of four
+communities the country over, and a wave of temperance sentiment has
+swept strongly over rural districts. Gambling is a diversion that
+appeals to those who have few mental and pecuniary resources as an
+offset to the daily monotony, but this habit is not typical of rural
+communities.
+
+Investigations of the Rural Life Commission showed that sexual
+immorality prevails in ten to fifteen per cent of the rural
+communities, and they trace much of it to late evening drives and
+dances and unchaperoned calls, but on the whole the perversion of the
+sex instinct is less common than in the cities. The young are
+generally trained in moral principles, the religious sanctions are
+more strongly operative, and the conduct and character of every
+individual is constantly under the public eye. Young people in the
+country marry at an earlier age than in the city, and husband and wife
+are normally faithful. Crime in the country is peculiar to degenerate
+communities, elsewhere it is rare. Juvenile delinquency occurs, and
+there are not such helpful influences as the juvenile court of the
+city; on the other hand, most boys are in touch with home influences,
+feel the restraint of a law-abiding community, and know that
+lawbreaking is almost certain to be found out and punished.
+
+161. =Community Obligation.=--Moral delinquency in the rural community
+lies in the failure to provide social stimulus to individual members.
+The farmer has as good reason to be ambitious for success and to feel
+pride in it as has the city merchant, but he has small local
+encouragement to develop better agriculture on his own farm. He has as
+much right to the benefits of association in toil and co-operation in
+effecting economies and disposing of his products as the employer or
+working man in town. He is equally entitled to good government, to
+wholesome recreation, to a suitable and efficient education, and to
+the spiritual leadership of a progressive church. Without the spur of
+community fellowship his life narrows and his abilities are not
+developed. With the help of community stimulus the individual may
+develop capacity for individual achievement and social leadership of
+as fine a quality as any urban centre can supply. It is well known
+that the strong men of the cities in business and the professions have
+come in large proportion from the country. If such qualities developed
+in the comparative isolation and discomfort of the past, it is a moral
+obligation of rural communities of the future to do even more to
+produce the brawn and brain of city leaders in days to come.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  WILSON: _The Evolution of the Country Community_, pages 171-188.
+
+  ANDERSON: _The Country Town_, pages 95-106.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 146-165.
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 166-175.
+
+  HOBHOUSE: _Morals in Evolution_, I, pages 364-375.
+
+  SPENCER: _Data of Ethics_, chapter 8.
+
+  _Report of Committee on Morals and Rural Conditions of the General
+      Association of Congregational Churches of Massachusetts_,
+      1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE RURAL CHURCH
+
+
+162. =The Value of the Rural Church.=--Of all the local institutions
+of the rural community, none is so discouraging and at the same time
+so potential for usefulness as the country church. It has had a noble
+past; it is passing through a dubious present; it should emerge into a
+great future. The church is the conserver of the highest ideals. Like
+every long-established institution, it is conservative in methods as
+well as in principles. It regards itself as the censor of conduct and
+the mentor of conscience, and it fills the rôle of critic as often as
+it holds out an encouraging hand to the weary and hard pressed in the
+struggle for existence and moral victory. It is the guide-post to
+another world, which it esteems more highly than this. Sometimes it
+puts more emphasis on creed than on conduct, on Sunday scrupulousness
+than on Monday scruple. But in spite of its failings and its frequent
+local decline, the church is the hope of rural America. It is
+notorious that the absence of a church means a distinctly lower type
+of community life, both morally and socially. Vice and crime flourish
+there. Property values tumble when the church dies and the minister
+moves away. Many residents rarely if ever enter the precincts of the
+meeting-house or contribute to the expense of its maintenance, yet
+they share in the benefits that it gives and would not willingly see
+it disappear when they realize the consequences. In the westward march
+of settlement the missionary kept pace with the pioneer, and the
+church on the frontier became the centre of every good influence. It
+is impossible to estimate the value of the rural church in the onrush
+of civilization. Religion has been the saving salt of humanity when it
+was in danger of spoiling. In the lumber and the mining camp, on the
+cattle-ranch and the prairie, the missionary has sweetened life with
+his ministry and given a tone to the life of the open and the wild
+that in value is past calculation.
+
+163. =The Church in Decline.=--In the days when it seems declining,
+the strength of the rural church is worth preserving. There are
+hundreds of rural communities where the young people have gone to the
+town and population has steadily fallen behind. There are hundreds
+more where the people of a community have drawn wealth from the soil,
+and with a succession of good crops and high prices have accumulated
+enough to keep them comfortable, and then have sold or leased their
+property and moved into town. The purchasers or tenants who replaced
+them have been less able to contribute to church support or have been
+of a different faith or race, and the churches have found it difficult
+to survive. Doubtless some of these churches could be spared without
+great loss, for in the rush of real or expected settlement, certain
+localities became over-churched, but the spectacle of scores of
+abandoned churches in the Middle West has as doleful an appearance as
+abandoned farms in New England.
+
+164. =Is It Worth Preserving?=--It would be a misfortune for the
+church to perish out of the rural districts, for it performs a
+religious function that no other institution performs. It cherishes
+the beliefs that have strengthened man through the ages and given him
+the upward look that betokens faith in his destiny and power in his
+life. It calls out the best that is in him to meet the tasks of every
+day. It ministers to him in times of greatest need. It teaches him how
+to relate himself to an Unseen Power and to the fellowship of human
+kind. The meeting-house is a community centre drawing to itself like a
+magnet family groups and individuals from miles around, overcoming
+their isolation and breaking into the daily monotony of their lives,
+and with its worship and its sermon awakening new thoughts and
+impulses for the enrichment of life. Nor does its ministry confine
+itself to things of the spirit. The weekly Sunday assembly provides
+opportunity for social intercourse, if no more than an exchange of
+greetings, and now and then a sociable evening gathering or
+anniversary occasion brings an added social opportunity.
+
+165. =The Country Minister.=--The faithful rural minister also carries
+the church to the people. His parish is broad, but he finds his way
+into the homes of his parishioners, acquaints himself with their
+characteristics and their needs, and fits his ministrations to them.
+Especially does he carry comfort to the sick and soothe the suffering
+and the dying. No other can quite fill his place; no other so builds
+himself into the hearts of the people. He may not be a great thinker
+or preach polished sermons; his hands may be rough and his clothes
+ill-fitting; but if he is a loyal friend and ministers to real
+spiritual need, he is saint and prophet to those whom he has
+brothered.
+
+In the rural economy each public functionary is worthy or unworthy,
+according to his personal fidelity to his particular task. A poorly
+equipped board of government is not worth half the salary of the
+school-teacher. That official may not hold his place or gain the
+respect of his pupils unless he meets their needs of instruction with
+a degree of efficiency. But a public servant who fills full the
+channels of his usefulness is worth twice what he is likely to get as
+his stipulated wage. The community can well afford to look kindly upon
+a minister of that type, to encourage him in his efforts for the
+upbuilding of the community, and to contribute to an honorable stipend
+for his support.
+
+166. =The Problems.=--The rural church has its problems and so has the
+rural minister. There are the indifferent people who are irreligious
+themselves and have no share in the activities of the religious
+institution. There are the insincere people who belong to the church
+but are not sympathetic in spirit or conduct. There are the
+cold-blooded people who gather weekly in the meeting-house but do not
+respond to intellectual or spiritual stimulus, and who chill the heart
+of the minister and soon quench his enthusiasm. It is not surprising
+if he is restless and changes location frequently, or if he becomes
+listless and apparently indifferent to the welfare of his flock, when
+he meets no response and himself enjoys no stimulus from his own kind.
+All these conditions constitute the spiritual problem. Beyond this
+there is the institutional problem. The church finds maintenance
+difficult, often impossible without outside assistance. Failing to
+minister to any purely community need except on special occasions, or
+to assume any responsibility of leadership in civic or social affairs,
+it does not receive the cordial support of the community to which as a
+social institution, conserving the highest interests, it is reasonably
+entitled. It must be remembered that in America there can be no
+established church supported by the State, as in England. The church
+is on a different footing in every community from that of the public
+school. It is therefore dependent on the good-will of the community
+and must cultivate that good-will if it is to succeed. Most rural
+churches have yet to become a vital force, not only energizing their
+own members, but reaching out also to the whole community, seeking not
+their own growth as their chief end, but by ministering to the
+community's needs, realizing a fuller, richer life of their own.
+
+167. =The Needs of the Church.=--The rural church needs reorganization
+for efficiency, but changes must be gradual. A local church that is
+democratic in its form of organization, with no external oversight, is
+likely to need strengthening in administration; a church that intrusts
+control to a small board or is governed from the outside probably
+needs to get closer to the people, but differences in church
+government are of small practical consequence. It does not appear that
+it makes much difference in the success of a rural church whether its
+organization is Episcopal, Presbyterian, or Congregational. The
+machinery needs modernizing, whatever the pattern. It is a part of the
+task to be undertaken by every up-to-date country minister to consider
+possible improvements in the various departments of the church. It is
+as likely that the children are being as inefficiently taught in the
+Sunday-school as in the every-day school, that organizations and
+opportunities for the young people are as lacking as in the community
+at large, that discussions in the Bible class are as pointless as
+those in any local forum. It is more than likely that the church is
+failing to make good in a given locality because it is depending on a
+few persons to carry on its activities, and these few do not
+co-operate well with one another or with other Christian people. The
+functions of the church are neither well understood nor properly
+performed. It has small assets in community good-will, and it is in no
+real sense a going concern.
+
+168. =The New Rural Church.=--Here and there a church of a new type is
+meeting manfully these various needs. It has set itself first to
+answer the question whether the church is a real religious force in
+the community, and what method may best be used to energize the
+countryside more effectually for moral and religious ends. Old forms
+or times of worship have needed changing, or an innovating individual
+has taken a hand temporarily. Then it has faced the practical problem
+of religious education. Most churches maintain a Sunday-school and a
+Woman's Missionary or Aid Society. Certain of them have young people's
+organizations, and a few have organized men's classes or clubs. Each
+of these groups goes on its own independent course. There is no
+attempt to correlate the studies with which each concerns itself, and
+there is much waste of effort in holding group sessions that
+accomplish nothing. The new church directors simplify, correlate, and
+systematize all the educational work that is being attempted, improve
+courses of study and methods of teaching, and propose to all concerned
+the attainment of certain definite standards. In the third place, the
+new rural church adopts for itself a well-considered programme of
+community service. Its opportunity is unlimited, but its efforts are
+not worth much unless it approaches the subject intelligently, with a
+knowledge of local conditions, of its own resources, and of the
+methods that have been used successfully in other similar localities.
+Nothing less than these three tasks of investigation, education, and
+service belong to every church; toward this ideal is moving an
+increasing number of churches in the country.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: _The Country Church and the Rural Problem._
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country._
+
+  WILSON: _The Church of the Open Country._
+
+  NESMITH: Chapter on "The Rural Church" in _Social Ministry._
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 176-196.
+
+  _Report of Country Life Commission_, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+A NEW TYPE OF RURAL INSTITUTION
+
+
+169. =A New Type of Institution.=--The rural community everywhere is
+in need of a new social institution. Those which exist have been
+individualistic in purpose and method and only incidentally have been
+socially constructive. The school has existed to make individuals
+efficient intellectually, that they might be able to struggle
+successfully for existence. The church has existed as a means to
+individual salvation from future ill. Social good has resulted from
+these institutions, but it has not been fundamental in their purpose.
+The new rural institution that is needed is a centre for community
+reconstruction. If the school or the church can adapt itself to the
+need, either may become such an institution; if not, there must be a
+new type.
+
+It has often been said that the characteristic evil of rural life is
+the isolation of the people, but this must be understood to mean not
+merely an isolated location of farm dwellings but a lack of human
+fellowship. In the city the majority of people might as well live in
+isolated houses as far as acquaintance with neighbors is concerned,
+but they do not lack human fellowship because they have group
+connections elsewhere. In the country it is hardly possible to choose
+associates or institutional connections. There is one school prepared
+to receive the children of a certain age, and no other, unless they
+are conveyed to a distance at great inconvenience; the variety of
+suitable churches is not large. It is necessary to cultivate neighbors
+or to go without friendships. But rural social relations are not well
+lubricated. There are few common topics of conversation, except the
+weather, the crops, or a bit of gossip. There are few common interests
+about which discussion may centre. There is need of an institution
+that shall create and conserve such common interests.
+
+170. =A Community House.=--The first task is to bring people together
+to a common gathering place, where perfect democracy will prevail, and
+where there may be unrestricted discussion. There is no objection to
+using the schoolhouse for the purpose, but ordinarily it is not
+adapted to the purposes of an assembly-room. The meeting-house may
+serve the purpose, but to many persons it seems a desecration of a
+sacred building, and except in the case of a single community church
+there is too much of the denominational flavor about it to make it an
+unrestricted forum. Ideally there should be a community house erected
+at a convenient location, and large enough to accommodate as many as
+might desire to assemble. It should be equipped for all the social
+uses to which it might be put. It should be paid for by the voluntary
+contributions of all the people, but title to the property should be
+in the hands of a board of trustees or associates who would be
+responsible for its maintenance and for the uses to which it would be
+put. These persons must be men and women of the town in whose judgment
+the people have full confidence. Regular expenses should be met by
+annual payments, as the Young Men's Christian Association is sustained
+in cities all over the country, and by occasional entertainments. A
+limited endowment fund would be helpful, but too large endowment tends
+to pauperize a local institution.
+
+171. =Intellectual Stimulus.=--The second task is to put the community
+house to use. There are numerous ways by which this can be done, but
+the best are those that fit local need. Of all the needs the greatest
+is stimulus to thought. Ideally this should come from the pulpit of
+the rural church, but its stimulus is usually not strong, it is
+commonly confined to religious exhortation, and it reaches only a few.
+All the people of the community need to think seriously about their
+economic and social interests, and to be drawn out to express
+themselves on such subjects. The old-fashioned town meeting provided a
+channel for such discussion once a year. What is needed is a
+town-meeting extension through eight or nine months of the year. The
+community house offers an opportunity for such an extension. Under
+the initiative and guidance of one or two energetic local leaders,
+inspired by an occasional outside lecturer, such as can be obtained at
+small expense from agricultural colleges and other public agencies,
+almost any American community ought to carry on a forum of public
+discussion for weeks, taking up first the most urgent questions of
+community interest and passing on gradually to matters of broader
+concern.
+
+172. =Social Satisfaction.=--As the adults of the community need
+intellectual stimulus, so the young people need social satisfactions.
+The salvation of the American rural community lies largely in the
+contentment of the young people, for without that quality of mind they
+leave the country for the town, or settle back in an unprogressive,
+unsocial state of sullen resignation. There must be opportunity for
+recreation. The community house should function for the entertainment
+of its constituency in ways that approve themselves to the associates
+in charge. But it is not so much entertainment that is wanted as an
+opportunity for sociability, occasions when all the youth of the
+community can meet for mutual acquaintance and the beginnings of
+courtship, and for the stimulus that comes from human association. If
+association and activity are characteristic of normal social life, it
+is unreasonable to suppose that rural young people will be contented
+to vegetate. If they cannot have legitimate opportunities to realize
+their impulse to associated activity, they will provide less
+satisfactory unconventional opportunities. One of the best means for
+promoting sociability and providing an outlet for youthful energy in
+concert has been found in the use of music. The old-fashioned
+singing-school filled a real need and its passing has left a distinct
+gap. Where musical gatherings have been revived experience has shown
+that they are a most effective stimulus to a new community
+consciousness. The country church choir has long been regarded as a
+useful social as well as religious institution, but the community
+chorus is far more effective. It is possible to uncover latent talent
+and to cultivate it so that it will furnish more attractive
+entertainment for the people than that which is imported at far
+greater expense from outside. Among the foreigners who are finding
+their way into rural localities, there is sometimes discovered a
+musical ability that outranks the native, and no other method of
+approach to the immigrant is so easy as by giving his young people a
+place in the social activities of the community.
+
+173. =Continuation Schooling.=--A further use for the community house
+is educational. The older education of the district school was
+defective, and the new education is not enjoyed by many a farmer's boy
+or girl, because they cannot be spared in the later years of youth for
+long schooling. An adaptation of the idea of continuation schools for
+rural young people so that they may apply the new sciences to country
+life is greatly to be desired. The local school principal or county
+superintendent or an extension teacher from a State institution may be
+found available as director, and it belongs to the community to
+provide the necessary funds. For older people some of the same courses
+are suitable, but they should be supplemented with lectures of all
+sorts. It has been demonstrated many times that popular lecturers can
+be secured at small expense in different parts of the country,
+especially in these days when there are so many agencies to push the
+new agricultural science, and other subjects over a wide range of
+interests will not fail to find exponents if a demand for them can be
+created.
+
+174. =Community Leadership.=--In the last analysis the prime factor in
+the rural situation is the community leader. Institutions can do
+little for the enrichment of rural life if personality is wanting. It
+is the leader's energy that keeps the wheels of the machinery turning,
+his wisdom that gears their action to the needs of the community. It
+is desirable that the leader should spring from the community itself,
+acquainted with its needs and voicing its aspirations. But more
+communities get their leaders from outside and are often more willing
+to accept such a leader than if he came up out of their midst, for the
+proverb is often true that a prophet is without honor in his own
+country.
+
+175. =Qualities of Leadership.=--Social leadership is dependent upon
+certain qualities in the person who leads and in those who are led.
+The attitude of the people of the community is fundamental. The
+stimulus that the leader applies must find response in their inner
+natures if his energy is to become socially effective. If there is not
+a latent capacity to action, no amount of stimulus will avail. It is
+safe to assume that there are few local communities in America that
+will fail to respond to the right kind of leadership, but certain
+qualities in the leader are essential for inspiration. It is not
+necessary that he should be country born, but it is essential that he
+love the country, appreciate its opportunities, and be conscious of
+its needs. He cannot hope to call out these qualities in the people if
+he does not himself possess them. And it must be a genuine love and
+appreciation that is in him, for only sincerity and perfect honesty
+can win men for long. It is essential that he have breadth of sympathy
+for all the interests of the people that he seeks for his own; he may
+not think lightly of farming or storekeeping, of education or
+recreation, of morals or religion. He must be devoted to the
+community, its servant as well as its leader, content to build himself
+into its life. It is not necessary that the leader should be a trained
+expert, a finished product of the schools, desirable as such equipment
+is, but it is essential that he know how to call out the best that is
+in others, to play upon their emotions, to appeal to their intellects,
+to energize their wills. He must not only understand their present
+mental processes, but he must have a vision of them when they have
+become transformed with new impulses and ambitions, and converted to
+new and nobler purposes. He needs an unquenchable enthusiasm, a gentle
+patience, an invincible, aggressive persistency, a contagious optimism
+that will carry him over every obstacle to ultimate victory. It is
+essential that he possess fertility of resource to adapt himself to
+circumstances, that he have power to call out action and executive
+ability to direct it. Most important of all is a magnetic personality
+such as belonged to the great chieftains of history who in war or
+peace have been able to attract followers and to mould them in
+obedience to their own will.
+
+176. =Broad Opportunities.=--A leader such as that described has an
+almost unlimited field of opportunity to mould social life. In the
+city the opportunity for leadership may seem to be larger, but few can
+dominate more than a small group. In the country the start may be
+slower and more discouraging, but the goal reaches out ahead. From
+better agriculture the leader may draw on the people to better social
+ideals, to a new appreciation of education and broad culture, to a
+truer understanding of ethics and religion. He may refashion
+institutions that may express the new in modern terms. But when this
+is accomplished his work is not done. He may reach out over the
+countryside and make his village a nucleus for wider progress through
+a whole county. Even then his influence is not spent. The rural
+communities in America are feeders of the cities; in them is the
+nursery of the men and women who are to become leaders in the larger
+circles of business and professional life, in journalism and
+literature, in religion and social reform. Many a rural teacher or
+pastor has built himself into the affections of a boy or a girl,
+incarnating for them the noblest ideals and stimulating them to
+achievement and service in an environment that he himself could never
+hope to fill and with a power of influence that he could never expect
+to wield. The avenues of opportunity are becoming more numerous. The
+teacher and the minister have advantages of leadership over the county
+Young Men's Christian Association secretary and the village nurse, but
+since personal qualities are the determining factors, no man or woman,
+whatever their position, can make good the claim without proving
+ability by actual achievement. Any man or woman who enters a
+particular community for the first time, or returns to it from
+college, may become a dynamo of blessing to it. There waits for such a
+leader the loyalty of the boys who may be won for noble manhood, of
+the girls who may become worthy mothers of a better generation of
+future citizens, of men and women for whom the glamour of youth has
+passed into the sober reality of maturer years, but who are still
+capable of seeing visions of a richer life that they and their
+children may yet enjoy. There are ready to his hand the institutions
+that have played an important part, however inefficiently in rural
+life, the heritage of social custom and community character that have
+come down from the past, and the material environment that helps or
+hinders but does not control human relations and human deeds. These
+constitute the measure of his world; these are clay for the potter and
+instruments for his working; upon him is laid the responsibility of
+the product.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CURTIS: _Play and Recreation for the Open Country_, pages
+      195-259.
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country_, pages 225-266.
+
+  COOLEY: _Human Nature and the Social Order_, pages 283-325.
+
+  MCNUTT: "Ten Years in a Country Church," _World's Work_, December,
+      1910.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 129-145.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 1-17,
+      302-327.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+FROM COUNTRY TO CITY
+
+
+177. =Enlarging the Social Environment.=--In the story of the family
+and the rural community it has become clear that the normal individual
+as he grows to maturity lives in an expanding circle of social
+relations. The primary unit of his social life is the family in the
+home. There the elemental human instincts are satisfied. There while a
+child he learns the first lessons of social conduct. From the home he
+enters into the larger life of the community. He takes his place in
+the school, where he touches the lives of other children and learns
+that he is a part of a larger social order. He gets into the current
+of community life and finds out the importance of local institutions
+like the country store and the meeting-house. He becomes accustomed to
+the ways that are characteristic of country people, and finds a place
+for himself in the industry and social activity of the countryside.
+When the boy who has grown up in a rural community comes to manhood,
+his natural tendency is to accept the occupation of farming with which
+he has become acquainted in boyhood, to woo a country maid for a mate,
+and to make for himself a rural home after the pattern of his
+ancestors. In that case his social environment remains restricted. His
+relations are with nature rather than with men. His horizon is narrow,
+his interests limited. The institutions that mould him are few, the
+forces that stimulate to progress are likely to be lacking altogether.
+He need not, but he usually does, cease to grow.
+
+178. =Characteristics of the City.=--Certain individuals find the
+static life of the country unbearable. Their nature demands larger
+scope in an expanding environment. To them the stirring town beckons,
+and they are restless until they escape. The city is a centre of
+social life where the individual feels a greater stimulus than in the
+home or the rural community. It resembles the family and the village
+in providing social relations and an interchange of ideas, but it
+surpasses them in the large scale of its activities. It presents many
+of the same social characteristics that they do, but geared in each
+case for higher speed. Its activities are swifter and more varied. Its
+associations are more numerous and kaleidoscopic. Its people are less
+independent than in the country; control, economic and political, is
+more pervasive, even though crude in method. Change is more rapid in
+the city, because the forces that are at work are charged with dynamic
+energy. Weakness in social structure and functioning is conspicuous.
+In the large cities all these are intensified, but they are everywhere
+apparent whenever a community passes beyond the village stage. The
+line that separates the village or small town from the city is an
+arbitrary one. The United States calls those communities rural that
+have a population not exceeding twenty-five hundred, but it is less a
+question of population than of interests and activities. When
+agriculture gives place to trade or manufacturing as the leading
+economic interest; when the community takes on the social
+characteristics that belong to urban life; and when places of business
+and amusement assume a place of importance rather than the home, the
+school, and the church, the community passes into the urban class.
+Names and forms of government are of small consequence in
+classification compared with the spirit and ways of the community.
+
+179. =How the City Grows.=--The city grows by the natural excess of
+births over deaths and by immigration. Without immigration the city
+grows more slowly but more wholesomely. Immigration introduces an
+alien element that has to adjust itself to new ways and does not
+always fuse readily with the native element. This is true of
+immigration from the country village as well as from a foreign
+country, but an American, even though brought up differently, finds it
+easier to adapt himself to his new environment. An increasingly large
+percentage of children are born and grow to maturity in the city.
+There are thousands of urban communities of moderate size in America,
+where there are few who come in from any distance, but for nearly a
+hundred years in the older parts of the country a rural migration has
+been carrying young people into town, and the recent volume of foreign
+immigration is spilling over from the large cities into the smaller
+urban centres, so that the mixture of population is becoming general.
+
+180. =The Attraction of the City.=--Foreign immigration is a subject
+that must be treated by itself; rural immigration needs no prolonged
+discussion once the present limitations of life in the country are
+understood. Multitudes of ambitious young people are not contented
+with the opportunities offered by the rural environment. They want to
+be at the strategic points of the world's activities, struggling for
+success in the thick of things. The city attracts the country boy who
+is ambitious, exactly as old Rome attracted the immature German. The
+blare of its noisy traffic, the glare of its myriad lights, the rush
+and the roar and the rabble all urge him to get into the scramble for
+fun and gain. The crowd attracts. The instinct of sociability draws
+people together. Those who are unfamiliar with rural spaces and are
+accustomed to live in crowded tenements find it lonesome in the
+country, and prefer the discomfort of their congested quarters in town
+to the pure air and unspoiled beauty of the country. They love the
+stir of the streets, and enjoy sitting on the door-steps and wandering
+up and down the sidewalks, feeling the push of the motley crowd. Those
+who leave the country for the city feel all these attractions and are
+impelled by them, but beyond these attractions, re-enforcing them by
+an appeal to the intellect, are the economic advantages that lie in
+the numerous occupations and chances for promotion to high-salaried
+positions, the educational advantages for children and youth in the
+better-graded schools, the colleges, the libraries, and the other
+cultural institutions, and such social advantages as variety of
+entertainment, modern conveniences in houses and hotels, more
+beautiful and up-to-date churches, well-equipped hospitals, and
+comfortable and convenient means of transportation from place to
+place.
+
+181. =Making a Countryman into a Citizen.=--It is important to enter
+into the spirit of the young people who prefer the streets and blocks
+of the town to the winding country roads, and are willing to sacrifice
+what there is of beauty and leisure in rural life for the ugliness,
+sordidness, and continuous drive of the city; to understand that a
+greater driving force, stirring in the soul of youth and thrusting
+upon him with every item of news from the city, is impelling him to
+disdain what the country can give him and to magnify the
+counter-attractions of the town. He has felt the monotony and the
+contracted opportunity of farm life as he knows it. He has experienced
+the drudgery of it ever since he began to do the chores. Familiar only
+with the methods of his ancestors, he knows that labor is hard and
+returns are few. He may look across broad acres that will some day be
+his, but he knows that his father is "land poor." As a farmer he sees
+no future for agriculture. He has known the village and the
+surrounding country ever since he graduated from the farmyard to the
+schoolhouse, and came into association with the boys and girls of the
+neighborhood. He knows the economic and social resources of the
+community and is satisfied that he can never hope for much enjoyment
+or profit in the limited rural environment. The school gave him little
+mental stimulus, but opened the door ajar into a larger world. The
+church gave him an orthodox gospel in terms of divinity and its
+environment rather than humanity on earth, but stirred vaguely his
+aspirations for a fuller life. He has sounded the depths of rural
+existence and found it unsatisfying. He wants to learn more, to do
+more, to be more.
+
+One eventful day he graduates from the village to the city, as years
+before he graduated from the home into the community. By boat or
+train, or by the more primitive method of stage-coach or afoot, he
+travels until he joins the surging crowd that swarms in the streets.
+He feels himself thrilling with the consciousness that he is moving
+toward success and possibly greatness. He does not stop to think that
+hundreds of those who seek their fortune in the city have failed, and
+have found themselves far worse off than the contented folk back in
+the home village. The newcomer establishes himself in a boarding-house
+or lodging-house which hundreds of others accept as an apology for a
+home, joins the multitude of unemployed in a search for work, and is
+happy if he finds it in an office that is smaller and darker than the
+wood-shed on the farm, or behind a counter where fresh air and
+sunlight never penetrate. He will put up with these non-essentials,
+for he expects in days ahead to move higher up, when the large rewards
+that are worth while will be his.
+
+In the ranks of business he measures his wits with others of his kind.
+He apes their manners, their slang, and their tone inflections. He
+imitates their fashions in clothes, learns the popular dishes in the
+restaurants, and if of feminine tastes gives up pie for salad. He goes
+home after hours to his small and dingy bedroom, tired from the drain
+upon his vitality because of ill-ventilated rooms and ill-nourishing
+food, but happy and free. There are no chores waiting for him now, and
+there is somewhere to go for entertainment. Not far away he may have
+his choice of theatres and moving-picture shows. If he is æsthetically
+or intellectually inclined, there are art-galleries and libraries
+beckoning him. If his earnings are a pittance and he cannot afford the
+theatre, and if his tastes do not draw him to library or museum, the
+saloon-keeper is always ready to be his friend. The youth from the
+country would be welcomed at the Young Men's Christian Association on
+the other side of the city, or at a church if there happened to be a
+social or religious function that opened the building, but the saloon
+is always near, always open, and always cordial. Poor or rich, or a
+stranger, it matters not, let him enter and enjoy the poor man's club.
+It is warm and pleasant there and he will soon make friends.
+
+182. =Mental and Moral Changes.=--The readjustments that are necessary
+in the transfer from country to city are not accomplished without
+considerable mental and moral shock. Changing habits of living are
+paralleled by changing habits of thought. Old ideas are jostled by
+new every hour of the day. At the table, on the street, in office or
+store, at the theatre or church the currents of thought are different.
+Social contacts are more numerous, relations are more shifting,
+intellectual affinities and repulsions are felt constantly; mental
+interactions are so frequent that stability of beliefs and
+independence of thought give way to flexibility and uncertainty and
+openness to impression. Group influence asserts its power over the
+individual.
+
+Along with the influence of the group mind goes the influence of what
+may be called the electrical atmosphere of the city. The newcomer from
+the country is very conscious of it; to the old resident it becomes
+second nature. City life is noisy. The whole industrial system is
+athrob with energy. The purring of machinery, the rattle and roar of
+traffic, the clack and toot of the automobile, the clanging of bells,
+and the chatter of human tongues create a babel that confuses and
+tires the unsophisticated ear and brain. They become accustomed to the
+sounds after a time, but the noise registers itself continually on the
+sensitive nervous system, and many a man and woman breaks at last
+under the strain. Another element that adds to the nervous strain is
+haste. Life in the city is a stern chase after money and pleasure.
+Everybody hurries from morning until night, for everything moves on
+schedule, and twenty-four hours seem not long enough to do the world's
+work and enjoy the world's fun. Noise and hurry furnish a mental
+tension that charges the urban atmosphere with excitement. Purveyors
+of news and amusement have learned to cater to the love of excitement.
+The newspaper editor hunts continually for sensations, and sometimes
+does not scruple to twist sober fact into stirring fiction. The
+book-stall and the circulating library supply the novel and the cheap
+magazine to give smack to the jaded palate that cannot relish good
+literature. The theatre panders to the appetite for a thrill.
+
+In these circumstances lie the possibilities of moral shock. In the
+city there is freedom from the old restraint that the country
+community imposed. In the city the countryman finds that he can do as
+he pleases without the neighbors shaking their heads over him. In the
+absence of such restraint and with the social contact of new friends
+he may rapidly lower his moral standards as he changes his manners and
+his mental habits. It does not take long to shuffle off the old ways;
+it does not take much push or pull to make the unsophisticated boy or
+girl lose balance and drift toward lower ideals than those with which
+they came. Not a few find it hard to keep the moral poise in the
+whirlpool of mental distraction. It is these effects of the urban
+environment that help to explain the social derelicts that abound in
+the cities. It is the weakness of human nature, along with the
+economic pressure, that accounts for the drunkenness, vice, and crime
+that constitute so large a problem of city life and block the path of
+society's development. They are a part of the imperfection that is
+characteristic of this stage of human progress, and especially of the
+twentieth-century city. They are not incurable evils, they demand a
+remedy, and they furnish an inspiring object of study for the
+practitioner of social disease.
+
+He who escapes business and moral failure has open wide before him in
+the city the door of opportunity. He may, if he will, meet all the
+world and his wife in places where the people gather, touching elbows
+with individuals from every quarter of the country, with persons of
+every class and variety of attainment, with believers of every
+political, æsthetic, and religious creed. In such an atmosphere his
+mind expands like the exotic plant in a conservatory. His individual
+prejudices fall from him like worn-out leaves from the trees. He
+begins to realize that other people have good grounds for their
+opinions and practices that differ from his own, and that in most
+cases they are better than his, and he quickly adjusts himself to
+them. The city stimulates life by its greater social resources, and
+forms within its borders more highly developed human groups. Beyond
+the material comforts and luxuries that the city supplies are the
+social values that it creates in the associations and organizations of
+men and women allied for the philanthropic, remedial, and
+constructive purposes that are looking forward to the slow progress of
+mankind toward its highest ideals.
+
+183. =The City as a Social Centre.=--The city is an epitome of
+national and even world life, as the farm is community life in
+miniature. Its social life is infinitely complex, as compared with the
+rural village. Distances that stretch out for miles in the country,
+over fields and woods and hills, are measured in the city by blocks of
+dwellings and public buildings, with intersecting streets, stretching
+away over a level area as far as the eye can see. Social institutions
+correspond to the needs of the inhabitants, and while there are a few
+like those in the country, because certain human needs are the same,
+there is a much larger variety in the city because of the great number
+of people of different sorts and the complexity of their demands.
+Every city has its business centres for finance, for wholesale trade,
+and for retail exchange, its centres for government, and for
+manufacturing; it has its railroad terminals and often its wharves and
+shipping, its libraries, museums, schools, and churches. All these are
+gathering places for groups of people. But there is no one social
+centre for all classes; rather, the people of the city are associated
+in an infinite number of large and small groups, according to the
+mutual interests of their members. But if the city has no four
+corners, it is itself a centre for a large district of country. As the
+village is the nucleus that binds together outlying farms and hamlets,
+so the city has far-flung connections with rural villages and small
+towns in a radius of many miles.
+
+184. =The Importance of the City.=--The city has grown up because it
+was located conveniently for carrying on manufacturing and trade on a
+large scale. It is growing in importance because this is primarily an
+industrial age. Its population is increasing relatively to the rural
+population, and certain cities are growing enormously, in spite of Mr.
+Bryce's warning that it is unfortunate for any city to grow beyond a
+population of one hundred thousand. The importance of the city as a
+social centre is apparent when we remember that in America, according
+to the census of 1910, 46.3 per cent of the people live in
+communities of more than 2,500 population, while 31 per cent of the
+whole are inhabitants of cities of 25,000 or more population. When
+nearly one-third of all the people of the nation live in communities
+of such size, the large city becomes a type of social centre of great
+significance. At the prevailing rate of growth a majority of the
+American people will soon be dwelling in cities, and there seems to be
+no reason to expect a reversal of tendency because modern invention is
+making it possible for fewer persons on the farm to supply the
+agricultural products that city people need. This means, of course,
+that the temper and outlook of mind will be increasingly urban, that
+social institutions generally will have the characteristics of the
+city, that the National Government will be controlled by that part of
+the American citizens that so far has been least successful in
+governing itself well.
+
+185. =Municipal History.=--The city has come to stay, and there is in
+it much of good. It has come into existence to satisfy human need, and
+while it may change in character it is not likely to be less important
+than now. Its history reveals its reasons for existence and indicates
+the probabilities of its future. The ancient city was an overgrown
+village that had special advantages for communication and
+transportation of goods, or that was located conveniently for
+protection against neighboring enemies. The cities of Greece
+maintained their independence as political units, but most social
+centres that at first were autonomous became parts of a larger state.
+The great cities were the capitals of nations or empires, and to
+strike at them in war was to aim at the vitals of an organism. Such
+were Thebes and Memphis in Egypt, Babylon and Nineveh in the
+Tigris-Euphrates valley, Carthage and Rome in the West. Such are
+Vienna and Berlin, Paris and London to-day. Lesser cities were centres
+of trade, like Corinth or Byzantium, or of culture, such as Athens.
+Such was Florence in the Middle Ages, and such are Liverpool and
+Leipzig to-day. The municipalities of the Roman Empire marked the
+climax of civic development in antiquity.
+
+The social and industrial life of the Middle Ages was rural. Only a
+few cities survived the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, and new
+centres of importance did not arise until trade revived and the
+manufacturing industry began to concentrate in growing towns about the
+time of the Crusades. Then artisans and tradesmen found their way to
+points convenient to travel and trade, and a city population began the
+processes of aggregation and congregation. They grew up rough in
+manners and careless of sanitation and hygiene, but they developed
+efficiency in local government and an inclination to demand civic
+rights from those who had any outside claim of control; they began to
+take pride in their public halls and churches, and presently they
+founded schools and universities. Wealth increased rapidly, and some
+of the cities, like the Hansa towns of the north, and Venice and Genoa
+in the south, commanded extensive and profitable trade routes.
+
+Modern cities owe their growth to the industrial revolution and the
+consequent increase of commerce. The industrial centres of northern
+England are an illustration of the way in which economic forces have
+worked in the building of cities. At the middle of the eighteenth
+century that part of Great Britain was far less populous and
+progressive than the eastern and southern counties. It had small
+representation in Parliament. It was provincial in thought, speech,
+and habits. It was given over to agriculture, small trade, and rude
+home manufacture. Presently came the revolutionary inventions of
+textile machinery, of the steam-engine, and of processes for
+extracting and utilizing coal and iron. The heavy, costly machinery
+required capital and the factory. Concentrated capital and machinery
+required workers. The working people were forced to give up their
+small home manufacturing and their unprofitable farming and move to
+the industrial barracks and workrooms of the manufacturing centres.
+These centres sprang up where the tools were most easily and cheaply
+obtained, and where lay the coal-beds and the iron ore to be worked
+over into machinery. From Newcastle on the east, through Sheffield,
+Leeds, Birmingham, and Manchester, to Liverpool on the west and
+Glasgow over the Scottish border grew up a chain of thriving cities,
+and later their people were given the ballot that was taken from
+certain of the depopulated rural villages. These cities have obtained
+a voice of power in the councils of the nation. In America the
+industrial era came somewhat later, but the same process of
+centralizing industry went on at the waterfalls of Eastern rivers, at
+railroad centres, and at ocean, lake, and Gulf ports. Commerce has
+accelerated the growth of many of these manufacturing towns. Increase
+of industry and population has been especially rapid in the great
+ports that front the two oceans, through whose gates pour the floods
+of immigrants, and in the interior cities like Chicago, that lie at
+especially favorable points for railway, lake, or river traffic. As in
+the Middle Ages, universities grew because teachers went where
+students were gathered, and students were attracted to the place where
+teachers were to be found, so in the larger cities the more people
+there are and the more numerous is the population, the greater the
+amount of business. It pays to be near the centre of things.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HOWE: _The Modern City and Its Problems_, pages 9-49.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Constructive Rural Sociology_, pages 32-46.
+
+  STRONG: _Our World_, pages 228-283.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 123-132.
+
+  GIRY AND REVILLE: _Emancipation of the Mediæval Towns._
+
+  BLISS: _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Cities."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE
+
+
+186. =Preponderance of Economic Interests.=--Such a social centre as
+the city has several functions to perform for its inhabitants. Though
+primarily concerned with business, the people have other interests to
+be conserved; the city, therefore, has governmental, educational, and
+recreational functions as a social organization, and within its limits
+all kinds of human concerns find their sponsors and supporters.
+Unquestionably, the economic interests are preponderant. On the
+principle that social structure corresponds to function, the structure
+of the city lends itself to the performance of the economic function.
+Business streets are the principal thoroughfares. Districts near the
+great factories are crowded with the tenements that shelter the
+workers. Little room is left for breathing-places in town, and little
+leisure in which to breathe. Government is usually in the hands of
+professional politicians who are too willing to take their orders from
+the cohort captains of business. Morals, æsthetics, and recreation are
+all subordinate to business. Even religion is mainly an affair of
+Sunday, and appears to be of relatively small consequence compared
+with business or recreation. The great problems of the city are
+consequently economic at bottom. Poverty and misery, drunkenness,
+unemployment, and crime are all traceable in part, at least, to
+economic deficiency. Economic readjustments constitute the crying need
+of the twentieth-century city.
+
+187. =The Manufacturing Industry.=--It is the function of the
+agriculturist and the herdsman, the miner and the lumberman, to
+produce the raw material. The sailor and the train-hand, the
+longshoreman and the teamster, transport them to the industrial
+centres. It is the business of the manufacturer and his employees to
+turn them into the finished product for the use of society.
+Manufacturing is the leading occupation in thousands of busy towns and
+small cities of all the industrial nations of western Europe and
+America, and shares with commerce and trade as a leading enterprise in
+the cosmopolitan centres. The merchant or financier who thinks his
+type of emporium or exchange is the only municipal centre of
+consequence, needs only to mount to the top of a tall building or
+climb a suburban hill where he can look off over the city and see the
+many smoking chimneys, to realize the importance of the factory. With
+thousands of tenement-house dwellers it is as natural to fall into the
+occupation of a factory hand as in the rural regions for the youth to
+become a farmer. The growing child who leaves school to help support
+the family has never learned a craftsman's trade, but he may find a
+subordinate place among the mill or factory hands until he gains
+enough skill to handle a machine. From that time until age compels him
+to join the ranks of the unemployed he is bound to his machine, as
+firmly as the mediæval serf was bound to the soil. Theoretically he is
+free to sell his labor in the highest market and to cross the
+continent if he will, but actually he is the slave of his employer,
+for he and his family are dependent upon his daily wage, and he cannot
+afford to lose that wage in order to make inquiries about the labor
+market elsewhere. Theoretically he is a citizen possessed of the
+franchise and equal in privilege and importance to his employer as a
+member of society, but actually he must vote for the party or the man
+who is most likely to benefit him economically, and he knows that he
+occupies a position of far less importance politically and socially
+than his employer. Employment is an essential in making a living, but
+it is an instrument that cuts two ways--it establishes an aristocracy
+of wealth and privilege for the employer and a servile class of
+employees who often are little better than peasants of the belt and
+wheel.
+
+188. =History of Manufacturing.=--The history of the manufacturing
+industry is a curious succession of enslavement and emancipation.
+Until within a century and a half it was closely connected with the
+home. Primitive women fashioned the utensils and clothing of the
+primitive family, and when slaves were introduced into the household
+it became their task to perform those functions. The slave was a
+bondman. Neither his person nor his time was his own, and he could not
+hold property; but he was taken care of, fed and clothed and housed,
+and by a humane master was kindly treated and even made a friend. When
+the slave became a serf on the manorial estate of mediæval Europe,
+manufacturing was still a household employment and old methods were
+still in use. These sufficed, as there was little outside demand from
+potential buyers, due to general poverty and lack of the means of
+exchange and transportation. Certain industries became localized, like
+the forging of iron instruments at the smithy and the grinding of
+grain at the mill, and the monastery buildings included apartments for
+various kinds of handicraft, but the factory was not yet. Then
+artisans found their way to the town, associated themselves with
+others of their craft, and accepted the relation of journeyman in the
+employ of a master workman; there, too, the young apprentice learned
+his trade without remuneration. The group was a small one. For greater
+strength in local rivalries they organized craft guilds or
+associations, and established over all members convenient rules and
+restrictions. Increasing opportunities for exchange of goods
+stimulated production, but the output of hand labor was limited in
+amount. The position of the craftsman locally was increasingly
+important, and his fortunes were improving. The craft guilds
+successfully disputed with their rivals for a share in the government
+of the city; there was democracy in the guild, for master and
+journeyman were both included, and they had interests much in common.
+A journeyman confidently expected to become a master in a workshop of
+his own.
+
+189. =Alteration of Status.=--Under the factory system the employee
+becomes one of many industrial units, having no social or guild
+relation to his employer, receiving a money wage as a quit claim from
+his employer, and dependent upon himself for labor and a living. For
+a time after the factory system came into vogue there were small shops
+where the employer busied himself among his men and personally
+superintended them, but the large factory tends to displace the small
+workshop, the corporation takes the place of the individual employer,
+and the employee becomes as impersonal a cog in the labor system as is
+any part of the machine at which he works. It used to be the case that
+a thrifty workman might hope to become in the future an employer, but
+now he has become a permanent member of a distinct class, for the
+large capital required for manufacturing is beyond his reach. The
+manufacturing industry is continually passing under the management of
+fewer individuals, while the number of operatives in each factory
+tends to increase. With concentration of management goes concentration
+of wealth, and the gap widens between rich and poor. Out of the modern
+factory system has come the industrial problem with all its varieties
+of skilled and unskilled work, woman and child labor, sweating, wages,
+hours and conditions of labor, unemployment, and other difficulties.
+
+190. =The Working Grind.=--There are many manufacturing towns and
+small cities that are built on one industry. Thousands of workers,
+young and old, answer the morning summons of the whistle and pour into
+the factory for a day's labor at the machine. A brief recess at noon
+and the work is renewed for the second half of the day. Weary at
+night, the workers tramp home to the tenements, or hang to the trolley
+strap that is the symbol of the five-cent commuter, and recuperate for
+the next day's toil. They are cogs in the great wheel of industry,
+units in the great sum of human energy, indispensable elements in the
+progress of economic success. Sometimes they seem less prized than the
+costly machines at which they work, sometimes they fall exhausted in
+the ranks, as the soldier in the trenches drops under the attack, but
+they are absolutely essential to wealth and they are learning that
+they are indispensable to one another. In the development of social
+organization the working people are gaining a larger part. The
+factory is educating them to a consciousness of the solidarity of
+their class interests. All class organizations have their faults, but
+they teach their members group values and the dependence of the
+individual on his fellows.
+
+191. =The Benefits of the New Industry to the Workers.=--It must not
+be supposed that the industrial revolution and the age of machinery
+have been a social misfortune. The benefits that have come to the
+laboring people, as well as to their employers, must be put into the
+balance against the evils. There is first of all the great increase of
+manufactured products that have been shared in by the workers and the
+greatly reduced price of many necessaries of life, such as matches,
+pins, and cooking utensils. Invention has eased many kinds of labor
+and taken them away from the overburdened housewife, and new machinery
+is constantly lightening the burden of the farm and the home.
+Invention has broadened the scope of labor, opening continually new
+avenues to the workers. It is difficult to see how the rapidly
+increasing number of people in the United States could have found
+employment without the typewriter, the automobile, and the numerous
+varieties of electrical application. The great number of modern
+conveniences that have come to be regarded as necessaries even in the
+homes of the working people, and the local improvements in streets and
+sidewalks, schools and playgrounds that are possible because of
+increasing wealth, are all due to the new type of industry.
+
+Conditions of labor are better. Where building laws are in force,
+factories are lighter, cleaner, and better ventilated than were the
+houses and shops of the pre-factory age, and the hours of labor that
+are necessary to earn a living have been greatly reduced in most
+industries. There have been mental and moral gains, also. It requires
+mental application to handle machinery. An uneducated immigrant may
+soon learn to handle a simple machine, but the complicated machinery
+that the better-paid workmen tend requires intelligence, care, and
+sobriety. The age of machinery has brought with it emancipation from
+slavery, indenture, and imprisonment for debt, and has made possible
+a new status for the worker and his children. The laborer in America
+is a citizen with a vote and a right to his own opinion equal to that
+of his employer; he has time and money enough to buy and read the
+newspaper; and he is encouraged and helped to educate his children and
+to prepare them for a place in the sun that is ampler than his own.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CHEYNEY: _Industrial and Social History of England_, pages
+      199-239.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 206-212, 256-266.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 143-156.
+
+  ADAMS AND SUMNER: _Labor Problems_, pages 3-15.
+
+  BOGART: _Economic History of the United States_, pages 130-169,
+      356-399.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM
+
+
+192. =What It Means.=--The industrial problem as a whole is a problem
+of adjusting the relations of employer and employee to each other and
+to the rapidly changing age in the midst of which industry exists. It
+is a problem that cannot be solved in a moment, for it has grown out
+of previous conditions and relationships. It must be considered in its
+causes, its alignments, the difficulties of each party, the efforts at
+solution, and the principles and theories that are being worked out
+for the settlement of the problem.
+
+193. =Conflict Between Industrial Groups.=--The industrial problem is
+not entirely an economic problem, but it is such primarily. The
+function of employer and employee is to produce material goods that
+have value for exchange. Both enter into the economic relation for
+what they can get out of it in material gain. Selfish desire tends to
+overcome any consideration of each other's needs or of their mutual
+interests. There is a continual conflict between the wage-earner who
+wants to make a living and the employer who wants to make money, and
+neither stops long to consider the welfare of society as a whole when
+any specific issue arises. The conflict between individuals has
+developed into a class problem in which the organized forces of labor
+confront the organized forces of capital, with little disposition on
+either side to surrender an advantage once gained or to put an end to
+the conflict by a frank recognition of each other's rights.
+
+It is not strange that this conflict has continued to vex society.
+Conflict is one of the characteristics of imperfectly adjusted groups.
+It seems to be a necessary preliminary to co-operation, as war is. It
+will continue until human beings are educated to see that the
+interests of all are paramount to the interests of any group, and
+that in the long run any group will gain more of real value for itself
+by taking account of the interests of a rival. Railroad history in
+recent years has made it very plain that neither railway employees nor
+the public have gained as much by hectoring the railroad corporations
+as either would have gained by considering the interests of the
+railroad as well as its own.
+
+Industrial conflict is due in great part to the unwillingness of the
+employer to deal fairly by his employee. There have been worthy
+exceptions, of course, but capitalists in the main have not felt a
+responsibility to consider the interests of the workers. It has been a
+constant temptation to take advantage of the power of wealth for the
+exploitation of the wage-earning class. Unfortunately, the modern
+industrial period began with economic control in the hands of the
+employer, for with the transfer of industry to the factory the laborer
+was powerless to make terms with the employer. Unfortunately, also,
+the disposition of society was to let alone the relations of master
+and dependent in accordance with the _laisser-faire_ theory of the
+economists of that period. Government was slow to legislate in favor
+of the helpless employee, and the abuses of the time were many. The
+process of adjustment has been a difficult one, and experiment has
+been necessary to show what was really helpful and practicable.
+
+194. =More than an Industrial Problem.=--In the process of experiment
+it has become clear that the industrial problem is more than an
+economic problem; secondarily, it is the problem of making a living
+that will contribute to the enrichment of life. It is not merely the
+adjustment of the wage scale to the profits of the capitalist by class
+conflict or peaceful bargaining, nor is it the problem of unemployment
+or official labor. The primary task may be to secure a better
+adjustment of the economic interests of employer and employee through
+an improvement of the wage system, but in the larger sense the
+industrial problem is a social and moral one. Sociologists reckon
+among the social forces a distinction between elemental desires and
+broader interests. Wages are able to satisfy the elemental desires of
+hunger and sex feeling by making it possible for a man to marry and
+bring up a family and get enough to eat; but there are larger
+questions of freedom, justice, comity, personal and social development
+that are involved in the labor problem. If wages are so small, or
+hours so long, or factory conditions so bad that health is affected,
+proper education made impossible, and recreation and religion
+prevented, the individual and society suffer much more than with
+reference to the elemental desires. The industrial problem is,
+therefore, a complex problem, and not one that can be easily or
+quickly solved. Although it is necessary to remember all as parts of
+one problem of industry, it is a convenience to remember that it is:
+
+(1) An economic problem, involving wages, hours, and conditions of
+labor.
+
+(2) A social problem, involving the mental and physical health and the
+social welfare of both the individual worker, the family, and the
+community.
+
+(3) An ethical problem, involving fairness, justice, comity, and
+freedom to the employer, the employee, and the public.
+
+(4) A complex problem, involving many specific problems, chief of
+which are the labor of women and children, immigrant labor, prison
+labor, organization of labor, insurance, unemployment, industrial
+education, the conduct of labor warfare, and the interest of the
+public in the industrial problem.
+
+195. =Characteristics of Factory Life.=--Group life in the factory is
+not very different in characteristics from group life everywhere. It
+is an active life, the hand and brain of the worker keeping pace with
+the speedy machine, all together shaping the product that goes to
+exchange and storage. It is a social life, many individuals working in
+one room, and all the operatives contributing jointly to the making of
+the product. It is under control. Captains of industry and their
+lieutenants give direction to a group that has been thoroughly and
+efficiently organized. Without control and organization industry could
+not be successfully carried on, but it is open to question whether
+industrial control should not be more democratic, shared in by
+representatives of the workers and of the public as well as by the
+representatives of corporate capital or a single owner. It is a life
+of change. It does not seem so to the operative who turns out the same
+kind of a machine product day after day, sometimes by the million
+daily, but the personnel of the workers changes, and even the machines
+from time to time give way to others of an improved type. It is a life
+that has its peculiar weaknesses. The relations of employer and
+employee are not cordial; the health and comfort of the worker are
+often disregarded; the hours of labor are too long or the wages too
+small; the whole working staff is driven at too high speed; the whole
+process is on a mechanical rather than a human basis, and the material
+product is of more concern than the human producer. These weaknesses
+are due to the concentration of control in the hands of employers. The
+industrial problem is, therefore, largely a problem of control.
+
+196. =Democratizing Industry.=--When the modern industrial system
+began in the eighteenth century the democratic principle played a
+small part in social relations. Parental authority in the family, the
+master's authority in the school, hierarchical authority in the
+church, official authority in the local community, and monarchical
+authority in the nation, were almost universal. It is not strange that
+the authority of the capitalist in his business was unquestioned. Only
+government had the right to interfere in the interest of the lower
+classes, and government had little care for that interest. The
+democratic principle has been gaining ground in family and school,
+state and church; it has found grudging recognition in industry. This
+is because the clash of economic interests is keenest in the factory.
+But even there the grip of privilege has loosened, and the possibility
+of democratizing industry as government has been democratized is being
+widely discussed. There is difference of opinion as to how this should
+be done. The socialist believes that control can be transferred to the
+people in no other way than by collective ownership. Others
+progressively inclined accept the principle of government regulation
+and believe that in that way the people, through their political
+representatives, can control the owners and managers. Others think
+that the best results can be obtained by giving a place on the
+governing board of an industry to working men alongside the
+representatives of capital and permitting them to work out their
+problems on a mutual basis. Each of these methods has been tried, but
+without demonstrating conclusively the superiority of any one.
+Whatever method may come into widest vogue, there must be a
+recognition of the principle of democratic interest and democratic
+control. No one class in society can dictate permanently to the people
+as a whole. Industry is the concern of all, and all must have a share
+in managing it for the benefit of all.
+
+197. =Legislation.=--The history of industrial reform is first of all
+a story of legislative interference with arbitrary management. When
+Great Britain early in the nineteenth century overstepped the bounds
+of the let-alone policy and began to legislate for the protection of
+the employee, it was but a resumption of a paternal policy that had
+been general in Europe before. But formerly government had interfered
+in behalf of the employing class, now it was for the people who were
+under the control of the exploiting capitalist. The abuses of child
+labor were the first to receive attention, and Parliament reduced the
+hours of child apprentices to twelve a day. Once begun, restriction
+was extended. Beginning in 1833, under the leadership of Lord
+Shaftesbury, the working man's friend, the labor of children under
+thirteen was reduced to forty-eight hours a week, and children under
+nine were forbidden to work at all. The work of young people under
+eighteen was limited to sixty-nine hours a week, and then to ten hours
+a day; women were included in the last provision. These early laws
+were applicable to factories for weaving goods only, but they were
+extended later to all kinds of manufacturing and mining. These laws
+were not always strictly enforced, but to get them through Parliament
+at all was an achievement. Later legislation extended the ten-hour law
+to men; then the time was reduced to nine hours, and in many trades
+to eight.
+
+In the United States the need of legislation was far less urgent.
+Employers could not be so masterful in the treatment of their
+employees or so parsimonious in their distribution of wages, because
+the laborer always had the option of leaving the factory for the farm,
+and land was cheap. Women and children were not exploited in the mines
+as in England, pauper labor was not so available, and such trades as
+chimney-sweeping were unknown. Then, too, by the time there was much
+need for legislation, the spirit of justice was becoming wide-spread
+and legislatures responded more quickly to the appeal for protective
+legislation. It was soon seen that the industrial problem was not
+simply how much an employee should receive for a given piece of work
+or time, but how factory labor affected working people of different
+sex or age, and how these effects reacted upon society. Those who
+pressed legislation believed that the earnings of a child were not
+worth while when the child lost all opportunity for education and
+healthful physical exercise, and that woman's labor was not profitable
+if it deprived her of physical health and nervous energy, and weakened
+by so much the stamina of the next generation. The thought of social
+welfare seconded the thought of individual welfare and buttressed the
+claims of a particular class to economic consideration in such
+questions as proper wages. Massachusetts was the first American State
+to introduce labor legislation in 1836; in 1869 the same State
+organized the first labor bureau, to be followed by a National bureau
+in 1884, four years later converted into a government department.
+Among the favorite topics of legislation have been the limitation of
+woman and child labor, the regulation of wage payments, damages and
+similar concerns, protection from dangerous machinery and adequate
+factory inspection, and the appointment of boards of arbitration. The
+doctrine of the liability of employers in case of accident to persons
+in their employ has been increasingly accepted since Great Britain
+adopted an employers' liability act in 1880, and since 1897 compulsory
+insurance of employees has spread from the continent of Europe to
+England and the United States.
+
+198. =The Organization of Labor.=--These measures of protection and
+relief have been due in part to the disinterested activity of
+philanthropists, and in part to the efforts of organized labor, backed
+up by public opinion; occasionally capitalists have voluntarily
+improved conditions or increased wages. The greatest agitation and
+pressure has come from the labor-unions. Unlike the mediæval guilds,
+these unions exist for the purpose of opposing the employer, and are
+formed in recognition of the principle that a group can obtain
+guarantees that an individual is helpless to secure. Like-mindedness
+holds the group together, and consciousness of common interests and
+mutual duties leads to sacrifice of individual benefit for the sake of
+the group. The moral effect of this sense and practice of mutual
+responsibility has been a distinct social gain, and warrants the hope
+that a time may come when this consciousness of mutual interests may
+extend until it includes the employing class as in the old-time guild.
+
+The modern labor-union is a product of the nineteenth century. Until
+1850 there was much experimenting, and a revolutionary sentiment was
+prevalent both in America and abroad. The first union movement united
+all classes of wage-earners in a nation-wide reform, and aimed at
+social gains, such as education as well as economic gains. It hoped
+much from political activity, spoke often of social ideals, and did
+not disdain to co-operate with any good agency, even a friendly
+employer. Class feeling was less keen than later. But it became
+apparent that the lines of organization were too loose, that specific
+economic reforms must be secured rather than a whole social programme,
+and that little could probably be expected from political activity.
+Labor began to organize on a basis of trades, class feeling grew
+stronger, and trials of strength with employers showed the value of
+collective bargaining and fixed agreements. Out of the period grew the
+American Federation of Labor. More recently has come the industrial
+union, which includes all ranks of labor, like the early labor-union,
+and is especially beneficial to the unskilled. It is much more radical
+in its methods of operation, and is represented by such notorious
+organizations as the United Mine Workers and the International Workers
+of the World.
+
+199. =Strikes.=--The principle of organization of the trade-union is
+democratic. The unit of organization is the local group of workers
+which is represented on the national governing bodies; in matters of
+important legislation, a referendum is allowed. Necessarily, executive
+power is strongly centralized, for the labor-union is a militant
+organization, but much is left to the local union. Though peaceful
+methods are employed when possible, warlike operations are frequent.
+The favorite weapon is the strike, or refusal to work, and this is
+often so disastrous to the employer that it results in the speedy
+granting of the laborers' demands. It requires good judgment on the
+part of the representatives of labor when to strike and how to conduct
+the campaign to a successful conclusion, but statistics compiled by
+the National Labor Bureau between 1881 and 1905 indicate that a
+majority of strikes ordered by authority of the organization were at
+least partially successful.
+
+The successful issue of strikes has demonstrated their value as
+weapons of warfare, and they have been accepted by society as
+allowable, but they tend to violence, and produce feelings of hatred
+and distrust, and would not be countenanced except as measures of
+coercion to secure needed reforms. The financial loss due to the
+cessation of labor foots up to a large total, but in comparison with
+the total amount of wages and profits it is small, and often the
+periods of manufacturing activity are so redistributed through the
+year that there is really no net loss. Yet a strike cannot be looked
+upon in any other way than as a misfortune. Like war, it breaks up
+peaceful if not friendly relations, and tends to destroy the
+solidarity of society. It tends to strengthen class feeling, which,
+like caste, is a handicap to the progress of mankind. Though it may
+benefit the working man, it is harmful to the general public, which
+suffers from the interruption of industry and sometimes of
+transportation, and whose business is disturbed by the blow to
+confidence.
+
+200. =Peaceful Methods of Settlement.=--Strikes are so unsettling to
+industry that all parties find it better to use diplomacy when
+possible, or to submit a dispute to arbitration rather than to resort
+to violence. It is in industrial concerns very much as it is in
+international politics, and methods used in one circle suggest methods
+in the other. Formerly war was a universal practice, and of frequent
+occurrence, and duelling was common in the settlement of private
+quarrels; now the duel is virtually obsolete, and war is invoked only
+as a last resort. Difficulties are smoothed out through the diplomatic
+representatives that every nation keeps at the national capitals, and
+when they cannot settle an issue the matter is referred to an umpire
+satisfactory to both sides. Similarly in industrial disputes the
+tendency is away from the strike; when an issue arises representatives
+of both sides get together and try to find a way out. There is no good
+reason why an employer should refuse to recognize an organization or
+receive its representatives to conference, especially if the employer
+is a corporation which must work through representatives. Collective
+bargaining is in harmony with the spirit of the times and fair for
+all. Conference demands frankness on the part of all concerned. It
+leads more quickly to understanding and harmony if each party knows
+the situation that confronts the other. If the parties immediately
+concerned cannot reach an agreement, a third party may mediate and try
+to conciliate opposition. If that fails, the next natural step is
+voluntarily to refer the matter in dispute to arbitration, or by legal
+regulation to compel the disputants to submit to arbitration.
+
+201. =Boards of Conciliation.=--The history of peaceful attempts to
+settle industrial disputes in the United States helps to explain the
+methods now frequently employed. In 1888, following a series of
+disastrous labor conflicts, Congress provided by legislation for the
+appointment of a board of three commissioners, which should make
+thorough investigation of particular disputes and publish its
+findings. The class of disputes was limited to interstate commerce
+concerns and the commissioners did not constitute a permanent board,
+but the legislative act marked the beginning of an attempt at
+conciliation. Ten years later the Erdman Act established a permanent
+board of conciliation to deal with similar cases when asked to do so
+by one of the parties, and in case of failure to propose arbitration;
+it provided, also, for a board of arbitration. Meantime the States
+passed various acts for the pacification of industrial disputes; the
+most popular have been the appointment of permanent boards of
+conciliation and arbitration, which have power to mediate,
+investigate, and recommend a settlement. These have been supplemented
+by State and national commissions, with a variety of functions and
+powers, including investigation and regulation. The experience of
+government boards has not been long enough to prove whether they are
+likely to be of permanent value, but the results are encouraging to
+those who believe that through conciliation and arbitration the
+industrial problem can best be solved.
+
+202. =Public Welfare.=--There can be no reasonable complaint of the
+interference of the government. The government, whether of State or
+nation, represents the people, and the people have a large stake in
+every industrial dispute. Society is so interdependent that thousands
+are affected seriously by every derangement of industry. This is
+especially true of the stoppage of railways, mines, or large
+manufacturing establishments, when food and fuel cannot be obtained,
+and the delicate mechanism of business is upset. At best the public is
+seriously inconvenienced. It is therefore proper that the public
+should organize on its part to minimize the derangement of its
+interests. In 1901 a National Civic Federation was formed by those who
+were interested in industrial peace, and who were large-minded enough
+to see that it could not be obtained permanently unless recognition
+should be given to all three of the interested parties--the employers,
+the employees, and the public. Many small employers of labor are
+bitterly opposed to any others than themselves having anything to say
+about the methods of conducting industry, but the men of large
+experience are satisfied that the day of independence has passed. This
+organization includes on its committees representatives of all
+parties, and has helped in the settlement of a number of
+controversies.
+
+203. =Voluntary Efforts of Employers.=--It is a hopeful sign that
+employers themselves are voluntarily seeking the betterment of their
+employees. It is a growing custom for corporations to provide for the
+comfort, health, and recreation of men and women in their employ.
+Rest-rooms, reading-rooms, baths, and gymnasiums are provided;
+athletic clubs are organized; lunches are furnished at cost;
+continuation schools are arranged. Some manufacturing establishments
+employ a welfare manager or secretary whose business it shall be to
+devise ways of improving working conditions. When these helps and
+helpers are supplied as philanthropy, they are not likely to be
+appreciated, for working people do not want to be patronized; if
+maintained on a co-operative basis, they are more acceptable. But the
+employer is beginning to see that it is good business to keep the
+workers contented and healthy. It adds to their efficiency, and in
+these days when scientific management is putting so much emphasis on
+efficiency, any measures that add to industrial welfare are not to be
+overlooked.
+
+204. =Profit-Sharing.=--Another method of conferring benefit upon the
+employee is profit-sharing. By means of cash payment or stock bonuses,
+he is induced to work better and to be more careful of tools and
+machinery, while his expectation of a share in the success of the
+business stimulates his interest and his energy and keeps him better
+natured. The objections to the plan are that it is paternalistic, for
+the business is under the control of the employer and the amount of
+profits depends on his honesty, good management, and philanthropic
+disposition. There are instances where it has worked admirably, and
+from the point of view of the employer it is often worth while,
+because it tends to weaken unionism; but it cannot be regarded as a
+cure for industrial ills, because it is a remedy of uncertain value,
+and at best is not based on the principle of industrial democracy.
+
+205. =Principles for the Solution of the Industrial Problem.=--Three
+principles contend for supremacy in all discussions and efforts to
+solve the industrial problem. The first is the doctrine of _employer's
+control_. This is the old principle that governed industrial relations
+until governmental legislation and trade-union activity compelled a
+recognition of the worker's rights. By that principle the capitalist
+and the laborer are free to work together or to fight each other, to
+make what arrangements they can about wages, hours, and health
+conditions, to share in profits if the employer is kindly disposed,
+but always with labor in a position of subordination and without
+recognized rights, as in the old political despotisms, which were
+sometimes benevolent but more often ruthless. Only the selfish,
+stubborn capitalist expects to see such a system permanently restored.
+
+The second principle is the doctrine of _collective control_. This
+theory is a natural reaction from the other, but goes to an opposite
+extreme. It is the theory of the syndicalist, who prefers to smash
+machinery before he takes control, and of the socialist, who contents
+himself with declaring the right of the worker to all productive
+property, and agitates peacefully for the abolition of the wage system
+in favor of a working man's commonwealth. The socialist blames the
+wage system for all the evils of the present industrial order, regards
+the trade-unions as useful industrial agencies of reform, but urges a
+resort to the ballot as a necessary means of getting control of
+industry. There would come first the socialization of natural
+resources and transportation systems, then of public utilities and
+large industries, and by degrees the socialization of all industry
+would become complete. Then on a democratic basis the workers would
+choose their industrial officers, arrange their hours, wages, and
+conditions of labor, and provide for the needs of every individual
+without exploitation, overexertion, or lack of opportunity to work.
+Serious objections are made to this programme for productive
+enterprise on the ground of the difficulty of effecting the transfer
+of the means of production and exchange, and of executive management
+without the incentive of abundant pecuniary returns for efficient
+superintendency; even more because of the natural selfishness of human
+beings who seek personal preferment, and the natural inertia of those
+who know that they will be taken care of whether they exert themselves
+or not. More serious still are the difficulties that lie in the way of
+a satisfactory distribution of the rewards of labor, for there is sure
+to be serious difference of opinion over the proper share of each
+person who contributes to the work of production, and no method of
+initiative, referendum, and recall would avail to smooth out the
+difficulties that would be sure to arise.
+
+206. =Co-operation.=--The third principle is _co-operation_. The
+principle of co-operation is as important to society as the principle
+of division of labor. By means of co-operative activity in the home
+the family is able to maintain itself as a useful group. By means of
+co-operation in thinly settled communities local prosperity is
+possible without any individual possessing large resources. But in
+industry where competition rules and the aim of the employer is the
+exploitation of the worker, general comfort is sacrificed for the
+enrichment of the few and wealth flaunts itself in the midst of
+misery. There will always be a problem in the industrial relations of
+human beings until there is a recognition of this fundamental
+principle of co-operation. The application of the principle to the
+complicated system of modern industrialism is not easy, and attempts
+at co-operative production by working men with small and incapable
+management have not been successful, but it is becoming clear that as
+a principle of industrial relation between classes it is to obtain
+increasing recognition. If it is proper to admit the claims of the
+employer, the employee, and the public to an interest in every labor
+issue, then it is proper to look for the co-operation of them all in
+the regulation of industry. The usual experiments in co-operative
+industry have been the voluntary organization of production, exchange,
+or distribution by a group of middle or working class people to save
+the large expense of superintendents or middlemen. Co-operation in
+production has usually failed; in America co-operative banks and
+building associations, creameries, and fruit-growing associations
+have had considerable success, and in Europe co-operative stores and
+bakeries have had a large vogue in England and Belgium, and
+co-operative agriculture in Denmark. But industry on a large scale
+requires large capital, efficient management, capable, interested
+workmanship, and elimination of waste in material and human life. To
+this end it needs the good-will of all parties and the assistance of
+government. Unemployment, for instance, may be taken care of by giving
+every worker a good industrial education and doing away with
+inefficiency, and then establishing a wide-spread system of labor
+exchanges to adjust the mass of labor to specific requirements.
+Industry is such a big and important matter that nothing less than the
+co-operation of the whole of society can solve its problems.
+
+This co-operation, to be effective, requires a genuine partnership, in
+which the body of stockholders and the body of working men plan
+together, work together, and share together, with the assistance of
+government commissions and boards that continually adjust and, if
+necessary, regulate the processes of production and distribution on a
+basis of equity, to be determined by a consensus of expert opinion. In
+such a system there is no radical derangement of existing industry, no
+destruction of initiative, no expulsion of expert management or
+confiscation of property. Individual and corporate ownership continue,
+the wage system is not abolished, efficient administration is still to
+be obtained, but the body of control is not a board of directors
+responsible only to the stockholders of the corporation, and managing
+affairs primarily for their own gain, but it consists of
+representatives of those who contribute money, superintendence, and
+labor, together with or regulated by a group of government experts,
+all of whom are honestly seeking the good of all parties and enjoying
+their full confidence. Toward such an outcome of present strife many
+interested social reformers are working, and it is to be hoped that
+its advantages will soon appear so great that neither extreme
+alternative principle will have to be tried out thoroughly before
+there will be a general acceptance of the co-operative idea. It may
+seem utopian to those who are familiar with the selfishness and
+antagonism that have marked the history of the last hundred years, but
+it is already being tried out here and there, and it is the only
+principle that accords with the experiences and results of social
+evolution in other groups. It is the highest law that the struggle for
+individual power fails before the struggle for the good of the group,
+and a contest for the success of the few must give way to co-operation
+for the good of all.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 188-194.
+
+  ADAMS AND SUMNER: _Labor Problems_, pages 175-286, 379-432,
+      461-500.
+
+  _Bulletins of the United States Department of Labor._
+
+  CARLTON: _History and Problems of Organized Labor_, pages 228-261.
+
+  GLADDEN: _The Labor Question_, pages 77-113.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 167-206.
+
+  CROSS: _Essentials of Socialism_, pages 11, 12, 106-111.
+
+  WYCKOFF: _The Workers._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+207. =Mercantile Exchange.=--Important as is the manufacturing
+industry in the life of the city, it is only a part of the economic
+activity that is continually going on in its streets and buildings.
+The mercantile houses that carry on wholesale and retail trade, the
+towering office-buildings, and the railway and steamship terminals
+contain numerous groups of workers all engaged in the social task of
+supplying human wants, while streets and railways are avenues of
+traffic. The manufacture of goods is but a part of the process;
+distribution is as important as production. All these sources of
+supply are connected with banks and trust companies that furnish money
+and credit for business of every kind. The economic activities of a
+city form an intricate network in which the people are involved.
+
+Hardly second in importance to manufacturing is mercantile exchange.
+The manufacturer, after he has paid his workers, owns the goods that
+have been produced, but to get his living he must sell them. To do
+this he establishes relations with the merchant. Their relations are
+carried on through agents, some of whom travel from place to place
+taking orders, others establish office headquarters in the larger
+centres of trade. Once the merchant has opened his store or shop and
+purchased his goods he seeks to establish trade relations with as many
+individual customers as he can attract. Mercantile business is carried
+on in two kinds of stores, those which supply one kind of goods in
+wholesale or retail quantities, like groceries or dry goods, and those
+which maintain numerous departments for different kinds of
+manufactured goods. Large department stores have become a special
+feature of mercantile exchange in cities of considerable size, but
+they do not destroy the smaller merchants, though competition is often
+difficult.
+
+208. =The Ethics of Business.=--The methods of carrying on mercantile
+business are based, as in the factory, on the principle of getting the
+largest possible profits. The welfare of employees is a secondary
+consideration. Expense of maintenance is heavy. Rents are costly in
+desirable locations; the expense of carrying a large stock of
+merchandise makes it necessary to borrow capital on which interest
+must be paid; the obligations of a large pay-roll must be met at
+frequent intervals, whether business is good or bad. All these items
+are present in varying degree, whatever the size of the business,
+except where a merchant has capital enough of his own to carry on a
+small business and can attend to the wants of his customers alone or
+with the help of his family. The temptation of the merchant is strong
+to use every possible means to make a success of his business, paying
+wages as low as possible, in order to cut down expenses, and offering
+all kinds of inducements to customers in order to sell his goods. The
+ethics of trade need improvement. It is by no means true, as some
+agitators declare, that the whole business system is corrupt, that
+honesty is rare, and that the merchant is without a conscience.
+General corruption is impossible in a commercial age like this, when
+the whole system of business is built on credit, and large
+transactions are carried on, as on the Stock Exchange, with full
+confidence in the word or even the nod of an operator. Of course,
+shoddy and impure goods are sold over the counter and the customer
+often pays more than an article is really worth, but every mercantile
+house has its popular reputation to sustain as well as its rated
+financial standing, and the business concern that does not deal
+honorably soon loses profitable trade.
+
+Exchange constitutes an important division of the science of
+economics, but its social causes and effects are of even greater
+consequence. Exchange is dependent upon the diffusion of information,
+the expansion of interests, and growing confidence between those who
+effect a transaction. When mutual wants are few it is possible to
+carry on business by means of barter; when trade increases money
+becomes a necessary medium; world commerce requires a system of
+credit which rests on social trust and integrity. Conversely, there
+are social consequences that come from customs of exchange. It
+enlarges human interests. It stimulates socialization of habits and
+broader ideas. It encourages industry and thrift and promotes division
+of labor. It strengthens social organization and tends to make it more
+efficient. Altogether, exchange of goods must be regarded as among the
+most important functions of society.
+
+209. =Business Employees.=--The business ethics that are most open to
+criticism are those that govern the relations of the merchant and his
+employees. Here the system of employment is much the same as in the
+factory. The merchant deals with his employees through superintendents
+of departments. The employment manager hires the persons who seem best
+qualified for the position, and they are assigned to a department.
+They are under the orders of the head of the department, and their
+success or failure depends largely on his good-will. Wages and
+privileges are in his hand, and if he is morally unscrupulous he can
+ruin a weak-willed subordinate. There is little coherence among
+employees; there are always men and women who stand ready to take a
+vacant position, and often no particular skill or experience is
+required. There has been no such solidifying of interests by
+trade-unions as in the factory; the individual makes his own contract
+and stands on his own feet. On the other hand, there is an increasing
+number of employers who feel their responsibility to those who are in
+their employ, and, except in the department stores, they are usually
+associated personally with their employees. Welfare work is not
+uncommon in the large establishments, and a minimum wage is being
+adopted here and there.
+
+One of the worst abuses of the department store is the low-paid labor
+of women and girls. It is possible for girls who live at home to get
+along on a few dollars a week, but they establish a scale of wages so
+low that it is impossible for the young woman who is dependent on her
+own resources to get enough to eat and wear and keep well. The
+physical and moral wrecks that result are disheartening. Nourishing
+food in sufficient quantities to repair the waste of nerve and tissue
+cannot be obtained on five or six dollars a week, when room rent and
+clothing and necessary incidentals, like car-fare, have to be
+included. There are always human beasts of prey who are prepared to
+give financial assistance in exchange for sex gratification, and it is
+difficult to resist temptation when one's nervous vigor and strength
+of will are at the breaking-point. It is not strange that there is an
+economic element among the causes of the social evil; it is remarkable
+that moral sturdiness resists so much temptation.
+
+210. =Offices.=--The numerous office-buildings that have arisen so
+rapidly in recent years in the cities also have large corps of women
+workers. They have personal relations with employers much more
+frequently, for there are thousands of offices where a few
+stenographers or even a single secretary are sufficient. Office work
+is skilled labor, is better paid, and attracts women of better
+attainments and higher ideals than in department store or factory.
+Office relations are pleasant as well as profitable. The demands are
+exacting; labor at the typewriter, the proof-sheets, or the
+bookkeeper's desk is tiresome, but the society of the office is
+congenial, working conditions are healthful and cheerful in most
+cases, and there are many opportunities for increasing efficiency and
+promotion. The office has its hardships. Everything is on a business
+basis, and there is little allowance for feelings or disposition.
+There are days when trials multiply and an atmosphere of irritation
+prevails; there are seasons when the constant rush creates a wearing
+nervous tension, and other seasons, when business is so poor that
+occasionally there are breakdowns of health or moral rectitude; but on
+the whole the office presents a simpler industrial problem than the
+factory or the store.
+
+211. =Transportation.=--A third industry that has its centre in the
+city but extends across continents and seas is the business of
+transportation. Manufactured goods are conveyed from the factory to
+the warehouse and the store, goods sold in the mercantile
+establishment are delivered from door to door, but enormous quantities
+of the products of economic activity are hauled to greater distances
+by truck, car, and steamship. The city is a point to which roads,
+railways, and steamship lines converge, and from which they radiate in
+every direction. By long and short hauls, by express and freight, vast
+quantities of food products and manufactured goods pour into the
+metropolis, part to be used in its numerous dwellings, part to be
+shipped again to distant points. Along the same routes passengers are
+transported, journeying in all directions on a multitude of errands,
+jostling for a moment as they hurry to and from the means of
+conveyance, and then swinging away, each on its individual orbit, like
+comet or giant sun that nods acquaintance but once in a thousand
+years.
+
+The business of transportation occupies the time and attention of
+thousands of workers, and its ramifications are endless. It is not
+limited to a particular region like agriculture, or to towns and
+cities like manufacturing; it is not stopped by tariff walls or ocean
+boundaries. An acre of wheat is cut by the reaper, threshed, and
+carted to the elevator by wagon or motor truck. The railroad-car is
+hauled alongside, and with other bushels of its kind the grain is
+transported to a giant flour-mill, where it is turned into a whitened,
+pulverized product, packed in barrels, and shipped across the ocean to
+a foreign port. Conveyed by rail or truck to the bakery, the flour
+undergoes transformation into bread, and takes its final journey to
+hotel, restaurant, and dwelling-house. Similarly, every kind of raw
+material finds its destination far from the place of its production
+and is consumed directly or as a manufactured product. This gigantic
+business of transportation is the means of providing for the
+sustenance and comfort of millions of human beings, and in spite of
+the extensive use of machinery it requires at every step the
+co-operative labor of human beings.
+
+212. =Growth of Interdependence.=--It is the far-flung lines of
+commerce that bind together the peoples of the world. Formerly there
+were periods of history, as in the European Middle Ages, when a social
+group produced nearly everything that it needed for consumption and
+commerce was small; but now all countries exchange their own products
+for others that they cannot so readily produce. The requirements of
+commerce have broken down the barriers between races, and have
+compelled mutual acquaintance and knowledge of languages, mutual
+confidence in one another's good intentions, and mutual understanding
+of one another's wants. The demands of commerce have precipitated
+wars, but have also brought victories of peace. They have stimulated
+the invention of improved means of communication, as the demands of
+manufacturing stimulated invention of machinery. The slow progress of
+horse-drawn vehicles over poor roads provoked the invention of
+improved highways and then of railroads. The application of steam to
+locomotives and ships revolutionized commerce, and by the steady
+improvements of many years has given to the eager trader and traveller
+the speedy, palatial steamship and the _train de luxe_.
+
+Transportation depends, however, on the man behind the engine rather
+than on the mass of steel that is conjured into motion. Successful
+commerce waits for the willingness and skill of worker and director.
+There must be the same division and direction of labor and the same
+spirit of co-operation; there must be intelligence in planning
+schedules for traffic and overcoming obstacles of nature and human
+frailty and incompetence. The teamster, the longshoreman, the
+freight-handler, and the engineer must all feel the push of the
+economic demand, keeping them steadily at work. A strike on any
+portion of the line ties up traffic and upsets the calculations of
+manufacturer, merchant, and consumer, for they are all dependent upon
+the servants of transportation.
+
+213. =Problems of Transportation.=--There are problems of
+transportation that are of a purely economic nature, but there are
+also problems that are of social concern. The first problem is that of
+safe and rapid transportation. The comfort and safety of the millions
+who travel on business or for pleasure is a primary concern of
+society. If the roads are not kept in repair and the steamship lanes
+patrolled, if the rolling-stock is allowed to deteriorate and become
+liable to accident, if engine-drivers and helmsmen are intemperate or
+careless, if efficiency is not maintained, or if safety is sacrificed
+to speed, the public is not well served. Many are the illustrations of
+neglect and inefficiency that have culminated in accident and death.
+Or the transportation company is slow to adopt new inventions and to
+meet the expense that is necessary to equip a steamer or a railroad
+for speed, or to provide rapid interurban or suburban transit. Poor
+management or single tracks delay fast freights, or congested
+terminals tie up traffic. These inconveniences not only consume
+profits and ruffle the tempers of working men, but they are a social
+waste of time and effort, and they stand in the way of improved living
+conditions. The congestion of population in the cities can easily be
+remedied when rapid and cheap transit make it possible for working men
+to live twenty or thirty miles out of town. The standard of living can
+be raised appreciably when fast trolley or steam service provides the
+products of the farms in abundance and in fresh condition.
+
+Another problem is that of the worker. The same temptation faces the
+transportation manager that appears in the factory and the mercantile
+house. The expenses of traffic are enormous. Railways alone cost
+hundreds of millions for equipment and service, and there are periods
+when commerce slackens and earnings fall away. It is easier to cut
+wages than to postpone improvements or to raise freight or passenger
+rates. In the United States an interstate commerce commission
+regulates rates, but questions of wages and hours of labor are between
+the management and the men. Friction frequently develops, and
+hostility in the past has produced labor organizations that are well
+knit and powerful, so that the railroad man has succeeded in securing
+fair treatment, but there are other branches of transportation service
+where the servants of the public find their labor poorly paid and
+precarious in tenure. Teamsters and freight-handlers find conditions
+hard; sailors and dock-hands are often thrown out of employment. Whole
+armies of transportation employees have been enrolled since
+trolley-lines and automobile service have been organized. Fewer
+persons drive their own horses and vehicles, and many who walked to
+and from business or school now ride. Transportation service has been
+vastly extended, but there are continually more people to be
+accommodated, and motor-men, conductors, and chauffeurs to be adjusted
+to wage scales and service hours.
+
+214. =Monopoly.=--A persistent tendency in transportation has been
+toward monopoly. Express service between two points becomes controlled
+by a single company, and the charges are increased. A street-railway
+company secures a valuable city franchise, lays its tracks on the
+principal streets, and monopolizes the business. Service may be poor
+and fares may be raised, unless kept down by a railroad commission,
+but the public must endure inconvenience, discomfort, and oppression,
+or walk. Railroad systems absorb short lines and control traffic over
+great districts; unless they are under government regulation they may
+adjust their time schedules and freight charges arbitrarily and impose
+as large a burden as the traffic will bear; the public is helpless,
+because there is no other suitable conveyance for passengers or
+freight. It is for these reasons that the United States has taken the
+control of interstate commerce into its own hands and regulated it,
+while the States have shown a disposition to inflict penalties upon
+recalcitrant corporations operating within State boundaries. It is the
+policy of government, also, to prevent control of one railroad by
+another, to the added inconvenience and expense of the public. But
+since 1890 there has been a rapid tendency toward a consolidation of
+business enterprises, by which railroads became united into a few
+gigantic systems, street railways were consolidated into a few large
+companies, and ocean-steamship companies amalgamated into an
+international combination.
+
+215. =Government Ownership vs. Regulation.=--Nor did monopoly confine
+itself to transportation. The control of public utilities has passed
+into fewer hands. Coal companies, gas and electric light corporations,
+telegraph and telephone companies tend to monopolize business over
+large sections of country. Some of these possess a natural monopoly
+right, and if managed in the interests of the public that they serve,
+may be permitted to carry on their business without interference. But
+their large incomes and disposition to oppress their constituents has
+produced many demands for government ownership, especially of coal
+companies and railroads, and though for less reason of telephone and
+telegraph lines. Government ownership has been tried in Europe and in
+Australasia, but experience does not prove that it is universally
+desirable. There are financial objections in connection with purchase
+and operation, and the question of efficiency of government employees
+is open to debate. Enough experiments have been tried in the United
+States to render very doubtful the advisability of government
+ownership of any of these large enterprises where politics wield so
+large a power and democracy delights to shift office and
+responsibility. But it is desirable that the government of State and
+nation have power to regulate business associations that control the
+public welfare as widely as do railroads, telegraph-lines, and
+navigation companies. By legislation, incorporation, and taxation the
+government may keep its hand upon monopoly and, if necessary,
+supersede it, but the system which has grown up by a natural process
+is to be given full opportunity to justify itself before government
+assumes its functions. It is hardly to be expected that government
+regulation will be faultless, American experience with regulating
+commissions has not been altogether satisfactory, but society needs
+protection, and this the government may well provide.
+
+216. =Trusts.=--The tendency to monopoly is not confined to any one
+department of economic activity. Manufacturing, mercantile, and
+banking companies have all tended to combine in large corporations,
+partly for greater economy, partly for an increase of profits through
+manipulating reorganization of stock companies, and partly for
+centralization of control. In the process, while the cost of certain
+products has been reduced by economy in operating expenses, the
+enormous dividend requirements of heavily capitalized corporations has
+necessitated high prices, a large business, and the danger of
+overproduction, and a virtual monopoly has made it possible to lift
+prices to a level that pinches the consumer. By a grim irony of
+circumstance, these giant and often ruthless corporations have taken
+the name of trusts, but they do not incline to recognize that the
+people's rights are in their trust. Not every trust is harmful to
+society, and certainly trusts need not be destroyed. They have come
+into existence by a natural economic process, and as far as they
+cheapen the cost of production and improve the manufacture and
+distribution of the product they are a social gain, but they need to
+be controlled, and it is the function of government to regulate them
+in the interests of society at large. It has been found by experience
+that publicity of corporate business is one of the best methods of
+control. In the long run every social organization must obtain the
+sanction of public opinion if it is to become a recognized
+institution, and in a democratic country like the United States no
+trust can become so independent or monopolistic that it can afford to
+disregard the public will and the public good, as certain American
+corporations have discovered to their grief.
+
+217. =The Chances of Progress.=--Every economic problem resolves
+itself into a social problem. The satisfaction of human wants is the
+province of the manufacturer, the merchant, and the transporter, but
+it is not limited to any one or all of these, nor is society under
+their control. The range of wants is so great, the desires of social
+beings branch out into so many broad interests, that no one line of
+enterprise or one group of men can control more than a small portion
+of society. The whole is greater than any of its parts. There will be
+groups that are unfortunate, communities and races that will suffer
+temporarily in the process of social adjustment, but the welfare of
+the many can never long be sacrificed to the selfishness of the few.
+Social revolution in some form will take place. It may not be
+accomplished in a day or a year, but the social will is sure to assert
+itself and to right the people's wrongs. The social process that is
+going on in the modern city has aggravated the friction of industrial
+relations; the haste with which business is carried on is one of its
+chief causes; but the very speed of the movement will carry society
+the sooner out of its acute distresses into a better adjusted system
+of industry. So far most of the world's progress has been by a slow
+course of natural adjustment of individuals and groups to one another;
+that process cannot be stopped, but it can be directed by those who
+are conscious of the maladjustments that exist and perceive ways and
+means of improvement. Under such persons as leaders purposive progress
+may be achieved more rapidly and effectually in the near future.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HADLEY: _Standards of Public Morality_, pages 33-96.
+
+  NEARING: _Wages in the United States_, pages 93-96.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 241-255, 314-320.
+
+  VROOMAN: _American Railway Problems_, pages 1-181.
+
+  BOLEN: _Plain Facts as to the Trusts and the Tariff_, pages 3-236.
+
+  BOGART: _Economic History of the United States_, pages 186-216,
+      305-337, 400-418.
+
+  MONTGOMERY: _Vital American Problems_, pages 3-91.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE PEOPLE WHO WORK
+
+
+218. =Economic vs. Social Values.=--Economic interests may receive
+first attention in the city, but the work that is done is of less
+importance than the people who work. Things may so fill the public
+mind that the real values of the various elements that enter into life
+may become distorted. A penny may be held so close to the eye as to
+hide the sun. Making a living may seem more important than making the
+most of life. Persons who are absorbed in business are liable to lose
+their sense of proportion between people and property; the capitalist
+overburdens himself with business cares until he breaks down under the
+nervous strain, and overworks his subordinates until they often become
+physical wrecks, but it is not because he personally intends to do
+harm. Eventually the social welfare of every class will become the
+supreme concern and the study of social efficiency will fill a larger
+place than the study of economic efficiency.
+
+219. =The Social Classes.=--There is a natural line of social cleavage
+that has made it a customary expression to speak of the upper, the
+middle, and the lower classes. It is impossible to separate them
+sharply, for they shade into one another. Theoretically, in a
+democratic country like America there should be no class distinctions,
+but in colonial days birth and education had an acknowledged social
+position that did not belong to the common man, and in the nineteenth
+century a wealthy class came into existence that wrested supremacy
+from professional men and those who could rely alone on their
+intellectual achievements. It has never been impossible for
+individuals to push their way up the social path of success, but it
+has been increasingly difficult for a self-made man to break through
+into the circle of the _élite_. There are still young men who come
+out of the country without pecuniary capital but with physical
+strength and courage and, after years of persistent attack, conquer
+the citadel of place and power, but the odds are against the youth
+without either capital or a higher education than the high school
+gives. Without unusual ability and great strength of will it is
+impossible to rise high if one lacks capital or influential friends,
+but with the help of any two of these it is quite possible to gain
+success. Employers complain that the vast majority of persons whom
+they employ are lacking in energy, ambition, and ability. Important as
+is the possession of wealth and influence it seems to be the psychic
+values that ultimately determine the individual's place in American
+society. We shall expect, therefore, to find an upper class in society
+composed of some who hold their place because of the prestige that
+belongs to birth or property, and of others who have made their own
+way up because they had the necessary qualities to succeed. Below them
+in the social scale we shall expect to find a larger class who,
+because they were not consumed by ambition to excel, or because they
+lacked the means to achieve distinction, have come to occupy a place
+midway between the high and the low, to fill the numerous professional
+and business positions below the kings and great captains, and to hold
+the balance of power between the aristocracy and the proletariat.
+Below these, in turn, are the so-called masses, who fill the lower
+ranks of labor, and who are essential to the well-being of those who
+are reckoned above them.
+
+220. =The Worth of the Upper Class.=--It is a common belief among the
+lowly that the people who hold a place in the upper ranks are not
+worthy of their lofty position, and there are many who hope to see
+such a general levelling as took place during the French Revolution.
+They are fortified in their opinion by the lavish and irresponsible
+way in which the wealthy use their money, and they are tantalized by
+the display of luxury which, if times are hard, are in aggravating
+contrast to the hardship and suffering of the poor. The scale of
+living of the millionaire cannot justify itself in the eyes of the
+man who finds it difficult to make both ends meet. Undoubtedly society
+will find it necessary some day to devise a more equitable method of
+distribution. But it is a mistake to suppose that most of the rich are
+idle parasites on society, or that their service, as well, as their
+wealth, could be dispensed with in the social order. In spite of the
+impression fostered by a sensational press that the average person of
+wealth devotes himself to the gaieties and dissipations of a
+pleasure-loving society, the truth is that after the self-centred
+years of callow youth are over most men and women take life seriously
+and only the few are idlers. If the investigator should go through the
+wealthy sections of the cities and suburbs, and record his
+observations, he would find that the men spend their days feeling the
+pulse of business in the down-town offices, directing the energies of
+thousands of individuals, keeping open the arteries of trade, using as
+productive capital the wealth that they count their own, making
+possible the economic activity and the very existence of the persons
+who find fault with their worthlessness. He would find the women in
+the nature of the case less occupied with public affairs, but
+interested and enlisted in all sorts of good enterprises, and, while
+often wasteful of time and money, bearing a part increasingly in the
+promotion of social reforms by active participation and by generous
+contributions. The immense gains that have come to society through
+philanthropy and social organization, as well as through the channels
+of industry, would have been impossible without the sympathetic
+activity of the so-called upper class.
+
+221. =Who Belong to the City Aristocracy?=--Most of those who belong
+to the upper class are native Americans. They may not be far removed
+from European ancestry, but for themselves they have had the advantage
+of a rearing in American ways in the home, the school, and society at
+large. They are both city and country bred. The country boy has the
+advantage of physical strength and better manual training, but he
+often lacks intellectual development, and usually has little capital
+to start with. The city youth knows the city ways and possesses the
+asset of acquaintances and friendships, if not of capital, in the
+place where he expects to make a living. He is helped to success if
+the way is prepared for him by relatives who have attained place and
+property, but he is as often cursed by having more money and more
+liberty than is good for him, while still in his irresponsible years.
+No place is secure until the young man has proved his personal worth,
+whether he is from the city or the country and has come up out of
+poverty or from a home of wealth.
+
+222. =Sources of Wealth.=--The large majority of persons of wealth
+have won or inherited their property from the economic industries of
+manufacturing, trade, commerce, and transportation, or real estate.
+Certain individuals have been fortunate in their mining or
+public-service investments; others make a large income as corporation
+officials, lawyers, physicians, engineers, and architects, but most of
+them have attained their success as capitalists, and they are able to
+maintain a position of prominence and ease because they use rather
+than hoard their wealth. It is easy to underestimate the usefulness of
+human beings who finance the world of industry, and in estimating the
+returns that are due to members of the various social classes this
+form of public service that is so essential to the prosperity of all
+must receive recognition.
+
+223. =How They Live.=--Unfortunately, the possession of money
+furnishes a constant temptation to self-indulgence which, if carried
+far, is destructive of personal health and character, weakens family
+affection, and threatens the solidarity of society. The dwelling-house
+is costly and the furnishings are expensive. A retinue of servants
+performs many useless functions in the operation of the establishment.
+Ostentation often carried to the point of vulgarity marks habits of
+speech, of dress, and of conduct both within and outside of the home.
+Every member of the family has his own friends and interests and
+usually his own share of the family allowance. The adults of the
+family are unreasonably busy with social functions that are not worth
+their up-keep; the children are coddled and supplied with predigested
+culture in schools that cater to the trade, and if they are not
+spoiled in the process of preparation go on to college as a form of
+social recreation. There are exceptions, of course, to this manner of
+life, but those who follow it constitute a distinct type and by their
+manner of living exert a disintegrating influence in American society.
+
+224. =The Middle Class.=--The middle class is not so distinct a
+stratum of society as are the upper and lower classes. It includes the
+bulk of the population in the United States, and from its ranks come
+the teachers, ministers, physicians, lawyers, artists, musicians,
+authors, and statesmen; the civil, mechanical, and electrical
+engineers, the architects, and the scientists of every name; most of
+the tradesmen of the towns and the farmers of the country; office
+managers and agents, handicraftsmen of the better grade, and not a few
+of the factory workers. They are the people who maintain the
+Protestant churches and their enterprises, who make up a large part of
+the constituency of educational institutions and buy books and
+reviews, and who patronize the better class of entertainments and
+amusements. These people are too numerous to belong to any one race,
+and they include both city and country bred. The educated class of
+foreigners finds its place among them, assimilates American culture,
+and intermarries in the second generation. Into the middle class of
+the cities is absorbed the constant stream of rural immigration,
+except the few who rise into the upper class or fall into the lower
+class. In the city itself grow up thousands of boys and girls who pass
+through the schools and into business and home life in their native
+environment, and who constitute the solid stratum of urban society.
+
+These people have not the means to make large display. They are
+influenced by the fashions of the upper class, sometimes are induced
+to applaud their poses or are hypnotized to do their bidding, but they
+have their own class standards, and most of them are contented to
+occupy their modest station. Only a minority of them own their homes,
+but as a class they can afford to pay a reasonable rent and to furnish
+their houses tastefully, to hire one or two household servants, and to
+live in comfort. Twenty years ago they owned bicycles and enjoyed
+century runs into the country on Sunday: since then some of them have
+been promoted to automobiles and enjoy a low-priced car as much as the
+wealthy appreciate their high-priced limousines. As in rural villages,
+so in the city they form various groups of neighbors or friends based
+on a common interest, and find entertainment and intellectual stimulus
+from such companionship. On the roster of social organizations are
+musical societies and bridge clubs, literary and art circles, dramatic
+associations, women's clubs, and men's fraternities. The people meet
+at dances, teas, and receptions; they mingle with others of their kind
+at church or theatre, and co-operate with other workers in settlements
+and charity organizations. They educate their children in the public
+schools and in increasing numbers give them the benefit of a college
+education.
+
+People of the middle class are by no means debarred from passing up to
+a higher social grade if they have the ability or good fortune to get
+ahead, nor are they guaranteed a permanent place in their own native
+group unless they are competent to keep their footing. There is no
+surety to keep the independent tradesman from failing in business or
+the careless youth from falling into intemperate or vicious habits;
+many hazards must be crossed and hindrances overcome before an assured
+position is secured in the community, but the opportunities are far
+better than for the handicapped strugglers below.
+
+225. =Bonds of Union Between Classes.=--Though the middle class is
+distinct from the aristocracy of society in America, it is not shut
+off from association with it. The same is true in a less degree of the
+lowest class. Party lines are vertical, not horizontal. Religious and
+intellectual lines are only less so. The politician cannot afford to
+ignore a single vote, and the working man's counts as much as the
+plutocrat's. There are few churches that do not have representatives
+of all classes, from the gilded pew-holder to the workman with dingy
+hands who sits under the gallery. The school is no respecter of class
+lines. The store, the street-car, and the railroad are all common
+property, where one jostles another without regard to class.
+Friendship oversteps all boundaries, even of race and creed.
+
+226. =The Lower Class.=--The lower class consists of those who are
+dependent upon others for the opportunity to work or for the charity
+that keeps them alive. They commonly lack initiative and ambition; if
+they have those qualities they are hindered by their environment from
+ever getting ahead. Sometimes they make an attempt in a small way to
+carry on trade on their own resources, but they seldom win success.
+Their skill as factory operatives is not so great as to gain for them
+a good wage, and when business is slack they are the first to be laid
+off the pay-roll, and they help to swell the ranks of the unemployed.
+Because of the American system of compulsory education they are not
+absolutely illiterate, but their ability is small; they leave school
+early, and what little education they have does not help them to earn
+a living. They do not usually choose an occupation, but they follow
+the line of least resistance, taking the first job that offers, and
+often finding later that they never can hope for advancement in it.
+Frequently they are the victims of weak will and inherited tendencies
+that lead to intemperance, vice, and crime. Thousands of them are
+living in the unwholesome tenements that lack comfort and
+attractiveness. There is no inducement to cultivate good habits, and
+no possibility of keeping the children free from moral and physical
+contamination. As a class they are continually on the edge of poverty
+and often submerged in it. They know what it is to feel the pinch of
+hunger, to shiver before the blasts of winter, and to look upon coal
+and ice as luxuries. They become discouraged from the struggle as they
+grow older, often get to be chronically dependent on charity, and not
+infrequently fall at last into a pauper's grave.
+
+227. =The Degenerate American.=--Many of these people are Americans,
+swarms of them are foreigners who have come here to better their
+fortunes and have been disappointed or, finding the difficulties more
+than they anticipated, have settled down fairly contented in the city.
+Many persons think that it is the alien immigrant who causes the
+increase in intemperance and crime that has been characteristic of
+city life, but statistics lay much of the guilt upon the degenerate
+American. There are poor whites in the cities as there are in the
+South country. The riffraff drifts to town from the country as the
+Roman proletariat gravitated to the capital in the days of decadence.
+A great many young persons who enter the city with high hopes of
+making a fortune fail to get a foothold or gradually lose their grip
+and are swept along in the current of the city's débris. Illness,
+accident, and repeated failure are all causes of degeneration.
+
+Along with misfortune belongs misconduct. Those causes which produce
+poverty like intemperance, idleness, and ignorance, are productive of
+degeneracy, also. They render the individual unfit to meet the
+responsibilities of life, and tend not only to incompetence but also
+to sensuality and even crime. Added to the various physical causes are
+such psychical influences as contact with degraded minds or with base
+literature or art, loss of religious faith, and loss of
+self-confidence as to one's ability to succeed.
+
+Personal degeneracy tends to perpetuate itself in the family. Drunken,
+depraved, or feeble-minded parents usually produce children with the
+same inheritances or tendencies; family quarrelling and an utter
+absence of moral training do not foster the development of character.
+A slum environment in the city strengthens the evil tendencies of such
+a home, as it counterbalances the good effects of a wholesome home
+environment. Mental and moral degeneracy is always present in society,
+and if unchecked spreads widely; physical degeneracy is so common as
+to be alarming, resulting in dangerous forms of disease, imbecility,
+and insanity. Society is waking to the need of protecting itself
+against degeneracy in all its forms, and of cutting out the roots of
+the evil from the social body.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  NEARING: _Social Religion_, pages 104-157.
+
+  COMMONS: "Is Class Conflict in America Growing?" art. in _American
+      Journal of Sociology_, 13: 756-783.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 276-283.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 185-193.
+
+  WARNER: _American Charities_, pages 59-117, 276-292.
+
+  PATTEN: _Social Basis of Religion_, pages 107-133.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 499-512.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE IMMIGRANT
+
+
+228. =The Immigrant Problem.=--An increasing proportion of the city's
+population is foreign born or of foreign parentage. For a hundred
+years America has been the goal of the European peasant's ambition,
+the magnet that has drawn him from interior hamlet and ocean port.
+Migration has been one of the mighty forces that have been reshaping
+society. The American people are being altered by it, and it is a
+question whether America will maintain its national characteristics if
+the volume of immigration continues unchecked. Europe has been deeply
+affected, and the people who constitute the migrating mass have been
+changed most of all. And the end is not yet.
+
+The immigrant constitutes one of the problems of society. Never has
+there been in history such a race movement as that which has added to
+one nation a population of more than twenty million in a half century.
+It is a problem that affects the welfare of races and continents
+outside of America, as well as here, and that affects millions yet
+unborn, and millions more who might have been born were it not for the
+unfavorable changes that have taken place because of the shift in
+population. It is a problem that has to do with all phases of group
+life--its economic, educational, political, moral, and religious
+interests. It is a problem that demands the united wisdom of all who
+care for the welfare of humanity in the days to come. The heart of the
+problem is first whether the immigrant shall be permitted to crowd
+into this country unhindered, or whether sterner barriers shall be
+placed in the way of the increasing multitude; secondly, if
+restrictions are decided upon what shall be their nature, and whose
+interests shall be considered first--those of the immigrant, of the
+countries involved, or of world progress as a whole?
+
+The problem can be approached best by considering (1) the history of
+immigration, (2) the present facts about immigration, (3) the
+tendencies and effects of immigration. Migrations have occurred
+everywhere in history, and they are progressing in these days in other
+countries besides the United States. Canada is adding thousands every
+year, parts of South America are already German or Italian because of
+immigration, in lesser numbers emigrants are going to the colonies
+that the European nations, especially the English, have located all
+over the world. European immigration to North America has been so
+prolonged and abundant that it constitutes the particular phenomenon
+that most deserves attention. Other nations have fought wars to secure
+additional territory for their people; the immigrant occupation of
+America has been a peaceful conquest.
+
+229. =The Irish.=--Although the early occupation of this continent was
+by immigration from Europe, after the Revolution the increase of
+population was almost entirely by natural growth. Large families were
+the rule and a hardy people was rapidly gaining the mastery of the
+eastern part of the continent. It was not until 1820 that the new
+immigration became noticeable and the government took legislative
+action to regulate it (1819). Between 1840 and 1880 three distinct
+waves of immigration broke on American shores. The first was Irish.
+The Irish peasants were starving from a potato famine that extended
+over several years in the forties, and they poured by the thousand
+into America, the women becoming domestic servants and the men the
+unskilled laborers that were needed in the construction camps. They
+built roads, dug canals, and laid the first railways. Complaint was
+made that they lowered the standards of wages and of living, that
+their intemperate, improvident ways tended to complicate the problem
+of poverty, and that their Catholic religion made them dangerous, but
+they continued to come until the movement reached its climax, in 1851,
+when 272,000 passed through the gates of the Atlantic ports. The
+Irish-American has become an important element of the population,
+especially in the Eastern cities, and has shown special aptitude for
+politics and business.
+
+230. =Germans and Scandinavians.=--The Irishman was followed by the
+German. He was attracted by-the rich agricultural lands of the Middle
+West and the opportunities for education and trade in the towns and
+cities. German political agitators who had failed to propagate
+democracy in the revolutionary days of 1848 made their way to a place
+where they could mould the German-American ideas. While the Irish
+settled down in the seaboard towns, the Germans went West, and
+constituted one of the solid groups that was to build the future
+cosmopolitan nation. The German was followed by the Scandinavian. The
+people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were increasing in number, but
+their rough, cold country could not support them all. As the Norsemen
+took to the sea in the ninth century, so the Scandinavian did in the
+nineteenth, but this time in a peaceful migration toward the setting
+sun. They began coming soon after the Civil War, and by 1882 they
+numbered thirteen per cent of the total immigration. They were a
+specially valuable asset, for they were industrious agriculturists and
+occupied the valuable but unused acres of the Northwest, where they
+planted the wheat belt of the United States, learned American ways and
+founded American institutions, and have become one of the best strains
+in the American blood.
+
+231. =The New Immigrants.=--If the United States could have continued
+to receive mainly such people as these from northern Europe, there
+would be little cause to complain of the volume of immigration, but
+since 1880 the tide has been setting in from southern and eastern
+Europe and even from Asia, bringing in large numbers of persons who
+are not of allied stock, have been little educated, and do not
+understand or fully sympathize with American principles and ideals,
+and for the most part are unskilled workmen. These have come in such
+enormous numbers as to constitute a real menace and to compel
+attention.
+
+TABLE OF IMMIGRATION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1914
+
+(Races numbering less than 10,000 each are not included)
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  South Italians                               251,612  |
+  |  Jews                                         138,051  |
+  |  Poles                                        122,657  |
+  |  Germans                                       79,871  |
+  |  English                                       51,746  |
+  |  Greeks                                        45,881  |
+  |  Russians                                      44,957  |
+  |  North Italians                                44,802  |
+  |  Hungarians                                    44,538  |
+  |  Croatians and Slovenians                      37,284  |
+  |  Ruthenians                                    36,727  |
+  |  Scandinavians                                 36,053  |
+  |  Irish                                         33,898  |
+  |  Slovaks                                       25,819  |
+  |  Roumanians                                    24,070  |
+  |  Lithuanians                                   21,584  |
+  |  Scotch                                        18,997  |
+  |  French                                        18,166  |
+  |  Bulgarians, Servians, and Montenegrins        15,084  |
+  |  Mexicans                                      13,089  |
+  |  Finns                                         12,805  |
+  |  Dutch and Flemings                            12,566  |
+  |  Spanish                                       11,064  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+
+232. =Italians and Slavs.=--Most numerous of these are the Italians.
+At home they feel the pressure of population, the pinch of small
+income, and heavy taxation. Here it costs less to be a citizen and
+there are more opportunities for a livelihood. Gangs of Italian
+laborers have taken the place of the Irish. Italians have established
+themselves in the small trades, and some of them find a place in the
+factory. Two-thirds of them are from the country, and they find
+opportunity to use their agricultural knowledge as farm laborers. In
+California and Louisiana they have established settlements of their
+own, and in the East they make a foreign fringe on the outskirts of
+suburban towns. North Italy is more progressive than the south and the
+qualities of the people are of higher grade, but the bulk of
+emigration is from the region of Naples and Sicily. Among the southern
+Italians the percentage of illiteracy is high, they have the
+reputation of being slippery in business relations, and not a few
+anarchists and criminals are found among them. It is not reasonable to
+expect that these people will measure up to the level of the steady,
+reliable, and hard-working American or north European, especially as
+large numbers of them are birds of passage spending the winter in
+Italy or going home for a time when business in America is depressed.
+Yet the great majority of those who settle here are peaceable,
+ambitious, and hard-working men and women.
+
+Alongside the Italian is the Slav. There are so many varieties of him
+that he is confusing. He comes from the various provinces of Russia,
+from the conglomerate empire of Austro-Hungary, and from the Balkan
+states. In physique he is sturdier than the Italian and mentally he is
+less excitable and nervous, but he drinks heavily and is often
+murderous when not sober. The Slav has come to America to find a place
+in the sun. At home he has suffered from political oppression and
+poverty; he has had little education of body or mind; he is subject to
+his primitive impulses as the west European long ago ceased to be. It
+is not easy for America to assimilate large numbers of such backward
+peoples, but the Slav is coming at the rate of three hundred thousand
+a year. The Slav is depended upon for the hard labor of mine and
+foundry, of sugar and oil refineries, and of meat-packing
+establishments. Hundreds and thousands are in the coal and iron
+regions of Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and West Virginia. The
+Bohemians and Poles more frequently than the others bring their
+families with them, and to some extent settle in the rural districts,
+but the bulk of the Slavs are men who herd in congested
+boarding-houses, move frequently from one industrial centre to
+another, and naturally are very slow to become assimilated.
+
+233. =The Jews.=--Of all the races that have found asylum in America
+none have felt abroad the heavy hand of oppression more than the Jew.
+He has been the world's outcast through nineteen centuries, but in
+America he has found freedom to expand. One-fifth of all the Jews are
+already in America, and the rate of immigration is not far from
+140,000 a year. The immigrant Jews are of different grades, some are
+educated and well-to-do, but the masses are poor, and the most recent
+immigrants have low ideals of living. Few of those who come settle in
+the country districts; the large majority herd in the city tenements
+and engage in small trades and manufacturing. Jewish masters are
+unmerciful as sweaters, unprincipled as landlords, and disreputable as
+white slavers, but no man rises above limitations that others have set
+for him like the Jew, and with ambition, ability, and persistence the
+race is pushing its way to the front. The young people are eager for
+an education, and are often among the keenest pupils in their classes.
+Later they make their mark in the professions as well as in business.
+The Jew has found a new Canaan in the West.
+
+234. =The Lesser Peoples.=--Besides these great groups that constitute
+the bulk of the incoming millions, there are representatives from all
+the nations and tribes of Europe. All parts of Great Britain have sent
+their people, and from Canada so many have come as almost to
+impoverish certain sections. French-Canadians are numerous in the mill
+cities of New England. From the Netherlands there has always been a
+small contingent. Portugal has sent islanders from the Azores and Cape
+Verde. The Finns are here, the Lithuanians from Russia, the Magyars
+from Hungary. The Greeks are pouring in from their sunny hills and
+valleys; they rival the Italians in the fruit trade, and monopolize
+the bootblack industry in certain cities. With the twentieth century
+have come the Turks and their Asiatic subjects, the Syrians and the
+Armenians. All these peoples have race peculiarities, prejudices, and
+superstitions. Most of their members belong in the lower grades of
+society and their coming is a distinct danger to the nation's future.
+There can be no question, of course, that individuals among them
+possess ability and even talent, and that certain groups like those
+from Great Britain and the Netherlands are exceptions to the general
+rule, but there is a strong conviction among social workers and
+students that those who are here should be assimilated before many
+more arrive. Definite measures are advocated by which it is expected
+that the government or private agencies may be able to make over these
+latest aliens into reputable, useful American citizens.
+
+235. =Public Attitude toward Immigration.=--Although interest in
+national and immigrant welfare is far less keen than it well might be,
+the tremendous consequences of the wide-spread movement have not
+passed unnoticed. Wage-earners already here have felt the effects of
+low-grade competition and have clamored for restrictive legislation.
+On race rather than economic grounds Asiatics have been excluded
+except for the few already here. Federal regulation has been increased
+with reference to all immigrant traffic. This has been based
+increasingly on investigation by private effort and government
+commission, and governments and churches have established bureaus on
+immigration. Aid associations maintain agents to safeguard the
+newcomer from exploitation, both on the journey and in port. From all
+these sources a body of information has been gathered that throws
+light on the causes and effects of immigration.
+
+236. =Causes and Effects.=--The primary cause is industrial. The
+desire of the people to improve their economic and social condition is
+the compelling motive that drives them, in spite of homesickness and
+ignorance, to venture into an unknown country and to face dangers and
+difficulties that could not be foreseen. Three out of four who come
+are males, pioneers oftentimes of a family that looks forward to a
+larger migration later on. Friends on this side encourage others and
+commonly supply the necessary funds. Eighty per cent of all who come
+into Massachusetts make the venture in hope of finding better
+industrial conditions or to join relatives or friends. In some
+countries, like Russia, religious and political oppression are
+expelling causes, and the military service required by the European
+Powers drives young men away. It has been demonstrated that forty per
+cent of the immigration is not permanent, but that for various reasons
+individuals return for a season, some permanently.
+
+Immigration has its good and bad effects. There are certain good
+qualities in many of the immigrant strains that are valuable to
+American character, and it cannot be denied that the exploitation of
+national resources and the execution of public works could not have
+been accomplished so rapidly without the immigrant. But the bad
+effects furnish a problem that is not easily solved. Immigrants come
+now in such large numbers that they tend to form alien groups of
+increasing proportions in the midst of the great cities. There is
+danger that the city will become a collection of districts--little
+Italy, little Hungary, and little Syria--and the sense of civic unity
+be destroyed. Even more significant is the high birth-rate of the
+foreigner. Statistics show that with the greater birth-rate of the
+immigrants there is a corresponding decline in the native birth-rate,
+so that the alien is supplanting the native American stock. Along with
+race degeneracy goes lack of industrial skill and declining wages, for
+the foreigner is ignorant, often unorganized, and willing to work and
+live under worse conditions than the native American. Among the
+disastrous social effects are increasing poverty and crime, lack of
+sanitation, and an increase of diseases that thrive in filth.
+Illiteracy and slow mentality lower the general level of intelligence.
+Lack of training in democracy renders the average immigrant a poor
+citizen, though some State laws give him the ballot without delay. In
+morals and religion there is more loss than gain by immigration.
+American liberty tends to become license, scores of thousands lose all
+interest in the church, and moral restraint is thrown off with the
+ecclesiastical yoke. Plainly when the immigrant population is
+predominant in a great city the problem of immigration becomes vital
+not only to the local municipality but also to the nation, which is
+fast becoming urban.
+
+237. =Americanizing the Alien.=--After all is said, the immigrant
+problem is not insoluble. There is much in the situation to make one
+optimistic. Thus far the native stock has been able to survive and to
+give its best to the newcomer. The immigrant himself has no desire to
+destroy American institutions. He comes longing to share in their
+benefits. America is to him an Eldorado, a promised land flowing with
+milk and honey. His children, through the schools and other contacts,
+learn the language that his tongue is slow to acquire, and absorb the
+ideas and ideals that are typically American. After all, it is the
+spirit rather than the form of the institutions that make them
+valuable. The upper-class American, who is too indifferent to go to
+the polls on election day, is less patriotic and more harmful to
+American institutions than the Italian who is too ignorant to vote,
+but would die on the battle-field for the defense of his adopted
+country. Many agencies are at work to help the alien adjust himself to
+American ways and to make him into a good citizen. In the last resort
+the Americanization of the foreigner rests with the attitude of the
+native American toward him rather than with the immigrant himself.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ROSS: _The Old World in the New_, pages 24-304.
+
+  FAIRCHILD: _Immigration_, pages 213-368.
+
+  COMMONS: _Races and Immigrants in America_, pages 198-238.
+
+  ROBERTS: _The New Immigration._
+
+  JENKS AND LAUCK: _Immigration._
+
+  WOODS: _Americans in Process._
+
+  WILLIS: "Findings of the Immigration Commission," art. in _The
+      Survey_, 25: 571-578.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+HOW THE WORKING PEOPLE LIVE
+
+
+238. =In Europe.=--A large proportion of the immigrants from Europe
+have been peasants who have come out of rural villages to find a home
+in the barracks of American cities. In the Old World they have lived
+in houses that lacked comfort and convenience; they have worked hard
+through a long day for small returns; and a government less liberal
+and more burdened than the United States has mulcted them of much of
+their small income by heavy taxes. Young men have lost two or three
+years in compulsory military training, and their absence has kept the
+women in the fields. From the barracks men often return with the
+stigma of disease upon them, which, added to the common social evils
+of intemperance and careless sex relations, keeps moral standards low.
+Thousands of them are illiterate, few of them have time for
+recreation, and those who do understand little of its possibilities.
+Religion is largely a matter of inherited superstition, and as a
+superior force in life is quite lacking. To people of this sort comes
+the vision of a land where government is democratic, military
+conscription is unknown, wages are high, and there is unlimited
+opportunity to get ahead. Encouraged by agents of interested parties,
+many a man accumulates or borrows enough money to pay his passage and
+to get by the immigration officer on the American side, and faces
+westward with high hope of bettering his condition.
+
+239. =In America.=--On the pier in America he is met by a friend or
+finds his way by force of gravity into the immigrant district of the
+city. Usually unmarried, he is glad to find a boarding place with a
+compatriot, who cheerfully admits him to a share of his small
+tenement, because he will help to pay the rent. With assistance he
+finds a job and within a week regards himself as an American. Later
+if it seems worth while he will take steps to become a citizen, but
+recently immigrants are less disposed to do this than formerly. Many
+immigrants do not find their new home in the port of landing; they are
+booked through to interior points or locate in a manufacturing town
+within comfortable reach of the great city; but they find a place in
+the midst of conditions that are not far different. Unskilled Italians
+commonly join construction gangs, and for weeks at a time make their
+home in a temporary shack which quickly becomes unsanitary. Wherever
+the immigrant goes he tends to form foreign colonies and to reproduce
+the low standards of living to which he has been accustomed. If he
+could be introduced to better habits and surrounded with improved
+conditions from the moment of his arrival he would gain much for
+himself, and far more speedily would become assimilated into an
+American; as it is, he is introducing foreign elements on a large
+scale into a city life that is overburdened with problems already.
+
+Changes in the manner of living are often for the worse. Instead of
+their village houses set in the midst of the open fields here, they
+herd like rabbits in overpopulated, unhealthy warrens, frequently
+sleeping in rooms continually dark and ill-ventilated. They still work
+for long hours, but here under conditions that breed discouragement
+and disease, in the sweat-shop or the dingy factory, and often in an
+occupation dangerous to life or limb. Though they are free from the
+temptations of the military quarters, they find them as numerous at
+the corner saloon and the brothel, and even in the overcrowded
+tenement itself. If they bring over their families or marry here, they
+can expect no better home than the tenement, unless they have the
+courage to get out into the country, away from all that which is
+familiar. Rather than do that or knowing no better way, they swarm
+with others of their kind in the immigrant hive.
+
+240. =Tenement House Conditions.=--In New York large tenements from
+five to seven stories high, with three or four families on each floor,
+shelter many thousands of the city's workers. These are often built
+on lots too small to permit of air and light space between buildings.
+Some of them contain over a hundred individuals. Three-fourths of the
+population of Manhattan is in dwellings that house not less than
+twenty persons each. The density of population is one hundred and
+fifty to the acre. Twelve to eighteen dollars a month are charged for
+a suite of four rooms, some of them no better than dark closets.
+Instances can be multiplied where adults of both sexes and children
+are crowded into one or two rooms, where they cook, eat, and sleep,
+and where privacy is impossible. Thousands of children grow up
+unmoral, if not immoral, because their natural sense of modesty and
+decency has been blunted from childhood. The poorest classes live in
+cellars that reek with disease germs of the worst kind, and sanitary
+conditions are indescribable.
+
+If these conditions were confined to the immigrant population,
+Americans might shrug their shoulders and dismiss the subject with
+disparaging remarks about the dirty foreigner, but housing conditions
+like these are not restricted to the immigrant, whether he be Jew or
+Gentile. The American working man who finds work in the factory towns
+is little better off. The natural desire of landlords to spend as
+little as possible on their property, and to get the largest possible
+returns, makes it very difficult for the worker to find a suitable
+home for his family that he can afford to pay for. Yet he must live
+near his work to save time and expense. Old and dilapidated houses are
+ready for his occupancy, but though they are often not so bad as the
+large tenements, with their more attractive exteriors, they are not
+fit dwellings for his growing family. A flat in a three-decker may be
+obtained at a moderate rental, but such houses are usually poorly
+built, of the flimsiest inflammable material, and they, too, lack
+privacy and modern conveniences.
+
+241. =Effects of these Conditions.=--It must not be supposed that
+these evils have been overlooked. Building associations and private
+philanthropists have erected improved tenements, and have proved that
+the right sort of structures may be made paying investments. State
+and municipal governments have appointed commissions and departments
+on housing, fire protection has been provided, better sanitary
+conditions have been enforced, and hopelessly bad buildings have been
+destroyed. But slums grow faster than they can be improved, and the
+rapidly growing tenement districts need more drastic and comprehensive
+measures than have yet been taken. The housing problem affects the
+tenant first of all, and in countless instances his unwholesome
+environment is ruining his health, ability, and character; but it also
+affects the community and the nation, for persons produced by such an
+environment do not make good citizens. The roots of family life are
+destroyed, gaunt poverty and loathsome disease hold hands along dark
+and dirty stairways and through the halls, foul language mingles with
+the foul air, and drunkenness is so common as to excite no remark.
+Sexual impurity finds its nest amid the darkness and ill-endowed
+children swarm in the streets.
+
+242. =Possible Improvements.=--There must be some way out of these
+evil conditions that is practicable and that will be permanent. Those
+who are interested in housing reform favor two kinds of
+measures--first, the prevention of building in the future the kind of
+houses that have become so common but so unsatisfactory, and the
+improvement of those already in existence; second, provision of
+inexpensive, attractive, and sanitary dwellings outside of the city,
+and cheap and rapid transit to and from the places of labor. Both of
+these methods are practicable either by voluntary association or State
+action, and both are called for by the social need of the present.
+There are definite principles to be observed in the redistribution of
+population. The principle of association calls for group life in a
+neighborhood, and it is as idle to think that people from the slums
+can be contented on isolated farms as it is to suppose that they can
+be converted readily into prosperous American agriculturists. Close
+connection with the town is indispensable. The principle of adaptation
+demands that the new homes shall answer to the needs of the people
+for whom they are provided, and that the neighborhood shall be suited
+to those needs. The houses will need to be enough better than those in
+town to offset the greater effort of travel. The principle of control
+demands that the new life of the people be regulated as effectively as
+it can be by municipal authority, and if necessary that such municipal
+authority be extended or State authority be localized. There are
+difficulties in the way of all such enterprises, but social welfare
+requires improvements in the way the working people live.
+
+It is notorious that immigrants and working people generally have
+larger families than the well-to-do. The children of the city streets
+form a class of future citizens that deserve most careful attention.
+The problem of the tenement and the flat is especially serious,
+because they are the factories of human life. There the next
+generation is in the making, and there can be no doubt about the
+quality of the product if conditions continue as they are. It is
+important to inquire how the children live, what are their occupations
+and means of recreation, their moral incentives and temptations, and
+their opportunities for the development of personality.
+
+243. =How the Children Live.=--The best way to understand how the
+children live is to put oneself in their place. Imagine waking in the
+morning in a stuffy, overcrowded room, eating a slice of bread or an
+onion for breakfast and looking forward to a bite for lunch and an
+ill-cooked evening meal, or in many cases starting out for the day
+without any breakfast, glad to leave the tenement for the street, and
+staying there throughout waking hours, when not in school, using it
+for playground, lunch-room, and loafing-place, and regarding it as
+pleasanter than home. Imagine going to school half fed and poorly
+clothed, sometimes the butt of a playmate's gibes because of a drunken
+father or a slatternly mother, required to study subjects that make no
+appeal to the child and in a language that is not native, and then
+back to the street, perhaps to sell papers until far into the night,
+or to run at the beck and call of the public as a messenger boy. Many
+a child, in spite of the public opposition to child labor, is put to
+work to help support the family, and department store and bootblack
+parlor are conspicuous among their places of occupation. Mills and
+factories employ them for special kinds of labor, and States are lax
+in the enforcement of child-labor laws after they are on the statute
+books.
+
+244. =The Street Trades.=--Employment in the street trades is very
+common among the children of the tenements. There are numerous
+opportunities to peddle fruit and small wares at a small wage;
+messenger and news boys are always in demand, and the bootblacking
+industry absorbs many of the immigrant class. By these means the
+family income is pieced out, sometimes wholly provided, but the ill
+effects of such child labor are disturbing to the peace of mind of the
+well-wishers of children. Street labor works physical injury from
+exposure to inclement weather and to accident, from too great fatigue,
+and from irregular habits of eating and sleeping. It provokes resort
+to stimulants and sows the seeds of disease, vice, and petty crime.
+Moral deterioration follows from the bad habits formed, from the
+encouragement to lawbreaking and independence of parental authority,
+and from the evil environment of the people and places with which they
+come into contact. Children are susceptible to the influence of their
+elders, and easily form attachments for those who treat them well.
+Saloons and disorderly houses are their patrons, and when still young
+the children learn to imitate those whom they see and hear. Even for
+the children who do not work, the street has its influence for evil.
+The street was intended as a means of transit, not for trade or play,
+but it is the most convenient place for games and social enjoyments of
+all sorts. The little people become familiar with profane and obscene
+language, with quarrelling and dishonesty, and even with more serious
+crime, and no intellectual education in the schoolroom can counteract
+the moral lessons of the street.
+
+245. =Playgrounds.=--Various experiments for keeping children off the
+street have been proposed and tried. Vacation schools in the summer
+provide interesting occupations and talks for those who can be
+induced to attend; their success is assured, but they reach only a
+small part of the children. Gymnasiums in the winter attract others of
+the older class, but the most useful experiments are equipped and
+supervised playgrounds. For the small children sand piles have met the
+desire for occupation, and kindergarten games have satisfied the
+instinct for association. The primitive nature of the child demanded
+change, and one kind of game after another was added for those of
+different ages. Swings, climbing ladders, and poles are always
+popular, and for the older boys opportunities for ball playing,
+skating, and coasting. All these activities must be under control. The
+characteristics of children on the playground are the same as those of
+their elders in society. Authority and instruction are as necessary as
+in school; indeed, playgrounds are a supplement to the indoor
+education of American children.
+
+246. =The City School.=--The school is expected to be the
+foster-mother of every American child, whether native or adopted. It
+is expected to take the children from the avenue and the slum, those
+with the best influences of heredity and environment, and those with
+the worst, those who are in good health and those who are never well,
+and putting them all through the same intellectual process, to turn
+out a finished product of boys and girls qualified for American
+citizenship. It is an unreasonable expectation, and the American
+school falls far short of meeting its responsibility. It often has to
+work with the poorest kind of material, sometimes it has to feed the
+pupil before his mental powers can get to work. It has to see that the
+physical organs function properly before it can get satisfactory
+intellectual results. The school is the victim of an educational
+system that was made to fit other conditions than those of the
+present-day city; the whole system needs reconstructing, but the
+management is conservative, ignorant, or parsimonious in many cases,
+or too radical and given to fads and experiments. Yet, in spite of all
+its faults and delinquencies, the public schools of the city are the
+hope of the future.
+
+The school is the melting-pot of the city's youth. It is the
+training-school of municipal society. In the absence of family
+training it provides the social education that is necessary to equip
+the child for life. It accustoms him to an orderly group life and
+establishes relations with others of similar age from other streets or
+neighborhoods than those with which he is familiar. It teaches him how
+intelligent public opinion is formed, and brings him within the circle
+of larger interests than those with which he is naturally connected.
+He learns how to accommodate himself to the group rather than to fight
+or worm his way through for a desired end, as is the method of the
+street. He learns good morals and good manners. He finds out that
+there are better ways of expressing his ideas than in the slang of the
+alley, and in time he gains an understanding of a social leadership
+that depends on mental and moral superiority instead of physical
+strength or agility. As he grows older he becomes acquainted with the
+worth of established institutions, and his hand is no longer against
+every man and every man's hand against him. He likes to share in the
+social activities that occur as by-products of the school--the musical
+and dramatic entertainments, the athletic contests, and the debating
+and oratorical rivalries. By degrees he becomes aware that he is a
+responsible member of society, that he is an individual unit in a
+great aggregation of busy people doing the work of the world, and that
+the school is given him to make it possible for him to play well his
+part in the activities of the city and nation to which he belongs.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  VEILLER: _Housing Reform_, pages 3-46.
+
+  RIIS: _How the Other Half Lives._
+
+  CLOPPER: _Child Labor in the City Streets._
+
+  MARTIN: "Exhibit of Congestion," art. in _The Survey_,20: 27-39.
+
+  GOODYEAR: "Household Budgets of the Poor," art. in _Charities_,
+      16: 191-197.
+
+  "The Pittsburgh Survey," arts, in _The Survey_, vol. 21.
+
+  LEE: _Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy_, pages 109-184.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+THE DIVERSIONS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE
+
+
+247. =The Demand for Recreation.=--The natural instinct for recreation
+is felt by the working people in common with persons of every class.
+They cannot afford to spend on the grand scale of those who patronize
+the best theatres and concerts, nor can they relax all summer at
+mountains or seashore, or play golf in the winter at Pinehurst or Palm
+Beach. They get their pleasures in a less expensive way in the parks
+or at the beach resorts in the summer, and at the "movies,"
+dance-halls, and cheap theatres in the winter. They have little money
+to spend, but they get more real enjoyment out of a dime or a quarter
+than thousands of dollars give to some society buds and millionaires
+who are surfeited with pleasure. Recreation to the working people is
+not an occupation but a diversion. Their occupation is usually
+strenuous enough to furnish an appetite for entertainment, and they
+are not particular as to its character, though the more piquant it is
+the greater is the satisfaction. Craving for excitement and a stimulus
+that will restore their depleted energies, they flock into the
+dance-halls and the saloons, where they find the temporary
+satisfaction that they wanted, but where they are tempted to lose the
+control that civilization has put upon the primitive passions and to
+let the primitive instincts have their sway.
+
+It is a prerogative of childhood to be active. If activity is one of
+the striking characteristics of all social life, it is especially so
+of child life. The country child has all out-of-doors for the scope of
+his energies, the city boy and girl are cramped by the tenement and
+the narrow street, with occasional resort to a small park. It requires
+ingenuity to devise methods of diversion in such small areas, but
+necessity is the mother of invention, and the children of the city
+become expert in outwitting those whose business it is to keep them
+within bounds. This kind of education has a smack of practicality in
+that it sharpens the wits for the struggle for existence that makes up
+much of the experience of city folk, but it also tends to develop a
+crookedness in mental and moral habits through the constant effort to
+get ahead of the agents of social control.
+
+248. =Street Games.=--To understand how the youth of the city get
+their diversions it is well to examine a cross-section of city life on
+Saturday afternoon or Sunday. Family quarters are crowded. Tenements
+and apartments have little spare space inside or outside. Children
+find it decidedly irksome indoors and naturally gravitate to the
+street, to the relief of their elders and their own satisfaction.
+There they quickly find associates and proceed to give expression to
+their restless spirits. It is the child's nature to play, and he uses
+all his wits to find the materials and the room for sport. His
+ingenuity can adapt sticks and stones to a variety of uses, but the
+street makes a sorry substitute for a ball-field, and while the girl
+may content herself with the sidewalk and door-steps, the boy soon
+looks abroad for a more satisfying occupation. Among the gangs of city
+boys no diversion is more enjoyable than the game of craps, learned
+from the Southern negro. With a pair of dice purchased for a cent or
+two at the corner news-stand and a few pennies obtained by newspaper
+selling or petty thieving the youngster is equipped with the necessary
+implements for gambling, and he soon becomes adept in cleaning out the
+pockets of the other fellows.
+
+249. =Young People's Amusements.=--Meantime the older boys and girls
+are seeking their diversions. At fourteen or fifteen most of them have
+found work in factory or store, but evenings and Sundays they, too,
+are looking for diversion. The girls find it attractive to walk the
+streets, while the boys frequent the cheap pool-room, where they find
+a chance to gamble and listen to the tales of the idlers who find
+employment as cheap thieves and hangers-on of immoral houses. From
+these headquarters they sally forth upon the streets to find
+association with the other sex, and together they give themselves up
+to a few hours' entertainment. A few are contented to promenade the
+streets, but amusement houses are cheap, and the "movies" and
+vaudeville shows attract the crowd. For a few dimes a couple can have
+a wide range of choice. If the tonic of the playhouse is not
+sufficient, a small fee admits to the public dance-hall, where it is
+easy to meet new acquaintances and to find a partner who will go to
+any length in the mad hunt for pleasures that will satisfy. From the
+dance-hall it is an easy path to the saloon and the brothel, as it is
+from the game of craps and the pool-room to the gambling-den and the
+criminal joint. It is the lack of proper means for diversion and
+proper oversight of places of entertainment that is increasing the
+vice, drunkenness, and crime that curse the lives of thousands and
+give to the city an evil reputation.
+
+250. =The Saloon as the Poor Man's Club.=--The saloon is an
+institution peculiar to America, but it is the successor of a long
+line of public drinking houses. There were cafés among the ancients,
+public houses among the Anglo-Saxons, and taverns in the colonies. At
+such places the traveller or the working man could find social
+companionship along with his glass of wine or grog, and by a natural
+evolution the saloon became the poor man's club. It is successful as a
+place of business, because it caters to primitive wants and social
+interests in considerable variety. It is a never-failing source of
+supply of the strong waters that bring the good cheer of intoxication,
+and lull into torpid content the mind that wants to forget its worry
+or its misery. It is a place where conventionality is laid aside and
+human beings meet on the common level of convivial good-fellowship. It
+is the avenue to fuller enjoyment in billiard-room, at card-table, in
+dance-hall, and in house of assignation, but though the door is open
+to them there is no obligation to enter. It is first aid to the
+sporting fraternity, the resort of those who delight in pugilism,
+baseball, and the racetrack, the dispenser of athletic news of all
+sorts that is worth talking about. It frequently provides a free
+lunch, music, and games. It is the agent of the political boss who
+mixes neighborhood charity with the dispensing of party jobs. "The
+saloon is a day-school, a night-school, a vacation-school, a
+Sunday-school, a kindergarten, a college, a university, all in one. It
+runs without term ends, vacations, or holidays.... It influences the
+thoughts, morals, politics, social customs, and ideals of its
+patrons."
+
+251. =Substitutes for the Saloon.=--An institution that fills a place
+as large as this in the social life of the American city must be given
+careful consideration, and cannot be impatiently dismissed as an
+unmitigated social evil. The saloon is unsparingly denounced as the
+cause of intemperance, prostitution, poverty, and crime, and much of
+the charge is a fair indictment, but it is easier to condemn its
+abuses than to find a satisfactory substitute for the social service
+that it performs. If the saloon must go, something must be put in its
+place to perform its helpful functions. It may have to be legislated
+out of existence in order to check intemperance, for the satisfaction
+of thirst is its principal attraction, and its prime function is to
+furnish drink, but the law can be more easily enforced if other social
+centres are available where the average man can feel equally at home.
+A model saloon managed by church people or labor unionists has been
+tried, but has failed to solve the problem. The Young Men's Christian
+Association on its present basis does not reach the class of men that
+frequents the saloon. Coffee-houses, reading-rooms, municipal
+gymnasiums, and baths, may each provide a small part, but none of
+these nor all together fill the gap that is left after the saloon is
+abolished. Attractive quarters, recreational facilities, and a spirit
+of democracy and freedom appear absolutely essential to any successful
+experiment in substitution. The patrons wish to be consulted as to
+what they want and what they will pay for, and unless the substitute
+is self-supporting it is sure to fail. The most promising experiment
+is an athletic club maintained by regular dues, where there is
+abundant room for sport and conversation, and where it is possible to
+secure food at a moderate price and to enjoy lively music at the same
+time. Under a reasonable amount of regulation such an establishment
+cannot become a public nuisance, and it supplies a social need on a
+sound economic basis.
+
+252. =Monopoly Experiments.=--It has been proposed to draw the virus
+of the saloon by removing the element of private profit and placing
+the traffic under State management. The South Carolina dispensary
+system was such an attempt. It broke up the saloon as a social centre,
+for drinking was not allowed on the premises, but it did not stop the
+consumption of liquor, the profits went to the public, and the saloon
+element became a vicious element in politics. The Norwegian or
+Gothenburg system was another experiment of a similar sort. The liquor
+traffic was made respectable by the government chartering a monopoly
+company and by putting business on the basis not of profit, but of
+supplying a reasonable demand of the working class. Fifty years' trial
+has reduced consumption one-half, has improved the character of the
+saloon, and has removed the immoral annexes. The system is not
+compulsory, but the people must choose between it and prohibition. The
+main objection raised against State monopoly or charter is that the
+government makes an alliance with a traffic that is injurious to
+society, and that is contrary to the fundamental principle of
+government. At best it can be regarded as only a half measure toward
+the abolition of the trade in intoxicants.
+
+253. =The Seriousness of the Liquor Problem.=--There can be no doubt
+that the liquor problem is one of the serious menaces to modern
+health, morals, and prosperity. Intemperance is closely bound up with
+the home, it is a regular accompaniment of unchastity, it is both the
+cause and the result of poverty, it vitiates much charity, it is a
+leading cause of imbecility and insanity, and a provocative of crime.
+It stands squarely in the way of social progress. It is a complex
+problem. It is first a personal question, affecting primarily the
+drinker; secondly, a social question, affecting the family and the
+community; thirdly, an economic and political question, affecting
+society at large. Consequently the solution of the problem is not
+simple. Different phases of the problem demand a variety of methods.
+Intemperance may be approached from the standpoint of disease or
+immorality. It may be treated in medical or legislative fashion. It
+may receive the special condemnation of the churches. One of the most
+effective arguments against it is on the basis of economic waste. The
+best statistics are incomplete, but the conservative estimate of a
+national trade journal gave as the total direct expense in 1912,
+$1,630,000,000. This minimum figure means eighteen dollars for every
+man, woman, and child in the country. The indirect cost to society of
+the wretchedness and crime that result from intemperance is vastly
+greater. United States internal-revenue statistics indicate an
+increased consumption in all kinds of liquor between 1900 and 1910,
+although the territory under prohibition was steadily enlarging.
+
+254. =Causes and Effects of the Traffic.=--The leading causes of
+intemperance are the natural craving of appetite and the pleasure of
+mild intoxication, the congenial society of the saloon and the habit
+of treating, and the presence of the public bar on the streets of the
+poorer districts of the city. The mere presence of the saloon is a
+standing invitation to the men and boys of the neighborhood, and it
+grows to seem a natural part of the environment. It is far more
+attractive than the cheerless tenement and the tiresome street. The
+sedative to tired nerves and stimulant for weary muscles is there; the
+social customs of the past or of the homeland re-enforce the social
+instincts of the present and draw with the power of a magnet.
+
+The effects of intemperance may be classified as physical losses,
+economic losses, and social losses. The immediate physical effect is
+exhilaration, but this is succeeded by lassitude and incompetency. The
+stimulus gained is momentary, the loss is permanent. It is well
+established that even small quantities of alcohol weaken the will
+power and benumb the mental powers. Habitual use depletes vitality and
+so predisposes to disease. Life-insurance policies consider the
+alcoholic a poor risk. The economic effect is a great preponderance of
+loss over gain. Somebody makes money out of the consumer, but it is
+not the farmer who produces the grain, the railroad company that
+transports it, or the government that taxes it; less than formerly is
+it the individual saloon-keeper, but the brewer and distiller who in
+increasing numbers own the local plant as well as manufacture the
+liquor. Neither the nation that taxes the manufacture for the sake of
+the internal revenue, nor the city or town that licenses the sale,
+gets enough to compensate for the economic loss to society. Among the
+specific losses to consumers are irregularity and cessation of
+employment, due to the unreliability of the intemperate workman and
+the consequent reluctance of employers to hire him--a reluctance
+increased since employers are made liable to compensate workmen for
+accidents; the poverty and destitution of the families of habitual
+drinkers; and the enormous waste of millions of dollars that, if not
+thus wasted, might have gone into the channels of legitimate trade.
+Finally, there is a wide-spread social effect. Intemperance ranks next
+to heredity as the cause of insanity. One-third to one-half of the
+crime in the country is charged to intemperance. Alcohol makes men
+quarrelsome, upsets the brain balance, and introduces the user to
+illegal and immoral practices. The saloon corrupts politics. It has
+been estimated that the liquor traffic controls two million votes, and
+some of it is easily purchasable. When it is remembered that the
+saloon is in close alliance with the gambling interest, the
+white-slave interest, the graft element, the political bosses, and the
+corrupt lobbies, it is easy to see that it constitutes a serious
+danger to good government throughout the nation.
+
+255. =The Temperance Crusade.=--Intemperance has grown to be so
+wide-spread and serious an evil that a crusade against it has gathered
+strength through the nineteenth century. In colonial days the use of
+liquors was universal and excited little comment, but groups of
+persons here and there, especially the church people, opposed the
+common practice of tippling and began to organize in order to check
+it. It was not a total-abstinence movement at first, but was designed
+particularly to check the use of spirituous liquors. Temperance
+revivals swept over whole States, but were too emotional to be
+permanent. When the second half of the century began organization
+became more thorough and the Good Templars and Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union assumed the leadership of the cause. These
+organizations stood for total abstinence and State prohibition, and by
+temperance evangelism and temperance education the women especially
+pushed their campaign nationally and abroad. Among all temperance
+agencies the Anti-Saloon League organized in Ohio in 1893, and
+extending through the United States, has been most effective. It has
+federated existing agencies and enlisted organized religion. It has
+pushed no-license campaigns in States that had an optional law, has
+secured the extension of prohibition to scores of counties in the
+South and West, and has extended the area of State-wide prohibition,
+an experiment begun in Maine in 1851, until eighteen States are now
+under a prohibitory law (1915).
+
+256. =Remedies for Intemperance.=--There is a general agreement among
+people who reflect upon social ills that intemperance is a curse upon
+large numbers of individuals and families through both its direct and
+indirect effects. It seems well established that even moderate
+drinking produces physical and mental weakness and even as a temporary
+stimulant is of small value. It is not so clear how to check the evil
+without injuring personal interests and violating the liberty which
+every citizen claims for himself as a right. Three methods have been
+proposed and tried as remedies for intemperance. The first of these is
+public appeal and education. Public addresses in which arguments are
+presented and an appeal made to the emotions have led to the signing
+of pledges, and sometimes to the control of elections, but they have
+to be repeated frequently to keep the individual who is moved by his
+impulses up to the standard. Slower is education through the press and
+through the school, where the evil effects of alcohol are demonstrated
+scientifically, but it has been tried patiently, and there is
+continually a large output of temperance literature.
+
+257. =Regulation.=--A second method that has been used extensively is
+regulation. It seems to many persons that the use of liquor cannot be
+stopped, and if it is to be manufactured and sold, it is best to
+regulate it by a form of license. In many of the American States the
+people are allowed local option and vote periodically, whether they
+will permit the legal manufacture and sale of intoxicants, or will
+attempt to prevent it for a time. Local option has kept a great many
+towns and counties "dry" for years, and it is a step toward
+wide-spread prohibition. It is regarded by many as a better method
+than a State prohibition that is ineffective. Those who oppose all
+licensing on principle, do so on the ground that there should be no
+legal recognition of that which is known to be a social evil.
+
+258. =Prohibition.=--Prohibition is to most temperance advocates the
+master key that will unlock the door to happiness and prosperity. The
+enforcement of prohibition in Russia after the European war began in
+1914 had very impressive results in the better conduct and enterprise
+of the people. Where it has been carried out effectively in the United
+States, the results soon appear in diminished poverty and wretchedness
+and in a decrease of vice and crime. The legitimacy of this method is
+recognized even by liquor manufacturers, and they are willing to spend
+millions of dollars to prevent national prohibition, realizing that
+though it would not destroy their business it would greatly lessen the
+profits. The prohibition policy has bitter enemies among some who are
+not personally interested in the business. They think it is too
+drastic and call attention to the sociological principle that
+prohibitions are a primitive method of social control, but the trend
+of public opinion is strongly against them on the ground that
+prohibitions are necessary in an imperfect human society. Government
+increases its regulation of business of all kinds, and the police
+their regulation of individuals. The failure of half-way measures has
+added to the conviction that prohibition rigidly enforced is likely to
+be the only effective method for the solution of the liquor problem.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STELZLE: _The Workingman and Social Problems_, pages 21-50.
+
+  MOORE: "Social Value of the Saloon," art. in _American Journal of_
+      _Sociology_, 3: 1-12.
+
+  MELENDY: "The Saloon in Chicago," art. in _American Journal of_
+      _Sociology_, 6: 289-306, 433-464.
+
+  CALKINS: _Substitutes for the Saloon._ _Regulation of the Liquor
+      Traffic_ (American Academy), pages 1-127.
+
+  PEABODY: _The Liquor Problem: A Summary._
+
+  GRANT: "Children's Street Games," art. in _The Survey_, 23:
+      232-236.
+
+  PARTRIDGE: _The Psychology of Intemperance_, pages 222-239.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+CRIME AND ITS CURE
+
+
+259. =The Problem of Crime.=--Habitual self-indulgence is at odds with
+the idea of social control. The man who resents interference with his
+diversions and pleasures is disposed to defy law, and if he feels that
+society is not treating him properly he is liable to become a
+lawbreaker. This is one of the reasons for the prevalence of crime,
+which on the whole increases rather than diminishes, and is a factor
+of disturbance in city life. Statistics in the United States show that
+in thirty years, from 1880 to 1910, the criminal population increased
+relative to population by one-third. This is only partly due to
+immigration, nor is it mainly because a large majority of criminals
+escape punishment. Two facts are to be kept constantly in mind: (1)
+Crime depends upon certain subjective and objective elements, and
+tends to increase or decrease without much regard to police
+protection. (2) As long as there are persons whose habits and
+character predispose them to crime, as long as there are social
+inequalities and wants that provoke to criminal acts, and as long as
+there are attractive or easy victims, so long will thieving and arson,
+rape and murder take place.
+
+The problem of crime is not a simple one. The individual and his
+family and his social environment are all involved and changes in
+economic conditions affect the amount of crime. The task of the social
+reformer is to determine the causes of crime and to apply measures of
+reform and prevention. The science of the phenomena of crime is called
+criminology, that of punishment is named penology.
+
+260. =Its Causes.=--If there is to be any effective prevention of
+crime there is needed a clearer understanding of its causes.
+Criminologists are not agreed about these; one school emphasizes
+physical abnormalities as characteristic of the criminal, another
+considers environment the controlling influence. The removal of
+physical defect has repeatedly made an antisocial person normal in his
+conduct, and it seems plain, especially from the investigations of
+European criminologists, that certain individuals are born with a
+predisposition to crime, like the alcoholic inheriting a weak will, or
+with insane or epileptic tendencies that may lead early to criminal
+conduct; but it is not yet proven that a majority of offenders are
+hereditary perverts. A stronger reason for crime is the unsatisfied
+desire or the uncontrolled impulse that drives a man to take by force
+that to which he has no lawful claim. This desire is strengthened by
+the social conditions of the present. In all grades of society there
+are individuals who resort to all sorts of means to get money and
+pleasure, and those who are brought up without moral and social
+training, and who feel an inclination to disregard the interests of
+others are ready to justify themselves by illegal examples in high
+life. Given a tenement home, the streets for a playground, the saloon
+as a social centre, hard, unpleasant, and poorly paid labor, a yellow
+press, and a prevailing spirit of envy and hatred for the rich, and it
+is not difficult to manufacture any amount of crime.
+
+261. =Special Reasons for Crime.=--Certain special circumstances have
+tended to encourage crime within the last few generations. The freedom
+and natural roughness of frontier life gave an opportunity for
+lawlessness and appealed to those who are scarcely to be reckoned as
+friends of society. In the mining and lumber camps gambling and
+drinking were common, and robbery and murder not infrequent. The
+American Civil War, like every war, stimulated the elemental passions
+and nourished criminal tendencies. Human life and rights were
+cheapened. The brute in man was evoked when it became lawful to kill
+and plunder. The moral effects of war are among the most lasting and
+the most pernicious. More recently the conditions of existence in the
+cities have generated crime and are certain to continue to do so as
+long as slums exist.
+
+The liberty that is characteristic of America easily becomes license,
+especially if restraint has been thrown off suddenly, as in the case
+of the immigrant, or of the country youth arriving in the city for the
+first time and dazzled by the opportunities of his new freedom or with
+a grudge against society because it has not been hospitable to him.
+The amount of crime is increased also by the constant increase of
+legislation. The social regulations that are necessary in the city
+tend to become confused with the more serious violations of the moral
+code, and because the first are frequently broken with impunity acts
+of crime seem less iniquitous. All these reasons help to explain the
+increase of crime in the cities. It is worth noticing that the blame
+for it is not to be placed on the immigrant. In spite of his
+misunderstanding of American law and custom, his overcrowding in
+houses and streets, his ill-treatment economically and socially, and
+his common disappointment and discouragement because his dreams of
+wealth and progress have not materialized, the immigrant as a rule is
+law-abiding when sober and is less responsible for crime than the
+degenerate American. It is important to remember that there is a
+constant inflow of undesirable elements of American population into
+the cities, as well as an influx of aliens from Europe. The
+proletariat is not all foreign.
+
+262. =Measures of Prevention.=--Crime calls for prevention and
+punishment. Improvements in both are taking place. Various methods of
+prevention are being proposed and these should be considered
+systematically. The first step is to prevent the reproduction of the
+bad. It has even been proposed to take away the life of all who are
+regarded as hopeless delinquents. Less severe but still radical is the
+proposal, actually in practice in several States, to sterilize such
+persons as idiots, rapists, and confirmed criminals. The same end
+demanded by eugenics may be accomplished by segregating in life
+confinement all but the occasional criminals. A second step is the
+right training of children by the improvement home conditions, to
+include pensioning the mother if necessary, that she may hold the
+family together and bring the children up properly. The school helps
+to train the children, but industrial training is needed to take the
+place of the street trades.
+
+A third step is provision for specific moral and religious education.
+Many persons think that however good may be the moral influence of a
+school, there is need of supplementary instruction in the home and the
+church. In the school itself character study in history and literature
+helps, and attention to the noble deeds in current life; the
+introduction of forms of self-government and the study of the life and
+organization of society are also useful; but some way should be
+devised for the definite training of children in social and moral
+principles that will act as an antidote to antisocial tendencies.
+Experiments have been tried in the affiliation of church and school,
+and it has been urged that the State should appropriate money for
+religious training in the church, but the objection is made that such
+procedure is contrary to the American principle of the separation of
+church and state. The need of such education awaits a satisfactory
+solution.
+
+263. =The Big Brother Idea.=--The most hopeful method of prevention is
+to provide a friend for the human being who needs safeguarding. Many a
+grown person needs this help, but especially the boy who is often
+tempted to go wrong. The Big Brother movement, starting in New York in
+1905, befriended more than five thousand boys in six years, and
+branches were formed in cities all over the country. In Europe the
+minister is often made a probation officer by the state, to see that
+the boy or youth keeps straight. In this country through the agency of
+court or charitable society in some cities each boy in need has his
+special adviser, as each family has its friendly visitor; sometimes it
+is a probation officer, sometimes the judge of a juvenile court,
+sometimes only a charitably minded individual who loves boys. Through
+this friend work is found, to him difficulties are brought and
+intimate thoughts confided, and the boy is encouraged to grow morally
+strong. The immigrant, whether boy or man, often ignorant and stupid,
+especially needs such friendly assistance. The Boy Scout movement may
+be extended, or a substitute found for it, but some such organization
+is needed for the immigrant boy and the native American who is
+compelled to rely on his own resources. The fear of the law is
+undoubtedly a deterrent from crime, but it is inferior to the
+inspiration that comes from friendliness.
+
+264. =Educating Public Opinion.=--One of the important preventives of
+crime is work--steady, well-paid, and not disagreeable work, with
+proper intervals of recreation; added to this a social interest to
+take the place of the saloon and the dance-hall. With these belong
+improved housing, a better police system, and cleaner politics. The
+education of public opinion will eventually lead to a general demand
+for all of these. The press has the great opportunity to mould public
+opinion, but in its search for news, especially of a sensational
+character, it discusses crime in such a way as to excite a morbid
+interest in its details, and sometimes in its repetition, and the
+newspaper rarely discusses measures of crime prevention. Many believe
+that a large responsibility rests upon the church to educate public
+opinion with regard to social obligation. They declare that the people
+need to be taught that certain social conditions are turning out
+criminals as regularly as the factory machine turns out its particular
+product, and then they need to be aroused in conscience until the will
+to prevent the evil is fixed. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+summoned by the age to be both a prophet and a teacher of ways and
+means to a people too often unheeding and careless.
+
+265. =Theories of Punishment.=--The old theory of punishment was that
+the state must punish the criminal in proportion to the seriousness of
+his crime, and that the penalty must be sufficiently severe to deter
+others from similar crime. This primitive theory has been giving way
+to the new theory of reformation. This theory is that the object of
+arrest and imprisonment is not merely the safety of the public during
+the criminal's term of imprisonment, but even more the reformation of
+the guilty man that he may be turned into a useful member of society.
+The reformatory method has been introduced with conspicuous success
+into a number of the American States, and is being extended until it
+seems likely to supplant the old theory altogether.
+
+266. =Three Elements in the Method of Reformation.=--The reformatory
+system includes three elements that are comparatively new. The first
+of these is the indeterminate sentence now generally in practice in
+the United States. According to this principle, the sentence of a
+prisoner is not for a fixed period, but maximum and minimum limits are
+set, and the actual length of imprisonment is determined by the record
+the prisoner makes for himself. The second element is reformatory
+discipline. The whole treatment of the prisoner, his assignment to
+labor, his participation in mental, moral, and religious class
+exercises, are all designed to stimulate manhood and to work a
+complete reformation of character. The third element is conditional
+liberation, or the dismissal of the prisoner on parole. According to
+this method, the prisoner is freed on probation, if his record has
+been good, before his full term has expired, and is under obligation
+to report to the probation officer at stated intervals until his final
+discharge. If his conduct is not satisfactory he can be returned to
+prison at any time. This probation principle has been extended in
+application, so that most first offenders are not sent to a penal
+institution at all, but are placed on their good behavior under the
+watchful eye of the probation officer. Experience with the reformatory
+method shows that about eighty per cent of the cases turn out well. In
+the sifting process of the reformatory there are always a few
+incorrigibles who are turned over to the penitentiary, and most
+recidivists, or old offenders, are sentenced there directly.
+
+267. =Helping the Discharged Prisoner.=--Two experiments have been
+tried to help the discharged prisoner and to improve the treatment of
+the juvenile criminal. It is a part of the reformatory system to
+prepare the way for a prisoner's return to society by teaching him a
+trade while in confinement, and finding him a place to work when he
+goes out, but under the old system a man was turned loose from prison
+with a small sum of money, to redeem himself, when he felt the
+timidity natural to an ex-convict and the stigma of his reputation,
+and in most cases took the easiest road and returned to crime. To aid
+him friendly societies were organized, and even now they prove
+necessary to get a man on his feet. The Volunteer Prison League was
+organized by Mrs. Ballington Booth to help in the reformation of men
+in prison and to aid them when they return to society, and homes have
+been established to give them temporary refuge. Through these efforts
+not a few criminals that seemed incurable have been reformed.
+
+268. =The Juvenile Court.=--The juvenile court is the result of the
+enlightened modern policy of dealing with the criminal. It was the old
+custom to conduct the trial of the juvenile offender in the same way
+as older men were tried, and to commit them to the same prisons. They
+soon became hardened criminals through their associations. But
+experience proves that with the right treatment a majority of those
+who fall into crime before the age of sixteen can be redeemed to
+normal social conduct. Experiments with boys showed that there was a
+better way of trial and punishment than that which had been in vogue,
+and the juvenile courts that they devised have been widely adopted.
+The new plan is based on the principle of making friends with the boy.
+Personal inquiry into the conditions of his life is made before the
+trial, then the judge hears the case in private conference with the
+boy, and after consultation gives directions for his future conduct.
+
+It is plain that the right principle of dealing with crime is to
+secure the reformation of the criminal and the protection of society
+with a minimum amount of punishment. Retaliation is no longer the
+accepted principle; reformation has taken its place. Fundamental to
+all the rest is the prevention of crime by providing for the needs of
+children and youth. Methods of reform and reclamation are made
+necessary, because youthful impulses are not gratified in a way that
+would be beneficial, and habits are allowed to develop that lead to
+antisocial practices. Society can protect itself only by providing
+means for comfortable living, suitable employment, wholesome
+recreation, and social education.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Cause and Cure of Crime._
+
+  WINES: _Punishment and Reformation_, pages 1-265.
+
+  BARROWS: _Reformatory System in the United States_, pages 17-47.
+
+  ELIOT: _The Juvenile Court and the Community_, pages 1-185.
+
+  TRAVIS: _The Young Malefactor_, pages 100-183.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+AGENCIES OF CONTROL
+
+
+269. =Characteristics of City Government.=--The activities and
+associations of such large groups as the people who live in cities
+must be under social control. It is a principle of American life that
+the individual be permitted to direct his own energies as long as he
+does not interfere with the comfort and happiness of others, and in
+the country there is a large measure of freedom, but in the close
+contacts of city life constraint has to be in force. In contrast to
+the strict surveillance that is practised in certain countries,
+Americans, even in the cities, have seldom been watched or interfered
+with. The police have been guardians of peace and safety at street
+crossings and on the sidewalks; occasionally it has been necessary to
+arrest the doings of disorderly persons, to the annoyance of convivial
+spirits and small boys, but their functions as petty guardsmen have
+not given police officers great dignity in the eyes of citizens. City
+officials have confined their efforts to the routine affairs of their
+office, and have so often spent their spare time and the city's money
+freely for the satisfaction of their personal interests that municipal
+government has gained the reputation of being notoriously corrupt, and
+has been left to ward politicians by the better class of citizens.
+Nevertheless, municipal government represents the principle of control
+and stands in the background as the preserver of the interests of all
+the people.
+
+270. =The Relation of the City to the State.=--The American city is
+almost universally a creature of the State. Town and county government
+were transplanted from England and naturally accompanied the settlers
+into the interior, but the city came as a late artificial arrangement
+for the better management of large aggregations of population, and
+the form and details of government were prescribed by State charter.
+The State has continued to be the guardian of the city, often to the
+detriment of municipal interests. If a city wishes to change the form
+of local administration, it must ask permission from the State
+Legislature, and every such question becomes entangled with State
+politics, and so is not likely to be judged on the merits of the
+question. Indeed, the whole history of city government condemns the
+intense partisanship that has directed the affairs of the city in its
+own interest when the real interests of all the people irrespective of
+party should have been cared for with business efficiency.
+
+271. =Functions of the City Government.=--Among the recognized
+functions of the city government is, first, the normal function of
+operation. This includes the activity of the various municipal
+departments like the maintenance of streets, the prosecution of
+various public works, and the care of health by inspection and
+sanitation. Secondly, there are the regulative and reformatory
+functions, which make it necessary to organize and maintain a police
+and judicial force and to provide the necessary places of detention
+and punishment. Thirdly, there are educational and recreational
+functions represented by schools, public libraries, parks, and
+playgrounds. The tendency is for the city government to extend its
+functions in order to promote the various interests of its citizens.
+It is demanded that the city provide musical entertainments, theatres,
+and athletic grounds, that it open the schools as social centres and
+equip them for that purpose, that it beautify itself with the most
+approved adornments for twentieth-century cities; in short, that it
+regard itself as the agent of every kind of social welfare at whatever
+cost. Obviously, this programme involves the city in large expense,
+and there is a limit to the taxation and bonded indebtedness to which
+it can resort, but better financial management would save much waste
+and make larger funds available for social purposes without the
+necessity of raising large additional sums.
+
+272. =How the Regulative Function Works.=--Doubtless it will be always
+true that the regulative function in its largest sense will be the
+main business of the city government. The interests of individuals
+clash. The self-interest of one often runs counter to the interests of
+another, and the city government is their mediator. At every turn one
+sees evidences of public oversight. The citizen leaves home to go to
+work in the morning. A sidewalk is provided for his convenience and
+safety if he needs or prefers to walk. The abutters must keep it in a
+safe condition; open coal scuttles, heaps of sand or gravel, or other
+obstructions must not remain there, and in winter ice must not
+threaten hurt. A street is kept clear for the citizen's carriage or
+automobile if he drives down-town, and a franchise is given a
+street-railway on certain conditions to provide cheap and rapid
+transit. For the convenience of the public the street is properly
+drained and paved, at night it is lighted and patrolled. No
+householder is permitted to throw ashes or garbage upon the public
+thoroughfare, no landowner can rear a building above a certain height
+to shut out light and air. The citizen arrives down-town. The public
+building in which he works or where he trades is inspected by the city
+authorities, the market where he buys his produce is subject to
+regulation, the street hawker who calls his own wares must procure a
+license to sell goods--law is omnipresent.
+
+273. =The Police.=--The offender who violates city ordinances must
+expect to be arrested. Policemen are on the watch to detect such
+violations and promptly give warning that they cannot be permitted.
+Repeated violation leads to arrest and trial before a police-court
+justice, with the probable penalty of a fine or temporary detention in
+jail. In case of serious crime, the trial is before a higher court,
+and the punishment is more severe. Such control is necessary for the
+preservation of order because there are always social delinquents
+ready to take advantage of too great freedom. A certain class of
+offenses seems to require different handling. Moral obliquity such as
+the maintenance of disorderly houses is a corrupting influence, and
+the police departments of cities have frequently been charged with
+conniving at immoral practices. Police officials have been found to
+have their price, and graft has become notorious. For this reason a
+special morals police has been proposed to have charge of such cases,
+and experiments have been tried already on that plan.
+
+274. =Organization of the City Government.=--(1) _In America._ The
+police department is but one of several boards or official departments
+for the management of municipal affairs. The administrative officers
+are appointed or elected, and are usually under the supervision of the
+city executive. The usual form of city government is modelled upon the
+State; a mayor corresponds to the governor and a city council of one
+or two chambers usually elected by wards is parallel to the State
+Legislature. The mayor is the executive officer and the head of the
+administrative system, the council assists or obstructs him,
+appropriates funds, and attends to the details of municipal
+legislation. Political considerations rather than fitness for office
+have usually determined the choice of persons for positions.
+
+(2) _In Europe._ In Europe municipal government is treated as a
+business or professional matter, not one of politics, and the results
+have been so much more satisfactory that American cities have begun to
+reform their governments. In England cities are governed according to
+the Local Government Act of 1888, by which cities of more than fifty
+thousand people become counties for administrative purposes, and
+control of administration is vested in a council elected by voters of
+the city. Councillors are regarded with high honor, but their work is
+a work of patriotism, for they are unpaid, with the result that the
+best men enter the city councils. Administration is carried on through
+various committees and through department officials who are retained
+permanently. In Germany the cities are managed like large households,
+and their officials are free to undertake improvements without
+specific legislative permission. The mayor or burgomaster is usually
+one who makes a profession of magistracy, and he need not be a citizen
+of the city that he serves. In administration he is assisted by a
+board of experts known as magistrates, who are elected by the council,
+usually for life. The council is the real governing body, and its
+members are elected by the people for six years, one-third of them
+retiring periodically, as in the United States Senate. The activities
+of the German cities are more numerous than in this country, yet they
+are managed economically and efficiently.
+
+275. =Organizing Municipal Reform.=--The earliest reform movements in
+the United States were spasmodic uprisings of outraged citizens who
+were convinced of the corruption of city government. Among the
+pioneers in organization were leagues of reform in Chicago, Baltimore,
+and Boston, organized between 1874 and 1885. In 1887 the Massachusetts
+Society for Promoting Good Citizenship was formed. The weakness of the
+early movements was the temporary enthusiasm that soon died away after
+a victory for reform was gained at the polls; within a short time the
+grafters were in the saddle again. The year 1892 marked an epoch, for
+in that year the first City Club was organized in New York, followed
+by Good Government Clubs in many cities, and finally by the National
+Municipal League in 1894. Two hundred reform leagues in the larger
+cities united in the National Reform League, with its centre in
+Philadelphia. After 1905 a new impetus was given to civic reform by
+the new moral emphasis in business and politics. Better officials were
+elected and others were reminded that they were responsible to the
+people more than to the political machine. An extension of reform
+effort through direct primary nominations came into vogue on the
+principle that government ought to be by the people themselves: that
+democracy means self-control. The extension of municipal ownership was
+widely discussed on the principle that the people's interests demanded
+the better control of public utilities. There was apparent a new
+recognition that the city government was only an agent of popular
+control, not an irresponsible bureau for the enrichment of a few
+officials at the public expense.
+
+276. =Commission Government.=--In a number of cases radical changes
+were made in the charter of the city. Galveston and several other
+Texas cities tried the experiment of substituting a commission for
+the mayor and council. The Galveston idea originated in 1901, after a
+hurricane had devastated the city, and the mayor and aldermen proved
+unable to cope with the situation. Upon request of an existing civic
+committee the State legislature gave to the city a new charter, with
+provision for a commission of five, including a mayor who ordinarily
+has no more power than any other commissioner. Each man was to manage
+a department and receive a salary. In four years the commission saved
+the city a million dollars. Des Moines, Iowa, added to the Galveston
+plan the initiative, the referendum, and the recall, put in force a
+merit system for subordinate officials, and adopted the non-partisan
+open primary. These experiments proved so popular that in 1908-9 not
+less than one hundred and thirty-eight cities, including most of the
+large ones, proposed to make important changes in their charters,
+adopting the most prominent features of the new plan, or adapting the
+new to the old system.
+
+Commission government has been defined as "that form of city
+government in which a small board, elected at large, exercises
+substantially the entire municipal authority, each member being
+assigned as head of a rather definite division of the administrative
+work; the commission being subject to one or more means of direct
+popular control, such as publicity of proceedings, recall, referendum,
+initiative, and a non-partisan ballot." Commission government is less
+cumbersome and less partisan than the old system and tends to be more
+efficient, but the public needs to remember that it is the men in
+office and not the form of government that make the control of
+municipal affairs a success or failure. In a few cases only
+disappointment has resulted from the changes made, and commission
+government is still in its experimental stage.
+
+277. =The City Manager.=--A modification of the commission plan was
+tried in several cities of the South and Middle West in 1913-14. This
+has been called the city-manager plan. It is founded on the belief
+that the city needs business administration, and that a board of
+directors is not so efficient as a single manager employed by the
+commission, who shall have charge of all departments, appoint
+department heads as his subordinates, and thus unify the whole
+administration of municipal affairs. The manager is responsible to the
+commission, and through it to the people, and may be removed by the
+commission, or even by popular recall. Such a plan as this is, of
+course, liable to abuse, unless the commissioners are high-minded,
+conscientious men, and it has not been tried long enough to prove its
+worth. The best element in the whole history of recent municipal
+changes is the earnest effort of the people to find a form of
+administrative control that will work well, and this gives ground for
+belief that the experiments will continue until the American city will
+cease to be notorious for misgovernment and become, instead, a model
+for the whole nation.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  _Commission Government and the City Manager Plan_ (American
+      Academy), pages 3-11, 103-109, 171-179, 183-201.
+
+  GOODNOW: _City Government in the United States_, pages 69-108.
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (abridged edition), pages
+      417-427.
+
+  SHAW: _Municipal Government in Continental Europe_, pages 1-145.
+
+  ZUEBLIN: _American Municipal Progress_ (revised edition), pages
+      376-394.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+DIFFICULTIES OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORK
+
+
+278. =The Fact of Misery.=--A brief study of the conditions in which a
+city's toilers live and work and play makes it plain that the people
+have to contend with numerous difficulties. Large numbers of them are
+in misery, and there are few who are not living in constant fear of
+it. To a foreigner who did not understand America, it would seem
+incredible that misery should be prevalent in the midst of wealth and
+unbounded natural resources, when mines and factories are making
+record-breaking outputs, when harbors are thronged with ships and the
+call for workers goes across the sea. But no one who visits the
+tenements and alleys of the city fails to find abundant evidence of
+misery and want. People do not live in dark rooms and dirty
+surroundings from choice, sometimes as many as two thousand in a
+single block. They do not willingly pay a large percentage of their
+earnings in rent for a tenement that breeds fever and tuberculosis.
+They do not feed their babies on impure milk and permit their children
+to forage among the garbage cans because they care nothing for their
+young. They do not shiver without heat or lose vitality for lack of
+food until they have struggled for a comfortable existence to the
+point of exhaustion. Misery is here as it is in the Old World cities,
+and it leads to weakness and disease, drunkenness, vice, and crime.
+
+279. =Easy Explanations.=--It is impossible to unravel completely the
+skein of difficulties in which the people are enmeshed, or to simplify
+the causes of the tangle. It is easy to blame a person's wretchedness
+on his individual misconduct and incompetency, to say, for example,
+that a man's family is sick and poor because he is intemperate. There
+might be truth in the charge, but it would probably not be the whole
+truth. It is easy to go back of the circumstance to the weak will of
+the man that made him a prey to impulse and appetite and kept him
+primitive in his habits, but that alone would not explain conditions.
+It is easy to charge misery upon the ignorance of the woman in the
+home who is wasteful of food and does not know how to provide for her
+family, or to charge lack of common sense to the home-makers when they
+try to raise six children on an income that is not enough for two. It
+is very common to lay all misery at the door of the capitalist who
+underpays labor and feels no responsibility for the life conditions of
+his employee. No one of these explains the presence of misery.
+
+It is easy to propose to society a simple remedy like better housing,
+prohibition, or socialism, when the only correct diagnosis of
+conditions demands a prolonged and expensive course of treatment that
+involves surgical action in the social body. It is easy to raise money
+for charity, to endow hospitals, and to talk about made-to-order
+schemes for ending unemployment, poverty, and panic, but it is soon
+discovered that there is no panacea for the evils that infest society.
+Back of all personal misconduct or misfortune, of all social specific
+or cure-all, is the fundamental difficulty that misery exists, that
+its causes are complex, and that all efforts to provide efficient
+relief on a large scale have failed, as far as history records.
+
+280. =Poverty and Its Extent.=--Misery appears commonly in the form of
+sickness, vice, and poverty. One of these reacts upon another, and is
+both the cause and the result of another. Mental and moral incapacity,
+ignorance of hygiene, weakness of will, habits that seem incurable,
+all of these produce the first two in a seemingly hopeless way;
+poverty appears to be incurable above the rest. It is poverty that
+prevents fortifying the will by increasing physical stamina and moral
+courage, it is poverty that drives a man; to drink or desperation, and
+it is poverty that prescribes the unfavorable surroundings that do so
+much to keep a man down. Poverty is a danger flag that indicates the
+probability of deeper degradation and calls for the individual or
+group that is better off to lend a hand. Poverty is a goad, a thorn
+in the flesh of society, that is pushing it along the road of social
+reform. Private philanthropy, legislative enactment, and much talking
+are being tried as experiments to find a solution of the difficulty,
+but theorists and practitioners are not yet in full agreement as to
+the way out.
+
+There are, of course, different degrees of poverty, ranging from the
+helpless incompetents at the bottom of the scale to those who are in a
+fair degree of comfort, but who have so little laid aside for a rainy
+day that they live in constant fear of the poorhouse. Some struggle
+harder than others, and maintain an existence on or just above the
+poverty line--these are technically the poor. Charles Booth defines
+the poor as those "living in a state of struggle to obtain the
+necessaries of life." A few cease to struggle at all and, if they
+continue to live, manage it only by living on permanent charity--these
+are the paupers. This is a distinction that is carefully made by
+sociologists and is always convenient.
+
+It is difficult to estimate the extent of poverty with any accuracy,
+but a few estimates of skilled observers indicate its wide extent.
+Charles Booth thought that thirty per cent of the people of London
+were on or below the poverty line. Robert Hunter has declared that in
+1899 eighteen per cent of the people in New York State received aid,
+and that ten per cent of those who died in Manhattan received pauper
+burial. Alongside these statements are the various estimates of 80,000
+persons in almshouses in the United States, 3,000,000 receiving public
+or private aid, with a total annual expense of $200,000,000. The
+number of those who have small resources in reserve are many times as
+great, but industrious, frugal, and self-respecting, they manage to
+take care of themselves.
+
+281. =Causes of Poverty.=--It is still more difficult to speak exactly
+of the relative importance of the causes of poverty. Investigation of
+hundreds of cases in certain localities makes it plain that poverty
+comes through a combination of several factors, including personal
+incompetence or misconduct, misfortune, and the effects of
+environment. In Boston out of one thousand cases investigated
+twenty-five years ago (1890-91), twenty per cent was due to drink, a
+figure nearly twice as much as the average found in other large
+cities; nine per cent more was due to such misconduct as
+shiftlessness, crime, and vagrancy; while seventy per cent was owing
+to misfortune, including defective employment and sickness or death in
+the family. Five thousand families investigated at another time in New
+York City showed that physical disability was present in three out of
+four families, and unemployment was responsible in two out of three
+cases. In nearly half the families there was found defect of
+character, and in a third of the cases there was widowhood or
+desertion or overcrowding. Added to these were old-age incapacity,
+large families, and ill adjustment to environment due to recent
+arrival in the city.
+
+Taking these as fair samples, it is proper to conclude that the causes
+commonly to be assigned to poverty are both subjective and objective,
+or individual and social. It was formerly customary to throw most of
+the blame on the poor themselves, to charge them with being lazy,
+intemperate, vicious, and generally incompetent, and it is useless to
+deny that these appear to be the direct causes in great numbers of
+instances, but as much of the negro and poor white trash in the South
+was found to be due to hookworm infection, so very many of the faults
+of the shiftless poor in the cities are due more indirectly to lack of
+nourishment, of education, and of courage. Over and over again, it may
+be, has the worker tried to get on better, only to get sick or lose
+his job just as he was improving his lot. The tendency of opinion is
+in the direction of putting the chief blame upon the disposition of
+the employer to exploit the worker, and the indifference of society to
+such exploitation; it is the discouraging conditions in which the
+working man lives, the uncertainty of employment and the high cost of
+living, the danger of accident and disease that constantly hangs over
+the laborer and his family, that devitalizes and disheartens him, and
+casts him before he is old on the social scrap heap.
+
+Summing up, it is convenient to classify the causes of poverty as
+individual and social, including under the first head ignorance,
+inefficiency, illness or accident, intemperance, and immorality, and
+under the second unemployment, widowhood, or desertion, overcrowding
+and insanitation, the high cost of living versus low wages, and lack
+of adjustment to environment.
+
+Poverty is one of those social conditions that appear in all parts of
+the country, even in the smaller villages, but it is more dreadful and
+wide-spread in the great cities. In smaller communities the cases are
+few and can be taken care of without great difficulty; to the larger
+centres have drifted the poor from the rural regions, and there
+congregate the immigrants who have failed to make good, until in large
+numbers they drain the vitals of the city's strength. Yet the problem
+of poverty is not new. It would be difficult to find any ancient city
+that did not have its rabble or mediæval village without its
+"ne'er-do-weel"; and in every period church or state or feudal group
+has taken its turn in providing relief. In recent years the principle
+of bestowing charity has been giving way to the principle of
+destroying poverty at the roots by removing the causes that produce
+it. This is no easy task, but experience has shown that it is the only
+effective way to get rid of the difficulty.
+
+282. =Proposed Methods of Solution.=--The solution of the problem of
+poverty cannot be found in charity. Properly administered charity is a
+helpful means of temporary relief, but if it becomes permanent it
+pauperizes. It never will cure poverty. In spite of all charity
+organization, poverty increases as the cities grow, until it is clear
+that the causes must be removed if there is to be any hope of
+permanent relief. A better education is proposed as an offset to
+ignorance. Women need instruction in cooking, home making, and the
+care of children, for girls graduating from a machine or the counter
+of a department store into matrimony cannot reasonably be expected to
+know much about housekeeping. Such evils as divorce, desertion,
+intemperance, and poverty are due repeatedly to failure to make a
+home. Proper hygienic habits, care of sanitation, simple precautions
+against colds, coughs, and tuberculosis, make a great difference in
+the amount of misery. It is a question worth considering whether the
+home end of the poverty problem is not as important as the employment
+end. For the man's ignorance and inefficiency it is proposed that the
+vocational education of boys be widely extended.
+
+The social causes of poverty lead into other departments of
+sociological study, like the industrial problem, and it is useless to
+talk about a cure for poverty as an isolated phenomenon, yet there are
+certain principles that are necessarily involved. The whole subject of
+the poor needs thorough study. Organizations like the charity
+societies already have much data. The Russell Sage Foundation in New
+York City is making invaluable contributions to public knowledge. The
+reports of the national and State bureaus of labor contain a vast
+amount of statistical information. All this needs digestion. Then on
+the basis of investigation and digestion of information comes prompt
+and intelligent legislation for the amelioration of poverty, until the
+most shameful conditions in employment and housing are made
+impossible. Only persistent legislation and enforcement of law can
+make greedy landlords and capitalists do the right thing by the poor,
+until all society is spiritualized by the new social gospel of mutual
+consideration and educated to apply it to community life.
+
+283. =Pauperism.=--Pauperism is poverty become chronic. When a family
+has been hopelessly dependent so long that self-respect and initiative
+are wholly gone, it seems useless to attempt to galvanize it into
+activity or respectability, and when a group of such families
+pauperizes a neighborhood, heroic measures become necessary. The
+families must be broken up, their members placed in institutions where
+they cannot remain sodden in drink or become violent in crime, and the
+neighborhood cleansed of its human débris. Pauperism is a social pest,
+and it must be rooted out like any other pest. If it is allowed to
+remain it festers; nothing short of eradication will suffice. But when
+once it is destroyed living conditions must be so reformed that
+pauperism will not recur, and that can be only by constant vigilance
+to prevent a continuance of poverty. The problem is one, and its
+solution must involve both poverty and pauperism.
+
+284. =Unemployment.=--One of the causes of wide-spread poverty is
+unemployment. This is due sometimes to physical weakness or lack of
+ability or character, but as often to industrial depression or lack of
+adjustment between the labor supply and the employer. There is always
+an army of the unemployed, and it has increased so greatly through
+immigration and otherwise that it has demanded the serious attention
+of sociologists and legislators. Charitable organizations have given
+relief, but it is not properly a question of charity; private agencies
+have made a business of bringing together the employer and the
+employee, but not always treating fairly the employee; permanent free
+labor exchanges are now being tried by governments.
+
+The National Conference on Unemployment, meeting in 1914, recommended
+three constructive proposals, which include most of the experiments
+already tried in Europe and America. These are first the regularizing
+of business by putting it on a year-round basis instead of seasonal;
+second, the organization of a system of labor exchanges, local and
+State, to be supervised and co-ordinated by a national exchange; and
+third, a national insurance system for the unemployed, such as has
+been inaugurated successfully in Germany and Great Britain.
+
+The problem of unemployment is less complicated than many social
+problems, and there is every reason to believe that through careful
+legislation and administration it can be largely removed. The problem
+of those who are unable to work or unwilling to work is solved by
+means of public institutions. The whole problem of poverty awaits only
+intelligent, energetic, and united action for its successful solution.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEVINE: _Misery and Its Causes_, pages 3-50.
+
+  HUNTER: _Poverty_, pages 66-105, 318-340.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents_, second
+      edition, pages 12-97, 160-209.
+
+  CARLTON: _History and Problems of Organized Labor_, pages 431-445.
+
+  MARTIN: "Remedy for Unemployment," art. in _The Survey_, 22:
+      115-117.
+
+  BOOTH: _Pauperism._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+CHARITY AND THE SETTLEMENTS
+
+
+285. =The Impulse to Charity.=--The first impulse that stirs a person
+who sees another in want is immediately to relieve the want. This
+impulse to charity makes public begging profitable. It is an impulse
+creditable to the human heart, but its effects have not been approved
+by reason, for indiscriminate charity provokes deception, and is
+certain to result in chronic dependency. Wise methods of charity,
+therefore, constitute a problem as truly as poverty itself. Experience
+has proved so conclusively that the old methods of relief are
+unsatisfactory, that it has become necessary to determine and
+formulate true principles of relief for those who really desire to
+exercise their philanthropy helpfully. How to help is the question.
+
+286. =History of Relief.=--Some light is thrown on the subject from
+the experience of the past. The whole notion of charity as a social
+duty was foreign to ancient thought. Families and clans had their own
+dependents, and benefit societies helped their own members. The Hebrew
+prophets called for mercy and kindness, Jesus spoke his parable of the
+good Samaritan, and the primitive Christians went so far as to
+organize their charity, so that none of their members would fail of a
+fair share. The church taught alms-giving as a deed of merit before
+God, and all through its history the Catholic Church has done much for
+its poor. In the Middle Ages it was a part of the feudal theory that
+the lord would care for his serfs, but in reality they got most help
+at the doors of a monastery. In modern times the church has shifted
+its burden to the state. This was inevitable in countries where there
+was no state church, and it was in accordance with the modern
+principle that the state is organized society functioning for the
+social welfare of all the people.
+
+In America the colonies and then the States adopted the English custom
+of relieving extreme need. At first it was possible for local
+committees to take care of their poor by doles furnished sparingly in
+their homes, and to place the chronic dependents in almshouses. The
+former practice is known as outdoor relief, the latter as indoor
+relief. Such relief was not administered scientifically, and did not
+help to reduce the amount of poverty. The almshouses were the
+dumping-ground of a community's undesirables, including idiots and
+even insane, cripples and incurables, epileptics, old people, and
+orphan children, constituting a social environment that was anything
+but helpful to human development. After a time it became necessary for
+the State to relieve the local authorities. The defectives and
+dependents became too numerous for the local community to take care
+of, and enlightened philanthropy was learning better methods. The
+result has been the gradual extension of State care and the
+segregation of the various classes of incompetents in various State
+institutions, including hospitals for the insane, the epileptic, and
+the morally deficient, sanitaria for those who suffer from alcoholic
+and tuberculous diseases, and schools for the proper training of the
+youth who have come under public oversight.
+
+287. =Voluntary Charity.=--Public relief has been supplemented
+extensively by voluntary charity. This has become increasingly
+scientific. Indeed popular ideas have been largely transformed during
+the last generation. In the small towns and villages where there was
+little destitution, and where all knew one another's needs, there was
+no special need of scientific investigation or charitable
+organization, but in the large cities it became necessary. Thomas
+Chalmers in Scotland and Edward Denison and Octavia Hill in England
+demonstrated the conditions and the advantages of organized effort.
+The first charity organization society was organized in 1869 in
+London. Its fundamental principle was to help the poor to help
+themselves rather than to give them alms. Its aim was to federate all
+the charitable efforts of London, and while this has not proved
+practicable, it has greatly increased efficiency and has helped to
+bind together philanthropic effort all over England. The income of the
+various charitable agencies of London alone was reported to be
+$43,000,000 in 1906.
+
+In the United States the first organization on the English model was
+the charity organization society of Buffalo, founded in 1877; Boston
+followed with a similar organization the next year. These were
+followed by the organization of a National Conference of Charities and
+Corrections, which holds annual meetings and publishes reports that
+are a valuable storehouse of information. Many charitable agencies of
+various kinds contribute to the work of relief, some of them really
+helpful, others actually blocking the way of genuine progress, but all
+showing the strength of the philanthropic motive in American cities.
+The closer their alliance with the associated charities the more
+effective are their measures of charity. Three stages have marked the
+history of the charitable organization societies, as they have learned
+from experience. The first has been called the repressive stage. The
+fear of pauperizing recipients of charity made the societies too
+strict in their alms-giving, so that hardships resulted that were
+unnecessary, but such a course was the natural reaction against the
+indiscriminate charity that had been in vogue. This stage was
+succeeded by the discriminative, in which help is given
+discriminatingly, as investigation shows a real need at the same time
+that efforts are being put forth to make prolonged giving unnecessary.
+Closely combined with this discrimination, which is in constant use,
+is the third method of construction. By this constructive method the
+worker tries to get at the cause of the particular case of poverty and
+to alter the social conditions so that the cause shall no longer act.
+Experience and experiment have produced numerous specific measures of
+a constructive sort, like the establishment of playgrounds and public
+parks, kindergartens and schools for specific purposes, social
+settlements and school centres, municipal baths and gymnasiums,
+tenement-house reforms and the prevention of disease.
+
+288. =Friendly Visiting.=--The functions of charity organization
+societies have been described as the co-ordination and co-operation of
+local societies rather than direct relief from the central
+organization, thorough investigation of all cases, with temporary
+relief where necessary, the establishment of friendly relations
+between the poor and the well-to-do, the finding of work for those who
+need it, and the accumulation of knowledge on poverty conditions. The
+actual contact of charitable societies with the people has been mainly
+through friendly visitors who voluntarily engage to call on the needy,
+and who meet at regular intervals to discuss concrete cases as well as
+general methods. These visitors have the advantage of bringing their
+spontaneous sympathy to bear upon the specific instances that come to
+their personal attention, whereas the officials of the charity
+organization society inevitably become more callous to suffering and
+tend to look upon each family as a case to be pigeonholed or
+scientifically treated, but the conviction is growing, nevertheless,
+that the situation can be effectively handled only by men and women
+who are genuinely experts, trained in the social settlements or in the
+schools of philanthropy. Whether a voluntary church worker or a
+charity expert, it is the business of the visitor to make thorough
+investigation of conditions, not merely inquiring of landlord or
+neighbors, or taking the hurried testimony of the family, but
+patiently searching for information from those who have known the case
+over a long period, preferably through the charity organization
+society. Actual relief may be required temporarily and must be
+adequate to the occasion, but the problem of the visitor is to devise
+a method of self-help, and to furnish the courage necessary to
+undertake and carry it through. It is important to consider in this
+connection the character and ancestry of the family, its environment
+and the social ideals and expectations of its members, if the steps
+taken are to be effective. The two principles that underlie the whole
+practice of relief are, first, to restore the individual or family to
+a normal place in society from which it has fallen, or to raise it to
+a normal standard of living which it has never before reached;
+secondly, to make all charity discriminative and co-operative, that it
+may accomplish the end sought without pauperizing the recipient.
+
+289. =Public and Private Agencies.=--Institutions and agencies of
+relief are of two kinds, public and private. It is one of the
+functions of every social group to promote the welfare of its members.
+It is to be expected, therefore, that the church and the trade-union
+will help their own poor, but it is just as proper to expect that the
+whole community, and even the whole state, will take care of its own
+needy. The distinction between public and private agencies is not one
+of fundamental sociological principle, but one of convenience and
+efficiency of administration. Where the state has extended its
+activities, as in Germany, relief by such a method as the Elberfeld
+system is practicable; where public opinion, as in the United States,
+is not favorable to remanding as much as possible to the government,
+it is thought best that private agencies should supplement State aid,
+and in most cases make it unnecessary.
+
+290. =Arguments for and Against Private Agencies of Relief.=--Some
+argue that private agencies should do it all. In spite of the large
+resources at the command of the state and the frequent necessity of
+legislation to handle the problem, they claim that public aid
+humiliates and degrades the recipient, while private assistance may
+put him on his feet without destroying his self-respect; and that
+public charity is too often unfeeling and tends to become a routine
+affair, while private aid can deal better with specific cases, show
+real interest and try experiments in the improvement of methods. There
+are those who would have all charity given back to the church. They
+believe the responsibility would stimulate the church's own life,
+extend its influence among the unchurched, show that it had an
+interest in the bodies as well as the souls of the people, and bring
+about co-operation between churches in the districts of town or city.
+It is of the genius of true religion to be helpful, and the church
+could soon learn wise methods. In answer to this argument the reply is
+that at present the indiscriminate charity of the church is doing
+real harm; that the church does not like to co-operate with other
+agencies; that it does not have adequate resources to deal with the
+problem or legal authority to restrain mendicants or segregate the
+various classes of dependents; and that all persons in the community
+ought to share in the responsibility of poor relief, and not all are
+in the church. They recognize the valuable aid of such organizations
+as the Hebrew Charities and the work of the St. Vincent de Paul
+Society of the Catholics, but they believe that such as these at best
+can be only auxiliary to the state.
+
+An illustration of the usefulness of private associations appears in a
+group of seven boys of foreign parentage in New York City, who
+organized themselves in 1903 into a quick-aid-to-the-hungry committee.
+They were only thirteen years old and poor. They lived on the East
+Side, and pennies and nickels did not make a full treasury. But they
+knew the need and had an instinct for helping the right people. In
+seven years these boys helped in more than two hundred and fifty
+emergency cases; their pennies grew to dollars as they earned more;
+their charity developed their self-respect; they held weekly meetings
+for debate, and several of them made their way through college. Funds
+were supplied, also, from friends outside, who were glad to aid such a
+worthy enterprise. The great need among private agencies is fuller
+co-operation with one another and with public boards and institutions.
+Then duplication of effort, misunderstandings, and wastefulness are
+avoided, and the hope of a decline in conditions of poverty increases.
+
+There are limits, however, to the ability of private agencies to
+control the situation. There are cases where the organized community
+or state must take a hand. There are lazy persons who will not support
+themselves or their families; there are certain persons who are
+chronically ill or dependent; there are various types of defectives
+and delinquents. All these need the authority of the public agencies.
+Then there are constructive activities that require the assistance and
+sanction of government, like parks and playgrounds, industrial
+schools, employment bureaus, the establishment and administration of
+state institutions, and the enforcement of health, sanitary, and
+building laws. Of course there is often inefficiency in government
+management. The local almshouse needs reforming, and the overseers of
+the poor should be trained experts. The organization and
+superintendence of state institutions is not ideal, and building
+arrangements need improvement, but there is a steady gain in the
+efficiency of boards of trustees and local managers. There is a
+willingness to learn from experience and a disposition to raise the
+standards in all departments of administration.
+
+291. =The Social Settlement.=--However efficient an official board may
+be in the discharge of its duties, it cannot expect to call out from
+the beneficiary so enthusiastic a response as can a real friend. The
+best friends of the poor are their neighbors. It is well known that a
+group of families in a tenement house will help one of their number
+that is in specific difficulty, and that the poor give more generously
+to help their own kind than do those who are more well-to-do. It was a
+conviction of these principles of friendliness and neighborliness that
+led to the first social settlements. Because a person lives in an
+undesirable part of the city he is not necessarily a subject for
+charity, and the settlement is in no sense to be thought of as a
+charitable agency. It is a home established among the less-favored
+part of the population by educated, refined, sympathetic people who
+want to be neighborly and to bring courage and cheer and helpfulness
+to the struggling masses. The original residents of Hull House in
+Chicago believed that class alienation could be overcome best by the
+establishment of intimate social relationships, and they were willing
+to sacrifice their natural social advantages for the larger good.
+
+Settlements are not exclusively of the city, but the stress of life is
+sternest in the cities, and most of the experiments have been made
+there. They are oases in the desert of the buildings and pavements of
+brick, with their grime and monotony, and if the people of the desert
+will camp for an hour and drink of the spring, those who have planted
+the oasis will be well pleased. To attract them the settlement workers
+have organized clubs and classes for united study and activity in
+matters that naturally interest the people of the neighborhood; they
+have music and dancing and amateur theatricals, and often they supply
+domestic or industrial training in a small way for the young people
+who frequent the settlement. The residents aim to give the people what
+they want; they do not impose anything upon them. They try to satisfy
+economic and social wants. They try to stimulate the people of the
+neighborhood to desire the best things that they can get. They
+co-operate with the police and other departments of the city
+government, with the library, and with the school. They assist in
+procuring work for those who want it; they encourage the people to be
+thrifty and temperate; they help them to get baths and gymnastic
+facilities, playgrounds, and social centres. They frequently carry on
+investigations that are of great value and assist charitable agencies
+in their inquiries and beneficence. They call frequently upon the
+people in their homes and encourage them to ask for counsel and help
+if they are in trouble.
+
+The settlement idea grew out of a growing interest in the common
+people. It was stimulated by Maurice's establishment at London of a
+working man's college, with recent Cambridge graduates as teachers,
+and by university extension work in Cambridge; it was suggested
+further by the location of Edward Denison in the East End of London in
+1867. In 1885 Canon Barnett, of St. Jude's Church, London, founded
+Toynbee Hall under Oxford auspices. The first settlement in the United
+States was established in New York in 1887, and soon became known as
+the University Settlement. Hull House in Chicago was started two years
+later; the first settlement in Boston was founded under the auspices
+of the Andover Theological Seminary. Most settlements avoid church
+connections, because of the danger of misunderstandings among people
+of widely differing faiths.
+
+The settlement has existed long enough to become a true social
+institution. It has remained true to its original principle of
+neighborliness, but it has increased its activities as occasion
+demanded. It has been a useful object-lesson to churches and city
+governments; some of its methods have been imitated, and in some of
+the cities its efforts have become unnecessary in certain directions
+because the city government itself has adopted its plans. The
+settlement has its critics and its devoted supporters; it is one of
+the voluntary experiments that shows the spirit of its promoters and
+that helps along social progress, and it must be estimated among the
+assets of a community. Here and there in the country among certain
+groups, as lumbermen, miners, or construction workers, or even in a
+settled town, many of the methods of the settlement are likely to find
+acceptance, and the settlement idea of neighborliness is fundamental
+to all happy and successful social life.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEVINE: _Principles of Relief_, pages 10-28, 171-181.
+
+  WARNER: _American Charities_, pages 301-393.
+
+  CONYNGTON: _How to Help_, pages 56-219.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Modern Methods of Charity_, pages 380-511.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Settlements._
+
+  ADDAMS: _Twenty Years at Hull House_, pages 89-153.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES
+
+
+292. =The Schools of the City.=--An important function of city
+government and of other institutions is the education of the people
+who make their home in the city or come to it to broaden their
+culture. The city provides for its young people as the country
+community does, by locating school-buildings within convenient reach
+of the people of every district, but on a much larger and usually a
+more efficient scale. Better trained teachers, better grading, a more
+modern equipment and well-proved methods give an advantage in
+education to the city child, though there are drawbacks in overcrowded
+buildings and narrow yards for play. The opportunities for social
+education are broader in the city, for the child comes into contact
+with many types of people, with a great variety of social
+institutions, and with all sorts of activities. It is these
+advantages, together with the higher institutions for study, that
+attract hundreds and sometimes thousands of students to the prominent
+social centres. The colleges and universities, the normal schools, the
+music and art institutes and lecture systems are numerous and attract
+correspondingly.
+
+293. =The Press as an Educator.=--The institutions directly concerned
+with instruction are supplemented by other educational agencies. Among
+these is the press. The press is an institution that exerts a mighty
+force upon every department of the city's life. It is at the same time
+a business enterprise and a social institution. It is a public
+misfortune that the newspaper, the magazine, and the book publishing
+house is a private business undertaking, and often stands for class,
+party, or sectarian interests before those of the whole of society.
+There is always a temptation to sacrifice principle to policy, to
+publish distorted or half-true statements from selfish interest, and
+to prostitute influence to individuals or groups that care little for
+the public welfare. The publication of a statement or narrative of a
+crime or other misdemeanor tends by suggestion to the imitation of the
+wrong by others; it is a well-known fact that a sensational story of
+suicide or murder is likely to provoke others in the same manner. It
+is a grave question whether the realistic fiction so much in vogue and
+published in such quantities is not a baneful text-book on modern
+society. But when it chooses the press becomes an instrument of
+immense value to the public. It can turn the light of publicity on
+dark and dirty places. It can and does provide a means of wise
+utterance on questions of the day. It keeps a record of the good as
+well as the evil that is done. It is a means of communication between
+local groups everywhere, for it publishes what everybody wants to know
+about everybody else. It introduces the antipodes to each other, and
+makes it possible for far-sundered groups to unite even
+internationally for a good cause. As the railroad binds together
+portions of a continent, so the press links the minds of human beings.
+
+294. =A Metropolitan Newspaper.=--Take a metropolitan newspaper and
+see how it reflects the current life of society. Economic interests of
+buyer and seller are exploited in the advertising columns. In no other
+way could a merchant so persuasively hawk his wares or a purchaser
+learn so readily about the market. The wholesaler and jobber find
+their interests attended to in special columns provided particularly
+for them. Financial interests are cared for by stock-exchange
+quotations, news items, and advertisements. All kinds of social
+concerns are taken care of in the news columns, items collected at
+great expense from the four quarters of the globe. Gatherings for a
+great variety of purposes are recorded. Educational and religious
+interests are given space, as well as sports and amusements; last
+Sunday's sermon jostles the latest scandal on Monday morning; weather
+probabilities and shipping news have their corners, as well as the
+fashion department and the cartoon. The newspaper is a moving picture
+of the world.
+
+295. =The Value of the Press.=--The most valuable service rendered by
+the press is its education of the public mind, so that public opinion
+may register itself in intelligent action. It provides a forum for the
+discussion of issues that divide sects and parties, and helps to
+preserve religious freedom and popular government. Except that it is
+so frequently trammelled in uttering itself frankly on important
+public questions, it gives an indication of the trend of sentiment and
+so makes possible a forecast of future public action. The very variety
+of printed publications, from the sensational daily sheet to the
+published proceedings of a learned society, insures a healthy
+interchange of ideas that helps to level social inequalities and
+promotes a mutual understanding among all groups and grades of
+society. The cheapened process of book publication on a large scale,
+and the investment of large sums of money in the publishing business,
+with its mechanics of sale management as well as printing, has made
+possible an enormous output of literature on all subjects and has
+widened the range of general information in possession of the public.
+The whole system of modern life would be impossible without the press.
+
+296. =The Library and the Museum.=--In spite of the efficient methods
+used for selling the output of the press, large numbers of books would
+be little read were it not for the collections of books that are
+available to the public, either free or at small cost. The public
+library is an educative agency that serves its constituency as
+faithfully as the school and the press. Its presence for use is one of
+the advantages that the city has over the country, though the public
+library has been extended far within one or two decades. The child
+goes from home to school and widens the circle of his acquaintances in
+the community; through the daily newspaper the adult gets into touch
+with a far wider environment, reaching even across the oceans; in the
+library any person, without respect to age, color, or condition, if
+only he possess the key of literacy to unlock knowledge, can travel to
+the utmost limits of continents and seas, can dig with the geologist
+below the surface, or soar with the astronomer beyond the limits of
+aviation, can hob-nob with ancient worthies or sit at the feet of the
+latest novelist or philosopher, and can learn how to rule empires from
+as good text-books as kings or patriarchs possess.
+
+What the library does for intellectual satisfaction the museum and
+art-gallery do for æsthetic appreciation. They make their appeal to
+the love of beauty in form, color, or weave, and call out oftentimes
+the best efforts of an individual's own genius. Often the gift of one
+or more public-spirited citizens, they register a disposition to serve
+society that is sometimes as useful as charity. Philanthropy that
+uplifts the mind of the recipient is as desirable as benevolence that
+plans bodily relief; the soul that is filled has as much cause to
+bless its minister as the stomach that is relieved of hunger. The
+picture-galleries of Europe, the tapestries, the metal and wood work,
+the engravings, and the frescoes, are the precious legacy of the past
+to the present, not easily reproduced, but serving as a continual
+incentive to modern production. They set in motion spiritual forces
+that uplift and expand the human mind and spur it to future
+achievement.
+
+297. =Music and the Drama.=--Music and the drama have a similar
+stimulating and refining influence when they are not debauched by a
+sordid commercialism. They strengthen the noblest impulses, stir the
+blood to worthy deeds by their rhythmic or pictorial influence, unite
+individual hearts in worship or play, throb in unison with the
+sentiments that through all time have swayed human life. Often they
+have catered to the lower instincts, and have served for cheap
+amusement or entertainment not worth while, but concert-hall and
+theatre alike are capable of an educative work that can hardly be
+equalled elsewhere. When in combination they appeal to both eye and
+ear, they provide avenues for intellectual understanding and activity
+that neither school nor press can parallel. Recent mechanical
+inventions, such as automatic musical instruments and moving pictures,
+have added greatly to the range and effectiveness of music and the
+drama, but they only intensify and popularize the appeal to the
+senses. It is to be remembered that individual and social stimuli must
+be varied enough to touch men at all points and call out a response
+from every faculty of their nature. These arts, therefore, that make
+life real and socialize it and cheer men and women on their way, play
+a vital part in the education of society and deserve as serious
+consideration as the other educational agencies and institutions that
+find a place in the social economy of the community. Numerous amateur
+musical and dramatic societies testify to the interest of the people
+in these refined arts.
+
+298. =The Need of Social Centres.=--Books and pictures, music and the
+drama are so many mild stimulants to those who use and appreciate
+them, but there are large numbers of people who rarely read anything
+but the newspaper, and who attend only cheap entertainments. These
+people need a spur to high thoughts and noble action, but they do not
+move in the world of culture. They need a stronger stimulant, the tang
+of virile debate about questions that touch closely their daily
+concerns, discussions in which they can share if they feel disposed.
+In large circles of the city's population there is a lack of
+facilities for such public discussion, and for that reason the people
+fall back on the prejudices of the newspapers for the formation of
+their opinions on public questions. Disputes sometimes wax warm in the
+saloon about the merits of a pugilist or baseball-player; questions of
+the rights of labor are aired in the talk of the trade-union
+headquarters; but the vital issues of city, state, and nation, and the
+underlying principles that are at stake find few avenues to the minds
+of the mass of the people. In the country the town meeting or the
+gathering at the district schoolhouse provides an occasional
+opportunity, or the grange meeting supplies a forum for its members,
+but even there the rank and file of the people do not talk over large
+questions often enough. In the city the need is great.
+
+299. =The City Neighborhood.=--It is well understood that large cities
+have most of their public buildings and business structures in one
+quarter, and their residences in another; also that the character of
+the residential districts varies according to the wealth and culture
+of their inhabitants or the nationality and occupation to which they
+belong. The city is a coalition of semidetached groups, each of which
+has a unity of its own. The necessities of work draw all the people
+together down-town along the lines of streets and railways; now and
+then the different classes are shaken together in elevators and
+subways; but when they are free to follow their own volition they flow
+apart. Those who are on terms of intimacy live in a neighboring
+street; the grocer from whom they buy is at the corner; the school
+where their children go is within a few blocks; the theatre they
+patronize or the church they attend is not far away; the physician
+they employ lives in the neighborhood. Except the few who get about
+easily in their own conveyances and have a wide acquaintance, city
+dwellers have all but their business interests in the district in
+which they live, and which is seldom over a square mile in extent.
+
+Some municipalities are coming to see that each district is a
+neighborhood in itself and needs all the democratic institutions of a
+neighborhood. Among these belongs the assembly hall for free speech.
+It may well become a centre for a variety of social purposes, but it
+is fundamentally important that it provide a forum for public
+discussion. As the rich man has his club where he may meet the
+globetrotter or the leader of public affairs distinguished in his own
+country, and as the woman's club of high-minded women has its own
+lecturers and celebrities of all kinds, so the working man and his
+wife have a right to come into contact with stimulating personalities
+who will talk to them and to whom they can talk back.
+
+300. =Forum for Public Discussion.=--Such democratic gatherings fall
+into two classes. There is the public lecture or address, after which
+an opportunity for questions and public discussion is given, and there
+is the neighborhood forum or town meeting, at which a question of
+general interest is taken up and debated in regular parliamentary
+fashion. In a number of cities both plans have been adopted. On a
+Sunday afternoon or evening, or at a convenient time on another
+evening of the week, a popular speaker addresses the audience on a
+theme of social interest, after it has been entertained for a half
+hour with music; following the address a brief intermission allows for
+relaxation, and then for an hour the question goes to the house, and
+free discussion takes place under the direction of the leader of the
+meeting. Sometimes series of this sort are supplied by churches or
+other social organizations; in that case many of the speakers are
+clergymen, and in some forums the topics are connected with religious
+or strictly moral interests; but even then the discussion is on the
+broad plane of the common concerns of humanity, and there is a zest to
+the occasion that the ordinary religious gathering does not inspire.
+The second plan is modelled after the old-fashioned town meeting that
+was transplanted from the mother country to New England, and has
+spread to other parts of the United States. It is a gathering of all
+who wish to discuss freely some question that interests them all, and
+it is more strictly co-operative than the first plan, for there is no
+one speaker to contribute the main part of the debate, but each may
+make his own contribution, and by the power of his own persuasion win
+for his argument the decision of the meeting. Besides stimulating the
+interest of those who take part, such a debate is a most effective
+educator of the public mind in matters of social weal.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 228-253.
+
+  KING: _Social Aspects of Education_, pages 65-97, 264-290.
+
+  WARD: _The Social Center_, pages 212-251.
+
+  WOLFE: _The Lodging House Problem_, pages 109-114.
+
+  _Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association,
+      1905_, pages 644-650, "Music as a Factor in Culture."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+THE CHURCH
+
+
+301. =The Place of the Church in the Urban Community.=--In the city,
+as in the country, the religious instinct expresses itself socially
+through the institution of the church or synagogue. Spiritual force
+cannot be confined within the limits of a single institution; religion
+is a dynamic that permeates the life of society; yet in this age of
+specialization, and especially in a country like the United States,
+where religion is a voluntary affair, not to be entangled with the
+school or the State, religion has naturally exerted its influence most
+directly through the church. Charity and settlement workers are
+inspired by a religion that makes humanitarianism a part of its creed,
+and a large majority of them are church members, but as a rule they do
+not attempt to introduce any religious forms or exercises into their
+programmes. Most public-school teachers have their religious
+connections and recognize the important place of religion in moulding
+character, but religious teaching is not included in the curriculum
+because of the recognized principle of complete religious liberty and
+the separation of church and state. The result has been that religion
+is not consciously felt as a vital force among many people who axe not
+directly connected with an ecclesiastical institution. Those who are
+definitely connected with the church in America contribute voluntarily
+to its expenses, sometimes even at personal sacrifice. Most people who
+have little religious interest realize the value of the mere presence
+of a meeting-house in the community as a reminder of moral obligations
+and an insurance against disorder. Its spire seems to point the way to
+heaven, and to make a mute appeal to the best motives and the highest
+ideals. The decline of the church is, therefore, regarded as a sign of
+social degeneracy.
+
+302. =Worship and Church Attendance.=--The church exists in the city
+because it has certain specific functions to perform. To maintain
+public worship, to persuade to definite convictions and inspire to
+noble conduct, to furnish religious education, and to promote social
+reform are its essential responsibilities. Worship is a natural
+attitude to the individual who is prompted by a desire to adjust
+himself to the universe and to obtain the peace of mind that follows
+upon the establishment of a right relationship. To most people it is
+easier to get into the proper atmosphere and spirit of worship in a
+public assembly, and they therefore are accustomed to meet at stated
+intervals and bow side by side as if in kinship together before the
+Unseen. Long-established habit and a superstitious fear of the
+consequences that may follow neglect keep some persons regular in
+church attendance when they have no sense of spiritual satisfaction in
+worship. Others go to church because of the social opportunities that
+are present in any public gathering.
+
+In recent years church attendance has not kept pace with the
+increasing population of the city. A certain pride of intellect and a
+feeling of security in the growing power of man over nature has
+produced an indifference to religion and religious teachers.
+Multiplicity of other interests overshadows the ecclesiastical
+interests of the aristocracy; fatigue and hostility to an institution
+that they think caters to the rich keeps the proletariat at home. In
+addition the tendency of foreigners is to throw off religion along
+with other compulsory things that belonged to the Old World life and
+to add to the number of the unchurched.
+
+303. =Evangelism and the History of Religious Conviction.=--A second
+function of the church is to exert spiritual and moral suasion. It is
+a social instinct to communicate ideas; language developed for that
+purpose. It is natural, therefore, that a church that has definite
+ideas about human obligation toward God and men should try to
+influence individuals and even send out evangelists and missionaries
+to propagate its faith widely. Those churches that think alike have
+organized into denominations, and have arranged extensive propaganda
+and trained and ordained their preachers to reason with and persuade
+their auditors to receive and act upon the message that is spoken.
+Several of the large cities of the United States contain
+denominational headquarters where world-wide activities receive
+direction, veritable dynamos for the generation of one of the vital
+forces of society.
+
+The convictions that prompt evangelism and missionary zeal are the
+result of centuries of race experience. The Catholic, the Protestant,
+and the Jewish churches have all grown out of religious experience and
+religious thinking that have their roots in early human history. The
+very forms of worship and of creed that constitute the framework of
+religion in a modern city church date far back in their origins. The
+religious instinct appears to be common to the whole human race. In
+primitive times religious interest was prompted by fear, and the early
+customs of sacrifice and worship were established by the group to
+bring its members into friendly relations with the Power outside
+themselves that might work to their undoing. Temples and shrines
+testified to man's devotion and stirred his emotions by their symbols
+and ceremonies. A special class of men was organized, a priesthood to
+mediate with the gods for mankind. Children were taught to respect and
+fear the higher powers, and their elders were often warned not to stir
+the anger of deity. As the human mind developed, impulse and emotion
+were supplemented by intellect. As man ruminated upon nature and human
+experience he was satisfied that there was intelligence and power in
+the universe, divine personality similar to but greater than himself,
+and his reason sanctioned the religious acts to which he had become
+accustomed. He added a creed to his cult. He did not associate his
+moral ideas and habits with his religious obligations; these ideas and
+habits grew out of the customs that had been found to work best in
+social relations. Pagan religions were slow to develop any kinship
+between religion and morals. It was among the Hebrews that the loftier
+idea of a God of holiness and justice, who demanded right and kindly
+conduct among men, came into prominence, and a few religious prophets
+went so far as to declare that sacrifice was less important than
+conduct. The fundamental teachings of Christianity were based on the
+same conception of social duty and on the religious conception of God
+as benevolent and loving, calling out loving fealty of heart rather
+than external rite and sacrifice. In Christian times religion has
+become a spiritual and moral motive power throughout the world.
+
+304. =Church Organization.=--Throughout its long history society has
+adjusted the organization of its religious activities to social custom
+and social need. The church in any country is a name for an organized
+system, with its nerve-centres and its ganglia ramifying into the
+remotest localities. In the local community it binds together its
+members in mutual relations, even though they live on different sides
+of a city, or even in the suburbs. It has its relations to young and
+old, and plans for the spiritual welfare of human beings of every age
+through its boards and committees, classes and clubs. It presents a
+variety of group types to match the inclinations and opinions of
+different types of mind. One type is that of a closely knit,
+centralized organization, claiming ecclesiastical authority over
+individual opinions and practices on the principle that religion is a
+static thing, a law fixed in the eternal order, and not to be improved
+upon or questioned. Another type is that of loosely federated
+ecclesiastical units, flexible in organization and creed, cherishing
+religion as a dynamic thing, suiting itself to the changing mind of
+man and adjusting itself to individual and social need. It is a social
+law that both theology and organization conform in a degree to the
+prevailing social philosophy and constitution, and therefore no type
+can remain unchanged, but relatively one is always conservative and
+the other always liberal, with a blending of types between the two
+extremes. Denominational divisions are due partly to variety of
+opinion, partly to ancestry, and partly to historical circumstance;
+some of these divisions are international in extent; but through every
+communion runs the line of cleavage between conservatism and
+liberalism in the interpretation of custom and creed. The tendency of
+the times is to minimize differences and to bring together divergent
+types in federation or union on the ground that the church needs unity
+in order to use its strength, and that religion can exert its full
+energy in the midst of society only as the friction of too much
+machinery is removed.
+
+305. =Religious Education.=--A third function of the church is
+religious education. This function of education in religion belongs
+theoretically to the church, in common with the home and the school,
+but the tendency has been to turn the religious education of children
+over to the school of the church. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+the chief teacher of faith and duty, but in the Sunday-school the
+laity also has found instruction of the young people to be one of its
+functions. Instruction by both of these is supplemented by schools of
+a distinctly religious type and by a religious press. As long as
+society at large does not undertake to perform this function of
+religious education, the church conceives it to be one of its chief
+tasks to teach as well as to inspire the human will, by interpreting
+the best religious thought that the centuries of history have handed
+down, and for this purpose it uses the latest scientific knowledge
+about the human mind and tries to devise improved methods to make
+education more effective. Education is the twin art of evangelization.
+
+306. =Promotion of Social Reform.=--As an institution hoary with age,
+the church is naturally conservative, and it has been slow to champion
+the various social reforms that have been proposed as panaceas. It has
+been quite as much concerned with a future existence as with the
+present, and has been prompt to point to heavenly bliss as a balance
+for earthly woe. It has concerned itself with the soul rather than the
+body, and with individual salvation rather than social reconstruction.
+It is only within a century that the modern church has given much
+attention to promoting social betterment as one of its principal
+functions, but within a few years the conscience of church people has
+been goading them to undertake a campaign of social welfare. Other
+institutions have needed the help of the church, and in some cases the
+church has had to take upon itself the burden that belonged to other
+organizations; moral movements, like temperance, have asked for the
+powerful sanction of religion, and the church has used its influence
+to persuade men. What has been spontaneous and intermittent is now
+becoming regular and continuous, until a social gospel is taking its
+place alongside individual evangelism. The Biblical phrase, "the
+kingdom of God," is being interpreted in terms of an improved social
+order. Religion, therefore, becomes a present-day force for progress,
+and the church an agency for social uplift.
+
+307. =Adapting the Church to the Twentieth Century City.=--The church
+in the country has a comparatively simple problem of existence. It
+fits into the social organization of the community, and in most cases
+seldom has to readjust itself by radical changes to fit a swift change
+in the community. It is different with the church in the city. Urban
+growth is one of the striking phenomena of recent decades; local
+churches find themselves caught in the swirl, grow rapidly for a time,
+and then are left high and dry as the current sweeps the crowd farther
+along. Often the particular type that it represents is not suited to
+the newer residents who settle in the section where the church stands.
+It has the option of following the crowd or attempting a readjustment.
+To decamp is usually the easier way; readjustment is often so
+difficult as to be almost impossible. Financial resources have been
+depleted. The existing organization is not geared to the customs of
+the newcomers. Forms of worship must be improved if the church is to
+function satisfactorily. The popular appeal of religion must be
+couched in a new phraseology, often in a new language. Religious
+educational methods must be revised. Social service must be fitted to
+the new need. Small groups of workers must be organized to manage
+classes and clubs, and to get into personal contact with individuals
+whose orbit is on a different plane. The church must become a magnet
+to draw them within the influence of religion. It finds itself
+compelled to adopt such methods as these if it is not to become a mere
+survival of a better day.
+
+If, however, a locally disabled church can call upon the resources of
+a whole denomination, it may be able to make the necessary adjustments
+with ease, or even to continue its spiritual ministry along the old
+lines by means of subsidies. It is reasonable to believe that society
+will find a way to adjust the church to the needs of city people. It
+cannot afford to do without it. The church has been the conserver and
+propagator of spiritual force. It has supplied to thousands of persons
+the regenerative power of religion that alone has matched the
+degenerating influence of immoral habits. It has produced auxiliary
+organizations, like the Young Men's Christian Association and the
+Young Women's Christian Association. It has found a way, as in the
+Salvation Army, to get a grip upon the weak-willed and despairing.
+Missions and chapels in the slums and synagogues in the ghettos have
+carried religion to the lowest classes. These considerations argue for
+a wider co-operation among city people in strengthening an institution
+that represents social idealism.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  TRAWICK: _The City Church and Its Social Mission_, pages 14-22,
+      50-76, 95-99, 122-160.
+
+  STRAYER: _Reconstruction of the Church_, pages 161-249.
+
+  MENZIES: _History of Religion_, pages 19-78.
+
+  RAUSCHENBUSCH: _Christianizing the Social Order_, pages 7-29,
+      96-102.
+
+  MCCULLOCH: _The Open Church for the Unchurched_, pages 33-164.
+
+  COE: _Education in Religion and Morals_, pages 373-388.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+THE CITY IN THE MAKING
+
+
+308. =Experimenting in the Mass.=--The modern city is a gigantic
+social experiment. Never before have so many people crowded together,
+never has there been such a close interlocking of economic and social
+and religious associations, never has there been such ease of
+communication and transit. Modern invention has given its aid to the
+natural effort of human beings to get together. The various interests
+that produce action have combined to make settlement compact. The city
+is a severe test of human ability to live peaceably and co-operatively
+at close quarters. In the country an unfriendly man can live by
+himself much of the time; in the city he is continually feeling
+somebody's elbows in his ribs. It is not strange that there is as yet
+much crudeness about the city. Its growth has been dominated by the
+economic motive, and everything has been sacrificed to the desire to
+make money. Dirty slums, crowded tenements, uncouth business blocks,
+garish bill-boards and electric signs, dumped rubbish on vacant lots,
+constant repairs of streets and buildings--these all are marks of
+crudity and experimentation, evidences that the city is still in the
+making. Many of the weaknesses that appear in urban society can be
+traced to this situation as a cause. The craze for amusement is partly
+a reaction from the high speed of modern industry, but partly, also, a
+social delirium produced by the new experience of the social whirl.
+Naturally more serious efforts are neglected for a time, and
+institutions of long standing, like the family, threaten to go to
+pieces. A thought-provoking lecture or a sermon on human obligation
+does not fit in with the mood of the thousands who walk or ride along
+the streets, searching for a sensation. The student who looks at
+urban society on the surface easily becomes pessimistic.
+
+309. =Reasons for Optimism.=--This new experience of society will run
+its course. Undoubtedly there will go with it much of social loss, but
+there is firm ground for believing that there will be more of social
+gain. It is quite necessary for human beings to learn to associate
+intimately, for population is steadily increasing and modern
+civilization makes all classes and all nations more and more dependent
+on one another. The pace of life will slow down after a time, there
+will be less of social intoxication, and men and women will take their
+pleasures more sanely. Eventually they will listen to a message that
+is adapted to them, however serious it may be. One of the most hopeful
+factors in the situation is the presence of individuals and organized
+groups who are able to diagnose present conditions, and who are
+working definitely for their improvement. Much of modern progress is
+conscious and purposeful, where formerly men lived blindly, subject,
+as they believed, to the caprice of the gods. We know much about
+natural law, and lately we have learned something about social law;
+with this knowledge we can plan intelligently for the future. There is
+less excuse for social failure than formerly. Cities are learning how
+to make constructive plans for beautifying avenues and residential
+sections, and making efficient a whole transportation system; they
+will learn how to get rid of overcrowding, misery, and disease. What
+is needed is the will to do, and that will come with experience.
+
+310. =Reasonable Expectations of Improvement.=--Any soundly
+constructive plan waits on thorough investigation. Such an
+organization as the Russell Sage Foundation, which is gathering all
+sorts of data about social conditions, is supplying just the
+information needed on which to base intelligent and effective action.
+On this foundation will come the slow process of construction. There
+will be diffusion of information, an enlistment of those who are able
+to help, and an increased co-operation among the numerous agencies of
+philanthropy and reform. The most obvious evils and those that seem
+capable of solution will be attacked first. Intelligent public opinion
+will not tolerate the continued existence of curable ills. Pure water,
+adequate sewerage, light, and air, and sanitary conveniences in every
+home will be required everywhere. Community physicians and nurses will
+be under municipal appointment to see that health conditions are
+maintained, and to instruct city families how to live properly.
+Vocational schools and courses in domestic science will prepare boys
+and girls for marriage and the home, and will tend to lessen poverty.
+Undoubtedly the time will come when it will be seen clearly that the
+interests of society demand the segregation of those who cannot take
+care of themselves and are an injury to others. Hospitals and places
+of detention for mental and moral defectives, and the victims of
+chronic vice and intemperance, as well as criminals of every sort,
+will seem natural and necessary. Larger questions of immigration,
+industrial management, and municipal administration will be studied
+and gradually solved by the united wisdom of city, state, and nation.
+
+311. =Agencies of Progress and Gains Achieved.=--An examination of
+what has been achieved in this direction by almost any one of the
+larger cities in the United States shows encouraging progress. Smaller
+cities and even villages have made use of electricity for lighting,
+transportation, and telephone service. The water and sewerage systems
+of larger centres are far in advance of what they were a few years
+ago. Bathrooms with open plumbing and greater attention to the
+preservation of health have supplemented more thorough efforts to the
+spread of communicable diseases. Increasing agitation for more
+practical education has led to the creation of various kinds of
+vocational schools, including a large variety of correspondence
+schools for those who wish specific training. There are still
+thousands of boys and girls who enter industrial occupations in the
+most haphazard way, and yield to irrational impulse in choosing or
+giving up a particular job or a place to live in; similar impulse
+induces them to mate in the same haphazard way, and as lightly to
+separate if they tire of each other; but the very fact that
+enlightened public opinion does not countenance these practices, that
+there are social agencies contending against them, and that they are
+contrary to the laws of happiness, of efficiency, and even of
+survival, makes it unlikely that such irrational conduct can persist.
+As for the social ills that have seemed unavoidable, like sexual vice,
+current investigation and agitation, followed by increasing
+legislation and segregation of the unfit, promises to work a change,
+however gradual the process may be. Numerous organizations are at work
+in the fields of poverty, immigration, the industrial problem, reform
+of government, penology, business, education, and religion, and
+thousands of social workers are devoting their lives to the betterment
+of society.
+
+312. =Conference and Co-operation.=--Improvement will be more rapid
+when the various agencies of reform have learned to pull together more
+efficiently. It is frequently charged that the friction between
+different temperance organizations has delayed progress in solving the
+problem of intemperance. It is often said that there would be less
+poverty if the various charitable agencies would everywhere organize
+and work in association. The independent temper of Americans makes it
+difficult to work together, but co-operation is a sound sociological
+principle, and experience proves that such principles must be obeyed.
+If the principle of combination that has been applied to business
+should be carried further and applied to the problems of society,
+there can be no question that results would speedily justify the
+action. Perhaps the greatest need in the city to-day is a union of
+resources. If an honest taxation would furnish funds, if the best
+people would plan intelligently and unselfishly for the city's future
+development, if boards and committees that are at odds would get
+together, there is every reason to think that astonishing changes for
+the better would soon be seen.
+
+Suppose that in every city of our land representatives of the chamber
+of commerce, of the city government, of the associated charities, of
+the school-teachers, of the ministers of the city, of the women's
+clubs, of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's
+Christian Association, of the labor-unions, and of the agencies that
+cater to amusement should sit together once in two weeks in conference
+upon the interests of all the people of the city, and should honestly
+and frankly discuss the practical questions that are always at the
+fore in public discussion, and then should report back for further
+conference in their own groups, there can be no doubt that the various
+groups would have a far better understanding and appreciation of one
+another, and in time would find ways and means to adopt such a
+programme as might come out of all the discussion.
+
+313. =The Crucial Test of Democracy.=--World events have shown clearly
+since the outbreak of the European war that intelligent planning and
+persistent enforcement of a political programme can long contend
+successfully against great odds, when there is autocratic power behind
+it all. Democracy must show itself just as capable of planning and
+execution, if it is to hold its own against the control of a few,
+whether plutocrats, political bosses, or a centralized state, but its
+power to make good depends on the enlistment of all the abilities of
+city or nation in co-operative effort. There is no more crucial test
+of the ability of democracy to solve the social problems of this age
+than the present-day city. The social problem is not a question of
+politics, but of the social sciences. It is a question of living
+together peaceably and profitably. It involves economics, ethics, and
+sociological principles. It is yet to be proved that society is ready
+to be civilized or even to survive on a democratic basis. The time
+must come when it will, for associated activity under the self-control
+of the whole group is the logical and ethical outcome of sound
+sociological principle, but that time may not be near at hand. If
+democracy in the cities is to come promptly to its own, social
+education will soon change its emphasis from the material gain of the
+individual to co-operation for the social good, and under the
+inspiration of this idea the various agencies will unite for effective
+social service.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HOWE: _The Modern City and Its Problems_, pages 367-376.
+
+  GOODNOW: _City Government in the United States_, pages 302-308.
+
+  ELDRIDGE: _Problems of Community Life_, pages 3-7.
+
+  ELY: _The Coming City._
+
+  _Boston Directory of Charities_, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+PART V--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XL
+
+THE BUILDING OF A NATION
+
+
+314. =Questions of the Larger Group.=--In any study of social life we
+have to find a place for larger groups than the family and the
+neighborhood or even the city. There are national units and even a
+certain amount of international unity in the world. How have they come
+to exist? What are the interests that hold them together? What are the
+forms of association that are practicable on such a large scale? Is
+there a tendency to stress the control of the group over its
+individual members, even its aristocracy 01 birth or wealth? These are
+questions that require some sort of an answer. Beyond them are other
+questions concerning the relations between these larger groups. Are
+there common interests or compelling forces that have merged hitherto
+sovereign states into federal or imperial union? Is it conceivable
+that such mutually jealous nations as the European powers may
+surrender willingly their individual interests of minor importance for
+the sake of the larger good of the whole? Can political independence
+ever become subordinate to social welfare? Are there any spiritual
+bonds that can hold more strongly than national ambitions and national
+pride? Such questions as these carry the student of society into a
+wider range of corporate life than the average man enters, but a range
+of life in which the welfare of every individual is involved.
+
+315. =The Significance of National Life.=--The nation is a group of
+persons, families, and communities united for mutual protection and
+the promotion of the general welfare, and recognizing a sovereign
+power that controls them all. Some nations have been organized from
+above in obedience to the will of a successful warrior or peaceful
+group; others have been organized peacefully from below by the
+voluntary act of the people themselves. The nation in its capacity as
+a governing power is a state, but a nation exercises other functions
+than that of control; it exists to promote the common interests of
+mankind over a wider area than that of the local community. The
+historic tendency of nations has been to grow in size, as the
+transmission of ideas has become easy, and the extension of control
+has been made widely possible. The significance of national life is
+the social recognition at present given to community of interest by
+millions of individuals who believe that it is profitable for them to
+live under the same economic regulations, social legislation, and
+educational system, even though of mingled races and with various
+ideals.
+
+316. =How the Nation Developed.=--The nation in embryo can be found in
+the primitive horde which was made up of families related by ties of
+kin, or by common language and customs. The control was held by the
+elderly men of experience, and exercised according to unwritten law.
+The horde was only loosely organized; it did not own land, but ranged
+over the hunting-grounds within its reach, and often small units
+separated permanently from the larger group. When hunting gave place
+to the domestication of animals, the horde became more definitely
+organized into the tribe, strong leadership developed in the defense
+of the tribe's property, and the military chieftain bent others in
+submission to his will. As long as land was of value for pasturage
+mainly, it was owned by the whole tribe in common. When agriculture
+was substituted for the pastoral stage of civilization, the tribe
+broke up by clans into villages, each under its chief and advisory
+council of heads of families. So far the mode of making a living had
+determined custom and organization.
+
+Village communities may remain almost unchanged for centuries, as in
+China, or here and there one of them may become a centre of trade, as
+in mediæval Germany. In the latter case it draws to itself all classes
+of people, develops wealth and culture, and presently dominates its
+neighbors. Small city states grew up in ancient time along the Nile in
+Egypt, and by and by federated under a particularly able leader, or
+were conquered by the band of an ambitious chieftain, who took the
+title of king. In such fashion were organized the great kingdoms and
+empires of antiquity.
+
+Social disintegration and foreign conquest broke up the great empires,
+and for centuries in the Middle Ages society existed in local groups;
+but common economic and racial interests, together with the political
+ambition of princes and nobles, drew together semi-independent
+principalities and communes, until they became welded into real
+nations. At first the state was monarchical, because a few kings and
+lords were able to dominate the mass, and because strength and
+authority were more needed than privileges of citizenship; then the
+economic interest became paramount, and merchants and manufacturers
+demanded a share in government for the protection of their interests.
+Education improved the general level of intelligence, and invention
+and growing commerce improved the condition of the people until
+eventually all classes claimed a right to champion their own
+interests. The most progressive nations racially, politically, and
+economically, outstripped the others in world rivalry until the great
+modern nations, each with its own peculiar qualities of efficiency,
+overtopped their predecessors of all time.
+
+317. =The Story of the United States.=--The story of national life in
+the United States is especially noteworthy. Within a century and a
+half the people of this country have passed through the economic
+stages, from clearing the forests to building sky-scrapers; in
+government they have grown from a few jealous seaboard colonies along
+the Atlantic to a solidly welded federal nation that stretches from
+ocean to ocean; in education and skill they have developed from
+provincial hand-workers to expert managers of corporate enterprises
+that exploit the resources of the world; and in population they have
+grown from four million native Americans to a hundred million people,
+gathered and shaken together from the four corners of the earth. In
+that century and a half they have developed a new and powerful
+national consciousness. When the British colonies asserted their
+independence, they were held together by their common ambition and
+their common danger, but when they attempted to organize a government,
+the incipient States were unwilling to grant to the new nation the
+powers of sovereignty. The Confederation was a failure. The sense of
+common interest was not strong enough to compel a surrender of local
+rights. But presently it appeared that local jealousies and divisions
+were imperilling the interests of all, and that even the independence
+of the group was impossible without an effective national government.
+Then in national convention the States, through their representatives,
+sacrificed one after another their sovereign rights, until a
+respectable nation was erected to stand beside the powers of Europe.
+It was given power to make laws for the regulation of social conduct,
+and even of interstate commerce, to establish executive authority and
+administrative, judicial, and military systems, and to tax the
+property of the people for national revenue. To these basic functions
+others were added, as common interests demanded encouragement or
+protection.
+
+318. =Tests of National Efficiency.=--Two tests came to the new nation
+in its first century. The first was the test of control. It was for a
+time a question whether the nation could extend its sovereignty over
+the interior. State claims were troublesome, and the selfish interests
+of individuals clashed with revenue officers, but the nation solved
+these difficulties. The second test was the test of unity, and was
+settled only after civil war. Out of the struggle the nation emerged
+stronger than it had ever been, because henceforth it was based on the
+principle of an indissoluble union. With its second century have come
+new tests--the test of absorbing millions of aliens in speech and
+habits, the test of wisely governing itself through an intelligent
+citizenship, the test of educating all of its people to their
+political and social responsibilities. Whether these tests will be
+met successfully is for the future to decide, but if the past is any
+criterion, the American republic will not fail. National structures
+have risen to a certain height and then fallen, because they were not
+built on the solid foundations of mutual confidence, co-operation, and
+loyalty. Building a self-governing nation that will stand the test of
+centuries is possible only for a people that is conscious of its
+community of interests, and is willing to sacrifice personal
+preferences and even personal profits for the common good.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (Abridged Edition), pages
+      3-21.
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 26-48.
+
+  BLUNTSCHLI: _Theory of the State_, pages 82-102.
+
+  MULFORD: _The Nation_, pages 37-60.
+
+  BAGEHOT: _Physics and Politics_, pages 81-155.
+
+  USHER: _Rise of the American People_, pages 151-167, 182-195,
+      269-281.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLI
+
+ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PEOPLE AS A NATION
+
+
+319. =The Reality of the Nation.=--Ordinarily the individual is not
+pressed upon heavily by his national relationships. He is conscious of
+them as he reads the newspaper or goes to the post-office, but except
+at congressional or presidential elections they are not brought home
+to him vividly. He thinks and acts in terms of the community. The
+nation is an artificial structure and most of its operations are
+centralized at a few points. The President lives and Congress meets at
+the national capital. The departments of government are located there,
+and the Supreme Court holds its sessions in the same city. Here and
+there at the busy ports are the custom-houses, with their revenue
+officers, and at convenient distances are district courts and United
+States officers for the maintenance of national order and justice. The
+post-office is the one national institution that is found everywhere,
+matched in ubiquity only by the flag, the symbol of national unity and
+strength. But though not noticeably exercised, the power of the nation
+is very real. There is no power to dispute its legislation and the
+decisions of its tribunals. No one dares refuse to contribute to its
+revenues, whether excise tax or import duties. No one is unaware that
+a very real nation exists.
+
+320. =The Social Nature of the Nation.=--In thinking of the nation it
+is natural to consider its power as a state, but other functions
+belong to it as a social unit that are no less important. Its general
+function is not so much to govern as to promote the general welfare.
+The social nature of national organization is well expressed in the
+preamble to the national Constitution: "We the people of the United
+States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice,
+insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote
+the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves
+and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
+United States of America." The general welfare is a somewhat vague
+term, but it includes all the interests of the people, and so
+indicates the scope of the national function.
+
+321. =The Economic Function.=--The nation has an economic function. It
+is its business to encourage trade by means that seem most likely to
+help, whether by subsidies, tariffs, or expert advice; to protect all
+producers, distributers, and consumers by just laws and tribunals, so
+that unfair privileges shall not be enjoyed by the few at the expense
+of the many, and to provide in every legitimate way for the spread of
+information and for experimentation that agriculture, mining, and
+manufacturing may be improved. Evidences of the attempt of the United
+States to measure up to these responsibilities are the various tariffs
+that have been established for protection as well as revenue, the
+interstate and trade commissions that exist for the regulation of
+business, and the individuals and boards that are maintained for
+acquiring and disseminating information relating to all kinds of
+economic interests. The United States Patent Office encourages
+invention, and American inventors outnumber those of other nations.
+The United States Department of Agriculture employs many experimenters
+and expert agents and even distributes seeds of a good quality, in
+order that one of the most important industries of the American people
+may flourish. At times some of the national machinery has been
+prostituted to private gain, and there is always danger that the
+individual will try to prosper at the expense of society, but the
+people more than ever before are conscious that it is the function of
+the nation to promote the _general_ welfare, and private interests,
+however powerful, must give heed to this.
+
+322. =Manufacturing in Corporations and Associations.=--Back of all
+organization and legislation lies a real national unity, through
+which the nation exercises indirectly an economic function. In spite
+of a popular jealousy of big business in the last decade, there is a
+pride in the ability of American business men to create a profitable
+world commerce, and middle-class people in well-to-do circumstances
+subscribe to the purchase of stocks and bonds in trusted corporations.
+Without this general interest and participation such a rapid extension
+of industrial enterprise could not have taken place. Without the lines
+of communication that radiate from great commercial and financial
+centres, without the banking connections that make it possible for the
+fiscal centres to support any particular institution that is in
+temporary distress, without the consciousness of national solidarity
+in the great departments of business life, economic achievement in
+America would have come on halting feet. This unity is fostered but
+not created by government, and no hostile government can destroy it
+altogether.
+
+To further economic interests throughout the nation all sorts of
+associations exist and hold conventions, from American poultry
+fanciers to national banking societies. Occasionally these
+associations pool their interests and advertise their concerns through
+a national exposition. In this way they find it possible to make an
+impression upon thousands of people whom they are educating indirectly
+through the printing-press. It would be an interesting study and one
+that would throw light on the complexity and ubiquity of national
+relations, if it could be ascertained locally how many individuals are
+connected with such national organizations, and what particular
+associations are most popular. If this examination were extended from
+purely economic organizations to associations of every kind, we should
+be able to gauge more accurately the strength of national influence
+upon social life.
+
+323. =Health Interests.=--If this national unity exists in the
+economic field it is natural to expect to find it in the less material
+interests of society. The sense of common interests is all-pervasive.
+National health conditions bring the physicians together to discuss
+the causes and the therapeutics. How to keep well and to get strong,
+how to dress the baby and to bring up children are perennial topics
+for magazines with a national circulation. Insurance companies with a
+national constituency prescribe physical tests for all classes.
+Government takes cognizance of the physical interest of all its
+citizens, and passes through Congress pure-food and pure-drug acts.
+National societies of a voluntary nature also cater to health and
+happiness. Long-named organizations exist for moral prophylaxis and
+for the prevention of cruelty to children and animals. Vigilance
+associations of all sorts stand guard to keep children and their
+elders from contamination. Society protects itself over wide areas
+through such associated recognition of the mutual interests of all its
+members.
+
+324. =National Sport.=--Recreation and sport also present national
+features. Every new phase of recreation from playgrounds to philately
+presently has its countrywide association. There is a conscious
+reaching out for wide fellowship with those who are interested in the
+same pursuits. The attraction of like-mindedness is a potent force in
+every department of life. Certain forms of relaxation or spirited
+rivalry have attained to the dignity of national sports. England has
+its football, Scotland its golf, Canada its lacrosse, the United
+States its baseball. The enthusiasm and excitement that hold whole
+cities in thrall as a national league season draws to its close, is a
+more striking phenomenon than Roman gladiatorial shows or Spanish
+bull-fights. Persons who seldom if ever attend a game, who do not know
+one player from another, wax eloquent over the merits of a team that
+represents their own city, while individuals who attain to the title
+of "fans" handle familiarly the details of the teams throughout the
+league circuit. Why should Olympic contests held in recent years
+between representatives of different nations, or international tennis
+championships, arouse universal interest? It is inexplicable except as
+evidence of collective consciousness and a national pride and loyalty.
+
+The same spirit has entered into university athletics. The great
+universities have their "rooters" scattered all over the land, and
+the whole nation is interested in the Thames or Henley races and the
+Poughkeepsie regattas. There are intercollegiate tennis championships
+and chess tournaments, football contests between the leaders East and
+West, all-America teams, and even international rivalries.
+
+325. =The Function of Education.=--Nation-wide ties and loyalties in
+sport do not call for the official action of the nation, though
+national officials as individuals are often devoted to certain sports,
+but the nation has other functions that may be classed as social. No
+duty is more pressing, not even that of efficient government, than the
+task of education. The National Bureau of Education supplemented by
+State boards, officially takes cognizance of society's educational
+interests. In education local independence plays a large part, but it
+is the function of government to make inquiry into the best theories
+and methods anywhere in vogue, to extend information to all who are
+interested, and to use its large influence toward the adoption of
+improvements. Government in certain States of the American Union even
+goes so far as to co-operate with local communities in maintaining
+joint school superintendents of towns or counties. It is appropriate
+that a democratic nation should give much attention to the education
+of the people because the success of democracy depends on popular
+intelligence.
+
+The efforts of the government are seconded by voluntary organization.
+It is not unusual for college presidents or ordinary teachers to meet
+in conference and discuss their difficulties and aspirations, but a
+National Education Association is cumulative evidence that Americans
+think in terms of a continent, and that their interests are the same
+educationally in all parts of the land. It is no less true of other
+agencies of culture than the schools. Cultural associations of all
+kinds abound. Some of them are limited by State boundaries, not a few
+are national in their scope. There is a national Chautauqua;
+institutes with the same name hold their sessions all over the land.
+Music, art, and the drama, sometimes the same organized group of
+artists, appeal to appreciative audiences in Boston, New Orleans,
+Chicago, and San Francisco. Popular songs from the opera, popular
+dances from the music-halls sweep the country with a wave of imitative
+enthusiasm. There are national whims and national tastes that chase
+each other from ocean to ocean, almost as fast as the sun moves from
+meridian to meridian.
+
+326. =National Philanthropy.=--So much of national life is voluntary
+in direction and organization in America, as compared with Germany or
+Russia, that it is easy to overlook its national significance. As a
+national state the United States does not attempt philanthropy. The
+separate States have their asylums as they have penitentiaries and
+reformatories, but the nation performs no such function. Yet
+philanthropic organization girdles the continent. The National
+Conference of Charities and Corrections is one instance of a society
+that meets annually in the interest of the depressed classes,
+discusses their problems, and reports its findings to the public as a
+basis for organized activity. Such an organization not only represents
+the humanitarian principles and interest of individuals here and
+there, but it helps to bind together local groups all over the country
+that are working on an altruistic basis. Whole sections of territory
+join in discussing still wider human interests. The Southern
+Sociological Conference appeals to the whole South and calls upon the
+rest of the country for speakers of reputation and wisdom.
+
+327. =The Federal Council of Churches.=--It is fundamental to the
+spirit and word of the American Constitution that church and state
+shall not be united, but this does not prevent religious interests
+from being cherished nationally, and ecclesiastical organizations from
+having national affiliations. Modern churches are grouped first of all
+in denominations, because of certain peculiarities, but most of the
+denominations have spread over the country and propagated their type
+as opportunity offered. National conferences and conventions,
+therefore, take place regularly, bringing together Episcopalians,
+Presbyterians, Baptists, or Methodists, as the case may be, to
+consider the interests that are most vital to the denomination as a
+whole, or which the denomination as a whole, in place of the local
+churches, holds within its sphere of control. Politics and sectional
+interests have sometimes divided denominations, large bodies have
+sometimes split along conservative or radical lines, but the national
+ideal has never been lost sight of, and national organizations enjoy
+dignity and prestige. One of the most recent illustrations of a still
+broader interest and deeper consciousness is the federation of more
+than thirty evangelical Protestant denominations for better
+acquaintance and larger achievement. Temporary movements and even a
+definite Evangelical Alliance have been in evidence before, but now
+has come a permanent organization, to include all the religious
+interests that can be held in common, and especially to stress the
+more ambitious programme of social regeneration. The Federal Council
+of the Churches of Christ in America has yet to prove that it is not
+ahead of the times, but it is an earnest of a religious interest that
+oversteps the bounds of creed and denominational organization and
+calls upon the various divisions of the Protestant Church to unite for
+a national campaign.
+
+328. =The Scope of National Life.=--Social life in the nation is not
+confined to any organization. It does not wait upon government to
+perform its various functions. It goes on because of the constant flow
+and counterflow of population through all the channels of acquaintance
+and correspondence, of travel and trade. People feel the need of one
+another, are in constant touch with one another, and inevitably are
+continually exchanging commodities and ideas. Barriers of race and
+language, of tariff walls and national conventions stand in the way of
+exchange between individuals of different nations, though a strenuous
+commercial age succeeds in making breaches in the barriers, but
+opportunity within the nation is free, and such natural barriers as
+language and race differences speedily give way before the mutual
+desires of the native and the hyphenated American.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 63-115.
+
+  _Reports of the Commissioner of Education._
+
+  _American Year Book_, 1914, _passim._
+
+  WARD: _Year Book of the Church and Social Service_, 1916, pages
+      24-29.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLII
+
+THE STATE
+
+
+329. =The State and Its Sovereignty.=--The various economic and social
+functions that are exercised by the people as a nation can be
+performed in an orderly and effective way only when the people are
+organized politically, and the nation has full powers of sovereignty.
+When the nation functions politically it is a state. States may be
+large like Russia, or small like Montenegro; they may have full
+sovereignty like Great Britain, or limited sovereignty like New York;
+the fact that they exercise political authority makes them states. It
+is conceivable that this political authority may be exercised through
+the sheer force of public opinion, but the experience of the newly
+organized United States under the Articles of Confederation showed
+that national moral suasion was not effective. History seems to prove
+that society needs a machinery of government able to legislate and
+enforce its laws, and the tendency has been for a comparatively small
+number of states to extend their authority over more and more of the
+earth's surface. This has become possible through the maintenance of
+efficient military forces and wise local administration, aided by
+increasing ease of communication and transportation. Once it was a
+question whether the United States could enforce its law as far away
+as western Pennsylvania; now Great Britain bears unquestioned sway
+over the antipodes. Many persons look forward to the time when the
+people of all nations will unite in a universal state, with power to
+enforce its will without resort to war.
+
+330. =Why the State is Necessary.=--There are some persons, commonly
+known as anarchists, who do not believe that government is necessary.
+They would have human relations reduced to their lowest terms, and
+then trust to human nature to behave itself properly. There are other
+persons known as Socialists, who would have the people in their
+collective capacity exercise a larger control than now over human
+action. Neither of these classes represents the bulk of society.
+Common sense and experience together seem to demand a government that
+will exercise a reasonable control, and by reasonable is meant a
+control that will preserve the best interests of all and make general
+progress possible. The political function of the nation is both
+coercive and directive. When we think of a state we naturally think of
+the power that it possesses to make peace or war with foreign powers,
+to keep order within the nation, to enforce its authority over any
+individual or group that breaks the laws that it has made; but while
+such power of control is essential and its exercise often spectacular,
+it is paralleled by the directive power. There are many social
+relations that need definition and much social conduct that needs
+direction. A man and a woman live together and bring up a family of
+children. Who is to determine their legal status, the terms of
+marriage, the rights of parenthood, the claims of childhood, the
+rights and obligations of the family as a part of the community? The
+family accumulates property in lands, houses, and movable possessions.
+Who will make the acquisition legal, insure property protection, and
+provide legally for inheritance? Every individual has his personal
+relation to the state, and privileges of citizenship are important.
+Who shall determine the right to vote and to hold office, or the duty
+to pay taxes or serve in the army or navy? In these various ways the
+state is no less functioning politically for the benefit of the people
+than when coercing recalcitrant citizens, warning or fighting other
+nations, or legislating in its congressional halls. Its opportunity to
+regulate the social interests of its citizens is almost illimitable,
+for while a written constitution may prescribe what a state may and
+may not do, those who made the constitution have the power to revise
+it or to override its provisions.
+
+331. =Theories of the State.=--Archæological and historical evidence
+point to the family as the nursery of the state. There was a time when
+the contract theory was popular. It was believed that the state became
+possible when individuals agreed to give up some of their own
+individual rights for the sake of living in peace with their neighbors
+and enjoying mutual protection. There is no doubt that such a mutual
+arrangement was made in the troublous feudal period of mediæval
+European history, just as the original thirteen American colonies gave
+up some of their individual powers to make possible a real American
+state, but the social-contract theory is no longer accepted as a
+satisfactory explanation of the origin of government. There was no
+_Mayflower_ compact with the bushmen when Englishmen decided to live
+with the natives in Australia.
+
+There is another theory that eminently wise men, with or without
+divine assistance, formulated law and government for cities and
+tribes, and that their codes were definitely accepted by the people,
+but the work of these men, as far as it is historical at all, seems to
+have been a work of codifying laws which had grown out of custom
+rather than of making new laws. Still another theory that was once
+held strenuously by a few was that of the divine right of kings, as if
+God had given to one dynasty or one class the right to rule
+irresponsibly over their fellows. Individual political philosophers,
+like the Greek Aristotle and the German Bluntschli have published
+their theories, and have influenced schools of publicists, but the
+political science of the present day, basing its theories on observed
+facts, is content to trace the gradual changes that have taken place
+in the unconscious development of the past, and to point out the
+possibilities of intelligent progress in future evolution.
+
+332. =How the State Came to Be.=--The true story of the development of
+the state seems to have been as follows. The roots of the state are in
+the family group. When the family expanded into the tribe, family
+discipline and family custom easily passed over to tribal discipline
+and tribal custom, strengthened by religious superstition and the
+will of the priest. But not all chieftains and all tribes have the
+same ability or the same disposition, so that while political custom
+and religious sanctions tended in the main to remain unchanged, an
+occasional exception upset the social equilibrium. Race mixture and
+conflicting interests compelled organization on a civil rather than a
+tribal basis. Or an ambitious prince or a restless tribe interfered
+with the established relations, and presently a powerful military
+state was giving law to subjugated tribes. Egypt, Persia, Rome, Turkey
+have been such states. On a larger scale, something of the same sort
+has happened in the conquest of outlying parts of the world by the
+European Powers, until one man in Petrograd can give law to Kamchatka,
+a cabinet in London can determine a policy for the government of
+India, or the United States Congress can change the administration of
+affairs in the Philippines. Military power has been the weapon by
+which authority has been imposed from without, legislative action the
+instrument by which authority has been extended within.
+
+333. =The Government of Great Britain.=--The government of Great
+Britain is one of the best concrete examples of the growth of a
+typical state. Its Teutonic founders learned the rudiments of
+government in the German forests, where the principles of democracy
+took root. Military and political exigencies gave the prince large
+power, but the people never forgot how to exert their influence
+through local assembly or national council. In the thirteenth century,
+when the King displeased the men of the nation, they demanded the
+privileges of Magna Carta, and when King and lords ruled
+inefficiently, the common people found a way to enlarge their own
+powers. Representatives of the townsmen and the country shires took
+their places in Parliament, and gradually, with growing wisdom and
+courage, assumed more and more prerogatives. Three times in the
+seventeenth century Parliament demanded successfully certain rights of
+citizenship, though once it had to fight and once more to depose a
+king. In the nineteenth century, by a succession of reform acts, King
+and Parliament admitted tradesmen, farmers, and working men to a full
+share in the workings of the state, and only recently the Commons have
+supplanted the Lords as the leading legislative body of the nation.
+The story of Great Britain is a tale of growing democracy and
+increasing efficiency.
+
+The story of local government and the story of imperial government
+might be placed side by side with the story of national government,
+and each would reveal the political principles that have guided
+British progress. Social need, patient experiment, and growth in
+efficiency are significant phrases that help to explain the story.
+Every nation has worked out its government in its own way, interfered
+with occasionally by interested parties on the outside, but the
+general line of progress has been the same--local experimentation,
+federation or union more often imposed than agreed upon by popular
+consent, and a slow growth of popular rights over government by a
+privileged few. Present tendency is in the direction of safeguarding
+the interests of all by a fully representative government, in which
+the individual efficiency of prince or commoner alike shall have due
+weight, but no one sovereign or class shall rule the people as a
+whole.
+
+334. =The Organization of Government.=--The political organization
+depends upon the functions that the state has to perform, as the
+structure of any group corresponds to its functions. The modern
+national machinery is a complicated system, and is becoming more so as
+constitutional conventions define more in detail the powers and forms
+of government, and as legislatures enter the field of social reform,
+but the simplest attempt at regulation involves several steps, and so
+naturally there are several departments of government. The first step
+is the election of those who are to make the laws. Practically all
+modern states recognize the principle that the people are at least to
+have a share in government; this is managed by the popular election of
+their representatives in the various departments of government. The
+second step is lawmaking by the representative legislature, congress,
+or parliament, usually after previous deliberation and recommendation
+by a committee; in some states the people have the right by referendum
+to ratify or reject the legislation, and even to initiate such
+legislation as they desire. The third step is the arrangement for
+carrying out the law that has been passed. This is managed by the
+executive department of the government. The fourth step is the actual
+administration of law and government by officials who are sometimes
+elected and sometimes appointed, and who constitute the administrative
+department of the political organization. A fifth step is the passing
+upon law and the relation of an individual or group to it by judicial
+officers attached to a system of courts. These departments of the
+state, with whatever auxiliary machinery has been organized to assist
+in their working, make up the political organization of the typical
+modern state.
+
+335. =The Electoral System.=--There is great variety in the degree of
+self-government enjoyed by the people. In the most advanced nations
+the electoral privileges are widely distributed, in the backward
+nations it is only recently that the people have had any voice in
+national affairs. Usually suffrage is reserved for those who have
+reached adult manhood, but an increasing number of States of the
+American Union and several foreign nations have admitted women to
+equal privileges. Lack of property or education in many countries is a
+bar to electoral privilege. Pauperism and crime and sometimes
+religious heterodoxy disfranchise. The variety and number of officials
+to be elected varies greatly. The head of the nation in the states of
+the Old World generally holds his position by hereditary right, and he
+has large appointive power directly or indirectly. In some states the
+judiciary is appointed rather than elected on the ground that it
+should be above the influence of party politics. The chief power of
+the people is in choosing their representatives to make the laws. Most
+of these representatives are chosen for short terms and must answer to
+the people for their political conduct; by these means the people are
+actually self-governing, though the execution of the law may be in
+the hands of officers whom they have not chosen. Democratic
+government is nevertheless subject to all the forces that affect large
+bodies exerted through party organizations, demagogues, and a party
+press, but even opponents of democracy are willing to admit that the
+people are learning political lessons by experience.
+
+336. =The Legislative System.=--Legislation by representatives of all
+classes of the people is a new political phenomenon tried out most
+thoroughly among the large nations by Great Britain, France, and the
+United States. Even now there is much distrust of the ability of the
+ordinary man in politics, and considerably more of the ordinary woman.
+But there have been so many extraordinary individuals who have risen
+to political eminence from the common crowd, that the legislative
+privilege can no longer be confined to an aristocracy. The old
+aristocratic element is represented to-day by a senate, or upper
+house, composed of men who are prominent by reason of birth, wealth,
+or position, but the upper house is of minor importance. The real
+legislative power rests with the lower chamber, which directly
+represents the middle and lower classes, professional, business, and
+industrial. The action of lawmaking bodies is usually limited in scope
+by the provisions of a written constitution, and is modified by the
+public opinion of constituents. Important among the necessary
+legislation is the regulation of the economic and social relations of
+individuals and corporations, provision for an adequate revenue by
+means of a system of taxation, appropriation for the maintenance of
+departments of government and necessary public works, and the
+determination of an international policy. In the United States an
+elaborate system of checks and balances gives the executive a
+provisional veto on legislation, but gives large advisory powers to
+Congress. In Great Britain the executive is the chief of the dominant
+party in Parliament, and if he loses the confidence of the legislative
+body he loses his position as prime minister unless sustained in a
+national election.
+
+In all legislative bodies there are inevitable differences of opinion
+and conflicts of interests resulting in party divisions and such
+opposite groups as conservatives and radicals. The formulation and
+pursuance of a national policy is, therefore, not an easy task, and
+the conflict of interests often necessitates compromise, so that a
+history of legislation over a series of years shows that national
+progress is generally accomplished by liberalism wresting a modicum of
+power from conservatism, then giving way for a little to a period of
+reaction, and then pushing forward a step further as public opinion
+becomes more intelligent or more courageous.
+
+337. =The Executive Department.=--Legislative bodies occasionally take
+vacations; the executive is always on duty in person or through his
+subordinates. Popularly considered, the executive department of
+government consists of the president, the king, or the prime minister;
+actually it includes an advisory council or cabinet, which is
+responsible to its chief, but shares with him the task of the
+management of national affairs. The executive department of the
+government stands in relation to the people of the nation as the
+business manager of a corporation stands in relation to the
+stockholders. He must see that the will of the people, as expressed by
+their representatives, is carried into effect; he must appoint the
+necessary administrative officials for efficient service; he must keep
+his finger upon the pulse of the nation, and use his influence to hold
+the legislature to its duty; he must approve or veto laws which are
+sent to him to sign; above all, he must represent his nation in all
+its foreign relations, appoint the personnel of the diplomatic force,
+negotiate treaties, and help to form the international law of the
+world. It is the business of the executive to maintain the honor and
+dignity of the nation before the world, and to carry out the law of
+his own nation if it requires the whole military force available.
+
+338. =Administrative Organization.=--The executive department includes
+the advisers of the head, who constitute the cabinet. In Europe the
+cabinet is responsible to the sovereign or the parliament, and the
+members usually act unitedly. In the United States they are appointed
+by the President, and are individually responsible to him alone. In
+their capacity as a cabinet they help to formulate national policy,
+and their influence in legislation and in moulding public opinion is
+considerable, but their chief function is in administering the
+departments of which they have charge. It is the custom for the heads
+of the chief departments of government to constitute the cabinet, but
+their number differs in different states, and titles vary, also. In
+general, the department of state or foreign affairs ranks first in
+importance, and its secretary is in charge of all correspondence with
+the diplomatic representatives of the nation located in the world's
+capitals; the department of the treasury or the exchequer is usually
+next in importance; others are the departments of the army and navy,
+of colonial possessions, of manufacturing and commerce, mining, or
+agriculture, of public utilities, of education or religion, and for
+judicial business. Each of these has its subordinate bureaus and an
+army of civil-service officials, some of whom owe their appointment to
+personal influence, others to real ability. The civil officials with
+which the public is most familiar are postal employees, officers of
+the federal courts, and revenue officials. Such persons usually hold
+office while their party is in power or during good behavior. Long
+tenure of office tends to conservative measures and the spirit of
+bureaucracy, while a system by which civil office is regarded as party
+spoil tends to corruption and inefficiency. The business of
+administration is becoming increasingly important in the modern state.
+
+339. =The Judicial System.=--There is always danger that law may be
+misinterpreted or prove unconstitutional. It is the function of the
+judicial department of government to make decisions, interpreting and
+applying the law of the nation in particular cases brought before the
+courts. The law of the nation is superior to all local or sectional
+law; so is the national judiciary supreme in its authority and
+national in its jurisdiction. The judicial system of the United States
+includes a series of courts from the lowest district courts, which are
+located throughout the country, to the Supreme Court in Washington,
+which deals with the most momentous questions of national law. In the
+United States the judicial system is complicated by a system of lesser
+courts, State and local, independent of federal control, attached to
+which is a body of police, numerous judges, juries, and lawyers; the
+higher courts also have their justices and practising lawyers, but
+there is less haste and confusion and greater dignity and ability
+displayed. There has been much criticism in recent years of antiquated
+forms of procedure, cumbrous precedent, and unfair use of
+technicalities for the defeat of justice, but however imperfect
+judicial practice may be, the system is well intrenched and is not
+likely to be changed materially.
+
+340. =The Relation of National to District Governments.=--In some
+nations there are survivals of older political divisions which once
+possessed sovereignty, but which have sacrificed most, if not all, of
+it for the larger good. This is the case in such federal states as the
+German Empire, Switzerland, and the United States. Each State in the
+American nation retains its own departments of government, and so has
+its governor and heads of departments, its two-chambered legislature,
+and its State judiciary. State law and State courts are more familiar
+to the people than most of the national legislation. In the German
+Empire each state has its own prince, and in many respects is
+self-governing, but has been more and more sinking its own
+individuality in the empire. In the British Empire there is still
+another relation. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were once
+independent of each other, but military and dynastic events united
+them. For local legislation and administration they tend to separate,
+and already Ireland has obtained home rule. Beyond seas a colonial
+empire has arisen, and certain great dominions are united by little
+more than ties of blood and loyalty to the mother country. Canada,
+Australia, and South Africa have gained a larger measure of
+sovereignty. India is held as an imperial possession, but even there
+experiments of self-government are being tried. The whole tendency of
+government, both here and abroad, seems to be to leave matters of
+local concern largely to the local community and matters that belong
+to a section or subordinate state to that district, and to centralize
+all matters of national or interstate concern in the hands of a small
+body of men at the national capital. In every case national or
+imperial authority is the court of last resort.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BLISS: _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Anarchism."
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 127-234.
+
+  WILSON: _The State_, pages 555-571.
+
+  BLUNTSCHLI: _Theory of the State_, pages 61-73.
+
+  _Constitution of the United States._
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (abridged edition), pages
+      22-242, 287-305.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIII
+
+PROBLEMS OF THE NATION
+
+
+341. =Government as the Advance Agent of Prosperity.=--It is common
+philosophy that society owes every man a living, and it seems to be a
+common belief that the government owes every man a job. There are, of
+course, only a few government positions, and these are rushed after by
+a swarm of office-seekers, but campaign orators have talked so much
+about a full dinner pail and the government as the advance agent of
+prosperity, that there seems to be a popular notion that the
+government, as if by a magician's wand, could cure unemployment, allay
+panics, dispel hard times, and increase a man's earning power at will.
+A little familiarity with economic law ought to modify this notion,
+but it is difficult to eradicate it. Society cannot, through any one
+institution, bring itself to perfection; many elements enter into the
+making of prosperity. It depends on individual ability and training
+for industry, on an understanding of the laws of health and keeping
+the body and brain in a state of efficiency, on peaceful relations
+between groups, on the successful balancing of supply and demand, and
+of wages and the cost of living, on personal integrity and group
+co-operation. All that the government can do is to instruct and
+stimulate. This it has been doing and will continue to do with growing
+effectiveness, but it has to feel its way and learn by experience, as
+do individuals.
+
+342. =How It Has Met Its Responsibility.=--This problem of prosperity
+which is both economic and social, is the concern of all the people of
+the nation, and any attempt to solve it in the interest of one section
+or a single group cannot bring success. That is one reason for many of
+the social weaknesses everywhere visible. Government has legislated
+in the interests of a group of manufacturers, or the courts have
+favored the rich, or trusts have been attacked at the demands of a
+reforming party, or labor has been immune from the application of a
+law against conspiracy when corporations were hard hit. These
+weaknesses, which are characteristic of American democracy, find their
+parallels in all countries where modern industrial and social
+conditions obtain. But government has lent its energies to the
+upbuilding of a sound social structure. It has recognized the need of
+education for the youth of the land at a minimum cost, and the States
+of the American Union have made liberal grants for both academic and
+special training to their State universities, agricultural colleges,
+and normal schools. It encourages the country people to enrich their
+life and to increase their earnings for their own sake and for the
+prosperity of the people who are dependent upon them. It stimulates
+improved processes in manufacturing and mining, and protects business
+against foreign competition by a tariff wall; it tries to prevent
+recurring seasons of financial panics by a stable currency and the
+extension of credits. It provides the machinery for settling labor
+difficulties by conciliation and arbitration, and tries to mediate
+between gigantic combinations of trade and transportation and the
+public. It has pensioned liberally its old soldiers. It has attempted
+to find a method of taxation that would not bear heavily on its
+citizens, but that at the same time would provide a sufficient revenue
+to meet the enormous expense of catering to the multifarious interests
+of a population of a hundred million people.
+
+343. =The Problem of Democracy.=--The problem of prosperity is
+complicated by the problem of democracy. If by a satisfactory method a
+body of wise men could be selected to study carefully each specific
+problem involved, could experiment over a term of years in the
+execution of plans worked out free from fear of being thrown out at
+any time as the result of elective action by an impatient people,
+prosperity might move on more rapid feet. In a country where power is
+in the hands of a few a specific programme can be worked out without
+much friction and rapid industrial and social progress can be made, as
+has been the case during the last fifty years in Germany; but where
+the masses of the people must be consulted and projects depend for
+success upon their sustained approval, progress is much more spasmodic
+and uncertain. Everything depends on an intelligent electorate,
+controlled by reason rather than emotion and patient enough to await
+the outcome of a policy that has been inaugurated.
+
+This raises the question as to the education of the electorate or the
+establishment of an educational qualification, as in some States. Is
+there any way by which the mass of the working people, who have only
+an elementary education, and never see even the outside of a State
+university, can be made intelligent and self-restrained? They will not
+read public documents, whether reports of expert commissions or
+speeches in Congress. Shall they be compelled to read what the
+government thinks is for their good, or be deprived of the suffrage as
+a penalty? They get their political opinions from sensational
+journals. Shall these publications be placed under a ban and the
+nation subsidize its own press? These are questions to be considered
+by the educational departments of State and nation, with a view to a
+more intelligent citizenship. Democracy cannot be said to be a
+failure, but it is still a problem. Government will not be any better
+than the majority of the citizens want it to be; hence its standards
+can be raised only as the mental and moral standards of the electorate
+are elevated. Education, a conscious share in the responsibility of
+legislation, and sure justice in all controverted cases, whether of
+individuals or classes, are necessary elements in winning even a
+measure of success.
+
+344. =The Race Problem.=--The difficulties of American democracy are
+enormously enhanced by the race problem. If common problems are to be
+solved, there must be common interests. The population needs to be
+homogeneous, to be seeking the same ends, to be conscious of the same
+ideals. Not all the races of the world are thus homogeneous; it would
+be difficult to think of Englishmen, Russians, Chinese, South
+Americans, and Africans all working with united purpose, inspired by
+the same ideals, yet that is precisely what is expected in America
+under the tutelage and leadership of two great political parties, not
+always scrupulous about the methods used to obtain success at the
+polls. It is rather astonishing that Americans should expect their
+democracy to work any better than it does when they remember the
+conditions under which it works. To hand a man a ballot before he
+feels himself a part of the nation to which he has come, before he is
+stirred to something more than selfish achievement, before he is
+conscious of the real meaning of citizenship, is to court disaster,
+yet in being generous with the ballot the people of America are arming
+thousands of ignorant, irresponsible immigrants with weapons against
+themselves.
+
+The race problem of America is not at all simple. It is more than a
+problem of immigration. The problem of the European immigrant is one
+part of it. There is also the problem of the relation of the American
+people to the yellow races at our back door, and the problem of the
+negro, who is here through no fault of his own, but who, because he is
+here, must be brought into friendly and helpful relation with the rest
+of the nation.
+
+345. =The Problem of the European Immigrant.=--The problem of the
+European immigrant is one of assimilation. It is difficult because the
+alien comes in such large numbers, brings with him a different race
+heritage, and settles usually among his own people, where American
+influence reaches him only at second hand. Environment may be expected
+to change him gradually, the education of his children will modify the
+coming generation, but it will be a slow task to make him over into an
+American in ideals and modes of thinking, as well as in industrial
+efficiency, and in the process the native American is likely to suffer
+loss in the contact, with a net lowering of standards in the life of
+the American people. To see the danger is not to despair of escaping
+it. To understand the danger is the first step in providing a
+safeguard, and to this end exact knowledge of the situation should be
+a part of the teaching of the schools. To seek a solution of the
+problem is the second step. The main agency is education, but this
+does not mean entirely education in the schools. Education through
+social contact is the principal means of assimilating the adult; for
+this purpose it is desirable that some means be found for the better
+distribution of the immigrant, and as immigration is a national
+problem, it is proper for the national government to attack that
+particular phase of it. Then it belongs to voluntary agencies, like
+settlements, churches, and philanthropic and educational societies to
+give instruction in the essentials of language, civics, industrial
+training, and character building. For the children the school provides
+such education, but voluntary agencies may well supplement its secular
+training with more definite and thorough instruction in morals and
+religion. It cannot be expected that the immigrant problem will settle
+itself; at least, a purposeful policy wisely and persistently carried
+out will accomplish far better and quicker results. Nor is it an
+insoluble problem; it is not even necessary that we should severely
+check immigration. But there is need of intelligent and co-operative
+action to distribute, educate, and find a suitable place for the
+immigrant, that he may make good, and to devise a restrictive policy
+that will effectually debar the most undesirable, and will hold back
+the vast stream of recent years until those already here have been
+taken care of.
+
+346. =The Problem of the Asiatic Immigrant.=--The problem of the
+Asiatic immigrant is quite different. It is a problem of race conflict
+rather than of race assimilation. The student of human society cannot
+minimize the importance of race heredity. In the case of the European
+it holds a subordinate place, because the difference between his
+heritage and that of the American is comparatively slight. But the
+Asiatic belongs to a different race, and the century-long training of
+an entirely different environment makes it improbable that the Asiatic
+and the American can ever assimilate. Each can learn from the other
+and co-operate to mutual advantage, but race amalgamation, or even a
+fusion of customs of thought and social ideals is altogether unlikely.
+It is therefore not to the advantage of either American or Asiatic
+that much Asiatic immigration into the United States should take
+place. To agree to this is not to be hostile to or scornful of the
+yellow man. The higher classes are fully as intelligent and capable of
+as much energy and achievement as the American, but the vast mass of
+those who would come here if immigration were unrestricted are
+undesirable, because of their low industrial and moral standards,
+their tenacity of old habits, and with all the rest because of their
+immense numbers, that would overrun all the western part of the United
+States. When the Chinese Exclusion Act passed Congress in 1882, the
+Chinese alone were coming at the rate of nearly forty thousand a year,
+and that number might have been increased tenfold by this time, to say
+nothing of Japanese and Hindoos. While, therefore, the United States
+must treat Asiatics with consideration and live up to its treaty
+obligations, it seems the wise policy to refuse to admit the Asiatic
+masses to American residence.
+
+A part of the Asiatic problem, however, is the political relation of
+the United States and the Asiatic Powers, especially in the Pacific.
+This is less intimately vital, but is important in view of the rapidly
+growing tendency of both China and Japan to expand in trade and
+political ambitions. This is a problem of political rather than social
+science, but since the welfare of both races is concerned, and of
+other peoples of the Pacific Islands, it needs the intelligent
+consideration of all students. It is desirable to understand one
+another, to treat one another fairly and generously, and to find
+means, if possible, of co-operation rather than conflict, where the
+interests of one impinge upon another. All mediating influences, like
+Christian missions, are to be welcomed as helping to extend mutual
+understanding and to soften race prejudices and animosities.
+
+347. =The Negro Problem.=--Not a few persons look upon the negro
+problem as the most serious social question in America. Whatever its
+relative merits, as compared with other problems, it is sufficiently
+serious to call for careful study and an attempt at solution. The
+negro race in America numbers approximately ten millions, twice as
+many as at the close of the Civil War. The negro was thrust upon
+America by the cupidity of the foreign slave-trader, and perpetuated
+by the difficulty of getting along without him. His presence has been
+in some ways beneficial to himself and to the whites among whom he
+settled, but it has been impossible for two races so diverse to live
+on a plane of equality, and the burden of education upon the South has
+been so heavy and the race qualities of the negro so discouraging,
+that progress in the solution of the negro problem has been slow.
+
+The problem of the colored race is not one of assimilation or of
+conflict. In spite of an admixture of blood that affects possibly a
+third of the American negroes, there never will be race fusion.
+Assimilation of culture was partly accomplished in slave days, and it
+will go on. There is no serious conflict between white and colored,
+when once the question of assimilation is understood. The problem is
+one of race adjustment. Fifty years have been insufficient to perfect
+the relations between the two races, but since they must live
+together, it is desirable that they should come to understand and
+sympathize with each other, and as far as possible co-operate for
+mutual advancement. The problem is a national one, because the man of
+color is not confined to the South, and even more because the South
+alone is unable to deal adequately with the situation. The negro
+greatly needs efficient social education. He tends to be dirty, lazy,
+and improvident, as is to be expected, when left to himself. Like all
+countrymen--a large proportion live in the country--he is backward in
+ways of thinking and methods of working. He is primitive in his
+passions and much given to emotion. He shows the traits of a people
+not far removed from savagery. It is remarkable that his white master
+was able to civilize him as much as he did, and it is not strange that
+there has been many a relapse under conditions of unprepared freedom,
+but it is only the more reason why negro character should be raised
+higher on the foundation already laid.
+
+The task is not very different from that which is presented by the
+slum population of the cities of the North. The children need to be
+taught how to live, and then given a chance to practise the
+instruction in a decent environment. They need manual and industrial
+training fitted to their industrial environment, and every opportunity
+to employ their knowledge in earning a living. They need noble ideals,
+and these they can get only by the sympathetic, wise teaching of their
+superiors, whether white or black. They and their friends need
+patience in the upward struggle, for it will not be easy to socialize
+and civilize ten million persons in a decade or a century. Such
+institutions as Hampton and Tuskegee are working on a correct basis in
+emphasizing industrial training; these schools very properly are
+supplemented by the right kind of elementary schools, on the one hand,
+and by cultural institutions of high grade on the other, for the negro
+is a human being, and his nature must be cultivated on all sides, as
+much as if he were white.
+
+348. =The Race Problem a Part of One Great Social Problem.=--The race
+problem as a whole is not peculiar to America, but is intensified here
+by the large mixture of all races that is taking place. It is
+inevitable, as the world's population shifts in meeting the social
+forces of the present age. It is complicated by race inequalities and
+race ambitions. It is fundamentally a problem of adjustment between
+races that possess a considerable measure of civilization and those
+that are not far removed from barbarism. It is discouraging at times,
+because the supposedly cultured peoples revert under stress of war or
+competition or self-indulgence to the crudities of primitive
+barbarism, but it is a soluble problem, nevertheless. The privileged
+peoples need a solemn sense of the responsibility of the "white man's
+burden," which is not to cultivate the weaker man for the sake of
+economic exploitation, but to improve him for the weaker man's own
+sake, and for the sake of the world's civilization. The policy of any
+nation like the United States must be affected, of course, by its own
+interests, but the European, the Asiatic, the negro, and every race or
+people with which the American comes in contact ought to be regarded
+as a member of a world society in which the interlocking of
+relationships is so complete that the injury of one is the injury of
+all, and that which is done to aid the least will react to the benefit
+of him who already has more.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 300-314.
+
+  USHER: _Rise of the American People_, pages 392-404.
+
+  MECKLIN: _Democracy and Race Friction_, pages 77-122.
+
+  COMMONS: _Races and Immigrants in America_, pages 17-21, 198-238.
+
+  COOLIDGE: _Chinese Immigration_, pages 423-458, 486-496.
+
+  GULICK: _The American Japanese Problem_, pages 3-27, 90-196,
+      281-307.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIV
+
+INTERNATIONALISM
+
+
+349. =The New World Life.=--The social life that started in the family
+has broadened until it has circled the globe. It is possible now to
+speak in terms of world life. The interests of society have reached
+out from country to country, and from zone to zone, just as a child's
+interests as he grows to manhood expand from the home to the community
+and from the community to the nation.
+
+The idea of the social solidarity of all peoples is still new. Ever
+since the original divergence of population from its home nest, when
+groups became strange and hostile to one another because of mountain
+and forest barriers, changing languages, and occasionally clashing
+interests, the tendency of the peoples was to grow apart. But for a
+century past the tendency has been changing from divergence to
+convergence, from ignorance and distrust of one another to
+understanding, sympathy, and good-will, from independence and
+ruthlessness to interdependence and co-operation. Numerous agencies
+have brought this about--some physical like steam and electricity,
+some economic like commerce and finance, some social like travel and
+the interchange of ideas through the press, some moral and religious
+like missions and international organizations for peace. The history
+of a hundred years has made it plain that nations cannot live in
+isolation any more than individuals can, and that the tendency toward
+social solidarity must be the permanent tendency if society is to
+exist and prosper, even though civilization and peace may be
+temporarily set back for a generation by war.
+
+350. =The Principle of Adaptation vs. Conflict.=--This New World life
+is not unnatural, though it has been slow in coming. A human being is
+influenced by his physical needs and desires, his cultivated habits,
+his accumulated interests, the customs of the people to whom he
+belongs, and the conditions of the environment in which he finds
+himself. While a savage his needs, desires, and interests are few, his
+habits are fixed, his relations are simple and local; but when he
+begins to take on civilization his needs multiply, his habits change,
+and his relations extend more widely. The more enlightened he becomes
+the greater the number of his interests and the more points of contact
+with other people. So with every human group. The process of social
+development for a time may intensify conflict, but there comes a time
+when it is made clear to the dullest mind that conflict must give way
+to mutual adaptation. No one group, not even a supernation, can have
+everything for itself, and for the sake of the world's comfort and
+peace it will be a decided social gain when that principle receives
+universal recognition. World federations and peace propaganda cannot
+be effective until that principle is accepted as a working basis for
+world life.
+
+351. =The Increasing Recognition of the Principle of
+Adaptation.=--This principle of adaptation has found limited
+application for a long time. Starting with individuals in the family
+and family groups in the clan, it extended until it included all the
+members of a state in their relations to each other. Many individual
+interests conflict in business and society and different opinions
+clash, but all points of difference within the nation are settled by
+due process of law, except when elemental passions break out in a
+lynching, or a family feud is perpetuated among the hills. But war
+continued to be the mode of settling international difficulties.
+Military force restrained a vassal from hostile acts under the Roman
+peace. But the next necessary step was for states voluntarily to
+adjust their relations with one another. In some instances, even in
+ancient times, local differences were buried, and small federations,
+like the Achæan League of the Greeks and the Lombard League of the
+Middle Ages, were formed for common defense. These have been followed
+by greater alliances in modern times. But the striking instances of
+real interstate progress are found in the federation of such States
+as those that are included within the present United States of
+America, and within the new German Empire that was formed after the
+Franco-Prussian War. Sinking their differences and recognizing one
+another's rights and interests, the people of such united nations have
+become accustomed to a large national solidarity, and it ought not to
+require much instruction or persuasion to show them that what they
+have accomplished already for themselves is the correct principle for
+their guidance in world affairs.
+
+352. =International Law and Peace.=--This principle of recognizing one
+another's rights and interests is the foundation of international law,
+which has been modified from time to time, but which from the
+publication of Hugo Grotius's _Law of War and Peace_ in the
+seventeenth century slowly has bound more closely together the
+civilized nations. There has come into existence a body of law for the
+conduct of nations that is less complete, but commands as great
+respect as the civil law of a single state. This law may be violated
+by a nation in the stress of conflict, as civil law may be derided by
+an individual lawbreaker or by an excited mob, but eventually it
+reasserts itself and slowly extends its scope and power. Without
+international legislative organization, without a tribunal or a
+military force to carry out its provisions, by sheer force of
+international opinion and a growing regard for social justice it
+demands attention from the proudest nations. Text-books have been
+written and university chairs founded to present its claims,
+international associations and conventions have met to define more
+accurately its code, and tentative steps have been taken to strengthen
+its position by two Hague Conferences that met in 1899 and 1907. Large
+contributions of money have been made to stimulate the cause of peace,
+and as many as two hundred and fifty peace societies have been
+organized.
+
+353. =Arbitration and an International Court.=--Experiments have been
+tried at settling international disputes without resort to war. Great
+Britain and the United States have led the way in showing to the world
+during the last one hundred years that all kinds of vexatious
+differences can be settled peacefully by submitting them to
+arbitration. These successes have led the United States to propose
+general treaties of arbitration to other nations, and advance has been
+made in that direction. It was possible to establish at The Hague a
+permanent court of arbitration, and to refer to it really important
+cases. Such a calamity as the European war, of course, interrupts the
+progress of all such peaceful methods, but makes all the plainer the
+dire need of a better machinery for settling international
+differences. There is reasonable expectation that before many years
+there may be established a permanent international court of justice,
+an international parliament, and a sufficient international police
+force to restrain any one nation from breaking the peace. Only in this
+way can the dread of war be allayed and disarmament be undertaken;
+even then the success of such an experiment in government will depend
+on an increase of international understanding, respect, and
+consideration.
+
+354. =Intercommunication and Its Rewards.=--The gain in social
+solidarity that has been achieved already is due first of all to
+improved communication between nations. In the days of slow sailing
+vessels it took several weeks to cross the Atlantic, and there was no
+quicker way to convey news. The news that peace had been arranged at
+Ghent in 1814 between Great Britain and the United States did not
+reach the armies on this side in time to prevent the battle of New
+Orleans. Even the results of the battle of Waterloo were not known in
+England for several days after Napoleon's overthrow. Now ocean
+leviathans keep pace with the storms that move across the waters, and
+the cable and the wireless flash their messages with the speed of the
+lightning. Power to put a girdle around the earth in a few minutes has
+made modern news agencies possible, and they have made the modern
+newspaper essential. The newspaper requires the railroad and the
+steamship for its distribution, and business men depend upon them all
+to carry out their plans. These physical agencies have made possible a
+commerce that is world-wide. There are ports that receive ships from
+every nation east and west. Great freight terminal yards hold cars
+that belong to all the great transportation lines of the country.
+Lombard Street and Wall Street feel the pulse of the world's trade as
+it beats through the channels of finance.
+
+Improved communication has made possible the unification of a great
+political system like the British Empire. In the Parliament House and
+government offices of Westminster centre the political interests of
+Canada, Australia, South Africa, Egypt, and India, as well as of
+islands in every sea. Better communication has brought into closer
+relations the Pan-American states, so that they have met more than
+once for their mutual benefit.
+
+Helpful social results have come from the travel that has grown
+enormously in volume since ease and cheapness of transportation have
+increased. The impulse to travel for pleasure keeps persons of wealth
+on the move, and the desire for knowledge sends the intellectually
+minded professional man or woman of small means globe-trotting. In
+this way the people of different nations learn from one another; they
+become able to converse in different languages and to get one
+another's point of view; they gain new wants while they lose some of
+their professional interests; they return home poorer in pocket but
+richer in experience, more interested in others, more tolerant. These
+are social values, certain to make their influence felt in days to
+come, and by no means unappreciable already.
+
+355. =International Institutions.=--These values are conserved by
+international institutions. Societies are formed by like-minded
+persons for better acquaintance and for the advancement of knowledge.
+The sciences are cherished internationally, interparliamentary unions
+and other agencies for the preservation of peace hold their
+conferences, working men meet to air their grievances or plan
+programmes, religious denominations consult for pushing their
+campaigns. The organizations that grow out of these relations and
+conferences develop into institutions that have standing. The
+international associations of scholars are as much a part of the
+world's institutional assets as the educational system is a recognized
+asset of any country. They are clearing-houses of information, as
+necessary as an international clearing-house of finance. The World's
+Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the International Young Men's
+Christian Association are moral agencies that bring together those who
+have at heart the same interests, and when they have once made good
+they must be reckoned among the established organizations that help to
+move the world forward. Not least among such institutions are the
+religious organizations. The closely knit Roman Catholic Church, that
+has held together millions of faithful adherents in many lands for
+centuries, and whose canon law receives an unquestioning obedience as
+the law of a nation, is an illustration of what an international
+religious institution may be. Protestant Churches, naturally more
+independent, have moved more slowly, but their world alliances and
+federations are increasing to the point where they, too, are likely to
+become true institutions.
+
+356. =Missions as a Social Institution.=--Those institutions and
+movements are most useful that aim definitely to stimulate the highest
+interests of all mankind. It is comparatively simple to provide local
+stimulus for a better community life, but to help move the world on to
+higher levels requires clear vision, patient hope, and a definite plan
+on a large scale. Christian missionaries are conspicuous for their
+lofty ideals, their personal devotion to an unselfish task, their
+persistent optimism, and their unswerving adherence to the programme
+marked out by the pioneers of the movement. It is no argument against
+them that they have not accomplished all that a few enthusiasts
+expected of them in a few years. To socialize and Christianize half
+the people of the world is the task of centuries. With broad
+statesmanship missionary leaders have undertaken to do both of these.
+Mistakes in method or detail of operation do not invalidate the whole
+enterprise, and all criticism must keep in mind the noble purpose to
+lift to a higher level the social, moral, and religious ideas and
+practices of the most backward peoples. The purpose is certainly no
+less laudable than that of a Chinese mission to England to persuade
+Great Britain to end the opium traffic, or a diplomatic mission from
+the United States to stop civil strife in Mexico.
+
+357. =Education as a Means to Internationalism.=--Internationalism
+rests on the broad basis of the social nature of mankind, a nature
+that cannot be unsocialized, but can be developed to a higher and more
+purposeful socialization. As there are degrees of perfection in the
+excellence of social relations, so there are degrees of obligation
+resting upon the nations of the world to give of their best to a
+general levelling up. The dependable means of international
+socialization is education, whether it comes through the press, the
+pulpit, or the school. Every commission that visits one country from
+another to learn of its industries, its institutions, and its ideals,
+is a means to that important end. Every exchange professor between
+European and American universities helps to interpret one country to
+the other. Every Chinese, Mexican, or Filipino youth who attends an
+American school is borrowing stimulus for his own people. Every
+visitor who does not waste or abuse his opportunities is a unit in the
+process of improving the acquaintance of East and West, of North and
+South. Internationalism is not a social Utopia to be invented in a
+day; it is rather an attitude of mind and a mode of living that come
+gradually but with gathering momentum as mutual understanding and
+sympathy increase.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STRONG: _Our World_, pages 3-202.
+
+  FOSTER: _Arbitration and the Hague Court._
+
+  FAUNCE: _Social Aspects of Foreign Missions._
+
+  MAURENBRECKER: "The Moral and Social Tasks of World Politics,"
+      art. in _American Journal of Sociology_, 6: 307-315.
+
+  TRUEBLOOD: _Federation of the World_, pages 7-20, 91-149.
+
+
+
+
+PART VI--SOCIAL ANALYSIS
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV
+
+PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY
+
+
+358. =Constant Factors in Social Phenomena.=--Our study of social life
+has made it plain that it is a complex affair, but it has been
+possible to classify society in certain groups, to follow the gradual
+extension of relations from small groups to large, and to take note of
+the numerous activities and interests that enter into contemporary
+group life. It is now desirable to search for certain common elements
+that in all periods enter into the life of every group, whether
+temporary or permanent, so that we may discover the constant factors
+and the general principles that belong to the science of society. Some
+of these have been referred to already among the characteristics of
+social life, but in this connection it is useful to classify them for
+closer examination.
+
+First among these is the physical factor which conditions human
+activity but is not a compelling force, for man has often subdued his
+environment when it has put obstacles in his way. This physical
+element includes the geographical conditions of mountain, valley, or
+seashore, the climate and the weather, the food and water supply, the
+physical inheritance of the individual and the laws that control
+physical development, and the physical constitution of the group. A
+second factor is the psychic nature of human beings and the psychical
+interaction that goes on between individuals within the group and that
+produces reactions between groups.
+
+359. =The Natural Environment.=--The early sociologists put the
+emphasis on the physical more than the psychic factors, and
+especially on biological analogies in society. It seemed to them as if
+it was nature that brought men together. Mountains and ice-bound
+regions were inhospitable, impassable rivers and trackless forests
+limited the range of animals and men, violent storms and temperature
+changes made men afraid. Avoiding these dangers and seeking a
+food-supply where it was most plentiful, human beings met in the
+favored localities and learned by experience the principles of
+association. Everywhere man is still in contact with physical forces.
+He has not yet learned to get along without the products of the earth,
+extracting food-supplies from the soil, gathering the fruits that
+nature provides, and mining the useful and precious metals. The
+city-dweller seems less dependent on nature than is the farmer, but
+the urban citizen relies on steam and electricity to turn the wheels
+of industry and transportation, depends on coal and gas for heat and
+light, and uses winter's harvest of ice to relieve the oppressive heat
+of summer. Rivers and seas are highways of his commerce. Everywhere
+man seems hedged about by physical forces and physical laws.
+
+Yet with the prerogative of civilization he has become master rather
+than servant of nature. He has improved wild fruits and vegetables by
+cultivation, he has domesticated wild animals, he has harnessed the
+water of the streams and the winds of heaven. He has tunnelled the
+mountains, bridged the rivers, and laid his cables beneath the ocean.
+He has learned to ride over land and sea and even to skim along the
+currents of the air. He has been able to discover the chemical
+elements that permeate matter and the nature and laws of physical
+forces. By numerous inventions he has made use of the materials and
+powers of nature. The physical universe is a challenge to human wits,
+a stimulus to thought and activity that shall result in the wonderful
+achievements of civilization.
+
+360. =The Human Physique.=--Another element that enters into every
+calculation of success or failure in human life is the physical
+constitution of the individual and the group. The individual's
+physique makes a great difference in his comfort and activity. The
+corpulent person finds it difficult to get about with ease, the
+cripple finds himself debarred from certain occupations, the person
+with weak lungs must shun certain climates and as far as possible must
+avoid indoor pursuits. By their power of ingenuity or by sheer force
+of will men have been able to overcome physical limitations, but it is
+necessary to reckon with those limitations, and they are always a
+handicap. The physical endowment of a race has been a deciding factor
+in certain times of crisis. The physical prowess of the Anakim kept
+back the timid Israelites from their intended conquest of Canaan until
+a more hardy generation had arisen among the invaders; the sturdy
+Germans won the lands of the Roman Empire in the West from the
+degenerate provincials; powerful vikings swept the Western seas and
+struck such terror into the peaceful Saxons that they cried out: "From
+the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us."
+
+361. =Biological Analogies.=--The physical factor in society received
+emphasis the more because society itself was thought of as an organism
+resembling physical organisms and dependent upon similar laws. As a
+man's physical frame was essential to his activity and limited his
+energies, so the visible structure of social organization was deemed
+more important than social activity and function. Particularly did the
+method of evolution that had become so famous in biology appeal to
+students of sociology as the only satisfactory explanation of social
+change. The study of animal evolution made it clear that heredity and
+environment played a large part in the development of animal life, and
+Darwin pointed out that progress came by the elimination of those
+individuals and species least fitted to survive in the struggle for
+existence and the perpetuation of those that best adapted themselves
+to environment. It was easy to find social analogies and to reach the
+conclusion that in the same way individuals and groups were creatures
+of heredity and environment, and the all-important task of society was
+to conform itself to environment. Of course, history disproved the
+universality of such a law, for more than once a race has risen above
+its environment or altered it, but it seemed a satisfactory working
+principle.
+
+Biological analogies, however, were overemphasized. It was a gain to
+know the workings of race traits and the relation of the individual to
+his ancestry, but to excuse crime on the ground of racial degeneracy
+or to despise a race and believe that none of its members can excel
+because it is conspicuous for certain race weaknesses has been
+unfortunate. Similarly there was advantage in remembering that
+environment is either a great help or a great hindrance to social
+progress, but it would be a social calamity to believe in a physical
+determinism that leaves to human beings no choice as to their manner
+of life. The important truth to keep in mind is that man and
+environment must be adapted to each other, but it often proves better
+to adapt environment to man than to force man into conformity to
+environment. It is the growing independence of environment through his
+own intellectual powers that has given to civilized man his ascendancy
+in the world. It is a mistake, also, to think that a struggle for
+existence is the only means of survival. As in the animal world, there
+comes a time in the process of evolution when the struggle for selfish
+existence becomes subordinated to effort to preserve the life of the
+young or to help the group by the sacrifice of the individual self, so
+in society it is reasonable to believe that the selfish struggle of
+individuals will give way by degrees to purposeful effort for social
+welfare, and that the solidarity of the group rather than the interest
+of the individual will seem the highest good. Then the group will care
+for the weak, and all will gain from the strength and prosperity of
+the whole.
+
+362. =The Importance of the Individual.=--While it is true that
+individual interests are bound up with the prosperity of the group,
+and that the food that he eats, the clothes that he wears, and the
+money that he handles and uses are all his because social industry
+prevails, there is some danger of overlooking the importance of the
+individual. Though he does not exist alone, the individual with his
+distinctive personality is the unit of society. Without individuals
+there would be no society, without the action of the individual mind
+there would be no action of the social mind, without individual
+leadership there would be little order or progress. The single cell
+that made up the lowest forms of animal life is still the unit of that
+complex thing that we call the human body, and the well-being of the
+single cell is essential to the health and even the existence of the
+whole body; so the single human being is fundamental to the existence
+and health of the social body. No analysis of society is at all
+complete that does not include a study of the individual man.
+
+363. =The Psychology of the Individual.=--Self-examination during the
+course of a single day helps to explain the life forces that act upon
+other individuals now and that have forged human history. In such
+study of self it soon becomes apparent to the student that the
+physical factor is subordinate to the psychic, but that they are
+connected. As soon as he wakes in the morning his mental processes are
+at work. Something has called back his consciousness from sleep. The
+light shining in at his window, the bell calling him to meet the day's
+schedule, the odor of food cooking in the kitchen, are physical
+stimuli calling out the response of his sense-perceptions; his mind
+begins at once to associate these impressions and to react upon his
+will until he gets out of bed and proceeds to prepare himself for the
+day. These processes of sensation, association, and volition
+constitute the simple basis of individual life upon which the complex
+structure of an active personality is built.
+
+The individual will is moved to activity by many agencies. There is
+first the instinct. As a person inherits physical traits from his
+ancestors, so he gets certain mental traits. The demand for food is
+the cry of the instinct for self-preservation. The grimace of the
+infant in response to the mother's smile is an expression of the
+instinct for imitation. The reaching out of its hand to grasp the
+sunshine is in obedience to the instinct for acquisition. All human
+association is due primarily to the instinct for sociability. These
+instincts are inborn. They cannot be eradicated, but they can be
+modified and controlled.
+
+Obedience to these native instincts produces fixed habits. These are
+not native but acquired, and so are not transmitted to posterity, in
+the belief of most scientists, but they are powerful factors in
+individual conduct. The individual early in the morning is hungry, and
+the appetite for food recurs at intervals through the day; it becomes
+a habit to go at certain hours where he may obtain satisfaction. So it
+is with many activities throughout the day.
+
+Instincts and habits produce impulses. The savage eats as often as he
+feels like it, if he can find berries or fruit or bring down game;
+impulse alone governs his conduct. But two other elements enter in to
+modify impulse, as experience teaches wisdom. The self-indulgent man
+remembers after a little that indulgence of impulse has resulted
+sometimes in pain rather than satisfaction, and his imagination
+pictures a recurrence of the unhappy experience. Feeling becomes a
+guide to regulate impulse. Feeling in turn compels thought. Presently
+the individual who is going through the civilizing process formulates
+a resolve and a theory, a resolve to eat at regular times and to
+abstain from foods that injure him, a theory that intelligent
+restraint is better than unregulated indulgence. In a similar way the
+individual acts with reference to selecting his environment. Instinct
+and habit act conservatively, impelling the individual to remain in
+the place where he was born and reared, and to follow the occupation
+of his father. But he feels the discomforts of the climate or the
+restrictions of his particular environment, he thinks about it,
+bringing to bear all the knowledge that he possesses, and he makes his
+choice between going elsewhere or modifying his present environment.
+Discovery and invention are both products of such choices as these.
+
+364. =Desires and Interests.=--These complexes of thinking, feeling,
+and willing make up the conscious desires and interests that mould the
+individual life. Through the processes of attention to the stimuli
+that act upon human nature, discrimination between them, association
+of impressions and ideas that come from present and past experience,
+and deliberate judgments of value, the mind moves to action for the
+satisfaction of personal desires and interests. These desires and
+interests have been classified in various ways. For our present
+purpose it is useful to classify them as those that centre in the
+self, and those that centre in others beyond the self. The primitive
+desires to get food and drink, to mate, and to engage in muscular
+activity, all look toward the self-satisfaction which comes from their
+indulgence. There are various acquired interests that likewise centre
+in the self. The individual goes to college for the social pleasure
+that he anticipates, for intellectual satisfaction, or to equip
+himself with a training that will enable him to win success in the
+competition of business. In the larger society outside of college the
+art-lover gathers about him many treasures for his own æsthetic
+delight, the politician exerts himself for the attainment of power and
+position, the religious devotee hopes for personal favors from the
+unseen powers. These are on different planes of value, they are
+estimated differently by different persons, but they all centre in the
+individual, and if society benefits it is only indirectly or
+accidentally.
+
+As the individual rises in the scale of social intelligence, his
+interests become less self-centred, and as he extends his acquaintance
+and associations the scope of his interests enlarges. He begins to act
+with reference to the effect of his actions upon others. He sacrifices
+his own convenience for his roommate; he restrains his self-indulgence
+for the sake of the family that he might disgrace; he exerts himself
+in athletic prowess for the honor of the college to which he belongs;
+he is willing to risk his life on the battle-field in defense of the
+nation of which he is a citizen; he consecrates his life to missionary
+or scientific endeavor in a far land for the sake of humanity's gain.
+These are the social interests that dominate his activity. Mankind has
+risen from the brute by the process that leads the individual up from
+the low level of life moulded by primitive desires to the high plane
+of a life directed by the broad interests of society at large. It is
+the task of education to reveal this process, and to provide the
+stimuli that are needed for its continuance.
+
+365. =Personality.=--No two persons are actuated alike in daily
+conduct. The pull of their individual desires is not the same, the
+influence of the various social interests is not in the same
+proportion. The situation is complicated by hereditary tendencies, and
+by physical and social environment. Consequently every human being
+possesses his own distinctive individuality or personality. Variations
+of personality can be classified and various persons resemble each
+other so much that types of personality are distinguished. Thus we
+distinguish between weak personality and forceful personality,
+according to the strength of individuation, a narrow or a broad
+personality according as interests are few and selfish or broadly
+social, a fixed or a changing personality according to conservatism or
+unsettled disposition. Personality is a distinction not always
+appreciated, a distinction that separates man from the brute because
+of his self-consciousness and power of self-direction by rational
+processes, and relieves him from the dead level that would exist in
+society if every individual were made after the same pattern. It is
+the secret of social as well as individual progress, for it is a great
+personality that sways the group. It is the great boon of present life
+and the great promise of continued life hereafter.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 165-181.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in its Psychological Aspects_, pages 94-123.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 96-98, 200-230.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 60-98.
+
+  DARWIN: _Descent of Man_, chap. XXI.
+
+  DRUMMOND: _Ascent of Man_, pages 41-57, 189-266.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Inductive Sociology_, pages 249-278.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVI
+
+SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS
+
+
+366. =The Social Mind.=--As individual life is compounded of many
+psychic elements that make up one mind, so the life of every group
+involves various factors of a psychic nature that constitute the
+social mind. The social mind does not exist apart from individual
+minds, but it is nevertheless real. When emotional excitement stirs a
+mob to action, the unity of feeling is evidence of a social mind. When
+a congregation recites a creed of the church the unity of belief shows
+the existence of a social mind. When a political land-slide occurs on
+the occasion of a presidential election in the United States, the
+unity of will expresses the social mind. The emotional phase is
+temporary, public opinion changes more slowly; all the time the social
+mind is gaining experience and learning wisdom, as does the
+individual. Social consciousness, which at first is slight, increases
+gradually, until it fructifies in social purpose which results in
+achievement. History is full of illustrations of such development.
+
+367. =How the Social Mind is Formed.=--The formation of this social
+mind and its subsequent workings may be illustrated from a common
+occurrence in frontier history. Imagine three hunters meeting for the
+first time around a camp-fire, and analyze their mental processes. The
+first man was tired and hungry and camped to rest and eat. The second
+happened to come upon the camp just as a storm was breaking, saw the
+smoke of the fire, and turned aside for its comfort. The third picked
+up the trail of the second and followed it to find companionship. Each
+obeying a primal instinct and conscious of his kind, came into
+association with others, and thus by the process of aggregation a
+temporary group was formed. Sitting about the fire, each lighted his
+pipe in imitation of one another; they communicated with one another
+in language familiar to all; one became drowsy and the others yielded
+to the suggestion to sleep. Waking in the morning, they continued
+their conversation, and in sympathy with a common purpose and in
+recognition of the advantages of association, they decided to keep
+together for the remainder of the hunt. Thus was constituted the group
+or social mind.
+
+With the consciousness that they were congenial spirits and shared a
+common purpose, each was willing to sacrifice some of his own habits
+and preferences in the interest of the group. One man might prefer
+bacon and coffee for breakfast, while a second wished tea; one might
+wish to break camp at sunrise, another an hour later; each
+subordinated his own desires for the greater satisfaction of camp
+comradeship. The strongest personality in the group is the determining
+factor in forming the habits of the group, though it may be an
+unconscious leadership. The mind of the group is not the same as that
+of the leader, for the mutual mental interaction produces changes in
+all, but it approaches most nearly to his mind.
+
+368. =Social Habits.=--By such processes of aggregation,
+communication, imitation, and association, individuals learn from one
+another and come to constitute a like-minded group. Sometimes it is a
+genetic group like the family, sometimes an artificial group like a
+band of huntsmen; in either case the group is held together by a
+psychic unity and comes to have its peculiar group characteristics.
+Fixed ways of thinking and acting are revealed. Social habits they may
+be called, or folk-ways, as some prefer to name them. These habits are
+quickly learned by the members of the group, and are passed on from
+generation to generation by imitation or the teaching of tradition.
+There are numerous conservative forces at work in society. Custom
+crystallizes into law, tradition is fortified by religion, a system of
+morals develops out of the folk-ways, the group life tends to become
+static and uniform.
+
+369. =Adaptation.=--Two influences are continually at work, however,
+to change social habits--the forces of the natural environment and
+interaction between different groups. Both of these compel adaptation
+to surroundings if permanence of group life is to be secured. Family
+life in the north country illustrates the working of this principle of
+adaptation. In the days of settlement there was a partial adaptation
+to the physical environment. Houses were built tight and warm to
+provide shelter, abundant food was supplied from the farm, on which
+men toiled long hours to make a living, homespun clothing was
+manufactured to protect against the rigors of winter, but ignorance
+and lack of sufficient means prevented complete adaptation, and
+society was punished for its failure to complete the adaptation.
+Climate was severe and the laws of health were not fully worked out or
+observed, therefore few children lived to maturity, although the
+birth-rate was high. Economic success came only as the reward of
+patient and unremitting toil, the shiftless family failed in the
+struggle for existence. Tradition taught certain agricultural methods,
+but diminishing returns threatened poverty, unless methods were better
+adapted to soil and climate. Thus the people were forced slowly to
+improve their methods and their manner of living to conform to what
+nature demanded.
+
+No less powerful is the influence of the social environment. The
+authority of custom or government tends to make every family conform
+to certain methods of building a house, cooking food, cultivating
+land, selling crops, paying taxes, voting for local officials, but let
+one family change its habits and prove conclusively that it has
+improved on the old ways, and it is only a question of time when
+others will adapt themselves better to the situation that environs
+them. The countryman takes a city daily and notes the weather
+indications and the state of the market, he installs a rural telephone
+and is able to make contracts for his crops by long-distance
+conversation, he buys an improved piece of machinery for cultivating
+the farm, a gasolene engine, or a motor-wagon for quick delivery of
+produce; presently his neighbors discover that he is adapting himself
+more effectually to his environment than they are, and one by one
+they imitate him in adopting the new methods. By and by the community
+becomes known for its progressiveness, and it is imitated by
+neighboring communities.
+
+This process of social adaptation is a mental process more or less
+definite. A particular family may not consciously follow a definite
+plan for improved adaptation, but little by little it alters its ways,
+until in the course of two or three generations it has changed the
+circumstances and habits that characterized the ancestral group. In
+that case the change is slow. Certain families may definitely
+determine to modify their habits, and within a few years accomplish a
+telic change. In either case there are constantly going on the
+processes of observation, discrimination, and decision, due to the
+impact of mind upon mind, both within and outside of the group, until
+mental reactions are moving through channels that are different from
+the old.
+
+370. =Genetic Progress.=--The modification of folk-ways in the
+interest of better adaptation to environment constitutes progress.
+Such modification is caused by the action of various mental stimuli.
+The people of a hill village for generations have been contented with
+poor roads and rough side-paths, along which they find an uneasy way
+by the glimmer of a lantern at night. They are unaccustomed to
+sanitary conveniences in their houses or to ample heating arrangements
+or ventilation in school or church. They have thought little about
+these things, and if they wished to make improvements they would be
+handicapped by small numbers and lack of wealth. But after a time
+there comes an influx of summer visitors; some of them purchase
+property and take up their permanent residence in the village. They
+have been accustomed to conveniences; in other words, to a more
+complete adaptation to environment; they demand local improvements and
+are willing to help pay for them. More money can be raised for
+taxation, and when public opinion has crystallized so that social
+action is possible, the progressive steps are taken.
+
+What takes place thus in a small way locally is typical of what is
+going on continually in all parts of the world. Accumulating wealth
+and increasing knowledge of the good things of the city make country
+people emigrate or provide themselves with a share of the good things
+at home. The influence of an enthusiastic individual or group who
+takes the lead in better schools, better housing, or better government
+is improving the cities. The growing cosmopolitanism of all peoples
+and their adoption of the best that each has achieved is being
+produced by commerce, migration, and "contact and cross-fertilization
+of cultures."
+
+371. =Telic Progress.=--Most social progress has come without the full
+realization of the significance of the gradual changes that were
+taking place. Few if any individuals saw the end from the beginning.
+They are for the most part silent forces that have been modifying the
+folk-ways in Europe and America. There has been little conception of
+social obligation or social ideals, little more than a blind obedience
+to the stimuli that pressed upon the individual and the group. But
+with the awakening of the social consciousness and a quickening of the
+social conscience has come telic progress. There is purpose now in the
+action of associations and method in the enactments of legislatures
+and the acts of administrative officers. There are plans and
+programmes for all sorts of improvements that await only the proper
+means and the sanction of public opinion for their realization. Like a
+runner poised for a dash of speed, society seems to be on the eve of
+new achievement in the direction of progress.
+
+372. =Means of Social Progress.=--There are three distinct means of
+telic progress. Society may be lifted to a higher level by compulsion,
+as a huge crane lifts a heavy girder to the place it is to occupy in
+the construction of a great building. A prohibitory law that forbids
+the erection of unhealthy tenements throughout the cities of a state
+or nation is a distinctly progressive step, compulsory in its nature.
+Or the group may be moved by persuasion. A board of conciliation may
+persuade conflicting industrial groups to adjust their differences by
+peaceful methods, and thus inaugurate an ethical movement in industry
+greatly to the advantage of all parties. Or progress may be achieved
+by the slow process of education. The average church has been
+accustomed to conceive of its functions as pertaining to the
+individual rather than to the whole social order. It cannot be
+compelled to change by governmental action, for the church is free and
+democratic in America. It cannot easily be persuaded to change its
+methods in favor of a social programme. By the slower process of
+training the young people it can and does gradually broaden its
+activities and make itself more efficiently useful to the community in
+which it finds its place.
+
+373. =Criticism as a Means of Social Education.=--Education is not
+confined to the training of the schools. It is a continuous process
+going on through the life of the individual or the group. It is the
+intellectual process by which the mind is focussed on one problem
+after another that rises above the horizon of experience and uses its
+powers to improve the adaptation now existing between the situation
+and the person or the group. The educational process is complex. There
+must be first the incitement to thought. Most effective in this
+direction is criticism. If the roads are such a handicap to the
+comfort and safety of travel that there is caustic criticism at the
+next town meeting, public opinion begins to set definitely in the
+direction of improvement. If city government is corrupt and the tax
+rate mounts steadily without corresponding benefits to the taxpayers,
+the newspapers call the attention of citizens to the fact, and they
+begin to consider a change of administration. Criticism is the knife
+that cuts to the roots of social disease, and through the infliction
+of temporary pain effects a cure. Criticism has started many a reform
+in church and state. The presence of the critic in any group is an
+irritant that provokes to progressive action.
+
+374. =Discussion.=--Criticism leads to discussion. There is sure to be
+a conflict of ideas in every group. Conservative and progressive
+contend with each other; sometimes it is a matter of belief, sometimes
+of practice. Knots of individuals talk matters over, leaders debate
+on the public platform, newspapers take part on one side or the other.
+In this way national policies are determined, first by Congress or
+Parliament, and then by the constituents of the legislators. Freedom
+of discussion is regarded as one of the safeguards of popular
+government. If social conduct should be analyzed on a large scale it
+would be found that discussion is a constant factor. In every business
+deal there is discussion of the pros and cons of the proposition, in
+every case that comes before the courts there are arguments made on
+both sides, in the maintenance of every social institution that costs
+money there is a consideration of its worth. Even if the discussion
+does not find voice, the human intellect debates the question in its
+silent halls. So universal is the practice of discussion and so prized
+is the privilege that this is sometimes called the Age of Discussion.
+
+375. =Decision.=--Determination of action follows criticism and
+discussion in the group, as volition follows thinking in the case of
+the individual. One hundred years ago college education was classical.
+In the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation a revival of
+interest in the classics produced a reaction against mediævalism, and
+in time fastened a curriculum upon the universities that was composed
+mainly of the ancient languages, mathematics, and a deductive
+philosophy and theology. In the nineteenth century there began a
+criticism of the classical curriculum. It was declared that such a
+course of study was narrow and antiquated, that new subjects, such as
+history, the modern languages, and the sciences were better worth
+attention, and presently it was argued that a person could not be
+truly educated until he knew his own times by the study of sociology,
+politics, economics, and other social sciences. Of course, there was
+earnest resentment of such criticism, and discussion ensued. The
+argument for the plaintiff seemed to be well sustained, and one by one
+the governing boards of the colleges decided to admit new studies to
+the curriculum, at first grudgingly and then generously, until
+classical education has become relatively unpopular. Public opinion
+has accepted the verdict, and many schools have gone so far as to make
+vocational education supplant numerous academic courses. Similarly
+criticism, discussion, and change of front have occurred in political
+theories, in the attitude of theologians to science, in the practice
+of medicine, and even in methods of athletic training.
+
+Criticism and discussion, therefore, instead of being deprecated,
+ought to be welcome everywhere. Without them society stagnates, the
+intellect grows rusty, and prejudice takes the place of rational
+thought and volition. Feeling is bottled up and is likely to ferment
+until it bursts its confinement and spreads havoc around like a
+volcano. Free speech and a free press are safety-valves of democracy,
+the sure hope of progress throughout society.
+
+376. =Socialized Education.=--A second step in the educational process
+is incitement to action. As criticism and discussion are necessary to
+stimulate thought, so knowledge and conviction are essential to
+action. The educational system that is familiar is individualistic in
+type because it emphasizes individual achievement, and is based on the
+conviction that individual success is of greatest consequence in life.
+There is increasing demand for a socialized education which will have
+as its foundation a body of sociological information that will teach
+individuals their social relations, a fund of ideas that will be
+bequeathed from generation to generation as the finest heritage, and a
+system of social ethics that will produce a conviction of social
+obligation. The will to do good is the most effective factor that
+plays a part in social life. This socializing education has its place
+in the school grades, properly becomes a major subject of study in the
+higher schools, and ideally belongs to every scheme of continued
+education in later life. The social sciences seem likely to vie with
+the physical sciences, if not eventually to surpass them as the most
+important department of human knowledge, for while the physical
+sciences unlock the mysteries of the natural world the social sciences
+hold the key to the meaning of ideal human life.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 329-340.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 132-152, 376-399.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Descriptive and Historical Sociology_, pages 124-185.
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 3-22.
+
+  WARD: _Psychic Factors of Civilization_, pages 291-312.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 329-348.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 67-68, 84-87, 243-257.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, revised edition,
+      pages 354-367.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVII
+
+SOCIAL THEORIES
+
+
+377. =Theories of Social Order and Efficiency.=--Out of social
+experience and social study have emerged certain theories of social
+order and efficiency which have received marked attention and which
+to-day are supported by cogent arguments. These theories fall under
+the three following heads: (1) Those theories that make social order
+and efficiency dependent upon the control of external authority; (2)
+those theories that trust to the force of public opinion trained by
+social education; (3) those theories that regard self-control coming
+through the development of personality as the one essential for a
+better social order.
+
+378. =External Authority in History.=--The first theory rests its case
+on the facts of history. Certain social institutions like the family,
+the state, and the church have thrown restraint about the individual,
+and when this restraint is removed he tends to run amuck. From the
+beginning the family was the unit of the social order, and the
+authority of its head was the source of wisdom. Self-control was not a
+substitute for paternal discipline, but was a fact only in presence of
+the dread of paternal discipline. The idea of absolute authority
+passed over into the state, and absolutism was the theory of
+efficiency in the ancient state, down to the fall of the Roman Empire
+in the West. It was a theory that made slavery possible. It
+strengthened the position of the high priest of every religious cult,
+created the thought of the kingdom of God and moulded the Christian
+creeds, and made possible the mediæval papacy. It has been the
+fundamental principle of all monarchical government. It has remained a
+royal theory in eastern Europe and Asia until our own day, and
+survives in the political notion of the right of the strongest and in
+the business principle that capital must control the industrial system
+if prosperity and efficiency are to endure.
+
+Irresponsible absolutism has been giving way slowly to paternalism.
+This showed itself first in a growing conviction that kings owed it to
+their subjects to rule well. Certain enlightened monarchs consulted
+the interests of the people and, relying on their own wisdom,
+instituted measures of reform. This type of paternalism was not
+successful, but it has been imitated by modern states, even republics
+like the United States, in various paternalistic measures of economic
+and social regulation. Those who hold the theory that external
+authority is necessary have been urgent in calling for the regulation
+of railroads, of trusts, and of combinations of labor, until some have
+felt that the authority of representative democracy bore more heavily
+than the authority of monarchy. It is the principle of those who favor
+government regulation that only by governmental restraint can free
+competition continue, and everybody be assured of a square deal; their
+opponents argue that such restraint throttles ambition and is
+destructive of the highest efficiency that comes as a survival of the
+fittest in the economic struggle.
+
+379. =Socialism.=--Socialism is a third variety of the theory that
+social order and efficiency depend on external authority. Socialists
+aim at improving the social welfare by the collective control of
+industry. While the advocates of government regulation give their main
+attention to problems of production, the Socialists emphasize the
+importance of the proper distribution of products to the consumers,
+and would exercise authority in the partition of the rewards of labor.
+They propose that collective ownership of the means of production take
+the place of private ownership, that industry be managed by
+representatives of the people, that products be distributed on some
+just basis yet to be devised by the people. All that will be left to
+them as individuals will be the right to consume and the possession of
+material things not essential to the socialistic economy. Certain
+Socialist theories go farther than this, but this is the essence of
+Socialism. Socialists vary, also, as to the use of revolutionary or
+evolutionary means of obtaining their ends.
+
+The main objections that are made to the theory of Socialism are: (1)
+That it is contrary to nature, which develops character and progress
+through struggle; (2) that private property is a natural right, and
+that it would be unjust to deprive individuals of what they have
+secured through thrift and foresight, even in the interest of the
+whole of society; (3) that an equitable distribution of wealth would
+be impossible in any arbitrary division; (4) that no government can
+possibly conduct successfully such huge enterprises as would fall to
+it; (5) that Socialism would destroy private incentive and enterprise
+by taking away the individual rewards of effort; (6) that a
+socialistic régime would be as unendurable an interference with
+individual liberty as any absolutist or paternal government that the
+past has seen.
+
+380. =Educated Public Opinion.=--The second group of theorists is
+composed of those who would get rid of prohibitions and regulations as
+far as possible, and trust to the force of an educated public opinion
+to maintain a high level of social order and efficiency. It is a part
+of the theory that constraint exercised by a government established by
+law marks a stage of lower social development than restraint exercised
+by the force of public opinion. But it must be an educated public
+opinion, trained to appreciate the importance of society and its
+claims upon the individual, to function rationally instead of
+impulsively, and to seek the methods that will be most useful and
+least expensive for the social body. This training of public opinion
+is the task of the school first and then of the press, the pulpit, and
+the public forum. Public and private commissions, organized and
+maintained to furnish information and suggest better methods, make
+useful contributions; public reports, if presented intelligibly,
+impartially, and concisely, are among the helpful instruments of
+instruction; reform pamphlets will again perform valuable service, as
+they have in past days of moral and social intensity; but it is
+especially through the newspapers and the forums for public discussion
+that the social thinker can best reach his audience, and through these
+means that commission reports can best be brought to the attention of
+the people. It may very likely be necessary that press and platform be
+subsidized either by government or by private endowment to do this
+work of social training.
+
+381. =Individualism.=--The third group of theorists rejects all
+varieties of external control as of secondary value, and has no faith
+in the working of public opinion, however well educated, unless the
+character of the individuals that make up the group is what it should
+be. These theorists regard self-control coming through the development
+of personal worth as the one essential for a better social order. This
+individualist theory is held by those who are still in bondage to the
+individualism that has characterized social thinking in the last four
+hundred years. There is much in the history of that period that
+justifies faith in the worth of the individual. Along the lines of
+material progress, especially, the individualist has made good.
+Looking upon what has been achieved the modern democrat expects
+further improvement in society through individual betterment.
+
+The arguments in defense of the individualist theory are: (1) That
+natural science has proved that social development is achieved only
+through individual competition, and that the best man wins; (2) that
+experience has shown that progress has been most rapid where the
+individual has had largest scope; (3) that it is the teaching of
+Christian ethics that the individual must work out the salvation of
+his own character, must learn by experience how to gain self-reliance
+and strength of will, and so has the right to fashion his own course
+of conduct.
+
+382. =The Development of Personal Worth.=--It is evident, however,
+that the usefulness of the individual, both to himself and to others,
+depends on his personal worth. The self-controlled man is the man of
+personal worth, but self-control is not easy to secure. Defendants of
+the first two theories may admit that self-control is an ideal, but
+they claim that in the progress of society it must follow, not
+antedate, external authority and the cultivation of public opinion,
+and that time is not yet come. Only the few can be trusted yet to
+follow their best judgment on all occasions, to be on the alert to
+maintain in themselves and others highest efficiency. Human nature is
+slowly in the making. One by one men and women rise to higher levels;
+social regeneration must therefore wait on individual regeneration.
+Seeing the need of a dynamic that will create personal worth, the
+individualist has turned to religion and preached a doctrine of
+personal salvation. He has seen what religion has done to transform
+character, and he believes with confidence that it and it alone can
+create social salvation if we give it time.
+
+At the present time there is an increasing number of social thinkers
+who regard each of these three theories as containing elements of
+value, but believe that there is something beyond them that is
+necessary to the highest efficiency. They consider that external
+authority has been necessary, and look upon a strong centralized
+government with power to create social efficiency as essential, but
+they expect that an increasing social consciousness will make the
+exercise of authority gradually less necessary. They have great
+confidence in trained public opinion, but do not forget that opinion
+must be vitalized by a strong motive, and mere education does not
+readily supply the motive. They look for a time when individual worth
+will be greater than now, and they recognize religion as a powerful
+dynamic in the building of character, but they regard religion as
+turned inward too much upon the individual. They would develop
+individual character for the sake of society, and make a socialized
+religion the motive power to vitalize public opinion so that it shall
+function with increasing efficiency. A socialized religion supplies a
+principle, a method, and a power. The Hebrew prophets and Jesus laid
+down the principle that there is a solidarity of interests to which
+the claims of the individual must be subordinate and must be
+sacrificed on occasion. The prophets and Jesus taught a method of
+experimentation, calling upon the people whom they addressed to test
+the principle and see if it worked. The prophets and Jesus showed that
+power comes in the will to do and in actual obedience to the
+principle. They looked for an improved social system reared on this
+basis which would be a real "kingdom of God," not merely the economic
+commonwealth of the Socialist, but a commonwealth governed by the
+principle of consecration to the social welfare, spiritual as well as
+physical.
+
+383. =Social Ideals.=--At the basis of every theory lies the
+individual with social relations. To socialize him external authority
+is the primitive agent. This authority may give way in time to the
+restraint of public opinion made intelligent by a socialized
+education, but effective public opinion is dependent on the
+development of personal worth in the individual. The most powerful
+dynamic for such development and for social welfare in general is a
+socialized religion. If all this be true, what is it that comprises
+social welfare? In a word, it is the efficient functioning of every
+social group. The family, the community, the nation, and every minor
+group, will serve effectually the economic, cultural, social, and
+spiritual needs of the individuals of whom it is composed. Perfect
+functioning can follow only after a long period of progress. Such
+progress is the ideal that society sets for itself. In that process
+there must be full recognition of all the factors that enter into
+social life. There is the individual with his rights and obligations,
+who must be protected and encouraged to grow. There are the
+institutions like the family, the church, and the state that must
+receive recognition and maintenance. There must be liberty for each
+group to function freely without arbitrary interference, as long as
+its privileges and acts do not interfere with the public good. Ideal
+social control is to be exercised by an enlightened and
+self-restrained public opinion energized by a socialized religion. All
+improvements must not be looked for in a moment, but can come only
+slowly and by frequent testing if they are to be permanently
+accepted. The system that would result would be neither absolutist,
+socialistic, nor individualistic, but would contain the best elements
+of all. It would not be forced upon a people, but would be worked out
+slowly by education and experiment. Social institutions would not be
+tyrannous but helpful, and human happiness would be materially
+increased.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 352-381.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 443-493.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 373-392.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 351-361.
+
+  SKELTON: _Socialism_, pages 16-61.
+
+  CARNEGIE: _Problems of To-day_, pages 121-139.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVIII
+
+THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
+
+
+384. =Sociology vs. Social Philosophy.=--Sociology is one of the
+recent sciences. It had to wait for the scientific method of exact
+investigation and the scientific principle of forming conclusions upon
+abundant data. Naturally, theories of society were held long before
+any science came into existence, but they were of value only as
+philosophizing. Some of these theories were published and attracted
+the attention of thoughtful persons, but they did not affect social
+life. Some of them developed into philosophies of history, based on
+the preconceived ideas of their authors. Now and then in the first
+part of the nineteenth century certain social experiments were made in
+the form of co-operative communities, which it was fondly hoped would
+become practical methods for a better social order, but they almost
+uniformly failed because they were artificial rather than of natural
+growth, and because they were based on principles that public opinion
+had not yet sanctioned. The story of the predecessors of modern
+sociology naturally is preliminary to the history of sociology itself.
+
+385. =Philosophers and Prophets.=--Two classes of men in ancient time
+worked on the problems of society, one from the practical standpoint,
+the other from the philosophic. One group of names includes the great
+statesmen and lawgivers, like Moses, who laid the foundations of the
+Hebrew nation and gave it the nucleus of a legal system; Solon and
+Lycurgus, traditional lawgivers of Athens and Sparta, and several of
+the earlier kings and later emperors of Rome. The other group is
+composed of men who thought much about human life and disseminated
+their opinions by writing and teaching. For the most part they were
+idealistic philosophers, but their influence was far-reaching in time.
+In the list belong Plato, who in his _Republic_ outlined an ideal
+society that was the prototype of later fanciful commonwealths;
+Aristotle, who made a real contribution to political science in his
+_Politics_; Cicero, who himself participated actively in government
+and wrote out his theories or spoke them in public, and Augustine, who
+gave his conception of a Christian state in the _City of God_.
+
+During the period when ancient ways were giving place to modern, and a
+transition was taking place in the realm of ideas, Thomas More, in his
+_Utopia_, and Campanella in his _City of the Sun_, published their
+conceptions of an ideal state, while Machiavelli took society as it
+was, and in his _Prince_ suggested how it might be governed better.
+These are all evidences that there was dissatisfaction with existing
+systems, but no unanimity of opinion as to possible improvements.
+Later theories were no more satisfactory. The French Revolutionary
+philosophers, especially Rousseau, with his theory of voluntary social
+contract, and the Utopian dreamers who followed, were longing for
+justice and political efficiency, but their theories seem crude and
+visionary from the point of view of the social science of the present
+day.
+
+386. =Experimenting with Society.=--Robert Owen in England and Fourier
+and Saint-Simon in France were prophets of an ideal order which they
+tried to establish. Believing that all men were intended to be happy,
+and that happiness depended on a reorganization of the social
+environment in which property should be socialized, at least in part,
+they organized volunteers into model communities, expecting that their
+success would attract men everywhere to imitate the new organization.
+The arrangement of industry was planned in detail, a co-operative
+system was organized that would keep every man busy at useful labor
+without working him too hard, would take away the profits of the
+middleman by a well-planned system of distribution, and would allow
+liberty in social relations as far as consistent with the general
+good, but would subordinate the individual to the community. Certain
+of the Utopians thought that it would be necessary for the state to
+determine the minutiæ of daily life, and for a few directors to
+prescribe activities, and they introduced a uniformity in dress, food,
+and houses that savored of the old-fashioned orphan asylum. These
+features, together with the failure to understand that social
+institutions could not be made to order, and that human nature was not
+of such quality as to make an ideal commonwealth at once actual, soon
+wrecked these utopian schemes and brought to an end the first period
+of socialistic experiments.
+
+387. =Biological Sociologists.=--Not a few writers in the eighteenth
+and nineteenth centuries, before sociology was born, recognized the
+need and the possibility of a true science of society. Scholars were
+studying and writing upon other sciences that are related to
+sociology--biology, history, economics, and politics. Scientific
+information about the various races of mankind was accumulating. At
+length Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, found a place for sociology among
+the sciences and declared it to be the highest of them all. In 1842 he
+completed the publication of the _Positive Philosophy_, in which he
+maintained that human society is an organism similar to biological
+organisms, and that its activities can be systematized and
+generalizations be deduced therefrom for the formation of a true
+science. In his _Descriptive Sociology_ and later works Herbert
+Spencer in England amplified the theory of Comte and arranged a mass
+of facts as evidence of its truth. He put too much emphasis on
+biological resemblances in the opinion of present-day sociologists,
+but his emphasis on inductive study and his generalizations from
+biology were important contributions to the development of the new
+science.
+
+388. =Psychological Sociologists.=--Comte and Spencer were followed by
+other biological sociologists whose names are well known to students
+of the science. Interest was aroused in Great Britain, on the
+continent of Europe, and in America. Students were influenced by
+conclusions that were being reached in biology, in economics, and in
+other allied departments of thought, but the one science which became
+most prominent to the minds of sociologists was psychology. Ward's
+_Dynamic Sociology_, published in 1883, marked an epoch, because it
+called special attention to the psychic factors that enter into social
+life. After him it became increasingly clear that the true social
+forces were psychic, though physical conditions affected social
+progress. A younger school of sociologists has come into existence,
+and the science is being developed on that basis. More than one
+individual thinker has made his special contribution, and there is
+still a variety of opinion on details, but the general principles of
+the science are being worked out in substantial agreement. It is not
+to be expected that such a complex and comprehensive science could be
+completed in its short history of approximately half a century, or
+that it can ever be made exact, like mathematics or the natural
+sciences, but there is every reason to expect the development of a
+body of classified facts that will be of inestimable value in
+attacking social problems, and of principles that will serve as a
+guide through the labyrinth of social life. The value of any science
+is not in the perfection of its system, but in the practical
+application which can be made of it to human progress.
+
+389. =Relation of Sociology to the Natural Sciences.=--Sociology has
+relations to an outer circle of general sciences and to an inner
+circle of social sciences. It is itself but one of the social
+sciences, though it is regarded as chief among them. Man looks out
+upon the universe, of which he is but an atom, and asks questions.
+Astronomy brings to him the findings of its telescopes and spectrum
+analyses. Geology explains the transformations that have taken place
+in the earth on which he lives. Physics and chemistry analyze its
+substance and reveal the laws of nature. Biology opens up the field of
+life. Psychology investigates the structure and functions of the human
+mind, and shows that all activity is at base mental. At last the new
+sociology discloses human life in all its complex relationships, the
+function of the social mind, and the channels through which it works.
+Since social life is lived in a world where physical and mental
+factors are constantly in action, there is a close connection between
+all the sciences. Although social life is not so closely similar to
+animal life as was thought previously, the principles of biology are
+important to the sociologist because biology is the science of all
+life. Psychology is important because it is the science of all mind.
+
+390. =Relations of Sociology and Other Social Sciences.=--There are
+many phases of human experience and differences of relationship.
+Obviously the specific sciences that deal with them have a still
+closer relation to sociology. Economics, for example, has as its field
+the economic relations and activities that are connected with the
+business of making a living. The production, distribution, and use of
+material things is the subject that absorbs the economist. The
+sociologist makes use of the facts and principles of economics to
+throw light on the economic functions of society, but the economic
+field is only one sector of his concern. In a similar way political
+science is related to sociology. It deals with the organization and
+development of government and embraces the departments of national and
+international law, but the governmental function of the social group
+is but one of the divisions of the interests that absorb the
+sociologist. He uses the data and conclusions of the political
+scientists, but in a more general way. It is the same with the
+sociologist and history. History supplies much of the data of the
+sociologist from the records of the past. It deals with social life in
+the concrete, and historical interpretation is essential to an
+understanding of social phenomena, but sociology takes the past with
+the present, analyzes both, and generalizes from both as to the laws
+of the social process. Pedagogy deals with the history and principles
+of education. Sociology is interested in the educational function of
+the family, of the community, and of the nation, but again its
+interest is from the standpoint of abstraction and generalization.
+Ethics is a science that treats of the right and wrong conduct of
+human beings. It is very closely associated with sociology, because
+the valuation of conduct depends on social effects, but the moral
+functioning of the group is but one phase of social life, and,
+therefore, ethics is far narrower in its range than sociology.
+Theology, the science of religion, has sociological implications. As
+far as it is a science and not a philosophy, it rests upon human
+interest and human experience, and it is becoming increasingly
+recognized that these human interests depend on social relationships,
+but all the religious interests of men are but one part of the field
+of sociology.
+
+It is clear that each of the social sciences holds a relation to
+sociology of the particular to the general. Sociology seeks out the
+laws and principles that unify all the rest. It does not include them
+all, as does the term social science, but it correlates and interprets
+them all. It is not the same as philosophy, for that subject has for
+its field all knowledge, and especially tries to probe to the secrets
+of all being, and to learn the meaning of the universe as a whole,
+while sociology is restricted to social life. Each has its distinct
+place among the studies of the human mind, and each should be
+distinguished carefully from its rivals and associates.
+
+391. =Social Classification.=--When we enter into the field of
+sociology itself we find other distinctions to be necessary. The
+novice frequently confounds similar terms. Not infrequently sociology
+and socialism are used as synonymous terms by persons who know little
+of either, so that it is necessary to point out that socialism is a
+particular theory of social organization and functioning, while
+sociology is the general science that includes all varieties of social
+theory, along with social fact, and especially is it necessary to
+explain that any fallacies of socialistic theory do not invalidate
+well-established conclusions of social science. Another common error
+is to identify sociology with social reform. Social pathology is too
+important a branch of sociology to be omitted or minimized, but it is
+only one division of the subject, and all measures as well as theories
+of social reform are only a small part of the concern of sociology.
+Such terms as philanthropy, criminology, and penology all have
+connection with sociology, but they need to be carefully
+differentiated from the more general term.
+
+Sociology itself has been variously classified under the terms pure
+and applied, static and dynamic, descriptive and theoretical. Terms
+have changed somewhat, as the psychological emphasis has supplanted
+the biological. It is important that terms should be used correctly
+and should be sanctioned by custom, but it is not necessary to make
+sharp distinction between all the different divisions, old and new.
+Classification is a matter of convenience and technic; though it may
+have a scientific basis, it is entirely a matter of form. There is
+always danger that a particular classification may become a fetich. It
+is the life of society that we study, it is the improvement of social
+relations at which we aim. Whatever method best contributes to this
+end is valid in classification for all except those who delight in
+science for science's sake.
+
+392. =The Permanent Place of Sociology.=--The study of the science of
+social life is eminently worth while, for it deals with matters that
+are of vital importance to the human race and every one of its
+individual members. For that reason it is likely to receive growing
+recognition as among the most important subjects with which the human
+mind can deal. It is vast in its range, exacting in its demand of
+unremitting investigation and careful generalization, stimulating in
+its intense practicality. Its abstractions require the closest
+reasoning of the scholar, but its basis in the concrete facts of daily
+life tends to make it popular. Once understood and appreciated,
+sociology is likely to become the guide-book by which social effort
+will be directed, and the standard by which it will be measured. As
+progress becomes in this way more telic it will become more rapid.
+Social life will approach more nearly the norm that sociology
+describes, but until the day that society ceases to be pathological,
+sociology will teach a social ideal as a goal toward which society
+must bend its energies. As human life is the most precious gift that
+the world bestows, so the science of that life is worthy of being
+called the gem of the sciences.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 19-40.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 13-47,
+      541-564.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 3-51.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 29-65.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 15-28, 256-348.
+
+  SMALL: _General Sociology_, pages 40-97.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Achievement, 5, 115, 341.
+
+Activity, 2-6, 88, 111, 117, 164, 170, 188, 236, 237, 298, 346.
+
+Adaptation, 31, 234, 333-335, 342, 343, 349-351.
+
+Administration, 320, 321.
+
+Adultery, 75-78, 81.
+
+Æsthetics, 144.
+
+Aggregation, 348.
+
+Agricultural clubs, 107, 118.
+
+Agricultural colleges, 107, 164.
+
+Agricultural fairs, 107.
+
+Agriculture, 52, 99, 100, 104, 106, 118.
+
+Almshouses, 272.
+
+American Civic Federation, 148.
+
+American Federation of Labor, 192.
+
+American Vigilance Association, 85.
+
+Amusements, 86, 164, 238-240.
+
+Ancestor-worship, 32.
+
+Arbitration, 191, 194, 195, 335, 336.
+
+Art, 283.
+
+Assimilation, 327.
+
+Association, 6-9, 17-23, 53, 54, 88, 108, 109, 111, 118, 133, 152,
+  164, 170, 188, 233, 236, 240, 254, 294, 307, 308, 337, 338,
+  344-346, 348, 349.
+
+Athletics, 109, 111, 112, 196, 237, 240, 308, 309.
+
+Attention, 345, 351.
+
+
+Banks, 106, 307.
+
+Big Brother idea, 251.
+
+Biological analogies, 342, 343.
+
+Birth-rate, 42.
+
+Boards of Conciliation, 194, 195.
+
+Boy Scouts, 110, 251.
+
+Boys' Clubs, 110.
+
+
+Cabinet, 320, 321.
+
+Camp-Fire Girls, 112.
+
+Catholic Church, 76, 271, 276.
+
+Census of marriage and divorce, 35, 74, 77.
+
+Change, 10-13, 88, 129, 170, 173-176, 189, 236, 351.
+
+Charity, 242, 267, 271-277.
+
+Charity organization, 57, 267, 272-276.
+
+Charter, 257, 260, 261.
+
+Chautauqua Movement, 118, 133, 309.
+
+Child labor, 49-53, 190, 191, 235.
+
+Children, 42-59.
+  Dependency of, 56-58.
+  Relief of, 57, 58.
+  Rights of, 42, 48, 53-55.
+
+Children's aid societies, 58.
+
+Chinese Exclusion Act, 329.
+
+Christianity, 32, 76.
+
+Church, The, 156-161, 252, 287-293, 310, 311, 338, 353.
+  In the city, 287-293.
+  In the country. See Rural church.
+
+Church charity, 275, 276.
+
+Church organization, 290-293.
+
+City, The, 169 ff., 294-299.
+  Attraction of, 171, 172.
+  Characteristics of, 169.
+  Economic interests in, 180.
+  Government of, 256-262.
+  Growth of, 170.
+  History of, 177-179.
+  Importance of, 176.
+  Improvement of, 295-298.
+  In the making, 294-298.
+  Manager, 261, 262.
+  Neighborhood, 284, 285.
+  Opportunities in, 173, 175.
+
+Classes, 212-218.
+
+Classification, 370.
+
+Clubs, 107, 110-112, 116, 118, 133, 134, 148.
+
+Collective bargaining, 194.
+
+College life, 10, 12, 85, 131, 132.
+
+Commerce, 205, 206, 337.
+
+Commission government, 260, 261.
+
+Commissions, 195, 199, 233.
+
+Communication, 116, 118, 281, 288, 294, 307, 336, 337, 349.
+
+Community house, 163, 164.
+
+Community leadership, 164-168.
+
+Community obligation, 154.
+
+Competition, 107, 198, 227.
+
+Conference, 297, 298.
+
+Conflict, 31, 115, 186, 187, 194, 320, 328, 334, 353.
+
+Congregational churches, 77.
+
+Control, 9, 10, 88, 136, 142, 170, 188, 189, 197-199, 203, 208-210,
+  234, 246, 256, 258, 298, 303, 314, 352, 357, 358.
+
+Co-operation, 31, 53, 63, 89, 90, 105-107, 129, 130, 198-200, 205,
+  206, 297, 298, 365.
+
+Cost of living, 69, 76, 89.
+
+Country store, 116.
+
+Court of Domestic Relations, 79.
+
+Courts. See Judiciary.
+
+Craft guilds, 182.
+
+Crime, 75, 84, 90, 154, 228, 235, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248-255.
+  Causes of, 248-250.
+  Discharge, 253, 254.
+  Prevention of, 250-252.
+  Punishment, 252-254.
+  Reformation, 252, 254.
+
+Criticism, 353.
+
+Crowds, 22, 23.
+
+Cruelty, 48, 49, 75, 77, 78.
+
+Custom, 139, 152, 334, 349.
+
+
+Dance-halls, 82, 84, 238, 240.
+
+Decision, 351, 354.
+
+Defectives, 84, 86.
+
+Degeneracy, 43-46, 218, 219, 228.
+
+Delinquency, 154.
+  See Crime.
+
+Democracy, 141, 189, 190, 196, 298, 309, 316-319, 327.
+
+Democracy in industry, 189, 190.
+
+Department stores, 201, 203.
+
+Dependency, 56, 57, 271.
+  See Charity.
+
+Desertion, 70, 75, 77, 78, 267.
+
+Desires, 334, 345-347.
+
+Difficulties of working people, 263-270.
+
+Discrimination, 345, 351.
+
+Discussion, 284-286, 353, 354.
+
+Division of labor, 62, 125.
+
+Divorce, 74-80, 88.
+  Catholic attitude toward, 76
+  Causes of, 75, 76, 267.
+  Difficulty of, 77.
+  History of, 76.
+  In Europe, 74-78.
+  Laws of, 74-79.
+  Protestant attitude toward, 76, 77.
+  Remedies for, 78, 79.
+
+Divorce court, 79.
+
+Divorce proctor, 79.
+
+Drama, 283, 284.
+  See Theatre.
+
+Duelling, 194.
+
+Dynamic society, 2, 10.
+
+
+East, The, 100, 139, 140, 224.
+
+Economics, 180, 368.
+
+Education, 55, 120-131, 280, 327, 328, 331, 339, 346, 353-355.
+  Agricultural, 124, 127, 128.
+  Cultural, 122, 132.
+  Industrial, 251, 331.
+  Moral and religious, 160, 251, 287, 291.
+  Principles of, 120-124.
+  Rural, 120-131.
+  Vocational, 121, 123, 267, 268, 296.
+  Weaknesses of, 123, 124.
+
+Edwards family, 45, 46.
+
+Elberfeld system, 275.
+
+Election, 317, 318.
+
+Employers' liability, 191, 192.
+
+Environment, 25, 26, 40, 47, 48, 99, 100, 105, 121, 125, 169, 235,
+  248, 327, 334, 340-343, 345, 350, 351.
+
+Erdman Act, 195.
+
+Ethics, 202, 368.
+
+Eugenics, 43-47, 90.
+
+Euthenics, 47, 48.
+
+Evangelical Alliance, 311.
+
+Evangelism, 288, 289.
+
+Evolution, 342, 343.
+
+Exchange, 64, 201-203.
+
+Executive, 320, 321.
+
+Experimentation, 128, 187.
+
+
+Factory life, 188.
+
+Factory system, 51, 182-184.
+
+Family, 24 f., 88-90.
+  Changes in, 65, 67-69, 76.
+  Functions of, 26, 27, 88.
+  History of, 29-33.
+  Mediæval, 33, 37-39.
+  On the farm, 25, 26, 64, 65, 350.
+  Reform, 88-90.
+  Roman, 32, 37.
+  Study of, 24.
+  Urban, 68.
+
+Farmers' Institute, 118.
+
+Farmers' Union, 117.
+
+Federal Council of churches, 77, 310,
+311.
+
+Federation, 334, 335.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, 44, 84.
+
+Feeling, 344, 345, 355.
+
+Feminism, 71, 72.
+
+Folk-ways. See Social habits.
+
+Forum, 284-286, 360.
+
+Friendly visiting, 274.
+
+
+Galveston plan, 260, 261.
+
+Gambling, 153, 235, 239.
+
+Gangs, 22, 109-111.
+
+Germans, 223, 259, 260, 269, 322, 335.
+
+Girls' clubs, in, 111, 112.
+
+Government, 136-143, 195, 208, 256-262, 313-327.
+  City, 256-262.
+  National, 313-323.
+  Rural, 136-143.
+
+Government ownership, 208, 209.
+
+Grange, 117, 284.
+
+Great Britain, 44, 259, 269, 316, 317, 322.
+
+Group consciousness, 18, 192.
+
+
+Habits, 334, 345.
+
+Hague Conferences, 335.
+
+Health, 85, 144-148, 196, 233, 242, 267, 307, 308.
+  Clubs, 148.
+  Nurses and physicians, 147, 148, 296.
+  Officials, 146, 147.
+
+Hebrew Charities, 276.
+
+Heredity, 26, 46, 249, 342.
+
+History, 368.
+
+Home, 37-42.
+  Children in the, 42, 90.
+  Education in the, 39, 55, 56.
+  History of the, 37-39.
+  Ideal, 40.
+  Man in the, 70.
+  Modern, 39, 40, 67-71.
+  Rural, 121, 122.
+  Values of the, 39, 40.
+  Women in the, 69.
+
+Home economics, 60-66.
+
+Hospitals, 272, 296.
+
+Hours of labor, 190, 207.
+
+Housing, 86, 89, 230-234, 252, 350.
+
+Hull House, 277, 278.
+
+
+Imitation, 349, 351.
+
+Immigrants and Immigration, 82, 86, 102, 170, 171, 221-229, 250, 327-329.
+  Asiatic, 328, 329.
+  Causes and effects of, 227, 228.
+  German, 223.
+  History of, 221-226.
+  Irish, 222.
+  Italian, 224, 225.
+  Jewish, 225, 226.
+  Lesser peoples, 226.
+  Problems of, 327.
+  Scandinavians, 223, 224.
+  Slavs, 225.
+
+Imprisonment, 78.
+  See Crime.
+
+Impulse, 345.
+
+Individual, The, 128, 144, 151, 152, 192, 203, 248, 343-347, 360.
+
+Individualism, 72, 73, 75, 78, 88, 89, 107, 144, 149, 360.
+
+Industrial control, 189, 190.
+
+Industrial problem, 183, 186-200.
+  Principles for solution of the, 197-200.
+
+Industrial reform, 190.
+
+Industrial revolution, 178, 184.
+
+Industrial schools, 58.
+
+Initiative, 261.
+
+Insanity, 44, 78, 244.
+
+Instincts, 27, 109, 111, 112, 344, 345, 348.
+
+Insurance, 106, 269.
+
+Intemperance, 75, 78, 84, 90, 153, 233, 240, 241.
+  Results of, 242-244.
+    See Temperance.
+
+Interests, 302-304, 311, 334, 345-347.
+
+International law, 320, 335.
+
+International Workers of the World, 193.
+
+Internationalism, 333-339.
+
+Invention, 184, 206, 341, 345.
+
+Irish, 222.
+
+Italians, 224, 225.
+
+
+Jews, 225, 226.
+
+Judiciary, 321, 322.
+
+Jukes, 44, 45.
+
+Juvenile courts, 154, 254.
+
+
+Kallikak family, 45.
+
+
+Labor, 61-63.
+  Division of, 62.
+  Hired, 63.
+  Organization of, 192, 193.
+
+Labor bureaus, 191, 193, 268.
+
+Labor conditions, 184.
+
+Labor exchanges, 269.
+
+Labor unions, 192, 193, 207.
+
+Lack of support, 75.
+
+Law, 136, 137, 142, 258, 321, 322, 349.
+
+Lawgivers, 364.
+
+Lawlessness, 54, 55, 235.
+
+Legislation, 319, 320.
+  See Social legislation.
+
+Liberty, 54, 55.
+
+Libraries, 132, 282, 283.
+
+License, 83, 246.
+
+Like-mindedness, 192, 308.
+
+Local Government Act, 259.
+
+Local option, 141, 246.
+
+
+Manufacturing, 180-185.
+  History of, 181-183.
+
+Marriage, 27, 20-36, 46, 76, 79, 84.
+  Ideals of, 35, 36, 79.
+  Laws of, 34, 35, 77, 78.
+  Reforms, 35.
+
+Mass meeting, 19.
+
+Massachusetts Society for Promoting Good Citizenship, 260.
+
+Maternity benefits, 44.
+
+Metronymic period, 30.
+
+Misery, 263.
+
+Missions, 338, 339.
+
+Mobs, 22, SS, 348.
+
+Monogamy, 29, 31, 33.
+
+Monopoly, 208-210, 242.
+
+Morals, 151-155, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237, 242, 349.
+  Definition of, 151.
+  In the city, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237.
+  Rural, 151-155.
+
+Morals commission, 86.
+
+Morals court, 86.
+
+Moving pictures, 82, 86, 112, 238, 240, 283.
+
+Municipal ownership, 260.
+
+Municipal reform, 260.
+
+Music, 133, 164, 165, 237, 241, 283, 284, 310.
+
+
+Nation, The, 300-332.
+  Economics in, 306, 307.
+  Education in, 309.
+  Functions of, 305-311, 314.
+  Government of, 313-323.
+  Health in, 307, 308.
+  History of, 301, 302.
+  Philanthropy in, 310.
+  Problems of, 324-332.
+  Sport in, 308.
+
+National Bureau of Education, 309.
+
+National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 273, 310.
+
+National Conference on Unemployment, 269.
+
+National Divorce Reform League, 77.
+
+National Education Association, 309.
+
+National Insurance Act, 44.
+
+National Municipal League, 260.
+
+National Reform League, 260.
+
+Nature study, 127.
+
+Neglect, 48, 75.
+
+Negro problem, 329-331.
+
+Newspapers, 252, 281, 284, 336, 353, 354, 360.
+
+
+Occupations, 104, 181, 235, 345.
+
+Offices, 204.
+
+Organization, 2, 8, 9, 22, 23, 109, 110, 111, 118, 133, 140, 149,
+  182-184, 188, 196, 210, 259, 260, 200-293, 317-323.
+
+Organization of labor, 192, 193.
+
+
+Parks, 238.
+
+Parole, 253.
+
+Paternalism, 358.
+
+Patriarchal household, 30, 32, 49, 61.
+
+Pauperism, 268.
+
+Personality, 1, 54, 344, 347, 349.
+
+Personal worth, 360, 361.
+
+Persuasion, 352.
+
+Philosophers, 364, 365.
+
+Placing-out system, 57, 58.
+
+Play, 53, 54, 109, 235, 236, 239.
+
+Playgrounds, 108, 235, 236.
+
+Police, 258, 259.
+
+Political science, 368.
+
+Politics, 137, 138, 141, 142, 194, 244, 252, 260.
+
+Polyandry, 31.
+
+Polygyny, 30, 31.
+
+Population, 100-103, 176, 177, 223, 232, 248.
+  Characteristics of, 100, 101.
+  Composition of, 101, 102, 223.
+  Congestion of, 207.
+  Growth of, 102.
+
+Poverty, 84, 90, 228, 242, 246, 266-270.
+  Causes of, 267-269.
+  Remedies for, 267, 268.
+
+Press, The, 280-282.
+
+Primaries, 141, 260, 261.
+
+Probation, 251, 253.
+
+Profanity, 153, 235.
+
+Profit-sharing, 196.
+
+Progress, 351-353.
+  Genetic, 351, 352.
+  Telic, 352, 353.
+
+Prophets, 365, 366.
+
+Prosperity, 324, 325.
+
+Prostitution, 81-88.
+
+Protestant-Episcopal Church, 77.
+
+Psychology, 344-346.
+
+Public opinion, 34, 35, 59, 78, 79, 81, 82, 123, 142, 210, 237, 246,
+  252, 282, 320, 359-361.
+
+Punishment. See Crime.
+
+
+Race problem, 327-332.
+
+Railways, 207, 208.
+
+Raines Law hotels, 84.
+
+Reading-circles, 133.
+
+Reason, 3, 4, 17.
+
+Recall, 261.
+
+Recreation, 53, 54, 108-114, 164, 196, 235, 238, 252, 254, 308, 309.
+
+Referendum, 141, 193, 198, 261.
+
+Reformatories, 84, 86.
+
+Relief, 57, 58, 267, 271-277.
+
+Religion, 34, 39, 230, 287-293, 349, 361.
+
+Religious education, 160, 287, 291.
+
+Remarriage, 77.
+
+Rescue homes, 86.
+
+Royal Commission on Divorce, 78.
+
+Rural church, 156-161.
+  Function of, 157, 160.
+  Minister of, 158.
+  Needs of, 159, 160.
+  New, 160.
+  Problems of, 158, 159.
+  Value of, 156, 157.
+
+Rural emigration, 67, 102, 172, 173.
+
+Rural Life Commission, 153, 154.
+
+Russell Sage Foundation, 268, 295.
+
+
+St. Vincent de Paul Society, 276.
+
+Saloon, The, 84, 173, 238, 240, 241, 243.
+
+Salvation Army, 293.
+
+Scandinavians, 223, 224.
+
+Schools, The, 120-131, 141, 236, 280.
+  Consolidated, 125, 129,
+  Continuation, 129, 165.
+  Curriculum of, 121, 122, 127, 128, 354.
+  District, 124, 125, 284.
+  Normal, 123, 130, 131.
+  State, 58.
+  Teaching in, 124, 129, 130.
+
+School districts, 140.
+
+Scientific management, 196.
+
+Segregation, 83, 85, 250, 272, 296.
+
+Self-control, 360, 361.
+
+Servant class, 62, 63, 69, 82, 89, 182.
+
+Settlements, 277-279.
+
+Sewing-circles, 116, 117.
+
+Sex hygiene, 55, 90.
+
+Sexual impurity, 81, 88, 90, 153, 154, 233.
+  See Prostitution.
+
+Slavery, 62, 182.
+
+Slavs, 225.
+
+Slums, 38, 231-233.
+
+Sociability, 108, 111, 164, 171.
+
+Social analysis, 340-371.
+
+Social centres, 117, 163, 164, 176-179, 241, 242, 284-286.
+
+Social characteristics, 2-14, 88, 129.
+
+Social contract, 315.
+
+Social degeneration, 103.
+
+Social development, 2, 334, 342, 360.
+
+Social education, 35, 39, 46, 56, 80, 86, 87, 90, 110, 121, 123, 237,
+  254, 330, 331.
+
+Social elements. See Social factors.
+
+Social factors, 4, 16, 17, 68, 187, 188, 333, 334, 340-356.
+  Physical, 343.
+  Psychic, 344-356.
+
+Social groups, 14-23, 53, 54, 349, 350.
+
+Social habits, 349, 351.
+
+Social ideals, 362, 363.
+
+Social institutions, 21, 24, 57, 58, 90, 115-120, 162, 168, 169, 237,
+  280, 337-339, 357.
+
+Social legislation, 44, 52, 53, 142, 190, 191, 194, 222, 250, 268.
+
+Social mind, 17-19, 54, 344, 348.
+
+Social organization. See Organization.
+
+Social pathology, 369.
+
+Social problems, 14, 210, 221, 228, 242, 298.
+
+Social reform, 369.
+
+Social relations, 1, 6-8, 24, 31, 47, 90, 108, 169, 187, 189, 195,
+  203, 237, 314, 332, 334, 365.
+
+Social science, 128, 129, 298, 355, 365.
+
+Social selection, 31, 342, 343.
+
+Social service, 89.
+
+Social sympathy, 89.
+
+Social theories, 315, 357-363, 365.
+
+Social utility, 4.
+
+Social values, 39, 40, 108, 337.
+
+Social weaknesses, 13, 14, 88, 123, 124, 170, 175, 189, 324.
+
+Social welfare, 73, 186, 191, 196, 202, 210, 212, 300, 343, 358.
+
+Socialism, 197, 314, 358, 359, 369.
+  Objections to, 359.
+
+Society, 1, 2.
+
+Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 57.
+
+Sociology, 2, 364-371.
+  Biological, 366.
+  Psychological, 366.
+  Relations of, 367-369.
+
+Source material, 2.
+
+South, The, 99, 100, 140, 261.
+
+South Carolina dispensary system, 242.
+
+Southern Sociological Conference, 310.
+
+Standard of living, 207, 222, 231, 327, 329.
+
+State, The, 57, 272, 313-323.
+  History of, 315, 316.
+  Theories of, 315.
+
+State schools, 58.
+
+Static society, 2, 10, 139, 169.
+
+Sterilization, 250.
+
+Stimulus, 18, 56, 238, 283, 341, 344, 345, 347, 351, 352.
+
+Stock exchange, 202.
+
+Street trades, 235.
+
+Strikes, 193, 194.
+
+Struggle for existence, 342, 343.
+
+Summer visitors, 148, 149, 351.
+
+Sweating, 52.
+
+Syndicalism, 197.
+
+
+Telephone, 106.
+
+Temperance, 244.
+  Anti-Saloon League, 245.
+  Education, 245.
+  Good Templars, 245.
+  No license, 245.
+  Prohibition, 245, 246.
+  Regulation, 246.
+  Total abstinence, 245.
+  Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
+
+Tenant farming, 101.
+
+Tenements, 69, 82, 84-86, 230-234, 239, 263.
+
+Theatre, 82, 238, 240, 283.
+
+Theology, 369.
+
+Theories. See Social theories.
+
+Town meetings, 140-142, 163, 284-286.
+
+Toynbee Hall, 278.
+
+Tradition, 349, 350.
+
+Transportation, 204-208, 336, 337.
+
+Trusts, 209, 210.
+
+
+Unemployment, 199, 269.
+
+United Mine Workers, 193.
+
+United States, 302-304, 335.
+
+United States Census, 67.
+
+United States Department of Agriculture, 306.
+
+United States Patent Office, 306.
+
+Universities, 131, 132, 308, 309, 354.
+
+University of Wisconsin, 131, 132.
+
+University Settlement, 278.
+
+Unorganized groups, 16-23.
+
+Utopians, 365.
+
+
+Venereal disease, 44, 85.
+
+Vice commissions, 83-85.
+
+Vice reform, 85, 86.
+
+Village, The, 115, 301.
+  Improvement Society, 148, 149.
+  Nurse, 147, 148.
+
+Vocational training, 35, 296.
+
+Volunteer Prison League, 254.
+
+
+Wages, 84, 86, 89, 203, 204, 207, 222, 228.
+
+War, 90, 194, 249, 334.
+
+West, The, 99, 102, 223, 224, 261.
+
+White-slave traffic, 83, 86, 244.
+  See Prostitution.
+
+Will of the individual, 264, 344, 355, 362.
+
+Will of the people, 138, 320.
+
+Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
+
+Woman's clubs, 134.
+
+Woman's work, 61, 62, 84, 190, 191.
+
+Working people, The, 183, 184, 212, 230-234, 238, 263-270.
+
+Worship, 288, 289.
+
+
+Young Men's Christian Association, 153, 163, 173, 241, 293, 298, 338.
+
+Young Women's Christian Association, 293, 298.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Society
+       Its Origin and Development
+
+Author: Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2007 [EBook #21609]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jeannie Howse and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+
+<h1>SOCIETY</h1>
+
+<h2>ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<h3 style="margin-bottom: -1px;">HENRY KALLOCH ROWE, <span class="sc2">Ph.D.</span></h3>
+<h5 style="margin-top: -1px;">ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY IN NEWTON<br />
+THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+
+<h5>CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br />
+NEW YORK &nbsp; CHICAGO &nbsp; BOSTON</h5>
+
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5><span class="sc">Copyright, 1916, by</span><br />
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span><hr />
+<br />
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>In studying biology it is convenient to make cross-sections of
+laboratory specimens in order to determine structure, and to watch
+plants and animals grow in order to determine function. There seems to
+be no good reason why social life should not be studied in the same
+way. To take a child in the home and watch it grow in the midst of the
+life of the family, the community, and the larger world, and to cut
+across group life so as to see its characteristics, its interests, and
+its organization, is to study sociology in the most natural way and to
+obtain the necessary data for generalization. To attempt to study
+sociological principles without this preliminary investigation is to
+confuse the student and leave him in a sea of vague abstractions.</p>
+
+<p>It is not because of a lack of appreciation of the abstract that the
+emphasis of this book is on the concrete. It is written as an
+introduction to the study of the principles of sociology, and it may
+well be used as a prelude to the various social sciences. It is
+natural that trained sociologists should prefer to discuss the
+profound problems of their science, and should plunge their pupils
+into material for study where they are soon beyond their depth; much
+of current life seems so obvious and so simple that it is easy to
+forget that the college man or woman has never looked upon it with a
+discriminating eye or with any attempt to understand its meaning. If
+this is true of the college student, it is unquestionably true of the
+men and women of the world. The writer believes that there is need of
+a simple, untechnical treatment of human society, and offers this book
+as a contribution to the practical side of social science. He writes
+with the undergraduate continually in mind, trying to see through his
+eyes and to think with his mind, and the references are to books that
+will best meet <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>his needs and that are most readily accessible. It is
+expected that the pupil will read widely, and that the instructor will
+show how principles and laws are formulated from the multitude of
+observations of social phenomena. The last section of the book sums up
+briefly some of the scientific conclusions that are drawn from the
+concrete data, and prepares the way for a more detailed and technical
+study.</p>
+
+<p>If sociology is to have its rightful place in the world it must become
+a science for the people. It must not be permitted to remain the
+possession of an aristocracy of intellect. The heart of thousands of
+social workers who are trying to reform society and cure its ills is
+throbbing with sympathy and hope, but there is much waste of energy
+and misdirection of zeal because of a lack of understanding of the
+social life that they try to cure. They and the people to whom they
+minister need an interpretation of life in social terms that they can
+understand. Professional persons of all kinds need it. A world that is
+on the verge of despair because of the breakdown of harmonious human
+relations needs it to reassure itself of the value and the possibility
+of normal human relations. Doubtless the presentation of the subject
+is imperfect, but if it meets the need of those who find difficulty in
+using more technical discussions and opens up a new field of interest
+to many who hitherto have not known the difference between sociology
+and socialism, the effort at interpretation will have been worth
+while.</p>
+
+<p class="right sc">Henry K. Rowe</p>
+
+<p class="sc">Newton Centre, Massachusetts.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART ONE&mdash;INTRODUCTORY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">CHAP.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="70%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%"><span style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Characteristics of Social Life</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Unorganized Group Life</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">16</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART TWO&mdash;LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">Foundations of the Family</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">24</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">The History of the Family</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">The Making of the Home</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">37</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Children in the Home</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">42</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Work, Play, and Education</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">51</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Home Economics</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">60</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Changes in the Family</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Divorce</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">74</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">The Social Evil</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">81</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Characteristics and Principles</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">88</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART THREE&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">The Community and Its History</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">91</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">The Land and the People</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">99</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Occupations</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">104</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Recreation</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Rural Institutions</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">115</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Rural Education</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">120</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XIX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">The New Rural School</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">127</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">Rural Government</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">136<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">Health and Beauty</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">144</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">Morals in the Rural Community</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">151</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">The Rural Church</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">156</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">A New Type of Rural Institution</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">162</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART FOUR&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">From Country To City</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">169</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">The Manufacturing Enterprise</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">180</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">The Industrial Problem</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">186</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">Exchange and Transportation</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">201</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXIX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">The People Who Work</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">212</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">The Immigrant</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">221</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">How the Working People Live</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">230</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXII">The Diversions of the Working People</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">238</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIII">Crime and Its Cure</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">248</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIV">Agencies of Control</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">256</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXV">Difficulties of the People Who Work</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">263</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVI">Charity and the Settlements</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">271</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVII">Educational Agencies</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">280</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXVIII">The Church</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">287</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XXXIX.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIX">The City in the Making</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">294</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART FIVE&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XL.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XL">The Building of a Nation</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">300</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLI">Economic and Social Functions of the People as a Nation</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">305</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLII">The State</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">313</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLIII">Problems of the Nation</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">324</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLIV">Internationalism</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">333</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding: 1em; font-size: 115%; font-weight: bold;">PART SIX&mdash;SOCIAL ANALYSIS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLV.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLV">Physical and Personal Factors in the Life of Society</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">340<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVI">Social Psychic Factors</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">348</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVII">Social Theories</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">357</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">XLVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#CHAPTER_XLVIII">The Science of Sociology</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">364</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdlsc"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td>
+  <td class="tdr">373</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span><br />
+
+<h1>SOCIETY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT</h1>
+<br />
+
+<h2>PART I&mdash;INTRODUCTORY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL LIFE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>1. <b>Man and His Social Relations.</b>&mdash;A study of society starts with the
+obvious fact that human beings live together. The hermit is abnormal.
+However far back we go in the process of human evolution we find the
+existence of social relations, and sociability seems a quality
+ingrained in human nature. Every individual has his own personality
+that belongs to him apart from every other individual, but the
+perpetuation and development of that personality is dependent on
+relations with other personalities and with the physical environment
+which limits his activity.</p>
+
+<p>As an individual his primary interest is in self, but he finds by
+experience that he cannot be independent of others. His impulses, his
+feelings, and his ideas are due to the relations that he has with that
+which is outside of himself. He may exercise choice, but it is within
+the limits set by these outside relations. He may make use of what
+they can do for him or he may antagonize them, at least he cannot
+ignore them. Experience determines how the individual may best adapt
+himself to his environment and adapt the environment to his own needs,
+and he thus establishes certain definite relationships. Any group of
+individuals, who have thus consciously established relationships with
+one another and with their social environment is a society. The
+relations through whose channels the interplay of social forces is
+constantly going <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>on make up the social organization. The
+readjustments of these relations for the better adaptation of one
+individual to another, or of either to their environment, make up the
+process of social development. A society which remains in equilibrium
+is termed static, that which is changing is called dynamic.</p>
+
+<p>2. <b>The Field and the Purpose of Sociology.</b>&mdash;Life in society is the
+subject matter of sociological study. Sociology is concerned with the
+origin and development of that life, with its present forms and
+activities, and with their future development. It finds its material
+in the every-day experiences of men, women, and children in whatever
+stage of progress they may be; but for practical purposes its chief
+interest is in the normal life of civilized communities, together with
+the past developments and future prospects of that life. The purpose
+of sociological study is to discover the active workings and
+controlling principles of life, its essential meaning, and its
+ultimate goal; then to apply the principles, laws, and ideals
+discovered to the imperfect social process that is now going on in the
+hope of social betterment.</p>
+
+<p>3. <b>Source Material for Study.</b>&mdash;The source material of social life
+lies all about us. For its past history we must explore the primitive
+conduct of human beings as we learn it from anthropology and
+arch&aelig;ology, or as we infer it from the lowest human races or from
+animal groups that bear the nearest physical and mental resemblance to
+mankind. For present phenomena we have only to look about us, and
+having seen to attempt their interpretation. Life is mirrored in the
+daily press. Pick up any newspaper and examine its contents. It
+reveals social characteristics both local and wide-spread.</p>
+
+<p>4. <b>Social Characteristics&mdash;Activity.</b>&mdash;The first fact that stands out
+clearly as a characteristic of social life is <i>activity</i>. Everybody
+seems to be doing something. There are a few among the population,
+like vagrants and the idle rich, who are parasites, but even they
+sustain relations to others that require a certain sort of effort.
+Activity seems fundamental. It needs but a hasty survey to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>show how
+general it is. Farmers are cultivating their broad acres, woodsmen are
+chopping and hewing in the forest, miners are drilling in underground
+chambers, and the products of farm, forest, and mine are finding their
+way by river, road, and rail to the great distributing centres. In the
+town the machinery of mill and factory keeps busy thousands of
+operatives, and turns out manufactured products to compete with the
+products of the soil for right of way to the cities of the New World
+and the Old. Busiest of all are the throngs that thread the streets of
+the great centres, and pour in and out of stores and offices. Men rush
+from one person to another, and interview one after another the
+business houses with which they maintain connection; women swarm about
+the counters of the department stores and find at the same time social
+satisfaction and pecuniary reward; children in hundreds pour into the
+intellectual hopper of the schoolroom and from there to the
+playground. Everybody is busy, and everybody is seeking personal
+profit and satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>5. <b>Mental Activity.</b>&mdash;There is another kind of activity of which
+these economic and social phases are only the outward expression, an
+activity of the mind which is busy continually adjusting the needs of
+the individual or social organism and the environment to each other.
+Some acts are so instinctive or habitual that they do not require
+conscious mental effort; others are the result of reasoning as to this
+or that course of action. The impulse of the farmer may be to remain
+inactive, or the schoolboy may feel like going fishing; the call of
+nature stimulates the desire; but reason reaches out and takes control
+and directs outward activity into proper channels. On the other hand,
+reason fortifies worthy inclinations. The youth feels an inclination
+to stretch his muscles or to use his brains, and reason re-enforces
+feeling. The physical need of food, clothing, and shelter acts as a
+goad to drive a man to work, and reason sanctions his natural
+response. This mental activity guides not only individual human
+conduct but also that of the group. Instinct impels the man to defend
+his family from hardship or his clan from defeat, and reason confirms
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>impulse. His sociable disposition urges him to co-operate in
+industry, and reason sanctions his inclination. The history of society
+reveals an increasing influence of the intellect in thus directing
+instinct and feeling. It is a law of social activity that it tends to
+become more rational with the increase of education and experience.
+But it is never possible to determine the quantitative influence of
+the various factors that enter into a decision, or to estimate the
+relative pressure of the forces that urge to activity. Alike in mental
+and in physical activity there is a union of all the causative
+factors. In an act of the will impulse, feeling, and reflection all
+have their part; in physical activity it is difficult to determine how
+compelling is any one of the various forces, such as heredity and
+environment, that enter into the decision.</p>
+
+<p>6. <b>The Valuation of Social Activities.</b>&mdash;The importance to society of
+all these activities is not to be measured by their scope or by their
+vigor or volume, but by the efficiency with which they perform their
+function, and the value of the end they serve. Domestic activities,
+such as the care of children, may be restricted to the home, and a
+woman's career may seem to be blighted thereby, but no more important
+work can be accomplished than the proper training of the child.
+Political activity may be national in scope, but if it is vitiated by
+corrupt practices its value is greatly diminished. Certain activities
+carry with them no important results, because they have no definite
+function, but are sporadic and temporary, like the coming together of
+groups in the city streets, mingling in momentary excitement and
+dissolving as quickly.</p>
+
+<p>The true valuation of activities is to be determined by their social
+utility. The employment of working men in the brewing of beer or the
+manufacture of chewing-gum may give large returns to an individual or
+a corporation, but the social utility of such activity is small.
+Business enterprise is naturally self-centred; the first interest of
+every individual or group is self-preservation, and business must pay
+for itself and produce a surplus for its owner or it is not worth
+continuing from the economic standpoint; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>but a business enterprise
+has no right selfishly to disregard the interests of its employees and
+of the public. Its social value must be reckoned as small or great,
+not by the amount of business carried on, but by its contribution to
+human welfare.</p>
+
+<p>Take a department store as an illustration. It may be highly
+profitable to its owners, giving large returns on the investment,
+while distributing cheap and defective goods and paying its employees
+less than a decent living wage. Its value is to be determined as small
+because its social utility is of little worth. When the value of
+activity is estimated on this basis, it will be seen that among the
+noblest activities are those of the philanthropist who gives his time
+and interest without stint to the welfare of other folk; of the
+minister who lends himself to spiritual ministry, and the physician
+who gives up his own comfort and sometimes his own life to save those
+who are physically ill; of the housewife who bears and rears children
+and keeps the home as her willing contribution to the life of the
+world; and of the nurses, companions, and teachers who are mothers,
+sisters, and wives to those who need their help.</p>
+
+<p>7. <b>Results of Activity.</b>&mdash;The product of activity is achievement. The
+workers of the world are continually transforming energy into material
+products. To clear away a forest, to raise a thousand bushels of
+grain, to market a herd of cattle or a car-load of shoes, to build a
+sky-scraper or an ocean liner, is an achievement. But it is a greater
+achievement to take a child mind and educate it until it learns how to
+cultivate the soil profitably, how to make a machine or a building of
+practical value, and how to save and enrich life.</p>
+
+<p>The history of human folk shows that achievement has been gradual, and
+much of it without conscious planning, but the great inventors, the
+great architects, the great statesmen have been men of vision, and
+definite purpose is sure to fill a larger place in the story of
+achievement. Purposive progress rather than unconscious, telic rather
+than genetic, is the order of the evolution of society.</p>
+
+<p>The highest achievement of the race is its moral uplift. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>The man or
+woman who has a noble or kindly thought, who has consecrated life to
+unselfish ends and has spent constructive effort for the common good,
+is the true prince among men. He may be a leader upon whom the common
+people rely in time of stress, or only a private in the ranks&mdash;he is a
+hero, for his achievement is spiritual, and his mastery of the inner
+life is his supreme victory.</p>
+
+<p>8. <b>Association.</b>&mdash;A second characteristic of social life is that
+activity is not the activity of isolated individuals, but it is
+<i>activity in association</i>. Human beings work together, play together,
+talk together, worship together, fight together. If they happen to act
+alone, they are still closely related to one another. Examine the
+daily newspaper record and see how few items have to do with
+individuals acting in isolation. Even if a person sits down alone to
+think, his mind is working along the line on which it received the
+push of another mind shortly before. A large part of the work of the
+world is done in concert. The ship and the train have their crew, the
+factory its hands, the city police and fire departments their force.
+Men shout together on the ball field, and sing folk-songs in chorus.
+As an audience they listen to the play or the sermon, as a mob they
+rush the jail to lynch a prisoner, or as a crowd they riot in high
+carnival on Mardi Gras. The normal individual belongs to a family, a
+community, a political party, a nation; he may belong, besides, to a
+church, a few learned societies, a trade-union, or any number of clubs
+or fraternities.</p>
+
+<p>Human beings associate because they possess common interests and means
+of intercourse. They are affected by the same needs. They have the
+power to think in the same grooves and to feel a common sympathy.
+Members of the same race or community have a common fund of custom or
+tradition; they are conscious of like-mindedness in morals and
+religion; they are subject to the same kind of mental suggestion; they
+have their own peculiar language and literature. As communication
+between different parts of the world improves and ability to speak in
+different languages increases, there comes a better understanding
+among the world's peoples and an increase of mutual sympathy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>Experience has taught the value of association. By it the individual
+makes friends, gains in knowledge, enlarges interests. Knowing this,
+he seeks acquaintances, friends, and companions. He finds the world
+richer because of family, community, and national life, and if
+necessary he is willing to sacrifice something of his own comfort and
+peace for the advantages that these associations will bring.</p>
+
+<p>9. <b>Causes of Association.</b>&mdash;It is the nature of human beings to enjoy
+company, to be curious about what they see and hear, to talk together,
+and to imitate one another. These traits appear in savages and even in
+animals, and they are not outgrown with advance in civilization. These
+inborn instincts are modified or re-enforced by the conscious workings
+of the mind, and are aided or restricted by external circumstances. It
+is a natural instinct for men to seek associates. They feel a liking
+for one and a dislike for another, and select their friends
+accordingly. But the choice of most men is within a restricted field,
+for their acquaintance is narrow. College men are thrown with a
+certain set or join a certain fraternity. They play on the same team
+or belong to the same class. They may have chosen their college, but
+within that institution their environment is limited. It is similar in
+the world at large. Individuals do not choose the environment in which
+at first they find themselves, and the majority cannot readily change
+their environment. Within its natural limits and the barriers which
+caste or custom have fixed, children form their play groups according
+to their liking for each other, and adults organize their societies
+according to their mutual interests or common beliefs. With increasing
+acquaintance and ease of communication and transportation there comes
+a wider range of choice, and environment is less controlling. The will
+of the individual becomes freer to choose friends and associates
+wherever he finds them. He may have widely scattered business and
+political connections. He may be a member of an international
+association. He may even take a wife from another city or a distant
+nation. Mental interaction flows in international channels.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>10. <b>Forms of Association.</b>&mdash;It is possible to classify all forms of
+association in two groups as natural, like a gang of boys, or
+artificial, like a political party. Or it is possible to arrange them
+according to the interests they serve, as economic, scientific, and
+the like. Again they may be classified according to thoroughness of
+organization, ranging from the crowd to the closely knit corporation.
+But whatever the form may be, the value of the association is to be
+judged according to the degree of social worth, as in the case of
+activities. On that basis a company of gladiators or a pugilist's club
+ranks below a village improvement society; that in turn yields in
+importance to a learned association of physicians discussing the best
+means of relieving human suffering. In the slow process of social
+evolution those forms that do not contribute to the welfare of the
+race will lose their place in society.</p>
+
+<p>11. <b>Results of Association.</b>&mdash;The results of association are among
+the permanent assets of the race. Man has become what he is because of
+his social relations, and further progress is dependent upon them. The
+arts that distinguish man from his inferiors are the products of
+inter-communication and co-operation. The art of conversation and the
+accompanying interchange of ideas and thought stimulus are to be
+numbered among the benefits. The art of conciliation that calms
+ruffled tempers and softens conflict belongs here. The art of
+co-operation, that great engine of achievement, depends on learning
+through social contact how to think and feel sympathetically. Finally,
+there is the product of social organization. Chance meetings and
+temporary assemblies are of small value, though they must be noted as
+phenomena of association. More important are the fixed institutions
+that have grown out of relations continually tested by experience
+until they have become sanctioned by society as indispensable. Such
+are the organized forms of business, education, government, and
+religion. But all groups require organization of a sort. The gang has
+its recognized leader, the club its officers and by-laws. Even such
+antisocial persons as outlaws frequently move in bands and have their
+chiefs. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>Organization goes far to determine success in war or
+politics, in work or play. Like achievement, organization is the
+result of a gradual growth in collective experience, and must be
+continually adapted to the changing requirements of successive periods
+by the wisdom of master minds. It must also gradually include larger
+groups within its scope until, like the International Young Men's
+Christian Association or the Universal Postal Union, it reaches out to
+the ends of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>12. <b>Control.</b>&mdash;The public mirror of the press reveals a third
+characteristic of social life. Activity and association are both under
+<i>control</i>. Activity would result in exploitation of the weak by the
+strong, and finally in anarchy, if there were no exercise of control.
+Under control activities are co-ordinated, individuals and classes are
+brought to work in co-operation and not in antagonism, and under an
+enlightened and sanctioned authority life becomes richer, fuller, and
+more truly free.</p>
+
+<p>Social control begins in the individual mind. Instincts and feelings
+are held in the leash of rational thought. Intelligence is the guide
+to action. Control is exerted externally upon the individual from
+early childhood. Parental authority checks the independence of the
+child and compels conformity to the will of his elders. Family
+tradition makes its power felt in many homes, and family pride is a
+compelling reason for moral rectitude. Every member of the family is
+restrained by the rights of the others, and often yields his own
+preferences for the common good. When the child goes out from the home
+he is still under restraint, and rigid regulations become even more
+pronounced. The rules of the schoolroom permit little freedom. The
+teacher's authority is absolute during the hours when school is in
+session. In the city when school hours are over there are municipal
+regulations enforced by watchful police that restrict the activity of
+a boy in the streets, and if he visits the playground he is still
+under the reign of law. Similarly the adult is hedged about by social
+control. Custom decrees that he must dress appropriately for the
+street, that he must pass to the right when he meets <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>another person,
+and that he must raise his hat to an acquaintance of the opposite sex.
+The college youth finds it necessary to acquaint himself with the
+customs and traditions that have been handed down from class to class,
+and these must be observed under pain of ostracism. Faculty and
+trustees stand in the way of his unlimited enjoyment. His moral
+standards are affected by the atmosphere of the chapter house, the
+athletic field, and the examination hall. In business and civil
+relations men find themselves compelled to recognize laws that have
+been formulated for the public good. State and national governments
+have been able to assert successfully their right to control corporate
+action, however large and powerful the corporation might be. But
+government itself is subject to the will of the people in a democratic
+nation, and public opinion sways officials and determines local and
+national policies. Religious beliefs have the force of law upon whole
+peoples like the Mohammedans.</p>
+
+<p>Social control is exercised in large measure without the mailed fist.
+Moral suasion tends to supersede the birch stick and the policeman's
+billy. Within limits there is freedom of action, and the tacit appeal
+of society is to a man's self-control. But the newspaper with its
+sensation and police-court gossip never lets us forget that back of
+self-control is the court of judicial authority and the bar of public
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the constant exercise of control is the existence of
+order. The normal individual becomes accustomed to restraint from his
+earliest years, and it is only the few who are disorderly in the
+schoolroom, on the streets, or in the broader relations of life.
+Criminals make up a small part of the population; anarchy never has
+appealed to many as a social philosophy; unconventional people are
+rare enough to attract special attention.</p>
+
+<p>13. <b>Change.</b>&mdash;A fourth characteristic of social life is <i>change</i>.
+Control tends to keep society static, but there are powerful dynamic
+forces that are continually upsetting the equilibrium. In spite of the
+natural conservatism of institutions and agencies of control, group
+life is as <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>continually changing as the physical elements in nature.
+Continued observation recorded over a considerable period of time
+reveals changing habits, changing occupations, changing interests,
+even changing laws and governments. Inside the group individuals are
+continually readjusting their modes of thought and activity to one
+another, and between groups there is a similar adjustment of social
+habits. Without such change there can be no progress. War or other
+catastrophe suddenly alters wide human relations. External influences
+are constantly making their impression upon us, stimulating us to
+higher attainment or dragging us down to individual and group
+degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>14. <b>Causes of Change.</b>&mdash;The factors that enter into social life to
+produce change are numerous. Conflict of ideas among individuals and
+groups compels frequent readjustment of thought. The free expression
+of opinion in public debate and through the press is a powerful
+factor. Travel alters modes of conduct, and wholesale migration
+changes the characteristics of large groups of population. Family
+habits change with accumulation of wealth or removal from the farm to
+the city. The introduction of the telephone and the free mail delivery
+with its magazines and daily newspapers has altered currents of
+thought in the country. Summer visitors have introduced country and
+city to each other; the automobile has enlarged the horizon of
+thousands. New modes of agriculture have been adopted through the
+influence of a state agricultural college, new methods of education
+through a normal school, new methods of church work through a
+theological seminary. Whole peoples, as in China and Turkey, have been
+profoundly affected by forces that compelled change. Growth in
+population beyond comfortable means of subsistence has set tribes in
+motion; the need of wider markets has compelled nations to try
+forcible expansion into disputed areas. The desire for larger
+opportunities has sent millions of emigrants from Europe to America,
+and has been changing rapidly the complexion of the crowds that walk
+the city streets and enter the polling booths. Certain outstanding
+personalities have moulded life and thought <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>through the centuries,
+and have profoundly changed whole regions of country. Mohammed and
+Confucius put their personal stamp upon the Orient; C&aelig;sar and Napoleon
+made and remade western Europe; Adam Smith and Darwin swayed economic
+and scientific England; Washington and Lincoln were makers of America.</p>
+
+<p>Through such social processes as these&mdash;through unconscious
+suggestion, through communication and discussion that mould public
+opinion, through changes in environment and the influence of new
+leaders of thought and action&mdash;the evolution of folk life has carried
+whole races, sometimes to oblivion, but generally out of savagery and
+barbarism into a material and cultural civilization.</p>
+
+<p>15. <b>Results of the Process.</b>&mdash;The results of the process of social
+change are so far-reaching as to be almost incalculable. Particularly
+marked are the changes of the last hundred years. The best way to
+appreciate them is by a comparison of periods. Take college life in
+America as an example. Scores of colleges now large and prosperous
+were not then in existence, and even in the older colleges conditions
+were far inferior to what they are in the newer and smaller colleges
+to-day. There were few preparatory schools, and the young man&mdash;of
+course there were no college women&mdash;fitted himself as best he could by
+private instruction. To reach the college it was necessary to drive by
+stage or private conveyance to the college town, to find rooms in an
+ill-equipped dormitory or private house, to be content with plain food
+for the body and a narrow course of study for the mind. The method of
+instruction was tedious and uninspiring; text-books were unattractive
+and dull. There were no libraries worthy of the name, no laboratories
+or observatories for research. Scientific instruction was conspicuous
+by its absence; the social sciences were unknown. Gymnasiums had not
+been evolved from the college wood-pile; intercollegiate sports were
+unknown. Glee clubs, dramatic societies, college journalism, and the
+other arts and pastimes that give color and variety to modern
+university life were unknown.</p>
+
+<p>In the same period modes of thinking have changed. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>Scientific
+discoveries and the principles that have been based on them have
+wrought a revolution. Evolution has become a word to conjure with.
+Scholars think in terms of process. Biological investigation has opened
+wide the whole realm of life and emphasized the place of development in
+the physical organism. Psychological study has changed the basis of
+philosophy. Sociology has come with new interpretations of human life.
+Rapid changes are taking place at the present time in education, in
+religion, and in social adjustments. The rate of progress varies in
+different parts of the world; there are handicaps in the form of race
+conservatism, local and individual self-satisfaction and independence,
+maladjustments and isolation; sometimes the process leads along a
+downward path. On the whole, however, the history is a story of
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>16. <b>Weaknesses.</b>&mdash;In the thinking of not a few persons the handicaps
+that lie in the path of social development bulk larger than the
+engines of progress. They are pessimistic over the <i>weaknesses</i> that
+constitute a fifth characteristic of social life. These are certainly
+not to be overlooked, but they are an inevitable result of incomplete
+adaptations during a constant process of change. There are numerous
+illustrations of weakness. Social activity is not always wisely
+directed. Association frequently develops antagonism instead of
+co-operation. In trade and industry individuals do not "play fair."
+Corporations are sometimes unjust. Politics are liable to become
+corrupt. In the various associations of home and community life
+indifference, cruelty, unchastity, and crime add to the burdens of
+poverty, disease, and wretchedness. A yellow press mirrors a
+scandalous amount of intrigue, immorality, and misdemeanor. Government
+abuses its power; public opinion is intolerant and unjust; fashion is
+tyrannical; law is uncompromising. In times like our own economic
+interests frequently overshadow cultural interests. In college
+estimation athletics appear to bulk larger than the curriculum. In the
+public mind prejudice and hasty judgments take precedence over
+carefully weighed opinions and judicial decisions. Conservatism blocks
+the wheels of progress, or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>radicalism, in its unbalanced enthusiasm,
+destroys by injudiciousness the good that has been gradually
+accumulating. The social machinery gets out of gear, or proves
+inefficient for the new burdens that frequently are imposed upon it.
+The social order is not perfect and needs occasional amendment.</p>
+
+<p>17. <b>Resultant Problems.</b>&mdash;These weaknesses precipitate specific
+social problems. Some of them are bound up in the family
+relationships, like the better regulation of marriage and divorce, the
+prevention of desertion, and the rights of women and children. Others
+are questions that relate to industry, such as the rights of employees
+with reference to wages and hours of labor, or the unhealthy
+conditions in which working people live and toil. Certain matters are
+issues in every community. It is not easy to decide what shall be done
+with the poor, the unfortunate, and the weak-willed members of
+society. Some problems are peculiar to the country, the city, or the
+nation, like the need of rural co-operation, the improvement of
+municipal efficiency, or the regulation of immigration. A few are
+international, like the scourge of war. Besides such specific problems
+there are always general issues demanding the attention of social
+thinkers and reformers, such as the adjustment of individual rights to
+social duties, and the improvement of moral and religious efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>18. <b>The Social Groups.</b>&mdash;A broad survey of the current life of
+society leads naturally to the questions: How is this social life
+organized? and How did it come to be? The answers to these questions
+appear in certain social groupings, each of which has a history and
+life of its own, but is only a segment of the whole circle of active
+association. These groupings include the family, the rural community,
+the city, and the nation. In the natural environment of the home
+social life finds its apprenticeship. When the child has become in a
+measure socialized, he enters into the larger relations of the
+neighborhood. Half the people of the United States live in country
+communities, but an increasing proportion of the population is found
+in the midst of the associations and activities of the larger civic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>community. All are citizens or wards of the nation, and have a part
+in the social life of America. Consciously or not they have still
+wider relations in a world life that is continually growing in social
+content. Each of these groups reveals the same fundamental
+characteristics, but each has its peculiar forms and its dominant
+energies; each has its perplexing problems and each its possibilities
+of greater good. Through the environment the forces of the mind are
+moulding a life that is gradually becoming more nearly like the social
+ideal.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Principles of Sociology</i>, pages 363-399.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Small and Vincent</span>: <i>Introduction to the Study of
+Society</i>, pages 237-240.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 58-73.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Social Control</i>, pages 49-61.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Foundations of Sociology</i>, pages 182-255.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Blackmar and Gillin</span>: <i>Outlines of Sociology</i>, pages
+271-282.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>UNORGANIZED GROUP LIFE</h4>
+<br />
+
+
+<p>19. <b>Temporary Groups.</b>&mdash;A study of the organization and development
+of social life is mainly a study of the mental and physical activities
+of individuals associated in permanent groups. Conditions change and
+there is a continual shifting of contacts as in a kaleidoscope, but
+the group is a fixed institution in the life of society. But besides
+the permanent groups there are temporary unorganized associations that
+have a place in social life too important to be overlooked. They vary
+in size from a chance meeting of two or three friends who stop on the
+street corner and separate after a few minutes of conversation, to the
+great mass-meeting, that is called for a special purpose and interests
+a whole neighborhood, but adjourns <i>sine die</i>. Such groups are subject
+to the same physical and psychic forces that affect the family, the
+community, and the nation, but they tend to act more on impulse,
+because there is no habitual subordination to an established rule or
+order. A simple illustration will show the influences that work to
+produce these temporary groupings and that govern conduct.</p>
+
+<p>20. <b>How the Group Forms.</b>&mdash;Imagine a working man on the morning of a
+holiday. Without a fixed purpose how he will spend the day, his mind
+works along the line of least resistance, inviting physical or mental
+stimulus, and sensitive to respond. He is not accustomed to remain at
+home, nor does he wish to be alone. He is used to the companionship of
+the factory, and instinctively he longs for the association of his
+kind. He is most likely to meet his acquaintances on the street, and
+he feels the pull of the out-of-doors. The influences of instinct and
+habit impel him to activity, and he makes a definite choice to leave
+the house. Once on the street he feels the zest of motion and the
+anticipation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>of the pleasure that he will find in the companionship
+of his fellows. Reason assures him from past experience that he has
+made a good choice, and on general principles asserts that exercise is
+good for him, whatever may be the social result of his stroll. Thus
+the various factors that produce individual activity are at work in
+him. They are similarly at work in others of his kind. Presently these
+factors will bring them together.</p>
+
+<p>Unconsciously the working man and his friend are moving toward each
+other. The attention and discrimination of each man is brought into
+play with every person that he meets, but there is no recognition of
+acquaintance until each comes within the range of vision of the other.
+They greet each other with a hail of good-fellowship and a cordial
+hand-shake and stop for conversation. An analysis of the psychological
+elements that enter into such an incident would make plain the part of
+sense-perception and memory, of feeling and volition in the act of
+each, but the significant fact in the incident is that these mental
+factors are set to work because of the contact of one mind upon the
+other. It is the mental interaction arising from the moment's
+association that produces the social phenomenon. What are the social
+phenomena of this particular occasion? They are the acts that have
+taken place because of association. The individual would not greet
+himself or shake hands with himself, or stop to talk with himself.
+They are dependent upon the presence of more than one person; they are
+phenomena of the group. Why do they shake hands and talk? First,
+because they feel alike and think alike, and sympathy and
+like-mindedness seek expression in gesture and language, and,
+secondly, because their mode of action is under the control of a
+social custom that directs specific acts. If the meeting was on the
+continent of Europe the men might embrace, if it was in the jungle of
+Africa they might raise a yell at sight of each other, but American
+custom limits the greeting to a hand-clasp, supplemented on occasion
+by a slap on the shoulder. In Italy the language used is peculiar to
+the race and is helped out by many gestures; in New England of the
+Puritans the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>language used would be of a type peculiar to itself, and
+would hardly have the assistance of a changing facial expression.
+To-day two men have formed a temporary group, group action has taken
+place, and the action, while impulsive, is under the constraint of
+present custom. What happens next?</p>
+
+<p>21. <b>The Working of the Social Mind.</b>&mdash;Conversation in the group
+develops a common purpose. The two men are conscious of common desires
+and interests, or through a conflict of ideas the will of one
+subordinates the will of the other, and under the control of the joint
+purpose, which is now the social mind, they move toward one goal. This
+goal soon appears to be the objective point of a larger social mind,
+for other men and boys are converging in the same direction. At the
+corner of another street the two companions meet other friends, and
+after a mutual greeting the augmented party finds its way to the
+entrance of a ball park. The same instincts and habits and the same
+feelings and thoughts have stirred in every member of the group; they
+have felt the pull of the same desires and interests; they have put
+themselves in motion toward the same goal; they have greeted one
+another in similar fashion, and they find satisfaction in talking
+together on a common topic; but they do not constitute a permanent or
+organized group, and once separated they may never repeat this chance
+meeting.</p>
+
+<p>22. <b>The Impulse of the Crowd.</b>&mdash;Once within the ball park and seated
+on the long benches they are part of a far larger group of like-minded
+human beings, and they feel a common thrill in anticipation of the
+pleasure of the sport. They feel the stimulus that comes from
+obedience to a common impulse. A shout or a joke arouses a sympathetic
+outburst from hundreds. When they came together at first most of them
+were strangers, but common interests and emotions have produced a
+group consciousness. The game is called, and hundreds in unison fix
+their attention on the men in action. A hit is made, in breathless
+suspense the crowd watches to see the result, and with a common
+impulse cries out simultaneously in approbation or disgust <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>over the
+play. As the game proceeds primitive passions play over the crowd and
+emotions find free expression in the language that habit and custom
+provide. The crowd is in a state of high suggestibility; it responds
+to the stimulus of a chance remark, the misplay of a player, or the
+misjudgment of an umpire; one moment it is thrown into panic by the
+prospect of defeat, and the next into paroxysms of delight as the tide
+of victory turns. On sufficient provocation the crowd gets into
+motion, impelled by a common excitement to unreasoning action; it
+pours upon the field, and, unless prevented, wreaks its anger upon
+team or umpire that has aroused it to fury, but met with superior
+force the crowd melts away, dissolving into its smaller groups and
+then into its individual elements. A crowd of the sort described
+constitutes one type of the incomplete group. It is a chance assembly,
+moved by a common purpose but coalescing only temporarily, guided by
+elemental impulses, and readily breaking up without permanent
+achievement other than obtaining the recreation sought.</p>
+
+<p>23. <b>The Mass-Meeting.</b>&mdash;Another and more orderly type appears in a
+meeting of American residents in a foreign city to protest against an
+outrage to their flag or an injustice to one of their number. Those
+who assemble are not members of a definite organization with a regular
+machinery for action. They are, however, moved by common emotion and
+purpose, because they are conscious of a permanent bond that creates
+mutual sympathy. They are citizens of the same country. They are
+mindful of a national history that is their common heritage. They are
+proud of the position of eminence that belongs to the Western
+republic. There is a peculiar quality to the patriotism that they all
+feel and that calls out a unanimous expression. Their minds work
+alike, and they come together to give expression to their feelings and
+convictions. They are under the direction of a presiding officer and
+the procedure of the meeting is according to the parliamentary rules
+that guide civilized assemblies. However urgent of purpose, the
+speakers hold themselves in leash, and the listeners <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>content
+themselves with conventional applause when their enthusiasm is
+aroused. After a reasonable amount of discussion has taken place, the
+assembly crystallizes its opinions in the form of resolutions couched
+in earnest but dignified language and disperses to await the action of
+those in authority.</p>
+
+<p>24. <b>International Association.</b>&mdash;Still another type is the incomplete
+group that is composed of men and women of similar moral or religious
+convictions who never assemble in one place, but constitute a certain
+kind of association. Kipling could sing,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The East is East and the West is West<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And never the twain shall meet,"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="noin">yet through missionary efforts people of very different races and
+habits of living and thinking have been brought to cherish the same
+beliefs and to adopt similar customs. Thousands of such people in all
+parts of the world constitute a unified group because of their mental
+interaction, though they may never meet and are not organized in
+common. The only medium through which one section has influenced
+another may be a single missionary or book, but the electric current
+of sympathy passes from one to another as effectively as the wireless
+carries a message across leagues of space. In the same way sentiment
+and opinion spread and reproduce themselves, even through long periods
+of time. Before the middle of the nineteenth century Chinese sentiment
+was so strong against the importation of opium from India that war
+broke out with England, with the result that the curse was fastened
+upon the Orient. The evil increased, spreading through many countries.
+Meantime international fortunes brought the United States to the
+Philippines and trade carried opium to the United States. Foreigners
+in China combated the evil. The nation took a determined stand, and
+finally, through international agreement under American leadership,
+the trade and the consumption of opium were checked. Similarly slavery
+was put under the opprobrium of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>Christendom, public opinion in one
+nation after another was formed against it, laws were passed
+condemning it, and at last it received an international ban. At the
+present time, through agitation and conference, a world sentiment
+against war is increasing, and pacifists in every land constitute an
+expanding group of like-minded men and women who are determined that
+wars shall cease in the future. These are all examples of unorganized
+associations or incomplete groups.</p>
+
+<p>25. <b>Experiments in Association.</b>&mdash;In the history of human kind
+numerous experiments in association have been made; those which have
+served well in the competition between groups have survived, and have
+tended to become permanent types of association, receiving the
+sanction of society, and so to be reckoned as social institutions;
+others have been thrown on the rubbish heap as worthless. It is
+generally believed, for example, that many related families in
+primitive times associated in a loosely connected horde, but the horde
+could not compete successfully with an organized state and gave way
+before it. The local community in New England once carried on its
+affairs satisfactorily in yearly mass-meeting, where every citizen had
+an equal privilege of speaking and voting directly upon a proposed
+measure, but there proved to be a limit to the efficiency of such
+government when the population increased, so that a meeting of all the
+citizens was impossible, and a constitutional assembly of
+representative citizens was devised. Similarly national governments
+have been organized for greater efficiency and machinery is being
+invented frequently to increase their value.</p>
+
+<p>26. <b>Kinds of Unorganized Groups.</b>&mdash;Unorganized groups are of three
+kinds: There are first the normal groups that are continually being
+formed and dissolved, but that perform a useful function while they
+exist. Such are the chance meetings and conversations of friends in
+all walks of life, and the crowds that gather occasionally to help
+forward a good cause. They promote general intelligence, provide a
+free exchange of ideas, and help to form a body of public opinion for
+social guidance. There is often an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>open-mindedness among the common
+people that is not vitiated by the grip of vested interests upon their
+unwarped judgments, and the people can be trusted in the long run to
+make good. Democracy is based upon the reliability of public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The second kind of unorganized group is one that is on the way to
+becoming a permanent group sanctioned by society. A group of this type
+is the boy's gang. By most persons the spontaneous association of a
+dozen boys who live near together and range over a certain district
+has been condemned as a social evil; recently it has become recognized
+as a normal group, forming naturally at a certain period of boy life
+and falling to pieces of its own accord a few years later. The
+tendency of boy leaders is not only to give it recognition as
+legitimate, but to use the gang instinct to promote definite
+organizations of greater value to their members and to the community.
+Another group of the same type is a so-called "movement," composed of
+a few individuals who associate themselves in a loose way to further a
+definite purpose, like the promotion of temperance, hold
+mass-meetings, and create public opinion, but do not at once proceed
+to a permanent organization. Eventually, when the movement has
+gathered sufficient headway or has shown that it is permanently
+valuable, a fixed organization may be accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The third kind of unorganized group is an abnormality in the midst of
+civilization, a relic of the primitive days when impulse rather than
+reason swayed the mind of a group. Such is the crowd that gathers in a
+moment of excitement and yields to a momentary passion to lynch a
+prisoner, or a revolutionary mob that loots and burns out of a sheer
+desire for destruction. Such a group has not even the value of a
+safety-valve, for its passion gathers momentum as it goes, and, like a
+conflagration, it cannot be stopped until it has burned itself out or
+met a solid wall of military authority.</p>
+
+<p>27. <b>The Popular Crowd vs. the Organized Group.</b>&mdash;In the routine life
+of a disciplined society there is always to be found at least one of
+these types. Even the abnormal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>type of the passionate crowd is not
+unusual in its milder form. Any unusual event like a fire or a circus
+will draw scores and hundreds together, and the crowd is always liable
+to fall into disorder unless officers of the law are in attendance.
+This is so well understood that the police are always in evidence
+where there are large congregations of people at church or theatre,
+where a prominent man is to be seen or a procession is to pass. But
+the popular mass is a volatile thing, and in proportion to its size it
+expends little useful energy. It is never to be reckoned as equal in
+importance to the organized company, however small it may be, that has
+a definite purpose guiding its regular action, and that persists in
+its purpose for years together. It is the fixed group, the social
+institution, that does the work of the world and carries society
+forward from lower to higher levels of civilization. Social efficiency
+belongs to the organized type.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cooley</span>: <i>Social Organization</i>, pages 149-156.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Elements of Sociology</i>, pages 129-140.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Foundations of Sociology</i>, pages 120-138.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Social Psychology</i>, pages 43-82.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">M&uuml;nsterberg</span>: <i>Psychology, General and Applied</i>, pages
+269-273.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Davenport</span>: <i>Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals</i>,
+pages 25-31.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>PART II&mdash;LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>FOUNDATIONS OF THE FAMILY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>28. <b>The Fundamental Importance of the Family.</b>&mdash;Social life can be
+understood best by taking the simplest organized group of human beings
+and analyzing its activities, its organization, and its development.
+The family is such a group and is, therefore, a natural basis for
+study. It illustrates most of the phases of social activity, it is
+simple in its organization, its history goes back to primitive times,
+and it is rapidly changing in the present. Family life is made up of
+the interactions of individual life, and, therefore, the individual in
+his social relations and not the family is the unit of sociological
+investigation, but until recent years the family group has been
+regarded as of greater importance than the individual, and in the
+Orient the family still occupies the place of importance. Out of the
+family have developed such institutions as property, law, and
+government, and on the maintenance of the family rests the future
+welfare of society. It has been claimed that "the study of the single
+family on its homestead would yield richer scientific knowledge and
+more practical results in the great social sciences than almost any
+other single object in the social world. Pursued historically, the
+student would find himself at the roots of property, separate
+ownership of land, inheritance, taxation, free trade and tariff, and
+discover the germs of international law and the state. The great
+questions of the day, as we call them, are little more than incidents
+to the working out of the great social institutions, and these are the
+expansions and modified forms of the family amid its unceasing support
+and activity."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>29. <b>The Family on the Farm.</b>&mdash;The best environment in which to study
+the family is the farm. There the relations and activities of the
+larger world appear in miniature, but with a greater simplicity and
+unity than elsewhere. There the family gets closer to the soil, and
+its members feel their relation to nature and the restrictions that
+nature imposes upon human activity. There appear the occupations of
+the successive stages of history&mdash;hunting, the care of domesticated
+animals, agriculture, and manufacturing; there are the activities of
+production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods. There a
+consciousness of mutual dependence is developed, and the value of
+co-operation is illustrated. There the mind ranges less fettered than
+in the town, yet is less inclined toward radical changes. There the
+family preserves and hands down from one generation to another the
+heritage of the past, and stimulates its members to further progress.
+In the family on the farm children learn how to live in association
+with their kin and with hired employees; there much of the mental,
+moral, and religious training is begun; and there is found most of the
+sympathy and encouragement that nerves the boy to go out from home for
+the struggle of life in the larger community and the world.</p>
+
+<p>30. <b>Physical Conditions of Farm Life.</b>&mdash;Every group, like every
+individual, is dependent in a measure on its physical environment. The
+prosperity of the family on the farm and the daily activities of its
+members wait often upon the quality of climate and soil and the temper
+of the weather. The rocky hillsides of mountain lands like Switzerland
+breed a hardy, self-reliant people, who make the most of small
+opportunities for agriculture. A well-watered, rolling country pours
+its riches into the lap of the husbandman; in such surroundings he is
+likely to be more cheerful but less gritty than the Scottish
+highlander. The pioneer settlers of America, in their trek into the
+ulterior, faced the forest and its terrors, and every member of the
+family who was old enough added his ounce of effort to the struggle to
+subdue it. Their descendants enjoy the fruits of the earlier victory.
+The well-trimmed woodland and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>fertile field are attractive to him;
+nature in varying moods interests him. Even on the edge of the Western
+desert the farmer is the master of a process of dry farming or
+irrigation, so that he can smile at nature's effort to drive him out.
+Science and education have helped to make man more independent of
+natural forces and natural moods, but still it is nature that provides
+the raw materials, that supplies the energy of wind and water and
+sunshine, and that hastens prosperity if man learns to co-operate with
+it. Success in the economic struggle of the family has always been
+conditioned upon the physical environment, and it will always remain
+one of the factors that shape human destiny.</p>
+
+<p>31. <b>Inheritance of Family Traits.</b>&mdash;Another factor that enters into
+family life is the physical nature of its members, the quality of the
+stock from which the family is descended. Heredity is as important in
+sociological study as environment. It is well known that a child
+inherits racial and family traits from his ancestors, and these he
+cannot shake off altogether as he grows older. Families have their
+peculiarities that continue from one generation to another. The family
+endowment is often the foundation of individual success. Without
+physical sturdiness the man and woman on the farm are seriously
+handicapped and are liable to succumb in the struggle for existence;
+without mental ability and moral stamina members of the family fail to
+make a broad mark on the community, and the family influence declines.
+Mere acquisition or transmission of wealth does not constitute good
+fortune. This fact of heredity must therefore be reckoned with in all
+the activities of the family, and cannot be overlooked in a study of
+the psychic factors which are the real social forces.</p>
+
+<p>32. <b>The Domestic Function of the Family.</b>&mdash;The farm family for the
+purpose of study may be thought of as composed of husband and wife,
+children and servants, but the makers of the family are of first
+importance for its understanding. The family has a long history, but
+it exists, not because it is a long-established institution, but
+because it satisfies present human needs, as all institutions must if
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>they are to survive. The family serves many ends, but as the primary
+social instincts are to mate and to eat, so the principal functions of
+the family are the <i>domestic</i> and the <i>economic</i>. The normal adult
+desires to mate, to have and rear children, and to make a home. To
+this his sexual and parental instincts impel him; they are nature's
+provision for the perpetuation of the race. The sex instinct attracts
+the man and the woman to each other, and marriage is the sanction of
+society to their union; the parental instinct gives birth to children
+and leads the father and mother to protect the child through the long
+years of dependence. Marriage and parenthood are twin obligations that
+the individual owes to the race. Celibacy makes no contribution to the
+perpetuation of the race, and unregulated sexual intercourse is a
+blight upon society. Marriage lays the foundation of the home and
+makes possible the values that belong to that institution. Children
+hold the family together; separation and divorce are most common in
+childless homes. Personal service and sacrifice are engendered in the
+care of children; therefore it is that the family without children is
+not a perfect family, but an abnormality as a social institution. For
+these reasons custom and law protect the home, and religion declares
+marriage a sacred bond and reproduction a sacred function.</p>
+
+<p>It is the long experience of the race that has made plain the
+fundamental importance of the marriage relation, and history shows how
+step by step man and woman have struggled toward higher standards of
+mutual appreciation and co-operation. From past history and present
+tendencies it is possible to determine values and weaknesses and to
+point out dangers and possibilities. As the family group is
+fundamental to an understanding of the community, so the relation of
+man and woman are essential to a comprehension of the complete family,
+and investigation of their relations must precede a study of the
+social development of the child in the home, or of the economic
+relations of the farmer and his assistants. Nothing more clearly
+illustrates the factors that enter into all human relations than the
+story of how the family came to be.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 62-70.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology and Modern Social Problems</i>, 1913
+edition, pages 74-82.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bosanquet</span>: <i>The Family</i>, pages 241-259.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>The Family in Its Sociological Aspects</i>, pages
+1-11.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Butterfield</span>: "Rural Life and the Family," <i>American
+Journal of Sociology</i>, vol. 14, pages 721-725.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: "Are Modern Industry and City Life Unfavorable
+to the Family?" <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, vol. 14,
+pages 668-675.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE HISTORY OF THE FAMILY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>33. <b>How the Family Came to Be.</b>&mdash;The modern family among civilized
+peoples is based almost universally on the union of one man and one
+woman. There is good reason to believe that this practice of monogamy
+was in vogue among primitive human beings, but marriage was unstable
+and it was only through long experimentation that monogamy proved
+itself best fitted to survive. At first conjugal affection, which has
+become intelligent and moral, was merely a sexual desire that led the
+man to seek a mate and the maid to choose among her suitors. Unbound
+by long-continued custom or legal and ceremonial restriction, the
+primitive couple were free to separate if they pleased, but the
+instinctive feeling that they belonged to each other, the habits of
+association, adaptation, and co-operation, and jealousy at any
+attention shown by another tended to preserve the relationship. The
+presence of offspring sealed the bond as long as the children were
+dependent, and strengthened the sense of mutual responsibility. The
+children were peculiarly the mother's children since she gave them
+birth, but the father instinctively protected the family that was
+growing up around him, and procured food and shelter for its members,
+though it is doubtful if he had any realization of his part in giving
+life to a new generation.</p>
+
+<p>During this period of social development, when the mother's presence
+constituted the home and the children were regarded as belonging
+primarily to her, descent was reckoned in the female line, the
+children were attached to the maternal clan of blood relatives, and
+such relatives began to move in bands, for the same reason that
+animals move in packs and herds. Some writers speak of it as a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>matriarchal period, but it does not appear that women governed; it is
+more proper to speak of the family as metronymic, for the children
+bore the mother's name and maternity outweighed paternity in social
+estimate.</p>
+
+<p>34. <b>The Patriarchal Household.</b>&mdash;When population increased and food
+consequently became more difficult to obtain, the domestication of
+animals was achieved, and nomadic habits carried the family from
+pasture to pasture; rival clans wanted the same regions, wars broke
+out, and physical superiority asserted its claims. The man supplanted
+the woman as the important member of the household, reduced the others
+to submission, added to his wives and servants by capture or purchase,
+and established the patriarchal system. Descent henceforth was
+reckoned in the paternal line, and society had become patronymic
+instead of metronymic. It must not be supposed that this change
+occurred very suddenly. It may have taken many centuries to bring it
+about, but as the man learned his part in procreation and his power in
+society, he delighted in his self-importance to lord it over the woman
+and her children. The marriage relation ceased to be free and
+reciprocal. The wife no longer had a choice in marriage. Bought or
+captured, she was no longer wooed for a companion, but was valued
+according to her economic worth. As population pressed, the
+domestication of plants followed the taming of animals, but the
+agricultural settlement of the family only made the woman's lot
+harder, for she was the burden bearer on the farm.</p>
+
+<p>35. <b>Polygyny.</b>&mdash;a better term than polygamy&mdash;was the inevitable
+result of the patriarchal system. Man made the law and the law
+recognized no restraint upon his sexual and parental instincts.
+Improvements in living added to the resources of the family and made
+it possible to maintain large households of wives, children, and
+slaves. Polygyny had some social utility, because it increased the
+number of children, and this gave added prestige and power to the
+family, as slavery had utility because it provided a labor force; but
+both were weaknesses in ancient society, because they did not tend in
+the long run to human welfare. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>Polygyny brutalized men, degraded
+women, and destroyed that affection and comradeship between parents
+and their offspring that are the proper heritage of children. Wherever
+it has survived as a system, polygyny has hindered progress, and
+wherever it exists in the midst of monogamy it tends to break down
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Another variety of marriage that has been less common than polygyny is
+polyandry. It is a term that signifies the marriage of one woman to
+several husbands, and seems to have occurred, as in the interior of
+Asia, only where subsistence was especially difficult or women
+comparatively few. Neither polygyny nor polyandry were universal, even
+where they were a frequent practice. Only the few could afford the
+indulgence, much the largest percentage of the people remained
+monogamous.</p>
+
+<p>36. <b>Conflict and Social Selection.</b>&mdash;The supreme business of the
+social group is to adapt itself to the conditions that affect its
+life. It must learn to get on with its physical environment and with
+other social groups with which it comes into relation. The methods of
+adaptation are conflict and co-operation. The primitive savage and his
+wife learned to work together, and his family and hers very likely
+kept the peace, until through the increase of population they felt the
+pinch of hunger when the supply did not equal the demand. Then came
+conflict. Conflict is an essential element in all progress. There is
+conflict between the lower and higher impulses in the human mind,
+conflict between selfish ambition and the welfare of the group,
+conflict among individuals and races for a place in the sun. It is
+conceivable that the baser impulses that provoke much social conflict
+may give way to more rational and altruistic purpose, but it is
+difficult to see how all friction can be avoided in social relations.
+It is certainly to be reckoned with in the history of group life.</p>
+
+<p>The story of human progress shows that in the social conflict those
+groups survive which have become best adapted to life conditions and
+so are fitted to cope with their enemies. In the story of the family
+male leadership proved most useful and was perpetuated, but the
+practice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>of polygyny and polyandry proved in the long run to be
+hurtful to success in the sturdy struggle for existence.</p>
+
+<p>37. <b>Ancestor-Worship.</b>&mdash;When a practice or institution is seen to
+work well it soon becomes indorsed by social custom, law, or religion.
+The patriarchal system became fortified by ancestor-worship, which
+helped to keep the family subordinate to its male head. Even the dead
+hand of the patriarch ruled. The paternal ancestors of the family were
+believed to have the power to bless or curse their descendants, and
+they were faithfully placated with gifts and veneration, as has
+continued to be the custom in China. Among the Romans the household
+gods were cherished at the hearth long before Jupiter became king of
+heaven; &AElig;neas must save his ancestral-images if he lost all else in
+the fall of Troy. At Rome the worship of a common ancestor was the
+strongest family bond. The marriage ceremony consisted of a solemn
+transfer of the bride from her duties to her own ancestors over to the
+adoption of her husband's gods. This transfer of allegiance helped to
+perpetuate the patriarchal system, and the sanction of religion
+greatly strengthened the wedded relation, so that divorce and polygyny
+were unknown in the old Roman period. But the absolute patriarchal
+control of wife and children made the man selfish and arbitrary and
+weakened the bond of affection and mutual interests, while Roman
+political conquest strengthened the pride and power of the imperial
+masters. Religion lost its prestige and the family bond loosened,
+until from being one of the purest of social institutions in the early
+days of the republic, the Roman family became one of the most
+degenerate. This boded ill for the future of the race and empire.</p>
+
+<p>38. <b>The Medi&aelig;val Family.</b>&mdash;The Roman family seemed in danger of
+disintegrating, for the matron claimed rights that ran counter to the
+rights of the man, when two new forces entered Roman society and
+checked this tendency toward disintegration. The first was
+Christianity, the second was Teutonic conquest. Christianity taught
+consideration for women and children, but it taught submission to the
+man in the home, and so was a constructive <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>force in the conservation
+of the family. Teutonic custom was similar to the early Roman. When
+Teutonic enterprise pushed a new race over the goal of race conflict
+and took in charge the administration of affairs in Roman society,
+there was a restoration of the rule of force and so of masculine
+supremacy. In the lord's castle and the peasant's hut the authority of
+the man continued unquestioned through the Middle Ages, and the church
+made monogamous marriage a binding sacrament; but sexual infidelity
+was common, especially of the husband, and divorce was not unknown. In
+the civilized lands of Christendom monogamy was the only form of
+marriage recognized by civil law, and with the slow growth toward
+higher standards of civilization the harshness of patriarchal custom
+has become softened and the rights of women and children have been
+increased by law, though not without endangering the solidarity of the
+family. Similarly, the standards of sex conduct have improved.</p>
+
+<p>39. <b>Advantages of Monogamy.</b>&mdash;The advantages of monogamy are so many
+that in spite of the present restiveness under restraint it seems
+certain to become the permanent and universal type as reason asserts
+its right and controls impulse. Nature seems to have predetermined it
+by maintaining approximately an equal number of the sexes, and nature
+frowns upon promiscuity by penalizing it with sterility and neglect of
+the few children that are born, so that in the struggle for existence
+the fittest survive by a process of natural selection. A study of
+biology and anthropology gives added evidence that nature favors
+monogamy, for in the highest grade of animals below man the monogamic
+relation holds almost without exception, and low-grade human races
+follow the same practice.</p>
+
+<p>There are moral advantages in monogamy that alone are sufficient to
+insure its permanence. It is to the advantage of society that
+altruistic and kindly feelings should outweigh jealousy, anger, and
+selfishness. Monogamy encourages affection and mutual consideration,
+and in that atmosphere children learn the graces and virtues that make
+social life wholesome and attractive. Welcomed in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>home, they
+receive the care and instruction of both parents and become socialized
+for the larger and later responsibilities of the social order. In the
+altruism thus developed lie the roots of morals and religion. It is
+well agreed that the essence of each is the right motive to conduct.
+Love to men and to God is an accepted definition of religion, and
+ethics is grounded on that principle. Love is the ruling principle of
+the monogamic family; from the narrower domestic circle it extends to
+the community and to all mankind.</p>
+
+<p>40. <b>Marriage Laws.</b>&mdash;In spite of the general practice of monogamy as
+a form of marriage and the noble principles that underlie the
+monogamic type of family, sex relations need the restraint of law.
+Human desires are selfish and ideals too often give way before them
+unless there is some kind of external control. There have been times
+when the church had such control, and in certain countries individual
+rulers have determined the law; but since the eighteenth century there
+has been a steady trend in the direction of popular control of all
+social relations. This tendency has been carried farthest in the
+United States, where public opinion voices its convictions and compels
+legislative action. It is natural that the people of certain States
+should be more progressive or radical than others, and therefore in
+the absence of a national law, there is considerable variety in the
+marriage and divorce laws, but no other country has higher ideals of
+the married relation and at the same time as large a measure of
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p>At present marriage laws in the United States agree generally on the
+following provisions:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Every marriage must be licensed by the State and the act of
+marriage must be reported to the State and registered.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Marriage is not legal below a certain age, and consent of parents
+must be obtained usually until the man is twenty-one and the woman
+eighteen.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Certain persons are forbidden marriage because of near
+relationship or personal defect. Such marriage if performed may be
+annulled.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>(4) Remarriage may take place after the death of husband or wife,
+after disappearance for a period varying from three to seven years, or
+a certain time after divorce.</p>
+
+<p>In the twenty-year period between 1886 and 1906 covered by the United
+States Census of Marriage and Divorce slow improvements were made in
+legislation, but a number of States are far behind others in the
+enactment of suitable laws, and most of the States do not make the
+provisions that are desirable for law enforcement. Yet there is a
+limit of strictness beyond which marriage laws cannot safely go,
+because they hinder marriage and provoke illicit relations. That limit
+is fixed by the sanction of public opinion. After all, there is less
+need of better regulation than of the education of public opinion to
+the sacredness of marriage and to its importance for human welfare.
+Without the restraints put upon impulse by the education of the
+understanding and the will, young people often assume family
+obligations thoughtlessly and even flippantly, when they are ill-mated
+and often unacquainted with each other's characteristic qualities.
+Such marriages usually bring distress and divorce instead of growing
+affection and unity. Without education in the obligation of marriage
+many well-qualified persons delay it or avoid it altogether, because
+they are unwilling to bear the burdens of family support,
+childbearing, and housekeeping. Society suffers loss in both cases.</p>
+
+<p>41. <b>Reforms and Ideals.</b>&mdash;Because of all these deficiencies several
+remedies have been proposed and certain of them adopted. Because of
+the economic difficulties, it is urged that as far as possible by
+legislation, illegitimate ways of heaping up wealth for the few at the
+expense of the many should be checked, and that by vocational training
+boys should be fitted for a trade and girls prepared for housekeeping.
+To meet other difficulties it is proposed that popular instruction be
+given from press and pulpit, in order that the moral and spiritual
+plane of married life may be uplifted. The marriage ideal is a
+well-mated pair, physically and intellectually qualified, who through
+affection are attracted to marriage and through mutual <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>consideration
+are ready unselfishly to seek each other's welfare, and who recognize
+in marriage a divinely ordered provision for human happiness and for
+the perpetuation of the race. Such a marriage does not plant the seeds
+of discord and neighborly scandal or compel a speedy resort to the
+divorce court.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>The Family in Its Sociological Aspects</i>, pages
+12-84.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howard</span>: <i>History of Matrimonial Institutions</i>, II, pages
+388-497.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goodsell</span>: <i>The Family as a Social and Educational
+Institution</i>, pages 5-47.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bosanquet</span>: <i>The Family</i>, part I. "Report on Marriage and
+Divorce, 1906," <i>Bureau of the Census</i>, I, pages 224-226.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bliss</span>: <i>Encyclopedia of Social Reform</i>, art. "Family."</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE MAKING OF THE HOME</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>42. <b>The Story of the Home.</b>&mdash;Marriage is the gateway of the home; the
+home is the shelter of the family. It is the cradle of children, the
+nursery of mutual affection, and the training-school for citizenship
+in the community. The physical comfort of its inmates depends upon the
+house and its furnishings, but fondness for the home develops only in
+an atmosphere of good-will and kindness.</p>
+
+<p>The home has a story of its own, as has the family. In primitive days
+there was little necessity of a dwelling-place, except as a nest for
+young or a cache for provisions. A cave or a rough shelter of boughs
+was a makeshift for a home. Thither the hunter brought the game that
+he had killed, and there slept the glutton's sleep or went supperless
+to bed. When the hunter became a herdsman and shepherd and moved from
+place to place in search of pasture, he found it convenient to fashion
+a tent for his home, as the Hebrew patriarchs did when they roamed
+over Canaan and as the Bedouin of the desert does still.</p>
+
+<p>A settled life with a measure of civilization demanded a better and a
+stationary home, the degree of comfort varying with the desire and
+ambition of the householder and the amount of his wealth. To thousands
+home was little more than a place to sleep. Even in imperial Rome the
+proletariat occupied tall, ramshackle tenements, like the submerged
+poor who exist in the slums of modern cities. In medi&aelig;val Europe the
+peasant lived in a one-room hovel, clustered with others in a squalid
+hamlet upon the estate of a great landowner. The hut was poorly built,
+often of no better material than wattled sticks, cemented with mud,
+covered over with turf or thatch, usually without chimneys or even
+windows. The place was absolutely without conveniences. Summer and
+winter the family huddled <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>together in the single room of the hut,
+faring forth to work in the morning, sleeping at night on bundles of
+straw, each person in the single garment that he wore through the day,
+and at convenient intervals breaking fast on black bread, salt meat,
+and home-brewed beer. There was no inducement for a landless serf to
+spend care or labor upon houses or surroundings; pigs and babies were
+permitted to tumble about both indiscriminately.</p>
+
+<p>Peasant homes in the Orient are little if any better now than European
+homes in the Middle Ages. The houses are rude structures and ill-kept.
+In the villages of India it is not unusual to occupy one house until
+it becomes so unsanitary as to be uninhabitable, and then to move
+elsewhere. Even royal courts in medi&aelig;val Europe moved from palace to
+palace for the same reason. It is a mistake to suppose that the
+squalid conditions found in the slums are peculiar to them; they are
+survivals of a lower stage of human existence found in all parts of
+the world, due to psychical, social, and economic conditions that are
+not easily changed, but conspicuous in the midst of modern progress.</p>
+
+<p>43. <b>The Ancestral Type.</b>&mdash;In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome only the
+higher classes enjoyed any degree of comfort. Accustomed to
+inconveniences, few even among them knew such luxuries as are common
+to middle-class Americans. The castle and manor-house of the medi&aelig;val
+lord were still more comfortless. In America the colonial log cabin
+and the sod house of the prairie pioneer were primitively incomplete.
+The struggle for existence and the difficulty of manufacture and
+transportation allowed few comforts. American homes, even a hundred
+years ago, knew nothing of furnaces and safety-matches, refrigerators
+and electric fans, bathtubs and sanitary accommodations,
+carpet-sweepers and vacuum cleaners, screen doors and double windows,
+hammocks and verandas. Neither law nor social custom required a good
+water or drainage system. A healthful or attractive location for the
+house received little thought; outbuildings were in close proximity to
+the house, if not attached to it. The furnishings of the house lacked
+comfort and beauty. Interior decorations of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>harmonious design were
+absent. Instruments of music were rare; statuary and paintings were
+beyond the reach of any but the richest purse.</p>
+
+<p>44. <b>Social Values.</b>&mdash;On the other hand, there was in many a dwelling
+a home atmosphere that made up for the lack of conveniences. There was
+a bond of unity that was felt by every member of the family, and a
+spirit of mutual affection and self-sacrifice that stood a hard strain
+through poverty, sickness, and ill fortune of every sort. Father and
+mother, boys and girls were not afraid to work, and when the time came
+for relaxation there was little to attract away from the home circle.
+People had less to enjoy, but they were better contented with what
+they had. They had little money to spend, but their frugal tastes and
+habits of thrift fortified them against want, and there was little
+need of public or private charity.</p>
+
+<p>The home was frequently a school of moral and religious education.
+Selfishness in all its forms was discountenanced. There was no room
+for the idler, no time for laziness. Social hygiene and domestic
+science were not taught as such, but young people learned their
+responsibilities and grew up equipped to establish homes of their own.
+Parents were faithful instructors in the homely virtues of
+truthfulness, honesty, faithfulness, kindness, and love. Religion in
+the family was by no means universal, but in hundreds of homes
+religion was recognized as having legitimate demands upon the
+individual; religious exercises were observed at the mother's knee,
+the table, and the family altar; all the family attended church
+together, and were expected to take upon themselves the
+responsibilities of church membership.</p>
+
+<p>45. <b>Gains and Losses.</b>&mdash;In the making of a modern home there have
+been both addition and subtraction. Life has gained immeasurably in
+comfort and convenience for the well-to-do, but the comfortless
+quarters of the poor drive the man to the saloon and the child to the
+streets. For the fortunate the home has become enriched with music,
+art, and literature, but it has lost much of the earlier simplicity,
+economic thrift, moral sturdiness, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>religious principle and
+practice. For the poor life is so hard that the good qualities, if
+they ever existed, have tended to disappear without any compensation
+in culture.</p>
+
+<p>It is well understood that the home environment has most to do with
+shaping individual character. If the homely virtues are not cultivated
+there, society will suffer; if cold and cheerlessness are
+characteristic of its atmosphere, there will be little warmth in the
+disposition of its inmates toward society. Every home of the right
+sort is an asset to the community. It is an experiment station for
+social progress. Every married couple that sets up housekeeping starts
+a new centre of group life. If they diffuse a helpful atmosphere
+social virtues will develop and social efficiency increase. On the
+other hand, many homes are a menace to the community, because an
+ill-mated pair, poorly equipped for the struggle of existence, create
+a centre of group life in which the individual is handicapped
+physically and morally and too often becomes a curse to society at
+large. When it is remembered that the home is at the same time the
+power-house that generates the forces that push society forward, and
+the channel through which are transmitted the ideas and achievements
+of all the past, it will seem to be the supremely important
+institution that human experience has devised and sanctioned.</p>
+
+<p>46. <b>The Ideal Home.</b>&mdash;The ideal home toward which the average home
+will be gradually approximating will be housed in a well-built
+dwelling of approved architecture; erected in a healthy location with
+room enough around it to give air space, and a bit of out-of-doors to
+enjoy; tastefully furnished and decorated inside, but without
+ostentation or extravagance; occupied by a healthy, happy family of
+parents and children who care more for each other and for their
+neighbors than for selfish pleasure and display, and who are learning
+how to play a worthy part in the folk life of their community and
+nation, and how to appreciate the highest and finest qualities that
+mind and spirit can develop in themselves or others. If for economic
+or social reasons any of this is impossible, there is a weakness in
+society that calls for prompt repair.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Starr</span>: <i>First Steps in Human Progress</i>, pages 149-158.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Jessopp</span>: <i>The Coming of the Friars</i>, pages 87-104.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Constructive Rural Sociology</i>, pages 170-178.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carney</span>: <i>Country Life and the Country School</i>, pages
+18-38.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Richards</span>: "The Farm Home," art. in <i>Cyclopedia of
+Agriculture</i>, IV, pages 280-284.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHILDREN IN THE HOME</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>47. <b>Children Complete the Home.</b>&mdash;If the legend of the Pied Piper of
+Hameln should come true and all the children should run away from
+home, or if by some strange stroke of fortune no children should be
+born in a village or town for ten years or more, the tragedy of the
+childless home would be realized. There are localities and even
+nations where the birth-rate is so small that population is little
+more than stationary. In the United States the native birth-rate tends
+to decline, while the rate of immigrant foreigners greatly exceeds it.
+The higher the degree of comfort and luxury in the home the smaller
+the birth-rate seems to be a principle of social experience. There are
+selfish people who shirk the responsibilities and troubles of
+parenthood, and there are social diseases that tend to sterility, but
+the childless home is always an incomplete home. Children are the
+crown of marriage, the enrichment of the home, the hope of society in
+the future. The needs of the children stimulate parents to unselfish
+endeavor. Children are the comfort of the poor and distressed. The
+wedded life of a human pair may be ideal in every other respect, but
+one of the main functions of marriage is unaccomplished when the
+family remains incomplete.</p>
+
+<p>48. <b>The Right to be Well-Born.</b>&mdash;The child comes into the home in
+obedience to the same primary instinct that draws the parents to each
+other. He calls out the affections of the parents and their
+intellectual resources, for he is dependent upon them, and often taxes
+their best judgment in coping with the difficulties that beset child
+life. But they often fail to realize that the child has certain
+inalienable rights as an individual and a potential member of society
+that demand their best gifts.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>There is first the right to be well-born. There is so much to contend
+with when once ushered into the world, that a child needs the best
+possible bodily inheritance. He needs to be rid of every encumbrance
+of physical unfitness if he is to live long and become a blessing and
+not a burden to society. Handicapped at the start, he cannot hope to
+achieve a high level of attainment. It is little short of criminal for
+a child to be condemned to lifelong weakness or suffering, because his
+parents were not fit to give him birth. Yet large numbers of parents
+make the thought of child welfare subordinate to their own desires. A
+man's primary concern in choosing a wife is his own personal
+satisfaction, not the birth and mothering of his children. Many young
+women regard the attractiveness, social position, or wealth of a young
+man as of greater consequence than his physical or moral fitness to
+become the father of her children. There are thousands of persons who
+are mentally deficient or unmoral, who nevertheless are unrestrained
+by society from association and even marriage. It is a social
+misfortune that the unfit should be taken care of by the tender
+mercies of philanthropists and even permitted to propagate their kind,
+while no special encouragement is given to those who are supremely fit
+to give their best to the upbuilding of the race. The principle of
+brotherly kindness requires that the weak and unfortunate be taken
+care of, but they should not be permitted to increase. It is a
+principle of social welfare that those who are incapable of exercising
+self-control should be placed under the control of the larger group.</p>
+
+<p>49. <b>Eugenics in Legislation.</b>&mdash;It is the conviction that the right to
+be well-born is a valid one, that has given rise to the science of
+eugenics. As a science it was first discussed by Francis Gallon, and
+it has interested writers, investigators, and legislators in all
+progressive countries. Various specific proposals have been made in
+the interest of posterity, and agitation has resulted in certain
+experiments in legislation. It is not proposed that any should be
+required to marry, but it is thought possible to encourage the well
+qualified and to discourage and restrain the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>incapable. Some of these
+proposals, such as the offering of a premium by the State for healthy
+children, or endowing mothers as public functionaries, are not widely
+approved, but Great Britain in a National Insurance Act in 1911
+included the provision of maternity benefits in recognition of the
+mother's contribution to the citizenship of the nation. Restrictive
+laws have been passed by certain of the States in America, which are
+eugenic experiments. Feeble-mindedness, in so many ways a social evil,
+is readily reproduced, and the weak-minded are easily controlled by
+the sex instinct. To prevent this certain State legislatures have
+forbidden the marriage of any feeble-minded or epileptic woman under
+the age of forty-five. It is well known that insanity is a family
+trait, and that criminal insanity is liable to recur if those who are
+afflicted are permitted to indulge in parenthood. Certain States
+accordingly annul the marriage of insane persons. Venereal disease is
+easily transmitted; there has been a beginning of legislation
+prohibiting persons thus tainted to marry. It is well established that
+very many persons, while not actually tainted with such diseases as
+tuberculosis and alcoholism, are predisposed to yield to their attack.
+For this reason the scope of eugenic legislation is likely to be
+extended. Some States have gone so far as to sterilize the unfit, that
+they may not by any chance exercise the powers of parenthood; it is
+urged in many quarters that clergymen require a medical certificate of
+good health before sanctioning marriage.</p>
+
+<p>50. <b>Family Degeneracy.</b>&mdash;Several impressive illustrations have been
+published of degenerate families that show the far-reaching effects of
+heredity. In contrast to these pictures, has been set the life story
+of families who have won renown in successive generations because of
+unusual ability. Nothing so effective is presented by any argument as
+that of concrete cases. Perhaps the best known of these stories is
+that of the Jukes family. About the middle of the eighteenth century a
+normal man with a coarse, lazy vein in his nature built himself a hut
+in the woods of central New York. In five generations he had several
+hundred descendants. A study of twelve hundred persons <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>who belonged
+to the family by kinship or marriage was made carefully, with the
+following findings. Nearly all of the family were lazy, ignorant, and
+coarse. Four hundred were physically diseased by their own fault. Two
+hundred were criminals; seven of them murderers. Fifty of the women
+were notoriously immoral. Three hundred of the children died from
+inherited weakness or neglect. More than three hundred members of the
+family were chronic paupers. It is estimated that they cost the State
+a thousand dollars apiece for pauperism and crime.</p>
+
+<p>Another family called the Kallikak family, which has been made the
+subject of investigation, is a still better example of heredity. The
+family was descended from a Revolutionary soldier, who had an
+illegitimate feeble-minded son by an imbecile young woman. The line
+continued by feeble-minded descent and marriage until four hundred and
+eighty descendants have been traced. Of these one hundred and
+forty-three were positively defective, thirty-six were illegitimate,
+thirty-three sexually immoral, mostly prostitutes, eight kept houses
+of ill repute, three were criminal, twenty-four were confirmed
+drunkards, and eighty-two died in infancy.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there are striking examples of what good birth and
+breeding can do. It happened that the ancestor of the Kallikak family,
+after he had sown his wild oats, married well and had about five
+hundred descendants. All of them were normal, only two were alcoholic,
+and one sexually loose. The family has been prominent socially and in
+every way creditable in its history. In contrast to the Jukes family,
+the history of the Edwards family has been written. Its members
+married well, were well-bred, and gave much attention to education.
+Out of fourteen hundred individuals more than one hundred and twenty
+were Yale graduates, and one hundred and sixty-five more completed
+their education at other colleges; thirteen were college presidents,
+and more than a hundred college professors; they were founders of
+schools of all grades; more than one hundred were clergymen,
+missionaries, and theological professors; seventy-five were officers
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>in the army and navy; more than eighty have been elected to public
+office; more than one hundred were lawyers, thirty judges, sixty
+physicians, and sixty prominent in literature. Not a few of them have
+been active in philanthropy, and many have been successful in
+business. It is impossible to escape from the conviction that whatever
+may be the physical and social environment, heredity perpetuates
+physical and mental worth or defectiveness and tends to produce social
+good or evil, and that the right to a worthy parentage belongs with
+the other rights to which individuals lay claim. It is as important as
+the right to a living, to an education, to a good home, or to the
+franchise. Without it society is incalculably poorer and the ultimate
+effects of failure are startling to consider.</p>
+
+<p>51. <b>Marriage and Education.</b>&mdash;Some enthusiasts have demanded that to
+make sure of a good bodily inheritance, individuals be permitted to
+produce children without the trammels of marriage if they are well
+fitted for parenthood, but such persons seem ignorant or forgetful
+that free love has never proved otherwise than disastrous in the
+history of the race, and that physical perfection is not the sole good
+with which the child needs to be endowed, but that it must be
+supplemented with moral, mental, and spiritual endowment, and with the
+permanent affection and care of both parents in the home. Galton
+himself acknowledges marriage as a prerequisite in eugenics by saying:
+"Marriage, as now sanctified by religion and safeguarded by law in the
+more highly civilized nations, may not be ideally perfect, nor may it
+be universally accepted in future times, but it is the best that has
+hitherto been devised for the parties primarily concerned, for their
+children, for home life, and for society."</p>
+
+<p>The greatest hope of eugenics lies in social education. Sex hygiene
+must in some way become a part of the child's stock of information,
+but knowledge alone does not fortify action. More important is it to
+deal with the springs of action, to teach the equal standard of purity
+for men and women, and the moral responsibility of parenthood to
+adolescent youth, and at the same time to impress upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>the whole
+community its responsibility of oversight of morals for the good of
+the next generation. Conviction of personal and social responsibility
+as superior to individual preferences is the only safety of society in
+all its relations, from eugenics through economics to ethics and
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>52. <b>Euthenics.</b>&mdash;Euthenics is the science of controlled environment,
+as eugenics is the science of controlled heredity. The health and good
+fortune of the child depend on his surroundings as well as on his
+inheritance, and the gift of a perfect physique may be vitiated by an
+unwholesome environment. Environment acts directly upon the physical
+system of the individual through climate, home conditions, and
+occupation; it acts indirectly by affecting the personal desires,
+idiosyncrasies, and possible conduct. When the child of an early
+settler was carried away from home on an Indian raid, and brought up
+in the wigwam of the savage, he forgot his civilized heritage, and
+love for his foster-parents sometimes proved stronger than his natural
+affections. The child of the Russian Jew in Europe has little ambition
+and rises to no high level, but in America he gains distinction in
+school and success in business. A natural environment of forest or
+plain may determine the occupation of a whole community; a fickle
+climate vitally affects its prosperity. Whole races have entered upon
+a new future by migration.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to be cautious and not to ascribe to environment, as
+some do, the sole influence. Every individual is the creature of
+heredity plus environment plus his own will. But it is not possible to
+overlook environment as some do, and expect by a miracle to make or
+preserve character in the midst of conditions of spiritual
+asphyxiation. If social life is to be pure and strong, communities and
+families, through the official care of overseers of health and
+industry and through the loving care of parents in the homes, must see
+that children grow up with the advantages of nourishing food, pure
+air, proper clothing, and means for cleanliness; that at the proper
+age they be given mental and moral instruction and fitted for a worthy
+vocation; that wholesome social relations be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>established by means of
+playgrounds, clubs, and societies; that industrial conditions be
+properly supervised, and young people be able to earn not alone a
+living but a marriageable wage; and that some means of social
+insurance be provided sufficient to prevent suffering and want in
+sickness and old age. In such an environment there is opportunity to
+realize the value that will accrue from a good inheritance, and there
+is incentive to make the most of life's possibilities as they come and
+go.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since the importance of environment was made plain in the
+nineteenth century, social physicians have been trying all sorts of
+experiments in community therapeutics. Many of the remedies will be
+discussed in various connections. It is enough to remark here that
+social education, social regulation, and social idealism are all
+necessary, and that a social Utopia cannot be obtained in a day.</p>
+
+<p>53. <b>The Right to Proper Care.</b>&mdash;Granted the right of the child to be
+well-born and the right to a favorable environment, there follows the
+right to be taken care of. This may be involved in the subject of a
+proper environment, but it deserves consideration by itself. There is
+more danger to the race from neglect than from race suicide. It is
+better that a child should not be born at all, than that he should be
+condemned to the hard knocks of a loveless home or a callous
+neighborhood. There is first the case of the child born out of
+wedlock, often a foundling with parentage unacknowledged. Then there
+is the child who is legitimately born as far as the law is concerned,
+but whose parents had no legitimate right to bring him into the world,
+because they had no reasonable expectation that they could provide
+properly for his wants. The wretched pauper recks nothing of the
+future of his offspring. Since the family group can never remain
+independent of the community, it may well be debated whether society
+is not under obligation to interfere and either by prohibition of
+excessive parenthood or by social provision for the care of such
+children, to secure to the young this right of proper care.</p>
+
+<p>Cruelty is a twin evil of neglect. The history of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>childhood deserves
+careful study side by side with the history of womanhood. In primitive
+times not even the right to existence was recognized. Abortion and
+infanticide, especially in the case of females, were practices used at
+will to dispose of unwelcome children, and these practices persisted
+among the backward peoples of Asia and Africa, until they were
+compelled to recognize the law of the white master when he extended
+his dominion over them. In the patriarchal household of classic lands,
+the child was under the absolute control of his father. Religious
+regulations might demand that he be instructed in the history and
+obligations of the race, as in the case of the Hebrew child, or the
+interests of the state might require physical training for its own
+defense, as in the case of Sparta, but there was no consideration of
+child rights in the home. Until the eighteenth century European
+children shared the hardships of poverty and discomfort common to the
+age, and often the cruelty of brutal and degraded parents; they were
+often condemned to long hours of industry in factories after the new
+industrial order caught them in its toils. In the mine and the mill
+and on the farm children have been bound down to labor for long and
+weary hours, until modern legislation has interfered.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of reasons why child labor has been common.
+Hereditary custom has decreed it. Children have been looked upon by
+many races as a care and a burden rather than a responsibility and a
+blessing. Their economic value was their one claim to be regarded as a
+family asset. Even the religious teaching of Jews and Christians about
+the value and responsibility of children has not been influential
+enough to compel a recognition of their worth, though their innocence
+and purity, their faith and optimism are qualities indispensable to
+the race of mankind if social relations are to approach the ideal.</p>
+
+<p>54. <b>The Value of Work.</b>&mdash;Labor is a social blessing rather than a
+curse. There can be no doubt that habits of industry are desirable for
+the child as well as for the adult. Idleness is the forerunner of
+ignorance, laziness, and general incapacity. It is no kindness to a
+child to permit him to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>spend all his time out of school in play. It
+gives him skill, a new respect for labor, and a new conception of the
+value of money, if he has a paper route, mows a lawn, shovels snow, or
+hoes potatoes. Especially is it desirable that a boy should have some
+sort of an occupation for a few hours a day during the long summer
+vacation. The child on the farm has no lack of opportunity, but for
+the boy of the city streets there is little that is practicable,
+outside of selling papers or serving as messenger boy or bootblack;
+for the girl there is little but housework or department-store
+service. Both need steady employment out of doors, and he who devises
+a method by which boys and girls can be taught such an occupation as
+gardening on vacant lots or in the city outskirts, and at the same
+time can be given a love for work and for the growing things of the
+country, will help to solve the problem of child labor and,
+incidentally, may contribute to the solution of poverty, incipient
+crime, and even of the rural problem and the high cost of living.</p>
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bosanquet</span>: <i>The Family</i>, pages 299-314.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goddard</span>: <i>The Kallikak Family.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Eames</span>: <i>Principles of Eugenics.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Saleeby</span>: <i>Parenthood and Race Culture</i>, pages 213-236.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McKeever</span>: <i>Farm Boys and Girls</i>, pages 171-196.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Galton</span>: <i>Inquiries into Human Faculty.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>WORK, PLAY AND EDUCATION.</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>55. <b>Child Labor and Its Effects.</b>&mdash;Excessive child labor away from
+home is one of the evils that has called for reform more than the lack
+of employment. The child has a right to the home life. It is injurious
+for him to be kept at a monotonous task under physical or mental
+strain for long hours in a manufacturing establishment, or to be
+deprived of time to study and to play. Yet there are nearly two
+million children in the United States under sixteen years of age who
+are denied the rights of childhood through excessive labor.</p>
+
+<p>This evil began with the adoption of the factory system in modern
+industry. The introduction of light machinery into the textile mills
+of England made it possible to employ children at low wages, and it
+was profitable for the keepers of almshouses to apprentice pauper
+children to the manufacturers. Some of them were not more than five or
+six years old, but were kept in bondage more than twelve hours a day.
+Children were compelled to hard labor in the coal-mines, and to the
+dirty work of chimney sweeping. In the United States factory labor for
+children did not begin so soon, but by 1880 children eight years old
+were being employed in Massachusetts for more than twelve hours a day,
+and in parts of the country children are still employed at long hours
+in such occupations as the manufacture of cotton, glass, silk, and
+candy, in coal-mines and canning factories. Besides these are the
+newsboys, bootblacks, and messengers of the cities, children in
+domestic and personal service, and the child laborers on the farms.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of child labor lie in the poverty and greed of parents, the
+demands of employers, and often the desire of the children to escape
+from school and earn money. In spite of agitation and legislation, the
+indifference of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>public permits it to continue and in some
+sections to increase.</p>
+
+<p>The harmful effects of child employment are numerous. It is true that
+two-thirds of the boys and nearly one-half of the girls employed in
+the United States are occupied with agriculture, most of them with
+their own parents, an occupation that is much healthier than indoor
+labor, yet agriculture demands long hours and wearisome toil. In the
+cities there is much night-work and employment in dangerous or
+unhealthy occupations. The sweating system has carried its bad effects
+into the homes of the very poor, for the younger members of the family
+can help to manufacture clothing, paper boxes, embroidery, and
+artificial flowers, and in spite of the law, such labor goes on far
+into the night in congested, ill-ventilated tenements. Children cannot
+work in this way day after day for long hours without serious physical
+deterioration. Some of them drop by the way and die as victims of an
+economic system and the social neglect that permits it. Others lose
+the opportunity of an education, and so are mentally less trained than
+the normal American child, and ultimately prove less efficient as
+industrial units. For the time they may add to the family income, but
+they react upon adult labor by lowering the wage of the head of the
+family, and they make it impossible for the child when grown to earn a
+high wage, because of inefficiency. The associations and influences of
+the street are morally degrading, and in the associations of the
+workroom and the factory yard the whole tone of the life of
+individuals is frequently lowered.</p>
+
+<p>56. <b>Child-Labor Legislation.</b>&mdash;Friends of the children have tried to
+stop abuses. Trade-unions, consumers' leagues, and State bureaus have
+taken the initiative. Voluntary organizations, like the National Child
+Labor Committee, make the regulation of child labor their special
+object. They have succeeded in the establishment of a Federal
+Children's Bureau in Washington, and have encouraged State and
+national legislation. Most of the States forbid the employment of
+children under a certain age, usually twelve or fourteen years, and
+require attention <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>to healthful conditions and moderate hours. They
+insist also that children shall not be deprived of education, but
+there is often inadequate provision made for inspection and proper
+enforcement of laws.</p>
+
+<p>The friends of the children are desirous of a uniform child-labor law
+which, if adopted and enforced by competent inspectors, would prevent
+factory work for all under fourteen years of age, and for weak
+children under sixteen would prescribe a limited number of hours and
+allow no night-work, would require certain certificates of age and
+health before employment is given, and would compel school attendance
+and the attainment of a limited education before permission is granted
+to go into the factory. Without doubt, it is a hardship to families in
+poverty that strong, growing children should not be permitted to go to
+work and help support those in need, but it is better for the social
+body to take care of its weak members in some other way, and for its
+own sake, as well as for the sake of the child, to make sure that he
+is physically and mentally equipped before he takes a regular place in
+the ranks of the wage-earners.</p>
+
+<p>57. <b>The Right to Play.</b>&mdash;The play group is the first social
+training-ground for the child outside of the home, and it continues to
+be a desirable form of association, even into adult life, but it is
+only in recent years that adults have recognized the legitimacy of
+such a claim as the right to play. It was thought desirable that a boy
+should work off his restlessness, but the wood-pile provided the usual
+safety-valve for surplus energy. Play was a waste of time. Now it is
+more clearly understood that play has a distinct value. It is
+physically beneficial, expanding the lungs, strengthening muscle and
+nerve, and giving poise and elasticity to the whole body. It is
+mentally educational in developing qualities of quickness, skill, and
+leadership. It is socially valuable, for it requires honesty, fair
+play, mutual consideration, and self-control. Co-operation of effort
+is developed as well in team-play as in team-work, and the child
+becomes accustomed to act with thought of the group. The play group is
+a temporary form of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>association, varying in size and content as the
+whim of the child or the attraction of the moment moves its members.
+It is an example of primitive groupings swayed by instinctive
+impulses. Children turn quickly from one game to another, but for the
+time are absorbed in the particular play that is going on. No
+achievement results from the activity, no organization from the
+association. The rapid shifting of the scenes and the frequent
+disputes that arise indicate lack of control. Yet it is out of such
+association that the social mind develops and organized action becomes
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>If these are the advantages of play, the right to play may properly
+demand an opportunity for games and sports in the home and the yard,
+and the necessary equipment of gymnasium and field. It may call for
+freedom from the school and home occupations sufficient to give the
+recreative impulse due scope. As its importance becomes universally
+recognized, there will be no neighborhood, however congested, that
+lacks its playground for the children, and no industry, however
+insistent, that will deprive the boy or girl of its right to enjoy a
+certain part of every day for play.</p>
+
+<p>58. <b>The Right to Liberty.</b>&mdash;The present tendency is to give large
+liberty to the child. Not only is there freedom on the playground; but
+social control in the home also has been giving place during the last
+generation to a recognition of the right of the individual child to
+develop his own personality in his own way, without much interference
+from authority. It is true that there is a nominal control in the
+home, in the school, and in the State, but in an increasing degree
+that control is held in abeyance while parent, teacher, and constable
+leniently indulge the child. This is a natural reaction from the
+discipline of an earlier time, and is a welcome indication that
+children's rights are to find recognition. Like most reactions, there
+is danger of its going too far. An inexperienced and headstrong child
+needs wise counsel and occasional restraint, and within the limits of
+kindness is helped rather than harmed by a deep respect for authority.
+Lawlessness is one of the dangers of the current period. It appears in
+countless minor <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>misdemeanors, in the riotous acts of gangs and mobs,
+in the recklessness of corporations and labor unions, and in national
+disregard for international law; and its destructive tendency is
+disastrous for the future of civilized society unless a new restraint
+from earliest childhood keeps liberty from degenerating into license.</p>
+
+<p>59. <b>The Right to Learn.</b>&mdash;There is one more right that belongs to
+children&mdash;the right of an opportunity to learn. Approximately three
+million children are born annually in the United States. Each one
+deserves to be well-born and well-reared. He needs the affectionate
+care of parents who will see that he learns how to live. This
+instruction need not be long delayed, and should not be relegated
+altogether to the school. There is first of all physical education. It
+is the mother's task to teach the child the principles of health, to
+inculcate proper habits of eating, drinking, and bathing. It is for
+her to see that he learns how to play with pleasure and profit, and is
+permitted to give expression to his natural energies. It is her
+privilege to make him acquainted with nature, and in a natural way
+with the illustration of flower and bird and squirrel she can give the
+child first lessons in sex hygiene. It is the function of the mother
+in the child's younger years and of the father in adolescent boyhood
+to open the mind of the child to understand the life processes. The
+lack of knowledge brings sorrow and sin to the family and injures
+society. Seeking information elsewhere, the boy and girl fall into bad
+habits and lay the foundation of permanent ills. The adolescent boy
+should be taught to avoid self-abuse, to practise healthful habits,
+and to keep from contact with physical and moral impurity; the
+adolescent girl should be given ample instruction in taking care of
+herself and in preparing for the responsibility of adult life.</p>
+
+<p>60. <b>Mental and Moral Education.</b>&mdash;Mental education in the home is no
+less important. It is there that the child's instinctive impulses
+first find expression and he learns to imitate the words and actions
+of other members of the home. The things he sees and handles make
+their impressions upon him. He feels and thinks and wills a thousand
+times a day. The channels of habit are being <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>grooved in the brain. It
+is the function of the home to protect him from that which is evil, to
+stimulate in him that which is good. Mental and moral education are
+inseparably interwoven. The first stories told by the mother's lips
+not only produce answering thoughts in the child mind, but answering
+modes of conduct also. The chief function of the intellect is to guide
+to right choice.</p>
+
+<p>Character building is the supreme object of life. It begins early.
+Learning to obey the parent is the first step toward self-control.
+Learning to know the beautiful from the ugly, the true from the false,
+the good from the evil is the foundation of a whole system of ethics.
+Learning to judge others according to character and attainment rather
+than according to wealth or social position cultivates the naturally
+democratic spirit of the child, and makes him a true American. Sharing
+in the responsibility of the home begets self-reliance and
+dependableness in later life.</p>
+
+<p>The supreme lesson of life is to learn to be unselfish. The child in
+the home is often obliged to yield his own wishes, and finds that he
+gets greater satisfaction than if he had contended successfully for
+his own claims. In the home the compelling motive of his life may be
+consecrated to the highest ideals, long before childhood has merged
+into manhood. Such consecration of motive is best secured through a
+knowledge of the concrete lives of noble men and women. The noble
+characters of history and literature are portraits of abstract
+excellences. It is the task of moral education in the home to make the
+ideal actual in life, to show that it is possible and worth while to
+be noble-minded, and that the highest ambition that a person can
+cherish is to be a social builder among his fellows.</p>
+
+<p>61. <b>Child Dependents.</b>&mdash;Many children are not given the rights that
+belong to them in the home. They come into the world sickly or
+crippled, inheriting a weak constitution or a tendency toward that
+which is ill. They have little help from environment. One of a
+numerous family on a dilapidated farm or in an unhealthy tenement, the
+child struggles for an existence. Poverty, drunkenness, crime,
+illegitimacy stamp themselves upon the home life. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>Neglect and cruelty
+take the place of care and education. The death of one or both parents
+robs the children of home altogether. The child becomes dependent on
+society. The number of such children in the United States approximates
+one hundred and fifty thousand.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of proper home care and training, society for its own
+protection and for the welfare of the child must assume charge. The
+State becomes a foster-parent, and as far as possible provides a
+substitute for the home. The earlier method was to place the
+individual child, with many other similar unfortunates, in a public or
+private philanthropic institution. In such an environment it was
+possible to maintain discipline, to secure instruction and a wholesome
+atmosphere for social development, and to have the advantage of
+economical management. But experience proved that a large institution
+of that kind can never be a true home or provide the proper
+opportunity for the development of individuality. The placing-out
+system, therefore, grew in favor. Results were better when a child was
+adopted into a real home, and received a measure of family affection
+and individual care. Even where a public institution must continue to
+care for dependent children, it is plainly preferable to distribute
+them in cottages instead of herding them in one large building. The
+principle of child relief is that life shall be made as nearly normal
+as possible.</p>
+
+<p>It is an accepted principle, also, that children shall be kept in
+their own home whenever possible, and if removal is necessary that
+they be restored to home associations at the earliest possible moment.
+In case of poverty, a charity organization society will help a needy
+family rather than allow it to disintegrate; in case of cruelty or
+neglect such an organization as the Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children will investigate, and if necessary find a better
+guardian; but the case must be an aggravated one before the society
+takes that last step, so important does the function of the home seem
+to be.</p>
+
+<p>62. <b>Special Institutions.</b>&mdash;It is, of course, inevitable that some
+children should be misplaced and that some should be neglected by the
+civil authorities, but public interest <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>should not allow such
+conditions to persist. Social sensitiveness to the hard lot of the
+child is a product of the modern conscience. Time was when the State
+remanded all chronic dependents to the doubtful care of the almshouse,
+and children were herded indiscriminately with their elders, as child
+delinquents were herded in the prisons with hardened criminals.
+Idiots, epileptics, and deformed and crippled children were given no
+special consideration. A kindlier public policy has provided special
+institutions for those special cases where under State officials they
+may receive adequate and permanent attention, and for normal dependent
+children there is a variety of agencies. The most approved form is the
+State school. This is virtually a temporary home where the needy child
+is placed by investigation and order of the court, is given a training
+in elementary subjects, manual arts, and domestic science, and after
+three or four years is placed in a home, preferably on a farm, where
+he can fill a worthy place in society.</p>
+
+<p>63. <b>Children's Aid Societies.</b>&mdash;Another aid society is the private
+aid society supervised and sometimes subsidized by the State. This is
+a philanthropic organization supported by private gifts, making public
+reports, managed by a board of directors, with a secretary or
+superintendent as executive officer, and often with a temporary home
+for the homeless. With these private agencies the placing-out
+principle obtains, and children are soon removed to permanent homes.
+The work of the aid societies is by no means confined to finding
+homes. It aids parents to find truant children, it gives outings in
+the summer season, it shelters homeless mothers with their children,
+it administers aid in time of sickness. In industrial schools it
+teaches children to help themselves by training them in such practical
+arts as carpentry, caning chairs, printing, cooking, dressmaking, and
+millinery.</p>
+
+<p>Efficient oversight and management, together with co-operation among
+child-saving agencies, is a present need. A national welfare bureau is
+a decided step in advance. Prevention of neglect and cruelty in the
+homes of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>children themselves is the immediate goal of all
+constructive effort. The education of public opinion to demand
+universal consideration for child life is the ultimate aim.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Mangold</span>: <i>Problems of Child Welfare</i>, pages 166-184,
+271-341.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Clopper</span>: <i>Child Labor in the City Street.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McKeever</span>: <i>Training the Boy</i>, pages 203-213.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McKeever</span>: <i>Farm Boys and Girls</i>, pages 26-36.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Lee</span>: <i>Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</i>, pages
+123-184.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Folks</span>: <i>Care of Destitute and Neglected Children.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>HOME ECONOMICS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>64. <b>The Economic Function of the Home.</b>&mdash;Up to this point the
+domestic function of the family has been under consideration. Marriage
+and parenthood must hold first place, because they are fundamental to
+the family and to the welfare of the race. But the family has an
+economic as well as a domestic function. The primitive instinct of
+hunger finds satisfaction in the home, and economic needs are supplied
+in clothing, shelter, and bodily comforts. Production, distribution,
+and consumption are all a part of the life of the farm. Domestic
+economy is the foundation of all economics, and the family on the farm
+presents the fundamental principles and phenomena that belong to the
+science of economics as it presents the fundamentals of sociology. The
+hunger for food demands satisfaction even more insistently than the
+mating instinct. Birds must eat while they woo each other and build
+their nests, and when the nest is full of helpless young both parents
+find their time occupied in foraging for food. Similarly, when human
+mating is over and the family hearth is built, and especially when
+children have entered into the home life, the main occupation of man
+and wife is to provide maintenance for the family. The need of food,
+clothing, and shelter is common to the race. The requirements of the
+family determine largely both the amount and the kind of work that is
+done to meet them. However broad and elevated may be the interests of
+the modern gentleman and his cultured wife, they cannot forget that
+the physical needs of their family are as insistent as those of the
+unrefined day laborer.</p>
+
+<p>65. <b>Primitive Economics.</b>&mdash;In primitive times the family provided
+everything for itself. In forest and field man and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>woman foraged for
+food, cooked it at the camp-fire that they made, and rested under a
+temporary shelter. If they required clothing they robbed the wild
+beasts of their hide and fur or wove an apron of vegetable fibre.
+Physical wants were few and required comparatively little labor. In
+the pastoral stage the flocks and herds provided food and clothing.
+Under the patriarchal system the woman was the economic slave. She was
+goatherd and milkmaid, fire-tender and cook, tailor and tent-maker. It
+was she who coaxed the grains to grow in the first cultivated field,
+and experimented with the first kitchen garden. She was the dependable
+field-hand for the sowing and reaping, when agriculture became the
+principal means of subsistence. But woman's position has steadily
+improved. She is no longer the slave but the helper. The peasant woman
+of Europe still works in the fields, but American women long ago
+confined themselves to indoor tasks, except in the gathering of
+special crops like cotton and cranberries. Home economics have taught
+the advantage of division of labor and co-operation.</p>
+
+<p>66. <b>Division of Labor.</b>&mdash;Because of greater fitness for the heavy
+labor of the field and barn, the man and his sons naturally became the
+agriculturists and stock-breeders as civilization improved. It was
+man's function to produce the raw material for home manufacture. He
+ploughed and fertilized the soil, planted the various seeds,
+cultivated the growing crops, and gathered in the harvest. It was his
+task to perform the rougher part of preparing the raw material for
+use. He threshed the wheat and barley on the threshing-floor and
+ground the corn at the mill, and then turned over the product to his
+wife. He bred animals for dairy or market, milked his cows, sheared
+his sheep, and butchered his hogs and beeves; it was her task to turn
+then to the household's use. She learned how to take the wheat and
+corn, the beef and pork, and to prepare healthful and appetizing meals
+for the household; she practised making butter and cheese for home use
+and exchange. She took the flax and wool and spun and wove them into
+cloth, and with her needle fashioned garments for every member <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>of the
+household and furnishings for the common home. She kept clean and tidy
+the home and its manufacturing tools.</p>
+
+<p>When field labor was slack the man improved the opportunity to fashion
+the plough and the horseshoe at the forge, to build the boat or the
+cart in the shop, to hew store or cut timber for building or firewood,
+to erect a mill for sawing lumber or grinding grain. Similarly the
+woman used her spare time in knitting and mending, and if time and
+strength permitted added to her duties the care of the poultry-house.</p>
+
+<p>67. <b>The Servant of the Household.</b>&mdash;Long before civilization had
+advanced the household included servants. When wars broke out the
+victor found himself possessed of human spoil. With passion
+unrestrained, he killed the man or woman who had come under his power,
+but when reason had a chance to modify emotion he decided that it was
+more sensible to save his captives alive and to work them as his
+slaves. The men could satisfy his economic interest, the women his sex
+desire. The men were useful in the field, the women in the house.
+Ancient material prosperity was built on the slave system of industry.
+The remarkable culture of Athens was possible because the citizens,
+free from the necessity of labor, enjoyed ample leisure. Lords and
+ladies could live in their medi&aelig;val castles and practise chivalry with
+each other, because peasants slaved for them in the fields without
+pay. Slowly the servant class improved its status. Slaves became serfs
+and serfs became free peasants, but the relation of master and servant
+based on mutual service lasted for many centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The time came when it was profitable for both parties to deal on a
+money basis, and the workman began to know the meaning of
+independence. The actual relation of master and servant remained about
+the same, for the workman was still dependent upon his employer. It
+took him a long time to learn to think much for himself, and he did
+not know how to find employment outside of the community or even the
+household where he had grown up. In the growing democracy of England,
+and more fully in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>America, the workman learned to negotiate for
+himself as a free man, and even to become himself a freeholder of
+land.</p>
+
+<p>68. <b>Hired Labor on the Farm.</b>&mdash;In the process of production in doors
+and out it was impossible on a large farm for the independent farmer
+and his wife to get on alone. There must be help in the cultivation of
+many acres and in the care of cattle and sheep. There must be
+assistance in the home when the birth and care of children brought an
+added burden to the housewife. Later the growing boys and girls could
+have their chores and thus add their contribution to the co-operative
+household, but for a time at least success on the farm depended on the
+hired laborer. Husband and wife became directors of industry as well
+as laborers themselves. In the busy summer season it was necessary to
+employ one or more assistants in the field, less often indoors, and
+the employee became for a time a member of the family. Often a
+neighbor performed the function of farm assistant, and as such stood
+on the same level as his employer; there was no servant class or
+servant problem, except the occasional shortage of laborers. Young men
+and women were glad of an opportunity to earn a little money and to
+save it in anticipation of the time when they would set up farming in
+homes of their own. The spirit and practice of co-operation dignified
+the employment in which all were engaged.</p>
+
+<p>69. <b>Co-operation.</b>&mdash;The control of the manufacturing industry on a
+large scale by corporations makes hearty co-operation between the
+employing group and the employees difficult, but on the farm the
+personal relations of the persons engaged made it easy and natural.
+The art of working together as well as living together was an
+achievement of the home, at first beginning unconsciously, but later
+with a definite purpose. The practice of co-operation is a continual
+object-lesson to the children, as they become conscious of the mutual
+dependence of each and all. The farmer has no time to do the small
+tasks, and so the boy must do the chores. There is a limit to the
+strength of the mother, and so the daughter or housemaid must
+supplement her labors. Without the grain and vegetables the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>housewife
+cannot provide the meals, but the man is equally dependent upon the
+woman for the preparation of the food. Without the care and industry
+of the parents through the helpless years of childhood, the children
+could not win in the struggle for existence. Nor is it merely an
+economic matter, but health and happiness depend upon the mutual
+consideration and helpfulness of every member of the household.</p>
+
+<p>70. <b>Economic Independence of the Farm.</b>&mdash;Until well into the
+nineteenth century the American farm household provided for most of
+its own economic needs. A country store, helped out if necessary by an
+occasional visit to town, supplied the few goods that were not
+produced at home. Economic wants were simple and means of purchase
+were not abundant. On the other hand, most of the products of the farm
+were consumed there. In the prevailing extensive agriculture the
+returns per acre were not great, methods of efficiency were not known
+or were given little attention, families were large and children and
+farm-hands enjoyed good appetites, and production and consumption
+tended to equalize themselves. In the process of the home manufacture
+of clothing it was difficult to keep the family provided with the
+necessary comforts; there was no thought of laying by a surplus beyond
+the anticipated needs of the family and provision for the wedding
+store of marriageable daughters.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of any accumulated surplus was effected by the
+simplest mechanism of exchange. If the supply of young cattle was
+large or the wood-lot furnished more firewood than was needed, the
+product was bartered for seed corn or hay. There was swapping of
+horses by the men or of fruit or vegetable preserves by the women.
+Eggs and butter disposed of at the store helped to pay for sugar,
+salt, and spices. New incentives to larger production came with the
+extension of markets. When wood and hay could be shipped to a distance
+on the railroad, when a milk route in the neighborhood or a milk-train
+to the city made dairy products more profitable, or when market
+gardening became possible on an extensive scale, better methods of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>distribution were provided to take care of the more numerous
+products.</p>
+
+<p>71. <b>Social and Economic Changes in the Family.</b>&mdash;The fundamental
+principles that govern the economic activities of the family are the
+same as they used to be. Industry, thrift, and co-operation are still
+the watchwords of prosperity. But with the development of civilization
+and the improvements in manufacture, communication, and
+transportation, the economic function of the family has changed.
+Instead of producing all the crops that he may need or the tools of
+his occupation, the farmer tends to produce the particular crops that
+he can best cultivate and that will bring him the largest returns.
+Because of increasing facilities of exchange he can sell his surplus
+and purchase the goods that will satisfy his other needs. The farmer's
+wife no longer spins and weaves the family's supply of clothing; the
+men buy their supply at the store and often even she turns over the
+task of making up her own gowns to the village dressmaker. Where there
+is a local creamery she is relieved of the manufacture of butter and
+cheese, and the cannery lays down its preserves at her door. Household
+manufacturing is confined almost entirely to the preparation of food,
+with a varying amount of dressmaking and millinery. In the towns and
+cities the needs of the family are even more completely supplied from
+without. Children are relieved of all responsibility, women's care are
+lightened by the stock of material in the shops, and the bakery and
+restaurant help to supply the table. Family life loses thereby much of
+its unity of effort and sympathy. The economic task falls mainly upon
+the male producer. Even he lives on the land and in the house of
+another man; he owns not the tools of his industry and does business
+in another's name. He hires himself to a superior for wage or salary,
+and thereby loses in a measure his own independence. But there is a
+gain in social solidarity, for the chain of mutual dependence reached
+farther and binds more firmly; there is gain in community
+co-operation, for each family is no longer self-sufficient.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bosanquet</span>: <i>The Family</i>, pages 221-227, 324-333.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Thomas</span>: <i>Sex and Society</i>, pages 123-146.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Small and Vincent</span>: <i>Introduction to the Study of
+Society</i>, pages 105-108.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Mason</span>: <i>Woman's Share in Primitive Culture.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Weeden</span>: <i>Economic and Social History of New England</i>, I,
+pages 324-326.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHANGES IN THE FAMILY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>72. <b>Causes of Changes in the Family.</b>&mdash;The family at the present time
+is in a transition era. Its machinery is not working smoothly. Its
+environment is undergoing transformation. A hundred years ago the
+family was strictly rural; not more than three per cent of the people
+lived in large communities. Now nearly one-half are classified as
+urban by the United States census of 1910, and those who remain rural
+feel the influences of the town. There is far less economic
+independence on the farm than formerly, and in the towns and cities
+the home is little more than a place in which to sleep and eat for an
+increasing number of workers, both men and women. The family on the
+farm is no longer a perfectly representative type of the family in the
+more populous centres.</p>
+
+<p>These changes are due mainly to the requirements of industry, but
+partly at least to the desire of all members of the family to share in
+urban life. The increasing ease of communication and travel extends
+the mutual acquaintance of city and country people and, as the city is
+brought nearer, its pull upon the young people of the community
+strengthens. There is also an increasing tendency of the women folk to
+enter the various departments of industry outside of the home. It is
+increasingly difficult for one person to satisfy the needs of a large
+family. This tends to send the family to the city, where there are
+wider opportunities, and to drive women and children into socialized
+industry; at the same time, it tends to restrict the number of
+children in families that have high ideals for women and children.
+Family life everywhere is becoming increasingly difficult, and at the
+same time every member of the family is growing more independent in
+temper. The result is the breaking up of a large number of homes,
+because of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>departure of the children, the separation of husband
+and wife, the desertion of parents, or the legal divorce of married
+persons. The maintenance of the family as a social institution is
+seriously threatened.</p>
+
+<p>73. <b>Static vs. Dynamic Factors.</b>&mdash;There are factors entering into
+family life that act as bonds to cement the individual members
+together. Such are the material goods that they enjoy in common, like
+the home with its comforts and the means of support upon which they
+all rely. In addition to these there are psychical elements that enter
+into their relations and strengthen these bonds. The inheritance of
+the peculiar traits, manners, and customs that differentiate one
+family from another; the reputation of the family name and pride in
+its influence; an affection, understanding, and sympathy that come
+from the intimacy of the home life and the appreciation of one
+another's best qualities are ties that do not easily rend or loosen.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there are centrifugal forces that are pushing the
+members of the family apart. At the bottom is selfish desire, which
+frets at restriction, and which is stimulated by the current emphasis
+upon personal pleasure and individual independence. The family
+solidarity which made the sons Democrats because their father voted
+that party ticket, or the daughters Methodists because their mother's
+religious preferences were for that denomination, has ceased to be
+effective. Every member of the family has his daily occupations in
+diverse localities. The head of the household may find his business
+duties in the city twenty miles away, or on the road that leads him
+far afield across the continent. For long hours the children are in
+school. The housewife is the only member of the family who remains at
+home and her outside interests and occupations have multiplied so
+rapidly as to make her, too, a comparative stranger to the home life.
+Modern industrialism has laid its hand upon the women and children,
+and thousands of them know the home only at morning and night.</p>
+
+<p>74. <b>The Strain on the Urban Family.</b>&mdash;The rapid growth of cities,
+with the increase of buildings for the joint <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>occupancy of a number of
+families, tends to disunity in each particular family and to a
+reduction in the size of families. The privacy and sense of intimate
+seclusion of the detached home is violated. The modern apartment-house
+has a common hall and stairway for a dozen families and a common
+dining-room and kitchen on the model of a hotel. The tenements are
+human incubators from which children overflow upon the streets,
+boarders invade the privacy of the family bedroom, and even sanitary
+conveniences are public. Home life is violated in the tenement by the
+pressure of an unfavorable environment; it perishes on the avenue
+because of a compelling desire to gain as much freedom as possible
+from household care.</p>
+
+<p>The care of a modern household grows in difficulty. Although the
+housekeeper has been relieved of performing certain economic functions
+that added to the burden of her grandmother, her responsibilities have
+been complicated by a number of conditions that are peculiar to the
+modern life of the town. Social custom demands of the upper classes a
+far more careful observance of fashion in dress and household
+furnishings, and in the exchange of social courtesies. The increasing
+cost of living due to these circumstances, and to a constantly rising
+standard of living, reacts upon the mind and nerves of the housewife
+with accelerating force. And not the least of her difficulties is the
+growing seriousness of the servant problem. Custom, social
+obligations, and nervous strain combine to make essential the help of
+a servant in the home. But the American maid is too independent and
+high-minded to make a household servant, and the American matron in
+the main has not learned how to be a just and considerate mistress.
+The result has been an influx of immigrant labor by servants who are
+untrained and inefficient, yet soon learn to make successful demands
+upon the employer for larger wages and more privileges because they
+are so essential to the comfort and even the existence of the family.
+Family life is increasingly at the mercy of the household employee. It
+is not strange that many women prefer the comfort and relief of an
+apartment or hotel, that many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>more hesitate to assume the
+responsibility of marriage and children, preferring to undertake their
+own self-support, and that not a few seek divorce.</p>
+
+<p>75. <b>Family Desertion.</b>&mdash;While the burden of housekeeping rests upon
+the wife, there are corresponding weights and annoyances that fall
+upon the man. Business pressure and professional responsibility are
+wearying; he, too, feels the strain upon his nerves. When he returns
+home at evening he is easily disturbed by a worried wife, tired and
+fretful children, and the unmistakable atmosphere of gloom and
+friction that permeates many homes. He contrasts his unenviable
+position with the freedom and good-fellowship of the club, and chafes
+under the family bonds. In many cases he breaks them and sets himself
+free by way of the divorce court. The course of men of the upper class
+is paralleled by that of the working man or idler who meets similar
+conditions in a home where the servant does not enter, but where there
+is a surplus of children. He finds frequent relief in the saloon, and
+eventually escapes by deserting his family altogether, instead of
+having recourse to the law. This practice of desertion, which is the
+poor man's method of divorce, is one of the continual perplexities of
+organized charity, and constitutes one of the serious problems of
+family life. There are gradations in the practice of desertion, and it
+is not confined to men. The social butterfly who neglects her children
+to flutter here and there is a temporary deserter, little less
+culpable than the lazy husband who has an attack of <i>wanderlust</i>
+before the birth of each child, and who returns to enjoy the comforts
+of home as soon as his wife is again able to assume the function of
+bread-winner for the growing family. From these it is but a step to
+the mutual desertion of a man and a woman, who from incompatibility of
+temper find it advisable to separate and go their own selfish ways, to
+wait until the law allows a final severance of the marriage bond.</p>
+
+<p>It is indisputable that this breaking up of the home is reacting
+seriously upon the moral character of the present generation; there is
+a carelessness in assuming the responsibility of marriage, and too
+much shirking of responsibility <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>when the burden weighs heavily. There
+is a weakening of real affection and a consequent lack of mutual
+forbearance; there is an increasing feeling that marriage is a lottery
+and not worth while unless it promises increased satisfaction of
+sexual, economic, or social desires and ambitions.</p>
+
+<p>76. <b>Feminism.</b>&mdash;There can be no question that the growing
+independence of woman has complicated the family situation. In
+reaction against the long subjection that has fallen to her lot, the
+modern woman in many cases rebels against the control of custom and
+the expectations of society, refuses to regard herself as strictly a
+home-keeper, and in some cases is unwilling to become a mother. She
+seeks wider associations and a larger range of activities outside of
+the home, she demands the same rights and privileges that belong to
+man, and she dreams of the day when her power as well as her influence
+will help to mould social institutions. The feminist movement is in
+the large a wholesome reaction against an undeserved subserviency to
+the masculine will. Undoubtedly it contains great social potencies. It
+deserves kindly reception in the struggle to reform and reconstruct
+society where society is weak.</p>
+
+<p>The present situation deserves not abuse, but the most careful
+consideration from every man. In countless cases woman has not only
+been repressed from activities outside of the family group, but has
+been oppressed in her own home also. America prides itself on its
+consideration for woman in comparison with the general European
+attitude toward her, but too often chivalry is not exercised in the
+home. Often the wife has been a slave in the household where she
+should have been queen. She has been subject to the passion of an hour
+and the whim of a moment. She has been servant rather than helpmeet.
+Upon her have fallen the reproaches of the unbridled temper of other
+members of the family; upon her have rested the burdens that others
+have shirked. Husband and children have been free to find diversion
+elsewhere; family responsibilities or broken health have confined her
+at home. Her husband might even find sex satisfaction away from home,
+but public opinion would be more lenient with him than with her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>if
+she offended. The time has come when it is right that these
+inequalities and injustices should cease. Society owes to woman not
+only her right to her own person and property, but the right to bear,
+also, her fair share of social responsibility in this modern world.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in the process of coming to her own, there is danger that the wife
+will forget that marriage is the most precious of human relations;
+that the home has the first claim upon her; that motherhood is the
+greatest privilege to which any woman, however socially gifted, can
+aspire; and that social institutions of tried worth are not lightly to
+be cast upon the rubbish heap. It is by no means certain that society
+can afford or that women ought to demand individualistic rights that
+will put in jeopardy the welfare of the remainder of the family. The
+average woman has not the strength to carry properly the burden of
+home cares plus large political and social responsibilities, nor has
+she the money to employ in the home all the modern improvements of
+labor-saving devices and skilled service that might in a measure take
+her place. Nor is it at all certain that the granting of individual
+rights to women would tend to purify sex relations, but it is quite
+conceivable that the old moral and religious sanctions of marriage may
+disappear and the State assume the task of caring for all children. It
+is clear that the rights and duties of women constitute a very serious
+part of the problem of family life.</p>
+
+<p>77. <b>Individual Rights vs. Social Duties.</b>&mdash;The greatest weakness to
+be found in twentieth-century society is the disposition on the part
+of almost all individuals to place personal rights ahead of social
+duties. The modern spirit of individualism has grown strong since the
+Renaissance and the Reformation. It has forced political changes until
+absolutism has been yielding everywhere to democracy. It has extended
+social privileges until it has become possible for any one with push
+and ability to make his way to the top rung of the ladder of social
+prestige. It has permitted freedom to profess and practise any
+religion, and to advocate the most bizarre ideas in ethics and
+philosophy. It has brought human individuals to the place where they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>feel that nothing may be permitted to stand between them and the
+satisfaction of personal desire. The disciples of Nietzsche do not
+hesitate to stand boldly for the principle that might makes right,
+that he who can crush his competitors in the race for pleasure and
+profit has an indisputable claim on whatever he can grasp, and that
+the principle of mutual consideration is antiquated and ridiculous.
+Such principles and privileges may comport with the elemental
+instincts and interests of unrestrained, primitive creatures, but they
+do not harmonize with requirements of social solidarity and
+efficiency. Social evolution in the past has come only as the struggle
+for individual existence was modified by consideration for the needs
+of another, and social welfare in the future can be realized only as
+men and women both are willing to sacrifice age-long prejudice or
+momentary pleasure and profit to the permanent good of the larger
+group.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cooley</span>: <i>Social Organization</i>, pages 356-371.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Brandt and Baldwin</span>: <i>Family Desertion.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>The Family in Its Sociological Aspects</i>, pages
+85-95, 109-118.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goodsell</span>: <i>The Family as a Social and Educational
+Institution</i>, pages 456-477.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howard</span>: <i>History of Matrimonial Institutions</i>, III, pages
+239-250.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>DIVORCE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>78. <b>The Main Facts About Divorce.</b>&mdash;An indication of the emphasis on
+individual rights is furnished by the increase of divorce, especially
+in the United States, where the demands of individualism and
+industrialism are most insistent. The divorce record is the
+thermometer that measures the heat of domestic friction. Statistics of
+marriage and divorce made by the National Government in 1886 and again
+in 1906 make possible a comparison of conditions which reveal a rapid
+increase in the number of divorces granted by the courts. Certain
+outstanding facts are of great importance.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The number of divorces in twenty years increased from 23,000 to
+72,000, which is three times the rate of increase of the population of
+the country. If this rate of progress continues, more than half the
+marriages in the United States will terminate in divorce by the end of
+the present century.</p>
+
+<p>(2) In the first census it was discovered that the number of divorces
+in the United States exceeded the total number of divorces in all the
+European countries; in the second census it was shown that the United
+States had increased its divorces three times, while Japan, with the
+largest divorce rate in the world, had reduced its rate one-half.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Divorces in the United States are least common among people of the
+middle class; they are higher among native whites than among
+immigrants, and they are highest in cities and among childless
+couples.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Two-thirds of the divorces are granted on the demands of the wife.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Divorce laws are very variable in the different <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>States, but most
+divorces are obtained from the States where the applicants reside.</p>
+
+<p>79. <b>Causes of Divorce.</b>&mdash;The causes recorded in divorce cases do not
+represent accurately the real causes, for the reason that it is easier
+to get an uncontested decision when the charges are not severe, and
+also for the reason that State laws vary and that which best fits the
+law will be put forward as the principal cause. Divorce laws in the
+United States generally recognize adultery, desertion, cruelty,
+drunkenness, lack of support, and crime as legitimate grounds for
+divorce. In the five years from 1902 to 1906 desertion was given as
+the ground for divorce in thirty-eight per cent of the cases, cruelty
+in twenty-three per cent, and adultery in fifteen per cent.
+Intemperance was given as the direct cause in only four per cent, and
+neglect approximately the same. The assignment of marital
+unfaithfulness in less than one-sixth of the cases, as compared with
+one-fourth twenty years before does not mean, however, that there is
+less unfaithfulness, but that minor offenses are considered sufficient
+on which to base a claim; the small percentage of charges of
+intemperance as the principal cause ought not to obscure the fact that
+it was an indirect cause in one-fifth of the cases.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural that the countries of Europe should present greater
+variety of laws and of causes assigned. In England, where the law has
+insisted on adultery as a necessary cause, divorces have been few. In
+Ireland, where the church forbids it, divorce is rare, less than one
+to thirty-five marriages. In Scotland fifty per cent of the cases
+reported are due to adultery. Cruelty was the principal cause ascribed
+in France, Austria, and Rumania; desertion in Russia and Sweden. The
+tendency abroad is to ascribe more rather than less to adultery.</p>
+
+<p>The real causes for divorce are more remote than the specific acts of
+adultery, desertion, or cruelty that are mentioned as grounds for
+divorce. The primary cause is undoubtedly the spirit of individual
+independence that demands its rights at the expense of others. In the
+case of women there is less hesitancy than formerly in seeking
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>freedom from the marriage bond because of the increasing opportunity
+of self-support. The changing conditions of home life in the city,
+with the increasing cost of living, coupled with the ease of divorce,
+encourage resort to the courts. The unscrupulousness of some lawyers,
+who fatten their purses at the expense of marital happiness, and the
+meddlesomeness of relatives are also contributing causes. Finally the
+restraint of religion has relaxed, and unhappy and ill-mated persons
+do not shrink from taking a step which was formerly condemned by the
+church.</p>
+
+<p>80. <b>History of Divorce.</b>&mdash;The history of divorce presents various
+opinions and practices. The Hebrews had high ideals, but frequently
+fell into lax practices; the Greeks began well but degenerated sadly
+to the point where marriage was a mere matter of convenience; the
+Romans, noted for their sterling qualities in the early days of the
+republic, practised divorce without restraint in the later days of the
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Christianity was greatly to restrict divorce. The
+teaching of the Bible was explicit that the basis of marriage was the
+faithful love of the heart, and that impure desire was the essence of
+adultery. Illicit intercourse was the only possible moral excuse for
+divorce. True to this teaching, the Christian church tried hard to
+abolish divorce, as it attempted to check all sexual evils, and the
+Catholic Church threw about marriage the veil of sanctity by making it
+one of the seven sacraments. As a sacrament wedlock was indissoluble,
+except as money or influence induced the church to turn back the key
+which it alone possessed. Separation was allowed by law, but not
+divorce. Greater stability was infused into the marriage relation. Yet
+it is not possible to purify sex relations by tying tightly the
+marriage bond. Unfaithfulness has been so common in Europe among the
+higher classes that it occasioned little remark, until the social
+conscience became sensitive in recent decades, and among the lower
+classes divorce was often unnecessary, because so many unions took
+place without the sanction of the church. In Protestant countries
+there has been a variable recession <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>from the extreme Catholic ground.
+The Episcopal Church in England and in colonial America recognized
+only the one Biblical cause of unfaithfulness; the more radical
+Protestants turned over the whole matter to the state. In New England
+desertion and cruelty were accepted alongside adultery as sufficient
+grounds for divorce, and the legislature sometimes granted it by
+special enactment.</p>
+
+<p>81. <b>Investigation and Legislation in the United States and
+England.</b>&mdash;The divorce question provoked some discussion in this
+country about the time of the Civil War, and some statistics were
+gathered. Twenty years later the National Government was induced by
+the National Divorce Reform League to take a careful census of
+marriage and divorce. This was published in 1889, and revised and
+reissued in 1909. These reports aroused the States which controlled
+the regulation of marriage and divorce to attempt improved
+legislation. Almost universally among them divorce was made more
+difficult instead of easier. The term of residence before divorce
+could be obtained was lengthened; certain changes were made in the
+legal grounds for divorce; in less than twenty years fourteen States
+limited the privilege of divorced persons to remarry until after a
+specified time had elapsed, varying from three months to two years.
+Congress passed a uniform marriage law for all the territories. It was
+believed almost universally that the Constitution should be amended so
+as to secure a federal divorce law, but experience proved that it was
+better that individual States should adopt a uniform law. The later
+tendency has been in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the churches of the country interested themselves in
+the subject. The Protestant Episcopal Church took strong ground
+against its ministers remarrying a divorced person, and the National
+Council of Congregational Churches appointed a special committee which
+reported in 1907 in favor of strictness. Fourteen Protestant churches
+combined in an Interchurch Committee to secure united action, and the
+Federal Council of Churches recorded itself against the prevailing
+laxness. The purpose of all this group action was to check abuses and
+to create a more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>sensitive public opinion, especially among moral and
+religious leaders.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain, on the other hand, divorce had always been
+difficult. There the strictness of the law led to a demand for a study
+of the subject and a report to Parliament. The result was the
+appointment of a Royal Commission on Divorce and Matrimonial Causes,
+consisting of twelve members, which investigated for three years, and
+in 1912 presented its report. It recognized the fact that severe
+restrictions were in force, and a majority of the commission regarding
+marriage as a legal rather than a sacramental bond, favored easier
+divorce and a single standard of morality for both sexes. It was
+proposed that the grounds for legal divorce should be adultery,
+desertion extending over three years, cruelty, incurable insanity
+after confinement for five years, habitual drunkenness found incurable
+after three years, or imprisonment carrying with it a sentence of
+death. A minority of the committee still regarding marriage as a
+sacrament, favored no relaxation of the law as it stood.</p>
+
+<p>82. <b>Proposed Remedies.</b>&mdash;Various remedies have been proposed to stem
+the tide of excessive divorce. There are many who see in divorce
+nothing more than a healthy symptom of individual independence, a
+revolt against conditions of the home that are sometimes almost
+intolerable. Many others are alarmed at the rapid increase of divorce,
+especially in the United States, and believe that checks are necessary
+for the continued existence of the family and the well-being of
+society. The first reform proposed as a means of prevention of divorce
+is the revision of the marriage laws on a higher model. The second is
+a stricter divorce law, made as uniform as possible. The third is the
+adoption of measures of reconciliation which will remove the causes
+that provoke divorce.</p>
+
+<p>The proposed laws include such provisions as the prohibition of
+marriage for those who are criminal, degenerate, or unfitted to
+perform the sex function; the requirement of six months' publication
+of matrimonial banns and a physical certificate before marriage; a
+strictly provisional decree <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>of divorce; the establishment of a court
+of domestic relations, and a prohibition of remarriage of the
+defendant during the life of the plaintiff. These are reasonable
+restrictions and seem likely to be adopted gradually, as practicable
+improvements over the existing laws. It is also proposed that the
+merits of every case shall be more carefully considered, and the
+judicial procedure improved by the appointment of a divorce proctor in
+connection with every court trying divorce cases, whose business it
+shall be to make investigations and to assist in trying or settling
+specific cases. Experiment has proved the value of such an officer.</p>
+
+<p>83. <b>Court of Domestic Relations.</b>&mdash;One of the most significant
+improvements that has taken place is the establishment of a court of
+domestic relations, which already exists in several cities, and has
+made an enviable record. In the early experiments it seemed
+practicable in Kansas to make such a court a branch of the circuit and
+juvenile courts, so arranged that it would be possible to deal with
+the relations of the whole family; in Chicago the new tribunal was
+made a part of the municipal court. By means of patient questioning,
+first by a woman assistant and then by the judge himself, and by good
+advice and explicit directions as to conduct, with a warning that
+failure would be severely treated, it has been possible to unravel
+hundreds of domestic entanglements.</p>
+
+<p>84. <b>Tendencies.</b>&mdash;There can be no question that the present tendency
+is in the direction of greater freedom in the marriage relation.
+Society will not continue to sanction inhumanity and immorality in the
+relations of man to woman. Marriage is ideally a sacred relation, but
+when it is not so treated, when love is dead and repulsion has taken
+its place, and especially when physical contact brings disease and
+suffering, public opinion is likely to consider that marriage is
+thereby virtually annulled, and to permit ratification of the fact by
+a decree of divorce. On the other hand, it is probable that increasing
+emphasis will be put on serious and well-prepared marriage, on the
+inculcation of a spirit of mutual love and forbearance through the
+agency <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>of the church, and on the exhaustion of every effort to
+restore right relations, if they have not been irreparably destroyed,
+before any grant of divorce will be allowed. In this, as in all
+problems of the family, the spirit of mutual consideration for the
+interests of all concerned is that which must be invoked for a speedy
+and permanent solution. Education of young people in the importance of
+the family as a social institution and in the responsibility which
+every individual member should feel to make and keep the family pure
+and strong as a bulwark of social stability, is the surest means of
+preventing altogether its dissolution.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang">"Report on Marriage and Divorce," 1906, <i>Bureau of the Census</i>,
+I, pages 272-274, 331-333.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Reports of the National League for the Protection of the Family."</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Post</span>: <i>Ethics of Marriage and Divorce</i>, pages 62-84.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>The Family in Its Sociological Aspects</i>, pages
+96-108.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howard</span>: <i>History of Matrimonial Institutions</i>, III, pages
+3-160.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Willcox</span>: <i>The Divorce Problem.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE SOCIAL EVIL</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>85. <b>Sexual Impurity.</b>&mdash;A prime factor in the breaking up of the home
+is sexual impurity. The sex passion, an elemental instinct of
+humanity, is sanctified by the marriage relation, but unbridled in
+those who seek above all else their own pleasure, becomes a curse in
+body and soul. It is not limited to either sex, but men have been more
+self-indulgent, and have been treated more leniently than erring
+women. Sexual impurity is wide-spread, but public opinion against it
+is steadily strengthening, and the tendency is to hold men and women
+equally responsible. For the sake of clearness it is advisable to
+distinguish between various forms of impurity, and to observe the
+proper terms. The sexual evil appears in aggravated form in commercial
+prostitution, but is more prevalent as an irregularity among
+non-professionals. Sexual intercourse before marriage, or fornication,
+was not infrequent in colonial days, and in Europe is startlingly
+common; very frequently among the lower classes there is no marriage
+until a child is born. Sexual infidelity after marriage, or adultery,
+is the cause of the ruin of many homes. In the cities and among the
+well-to-do classes the keeping of mistresses is an occasional
+practice, but it is far less common than was the case in former days,
+when it was the regular custom at royal courts and imitated by those
+lower in the social scale.</p>
+
+<p>86. <b>Prostitution.</b>&mdash;Prostitution, softened in common speech to "the
+social evil," is a term for promiscuity of sex relationship for pay or
+its equivalent. It is a very old practice, and has existed in the East
+as a part of religious worship in veneration of the power of
+generation. In the West it is a frequent accompaniment of intemperance
+and crime. Modern prostitutes are recruited almost entirely from the
+lower middle class, both in Europe and America. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>Ignorant and helpless
+immigrant girls are seduced on the journey, in the streets of American
+cities, and in the tenements. Domestic servants and employees in
+factories and department stores seem to be most subject to
+exploitation, but no class or employment is immune. A great many
+girls, while still in their teens, have begun their destructive
+career. They are peculiarly susceptible in the evening, after the
+strain of the day's labor, when they are hunting for fun and
+excitement in theatres, dance-halls, and moving-picture shows. In
+summer they are themselves hunted on excursion steamers, and at the
+parks and recreation grounds. The seduction and exploitation of young
+women has become a distinct occupation of certain worthless young men,
+commonly known as cadets, who live upon the earnings of the women they
+procure. Three-fourths of the prostitutes have such men dependent on
+them, to whom they remain attached through fear or need of pecuniary
+relief in case of arrest, or even through a species of affection,
+though they receive nothing but abuse in return. Once secured, the
+victim is not permitted to escape. Not many women enter the life of
+prostitution from choice, but when they have once yielded to
+temptation or force, they lose their self-respect and usually sink
+into hopeless degradation, and then do not shrink from soliciting
+business within doors or on the streets.</p>
+
+<p>87. <b>Promotion and Regulation of Vice.</b>&mdash;The social evil is centred in
+houses of ill fame managed by unprincipled women. The business is
+financed and the profits enjoyed by men who constantly stimulate the
+trade to make it more profitable. As a result of investigations in New
+York, it is estimated that the number of prostitutes would be not more
+than one-fourth of what it is were it not for the ruthless greed of
+these men. The houses are usually located in the poorer parts of the
+city, but they are also to be found scattered elsewhere. In cases
+where public opinion does not warrant rigid enforcement of the law
+against it, the illicit traffic is disregarded by the police, and
+often they are willing to share in the gains as the price of their
+leniency. As a rule the business is kept under cover and not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>permitted to flaunt itself on the streets. Definite segregation in a
+particular district has been attempted, and has sometimes been favored
+as a means of checking vice, but this means is not practised or
+favored after experiment has shown its uselessness as a check upon the
+trade. Government regulation by a system of license, with registration
+of prostitutes and regular though superficial examination of health,
+is in vogue in parts of western and southern Europe, but it is not
+favored by vice commissions that have examined into its workings.</p>
+
+<p>88. <b>Extent of the Social Evil.</b>&mdash;It is probable that estimates as to
+the number of prostitutes in the great urban centres has been much
+exaggerated. In the nature of the case it is very difficult to get
+accurate reports, but when it is remembered that the number of men who
+frequent the resorts is not less than fifteen times the number of
+women, and that in most cases the proportion is larger, it is not
+difficult to conceive of the immense profits to the exploiters, but
+also of the enormous economic waste, the widely prevalent physical
+disease, and the untold misery of the women who sin, and of the
+innocent women at home who are sinned against by those who should be
+their protectors.</p>
+
+<p>A "white-slave traffic" seems to have developed in recent years that
+has not only increased the number of local prostitutes, but has united
+far-distant urban centres. It is very difficult to prove an intercity
+trade, but investigation has produced sufficient evidence to show that
+there is an organized business of procuring victims and that they have
+been exported to distant parts of the world, including South America,
+South Africa, and the Far East.</p>
+
+<p>89. <b>The Causes.</b>&mdash;The social evil has usually been blamed upon the
+perversity of women and their pecuniary need, but investigation makes
+it plain that the causes go deeper than that. The first cause is the
+ignorance of girls who are permitted to grow up and go out into the
+world innocently, unaware of the snares in which they are liable to
+become enmeshed. Added to this ignorance is the lack of moral and
+religious training, so that there is often no firm conviction of right
+and wrong, an evil which is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>intensified in the city tenements by the
+conditions of congested population. A third grave cause is the public
+neglect of persons of defective mentality and morality. Women who are
+not capable of taking care of themselves are allowed full liberty of
+conduct, and frequently fall victims to the seducer. An investigation
+of cases in the New York Reformatory for Women at Bedford in 1913
+showed one-third very deficient mentally; the Massachusetts Vice
+Commission in 1914 reported one-half to three-fourths of three hundred
+cases to be of the same class. It seems clear that a large proportion
+of prostitutes generally belong in this category. It has been
+estimated that there are now (1915) as many defective women at large
+in Massachusetts as there are in public institutions.</p>
+
+<p>Poverty is an important factor in the extension of the sexual evil. It
+is notorious that thousands of women workers are underpaid. In
+factories, restaurants, and department stores they frequently receive
+wages much less than the eight dollars a week required by women to
+maintain themselves, if dependent on their own resources. The American
+woman's pride in a good appearance, the natural human love of ease,
+luxury, and excitement, the craving for relaxation and thrill, after
+the exacting labor of a long day, all contribute to the welcome of an
+opportunity for an indulgence that brings money in return. The agency
+of the dance-hall and the saloon has also an important place in the
+downfall of the tempted. Intemperance and prostitution go together,
+and places where they can be enjoyed are factories of vice and crime.
+Many so-called hotels with bar attachment are little more than houses
+of evil resort. Especially notorious for a time were the Raines Law
+hotels in New York City, designed to check intemperance, but proving
+nurseries of prostitution. Commercial profit is large from both kinds
+of traffic, and one stimulates the other.</p>
+
+<p>Among minor causes of the social evil is the postponement or
+abandonment of marriage by many young people, the celibate life
+imposed upon students and soldiers, the declaration of some physicians
+that continence is injurious, and lax opinion, especially in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>90. <b>The Consequences.</b>&mdash;It is impossible to measure adequately the
+consequences of sexual indulgence. It is destructive of physical
+health among women and of morals among both sexes. It results in a
+weakening of the will and a blunting of moral discernment. It is an
+economic waste, as is intemperance, for even on the level of economic
+values it is plain that money could be much better spent for that
+which would benefit rather than curse. But the great evil that looms
+large in public view is the legacy of physical disease that falls upon
+self-indulgent men and their families. The presence of venereal
+disease in Europe is almost unbelievable; so great has it been in
+continental armies that governments have become alarmed as to its
+effects upon the health and morale of the troops. College men have
+been reckless in sowing wild oats, and have suffered serious physical
+consequences. Most pathetic is the suffering that is caused to
+innocent wives and children in blindness, sterility, and frequent
+abdominal disease. This is a subject that demands the attention of
+every person interested in human happiness and social welfare.</p>
+
+<p>91. <b>History of Reform.</b>&mdash;Spasmodic efforts to suppress the social
+evil have occurred from time to time. The result has been to scatter
+rather than to suppress it, and after a little it has crept back to
+its old haunts. Scattering it in tenements and residential districts
+has been very unfortunate. The cure is not so simple a process.
+Neither will segregation help. It is now generally agreed, especially
+as a result of recent investigations by vice commissioners in the
+large cities, that there must be a brave, sustained effort at
+suppression, and then the patient task of reclaiming the fallen and
+preventing the evil in future.</p>
+
+<p>Organization and investigation are the two words that give the key to
+the history of reform. International societies are agitating abroad;
+other associations are directly engaged in checking vice in the United
+States, most prominent of which is the American Vigilance Association.
+Rescue organizations are scattered through the cities. Especially
+active have been the commissions of investigation appointed privately
+and by municipal, State, and Federal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>Governments, which have issued
+illuminating reports. The United States in 1908 joined in an
+international treaty to prevent the world-wide traffic in white
+slaves, and in 1910 Congress passed the Mann White Slave Act to
+prevent interstate traffic in America.</p>
+
+<p>92. <b>Measures of Prevention and Cure.</b>&mdash;The social evil is one about
+which there have been all sorts of wild opinions, but the facts are
+becoming well substantiated by investigations, and these
+investigations are the basis upon which all scientific conclusions
+must rest, alike for public education and for constructive
+legislation. No one remedy is adequate. There are those who believe
+that the church has it in its power to stir a wave of indignation that
+would sweep the whole traffic from the land, but it is not so simple a
+process. It is generally agreed that both education and legislation
+are necessary to check the evil. The first is necessary for the public
+health, and to support repressive laws. As a helpful means of
+repression it is proposed that the social evil, along with questions
+of social morals, like gambling, excise, and amusements, shall be
+taken out of the hands of the municipal police and the politicians,
+and lodged with an unpaid morals commission, which shall have its own
+special corps of expert officers and a morals court for the trial of
+cases appropriate to its jurisdiction. This experiment actually has
+been tried in Berlin. Measures of prevention as well as measures of
+repression are needed. Restraint is needed for defectives; protection
+for immigrants and young people, especially on shipboard, in the
+tenements, and in the moving-picture houses; better housing, better
+amusements, and better wages for all the people. Finally, the wrecks
+must be taken care of. Rescue homes and other agencies manage to save
+a few to reformed lives; homes are needed constantly for temporary
+residence. Private philanthropy has provided them thus far, but the
+United States Government has discussed the advisability of building
+them in sufficient numbers to meet every local need. Many old and
+hardened offenders need reformatories with farm and hospital where
+they can be cared for during a long time; some of the States have
+provided these already. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>The principles upon which a permanent cure of
+the social evil must be based are similar to those that underlie all
+family reform, namely, the rescue as far as possible of those already
+fallen, the social and moral education of youth to nobler purpose and
+will, the removal of unfavorable economic and social conditions, and
+the improvement of family life until it can satisfy the human cravings
+that legitimately belong to it.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Addams</span>: <i>A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Willson</span>: <i>The American Boy and the Social Evil.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Morrow</span>: <i>Social Diseases and Marriage</i>, pages 331-353.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Kneeland</span>: <i>Commercialized Prostitution in New York City</i>,
+pages 253-271.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>93. <b>Social Characteristics Illustrated by the Family.</b>&mdash;A study of
+the family such as has been made illustrates the characteristics of
+social life that were noted in the introductory chapter. There is
+activity in the performance of every domestic, economic, and social
+function. There is association in various ways for various purposes
+between all members of the family. Control is exercised by paternal
+authority, family custom, and personal and family interest. The
+history of the family shows gradual changes that have produced
+varieties of organization, and the present situation discloses
+weaknesses that are precipitating upon society very serious problems.
+Present characteristics largely determine future processes; always in
+planning for the future it is necessary to take into consideration the
+forces that produce and alter social characteristics. Specific
+measures meet with much scepticism, and enthusiastic reformers must
+always reckon with inertia, frequent reactions, and slow social
+development. In the face of sexualism, divorce, and selfish
+individualism, it requires patience and optimism to believe that the
+family will continue to exist and the home be maintained.</p>
+
+<p>94. <b>Principles of Family Reform.</b>&mdash;It is probably impossible to
+restore the home life of the past, as it is impossible to turn back
+the tide of urban migration and growth. But it is possible on the
+basis of certain fundamental principles to improve the conditions of
+family life by means of methods that lie at hand. The first principle
+is that the home must function properly. There must be domestic and
+economic satisfactions. Without the satisfaction of the sexual and
+parental instincts and an atmosphere of comfort and freedom from
+anxiety, the home is emptied of its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>attractions. The second principle
+is that social sympathy and service rather than individual
+independence shall be the controlling motive in the home. As long as
+every member of the family consults first his own pleasure and comfort
+and contributes only half-heartedly to create a home atmosphere and to
+perform his part of the home functions, there can be no real gain in
+family life. The home is built on love; it can survive on nothing less
+than mutual consideration.</p>
+
+<p>95. <b>The Method of Economic Adjustment.</b>&mdash;The first method by which
+these principles can be worked out is economic adjustment. It is
+becoming imperative that the family income and the family requirements
+shall be fitted together. Less extravagance and waste of expenditure
+and a living wage to meet legitimate needs, are both demanded by
+students of economic reform. It is not according to the principles of
+social righteousness that any family should suffer from cold or
+hunger, nor is it right that any social group should be wasteful of
+the portion of economic goods that has come to it. There is great
+need, also, that the expense of living should be reduced while the
+standards of living shall not be lowered. The business world has been
+trying to secure economies in production; there is even greater need
+of economies in distribution. Millions are wasted in advertising and
+in the profits of middlemen. Some method of co-operative buying and
+selling will have to be devised to stop this economic leakage. It
+would relieve the housewife from some of the worries of housekeeping
+and lighten the heart of the man who pays the bills. A third
+adjustment is that of the household employee to the remainder of the
+household. The servant problem is first an economic problem, and
+questions of wages, hours, and privileges must be based on economic
+principles; but it is also a social problem. The servant bears a
+social relation to the family. The family home is her home, and she
+must have a certain share in home comforts and privileges. A fourth
+reform is better housing and equipment. Attractive and comfortable
+houses in a wholesome environment of light, air, and sunshine, built
+for economical and easy <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>housekeeping, are not only desirable but
+essential for a permanent and happy family life.</p>
+
+<p>96. <b>The Method of Social Education.</b>&mdash;A second general method by
+which the principles of home life may be carried out is social
+education. Given the material accessories, there must be the education
+of the family in their use. Children in the home need to know the
+fundamentals of personal and sex hygiene and the principles of
+eugenics. In home and in school the emphasis in education should be
+upon social rather than economic values, on the significance of social
+relationships and the opportunities of social intercourse in the home
+and the community, on the personal and social advantages of
+intellectual culture, on the importance of moral progress in the
+elimination of drunkenness, sexualism, poverty, crime, and war, if
+there is to be future social development, and on the value of such
+social institutions as the home, the school, the church, and the state
+as agencies for individual happiness and group progress. Especially
+should there be impressed upon the child mind the transcendent
+importance of affectionate co-operation in the home circle, parents
+sacrificing personal preferences and anticipations of personal
+enjoyment for the good of children, and children having consideration
+for the wishes and convictions of their elders, and recognizing their
+own responsibility in rendering service for the common good.
+Sanctioned by law, by the custom of long tradition, by economic and
+social valuations, the home calls for personal devotion of will and
+purpose from every individual for the welfare of the group of which he
+is a privileged member. The family tie is the most sacred bond that
+links individuals in human society; to strengthen it is one of the
+noblest aspirations of human endeavor.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>The Family in Its Sociological Aspects</i>, pages
+119-134.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Post</span>: <i>Ethics of Marriage and Divorce</i>, pages 105-127.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howard</span>: <i>History of Matrimonial Institutions</i>, III, pages
+253-259.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Thwing</span>: <i>The Recovery of the Home.</i> A Pamphlet.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>PART III&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE COMMUNITY AND ITS HISTORY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>97. <b>Broadening the Horizon.</b>&mdash;Out of the kindergarten of the home the
+child graduates into the larger school of the community. Thus far
+through his early years the child's environment has been restricted
+almost entirely to the four walls of the home or the limits of the
+farm. His horizon has been bounded by garden, pasture, and orchard,
+except as he has enjoyed an occasional visit to the village centre or
+has found playmates on neighboring farms. He has shared in the
+isolation of the farm. The home of the nearest neighbor is very likely
+out of sight beyond the hill, or too far away for children's feet to
+travel the intervening distance; on the prairie the next door may be
+over the edge of the horizon. The home has been his social world. It
+has supplied for him a social group, persons to talk with, to play
+with, to work with. Inevitably he takes on their characteristics, and
+his life will continue to be narrow and to grow conservative and hard,
+unless he enlarges his experience, broadens his horizon, tries new
+activities, enjoys new associations, tests new methods of social
+control, and lets the forces that produce social change play upon his
+own life.</p>
+
+<p>Happy is he when he enters definitely into community life by taking
+his place in the district school. The schoolhouse may be at the
+village centre or it may stand aloof among the trees or stark on a
+barren hillside along the country road; physical environment is of
+small consequence as compared with the new social environment of the
+schoolroom itself. The child has come into contact with others <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>of his
+kind in a permanent social institution outside the home, and this
+social contact has become a daily experience. Every child that goes to
+school is one of many representatives from the homes of the
+neighborhood. He brings with him the habits and ideas that he has
+gathered from his own home, and he finds that they do not agree or
+fuse easily with the ideas and habits of the other children. In the
+schoolroom and on the playground he repeats the process of social
+adjustments which the race has passed through. Conflicts for
+ascendancy are frequent. He must prove his physical prowess on the
+playground and his intellectual ability in the schoolroom. He must
+test his body of knowledge and the value of his mental processes by
+the mind of his teacher. He must have strength of conviction to defend
+his own opinions, but he must have an open mind to receive truths that
+are new to him. One of the great achievements of the school is to fuse
+dissimilar elements into common custom and opinion, and thus to
+socialize the independent units of community life.</p>
+
+<p>98. <b>Learning Social Values in the Community.</b>&mdash;The school is the door
+to larger social opportunity than the home can provide, but it is not
+the only door. The child in passing to and from school comes into touch
+with other institutions and activities. He passes other homes than his
+own. He sees each in the midst of its own peculiar surroundings, and he
+makes comparisons of one with another and of each with his own. He
+estimates more or less consciously the value of that which he sees, not
+so much in terms of economic as of social worth, and congratulates or
+pities himself or his schoolmates, according to the judgments that he
+has made. He stops at the store, the mill, or the blacksmith shop,
+through frequent contact becomes familiar with their functions, and
+thinks in turn that he would like to be storekeeper, miller, and
+blacksmith. He sees the farmer on other farms than his own gathering
+his harvest in the fall, hauling wood in the winter, or ploughing his
+field in the spring, and he becomes conscious of common habits and
+occupations in this rural community. He gets acquainted with the
+variety of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>activities that enter into life in the country district in
+which his home is located, and he learns to appreciate the importance
+of the instruments upon which such activity depends for travel from
+place to place. By all these means the child is learning social values.
+After a little he comes to understand that the community, with its
+roads, its public buildings, and its established institutions, exists
+to satisfy certain economic and social needs that the single family
+cannot supply. By and by he learns that, like the family, it has grown
+out of the experience of relationships, and can be traced far back in
+history, and that as time passes it is slowly changing to adapt itself
+to the changing wants and wishes of its inhabitants. He becomes aware
+of a present tendency for the community to imitate the larger social
+life outside, to make its village centre a reproduction in miniature of
+the urban centres; later he realizes that the introduction of foreign
+elements into the population is working for the destruction of the
+simple, unified life of former days, and is introducing a certain
+flavor of cosmopolitanism.</p>
+
+<p>It is this growth of social consciousness in a single child,
+multiplied by the number of children in the community, that
+constitutes the process of social education. A community with no
+dynamic influences impinging upon it reproduces itself in this way
+generation after generation, and at best seems to maintain but a
+static existence. In reality, few communities stand still. The
+principle of change that is characteristic of social life is
+continually working to build up or tear down the community structure
+and to modify community functioning. The causes of change and their
+methods of operation appear in the history of the rural community.</p>
+
+<p>99. <b>Rural History.</b>&mdash;The history of the rural community falls into
+two periods&mdash;first, when the village was necessary to the life of the
+individual; second, when the individual pioneer pushed out into the
+forest or prairie, and the village followed as a convenient social
+institution. The community came into existence through the bond of
+kinship. Every clan formed a village group with its own <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>peculiar
+customs. These were primitive, even among semi-civilized peoples.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the village elders sat by the gate to
+administer justice in the name of the clan; in China the old men still
+bask on a log in the sun and pronounce judgment in neighborly gossip.
+The village existed for sociability and safety. The medi&aelig;val Germans
+left about each village a broad strip of waste land called the mark,
+and over this no stranger could come as a friend without sounding a
+trumpet. Later the village was surrounded by a wall called a tun, and
+by a transfer of terms the village frequently came to be called a
+mark, or tun, later changed to town. Place names even in the United
+States are often survivals of such a custom, as Charlestown or
+Chilmark. The Indian village in colonial America was similarly
+protected with a palisade, and village dogs heralded the approach of a
+stranger, as they do still in the East.</p>
+
+<p>100. <b>The Medi&aelig;val Village.</b>&mdash;The peasant village of the Middle Ages
+constitutes a distinct type of rural community. A consciousness of
+mutual dependence between the owner of the land and the peasants who
+were his serfs produced a feudal system in which the landlord
+undertook to furnish protection and to permit the peasant to use
+portions of his land in exchange for service. Strips of fertile soil
+were allotted to the village families for cultivation, while
+pasture-land, meadow, and forest were kept for community use. Even in
+the heart of the city Boston Common remains as a relic of the old
+custom. On the medi&aelig;val manor people lived and worked together, most
+of them on the same social level, the lord in his manor-house and the
+peasants in a hamlet or larger village on his land, huddling together
+in rude huts and in crude fashion performing the social and economic
+functions of a rural community. In the village church the miller or
+the blacksmith held his head a little higher than his neighbors, and
+sometimes the lord of the manor did not deign to worship in the common
+parish church, but the mass of the people were fellow serfs, owning a
+common master, working at the same tasks, by custom sowing and reaping
+the same kind of grain on the same <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>kind of land in the same week of
+the year. They attended the court of the master, who exercised the
+functions of government. They worshipped side by side in the church.
+The same customs bound them and the same superstitions worried their
+waking hours. There was thus a community solidarity that less commonly
+exists under modern conditions.</p>
+
+<p>There was no stimulus to progress on the manor itself. There were no
+schools for the peasant's children, and there was little social
+intelligence. The finer side of life was undeveloped, except as the
+love of music was stirred by the travelling bard, or martial fervor or
+the love of movement aroused the dance. There was no desire for
+religious independence or understanding of religious experience. The
+mass in the village church satisfied the religious instinct. There was
+no dynamic factor in the community itself. Besides all this, the
+community lived a self-centred life, because the people manufactured
+their own cloth and leather garments and most of the necessary tools,
+and, except for a few commodities like iron and salt, they were
+independent of trade. The result was that every stimulus of social
+exchange between villages was lacking.</p>
+
+<p>The broadening influence of the Crusades with their stimulus to
+thought, their creation of new economic wants, and their contact of
+races and nationalities, set in motion great changes. Out of the
+manorial villages went ambitious individuals, making their way as
+industrial pioneers to the opportunity of the larger towns, as now
+young people push out from the country to the city. New towns were
+founded and new enterprises were begun. Trade routes were opened up.
+The feudal principality grew into the modern state. Cultural interests
+demanded their share of attention. Schools were founded, and art and
+literature began again to develop. Even law and religion, most
+conservative among social institutions, underwent change.</p>
+
+<p>101. <b>The Village in American History.</b>&mdash;The spirit of enterprise and
+the disturbed political and religious conditions impelled many groups
+in western Europe to emigrate to new lands after the geographical
+discoveries that ushered <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>in the sixteenth century. They were free to
+go, for serfdom was disappearing from most of the European countries.
+The village life of Europe was transplanted to America. In the South
+the medi&aelig;val feudal village became the agricultural plantation, where
+the planter lived on his own estate surrounded by the rude cabins of
+his dusky peasantry. The more democratic, homogeneous village life of
+middle-class Englishmen reproduced itself in New England, where the
+houses of the settlers clustered about the village meeting-house and
+schoolhouse, and where habits of industry, frugality, and sobriety
+characterized every local group. In this new village life there came
+to be a stronger feeling of self-respect, and under the hard
+conditions of life in a new continent there developed a self-reliance
+that was destined to work wonders in days to come. The New World bred
+a spirit of independence that suited well the individualistic
+philosophy and religion of the modern Englishman. All these qualities
+prophesied much of individual achievement. Yet this tendency toward
+individualism threatened the former social solidarity, though there
+was a recognition of mutual interests and a readiness to show
+neighborly kindness in time of stress, and a perception of the social
+value of democracy in church and state.</p>
+
+<p>102. <b>Individual Pioneering.</b>&mdash;The pioneer American colonies were
+group settlements, but they produced a new race of individual pioneers
+for the West. Occasionally a whole community emigrated, but usually
+hardy, venturesome individuals pushed out into the wilderness, opening
+up the frontier continually farther toward the setting sun. By the
+brookside the pioneer made a clearing and erected his log house; later
+on the unbroken prairie he built a rude hut of sod. On the land that
+was his by squatter's right or government claim he planted and reaped
+his crops. About him grew up a brood of children, and as the years
+passed, others like himself followed in the path that he had made,
+single men to work for a time as hired laborers, families to break new
+ground, until the countryside became sparsely settled and the nucleus
+of a village was made.</p>
+
+<p>Such pioneers were hard-working people, lonely and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>introspective.
+They knew little of the comforts and none of the refinements of life.
+They prescribed order and administered justice at the weapon's point.
+They were emotional in religion. They required the stimulus of
+abundant food and often of strong drink to goad them to their various
+tasks. Frontier pioneering in America reproduced many of the features
+of former ages of primitive life and compressed centuries into the
+space of a generation. It was distinctly individualistic, and needed
+socializing. The large farm or cattle-range kept men apart, the
+freedom of the open country attracted an unruly population, and in
+consequence frontier life tended to rough manners and lawlessness.
+Isolation and loneliness produced despondency and inertia, and tended
+to individual and group degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>Even in a growing village men and women of this type had few social
+institutions. There was little time for schooling or recreation. A
+circuit-riding preacher held religious services once or twice a month,
+and in certain regions at a certain season religious enthusiasm found
+vent in a camp-meeting, but religion often had little effect on habits
+and morals. Local government and industry were home-made. The settlers
+brought with them customs and traditions which they cherished, but in
+the mingling of pioneers from different districts there was continual
+change and fusion, until the West became the most enterprising and
+progressive part of the nation, continually open to new ideas and new
+methods. There was a wholesome respect for church and school, and as
+villages grew the settlers did not neglect the organization and
+housing of such institutions; store, mill, and smithy found their
+place as farther east, and later the lawyer and physician came, but
+the pioneer could do without them for a time. Inventiveness and
+individual initiative were characteristics of the rural people, made
+necessary by their remoteness and isolation.</p>
+
+<p>103. <b>The Development of the West.</b>&mdash;With increasing settlement the
+rural pioneer gave place to the farmer. It was no longer necessary for
+him to break new ground, for arable acres could be purchased; neither
+was it necessary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>to turn from one occupation to another to satisfy
+personal or household needs, for division of labor provided
+specialists. Hardship gave way to comfort, for the land was fertile
+and experience had taught its values for the cultivation of particular
+crops. Loneliness and isolation were felt less severely as neighbors
+became more frequent and travelled roads made communication easier.
+Group life expanded and institutions became fixed. Every neighborhood
+had its school-teacher, and even the academy and college began to dot
+the land. Churches of various denominations found root in rural soil,
+and a settled minister became more common. A general store and
+post-office found place at the cross-roads, and the permanent
+machinery of local government was set up. Out of the forest clearings
+and prairie settlements evolved the prosperous farm life that has been
+so characteristic of the Middle West.</p>
+
+<p>But the prosperous life of these rural communities has not remained
+unchanged. Speculation in land has been creating a class of
+non-resident agricultural capitalists and tenant cultivators, and has
+been transforming the type of agricultural population over large
+sections of country. Soil exhaustion is leading to abandonment of the
+poorest land and is compelling methods of scientific agriculture on
+the remainder. These conditions are producing their own social
+problems for the rural community.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Small and Vincent</span>: <i>Introduction to the Study of
+Society</i>, pages 112-126.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cheyney</span>: <i>Industrial and Social History of England</i>,
+pages 31-56.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cubberley</span>: <i>Rural Life and Education</i>, pages 1-62.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wilson</span>: <i>Evolution of the Country Community</i>, pages 1-61.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carver</span>: <i>Principles of Rural Economics</i>, pages 74-116.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: "The Agrarian Revolution in the Middle West,"
+<i>North American Review</i>, September, 1909.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: "The Drift to the City in Relation to the Rural
+Problem," <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, March, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>104. <b>Physical Types.</b>&mdash;To understand the continually changing rural
+life of the present, it is necessary to examine into the physical
+characteristics of the country districts, the elements of the
+population, the functions of the rural community, and its social
+institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The physical characteristics have a large part in determining
+occupations and in fashioning social life. A natural harbor,
+especially if it is at the mouth of a river, seems destined by nature
+for a centre of commerce, as the falls of a swift-flowing stream
+indicate the location of a manufacturing plant. A mineral-bearing
+mountain invites to mining, and miles of forest land summon the
+lumberman. Broad and well-watered plains seem designed for
+agriculture, and on them acres of grain slowly mature through the
+summer months to turn into golden harvests in the fall. The
+Mississippi valley and the Western plain into which it blends have
+become the granary of the American nation. The railroad-train that
+rushes day and night from the Great Lakes toward the setting sun moves
+hour after hour through the extensive rural districts that
+characterize the great West. There are the mammoth farms that are
+given to the one enormous crop of wheat or corn. Alongside the
+railroad loom the immense elevators where the grain is stored to be
+shipped to market. Here and there are the farm-buildings where the
+owner or tenant lives, but villages are small and scattered and
+community activity is slight.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, in the South before the Civil War there were large
+plantations of cotton and tobacco, dotted only here and there with the
+planter's mansion and clumps of negro cabins. Village life was not a
+characteristic of Southern society. The old South had its picturesque
+plantation life, and the aristocracy made its sociable visits from
+family to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>family, but that rural type disappeared with the war. With
+the breaking up of the old plantations there came a greater
+diversification of agriculture, which is going on at an accelerated
+pace, and social centres are increasing, but there is still much rural
+isolation. Among the remoter mountains lingers the most conservative
+American type of citizens in the arrested development of a century
+ago, with antique tools and ancient methods, scratching a few acres
+for a garden and corn-field, and living their backward, isolated life,
+without comfort or even peace, and almost without social institutions.</p>
+
+<p>In the East the country is more broken. Large farms are few, and
+agriculture is carried on intensively as a business, or is united with
+another occupation or as a diversion from the cares and tasks of the
+town. Farms of a score to a few hundred acres, only part of which are
+cultivated, form rural communities among the hills or along a river
+valley. Here and there a few houses cluster in village or hamlet,
+where each house yard has its garden patch, but the inhabitants of the
+village depend on other means than agriculture for a living. On the
+farms dairy and poultry products share with agriculture in rural
+importance, and no one crop constitutes an agricultural staple. In New
+England the villages are comparatively near together, and social life
+needs only prodding to produce a healthy development.</p>
+
+<p>105. <b>Characteristics of Population.</b>&mdash;Rural life feels in each region
+the reactions of nature. The narrow life of the hills, the open life
+of the plains, the peaceful life of the comfortable plantation with
+its lazy river and its delightful climate, each has its peculiar
+characteristics that are due in part at least to nature. But these
+features are complicated by social elements of population. The
+American rural community of to-day is composed of individuals who
+differ in age and fortune and kinship, and who vary in qualities and
+resemblances. There are old and young and middle-aged persons, men and
+women, married and single, persons with many relatives and others with
+few, native and foreign born, strong and weak, well and ill, good and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>bad, educated and illiterate. Yet there are certain characteristics
+that are typical.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, for example, there is a considerable uniformity of
+age in the population of a certain type of community. In those
+agricultural districts where individuals own their own homes, the
+number of elderly people is larger than it is in the city, and the
+young people are comparatively few, for the reason that their
+ambitions carry them to the city for its larger opportunities, and in
+the older States many a farm becomes abandoned on the death of the old
+people. In districts where tenant-farming is largely in vogue, gray
+hairs are much fewer. The tendency is for the original farmers who
+have been successful to sell or rent their property and move to town
+to enjoy its comforts and attractions, leaving the tenants and their
+families of children.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, it is characteristic of long-settled rural
+communities that there is an interlocking of family relationship, with
+a number of prevailing family names and a great preponderance of
+native Americans; but in portions of the West and in rural districts
+not very remote from the large cities of the East there is a large
+mixture, and in spots a predominance of the foreign element. In the
+third place, small means rather than wealth and a sluggish contentment
+rather than ambition is characteristic of the older rural sections; in
+newer districts ambition to push ahead is more common, and prosperity
+and an air of opulence are not unusual.</p>
+
+<p>106. <b>The Composition of Rural Communities.</b>&mdash;In an analysis of
+population it is proper to consider its composition and its manner of
+growth. In making a survey or taking a census of a community there are
+included at least statistics as to age, sex, number and size of
+families, degree of kinship, race parentage, and occupations. Records
+of age, sex, and size of family show the tendencies of a community as
+to growth or race suicide; kinship and race parentage indicate whether
+population is homogeneous; and occupations indicate the place that
+agriculture holds in a particular section of country. By a comparative
+study of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>statistics it is easy to determine whether a community is
+advancing, retrograding, or standing still, and what its position is
+relative to its neighbors; also to find out whether or not its
+occupations and characteristics are changing.</p>
+
+<p>107. <b>Manner of Growth.</b>&mdash;The manner of growth of a community is by
+natural excess of births over deaths, and by immigration of persons
+from outside. As long as the former condition obtains, population is
+homogeneous, and the community is conservative in customs and beliefs;
+when immigration is extensive, and more especially when it goes on at
+the same time with a declining birth-rate and a considerable
+emigration of the native element, the population is becoming
+heterogeneous, and the customs and interests of the people are growing
+continually more divergent. The immigration of an earlier day was from
+one American community to another, or from northern Europe, but rural
+communities East and West are feeling the effects of the large foreign
+immigration of the last decade from southern and eastern Europe and
+from Asia.</p>
+
+<p>108. <b>Decline of the Rural Population.</b>&mdash;The rural exodus to the
+cities is even more impressive and more serious in its consequences
+than the foreign influx into the country, though both are dynamic in
+their effects. This exodus is partly a matter of numbers and partly of
+quality. A distinction must be made first between the relative loss
+and the actual loss. The rural population in places of less than
+twenty-five hundred persons is steadily falling behind in proportion
+to the urban population in the country at large. There are many
+localities where there is also an actual loss in population, and in
+the North and Middle West the States generally are making no rural
+gain. But the most disheartening element in the movement of population
+from the point of view of rural communities is the loss of the most
+substantial of the older citizens, who move to the city to enjoy the
+reward of years of toil, and of the most ambitious of the young people
+who hope to get on faster in the city. Loss of such as these means
+loss of competent, progressive leaders. Added to this is the loss of
+laborers needed to cultivate the farms to their capacity for urban as
+well <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>as rural supply. The loss of labor is not a serious economic
+misfortune, for it can be remedied to a large extent by the
+introduction of more machinery and new methods, but the loss of
+population reproduces in a measure the isolation of earlier days, and
+so tends to social degeneration. It is idle to expect that the
+far-reaching causes that are contributing to city growth will stop
+working for the sake of the rural community, but it is possible to
+enrich community life so that there will be less relative attraction
+in the city, and so that those who remain may enjoy many of the
+advantages that hitherto have been associated with the city alone.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 11-37.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Rural Sociology</i>, pages 32-46, 281-292.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Anderson</span>: <i>The Country Town</i>, pages 57-91.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Semple</span>: <i>Influences of Geographic Environment.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Galpin</span>: "Method of Making a Social Survey in a Rural
+Community," <i>University of Wisconsin Circular of Information</i>,
+No. 29.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carroll</span>: <i>The Community Survey.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>OCCUPATIONS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>109. <b>Rural Occupations.</b>&mdash;An important part of the study of the rural
+community is its social functions. These do not differ greatly in name
+from the functions of the family, but they have wider scope. The
+domestic functions are confined almost entirely to the homes. The
+village usually includes a boarding-house or a country inn for the
+homeless few, and here and there an almshouse shelters the few
+derelicts whom the public must support.</p>
+
+<p>Economic activities in the main are associated with the farm home. The
+common occupation in the country is agriculture. Individuals are born
+into country homes, learn the common occupation, and of necessity in
+most cases make it their means of livelihood. Rural people are
+accustomed to hard labor for long hours. There are seasons when
+comparative inactivity renders life dull; there are individuals who
+enjoy pensions or the income of inherited or accumulated funds, and so
+are not compelled to resort to manual labor, and there are directors
+of agricultural industry; there are always a shiftless few who are
+lazy and poor; but these are only exceptions to the general rule of
+active toil. Not all rural districts are agricultural. Some are
+frontier settlements where lumbering or mining are the chief
+interests. Even where agriculture prevails there are varieties such as
+corn-raising or fruit-growing regions; there are communities that are
+progressively making use of the latest results of scientific
+agriculture, and communities that are almost as antique in their
+methods as the ancient Hebrews. Also, even in homogeneous districts,
+like those devoted to cotton-growing or tobacco-culture, there are
+always individuals who choose or inherit an occupation that supplies a
+special want to the community, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, and
+masters of other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>crafts. Occupations indicate an attempt to gear
+personal energies to the opportunities or requirements of a physical
+or social environment.</p>
+
+<p>All these occupations have more than economic value; they are
+fundamental to social prosperity. It is self-evident that the
+physician and the school-teacher render community service, but it is
+not so clear that the farmer who keeps his house well painted and his
+grounds in order, and who is improving his cattle and increasing the
+yield of his fields and woodland by scientific methods, and who
+organizes his neighbors for co-operative endeavor, is doing more than
+an economic service. Yet it is by means of inspiration, information,
+and co-operation that the community moves forward, and he who supplies
+these is a social benefactor.</p>
+
+<p>110. <b>Differentiation of Occupation.</b>&mdash;If community life is to
+continue there must be the producers who farm or mine or manufacture;
+in rural districts they are farmers, hired laborers, woodcutters,
+threshers, and herdsmen. In the co-operation of village life there
+must be the craftsmen and tradesmen who finish and distribute the
+products that the others have secured, such as the miller, the
+carpenter, the teamster, and the storekeeper. For comfort and peace in
+the neighborhood there must be added the physician, the minister, the
+school-teacher, the justice of the peace, and such public
+functionaries as postmaster, mail-carrier, stage-driver, constable or
+sheriff, and other town or county officials. Without specific
+allotment of lands as on the feudal estate, or distribution of tasks
+as in a socialistic commonwealth, the community accomplishes a natural
+division of labor and diversification of industry, supports its own
+institutions by self-imposed taxes and voluntary contributions, and
+supplies its quota to the larger State of which it forms a democratic
+part. In spite of the constant exercise of individual independence and
+competition, there is at the foundation of every rural community the
+principle of co-operation and service as the only working formula for
+human life.</p>
+
+<p>111. <b>Co-operation.</b>&mdash;One great advantage of community life over the
+home is the increased opportunity for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>co-operation. In new
+communities families work together to erect buildings, make roads,
+support schools, and organize and maintain a church. They aid each
+other in sickness, accident, and distress. Farmers find it profitable
+to unite for purposes of production, distribution, communication,
+transportation, and insurance. It may not seem worth while for a
+single farmer to buy an expensive piece of agricultural machinery for
+his own use, but it is well worth while for four or five to club
+together and buy it. The cost of an irrigation plant is much too high
+for one man, but a community can afford it when it will add materially
+to the production of all the farms in a district. In a region
+interested mainly in dairying a co-operative creamery can be made very
+profitable; in grain-producing sections co-operative elevator service
+makes possible the storage of grain until the demand increases values;
+in fruit-raising regions co-operation in selling has made the
+difference between success and failure. A co-operative telephone
+company has been the means of supplying several adjacent communities
+with easy communication. Co-operative banks are a convenient means of
+securing capital for agricultural use, and co-operative insurance
+companies have proved serviceable in carrying mutual risks.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of such co-operation are by no means confined to
+economic interests. The best result is the increasing realization of
+mutual dependence and common concern. Co-operation is an antidote to
+the evils of isolation and independence. A co-operative telephone
+company may not pay large dividends, and may eventually sell out to a
+larger corporation, but it has introduced people to one another,
+brightened circumscribed lives, and taught the people social
+understanding and sympathy. But aside from all such artificial forms
+of co-operation, the very custom of providing such common institutions
+as the school and the church is a valuable form of social service,
+entirely apart from the specific results that come from the exercises
+of the schoolroom and the meeting-house.</p>
+
+<p>112. <b>Why Co-operation May Fail.</b>&mdash;Many co-operative enterprises fail,
+and this is not strange. There is always <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>the natural conservatism and
+individualism of the American people to contend with; there is
+jealousy of the men who have been elected to responsible offices, and
+there is lack of experience and good judgment by those who undertake
+to engineer the active organization. Sometimes the method of
+organization or financing is faulty. Such enterprises work best among
+foreigners who have a good opinion of them, and know how to conduct
+them because they have seen them work well in Europe. Every successful
+attempt at economic co-operation is a distinct gain for rural
+community betterment, for upon co-operation depends the success of the
+efforts being put forth for rural improvement generally.</p>
+
+<p>113. <b>Competition Within the Group.</b>&mdash;Co-operation is of greatest
+value when it includes within it a wholesome amount of individual
+competition for the sake of general as well as individual gain. Boys'
+agricultural clubs, organized in the South and West, have raised the
+standards of corn and tomato production by stimulating a friendly
+spirit of rivalry among boys, and as a result the fathers of the boys
+have adopted new and more scientific methods to increase their own
+production. Agricultural fairs may be made powerful agencies for a
+similar stimulus. At State and county fairs agricultural colleges and
+experiment stations find it worth while to exhibit their methods and
+processes with the results obtained; wide-awake farmers get new ideas,
+which they try out subsequently at home; young people are encouraged
+to try for the premiums offered the next year, and steadily the
+general level of excellence rises throughout the district.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">McKeever</span>: <i>Farm Boys and Girls</i>, pages 171-196, 275-305.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Rural Sociology</i>, pages 20-31.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"Country Life," <i>Annals of American Academy</i>, pages 58-68.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Kern</span>: <i>Among Country Schools</i>, pages 129-157.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ford</span>: <i>Co-operation in New England</i>, pages 87-185.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Coulter</span>: <i>Co-operation Among Farmers</i>, pages 3-23.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Herrick</span>: <i>Rural Credits</i>, pages 456-480.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>RECREATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>114. <b>Recreation and Culture.</b>&mdash;Besides the economic function the
+community has recreative and cultural functions to perform, and these
+need recognition and improvement. As the child in the home has a right
+to time and means for play, so the community, especially the young
+people, may lay claim to an opportunity for recreation; as the child
+has the right to learn in the home, so the people of the community
+should have cultural privileges. These demands are the more
+imperative, because the city has so much of this sort to offer, and
+the country community cannot hold its young people unless it provides
+a reasonable amount of attractions. It needs no particular institution
+to bring this about, but it needs a new spirit to recognize and enjoy
+the advantages that are possible even in thinly settled localities.
+Every opportunity for sociability strengthens just so much a natural
+instinct, increases the sense of social values, and enlarges the
+sphere of relationships.</p>
+
+<p>In the community, as in the home, children have the first claim to
+consideration. The recreative impulse is strong in them. When they
+graduate from the home into the school they find opportunity for the
+expression of this impulse through their new associations. On the way
+to and from school and at recess they have opportunity to indulge
+their impulses and to use their powers of invention. Among the younger
+children the desire for muscular activity makes running games of all
+sorts popular; as boys grow older they imitate the primitive impulse
+to hit and run, so well provided for in games of ball; girls enjoy
+their recreation in a quieter way as they grow older, and show a
+tendency to association in pairs. Associations formed in play are not
+usually lasting ones, but the playground reveals <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>individual
+temperament and personal qualities that are likely to determine
+popularity or unpopularity. These play associations develop qualities
+of leadership, loyalty, honesty, and co-operation that tend to label a
+child among his mates with a reputation that he carries into later
+life.</p>
+
+<p>115. <b>The Gang.</b>&mdash;Since play is a natural instinct it is to be
+expected that children will seek a natural rather than an artificial
+way of expressing the instinct. Organization at best can only direct
+activities, giving recognition to the social inclinations of
+childhood. For example, it is not easy for a school-teacher to
+organize a boys' society and to direct it in such activities as appeal
+to him. The boys prefer to choose their own mates and their own chief,
+and the activities that appeal to them are not the same as those that
+seem to their elders to be most suitable. Between the ages of ten and
+sixteen the boy tends to gang life. He may work on the farm all day,
+but evenings and Sundays, if he is permitted to amuse himself, he
+joins a gang. Obviously the characteristics of the gang are seen best
+in the city, but they are not materially different in the country.
+Hunting and fishing may be enjoyed at odd times of leisure by the boy
+without companions, but the delights of the swimming-hole can be
+enjoyed thoroughly only as he has the companionship of other boys, and
+skating gains in virtue as a sport with the possibility of hockey on
+the ice. This liking for companionship exhibits itself in the habitual
+association of boys of a certain district for mutual enjoyment. On
+every possible opportunity they get together in the woods, pretend
+they are Indians, hunt, fish, and fight in company, build their own
+camps and plunder the camps of other gangs, and practise other
+activities characteristic of the savage age through which they are
+passing. Gangs exhibit a love of cruelty to those whom they may
+plague, a fondness for appropriating property which does not belong to
+them, and if possible provoking chase for the sake of the thrill that
+comes from the attempt to get away. Group athletics of various sorts
+are popular. Six out of seven gangs have physical activities as the
+purpose of their organization. The boys do not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>necessarily adopt any
+particular organization or choose a leader; on the contrary, they are
+a natural group, tacitly acknowledging the leadership of the most
+masterly and versatile individual, finding their own headquarters and
+adopting the forms of activity that appeal most to the group,
+according to the season and the opportunities of the region of country
+where they belong.</p>
+
+<p>116. <b>Leadership of Boys.</b>&mdash;The gang is but one expression of the
+group instinct. It is often a nursery of bad habits that sometimes
+lead to crime and degeneracy, but it is capable of being used for the
+good of boyhood. The gang develops the virtues of loyalty to the group
+and loyalty to the group principles. It stimulates self-sacrifice and
+co-operation, honor and courage. These virtues can be cultivated by
+the man who aspires to boy leadership and directed into channels of
+usefulness as the boy passes on toward manhood. But there must be a
+frank recognition of the place of the gang in boy life, and not only a
+remembrance of one's own boyhood days, but also an appreciation of
+them. One of the best ways that has been devised for securing adult
+leadership without loss of the gang spirit and characteristics is the
+Boy Scout movement. It transforms the unorganized gang into the
+organized patrol, and affiliates it with other patrols in a wide
+organization, adopts the natural activities of boys as a part of its
+programme, and adds others of absorbing interest. Obedience is added
+to the boy's other virtues, and social education is acquired rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>117. <b>Varieties of Boys' Clubs.</b>&mdash;The gang is one of the few natural
+groups of the community, and should be related to other institutions.
+It should not be hampered by them, but should receive the
+encouragement and assistance of home, school, and church. The Boy
+Scout movement has been associated with the churches; other boys'
+organizations have been connected with the Sunday-schools; the home
+and the day-school may well provide resources or quarters for the
+gang, and recognize its activities. But the gang is not the only
+organization suited to the boys of a community. There are special
+interests provided for in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>more artificial groups, such as athletic,
+debating, agricultural, or natural history clubs. These attract
+like-minded individuals from all parts of the community, and help to
+balance the clan spirit developed by the gang. These clubs may centre
+in school or meeting-house or have quarters of their own. One
+provision that is needed for the satisfaction of boy life in the rural
+community is the field or green where two rival gangs may contend
+legitimately for supremacy in sport, or clubs from different
+neighborhoods may test their prowess and arouse local pride and
+enthusiasm. The green needs little or no equipment, but it gains
+recognition as the boys' own training-field and serves as a safeguard
+to the health and morals of the youth of the community. The gang and
+the green are the proper social institutions of boy life in the rural
+community.</p>
+
+<p>118. <b>Girls' Clubs.</b>&mdash;The instinct of the girl is not the same as that
+of the boy. She has other interests that require different
+organization. Her disposition is less active, and she does not so
+readily form a group organization. She associates with other girls in
+a set that is less democratic than her brother's gang. It has its
+rivalries and enmities, but hateful thoughts, angry words, and
+slighting attitudes take the place of the active warfare of the boys.
+Girls enjoy clubs that are adapted to their interests. Reading clubs,
+cooking clubs, sewing clubs, musical organizations, and philanthropic
+societies are useful forms of neighborhood association, and their
+activities may be correlated with the work of the home, the school,
+and the church more easily than those of their brothers.</p>
+
+<p>In the country girls' organizations are very properly based on the
+interests of the farm, with which they are so closely related. They
+combine, as their brothers do, on the economic principle, organizing
+their poultry clubs, preserving clubs, or knitting clubs, but the
+social purpose is not lost sight of in the particular economic
+concern. An hour of sociability properly follows an hour of economic
+discussion or activity. Schoolgirls are very willing to accept the
+leadership of their teacher in a nature or culture club which will
+broaden their interests and stimulate their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>ambitions. One of the
+organizations that has sprung into existence on the model of the Boy
+Scout movement is the organization of Camp-Fire Girls. It is designed
+to meet the demand for companionship in a wholesome, pleasant way, and
+by its incentives to healthy activity and womanly virtue it helps to
+build character.</p>
+
+<p>119. <b>Recreation in the Country.</b>&mdash;The recreative instinct is not
+confined to children. For the adult labor is lightened, worries
+banished, and carking care is less corroding, if now and then an
+evening of diversion interrupts the monotony of rural life, or a day
+off is devoted to a picnic or neighborhood frolic. There is the same
+interest in the country that there is in the city in methods of
+entertainment that satisfy primitive instincts. The instinct for human
+society enters into all of them. Other specific causes produce a
+fondness for the various forms of diversion indulged in. Among
+uncultured people especially an evening gathering soon proves dull
+unless there is something to do. Cards occupy the mind and hands and
+create a mild excitement that banishes troublesome thoughts and
+anxieties. Dancing breaks up the stiffness of a party, brings the
+sexes together, and provides the exhilaration of rhythmic motion. Barn
+frolics at maple-sugar or harvest time accomplish the same end, only
+less satisfactorily. Musicales and amateur theatricals provide an
+exhibition of skill, cultivate the &aelig;sthetic nature, gratify the
+dramatic instinct, and furnish opportunity for mutual acquaintance
+among the people of the community, who meet all too seldom in social
+gatherings, and at the same time they furnish wholesome entertainment
+for the community at small expense. The proceeds are used for local
+advantage, instead of being carried out of town. The passing show and
+moving pictures are less desirable. They are often cheap and
+degrading, though the kinetoscope can be made valuable for education.</p>
+
+<p>The out-of-door gatherings that occur when the countryside is not too
+busy to plan or enjoy them are a helpful means of cultivating a
+community spirit. Athletic contests on the boys' own field readily
+become a community <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>affair, with a speech and refreshments afterward,
+and the award of a prize or pennant to the victorious individual or
+team. The old-fashioned picnic to lake or woods or hilltop is one of
+the best means for forming and strengthening friendships and for
+giving persons of all ages a good time. Friendly contests of various
+sorts all come into play to add to the pleasure of the day. Fourth of
+July, Arbor Day, Old Home Week, and other occasions, give opportunity
+for recreation and the cultivation of neighborhood interests.</p>
+
+<p>120. <b>A Community Centre.</b>&mdash;Aside from the natural isolation and lack
+of energy and social interest among country people, the lack of
+efficient leadership is the most serious handicap to organized
+sociability. Added to these is the want of a neighborhood centre both
+convenient and suitable. A community building, tasteful in
+architecture and equipped for community use, is a great desideratum,
+but is not often available. There seems to be no good reason why the
+schoolhouse should not be such a social centre as the community needs,
+but most school buildings are not adapted to such use. In the absence
+of any other provision it is the privilege of the rural church to
+furnish the opportunity for neighborhood gatherings, and there is a
+growing conviction that this is one of the opportunities of the church
+to ally itself to general community interests. The church represents,
+or should represent, the whole community of men, women, young people,
+and children. It has all their interests at heart. It makes provision
+for them in Sunday-school, young people's societies, and other groups.
+It recognizes the social interests in festivals and sociables. It may
+usefully add to its functions that of raising the standards of
+community recreation, if no other proper provision for it exists; it
+is under obligation to find wholesome substitutes for the abuses that
+exist in the field of amusement which it commonly condemns.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Curtis</span>: <i>Play and Recreation for the Open Country.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Puffer</span>: <i>The Boy and His Gang.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Boy Scout Handbook; Handbook for Scout Masters.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>The Book of the Campfire Girls.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Stern</span>: <i>Neighborhood Entertainments.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cubberley</span>: <i>Rural Life and Education</i>, pages 117-126.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>RURAL INSTITUTIONS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>121. <b>The Complexity of Social Life.</b>&mdash;Closely allied to the agencies
+of recreation are the institutions that promote sociability and
+incidentally provide means of culture. It is not possible to separate
+social life into compartments and designate an institution as purely
+recreational or cultural or religious. There is a blending of
+interests and of functions in such an organization as the grange or
+the church, as there is in one individual or group a variety of
+interests and activities. The whole social system is complex,
+interwoven with a multitude of separate strands of personal desires
+and prejudices, group clannishness and conservatism, rival
+institutions developing friction and continually compelled to find new
+adjustments. Society in constantly in motion like the sea, its units
+continually striking against one another in perpetual conflict, and as
+continually melting into the harmony of a mighty wave breaking against
+the shore and forming anew to repeat the process. The difference is
+that social life is on an upward plane, its activities are not mere
+repetitions of a process, but they result in definite achievement,
+which in the process of centuries becomes an accumulated asset for the
+race. The most lasting achievements are the social institutions.</p>
+
+<p>122. <b>The Village and the Country Store.</b>&mdash;Of all the social
+institutions of the rural community, the most important is the village
+itself. There scattered homesteads find their common centre of
+attraction; there houses are located nearer together and the spirit of
+neighborliness develops; there tradesmen and professional persons make
+their homes and at the same time diversify interests and provide for
+the wants of the community. The school and the church are often
+located in the open country, but the village forms <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>the nucleus of
+social intercourse and there are most of the institutions of the
+community.</p>
+
+<p>The most primitive among these institutions is the country store. It
+has economic, social, and educational functions. It supplies goods
+that cannot be produced in the community, it serves as a mercantile
+exchange for local produce. It helps to remove the necessity of home
+manufacture of many articles. On occasion it may include an agency for
+insurance or real estate; it is frequently the village post-office; it
+contains the public bulletin-board; often the proprietor undertakes to
+perform the banking function to the extent of cashing checks. Socially
+the store serves a useful purpose, for it is the centre to which all
+the inhabitants come, and from which radiate lines of communication
+all over the neighborhood. It is a clearing-house for news and gossip,
+and takes the place of a local press. It was formerly, and to some
+extent is still, the social club of the men of the community during
+the long winter evenings. As such it performed in the past an
+educational function. Boxes, firkins, bales of goods, superannuated
+chairs, and the end of a counter constituted the sittings, and men of
+all ages occupied them, as they listened to harangues and joined in
+the discussions. The group constituted the forum of democracy, where
+politics were frequently on debate, where public opinion was formed,
+where conservatism and progressivism fought their battles before they
+tested conclusions at the ballot-box, where science and religion
+entered the lists, where local interests were threshed out in the
+absence of more general excitement and crops and agricultural methods
+filled in the pauses. In recent years the store circle has
+degenerated. The better class of habitual members has organized its
+lodges or found satisfaction in the grange, while the hangers-on at
+the store, barber-shop, or other loafing-place indulge in small talk
+on matters of no real concern.</p>
+
+<p>123. <b>The Sewing Circle.</b>&mdash;What the country store has done for the men
+as a means of communication and stimulus, the ladies' aid society or
+church sewing circle has done for the women. Its opportunities are
+less frequent, but it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>provides an outlet for ideas and opinions that
+without it cannot easily find expression. At the same time it provides
+active occupation for a good cause, which is more than can be said of
+the men's forum. When it adds to its exercises a supper to which the
+other sex is admitted, it performs a yet wider social service.</p>
+
+<p>124. <b>The Grange.</b>&mdash;The grange is an institution that includes both
+sexes and combines the interests of young people with those of their
+elders. Its primary purpose was to consolidate the common interests of
+a farming community and to stimulate economic prosperity, but it has
+included several social features, and in many localities exists merely
+for social purposes. It is an institution that is well adapted to
+become a social and educational centre for the rural community. When
+the child has advanced from the home to the school and, graduating
+from school, has entered into the adult life of the community, the
+grange serves as a training-school for civic service. In the
+grange-room, in company with his like-minded parents and friends in
+the community, he learns how to hold his own in debate in
+parliamentary fashion, he discusses improved agriculture and listens
+to lectures from masters of the science, he gains literary and
+historical knowledge, and from time to time he participates in the
+social diversions that take place under grange auspices. Music
+enlivens the meetings, and occasionally a feast is spread or an
+entertainment elaborated. The Farmers' Union is a similar
+organization, originating in the South in 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Such rural interests as these have come into existence spontaneously
+and continue to provide social centres of community life because other
+institutions do not satisfy. The home, the school, and the church are
+often spoken of as the essential institutions of the American
+community, but they do not at best perform all the functions of
+neighborhood life. The boys' gang, the circle of men about the stove
+at the corner grocery, the women's sewing circle or club, and the
+grange, each in its own way performs a necessary part of the group
+activities, and deserves recognition among the institutions that are
+worth while. It is scarcely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>necessary to note that they have their
+evils, but these are not of the nature of the institution. As the gang
+can be guided to worthy ends, so the energies of the store club and
+the sewing circle can be turned into channels of usefulness and low
+talk and scandal-mongering abolished. As for the grange, it is capable
+of becoming the most valuable social centre of the community, if it
+maintains the ideals of its existence and co-operates heartily with
+other social institutions of worth, like the church.</p>
+
+<p>125. <b>Farmers' Institutes.</b>&mdash;Another type of organization exists which
+can hardly be called institutional, but which performs a useful
+community service. As illustrations may be mentioned the farmers'
+club, the farmers' institute, and the Chautauqua movement. These are
+organizations or movements for stimulating and broadening the
+interests of farm regions. They bring together the farmers and their
+families, sometimes from several neighborhoods and for several days,
+for the consideration of agricultural problems and for entertainment
+and mutual acquaintance. They are able to attract speakers from the
+State agricultural college or board, and even from national halls, and
+they become a valuable clearing-house of ideas and experience. They
+serve much the same purpose as a church or teachers' convention, and
+are restricted to a limited number of persons. Farmers' institutes
+have become a regular part of the State system of agricultural
+education throughout the country, and a large staff of lecturers and
+demonstrators exists for local instruction. The particular interests
+of women and young people are receiving recognition in institutes of
+their own in connection with the larger gatherings. The expense of
+such institutes is met by the government. Their success is, of course,
+dependent on the attendance and intelligent interest of the farm
+people, who gain greatly in inspiration and knowledge from contact
+with one another and from the experts to whom they listen. The
+institutes prove the value of association for the enrichment of
+individual and family life by means of suggestion, communication, and
+concerted activity.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Buck</span>: <i>The Granger Movement.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Butterfield</span>: <i>Chapters in Rural Progress</i>, pages 104-120,
+136-161.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carney</span>: <i>Country Life and the Country School</i>, pages
+90-107.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Rural Sociology</i>, pages 208-213.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cubberley</span>: <i>Rural Life and Education</i>, pages 117-159.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>RURAL EDUCATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>126. <b>The School as a Social Institution.</b>&mdash;There is one institution
+in every American community that stands as the gateway into the
+promised land of a richer life. This is the school. It supplements
+home training and prepares for the broader experiences of community
+existence. Into it goes the raw material of the bodies and minds of
+the children, and out of it comes the product of years of education
+for the making or marring of the children of the community. The school
+of the present is of two types. One is the relic of an earlier time,
+with few changes in equipment, organization, or function; it has not
+shared in the process of evolution enjoyed by certain other
+institutions of society. The other type is progressive. It has been
+continually finding adjustment to its environment, fitting itself to
+meet local needs, and is therefore abreast of the times in educational
+science. The demand of the age is that the progressive school keep
+advancing, and as fast as possible the backward school work up to the
+standard of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>It is a sociological principle that every social institution
+approximates to the standards of the community as a whole. If
+community life is static, school and church stay in the ruts; if it is
+retrograding, they are losing ground; if it is progressive, they
+gradually show improvement. On the other hand, the community
+frequently feels external stimulus, first through one of its
+institutions, so that the institution becomes a means of betterment.
+Recent years furnish examples of a new impulse generated in the
+neighborhood by a teacher or a minister who enters the locality with
+new ideas and unquenchable zeal.</p>
+
+<p>127. <b>Three Fundamental Principles of Education.</b>&mdash;There are three
+fundamental principles that ought to have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>recognition in every
+school. The first of these is the principle that education is to be
+social. The pupil has to learn how to live in the community. In the
+home he becomes socialized so far as to learn how to get along with
+his own relatives and intimates, but the school teaches him how to
+deal with all sorts of people. He gets acquainted with his
+environment, both social and physical. What kind of people are living
+in the homes of the neighborhood? What are their characteristics,
+their ideals, their failings? What are their occupations, their race
+or nationality, their measure of comfort, poverty, or wealth? How are
+they hindered or helped by their natural surroundings, and have they
+easy means of communication and transit with the outside world? What
+are the principles that govern social intercourse, and how can the
+pupil learn to put them into practice? How is he to reconcile his own
+individual rights with his social obligations? These are fundamental
+questions that deserve careful answer, and that must be made a part of
+the school curriculum if the community is to enjoy social health. It
+matters little how such subjects are named in any course of study, but
+it is essential that the principles of social living should be taught
+under some title.</p>
+
+<p>A second principle of education is that it should be vocational. The
+school children, after graduation, must make their own way in the
+world. Every normal youth looks forward in anticipation to the time
+when he will be earning his own support and the support of a family of
+his own. Every normal girl hopes to be mistress of a home of her own.
+There are certain things that they need to know if they are to make a
+success and to build happy homes. Their first business is to know how
+to make a home. Naturally they want to know the story of the family as
+a social institution, how the home is purchased or rented, the
+essentials of a good home, both in its equipment and in the spirit
+that animates it, the duties and rights of every member of the family,
+and the relations of the family to the community. The question arises:
+How may the home-maker provide for the support of the family? What are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>the available occupations, and how by manual and mental training may
+he equip himself for usefulness? How may the home-keeper do her part
+to make the home attractive and comfortable by a study of domestic
+science and home-management? Obviously, the curriculum should have a
+place for such studies as these that are so essential to peace and
+happiness and comfort in the home.</p>
+
+<p>A third principle is that education is to be cultural. Social and
+vocational knowledge are essential, broad culture of the mind is
+highly desirable. No citizen of the United States is expected to grow
+to maturity ignorant of the simple arts of reading or spelling
+correctly, writing a fair hand, and solving correctly the simple
+problems of arithmetic. Beyond this many schools provide a smattering
+of &aelig;sthetic training through music and drawing. These are subjects of
+study in the elementary schools. But culture involves more than these.
+An appreciation of literature, of the meaning and value of history, of
+the importance of science in the modern world, of the life of nations
+and races outside of our own country, of right thinking and right
+conduct with reference to all our individual relations, constitutes
+for all persons a mental training that is almost indispensable. To
+acquire this cultural education requires time and the elimination of
+the less valuable from the accepted course of study. It is a most
+wholesome tendency that is prolonging the terms and the years of
+compulsory education if that education is based on the right
+principles, and that is discussing the possibility, first, of using
+part of the long summer vacation to supplement the work of the present
+school year, and, secondly, of giving to the young people of every
+State a free university education. It is never to be forgotten that
+culture may and should go on through life, but that will not occur
+unless habits of study are formed in early years, and the school years
+will always remain the golden opportunity for an education.</p>
+
+<p>128. <b>Education as It Is.</b>&mdash;On these fundamental principles every
+educational system should be built. Actual education falls far short
+of the standard. This standard cannot be reached without proper
+educational ideals, expert <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>teaching, and adequate equipment. The
+ideal has been narrow. Stress is put upon one type of education. In
+the past it has been cultural above the lower grades, and, because it
+has been almost exclusively so, more than half the pupils have dropped
+out of school before entering high school. In recent years there has
+been a new emphasis on practical training, and vocational courses have
+tended to crowd out some of the cultural courses. The social education
+which is most important of all has been incidental or omitted
+altogether. Public opinion needs to be educated to the point of
+understanding that all three types of training are imperatively
+needed.</p>
+
+<p>There is a serious difficulty, however, in the way of a supply of
+teachers for this broad education. It is necessary to extend reform
+among the normal schools, but this can take place only after they have
+felt the demand from the grades. Another difficulty is the expense of
+providing the necessary equipment for vocational education. This does
+not prevent the introduction of social teaching or a proper attention
+to culture, but courses in manual training and domestic science
+usually cost more than most school boards are willing to meet. This is
+not an insurmountable obstacle, for cheap appliances are in the market
+and better school boards can be elected when the people want them.</p>
+
+<p>129. <b>Wanted&mdash;a Better Rural Education.</b>&mdash;The school in the rural
+community has its own peculiar weaknesses. First among these
+weaknesses is the fact that education is not in terms of rural
+experience. It is an accepted educational principle of instruction to
+begin with that which is simple and familiar, and to work out to that
+which is complex and more remote. On that principle the rural school
+should make use of local geography, of rural material in arithmetic,
+of literature and music with a rural flavor, of nature study with
+drawings from nature. The opposite has been the case, with the result
+that the child appreciates neither his surroundings nor his
+opportunities, but looks upon them as something to be avoided for the
+more important urban life, with whose activities he has become
+familiar through his daily tasks.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>A second weakness is that rural education omits so much of importance
+to the child who must make his living in the country. To discuss rural
+conditions in a natural and systematic way, beginning with the family
+and working out into the social life of the community; to study the
+economic side of life first on the farm and then in the neighborhood,
+getting hold of the underlying principles of agriculture, becoming
+familiar with the action of various soils and crops and the best
+methods of cultivation and protection from harm, to prepare by a few
+simple lessons in household science for the responsibility of the
+home, is to provide the bases of success and happiness for the boys
+and girls of the country. Rural education, therefore, needs
+redirection.</p>
+
+<p>130. <b>The Quality of Teaching.</b>&mdash;The child in the country has a right
+to as good instruction as the city child, but because of the poverty
+and penuriousness of school districts and the maintenance of too many
+small schools, rural communities pay small salaries and cannot command
+good teaching. There are thousands of schools scattered over the
+country with less than ten pupils in attendance, housed in cheap,
+unattractive buildings, with teachers who have had no normal-school
+training, and who have no enthusiasm for the work they have to do.
+They may hear twenty or more classes recite on numerous subjects in
+the course of a day, but there is no stimulus to teacher or pupil, and
+school hours provide little more than a conventional method for
+passing the time. In such communities as these there is rarely any
+efficient superintendence of teaching by a paid supervisor, and the
+school board is unqualified to judge on any other basis than the cost
+of schooling for a limited number of weeks.</p>
+
+<p>The small district school has the effect of strengthening the
+isolation that is the bane of the country regions. It continues to
+exist because every farmer wants the school near by for the
+convenience of his own family. The history of the "little red
+schoolhouse" throws a glamour of romance about the district
+headquarters, but in actual experience the district school has
+outlived its usefulness. There is a strong movement to consolidate
+district schools <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>and at some conveniently central point, with
+attractive and ample grounds, to build, equip, and man a school
+adequate to the needs of the community. Experience shows that the
+expense need be no greater, because better teachers can be secured for
+a given expenditure when fewer are needed, and with a greater number
+of scholars there may be a regular system of grading and classes large
+enough to arouse enthusiasm and ambition. The district school operates
+on the principle of division of labor in educational production, but
+it does not enjoy the benefits of co-operation or combination for
+efficiency, while the consolidated school secures these advantages and
+at the same time a better division of labor through the grades. Rural
+education needs reorganization.</p>
+
+<p>131. <b>A Discouraging Environment.</b>&mdash;Too many a rural community, like
+old China, has been facing the past. It has lacked courage and
+ambition. The atmosphere has been one of gloom and discouragement.
+This community temper appears in the social groups; it is felt in the
+home, and it is present in the school. It has been typical of whole
+sections of rural country. Dilapidated school buildings, plain and
+unkempt in appearance and cheap in construction, have been set in the
+midst of barren surroundings, unshaded by trees and unadorned with
+shrubs, without walks or drives to the entrance, and without even a
+flagpole as an evidence of patriotic enthusiasm. Inside the building
+there is insufficient light and ventilation, and the old-fashioned
+furniture is ill adapted to the needs of the pupils. The whole
+structure is almost devoid of the conveniences and modern devices for
+making school life either comfortable or worth while. In such an
+environment there is none of the stimulus that the school should
+furnish. The best pupil, who might respond quickly to stimulus, tends
+to sink to the level of the meanest, the mental horizon, cramped at
+home, is hardly broadened during school hours, and the main purpose
+for the existence of the institution is not achieved.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fiske</span>: <i>The Challenge of the Country</i>, pages 151-170.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Foght</span>: <i>The American Rural School</i>, pages 154-253.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carney</span>: <i>Country Life and the Country School</i>, pages
+133-301.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Kern</span>: <i>Among Country Schools.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Rural Sociology</i>, pages 233-263.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bryan</span>: <i>Poems of Country Life.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>132. <b>Nature Study in the New Rural School.</b>&mdash;In striking contrast to
+such a defective rural institution as has been presented is the new
+rural school and the country-life movement of which it is a vital
+part. The first step in the new education is a growing recognition of
+the function of the school to relate its courses of study and its
+activities to the daily experience of the pupil. The background of
+country life is nature; therefore nature study is fundamental in the
+new curriculum. Careful observation of natural objects comes first,
+until the child is able to identify bird and bee and flower. To
+knowledge is added appreciation. The beauty of fern and leaf, of
+brookside and hillside, of star-dotted and cloud-dappled sky, is not
+appreciated by mere observation, but waits on the education of the
+mind. This is part of the task of the teacher. The economic use of
+natural objects and natural forces is secondary, and should remain so,
+but the new education takes the knowledge which has been gained by
+observation and the enthusiasm which has been distilled through
+appreciation, and applies them to the social need. Agriculture comes
+to seem not only an occupation for economic ends, but a vocation for
+social welfare also. With all the rest there is a moral and religious
+value in nature study. Nature is pre-eminently under the reign of law;
+obedience to that law, adjustment to the inexorable demands of nature,
+are essential to nature's children. No more wholesome moral lesson
+than this can be taught to the present generation of children. Nature
+ministers also to the spiritual. Power, order, beauty, intelligence
+speak through the language of the natural world to the human soul, and
+the thoughtful child can be led to see through nature to nature's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>God. Such a God is not a theory; in nature the divine presence is
+self-evident.</p>
+
+<p>All theory in the new rural school is based on experimentation.
+Together the new teacher and the pupils beautify the grounds and the
+interior of the school building; they plan and make gardens and try
+all sorts of gardening experiments; they grow the plants that they
+study, and, best of all, they see the process of growth; from the use
+of soil and seed and proper care they learn lessons in practical
+agriculture that give satisfaction to all employed as book studies
+alone never could, and they make possible a far better type of
+agriculture when the pupils have fields of their own. Nor is it
+necessary for pupils to wait for their maturity, for many a lesson
+learned at school and demonstrated in the neighborhood is promptly
+applied on the neighboring farms.</p>
+
+<p>133. <b>The Study of the Individual.</b>&mdash;A second subject of study in the
+new rural schools is the individual. Nature study is essential to a
+rural school, but "the noblest study of mankind is man." Though it is
+highly important that the individual should regard social
+responsibility as out-weighing his own rights, it would be unfortunate
+if the importance of the individual were ever overlooked. The nature
+of the physical self, the requirement of diet and hygiene, the moral
+virtues that belong to noble manhood and womanhood, the possible
+self-development in the midst of the rural environment that is the
+pupil's natural habitat are among the worthy subjects of patient and
+serious study through the grades. Neither physiology, psychology, nor
+ethics need be taught as such, but the elementary principles that
+enter into all of them belong among the mental assets of every
+individual.</p>
+
+<p>134. <b>Rural Social Science.</b>&mdash;In the same way it is not necessary and
+perhaps may not be advisable to teach rural sociology or economics by
+name, even in the high school. With the extension of the curriculum to
+include agriculture, there is need of some consideration of the
+principles of the ownership and use of land, farm management, and
+marketing. Practical instruction in accounts, manual training, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>and
+domestic science find place in the new school. Fully as important as
+these is it to explain the social relations that properly exist in the
+home, the school, and the neighborhood, to show the mutual dependence
+of all upon one another, and to point out the advantages of
+co-operation over a prideful individualism and frequent social
+friction. Along with these relationships, or supplementary to them,
+belong the larger relations of country and town and the reciprocal
+service that each can render to the other, the characteristics and
+tendencies of social life in both types of community, and the effects
+of the changes that are taking place in methods of doing business and
+in the nature and characteristics of the people of either community.
+Following these topics come the problems of rural socialization
+through such agencies as the school, the grange, and the church, and
+the application of the principles already learned in a study of social
+relations.</p>
+
+<p>135. <b>Improvement in Economy and Efficiency.</b>&mdash;While the curriculum of
+the schools is being fitted to the needs of the community, it is
+desirable that there should be improvement of economy and efficiency
+in the whole system of education. This is being accomplished partly by
+better supervision and teaching, but also by a consolidation of
+schools which makes possible better grading, an enlarged curriculum,
+improved teaching, and a deeper interest among the pupils. But one of
+the best results that come from school consolidation is to the
+community itself. A consolidated school means a larger and
+better-equipped building. It often has a large assembly hall, a
+library, and an agricultural laboratory. The new school has within it
+tremendous potencies. It may become under proper direction an
+educational centre for people of all ages and degrees of attainment.
+Continuation schools for adults, especially the young and middle-aged
+people, who were born too soon to enjoy the advantages of the new
+education, are possible in the late autumn and winter. Popular
+lectures and demonstrations on subjects of common concern and
+entertainments based on rural interests find place at this centre.
+Mixed occasionally with a rural programme belongs instruction in wider
+social relations and world affairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>136. <b>The Teacher a Community Leader.</b>&mdash;With the consolidated school
+comes the well-trained teacher, and such a teacher deserves new
+recognition as a community leader. In Europe and in some parts of
+rural America the teacher has a permanent home near the schoolhouse,
+as a minister has a parsonage near the meeting-house. Such a teacher
+has an interest in community welfare, and a willingness to aid in
+community betterment. Whether man or woman, he becomes naturally a
+community leader, and with the backing of public sentiment and
+adequate support a distinct community asset. Such a teacher is more
+than a school instructor. He becomes a social educator of the people
+by interpreting to them their community life; he becomes a social
+inspirer to hope, ambition, and courage as he unfolds possible social
+ideals; he becomes a guide to a new prosperity as he defines the
+methods and principles on which other communities have worked out
+their own local successes. Through the medium of the teacher the
+neighborhood may be brought into vital contact with other communities
+in a district or whole county, and may be brought together to consider
+their common interests and to try experiments in co-operation, first
+for educational purposes and then for general community prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>At first the rural teacher in many localities will have enough to do
+with securing proper accommodations for the children in school, for
+good buildings frequently wait for a teacher who has the courage to
+demand and persist in getting them; but the larger work for the
+community is only second in importance and adds greatly to the
+responsiveness of the older people to the suggestions of the teacher.
+One great weakness in the past has been the short term of service of
+the average teacher. It takes time to accomplish changes in a
+conservative community, and the new education will be successful only
+as the new teacher becomes a comparative fixture. To build oneself
+into the life of a rural community as does the physician, and to
+ennoble it with new ideas and higher ideals, is a missionary service
+that can hardly be surpassed at the present time in America.</p>
+
+<p>137. <b>Higher Education.</b>&mdash;The normal school, the rural academy or
+county high school, and the college have their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>part in rural
+education. It rests with the normal school to supply the trained
+teacher and the normal schools rapidly are meeting the demands of the
+present situation. Training classes for rural teachers have been
+established in high schools or academies in twelve or more States.
+More and more these higher schools are relating their courses of study
+to the rural life in which so many of them are placed.</p>
+
+<p>138. <b>What the University Can Do.</b>&mdash;An increasing number of young
+people from the country are going to college. The college was founded
+on the principle of educating American youth in a higher culture than
+local elementary schools could provide. It is the function of the
+college and the university to open wider vistas for the individual
+mind than is otherwise possible, to do on an infinitely larger scale
+what the teacher is attempting in the elementary grades. These higher
+schools are passing through a humanizing process; they are making more
+of the social sciences and the art of living well; and they are
+allying themselves with practical life. In the case of established
+institutions with traditions, and often with trustees and alumni of
+conservative tastes and tendencies, there are difficulties in the way
+of their rapid adaptation to vocational needs. It is probably best
+that a certain class of them should stand primarily for intellectual
+culture, as technical and agricultural schools stand for their
+specialties, but the true university should be representative of all
+the social interests of all the people in the State.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration of what the university can do in social service for a
+whole State occurs in the recent history of the University of
+Wisconsin. It conceived its function to be not solely to educate
+students who came for the full university course. It considered the
+needs of the people of the State, and it planned to provide
+information and intellectual stimulus for as wide a circle as
+possible. It provided correspondence courses. It sent out a corps of
+instructors to carry on extension courses. It made affiliations with
+other State institutions. It reached all classes of the people and
+touched all their social interests. It became especially useful to the
+farmers. In spite of scepticism on the part <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>of the people and some of
+the university officers, those who had faith in the wider usefulness
+of the university pushed their plan until they succeeded in organizing
+a short winter course in agriculture for farmers' sons and then for
+the older farmers, branched out into domestic courses for the women,
+and even made provision for the interests of the boys and girls.
+Reaching out still further, the university organized farmers' courses
+in connection with the county agricultural schools, established
+experiment stations, and encouraged the boys to enter local contests
+for agricultural prizes. By these means the university has become
+widely popular and has been exceedingly beneficial to the people of
+the State.</p>
+
+<p>139. <b>The Public Library.</b>&mdash;While the school stands out as the leading
+educational institution of the rural community, it is by no means the
+sole agency of culture. Alongside it is the library. Home libraries in
+the country rarely contain books of value, either culturally or for
+practical purposes. Circulating libraries of fiction are little
+better. School libraries and village libraries that contain
+well-selected literature are to be included among the desiderata of
+every countryside. A few of the great books of all time belong there,
+a small collection of current literature, including periodicals, and
+an abundant literature on country life in all its phases. It is the
+function of the library to instruct the people what to read and how to
+read by supplying book lists and book exhibits, and by demonstrating
+occasionally through the school or the church how books may be read to
+get the most out of them. In the days before public libraries were
+common in this country, library associations were formed to secure
+good literature. Such associations are still useful in small
+communities that find it impossible to sustain a public library, and
+they serve as a medium for securing from the State a travelling
+library, which has the special advantage of frequent substitution of
+books. Or the school library may be the nucleus of a literary
+collection for the whole community&mdash;advantageously so if the school
+building is kept open as a community centre.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>140. <b>Reading Circles and Musical Clubs.</b>&mdash;The value of the library
+to the public consists, of course, not in the presence of books on the
+shelves, but in their use. Such use is encouraged by the existence of
+literary or art clubs and reading circles. They supply the twofold
+want of companionship and culture. The proper basis of association is
+similarity of interests. Local history or geology, nature study,
+current public events in State or nation, art in some of its phases,
+or the literature of a particular country or period, may be the
+special consideration of a club or reading circle; in every case the
+library is the laboratory of investigation. One of the conspicuously
+successful organizations of the last thirty years, showing how
+organization grows out of social need, is the Chautauqua movement.
+Starting as an undertaking in Sunday-school extension by means of a
+summer assembly and local reading circles, in which the study of
+history, literature, and science was added to Bible study, the
+movement has grown, until it is represented by a thousand summer
+institutes, with numerous popular lectures and entertainments, and it
+is one of the most useful educational agencies anywhere in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Every community is interested in music. Music has a place on every
+programme, whether of church, school, or public assembly. A musical
+club is one of the effective types of organization for those who are
+like-minded in country or town. There are two varieties of
+organization, the first of persons who join for the pleasure that
+comes from agreeable society, the second of those who enter the
+organization for the musical culture to be obtained. Whether for
+diversion or study, a musical club is well worth while. Under the
+influence of music antagonisms soften, moroseness disappears, and
+sociability and good cheer take their place. The old-fashioned
+singing-school was one of the most popular of local social
+institutions; something is needed to fill its place. A club or band
+for the serious study of instrumental music not only gives culture to
+individuals, but is also an asset of increasing value to a church or
+community.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>141. <b>Woman's Clubs.</b>&mdash;These have become so common that they need no
+special description, but as a social phenomenon they have their
+significance. They mark a new era in the emancipation of ideas; they
+are indicative of a new interest and ambition, and they are
+training-schools for future citizenship. They are of special value
+because of the wide areas of human interest that are brought within
+scope of discussion. For rural women they are a great boon, and while
+they have been most numerous in the larger centres, they may easily
+become a universal stimulus and guide to higher culture everywhere. In
+the absence of a grange they may serve as a centre of farm interests,
+and discussion may be made practical by the application of acquired
+knowledge to local problems, but their great value is in broadening
+the women's horizon of thought and interest beyond their own affairs.
+If rural men would organize local associations or brotherhoods for
+similar assembly and discussion of State and national interests they
+could multiply many times the benefits that come from the associations
+and discussions that occur on special days of political rally and
+voting. The rural mind needs frequent stimulus, and it needs frequent
+association with many minds. For this reason the cultural function is
+to be provided for by a method of congregation and organization
+approved by experience, leadership is to be provided and occasional
+stimulus applied, and life is to be enriched at many points. It is for
+the people themselves to carry on such enterprises, but the initiation
+of them often comes from outside. Usually, perhaps, the number of
+people locally who have a real desire for culture are few, but it is
+through the training of these few that judicious, capable leaders of
+the community are to be obtained.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 197-277.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cubberley</span>: <i>Rural Life and Education</i>, pages 161-347.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carney</span>: <i>Country Life and the Country School</i>, pages
+336-340.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Davis</span>: <i>Agricultural Education in the Public Schools.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Eggleston and Bru&eacute;re</span>: <i>The Work of the Rural School</i>,
+pages 193-223.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howe</span>: <i>Wisconsin: an Experiment in Democracy</i>, pages
+140-182.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Country Life</i>, pages 200-210.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Foght</span>: <i>The American Rural School</i>, pages 254-281.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>RURAL GOVERNMENT</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>142. <b>The Necessity of Government.</b>&mdash;Institutions of recreation and
+culture are in most cases the voluntary creation of local groups of
+individuals, except as the state has adopted a system of compulsory
+education. Government may be self-imposed or fixed by external
+authority, in any case it cannot be escaped. It can be changed in form
+and efficiency; it depends for its worth upon standards of public
+opinion; but it cannot cease to exist. As the activity of the child
+needs to be regulated by parental control in the home and by the
+discipline of the teacher in the school, so the activity of the people
+in the community needs to be regulated by the authority of government.
+Self-control on the part of each individual or the existence of custom
+or public opinion without an executive agency for the enforcement of
+the social will, is not sufficient to safeguard and promote the
+interests of all. Government has everywhere been necessary.</p>
+
+<p>143. <b>The Reign of Law.</b>&mdash;The existence of regulation in the community
+is continually evident. The child comes into relation to law when he
+is sent to school to conform to the law of compulsory education. He
+goes to school along a road built and maintained by law, takes his
+place in a school building provided by a board of education or school
+committee that executes the law, and accepts the instruction of a
+teacher who is employed and paid according to the law. His hours of
+schooling and the length of terms and vacations are determined by the
+same authority. During his periods of recreation he is still under the
+reign of law, for game laws regulate the times when he may or may not
+hunt and fish. When he grows older and assumes the rights of
+citizenship he must bear his part of the burdens of society. He has
+the right to vote as one of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>lawmakers of the land, but he is not
+thereby free to cast off the restraints of law. He must pay his
+proportion of the taxes that sustain the government that binds him,
+local, State, and federal taxes. He must perform the public duty of
+sitting on a jury or administering civic office if he is summoned
+thereto. Even in his own domicile, though he be householder and head
+of a family, he may not injure the public health or morals by
+nuisances on his own premises, his financial obligations to creditors
+are secured against him by law, even the possession of his acres is
+made certain only by public record. It makes no difference whether the
+legal restrictions under which he lives are local or national, they
+are all a part of the system for which he and his neighbors are
+responsible, and which as citizens they are under obligation to
+maintain.</p>
+
+<p>144. <b>Political Terms.</b>&mdash;It is important to understand and use
+correctly certain terms which occur in this connection. The state is
+the people organized for the purpose of exercising the authority of
+social control. In its sociological sense it is not restricted to a
+large or small area, but in political parlance it is used with
+reference to a large district which possesses a certain degree of
+authority over all the people, as the State of New York, or the
+sovereign state of Great Britain. Government is the institution that
+functions for social control in accordance with the will of the people
+or of an individual to whose authority they submit. Politics is the
+science and art of government, and includes statesmanship as its
+highest type and the manipulation of party machinery as its lowest
+type. Law is the body of social regulations administered by government
+ostensibly for the public good. Each of these may be and in the past
+has been prostituted for private advantage. In the state one man or a
+small group has seized and held the sovereign power through the force
+of personal ascendancy or the prestige of birth or wealth, and has
+used it for himself, as history testifies by numerous examples. The
+forms of government in many cases have not been well adapted to the
+functions that they were designed to perform. The despotic
+administrative agencies that were overthrown by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>the French Revolution
+were ill-adapted to the governmental needs of the lower classes. Much
+of the governmental machinery of the American republic has not matched
+the constitutional forms that were originally provided, and the
+Constitution has had to be stretched or amended if the government of
+the founders of the republic was not to be revolutionized. So law and
+politics have had to be reorganized, revised, and reinterpreted to fit
+into the social need. Law is a conservative factor in progress, but it
+adapts itself of necessity to the demands of equity.</p>
+
+<p>145. <b>The Will of the People.</b>&mdash;On the continent of Europe rural
+government is arranged usually by the central authority of the nation;
+in America it is more independent of national control. On this side of
+the water the colonial governments often interfered little with local
+freedom, and after the Revolution the people fashioned their own
+national organization, and in giving it certain powers jealously
+guarded their own local privileges. They were willing to sacrifice a
+general lawmaking power and grudgingly to permit the nation to have
+executive and judicial authority, but they retained the management of
+local affairs, including the raising and expenditure of direct taxes.
+Local government, therefore, has continued to reflect the mind of the
+community, a mind occasionally swayed by emotional impulse, but
+usually controlled by a love of order, and by an Anglo-Saxon pride in
+self-restraint. The will of the people has made the government and
+sanctions its actions. It may be that the will is not fixed or united
+enough to force itself effectually upon a set of public officials, and
+may await reform or revolution to become forceful, yet in the last
+resort and in the long run the will of the people prevails. By the
+provisions of a democratic constitution judgment is frequently passed
+by the people upon the administration of government, and it is within
+their power to change the administrative policy or to reject the
+agents of government whom they have previously elected. Locally they
+have the advantage of knowing all candidates for office. The
+efficiency of rural government depends much on its revenue, and
+farmers are reluctant to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>increase the tax rate; slowly they are
+learning the value of good roads and good schools.</p>
+
+<p>146. <b>The Ancient History of the Community.</b>&mdash;The government of the
+rural community has a history of its own, as has the community itself.
+This government gradually fits itself to meet local needs, but it is
+slow to put away the survivals of earlier forms and customs that have
+outlived their usefulness. The history of the community goes back to
+primitive times, when the clan group recognized common interests and
+acknowledged the leadership of the chief or head man. Custom was the
+law of the clan, and its older members assisted the chief in
+interpreting custom. Government in the community developed in two
+ways, one along the path of centralization of authority, the other in
+the growth of democracy. One tendency was to attach an undue
+importance to ancient custom, and to throw about it a veil of sanctity
+by connecting it with religion. Such a community in its conservatism
+came to possess in time a static civilization, but it lacked virility
+and commonly fell under the control of a neighboring energetic
+community or prince. This is the usual history of the Oriental
+community. The other tendency was to adapt local law and organization
+to changing circumstances, and to make use of the abilities of all the
+members of the community, to give them a voice in the local assembly,
+and a right to hold public office. Such progressive communities were
+the city states of Greece, the republic of Rome, and the rural
+communities of the barbarian Germans before they settled in the Roman
+Empire. When the Greek communities became decadent they fell under
+foreign dominion; Rome imperialized the republic, but never forgot how
+to rule well in her municipalities; the Germans passed on their
+democratic ways to the English, and from that source they were brought
+to America.</p>
+
+<p>147. <b>Two Types of Rural Government.</b>&mdash;In America there have been two
+types of rural government growing out of the manner of original
+settlement. In New England the colonists settled near together in
+villages grouped about the meeting-house. One or more villages
+constituted a town <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>for purposes of government. In these small
+districts it was possible for all the citizens to meet frequently, and
+in an annual assembly the voters of the community elected their
+officers and adopted the necessary local regulations. Long custom
+transplanted oversea had kept a close connection between church and
+state, and until the new American principle of separation was
+universally adopted, the annual town meeting in Massachusetts was a
+parish meeting, in which the community voted with reference to the
+needs of the church as well as of the state. In the South community
+life was less closely knit, and town meetings were not in vogue. The
+parish held its vestry meetings for the transaction of ecclesiastical
+business, for episcopacy was the established church; overseers of the
+poor were elected at the same meetings. There were county assemblies
+for social and judicial purposes, but in each a few prominent people
+in the neighborhood managed affairs and perpetuated their privileges,
+as among the landed gentry of England. It was in these ways that
+popular government continued along the path of material and social
+progress in the North, while in the South a plantation aristocracy
+conservatively maintained its colonial ideas and institutions,
+including slavery.</p>
+
+<p>With wider settlement there was an extension of these sectional
+differences, except near the border of both, where a blending of the
+two took place to some extent. County organization was necessary for a
+time, while the country was thinly settled, but neighborhoods
+organized as school districts, and by a natural process the school
+district became the nucleus of a township government, at first for
+school purposes and later for the self-government of the whole
+community. In some cases, as in Illinois, it was made optional with
+the people of a county whether they would organize a township
+government or not, but wherever the two systems entered into
+comparison and competition the township government proved the more
+popular. As long as pure democracy remains there must be a small local
+unit of government, and the New England town meeting seems wonderfully
+well adapted to the purpose of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>self-government. The recent tendency
+to extend democracy in the form of political primaries and the
+referendum is a stimulus to such organization, and it may be expected
+that the town system will continue to extend, even in the South.</p>
+
+<p>148. <b>Town and County Officials.</b>&mdash;The town meeting is held in a
+public building. In colonial days the close connection between church
+and state made it proper that the meeting should be in the
+meeting-house; in the West, where the school was the nucleus of local
+organization, the schoolhouse was the natural voting place. In
+present-day New England even a small village has its town house,
+containing a large hall, which serves for town meetings and for
+community assemblies for various social purposes. In the town meeting
+the administrative officers, called selectmen, are chosen annually,
+and minor officers, including clerk, treasurer, constables, and school
+committee; there the community taxes itself for the salaries of its
+officials, for the support of the town poor, for the maintenance of
+highways, and for such modern improvements as street lights and a
+public library. Personal ability counts for more than party
+allegiance, though each political party usually puts its candidates in
+the field. An important function of the local voters is the decision
+under the local-option system that prevails in the East, as to whether
+the sale of intoxicating liquors shall be licensed for the ensuing
+year; under an increasing referendum policy the acts of the State
+legislature are frequently submitted for review to the local voters.</p>
+
+<p>Where the town system does not exist or is part of a larger county,
+officers are elected for more extended responsibility. The functions
+of county officers are mainly judicial. Among the county officers are
+the sheriff elected by the people to preserve order and justice
+throughout the region, the coroner whose duty has been to investigate
+sudden death or disaster, and to hold an inquest to determine the
+origin of crime if it existed. The county commissioners or supervisors
+are executive officers, corresponding to the selectmen of the town;
+the clerk and treasurer of the county have duties similar to the town
+officers with those titles.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>149. <b>Political Relations and Responsibilities.</b>&mdash;The local
+community, alike under township and county government, is a part of a
+larger political unit, and so has relations with and responsibilities
+to the greater State. The town meeting may legislate on such matters
+as the erection of a new schoolhouse or the building of a town
+highway, but it cannot locate the post-office or change the location
+of a State or county road. It may make its local taxes large or small,
+but it cannot increase or diminish the amount of the State tax or
+regulate the national tariff. The townsman lives under the
+jurisdiction of a law that is made by his representatives in the State
+legislature or the national Congress, and he is tried and punished for
+the infraction of law in a county, State, or national court. As a
+citizen of these larger political units he may vote for county, State,
+and national officials, and may himself aspire to the highest office
+in the gift of his countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>150. <b>Political Standards.</b>&mdash;To a foreigner such a system of
+government may seem exceedingly complex, but by it self-government is
+preserved to the people of the nation, and a good degree of efficiency
+is maintained. There are problems of social control that need study
+and that produce various experiments in one State or another before
+they are widely adopted; there is corruption of party politics with
+unscrupulous methods and machinery that is too well oiled with
+"tainted" money; but local government averages up to the level of the
+intelligence and morals of the community. If the schoolhouse is an
+efficient centre for the proper training of boys and girls to
+understand their social relations and civic responsibilities, and if
+the meeting-house is an efficient centre for the discussion of social
+ethics and a religion that moves on the plane of earth as well as
+heaven, then the town house will give a good account of itself in
+intelligent voting and clean political methods. If the school-teacher
+and the minister have won for themselves positions of community
+leadership, and are educators of a forceful public opinion, and if the
+community is sufficiently in touch with the best constructive forces
+in the national political arena to feel their stimulus, the political
+type <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>locally is not likely to be very low. A self-governing people
+will always have as good a government as it wants, and if the
+government is not what it should be, the will of the people has not
+been well educated.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fairlie</span>: <i>Local Government in Counties, Towns, and
+Villages.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fiske</span>: <i>Civil Government in the United States</i>, pages
+34-95.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 292-317.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 92-105.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cooley</span>: <i>Social Organization</i>, pages 402-410.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>HEALTH AND BEAUTY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>151. <b>Health and Beauty in the Community.</b>&mdash;Rural government formerly
+limited its range of activity to political and economic concerns. The
+individualism of Americans resented the interference of government in
+other matters. If property was made secure and taxed judiciously for
+the maintenance of public institutions, the duty of government was
+accomplished. The individual man was prepared to assume all further
+responsibility for himself and family. Such matters as the health of a
+rural community and its &aelig;sthetic appearance were left to individual
+initiative and generally were neglected. On many occasions the
+housewife showed her sympathy and kindliness by nursing a sick
+neighbor, but the members of the community had little appreciation of
+the seriousness of contagion and infection, no knowledge of germs, and
+small thought of preventive measures. The appearance of their
+buildings and grounds was nobody's business but their own. They had no
+conception of the social obligation of each for all and of all for
+each. The result was an unnecessary amount of illness, especially of
+tuberculosis and typhoid fever, because of insanitary buildings and
+grounds, and a general air of shabbiness and neglect that pervaded
+many communities. It was not that the people lacked the &aelig;sthetic
+sense, but it had not been trained, and in the struggle for the
+subjugation of a new continent all such minor considerations must give
+way to the satisfaction of elemental wants.</p>
+
+<p>Slowly it is becoming understood that health and beauty are matters
+that demand public attention and regulation. Good fortune and
+happiness are not purely economic and political concerns. Well-kept
+roads, clean and well-planned public buildings, sanitary farm
+structures, properly drained <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>farm lands, and pure drinking water may
+not add to the number of bushels an acre, but they prolong life and
+add to its comfort and satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>When it seems no longer strange to bother about health conditions, it
+will be relatively easy to give attention to rural &aelig;sthetics. If a
+schoolhouse or a meeting-house is to be erected, it will give greater
+satisfaction to the community if the principles of good architecture
+are observed and the building is set in the midst of trees and
+shrubbery and well-kept lawn. With such an object-lesson, the people
+of the community will presently contrast their own property with that
+of the public, the imitative impulse will begin to work, and
+individuals will begin to make improvements as leisure permits. There
+are villages that are ugly scars on a landscape which nature intended
+should be beautiful. With misdirected energy, farmers have destroyed
+the wild beauty of the fence corners and roadsides, mowing down the
+weeds and clearing out the brush and vines in an effort to make
+practical improvements, while with curious oversight they have
+permitted the weeds to grow in the paths and the grass to lengthen in
+the yard. Many a farm in rural communities has untidy refuse heaps,
+tottering outbuildings, rusting machinery, and general litter that
+reveal the absence of all sense of beauty or even neatness, yet the
+farmer and his wife may be thrifty, hard-working people, and
+scrupulously particular indoors. Their minds have not been sensitized
+to outdoor beauty and hideousness. They forget that nature is
+&aelig;sthetic; they live in the midst of her beauty, but their eyes are dim
+and their ears are dull, and it is difficult to instruct them.
+Happily, recent years have brought with them a new sense of the
+possibilities of rural beauty. Children are learning to appreciate it
+in the surroundings of the schoolhouse and the tasteful decorations of
+its interior; their elders are buying lawn-mowers and painting their
+fences, and America may yet rival in attractiveness the fair
+countryside of old England.</p>
+
+<p>152. <b>Is the Town Healthier than the Country?</b>&mdash;It has been commonly
+believed that country people are healthier than townspeople. Their
+life in the open, with plenty of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>exercise and hard work, toughens
+fibre and strengthens the body to resist disease. It has also been
+supposed that the city, with its crowded quarters, vitiated air, and
+communicable diseases, has a much larger death-rate. It is true that
+city life is more dangerous to health than a country existence if no
+health precautions are taken, but city ordinances commonly regulate
+community health, while in the country there is greater license.
+Exposure gives birth to colds and coughs in the country; these are
+treated with inadequate home remedies, because physicians are
+inconveniently distant or expensive, and chronic diseases fasten
+themselves upon the individual. Ignorance of hygienic principles,
+absence of bathrooms, poor ventilation, unscreened doors and windows,
+and impure water and milk are among the causes of disease.</p>
+
+<p>There is as much need of pure air, pure water, and pure food in the
+country as in the city, and the danger from disease is no less
+menacing. The farmer loses vitality through long hours of labor, and
+is susceptible to disease scarcely less than is the working man in
+town. And he is more at fault if he suffers, for there is room to
+build the home in a healthful location, where drainage is easy and
+pure air and sunshine are abundant; there is water without price for
+cleansing purposes, and sanitation is possible without excessive cost.
+In most cases it is lack of information that prevents a realization of
+perils that lurk, and every rural community should have instruction in
+hygiene from school-teacher, physician, or resident nurse.</p>
+
+<p>153. <b>Rural Health Preservers.</b>&mdash;Three health preservers are needed in
+every rural community. These are the health official, the physician,
+and the nurse. There is need first of one whose business it shall be
+to inspect the sanitary conditions of public and private buildings,
+and to watch the health of the people, old and young. It matters
+little whether the official is under State or local authority, if he
+efficiently and fearlessly performs his duty. Constant vigilance alone
+can give security, and it is a small price to pay if the community is
+compelled to bear even the whole expense of such a health official.
+Community health is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>often intrusted to the town fathers or a district
+board with little interest in the matter; on the other hand, the agent
+of a State board is not always a local resident, and is liable to
+overlook local conditions. It is desirable that the health official be
+an individual of good training, familiar with the locality, and with
+ample authority, for in this way only can safety be reasonably secure.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means impracticable to give a local physician the
+necessary official authority. He is equipped with information and
+skilled by experience to know bad conditions when he sees them and to
+appreciate their seriousness. Whether or not a physician is the
+official health protector of the community, a physician there should
+be who can be reached readily by those who need him, and who should be
+required to produce a certificate of thorough training in both
+medicine and surgery. If such a medical practitioner does not
+establish himself in the district voluntarily, the community might
+well afford to employ such a physician on a salary and make him
+responsible for the health of all. As civilization advances it will
+become increasingly the custom in the country as well as in the city
+to employ a physician to keep one's general health good, as now one
+employs a dentist to examine and preserve the teeth. Medical practice
+must continually become more preventive and less remedial. It may seem
+as if it were an unwarranted expansion of the social functions of a
+community that it should care for the health of individuals, but as
+the interdependence of individuals becomes increasingly understood,
+the community may be expected to extend its care for its own welfare.</p>
+
+<p>154. <b>The Village Nurse.</b>&mdash;Alongside the physician belongs the village
+or rural nurse. Already there are many communities that are becoming
+accustomed to such a functionary, who visits the schools, examines the
+children, prescribes for their small ailments or recommends a visit to
+the physician, and who stands ready to perform the duties of a trained
+nurse at the bedside of any sufferer. The support of such a nurse is
+usually maintained by voluntary subscription, but there seems to be no
+good reason why she <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>should not be appointed and paid by the organized
+community as a local official. She is as much needed as a
+road-surveyor, surely as valuable as hog-reeve or pound-keeper. It is
+a valid social principle, though rural observation does not always
+justify it, that human life is not only intrinsically more valuable to
+the individual or family than the life of an animal of the herd, but
+it is actually worth more to the community.</p>
+
+<p>155. <b>The Village Improvement Society.</b>&mdash;To secure good health
+conditions, interested persons in the community may organize a health
+club. Its feasibility is well proved by the history of the village
+improvement society. There are two hundred such societies in
+Massachusetts alone, and the whole movement is organized nationally in
+the American Civic Federation. Their object is the toning up of the
+community by various methods that have proved practicable. They owe
+their organization to a few public-spirited individuals, to a woman's
+club, or sometimes to a church. Their membership is entirely
+voluntary, but local government may properly co-operate to accomplish
+a desired end. Expenses are met by voluntary contribution or by means
+of public entertainments, and its efforts are limited, of course, by
+the fatness of its purse. Examples of the useful public service that
+they perform are the demolition of unsightly buildings and the
+cleaning up of unkempt premises, the beautification of public
+structures and the building of better roads, the erection of drinking
+troughs or fountains, and the improvement of cemeteries. Besides such
+outdoor interests village improvement societies create public spirit,
+educate the community by means of high-class entertainments, art and
+nature exhibits, and public discussion of current questions of local
+interest. They stand back of community enterprises for recreation,
+fire protection, and other forms of social service, including such
+economic interests as co-operative buying and marketing and the
+extension of telephone or transportation service.</p>
+
+<p>The initial impulse that sets in motion various forms of village
+improvement frequently comes from the summer visitor or from a teacher
+or minister who brings new ideas <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>and a will to carry them into
+action. In certain sections of country, like the mountain region of
+northern New England, summer people are very numerous, through the
+weeks from June to October, and not a few of them revisit their
+favorite rural haunts for a briefer time in the winter. It is not to
+be expected that they are always a force for good. Sometimes they make
+country residents envious and dissatisfied. But it is not unusual that
+they give an intellectual stimulus to the young people and the women,
+compel the men to observe the proprieties of social intercourse, and
+encourage downcast leaders of church and neighborhood to renewed
+industry and hope. They demand multiplied comforts and conveniences,
+and expect attractive and healthful accommodations. Where they
+purchase and improve lands and buildings of their own they provide
+useful models to their less particular neighbors, and thus the leaven
+of a better type of living does its work in the neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>156. <b>Principles of Organization.</b>&mdash;The principles that lie at the
+basis of every organization for improvement are simple and practicable
+everywhere. They have been enumerated as a democratic spirit and
+organization, a wide interest in community affairs, and a perennial
+care for the well-being of all the people. Public spirit is the reason
+for its existence, and the same public spirit is the only force that
+can keep the organization alive. Every community in this democratic
+country has its fortunes in its own hands. If it is so permeated with
+individualism or inertia that it cannot awake to its duties and its
+privileges, it will perish in accordance with the law of the survival
+of the fittest; if, on the contrary, it adopts as its controlling
+principles those just mentioned, it will find increasing strength and
+profit for itself, because it keeps alive the spirit of co-operation
+and mutual help.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 66-82, 106-130.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Rural Sociology</i>, pages 147-167.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Harris</span>: <i>Health on the Farm.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Farwell</span>: <i>Village Improvement</i>, pages 47-53, Appendix.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Waters</span>: <i>Village Nursing in the United States.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>MORALS IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>157. <b>Social Disease and Its Causes.</b>&mdash;Rural morals are a phase of the
+public health of the community. Immorality is a kind of social
+disease, for which the community needs to find a remedy. The amount of
+moral ill varies widely, but it can be increased by neglect or
+lessened by effort, as surely as can the amount of physical disease.
+Moral ill is due to the individual and to the community. The judgment
+of the individual may be warped, his moral consciousness defective, or
+his will weak. He may have low standards and ill-adjusted
+relationships. Selfishness may have blunted his sympathy. All these
+conditions contribute to the common vices of community life. But the
+individual is sometimes less to blame than the community. Much moral
+ill is a consequence of the imperfect functioning of the community. A
+man steals because he is hungry or cold, and the motive to escape pain
+is stronger than the motive to deal lawfully with his neighbor; but if
+the community saw to it that adequate provision was made for all
+economic need, and if moral instruction was not lacking, it would be
+unlikely to happen. Similar reasons may be found for other evils. It
+is as much the business of the community to keep the social atmosphere
+wholesome as it is to keep the air and water of its farms pure. It
+should provide moral training and moral exercise.</p>
+
+<p>158. <b>How Morals Develop.</b>&mdash;Without attempting a thoroughly scientific
+definition of morals, we may call good morals those habitual acts
+which are in harmony with the best individual and social interests of
+the people of the community, and bad morals the absence of such
+habits. Of course the acts are the consequence of motives, and in the
+last analysis the question of morals is rooted in the field of
+psychology or religion; but the inner motive is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>revealed in the
+outward act, and it is customary to speak of the act as moral or
+immoral. Moral standards are not unvarying. One race differs from
+another and one period of history differs from another. Primitive
+custom was the first standard, and was determined by what was good for
+the group, and the individual conformed to it from force of
+circumstances. If he was to remain a member of the group and enjoy its
+benefits he must be willing to sacrifice his selfish desires. His
+consciousness of the solidarity of the group deepens with experience,
+and his feelings of sympathy grow stronger, until impulsive altruism
+becomes a habit and eventually a fixed and purposeful patriotism. By
+and by religion throws about conduct its sanctions and interprets the
+meaning of morality. However imperfect may be the relations between
+good morals and pagan religions, Judaism and Christianity have
+combined religion with high moral ideals. The Hebrew prophets declared
+that God demanded justice, kindness, and mercy in human relations
+rather than acts of ceremony and sacrifice to himself, and Jesus made
+love to neighbor as fundamental to holiness as love to God. Such a
+religion becomes dynamic in producing moral deeds.</p>
+
+<p>159. <b>The Social Stimulus to Morality.</b>&mdash;It is customary to think of
+the homely virtues of truthfulness, sobriety, thrift, and kindliness
+as individual obligations, but they are not wrought out in isolation.
+Isolation is never complete, and virtue is a social product. The
+farmer makes occasional visits to the country store, where he
+experiences social contacts; there is habitual association with
+individual workers on the farm or traders with whom the farmer carries
+on a business transaction. His personal contacts may not be helpful,
+and his wife may lack them almost altogether outside of the home; the
+result is often a tendency toward vice or degeneration, sometimes to
+insanity or suicide, but it is seldom that there are not helpful
+influences and relations available if the individual will put himself
+in the way of enjoying them. Good morals are dependent on right
+associations. Human beings need the stimulus of good society,
+otherwise the mind vegetates or broods upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>real or fancied wrongs
+until the moral nature is in danger of atrophy or warping. Family
+feuds develop, as among the Scotch highlanders or the mountain people
+in certain parts of the South. Lack of social sympathy increases as
+the interests become self-centred; out of this characteristic grow
+directly such evils as petty lawlessness, rowdyism, and crime. The
+country districts need the help of high-grade schools and proper
+places of recreation, of the Young Men's Christian Association or an
+association of like principles, and most of all of a virile church
+that will interpret moral obligation and furnish the power that is
+needed to move the will to right action.</p>
+
+<p>160. <b>Rural Vices.</b>&mdash;The moral problems of the rural community do not
+differ greatly from those of the town. The most common rural vices are
+profanity, drunkenness, and sexual immorality. Profanity is often a
+habit rather than a defect in moral character, and is due sometimes to
+a narrow vocabulary. It is a mark of ignorance and boorishness. In
+many localities it is less common than it used to be. The average
+community life is wholesome. Not more than twenty per cent of American
+rural communities have really bad conditions in any way, according to
+the investigations made by the United States Rural Life Commission in
+1908. Considering the monotony and hardships of rural life, it is much
+to the credit of the people that most communities are temperate and
+law-abiding. Intemperance is one of the most common evils; there is a
+longing for the stimulant of liquor, which appears in some cases in
+moderate drinking and in other cases in the habit of an occasional
+spree in a near-by town, when reason abdicates to appetite. Lumbermen
+and miners, whose work is especially hard and isolation from good
+society complete, have been notorious for their lapses into
+intemperance, but it is not a serious problem in three out of four
+communities the country over, and a wave of temperance sentiment has
+swept strongly over rural districts. Gambling is a diversion that
+appeals to those who have few mental and pecuniary resources as an
+offset to the daily monotony, but this habit is not typical of rural
+communities.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>Investigations of the Rural Life Commission showed that sexual
+immorality prevails in ten to fifteen per cent of the rural
+communities, and they trace much of it to late evening drives and
+dances and unchaperoned calls, but on the whole the perversion of the
+sex instinct is less common than in the cities. The young are
+generally trained in moral principles, the religious sanctions are
+more strongly operative, and the conduct and character of every
+individual is constantly under the public eye. Young people in the
+country marry at an earlier age than in the city, and husband and wife
+are normally faithful. Crime in the country is peculiar to degenerate
+communities, elsewhere it is rare. Juvenile delinquency occurs, and
+there are not such helpful influences as the juvenile court of the
+city; on the other hand, most boys are in touch with home influences,
+feel the restraint of a law-abiding community, and know that
+lawbreaking is almost certain to be found out and punished.</p>
+
+<p>161. <b>Community Obligation.</b>&mdash;Moral delinquency in the rural community
+lies in the failure to provide social stimulus to individual members.
+The farmer has as good reason to be ambitious for success and to feel
+pride in it as has the city merchant, but he has small local
+encouragement to develop better agriculture on his own farm. He has as
+much right to the benefits of association in toil and co-operation in
+effecting economies and disposing of his products as the employer or
+working man in town. He is equally entitled to good government, to
+wholesome recreation, to a suitable and efficient education, and to
+the spiritual leadership of a progressive church. Without the spur of
+community fellowship his life narrows and his abilities are not
+developed. With the help of community stimulus the individual may
+develop capacity for individual achievement and social leadership of
+as fine a quality as any urban centre can supply. It is well known
+that the strong men of the cities in business and the professions have
+come in large proportion from the country. If such qualities developed
+in the comparative isolation and discomfort of the past, it is a moral
+obligation of rural communities of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>future to do even more to
+produce the brawn and brain of city leaders in days to come.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wilson</span>: <i>The Evolution of the Country Community</i>, pages
+171-188.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Anderson</span>: <i>The Country Town</i>, pages 95-106.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 146-165.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 166-175.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hobhouse</span>: <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, I, pages 364-375.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Spencer</span>: <i>Data of Ethics</i>, chapter 8.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Report of Committee on Morals and Rural Conditions of the General
+Association of Congregational Churches of Massachusetts</i>,
+1908.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE RURAL CHURCH</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>162. <b>The Value of the Rural Church.</b>&mdash;Of all the local institutions
+of the rural community, none is so discouraging and at the same time
+so potential for usefulness as the country church. It has had a noble
+past; it is passing through a dubious present; it should emerge into a
+great future. The church is the conserver of the highest ideals. Like
+every long-established institution, it is conservative in methods as
+well as in principles. It regards itself as the censor of conduct and
+the mentor of conscience, and it fills the r&ocirc;le of critic as often as
+it holds out an encouraging hand to the weary and hard pressed in the
+struggle for existence and moral victory. It is the guide-post to
+another world, which it esteems more highly than this. Sometimes it
+puts more emphasis on creed than on conduct, on Sunday scrupulousness
+than on Monday scruple. But in spite of its failings and its frequent
+local decline, the church is the hope of rural America. It is
+notorious that the absence of a church means a distinctly lower type
+of community life, both morally and socially. Vice and crime flourish
+there. Property values tumble when the church dies and the minister
+moves away. Many residents rarely if ever enter the precincts of the
+meeting-house or contribute to the expense of its maintenance, yet
+they share in the benefits that it gives and would not willingly see
+it disappear when they realize the consequences. In the westward march
+of settlement the missionary kept pace with the pioneer, and the
+church on the frontier became the centre of every good influence. It
+is impossible to estimate the value of the rural church in the onrush
+of civilization. Religion has been the saving salt of humanity when it
+was in danger of spoiling. In the lumber and the mining camp, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>on the
+cattle-ranch and the prairie, the missionary has sweetened life with
+his ministry and given a tone to the life of the open and the wild
+that in value is past calculation.</p>
+
+<p>163. <b>The Church in Decline.</b>&mdash;In the days when it seems declining,
+the strength of the rural church is worth preserving. There are
+hundreds of rural communities where the young people have gone to the
+town and population has steadily fallen behind. There are hundreds
+more where the people of a community have drawn wealth from the soil,
+and with a succession of good crops and high prices have accumulated
+enough to keep them comfortable, and then have sold or leased their
+property and moved into town. The purchasers or tenants who replaced
+them have been less able to contribute to church support or have been
+of a different faith or race, and the churches have found it difficult
+to survive. Doubtless some of these churches could be spared without
+great loss, for in the rush of real or expected settlement, certain
+localities became over-churched, but the spectacle of scores of
+abandoned churches in the Middle West has as doleful an appearance as
+abandoned farms in New England.</p>
+
+<p>164. <b>Is It Worth Preserving?</b>&mdash;It would be a misfortune for the
+church to perish out of the rural districts, for it performs a
+religious function that no other institution performs. It cherishes
+the beliefs that have strengthened man through the ages and given him
+the upward look that betokens faith in his destiny and power in his
+life. It calls out the best that is in him to meet the tasks of every
+day. It ministers to him in times of greatest need. It teaches him how
+to relate himself to an Unseen Power and to the fellowship of human
+kind. The meeting-house is a community centre drawing to itself like a
+magnet family groups and individuals from miles around, overcoming
+their isolation and breaking into the daily monotony of their lives,
+and with its worship and its sermon awakening new thoughts and
+impulses for the enrichment of life. Nor does its ministry confine
+itself to things of the spirit. The weekly Sunday assembly provides
+opportunity for social intercourse, if no more than an exchange of
+greetings, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>now and then a sociable evening gathering or
+anniversary occasion brings an added social opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>165. <b>The Country Minister.</b>&mdash;The faithful rural minister also carries
+the church to the people. His parish is broad, but he finds his way
+into the homes of his parishioners, acquaints himself with their
+characteristics and their needs, and fits his ministrations to them.
+Especially does he carry comfort to the sick and soothe the suffering
+and the dying. No other can quite fill his place; no other so builds
+himself into the hearts of the people. He may not be a great thinker
+or preach polished sermons; his hands may be rough and his clothes
+ill-fitting; but if he is a loyal friend and ministers to real
+spiritual need, he is saint and prophet to those whom he has
+brothered.</p>
+
+<p>In the rural economy each public functionary is worthy or unworthy,
+according to his personal fidelity to his particular task. A poorly
+equipped board of government is not worth half the salary of the
+school-teacher. That official may not hold his place or gain the
+respect of his pupils unless he meets their needs of instruction with
+a degree of efficiency. But a public servant who fills full the
+channels of his usefulness is worth twice what he is likely to get as
+his stipulated wage. The community can well afford to look kindly upon
+a minister of that type, to encourage him in his efforts for the
+upbuilding of the community, and to contribute to an honorable stipend
+for his support.</p>
+
+<p>166. <b>The Problems.</b>&mdash;The rural church has its problems and so has the
+rural minister. There are the indifferent people who are irreligious
+themselves and have no share in the activities of the religious
+institution. There are the insincere people who belong to the church
+but are not sympathetic in spirit or conduct. There are the
+cold-blooded people who gather weekly in the meeting-house but do not
+respond to intellectual or spiritual stimulus, and who chill the heart
+of the minister and soon quench his enthusiasm. It is not surprising
+if he is restless and changes location frequently, or if he becomes
+listless and apparently indifferent to the welfare of his flock, when
+he meets no response and himself enjoys no stimulus from his own kind.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>All these conditions constitute the spiritual problem. Beyond this
+there is the institutional problem. The church finds maintenance
+difficult, often impossible without outside assistance. Failing to
+minister to any purely community need except on special occasions, or
+to assume any responsibility of leadership in civic or social affairs,
+it does not receive the cordial support of the community to which as a
+social institution, conserving the highest interests, it is reasonably
+entitled. It must be remembered that in America there can be no
+established church supported by the State, as in England. The church
+is on a different footing in every community from that of the public
+school. It is therefore dependent on the good-will of the community
+and must cultivate that good-will if it is to succeed. Most rural
+churches have yet to become a vital force, not only energizing their
+own members, but reaching out also to the whole community, seeking not
+their own growth as their chief end, but by ministering to the
+community's needs, realizing a fuller, richer life of their own.</p>
+
+<p>167. <b>The Needs of the Church.</b>&mdash;The rural church needs reorganization
+for efficiency, but changes must be gradual. A local church that is
+democratic in its form of organization, with no external oversight, is
+likely to need strengthening in administration; a church that intrusts
+control to a small board or is governed from the outside probably
+needs to get closer to the people, but differences in church
+government are of small practical consequence. It does not appear that
+it makes much difference in the success of a rural church whether its
+organization is Episcopal, Presbyterian, or Congregational. The
+machinery needs modernizing, whatever the pattern. It is a part of the
+task to be undertaken by every up-to-date country minister to consider
+possible improvements in the various departments of the church. It is
+as likely that the children are being as inefficiently taught in the
+Sunday-school as in the every-day school, that organizations and
+opportunities for the young people are as lacking as in the community
+at large, that discussions in the Bible class are as pointless as
+those in any local forum. It is more than likely that the church <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>is
+failing to make good in a given locality because it is depending on a
+few persons to carry on its activities, and these few do not
+co-operate well with one another or with other Christian people. The
+functions of the church are neither well understood nor properly
+performed. It has small assets in community good-will, and it is in no
+real sense a going concern.</p>
+
+<p>168. <b>The New Rural Church.</b>&mdash;Here and there a church of a new type is
+meeting manfully these various needs. It has set itself first to
+answer the question whether the church is a real religious force in
+the community, and what method may best be used to energize the
+countryside more effectually for moral and religious ends. Old forms
+or times of worship have needed changing, or an innovating individual
+has taken a hand temporarily. Then it has faced the practical problem
+of religious education. Most churches maintain a Sunday-school and a
+Woman's Missionary or Aid Society. Certain of them have young people's
+organizations, and a few have organized men's classes or clubs. Each
+of these groups goes on its own independent course. There is no
+attempt to correlate the studies with which each concerns itself, and
+there is much waste of effort in holding group sessions that
+accomplish nothing. The new church directors simplify, correlate, and
+systematize all the educational work that is being attempted, improve
+courses of study and methods of teaching, and propose to all concerned
+the attainment of certain definite standards. In the third place, the
+new rural church adopts for itself a well-considered programme of
+community service. Its opportunity is unlimited, but its efforts are
+not worth much unless it approaches the subject intelligently, with a
+knowledge of local conditions, of its own resources, and of the
+methods that have been used successfully in other similar localities.
+Nothing less than these three tasks of investigation, education, and
+service belong to every church; toward this ideal is moving an
+increasing number of churches in the country.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Butterfield</span>: <i>The Country Church and the Rural Problem.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fiske</span>: <i>The Challenge of the Country.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wilson</span>: <i>The Church of the Open Country.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nesmith</span>: Chapter on "The Rural Church" in <i>Social
+Ministry.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hart</span>: <i>Educational Resources of Village and Rural
+Communities</i>, pages 176-196.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Report of Country Life Commission</i>, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>A NEW TYPE OF RURAL INSTITUTION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>169. <b>A New Type of Institution.</b>&mdash;The rural community everywhere is
+in need of a new social institution. Those which exist have been
+individualistic in purpose and method and only incidentally have been
+socially constructive. The school has existed to make individuals
+efficient intellectually, that they might be able to struggle
+successfully for existence. The church has existed as a means to
+individual salvation from future ill. Social good has resulted from
+these institutions, but it has not been fundamental in their purpose.
+The new rural institution that is needed is a centre for community
+reconstruction. If the school or the church can adapt itself to the
+need, either may become such an institution; if not, there must be a
+new type.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been said that the characteristic evil of rural life is
+the isolation of the people, but this must be understood to mean not
+merely an isolated location of farm dwellings but a lack of human
+fellowship. In the city the majority of people might as well live in
+isolated houses as far as acquaintance with neighbors is concerned,
+but they do not lack human fellowship because they have group
+connections elsewhere. In the country it is hardly possible to choose
+associates or institutional connections. There is one school prepared
+to receive the children of a certain age, and no other, unless they
+are conveyed to a distance at great inconvenience; the variety of
+suitable churches is not large. It is necessary to cultivate neighbors
+or to go without friendships. But rural social relations are not well
+lubricated. There are few common topics of conversation, except the
+weather, the crops, or a bit of gossip. There are few common interests
+about which discussion may centre. There is need of an institution
+that shall create and conserve such common interests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>170. <b>A Community House.</b>&mdash;The first task is to bring people together
+to a common gathering place, where perfect democracy will prevail, and
+where there may be unrestricted discussion. There is no objection to
+using the schoolhouse for the purpose, but ordinarily it is not
+adapted to the purposes of an assembly-room. The meeting-house may
+serve the purpose, but to many persons it seems a desecration of a
+sacred building, and except in the case of a single community church
+there is too much of the denominational flavor about it to make it an
+unrestricted forum. Ideally there should be a community house erected
+at a convenient location, and large enough to accommodate as many as
+might desire to assemble. It should be equipped for all the social
+uses to which it might be put. It should be paid for by the voluntary
+contributions of all the people, but title to the property should be
+in the hands of a board of trustees or associates who would be
+responsible for its maintenance and for the uses to which it would be
+put. These persons must be men and women of the town in whose judgment
+the people have full confidence. Regular expenses should be met by
+annual payments, as the Young Men's Christian Association is sustained
+in cities all over the country, and by occasional entertainments. A
+limited endowment fund would be helpful, but too large endowment tends
+to pauperize a local institution.</p>
+
+<p>171. <b>Intellectual Stimulus.</b>&mdash;The second task is to put the community
+house to use. There are numerous ways by which this can be done, but
+the best are those that fit local need. Of all the needs the greatest
+is stimulus to thought. Ideally this should come from the pulpit of
+the rural church, but its stimulus is usually not strong, it is
+commonly confined to religious exhortation, and it reaches only a few.
+All the people of the community need to think seriously about their
+economic and social interests, and to be drawn out to express
+themselves on such subjects. The old-fashioned town meeting provided a
+channel for such discussion once a year. What is needed is a
+town-meeting extension through eight or nine months of the year. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>community house offers an opportunity for such an extension. Under
+the initiative and guidance of one or two energetic local leaders,
+inspired by an occasional outside lecturer, such as can be obtained at
+small expense from agricultural colleges and other public agencies,
+almost any American community ought to carry on a forum of public
+discussion for weeks, taking up first the most urgent questions of
+community interest and passing on gradually to matters of broader
+concern.</p>
+
+<p>172. <b>Social Satisfaction.</b>&mdash;As the adults of the community need
+intellectual stimulus, so the young people need social satisfactions.
+The salvation of the American rural community lies largely in the
+contentment of the young people, for without that quality of mind they
+leave the country for the town, or settle back in an unprogressive,
+unsocial state of sullen resignation. There must be opportunity for
+recreation. The community house should function for the entertainment
+of its constituency in ways that approve themselves to the associates
+in charge. But it is not so much entertainment that is wanted as an
+opportunity for sociability, occasions when all the youth of the
+community can meet for mutual acquaintance and the beginnings of
+courtship, and for the stimulus that comes from human association. If
+association and activity are characteristic of normal social life, it
+is unreasonable to suppose that rural young people will be contented
+to vegetate. If they cannot have legitimate opportunities to realize
+their impulse to associated activity, they will provide less
+satisfactory unconventional opportunities. One of the best means for
+promoting sociability and providing an outlet for youthful energy in
+concert has been found in the use of music. The old-fashioned
+singing-school filled a real need and its passing has left a distinct
+gap. Where musical gatherings have been revived experience has shown
+that they are a most effective stimulus to a new community
+consciousness. The country church choir has long been regarded as a
+useful social as well as religious institution, but the community
+chorus is far more effective. It is possible to uncover latent talent
+and to cultivate it so <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>that it will furnish more attractive
+entertainment for the people than that which is imported at far
+greater expense from outside. Among the foreigners who are finding
+their way into rural localities, there is sometimes discovered a
+musical ability that outranks the native, and no other method of
+approach to the immigrant is so easy as by giving his young people a
+place in the social activities of the community.</p>
+
+<p>173. <b>Continuation Schooling.</b>&mdash;A further use for the community house
+is educational. The older education of the district school was
+defective, and the new education is not enjoyed by many a farmer's boy
+or girl, because they cannot be spared in the later years of youth for
+long schooling. An adaptation of the idea of continuation schools for
+rural young people so that they may apply the new sciences to country
+life is greatly to be desired. The local school principal or county
+superintendent or an extension teacher from a State institution may be
+found available as director, and it belongs to the community to
+provide the necessary funds. For older people some of the same courses
+are suitable, but they should be supplemented with lectures of all
+sorts. It has been demonstrated many times that popular lecturers can
+be secured at small expense in different parts of the country,
+especially in these days when there are so many agencies to push the
+new agricultural science, and other subjects over a wide range of
+interests will not fail to find exponents if a demand for them can be
+created.</p>
+
+<p>174. <b>Community Leadership.</b>&mdash;In the last analysis the prime factor in
+the rural situation is the community leader. Institutions can do
+little for the enrichment of rural life if personality is wanting. It
+is the leader's energy that keeps the wheels of the machinery turning,
+his wisdom that gears their action to the needs of the community. It
+is desirable that the leader should spring from the community itself,
+acquainted with its needs and voicing its aspirations. But more
+communities get their leaders from outside and are often more willing
+to accept such a leader than if he came up out of their midst, for the
+proverb is often true that a prophet is without honor in his own
+country.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>175. <b>Qualities of Leadership.</b>&mdash;Social leadership is dependent upon
+certain qualities in the person who leads and in those who are led.
+The attitude of the people of the community is fundamental. The
+stimulus that the leader applies must find response in their inner
+natures if his energy is to become socially effective. If there is not
+a latent capacity to action, no amount of stimulus will avail. It is
+safe to assume that there are few local communities in America that
+will fail to respond to the right kind of leadership, but certain
+qualities in the leader are essential for inspiration. It is not
+necessary that he should be country born, but it is essential that he
+love the country, appreciate its opportunities, and be conscious of
+its needs. He cannot hope to call out these qualities in the people if
+he does not himself possess them. And it must be a genuine love and
+appreciation that is in him, for only sincerity and perfect honesty
+can win men for long. It is essential that he have breadth of sympathy
+for all the interests of the people that he seeks for his own; he may
+not think lightly of farming or storekeeping, of education or
+recreation, of morals or religion. He must be devoted to the
+community, its servant as well as its leader, content to build himself
+into its life. It is not necessary that the leader should be a trained
+expert, a finished product of the schools, desirable as such equipment
+is, but it is essential that he know how to call out the best that is
+in others, to play upon their emotions, to appeal to their intellects,
+to energize their wills. He must not only understand their present
+mental processes, but he must have a vision of them when they have
+become transformed with new impulses and ambitions, and converted to
+new and nobler purposes. He needs an unquenchable enthusiasm, a gentle
+patience, an invincible, aggressive persistency, a contagious optimism
+that will carry him over every obstacle to ultimate victory. It is
+essential that he possess fertility of resource to adapt himself to
+circumstances, that he have power to call out action and executive
+ability to direct it. Most important of all is a magnetic personality
+such as belonged to the great chieftains of history who in war or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>peace have been able to attract followers and to mould them in
+obedience to their own will.</p>
+
+<p>176. <b>Broad Opportunities.</b>&mdash;A leader such as that described has an
+almost unlimited field of opportunity to mould social life. In the
+city the opportunity for leadership may seem to be larger, but few can
+dominate more than a small group. In the country the start may be
+slower and more discouraging, but the goal reaches out ahead. From
+better agriculture the leader may draw on the people to better social
+ideals, to a new appreciation of education and broad culture, to a
+truer understanding of ethics and religion. He may refashion
+institutions that may express the new in modern terms. But when this
+is accomplished his work is not done. He may reach out over the
+countryside and make his village a nucleus for wider progress through
+a whole county. Even then his influence is not spent. The rural
+communities in America are feeders of the cities; in them is the
+nursery of the men and women who are to become leaders in the larger
+circles of business and professional life, in journalism and
+literature, in religion and social reform. Many a rural teacher or
+pastor has built himself into the affections of a boy or a girl,
+incarnating for them the noblest ideals and stimulating them to
+achievement and service in an environment that he himself could never
+hope to fill and with a power of influence that he could never expect
+to wield. The avenues of opportunity are becoming more numerous. The
+teacher and the minister have advantages of leadership over the county
+Young Men's Christian Association secretary and the village nurse, but
+since personal qualities are the determining factors, no man or woman,
+whatever their position, can make good the claim without proving
+ability by actual achievement. Any man or woman who enters a
+particular community for the first time, or returns to it from
+college, may become a dynamo of blessing to it. There waits for such a
+leader the loyalty of the boys who may be won for noble manhood, of
+the girls who may become worthy mothers of a better generation of
+future citizens, of men and women for whom the glamour of youth has
+passed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>into the sober reality of maturer years, but who are still
+capable of seeing visions of a richer life that they and their
+children may yet enjoy. There are ready to his hand the institutions
+that have played an important part, however inefficiently in rural
+life, the heritage of social custom and community character that have
+come down from the past, and the material environment that helps or
+hinders but does not control human relations and human deeds. These
+constitute the measure of his world; these are clay for the potter and
+instruments for his working; upon him is laid the responsibility of
+the product.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Curtis</span>: <i>Play and Recreation for the Open Country</i>,
+pages 195-259.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fiske</span>: <i>The Challenge of the Country</i>, pages 225-266.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cooley</span>: <i>Human Nature and the Social Order</i>, pages
+283-325.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McNutt</span>: "Ten Years in a Country Church," <i>World's Work</i>,
+December, 1910.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McKeever</span>: <i>Farm Boys and Girls</i>, pages 129-145.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carney</span>: <i>Country Life and the Country School</i>, pages
+1-17, 302-327.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>PART IV&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>FROM COUNTRY TO CITY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>177. <b>Enlarging the Social Environment.</b>&mdash;In the story of the family
+and the rural community it has become clear that the normal individual
+as he grows to maturity lives in an expanding circle of social
+relations. The primary unit of his social life is the family in the
+home. There the elemental human instincts are satisfied. There while a
+child he learns the first lessons of social conduct. From the home he
+enters into the larger life of the community. He takes his place in
+the school, where he touches the lives of other children and learns
+that he is a part of a larger social order. He gets into the current
+of community life and finds out the importance of local institutions
+like the country store and the meeting-house. He becomes accustomed to
+the ways that are characteristic of country people, and finds a place
+for himself in the industry and social activity of the countryside.
+When the boy who has grown up in a rural community comes to manhood,
+his natural tendency is to accept the occupation of farming with which
+he has become acquainted in boyhood, to woo a country maid for a mate,
+and to make for himself a rural home after the pattern of his
+ancestors. In that case his social environment remains restricted. His
+relations are with nature rather than with men. His horizon is narrow,
+his interests limited. The institutions that mould him are few, the
+forces that stimulate to progress are likely to be lacking altogether.
+He need not, but he usually does, cease to grow.</p>
+
+<p>178. <b>Characteristics of the City.</b>&mdash;Certain individuals find the
+static life of the country unbearable. Their nature demands larger
+scope in an expanding environment. To <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>them the stirring town beckons,
+and they are restless until they escape. The city is a centre of
+social life where the individual feels a greater stimulus than in the
+home or the rural community. It resembles the family and the village
+in providing social relations and an interchange of ideas, but it
+surpasses them in the large scale of its activities. It presents many
+of the same social characteristics that they do, but geared in each
+case for higher speed. Its activities are swifter and more varied. Its
+associations are more numerous and kaleidoscopic. Its people are less
+independent than in the country; control, economic and political, is
+more pervasive, even though crude in method. Change is more rapid in
+the city, because the forces that are at work are charged with dynamic
+energy. Weakness in social structure and functioning is conspicuous.
+In the large cities all these are intensified, but they are everywhere
+apparent whenever a community passes beyond the village stage. The
+line that separates the village or small town from the city is an
+arbitrary one. The United States calls those communities rural that
+have a population not exceeding twenty-five hundred, but it is less a
+question of population than of interests and activities. When
+agriculture gives place to trade or manufacturing as the leading
+economic interest; when the community takes on the social
+characteristics that belong to urban life; and when places of business
+and amusement assume a place of importance rather than the home, the
+school, and the church, the community passes into the urban class.
+Names and forms of government are of small consequence in
+classification compared with the spirit and ways of the community.</p>
+
+<p>179. <b>How the City Grows.</b>&mdash;The city grows by the natural excess of
+births over deaths and by immigration. Without immigration the city
+grows more slowly but more wholesomely. Immigration introduces an
+alien element that has to adjust itself to new ways and does not
+always fuse readily with the native element. This is true of
+immigration from the country village as well as from a foreign
+country, but an American, even though brought up differently, finds it
+easier to adapt himself to his new <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>environment. An increasingly large
+percentage of children are born and grow to maturity in the city.
+There are thousands of urban communities of moderate size in America,
+where there are few who come in from any distance, but for nearly a
+hundred years in the older parts of the country a rural migration has
+been carrying young people into town, and the recent volume of foreign
+immigration is spilling over from the large cities into the smaller
+urban centres, so that the mixture of population is becoming general.</p>
+
+<p>180. <b>The Attraction of the City.</b>&mdash;Foreign immigration is a subject
+that must be treated by itself; rural immigration needs no prolonged
+discussion once the present limitations of life in the country are
+understood. Multitudes of ambitious young people are not contented
+with the opportunities offered by the rural environment. They want to
+be at the strategic points of the world's activities, struggling for
+success in the thick of things. The city attracts the country boy who
+is ambitious, exactly as old Rome attracted the immature German. The
+blare of its noisy traffic, the glare of its myriad lights, the rush
+and the roar and the rabble all urge him to get into the scramble for
+fun and gain. The crowd attracts. The instinct of sociability draws
+people together. Those who are unfamiliar with rural spaces and are
+accustomed to live in crowded tenements find it lonesome in the
+country, and prefer the discomfort of their congested quarters in town
+to the pure air and unspoiled beauty of the country. They love the
+stir of the streets, and enjoy sitting on the door-steps and wandering
+up and down the sidewalks, feeling the push of the motley crowd. Those
+who leave the country for the city feel all these attractions and are
+impelled by them, but beyond these attractions, re-enforcing them by
+an appeal to the intellect, are the economic advantages that lie in
+the numerous occupations and chances for promotion to high-salaried
+positions, the educational advantages for children and youth in the
+better-graded schools, the colleges, the libraries, and the other
+cultural institutions, and such social advantages as variety of
+entertainment, modern conveniences in houses and hotels, more
+beautiful and up-to-date <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>churches, well-equipped hospitals, and
+comfortable and convenient means of transportation from place to
+place.</p>
+
+<p>181. <b>Making a Countryman into a Citizen.</b>&mdash;It is important to enter
+into the spirit of the young people who prefer the streets and blocks
+of the town to the winding country roads, and are willing to sacrifice
+what there is of beauty and leisure in rural life for the ugliness,
+sordidness, and continuous drive of the city; to understand that a
+greater driving force, stirring in the soul of youth and thrusting
+upon him with every item of news from the city, is impelling him to
+disdain what the country can give him and to magnify the
+counter-attractions of the town. He has felt the monotony and the
+contracted opportunity of farm life as he knows it. He has experienced
+the drudgery of it ever since he began to do the chores. Familiar only
+with the methods of his ancestors, he knows that labor is hard and
+returns are few. He may look across broad acres that will some day be
+his, but he knows that his father is "land poor." As a farmer he sees
+no future for agriculture. He has known the village and the
+surrounding country ever since he graduated from the farmyard to the
+schoolhouse, and came into association with the boys and girls of the
+neighborhood. He knows the economic and social resources of the
+community and is satisfied that he can never hope for much enjoyment
+or profit in the limited rural environment. The school gave him little
+mental stimulus, but opened the door ajar into a larger world. The
+church gave him an orthodox gospel in terms of divinity and its
+environment rather than humanity on earth, but stirred vaguely his
+aspirations for a fuller life. He has sounded the depths of rural
+existence and found it unsatisfying. He wants to learn more, to do
+more, to be more.</p>
+
+<p>One eventful day he graduates from the village to the city, as years
+before he graduated from the home into the community. By boat or
+train, or by the more primitive method of stage-coach or afoot, he
+travels until he joins the surging crowd that swarms in the streets.
+He feels himself thrilling with the consciousness that he is moving
+toward success and possibly greatness. He does not stop <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>to think that
+hundreds of those who seek their fortune in the city have failed, and
+have found themselves far worse off than the contented folk back in
+the home village. The newcomer establishes himself in a boarding-house
+or lodging-house which hundreds of others accept as an apology for a
+home, joins the multitude of unemployed in a search for work, and is
+happy if he finds it in an office that is smaller and darker than the
+wood-shed on the farm, or behind a counter where fresh air and
+sunlight never penetrate. He will put up with these non-essentials,
+for he expects in days ahead to move higher up, when the large rewards
+that are worth while will be his.</p>
+
+<p>In the ranks of business he measures his wits with others of his kind.
+He apes their manners, their slang, and their tone inflections. He
+imitates their fashions in clothes, learns the popular dishes in the
+restaurants, and if of feminine tastes gives up pie for salad. He goes
+home after hours to his small and dingy bedroom, tired from the drain
+upon his vitality because of ill-ventilated rooms and ill-nourishing
+food, but happy and free. There are no chores waiting for him now, and
+there is somewhere to go for entertainment. Not far away he may have
+his choice of theatres and moving-picture shows. If he is &aelig;sthetically
+or intellectually inclined, there are art-galleries and libraries
+beckoning him. If his earnings are a pittance and he cannot afford the
+theatre, and if his tastes do not draw him to library or museum, the
+saloon-keeper is always ready to be his friend. The youth from the
+country would be welcomed at the Young Men's Christian Association on
+the other side of the city, or at a church if there happened to be a
+social or religious function that opened the building, but the saloon
+is always near, always open, and always cordial. Poor or rich, or a
+stranger, it matters not, let him enter and enjoy the poor man's club.
+It is warm and pleasant there and he will soon make friends.</p>
+
+<p>182. <b>Mental and Moral Changes.</b>&mdash;The readjustments that are necessary
+in the transfer from country to city are not accomplished without
+considerable mental and moral shock. Changing habits of living are
+paralleled by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>changing habits of thought. Old ideas are jostled by
+new every hour of the day. At the table, on the street, in office or
+store, at the theatre or church the currents of thought are different.
+Social contacts are more numerous, relations are more shifting,
+intellectual affinities and repulsions are felt constantly; mental
+interactions are so frequent that stability of beliefs and
+independence of thought give way to flexibility and uncertainty and
+openness to impression. Group influence asserts its power over the
+individual.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the influence of the group mind goes the influence of what
+may be called the electrical atmosphere of the city. The newcomer from
+the country is very conscious of it; to the old resident it becomes
+second nature. City life is noisy. The whole industrial system is
+athrob with energy. The purring of machinery, the rattle and roar of
+traffic, the clack and toot of the automobile, the clanging of bells,
+and the chatter of human tongues create a babel that confuses and
+tires the unsophisticated ear and brain. They become accustomed to the
+sounds after a time, but the noise registers itself continually on the
+sensitive nervous system, and many a man and woman breaks at last
+under the strain. Another element that adds to the nervous strain is
+haste. Life in the city is a stern chase after money and pleasure.
+Everybody hurries from morning until night, for everything moves on
+schedule, and twenty-four hours seem not long enough to do the world's
+work and enjoy the world's fun. Noise and hurry furnish a mental
+tension that charges the urban atmosphere with excitement. Purveyors
+of news and amusement have learned to cater to the love of excitement.
+The newspaper editor hunts continually for sensations, and sometimes
+does not scruple to twist sober fact into stirring fiction. The
+book-stall and the circulating library supply the novel and the cheap
+magazine to give smack to the jaded palate that cannot relish good
+literature. The theatre panders to the appetite for a thrill.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances lie the possibilities of moral shock. In the
+city there is freedom from the old restraint that the country
+community imposed. In the city the countryman <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>finds that he can do as
+he pleases without the neighbors shaking their heads over him. In the
+absence of such restraint and with the social contact of new friends
+he may rapidly lower his moral standards as he changes his manners and
+his mental habits. It does not take long to shuffle off the old ways;
+it does not take much push or pull to make the unsophisticated boy or
+girl lose balance and drift toward lower ideals than those with which
+they came. Not a few find it hard to keep the moral poise in the
+whirlpool of mental distraction. It is these effects of the urban
+environment that help to explain the social derelicts that abound in
+the cities. It is the weakness of human nature, along with the
+economic pressure, that accounts for the drunkenness, vice, and crime
+that constitute so large a problem of city life and block the path of
+society's development. They are a part of the imperfection that is
+characteristic of this stage of human progress, and especially of the
+twentieth-century city. They are not incurable evils, they demand a
+remedy, and they furnish an inspiring object of study for the
+practitioner of social disease.</p>
+
+<p>He who escapes business and moral failure has open wide before him in
+the city the door of opportunity. He may, if he will, meet all the
+world and his wife in places where the people gather, touching elbows
+with individuals from every quarter of the country, with persons of
+every class and variety of attainment, with believers of every
+political, &aelig;sthetic, and religious creed. In such an atmosphere his
+mind expands like the exotic plant in a conservatory. His individual
+prejudices fall from him like worn-out leaves from the trees. He
+begins to realize that other people have good grounds for their
+opinions and practices that differ from his own, and that in most
+cases they are better than his, and he quickly adjusts himself to
+them. The city stimulates life by its greater social resources, and
+forms within its borders more highly developed human groups. Beyond
+the material comforts and luxuries that the city supplies are the
+social values that it creates in the associations and organizations of
+men and women allied <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>for the philanthropic, remedial, and
+constructive purposes that are looking forward to the slow progress of
+mankind toward its highest ideals.</p>
+
+<p>183. <b>The City as a Social Centre.</b>&mdash;The city is an epitome of
+national and even world life, as the farm is community life in
+miniature. Its social life is infinitely complex, as compared with the
+rural village. Distances that stretch out for miles in the country,
+over fields and woods and hills, are measured in the city by blocks of
+dwellings and public buildings, with intersecting streets, stretching
+away over a level area as far as the eye can see. Social institutions
+correspond to the needs of the inhabitants, and while there are a few
+like those in the country, because certain human needs are the same,
+there is a much larger variety in the city because of the great number
+of people of different sorts and the complexity of their demands.
+Every city has its business centres for finance, for wholesale trade,
+and for retail exchange, its centres for government, and for
+manufacturing; it has its railroad terminals and often its wharves and
+shipping, its libraries, museums, schools, and churches. All these are
+gathering places for groups of people. But there is no one social
+centre for all classes; rather, the people of the city are associated
+in an infinite number of large and small groups, according to the
+mutual interests of their members. But if the city has no four
+corners, it is itself a centre for a large district of country. As the
+village is the nucleus that binds together outlying farms and hamlets,
+so the city has far-flung connections with rural villages and small
+towns in a radius of many miles.</p>
+
+<p>184. <b>The Importance of the City.</b>&mdash;The city has grown up because it
+was located conveniently for carrying on manufacturing and trade on a
+large scale. It is growing in importance because this is primarily an
+industrial age. Its population is increasing relatively to the rural
+population, and certain cities are growing enormously, in spite of Mr.
+Bryce's warning that it is unfortunate for any city to grow beyond a
+population of one hundred thousand. The importance of the city as a
+social centre is apparent when we remember that in America, according
+to the census of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>1910, 46.3 per cent of the people live in
+communities of more than 2,500 population, while 31 per cent of the
+whole are inhabitants of cities of 25,000 or more population. When
+nearly one-third of all the people of the nation live in communities
+of such size, the large city becomes a type of social centre of great
+significance. At the prevailing rate of growth a majority of the
+American people will soon be dwelling in cities, and there seems to be
+no reason to expect a reversal of tendency because modern invention is
+making it possible for fewer persons on the farm to supply the
+agricultural products that city people need. This means, of course,
+that the temper and outlook of mind will be increasingly urban, that
+social institutions generally will have the characteristics of the
+city, that the National Government will be controlled by that part of
+the American citizens that so far has been least successful in
+governing itself well.</p>
+
+<p>185. <b>Municipal History.</b>&mdash;The city has come to stay, and there is in
+it much of good. It has come into existence to satisfy human need, and
+while it may change in character it is not likely to be less important
+than now. Its history reveals its reasons for existence and indicates
+the probabilities of its future. The ancient city was an overgrown
+village that had special advantages for communication and
+transportation of goods, or that was located conveniently for
+protection against neighboring enemies. The cities of Greece
+maintained their independence as political units, but most social
+centres that at first were autonomous became parts of a larger state.
+The great cities were the capitals of nations or empires, and to
+strike at them in war was to aim at the vitals of an organism. Such
+were Thebes and Memphis in Egypt, Babylon and Nineveh in the
+Tigris-Euphrates valley, Carthage and Rome in the West. Such are
+Vienna and Berlin, Paris and London to-day. Lesser cities were centres
+of trade, like Corinth or Byzantium, or of culture, such as Athens.
+Such was Florence in the Middle Ages, and such are Liverpool and
+Leipzig to-day. The municipalities of the Roman Empire marked the
+climax of civic development in antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>The social and industrial life of the Middle Ages was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>rural. Only a
+few cities survived the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, and new
+centres of importance did not arise until trade revived and the
+manufacturing industry began to concentrate in growing towns about the
+time of the Crusades. Then artisans and tradesmen found their way to
+points convenient to travel and trade, and a city population began the
+processes of aggregation and congregation. They grew up rough in
+manners and careless of sanitation and hygiene, but they developed
+efficiency in local government and an inclination to demand civic
+rights from those who had any outside claim of control; they began to
+take pride in their public halls and churches, and presently they
+founded schools and universities. Wealth increased rapidly, and some
+of the cities, like the Hansa towns of the north, and Venice and Genoa
+in the south, commanded extensive and profitable trade routes.</p>
+
+<p>Modern cities owe their growth to the industrial revolution and the
+consequent increase of commerce. The industrial centres of northern
+England are an illustration of the way in which economic forces have
+worked in the building of cities. At the middle of the eighteenth
+century that part of Great Britain was far less populous and
+progressive than the eastern and southern counties. It had small
+representation in Parliament. It was provincial in thought, speech,
+and habits. It was given over to agriculture, small trade, and rude
+home manufacture. Presently came the revolutionary inventions of
+textile machinery, of the steam-engine, and of processes for
+extracting and utilizing coal and iron. The heavy, costly machinery
+required capital and the factory. Concentrated capital and machinery
+required workers. The working people were forced to give up their
+small home manufacturing and their unprofitable farming and move to
+the industrial barracks and workrooms of the manufacturing centres.
+These centres sprang up where the tools were most easily and cheaply
+obtained, and where lay the coal-beds and the iron ore to be worked
+over into machinery. From Newcastle on the east, through Sheffield,
+Leeds, Birmingham, and Manchester, to Liverpool on the west and
+Glasgow over the Scottish border <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>grew up a chain of thriving cities,
+and later their people were given the ballot that was taken from
+certain of the depopulated rural villages. These cities have obtained
+a voice of power in the councils of the nation. In America the
+industrial era came somewhat later, but the same process of
+centralizing industry went on at the waterfalls of Eastern rivers, at
+railroad centres, and at ocean, lake, and Gulf ports. Commerce has
+accelerated the growth of many of these manufacturing towns. Increase
+of industry and population has been especially rapid in the great
+ports that front the two oceans, through whose gates pour the floods
+of immigrants, and in the interior cities like Chicago, that lie at
+especially favorable points for railway, lake, or river traffic. As in
+the Middle Ages, universities grew because teachers went where
+students were gathered, and students were attracted to the place where
+teachers were to be found, so in the larger cities the more people
+there are and the more numerous is the population, the greater the
+amount of business. It pays to be near the centre of things.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howe</span>: <i>The Modern City and Its Problems</i>, pages 9-49.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gillette</span>: <i>Constructive Rural Sociology</i>, pages 32-46.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Strong</span>: <i>Our World</i>, pages 228-283.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 123-132.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giry and Reville</span>: <i>Emancipation of the Medi&aelig;val Towns.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bliss</span>: <i>New Encyclopedia of Social Reform</i>, art.
+"Cities."</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>186. <b>Preponderance of Economic Interests.</b>&mdash;Such a social centre as
+the city has several functions to perform for its inhabitants. Though
+primarily concerned with business, the people have other interests to
+be conserved; the city, therefore, has governmental, educational, and
+recreational functions as a social organization, and within its limits
+all kinds of human concerns find their sponsors and supporters.
+Unquestionably, the economic interests are preponderant. On the
+principle that social structure corresponds to function, the structure
+of the city lends itself to the performance of the economic function.
+Business streets are the principal thoroughfares. Districts near the
+great factories are crowded with the tenements that shelter the
+workers. Little room is left for breathing-places in town, and little
+leisure in which to breathe. Government is usually in the hands of
+professional politicians who are too willing to take their orders from
+the cohort captains of business. Morals, &aelig;sthetics, and recreation are
+all subordinate to business. Even religion is mainly an affair of
+Sunday, and appears to be of relatively small consequence compared
+with business or recreation. The great problems of the city are
+consequently economic at bottom. Poverty and misery, drunkenness,
+unemployment, and crime are all traceable in part, at least, to
+economic deficiency. Economic readjustments constitute the crying need
+of the twentieth-century city.</p>
+
+<p>187. <b>The Manufacturing Industry.</b>&mdash;It is the function of the
+agriculturist and the herdsman, the miner and the lumberman, to
+produce the raw material. The sailor and the train-hand, the
+longshoreman and the teamster, transport them to the industrial
+centres. It is the business of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>the manufacturer and his employees to
+turn them into the finished product for the use of society.
+Manufacturing is the leading occupation in thousands of busy towns and
+small cities of all the industrial nations of western Europe and
+America, and shares with commerce and trade as a leading enterprise in
+the cosmopolitan centres. The merchant or financier who thinks his
+type of emporium or exchange is the only municipal centre of
+consequence, needs only to mount to the top of a tall building or
+climb a suburban hill where he can look off over the city and see the
+many smoking chimneys, to realize the importance of the factory. With
+thousands of tenement-house dwellers it is as natural to fall into the
+occupation of a factory hand as in the rural regions for the youth to
+become a farmer. The growing child who leaves school to help support
+the family has never learned a craftsman's trade, but he may find a
+subordinate place among the mill or factory hands until he gains
+enough skill to handle a machine. From that time until age compels him
+to join the ranks of the unemployed he is bound to his machine, as
+firmly as the medi&aelig;val serf was bound to the soil. Theoretically he is
+free to sell his labor in the highest market and to cross the
+continent if he will, but actually he is the slave of his employer,
+for he and his family are dependent upon his daily wage, and he cannot
+afford to lose that wage in order to make inquiries about the labor
+market elsewhere. Theoretically he is a citizen possessed of the
+franchise and equal in privilege and importance to his employer as a
+member of society, but actually he must vote for the party or the man
+who is most likely to benefit him economically, and he knows that he
+occupies a position of far less importance politically and socially
+than his employer. Employment is an essential in making a living, but
+it is an instrument that cuts two ways&mdash;it establishes an aristocracy
+of wealth and privilege for the employer and a servile class of
+employees who often are little better than peasants of the belt and
+wheel.</p>
+
+<p>188. <b>History of Manufacturing.</b>&mdash;The history of the manufacturing
+industry is a curious succession of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>enslavement and emancipation.
+Until within a century and a half it was closely connected with the
+home. Primitive women fashioned the utensils and clothing of the
+primitive family, and when slaves were introduced into the household
+it became their task to perform those functions. The slave was a
+bondman. Neither his person nor his time was his own, and he could not
+hold property; but he was taken care of, fed and clothed and housed,
+and by a humane master was kindly treated and even made a friend. When
+the slave became a serf on the manorial estate of medi&aelig;val Europe,
+manufacturing was still a household employment and old methods were
+still in use. These sufficed, as there was little outside demand from
+potential buyers, due to general poverty and lack of the means of
+exchange and transportation. Certain industries became localized, like
+the forging of iron instruments at the smithy and the grinding of
+grain at the mill, and the monastery buildings included apartments for
+various kinds of handicraft, but the factory was not yet. Then
+artisans found their way to the town, associated themselves with
+others of their craft, and accepted the relation of journeyman in the
+employ of a master workman; there, too, the young apprentice learned
+his trade without remuneration. The group was a small one. For greater
+strength in local rivalries they organized craft guilds or
+associations, and established over all members convenient rules and
+restrictions. Increasing opportunities for exchange of goods
+stimulated production, but the output of hand labor was limited in
+amount. The position of the craftsman locally was increasingly
+important, and his fortunes were improving. The craft guilds
+successfully disputed with their rivals for a share in the government
+of the city; there was democracy in the guild, for master and
+journeyman were both included, and they had interests much in common.
+A journeyman confidently expected to become a master in a workshop of
+his own.</p>
+
+<p>189. <b>Alteration of Status.</b>&mdash;Under the factory system the employee
+becomes one of many industrial units, having no social or guild
+relation to his employer, receiving a money wage as a quit claim from
+his employer, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>dependent upon himself for labor and a living. For
+a time after the factory system came into vogue there were small shops
+where the employer busied himself among his men and personally
+superintended them, but the large factory tends to displace the small
+workshop, the corporation takes the place of the individual employer,
+and the employee becomes as impersonal a cog in the labor system as is
+any part of the machine at which he works. It used to be the case that
+a thrifty workman might hope to become in the future an employer, but
+now he has become a permanent member of a distinct class, for the
+large capital required for manufacturing is beyond his reach. The
+manufacturing industry is continually passing under the management of
+fewer individuals, while the number of operatives in each factory
+tends to increase. With concentration of management goes concentration
+of wealth, and the gap widens between rich and poor. Out of the modern
+factory system has come the industrial problem with all its varieties
+of skilled and unskilled work, woman and child labor, sweating, wages,
+hours and conditions of labor, unemployment, and other difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>190. <b>The Working Grind.</b>&mdash;There are many manufacturing towns and
+small cities that are built on one industry. Thousands of workers,
+young and old, answer the morning summons of the whistle and pour into
+the factory for a day's labor at the machine. A brief recess at noon
+and the work is renewed for the second half of the day. Weary at
+night, the workers tramp home to the tenements, or hang to the trolley
+strap that is the symbol of the five-cent commuter, and recuperate for
+the next day's toil. They are cogs in the great wheel of industry,
+units in the great sum of human energy, indispensable elements in the
+progress of economic success. Sometimes they seem less prized than the
+costly machines at which they work, sometimes they fall exhausted in
+the ranks, as the soldier in the trenches drops under the attack, but
+they are absolutely essential to wealth and they are learning that
+they are indispensable to one another. In the development of social
+organization the working people are gaining a larger <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>part. The
+factory is educating them to a consciousness of the solidarity of
+their class interests. All class organizations have their faults, but
+they teach their members group values and the dependence of the
+individual on his fellows.</p>
+
+<p>191. <b>The Benefits of the New Industry to the Workers.</b>&mdash;It must not
+be supposed that the industrial revolution and the age of machinery
+have been a social misfortune. The benefits that have come to the
+laboring people, as well as to their employers, must be put into the
+balance against the evils. There is first of all the great increase of
+manufactured products that have been shared in by the workers and the
+greatly reduced price of many necessaries of life, such as matches,
+pins, and cooking utensils. Invention has eased many kinds of labor
+and taken them away from the overburdened housewife, and new machinery
+is constantly lightening the burden of the farm and the home.
+Invention has broadened the scope of labor, opening continually new
+avenues to the workers. It is difficult to see how the rapidly
+increasing number of people in the United States could have found
+employment without the typewriter, the automobile, and the numerous
+varieties of electrical application. The great number of modern
+conveniences that have come to be regarded as necessaries even in the
+homes of the working people, and the local improvements in streets and
+sidewalks, schools and playgrounds that are possible because of
+increasing wealth, are all due to the new type of industry.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions of labor are better. Where building laws are in force,
+factories are lighter, cleaner, and better ventilated than were the
+houses and shops of the pre-factory age, and the hours of labor that
+are necessary to earn a living have been greatly reduced in most
+industries. There have been mental and moral gains, also. It requires
+mental application to handle machinery. An uneducated immigrant may
+soon learn to handle a simple machine, but the complicated machinery
+that the better-paid workmen tend requires intelligence, care, and
+sobriety. The age of machinery has brought with it emancipation from
+slavery, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>indenture, and imprisonment for debt, and has made possible
+a new status for the worker and his children. The laborer in America
+is a citizen with a vote and a right to his own opinion equal to that
+of his employer; he has time and money enough to buy and read the
+newspaper; and he is encouraged and helped to educate his children and
+to prepare them for a place in the sun that is ampler than his own.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cheyney</span>: <i>Industrial and Social History of England</i>,
+pages 199-239.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 206-212, 256-266.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 143-156.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Adams and Sumner</span>: <i>Labor Problems</i>, pages 3-15.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bogart</span>: <i>Economic History of the United States</i>, pages
+130-169, 356-399.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>192. <b>What It Means.</b>&mdash;The industrial problem as a whole is a problem
+of adjusting the relations of employer and employee to each other and
+to the rapidly changing age in the midst of which industry exists. It
+is a problem that cannot be solved in a moment, for it has grown out
+of previous conditions and relationships. It must be considered in its
+causes, its alignments, the difficulties of each party, the efforts at
+solution, and the principles and theories that are being worked out
+for the settlement of the problem.</p>
+
+<p>193. <b>Conflict Between Industrial Groups.</b>&mdash;The industrial problem is
+not entirely an economic problem, but it is such primarily. The
+function of employer and employee is to produce material goods that
+have value for exchange. Both enter into the economic relation for
+what they can get out of it in material gain. Selfish desire tends to
+overcome any consideration of each other's needs or of their mutual
+interests. There is a continual conflict between the wage-earner who
+wants to make a living and the employer who wants to make money, and
+neither stops long to consider the welfare of society as a whole when
+any specific issue arises. The conflict between individuals has
+developed into a class problem in which the organized forces of labor
+confront the organized forces of capital, with little disposition on
+either side to surrender an advantage once gained or to put an end to
+the conflict by a frank recognition of each other's rights.</p>
+
+<p>It is not strange that this conflict has continued to vex society.
+Conflict is one of the characteristics of imperfectly adjusted groups.
+It seems to be a necessary preliminary to co-operation, as war is. It
+will continue until human beings are educated to see that the
+interests of all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>are paramount to the interests of any group, and
+that in the long run any group will gain more of real value for itself
+by taking account of the interests of a rival. Railroad history in
+recent years has made it very plain that neither railway employees nor
+the public have gained as much by hectoring the railroad corporations
+as either would have gained by considering the interests of the
+railroad as well as its own.</p>
+
+<p>Industrial conflict is due in great part to the unwillingness of the
+employer to deal fairly by his employee. There have been worthy
+exceptions, of course, but capitalists in the main have not felt a
+responsibility to consider the interests of the workers. It has been a
+constant temptation to take advantage of the power of wealth for the
+exploitation of the wage-earning class. Unfortunately, the modern
+industrial period began with economic control in the hands of the
+employer, for with the transfer of industry to the factory the laborer
+was powerless to make terms with the employer. Unfortunately, also,
+the disposition of society was to let alone the relations of master
+and dependent in accordance with the <i>laisser-faire</i> theory of the
+economists of that period. Government was slow to legislate in favor
+of the helpless employee, and the abuses of the time were many. The
+process of adjustment has been a difficult one, and experiment has
+been necessary to show what was really helpful and practicable.</p>
+
+<p>194. <b>More than an Industrial Problem.</b>&mdash;In the process of experiment
+it has become clear that the industrial problem is more than an
+economic problem; secondarily, it is the problem of making a living
+that will contribute to the enrichment of life. It is not merely the
+adjustment of the wage scale to the profits of the capitalist by class
+conflict or peaceful bargaining, nor is it the problem of unemployment
+or official labor. The primary task may be to secure a better
+adjustment of the economic interests of employer and employee through
+an improvement of the wage system, but in the larger sense the
+industrial problem is a social and moral one. Sociologists reckon
+among the social forces a distinction between elemental desires <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>and
+broader interests. Wages are able to satisfy the elemental desires of
+hunger and sex feeling by making it possible for a man to marry and
+bring up a family and get enough to eat; but there are larger
+questions of freedom, justice, comity, personal and social development
+that are involved in the labor problem. If wages are so small, or
+hours so long, or factory conditions so bad that health is affected,
+proper education made impossible, and recreation and religion
+prevented, the individual and society suffer much more than with
+reference to the elemental desires. The industrial problem is,
+therefore, a complex problem, and not one that can be easily or
+quickly solved. Although it is necessary to remember all as parts of
+one problem of industry, it is a convenience to remember that it is:</p>
+
+<p>(1) An economic problem, involving wages, hours, and conditions of
+labor.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A social problem, involving the mental and physical health and the
+social welfare of both the individual worker, the family, and the
+community.</p>
+
+<p>(3) An ethical problem, involving fairness, justice, comity, and
+freedom to the employer, the employee, and the public.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A complex problem, involving many specific problems, chief of
+which are the labor of women and children, immigrant labor, prison
+labor, organization of labor, insurance, unemployment, industrial
+education, the conduct of labor warfare, and the interest of the
+public in the industrial problem.</p>
+
+<p>195. <b>Characteristics of Factory Life.</b>&mdash;Group life in the factory is
+not very different in characteristics from group life everywhere. It
+is an active life, the hand and brain of the worker keeping pace with
+the speedy machine, all together shaping the product that goes to
+exchange and storage. It is a social life, many individuals working in
+one room, and all the operatives contributing jointly to the making of
+the product. It is under control. Captains of industry and their
+lieutenants give direction to a group that has been thoroughly and
+efficiently organized. Without control and organization industry could
+not be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>successfully carried on, but it is open to question whether
+industrial control should not be more democratic, shared in by
+representatives of the workers and of the public as well as by the
+representatives of corporate capital or a single owner. It is a life
+of change. It does not seem so to the operative who turns out the same
+kind of a machine product day after day, sometimes by the million
+daily, but the personnel of the workers changes, and even the machines
+from time to time give way to others of an improved type. It is a life
+that has its peculiar weaknesses. The relations of employer and
+employee are not cordial; the health and comfort of the worker are
+often disregarded; the hours of labor are too long or the wages too
+small; the whole working staff is driven at too high speed; the whole
+process is on a mechanical rather than a human basis, and the material
+product is of more concern than the human producer. These weaknesses
+are due to the concentration of control in the hands of employers. The
+industrial problem is, therefore, largely a problem of control.</p>
+
+<p>196. <b>Democratizing Industry.</b>&mdash;When the modern industrial system
+began in the eighteenth century the democratic principle played a
+small part in social relations. Parental authority in the family, the
+master's authority in the school, hierarchical authority in the
+church, official authority in the local community, and monarchical
+authority in the nation, were almost universal. It is not strange that
+the authority of the capitalist in his business was unquestioned. Only
+government had the right to interfere in the interest of the lower
+classes, and government had little care for that interest. The
+democratic principle has been gaining ground in family and school,
+state and church; it has found grudging recognition in industry. This
+is because the clash of economic interests is keenest in the factory.
+But even there the grip of privilege has loosened, and the possibility
+of democratizing industry as government has been democratized is being
+widely discussed. There is difference of opinion as to how this should
+be done. The socialist believes that control can be transferred to the
+people in no other way than by collective <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>ownership. Others
+progressively inclined accept the principle of government regulation
+and believe that in that way the people, through their political
+representatives, can control the owners and managers. Others think
+that the best results can be obtained by giving a place on the
+governing board of an industry to working men alongside the
+representatives of capital and permitting them to work out their
+problems on a mutual basis. Each of these methods has been tried, but
+without demonstrating conclusively the superiority of any one.
+Whatever method may come into widest vogue, there must be a
+recognition of the principle of democratic interest and democratic
+control. No one class in society can dictate permanently to the people
+as a whole. Industry is the concern of all, and all must have a share
+in managing it for the benefit of all.</p>
+
+<p>197. <b>Legislation.</b>&mdash;The history of industrial reform is first of all
+a story of legislative interference with arbitrary management. When
+Great Britain early in the nineteenth century overstepped the bounds
+of the let-alone policy and began to legislate for the protection of
+the employee, it was but a resumption of a paternal policy that had
+been general in Europe before. But formerly government had interfered
+in behalf of the employing class, now it was for the people who were
+under the control of the exploiting capitalist. The abuses of child
+labor were the first to receive attention, and Parliament reduced the
+hours of child apprentices to twelve a day. Once begun, restriction
+was extended. Beginning in 1833, under the leadership of Lord
+Shaftesbury, the working man's friend, the labor of children under
+thirteen was reduced to forty-eight hours a week, and children under
+nine were forbidden to work at all. The work of young people under
+eighteen was limited to sixty-nine hours a week, and then to ten hours
+a day; women were included in the last provision. These early laws
+were applicable to factories for weaving goods only, but they were
+extended later to all kinds of manufacturing and mining. These laws
+were not always strictly enforced, but to get them through Parliament
+at all was an achievement. Later legislation extended the ten-hour law
+to men; then <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>the time was reduced to nine hours, and in many trades
+to eight.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the need of legislation was far less urgent.
+Employers could not be so masterful in the treatment of their
+employees or so parsimonious in their distribution of wages, because
+the laborer always had the option of leaving the factory for the farm,
+and land was cheap. Women and children were not exploited in the mines
+as in England, pauper labor was not so available, and such trades as
+chimney-sweeping were unknown. Then, too, by the time there was much
+need for legislation, the spirit of justice was becoming wide-spread
+and legislatures responded more quickly to the appeal for protective
+legislation. It was soon seen that the industrial problem was not
+simply how much an employee should receive for a given piece of work
+or time, but how factory labor affected working people of different
+sex or age, and how these effects reacted upon society. Those who
+pressed legislation believed that the earnings of a child were not
+worth while when the child lost all opportunity for education and
+healthful physical exercise, and that woman's labor was not profitable
+if it deprived her of physical health and nervous energy, and weakened
+by so much the stamina of the next generation. The thought of social
+welfare seconded the thought of individual welfare and buttressed the
+claims of a particular class to economic consideration in such
+questions as proper wages. Massachusetts was the first American State
+to introduce labor legislation in 1836; in 1869 the same State
+organized the first labor bureau, to be followed by a National bureau
+in 1884, four years later converted into a government department.
+Among the favorite topics of legislation have been the limitation of
+woman and child labor, the regulation of wage payments, damages and
+similar concerns, protection from dangerous machinery and adequate
+factory inspection, and the appointment of boards of arbitration. The
+doctrine of the liability of employers in case of accident to persons
+in their employ has been increasingly accepted since Great Britain
+adopted an employers' liability act in 1880, and since 1897 compulsory
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>insurance of employees has spread from the continent of Europe to
+England and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>198. <b>The Organization of Labor.</b>&mdash;These measures of protection and
+relief have been due in part to the disinterested activity of
+philanthropists, and in part to the efforts of organized labor, backed
+up by public opinion; occasionally capitalists have voluntarily
+improved conditions or increased wages. The greatest agitation and
+pressure has come from the labor-unions. Unlike the medi&aelig;val guilds,
+these unions exist for the purpose of opposing the employer, and are
+formed in recognition of the principle that a group can obtain
+guarantees that an individual is helpless to secure. Like-mindedness
+holds the group together, and consciousness of common interests and
+mutual duties leads to sacrifice of individual benefit for the sake of
+the group. The moral effect of this sense and practice of mutual
+responsibility has been a distinct social gain, and warrants the hope
+that a time may come when this consciousness of mutual interests may
+extend until it includes the employing class as in the old-time guild.</p>
+
+<p>The modern labor-union is a product of the nineteenth century. Until
+1850 there was much experimenting, and a revolutionary sentiment was
+prevalent both in America and abroad. The first union movement united
+all classes of wage-earners in a nation-wide reform, and aimed at
+social gains, such as education as well as economic gains. It hoped
+much from political activity, spoke often of social ideals, and did
+not disdain to co-operate with any good agency, even a friendly
+employer. Class feeling was less keen than later. But it became
+apparent that the lines of organization were too loose, that specific
+economic reforms must be secured rather than a whole social programme,
+and that little could probably be expected from political activity.
+Labor began to organize on a basis of trades, class feeling grew
+stronger, and trials of strength with employers showed the value of
+collective bargaining and fixed agreements. Out of the period grew the
+American Federation of Labor. More recently has come the industrial
+union, which includes all ranks of labor, like the early <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>labor-union,
+and is especially beneficial to the unskilled. It is much more radical
+in its methods of operation, and is represented by such notorious
+organizations as the United Mine Workers and the International Workers
+of the World.</p>
+
+<p>199. <b>Strikes.</b>&mdash;The principle of organization of the trade-union is
+democratic. The unit of organization is the local group of workers
+which is represented on the national governing bodies; in matters of
+important legislation, a referendum is allowed. Necessarily, executive
+power is strongly centralized, for the labor-union is a militant
+organization, but much is left to the local union. Though peaceful
+methods are employed when possible, warlike operations are frequent.
+The favorite weapon is the strike, or refusal to work, and this is
+often so disastrous to the employer that it results in the speedy
+granting of the laborers' demands. It requires good judgment on the
+part of the representatives of labor when to strike and how to conduct
+the campaign to a successful conclusion, but statistics compiled by
+the National Labor Bureau between 1881 and 1905 indicate that a
+majority of strikes ordered by authority of the organization were at
+least partially successful.</p>
+
+<p>The successful issue of strikes has demonstrated their value as
+weapons of warfare, and they have been accepted by society as
+allowable, but they tend to violence, and produce feelings of hatred
+and distrust, and would not be countenanced except as measures of
+coercion to secure needed reforms. The financial loss due to the
+cessation of labor foots up to a large total, but in comparison with
+the total amount of wages and profits it is small, and often the
+periods of manufacturing activity are so redistributed through the
+year that there is really no net loss. Yet a strike cannot be looked
+upon in any other way than as a misfortune. Like war, it breaks up
+peaceful if not friendly relations, and tends to destroy the
+solidarity of society. It tends to strengthen class feeling, which,
+like caste, is a handicap to the progress of mankind. Though it may
+benefit the working man, it is harmful to the general public, which
+suffers from the interruption of industry and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>sometimes of
+transportation, and whose business is disturbed by the blow to
+confidence.</p>
+
+<p>200. <b>Peaceful Methods of Settlement.</b>&mdash;Strikes are so unsettling to
+industry that all parties find it better to use diplomacy when
+possible, or to submit a dispute to arbitration rather than to resort
+to violence. It is in industrial concerns very much as it is in
+international politics, and methods used in one circle suggest methods
+in the other. Formerly war was a universal practice, and of frequent
+occurrence, and duelling was common in the settlement of private
+quarrels; now the duel is virtually obsolete, and war is invoked only
+as a last resort. Difficulties are smoothed out through the diplomatic
+representatives that every nation keeps at the national capitals, and
+when they cannot settle an issue the matter is referred to an umpire
+satisfactory to both sides. Similarly in industrial disputes the
+tendency is away from the strike; when an issue arises representatives
+of both sides get together and try to find a way out. There is no good
+reason why an employer should refuse to recognize an organization or
+receive its representatives to conference, especially if the employer
+is a corporation which must work through representatives. Collective
+bargaining is in harmony with the spirit of the times and fair for
+all. Conference demands frankness on the part of all concerned. It
+leads more quickly to understanding and harmony if each party knows
+the situation that confronts the other. If the parties immediately
+concerned cannot reach an agreement, a third party may mediate and try
+to conciliate opposition. If that fails, the next natural step is
+voluntarily to refer the matter in dispute to arbitration, or by legal
+regulation to compel the disputants to submit to arbitration.</p>
+
+<p>201. <b>Boards of Conciliation.</b>&mdash;The history of peaceful attempts to
+settle industrial disputes in the United States helps to explain the
+methods now frequently employed. In 1888, following a series of
+disastrous labor conflicts, Congress provided by legislation for the
+appointment of a board of three commissioners, which should make
+thorough investigation of particular disputes and publish its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>findings. The class of disputes was limited to interstate commerce
+concerns and the commissioners did not constitute a permanent board,
+but the legislative act marked the beginning of an attempt at
+conciliation. Ten years later the Erdman Act established a permanent
+board of conciliation to deal with similar cases when asked to do so
+by one of the parties, and in case of failure to propose arbitration;
+it provided, also, for a board of arbitration. Meantime the States
+passed various acts for the pacification of industrial disputes; the
+most popular have been the appointment of permanent boards of
+conciliation and arbitration, which have power to mediate,
+investigate, and recommend a settlement. These have been supplemented
+by State and national commissions, with a variety of functions and
+powers, including investigation and regulation. The experience of
+government boards has not been long enough to prove whether they are
+likely to be of permanent value, but the results are encouraging to
+those who believe that through conciliation and arbitration the
+industrial problem can best be solved.</p>
+
+<p>202. <b>Public Welfare.</b>&mdash;There can be no reasonable complaint of the
+interference of the government. The government, whether of State or
+nation, represents the people, and the people have a large stake in
+every industrial dispute. Society is so interdependent that thousands
+are affected seriously by every derangement of industry. This is
+especially true of the stoppage of railways, mines, or large
+manufacturing establishments, when food and fuel cannot be obtained,
+and the delicate mechanism of business is upset. At best the public is
+seriously inconvenienced. It is therefore proper that the public
+should organize on its part to minimize the derangement of its
+interests. In 1901 a National Civic Federation was formed by those who
+were interested in industrial peace, and who were large-minded enough
+to see that it could not be obtained permanently unless recognition
+should be given to all three of the interested parties&mdash;the employers,
+the employees, and the public. Many small employers of labor are
+bitterly opposed to any others than themselves having anything <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>to say
+about the methods of conducting industry, but the men of large
+experience are satisfied that the day of independence has passed. This
+organization includes on its committees representatives of all
+parties, and has helped in the settlement of a number of
+controversies.</p>
+
+<p>203. <b>Voluntary Efforts of Employers.</b>&mdash;It is a hopeful sign that
+employers themselves are voluntarily seeking the betterment of their
+employees. It is a growing custom for corporations to provide for the
+comfort, health, and recreation of men and women in their employ.
+Rest-rooms, reading-rooms, baths, and gymnasiums are provided;
+athletic clubs are organized; lunches are furnished at cost;
+continuation schools are arranged. Some manufacturing establishments
+employ a welfare manager or secretary whose business it shall be to
+devise ways of improving working conditions. When these helps and
+helpers are supplied as philanthropy, they are not likely to be
+appreciated, for working people do not want to be patronized; if
+maintained on a co-operative basis, they are more acceptable. But the
+employer is beginning to see that it is good business to keep the
+workers contented and healthy. It adds to their efficiency, and in
+these days when scientific management is putting so much emphasis on
+efficiency, any measures that add to industrial welfare are not to be
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>204. <b>Profit-Sharing.</b>&mdash;Another method of conferring benefit upon the
+employee is profit-sharing. By means of cash payment or stock bonuses,
+he is induced to work better and to be more careful of tools and
+machinery, while his expectation of a share in the success of the
+business stimulates his interest and his energy and keeps him better
+natured. The objections to the plan are that it is paternalistic, for
+the business is under the control of the employer and the amount of
+profits depends on his honesty, good management, and philanthropic
+disposition. There are instances where it has worked admirably, and
+from the point of view of the employer it is often worth while,
+because it tends to weaken unionism; but it cannot be regarded as a
+cure for industrial ills, because it is a remedy of uncertain value,
+and at best is not based on the principle of industrial democracy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>205. <b>Principles for the Solution of the Industrial Problem.</b>&mdash;Three
+principles contend for supremacy in all discussions and efforts to
+solve the industrial problem. The first is the doctrine of <i>employer's
+control</i>. This is the old principle that governed industrial relations
+until governmental legislation and trade-union activity compelled a
+recognition of the worker's rights. By that principle the capitalist
+and the laborer are free to work together or to fight each other, to
+make what arrangements they can about wages, hours, and health
+conditions, to share in profits if the employer is kindly disposed,
+but always with labor in a position of subordination and without
+recognized rights, as in the old political despotisms, which were
+sometimes benevolent but more often ruthless. Only the selfish,
+stubborn capitalist expects to see such a system permanently restored.</p>
+
+<p>The second principle is the doctrine of <i>collective control</i>. This
+theory is a natural reaction from the other, but goes to an opposite
+extreme. It is the theory of the syndicalist, who prefers to smash
+machinery before he takes control, and of the socialist, who contents
+himself with declaring the right of the worker to all productive
+property, and agitates peacefully for the abolition of the wage system
+in favor of a working man's commonwealth. The socialist blames the
+wage system for all the evils of the present industrial order, regards
+the trade-unions as useful industrial agencies of reform, but urges a
+resort to the ballot as a necessary means of getting control of
+industry. There would come first the socialization of natural
+resources and transportation systems, then of public utilities and
+large industries, and by degrees the socialization of all industry
+would become complete. Then on a democratic basis the workers would
+choose their industrial officers, arrange their hours, wages, and
+conditions of labor, and provide for the needs of every individual
+without exploitation, overexertion, or lack of opportunity to work.
+Serious objections are made to this programme for productive
+enterprise on the ground of the difficulty of effecting the transfer
+of the means of production and exchange, and of executive management
+without the incentive of abundant pecuniary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>returns for efficient
+superintendency; even more because of the natural selfishness of human
+beings who seek personal preferment, and the natural inertia of those
+who know that they will be taken care of whether they exert themselves
+or not. More serious still are the difficulties that lie in the way of
+a satisfactory distribution of the rewards of labor, for there is sure
+to be serious difference of opinion over the proper share of each
+person who contributes to the work of production, and no method of
+initiative, referendum, and recall would avail to smooth out the
+difficulties that would be sure to arise.</p>
+
+<p>206. <b>Co-operation.</b>&mdash;The third principle is <i>co-operation</i>. The
+principle of co-operation is as important to society as the principle
+of division of labor. By means of co-operative activity in the home
+the family is able to maintain itself as a useful group. By means of
+co-operation in thinly settled communities local prosperity is
+possible without any individual possessing large resources. But in
+industry where competition rules and the aim of the employer is the
+exploitation of the worker, general comfort is sacrificed for the
+enrichment of the few and wealth flaunts itself in the midst of
+misery. There will always be a problem in the industrial relations of
+human beings until there is a recognition of this fundamental
+principle of co-operation. The application of the principle to the
+complicated system of modern industrialism is not easy, and attempts
+at co-operative production by working men with small and incapable
+management have not been successful, but it is becoming clear that as
+a principle of industrial relation between classes it is to obtain
+increasing recognition. If it is proper to admit the claims of the
+employer, the employee, and the public to an interest in every labor
+issue, then it is proper to look for the co-operation of them all in
+the regulation of industry. The usual experiments in co-operative
+industry have been the voluntary organization of production, exchange,
+or distribution by a group of middle or working class people to save
+the large expense of superintendents or middlemen. Co-operation in
+production has usually failed; in America co-operative banks and
+building <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>associations, creameries, and fruit-growing associations
+have had considerable success, and in Europe co-operative stores and
+bakeries have had a large vogue in England and Belgium, and
+co-operative agriculture in Denmark. But industry on a large scale
+requires large capital, efficient management, capable, interested
+workmanship, and elimination of waste in material and human life. To
+this end it needs the good-will of all parties and the assistance of
+government. Unemployment, for instance, may be taken care of by giving
+every worker a good industrial education and doing away with
+inefficiency, and then establishing a wide-spread system of labor
+exchanges to adjust the mass of labor to specific requirements.
+Industry is such a big and important matter that nothing less than the
+co-operation of the whole of society can solve its problems.</p>
+
+<p>This co-operation, to be effective, requires a genuine partnership, in
+which the body of stockholders and the body of working men plan
+together, work together, and share together, with the assistance of
+government commissions and boards that continually adjust and, if
+necessary, regulate the processes of production and distribution on a
+basis of equity, to be determined by a consensus of expert opinion. In
+such a system there is no radical derangement of existing industry, no
+destruction of initiative, no expulsion of expert management or
+confiscation of property. Individual and corporate ownership continue,
+the wage system is not abolished, efficient administration is still to
+be obtained, but the body of control is not a board of directors
+responsible only to the stockholders of the corporation, and managing
+affairs primarily for their own gain, but it consists of
+representatives of those who contribute money, superintendence, and
+labor, together with or regulated by a group of government experts,
+all of whom are honestly seeking the good of all parties and enjoying
+their full confidence. Toward such an outcome of present strife many
+interested social reformers are working, and it is to be hoped that
+its advantages will soon appear so great that neither extreme
+alternative principle will have to be tried out thoroughly before
+there will be a general acceptance <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>of the co-operative idea. It may
+seem utopian to those who are familiar with the selfishness and
+antagonism that have marked the history of the last hundred years, but
+it is already being tried out here and there, and it is the only
+principle that accords with the experiences and results of social
+evolution in other groups. It is the highest law that the struggle for
+individual power fails before the struggle for the good of the group,
+and a contest for the success of the few must give way to co-operation
+for the good of all.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects</i>, pages
+188-194.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Adams and Sumner</span>: <i>Labor Problems</i>, pages 175-286,
+379-432, 461-500.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Bulletins of the United States Department of Labor.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carlton</span>: <i>History and Problems of Organized Labor</i>, pages
+228-261.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gladden</span>: <i>The Labor Question</i>, pages 77-113.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 167-206.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cross</span>: <i>Essentials of Socialism</i>, pages 11, 12, 106-111.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wyckoff</span>: <i>The Workers.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>207. <b>Mercantile Exchange.</b>&mdash;Important as is the manufacturing
+industry in the life of the city, it is only a part of the economic
+activity that is continually going on in its streets and buildings.
+The mercantile houses that carry on wholesale and retail trade, the
+towering office-buildings, and the railway and steamship terminals
+contain numerous groups of workers all engaged in the social task of
+supplying human wants, while streets and railways are avenues of
+traffic. The manufacture of goods is but a part of the process;
+distribution is as important as production. All these sources of
+supply are connected with banks and trust companies that furnish money
+and credit for business of every kind. The economic activities of a
+city form an intricate network in which the people are involved.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly second in importance to manufacturing is mercantile exchange.
+The manufacturer, after he has paid his workers, owns the goods that
+have been produced, but to get his living he must sell them. To do
+this he establishes relations with the merchant. Their relations are
+carried on through agents, some of whom travel from place to place
+taking orders, others establish office headquarters in the larger
+centres of trade. Once the merchant has opened his store or shop and
+purchased his goods he seeks to establish trade relations with as many
+individual customers as he can attract. Mercantile business is carried
+on in two kinds of stores, those which supply one kind of goods in
+wholesale or retail quantities, like groceries or dry goods, and those
+which maintain numerous departments for different kinds of
+manufactured goods. Large department stores have become a special
+feature of mercantile exchange in cities of considerable size, but
+they do not destroy the smaller merchants, though competition is often
+difficult.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>208. <b>The Ethics of Business.</b>&mdash;The methods of carrying on mercantile
+business are based, as in the factory, on the principle of getting the
+largest possible profits. The welfare of employees is a secondary
+consideration. Expense of maintenance is heavy. Rents are costly in
+desirable locations; the expense of carrying a large stock of
+merchandise makes it necessary to borrow capital on which interest
+must be paid; the obligations of a large pay-roll must be met at
+frequent intervals, whether business is good or bad. All these items
+are present in varying degree, whatever the size of the business,
+except where a merchant has capital enough of his own to carry on a
+small business and can attend to the wants of his customers alone or
+with the help of his family. The temptation of the merchant is strong
+to use every possible means to make a success of his business, paying
+wages as low as possible, in order to cut down expenses, and offering
+all kinds of inducements to customers in order to sell his goods. The
+ethics of trade need improvement. It is by no means true, as some
+agitators declare, that the whole business system is corrupt, that
+honesty is rare, and that the merchant is without a conscience.
+General corruption is impossible in a commercial age like this, when
+the whole system of business is built on credit, and large
+transactions are carried on, as on the Stock Exchange, with full
+confidence in the word or even the nod of an operator. Of course,
+shoddy and impure goods are sold over the counter and the customer
+often pays more than an article is really worth, but every mercantile
+house has its popular reputation to sustain as well as its rated
+financial standing, and the business concern that does not deal
+honorably soon loses profitable trade.</p>
+
+<p>Exchange constitutes an important division of the science of
+economics, but its social causes and effects are of even greater
+consequence. Exchange is dependent upon the diffusion of information,
+the expansion of interests, and growing confidence between those who
+effect a transaction. When mutual wants are few it is possible to
+carry on business by means of barter; when trade increases money
+becomes a necessary medium; world commerce requires a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>system of
+credit which rests on social trust and integrity. Conversely, there
+are social consequences that come from customs of exchange. It
+enlarges human interests. It stimulates socialization of habits and
+broader ideas. It encourages industry and thrift and promotes division
+of labor. It strengthens social organization and tends to make it more
+efficient. Altogether, exchange of goods must be regarded as among the
+most important functions of society.</p>
+
+<p>209. <b>Business Employees.</b>&mdash;The business ethics that are most open to
+criticism are those that govern the relations of the merchant and his
+employees. Here the system of employment is much the same as in the
+factory. The merchant deals with his employees through superintendents
+of departments. The employment manager hires the persons who seem best
+qualified for the position, and they are assigned to a department.
+They are under the orders of the head of the department, and their
+success or failure depends largely on his good-will. Wages and
+privileges are in his hand, and if he is morally unscrupulous he can
+ruin a weak-willed subordinate. There is little coherence among
+employees; there are always men and women who stand ready to take a
+vacant position, and often no particular skill or experience is
+required. There has been no such solidifying of interests by
+trade-unions as in the factory; the individual makes his own contract
+and stands on his own feet. On the other hand, there is an increasing
+number of employers who feel their responsibility to those who are in
+their employ, and, except in the department stores, they are usually
+associated personally with their employees. Welfare work is not
+uncommon in the large establishments, and a minimum wage is being
+adopted here and there.</p>
+
+<p>One of the worst abuses of the department store is the low-paid labor
+of women and girls. It is possible for girls who live at home to get
+along on a few dollars a week, but they establish a scale of wages so
+low that it is impossible for the young woman who is dependent on her
+own resources to get enough to eat and wear and keep well. The
+physical and moral wrecks that result are disheartening. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>Nourishing
+food in sufficient quantities to repair the waste of nerve and tissue
+cannot be obtained on five or six dollars a week, when room rent and
+clothing and necessary incidentals, like car-fare, have to be
+included. There are always human beasts of prey who are prepared to
+give financial assistance in exchange for sex gratification, and it is
+difficult to resist temptation when one's nervous vigor and strength
+of will are at the breaking-point. It is not strange that there is an
+economic element among the causes of the social evil; it is remarkable
+that moral sturdiness resists so much temptation.</p>
+
+<p>210. <b>Offices.</b>&mdash;The numerous office-buildings that have arisen so
+rapidly in recent years in the cities also have large corps of women
+workers. They have personal relations with employers much more
+frequently, for there are thousands of offices where a few
+stenographers or even a single secretary are sufficient. Office work
+is skilled labor, is better paid, and attracts women of better
+attainments and higher ideals than in department store or factory.
+Office relations are pleasant as well as profitable. The demands are
+exacting; labor at the typewriter, the proof-sheets, or the
+bookkeeper's desk is tiresome, but the society of the office is
+congenial, working conditions are healthful and cheerful in most
+cases, and there are many opportunities for increasing efficiency and
+promotion. The office has its hardships. Everything is on a business
+basis, and there is little allowance for feelings or disposition.
+There are days when trials multiply and an atmosphere of irritation
+prevails; there are seasons when the constant rush creates a wearing
+nervous tension, and other seasons, when business is so poor that
+occasionally there are breakdowns of health or moral rectitude; but on
+the whole the office presents a simpler industrial problem than the
+factory or the store.</p>
+
+<p>211. <b>Transportation.</b>&mdash;A third industry that has its centre in the
+city but extends across continents and seas is the business of
+transportation. Manufactured goods are conveyed from the factory to
+the warehouse and the store, goods sold in the mercantile
+establishment are delivered from door to door, but enormous quantities
+of the products <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>of economic activity are hauled to greater distances
+by truck, car, and steamship. The city is a point to which roads,
+railways, and steamship lines converge, and from which they radiate in
+every direction. By long and short hauls, by express and freight, vast
+quantities of food products and manufactured goods pour into the
+metropolis, part to be used in its numerous dwellings, part to be
+shipped again to distant points. Along the same routes passengers are
+transported, journeying in all directions on a multitude of errands,
+jostling for a moment as they hurry to and from the means of
+conveyance, and then swinging away, each on its individual orbit, like
+comet or giant sun that nods acquaintance but once in a thousand
+years.</p>
+
+<p>The business of transportation occupies the time and attention of
+thousands of workers, and its ramifications are endless. It is not
+limited to a particular region like agriculture, or to towns and
+cities like manufacturing; it is not stopped by tariff walls or ocean
+boundaries. An acre of wheat is cut by the reaper, threshed, and
+carted to the elevator by wagon or motor truck. The railroad-car is
+hauled alongside, and with other bushels of its kind the grain is
+transported to a giant flour-mill, where it is turned into a whitened,
+pulverized product, packed in barrels, and shipped across the ocean to
+a foreign port. Conveyed by rail or truck to the bakery, the flour
+undergoes transformation into bread, and takes its final journey to
+hotel, restaurant, and dwelling-house. Similarly, every kind of raw
+material finds its destination far from the place of its production
+and is consumed directly or as a manufactured product. This gigantic
+business of transportation is the means of providing for the
+sustenance and comfort of millions of human beings, and in spite of
+the extensive use of machinery it requires at every step the
+co-operative labor of human beings.</p>
+
+<p>212. <b>Growth of Interdependence.</b>&mdash;It is the far-flung lines of
+commerce that bind together the peoples of the world. Formerly there
+were periods of history, as in the European Middle Ages, when a social
+group produced nearly everything that it needed for consumption and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>commerce was small; but now all countries exchange their own products
+for others that they cannot so readily produce. The requirements of
+commerce have broken down the barriers between races, and have
+compelled mutual acquaintance and knowledge of languages, mutual
+confidence in one another's good intentions, and mutual understanding
+of one another's wants. The demands of commerce have precipitated
+wars, but have also brought victories of peace. They have stimulated
+the invention of improved means of communication, as the demands of
+manufacturing stimulated invention of machinery. The slow progress of
+horse-drawn vehicles over poor roads provoked the invention of
+improved highways and then of railroads. The application of steam to
+locomotives and ships revolutionized commerce, and by the steady
+improvements of many years has given to the eager trader and traveller
+the speedy, palatial steamship and the <i>train de luxe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Transportation depends, however, on the man behind the engine rather
+than on the mass of steel that is conjured into motion. Successful
+commerce waits for the willingness and skill of worker and director.
+There must be the same division and direction of labor and the same
+spirit of co-operation; there must be intelligence in planning
+schedules for traffic and overcoming obstacles of nature and human
+frailty and incompetence. The teamster, the longshoreman, the
+freight-handler, and the engineer must all feel the push of the
+economic demand, keeping them steadily at work. A strike on any
+portion of the line ties up traffic and upsets the calculations of
+manufacturer, merchant, and consumer, for they are all dependent upon
+the servants of transportation.</p>
+
+<p>213. <b>Problems of Transportation.</b>&mdash;There are problems of
+transportation that are of a purely economic nature, but there are
+also problems that are of social concern. The first problem is that of
+safe and rapid transportation. The comfort and safety of the millions
+who travel on business or for pleasure is a primary concern of
+society. If the roads are not kept in repair and the steamship lanes
+patrolled, if the rolling-stock is allowed to deteriorate and become
+liable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>to accident, if engine-drivers and helmsmen are intemperate or
+careless, if efficiency is not maintained, or if safety is sacrificed
+to speed, the public is not well served. Many are the illustrations of
+neglect and inefficiency that have culminated in accident and death.
+Or the transportation company is slow to adopt new inventions and to
+meet the expense that is necessary to equip a steamer or a railroad
+for speed, or to provide rapid interurban or suburban transit. Poor
+management or single tracks delay fast freights, or congested
+terminals tie up traffic. These inconveniences not only consume
+profits and ruffle the tempers of working men, but they are a social
+waste of time and effort, and they stand in the way of improved living
+conditions. The congestion of population in the cities can easily be
+remedied when rapid and cheap transit make it possible for working men
+to live twenty or thirty miles out of town. The standard of living can
+be raised appreciably when fast trolley or steam service provides the
+products of the farms in abundance and in fresh condition.</p>
+
+<p>Another problem is that of the worker. The same temptation faces the
+transportation manager that appears in the factory and the mercantile
+house. The expenses of traffic are enormous. Railways alone cost
+hundreds of millions for equipment and service, and there are periods
+when commerce slackens and earnings fall away. It is easier to cut
+wages than to postpone improvements or to raise freight or passenger
+rates. In the United States an interstate commerce commission
+regulates rates, but questions of wages and hours of labor are between
+the management and the men. Friction frequently develops, and
+hostility in the past has produced labor organizations that are well
+knit and powerful, so that the railroad man has succeeded in securing
+fair treatment, but there are other branches of transportation service
+where the servants of the public find their labor poorly paid and
+precarious in tenure. Teamsters and freight-handlers find conditions
+hard; sailors and dock-hands are often thrown out of employment. Whole
+armies of transportation employees have been enrolled since
+trolley-lines and automobile service have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>been organized. Fewer
+persons drive their own horses and vehicles, and many who walked to
+and from business or school now ride. Transportation service has been
+vastly extended, but there are continually more people to be
+accommodated, and motor-men, conductors, and chauffeurs to be adjusted
+to wage scales and service hours.</p>
+
+<p>214. <b>Monopoly.</b>&mdash;A persistent tendency in transportation has been
+toward monopoly. Express service between two points becomes controlled
+by a single company, and the charges are increased. A street-railway
+company secures a valuable city franchise, lays its tracks on the
+principal streets, and monopolizes the business. Service may be poor
+and fares may be raised, unless kept down by a railroad commission,
+but the public must endure inconvenience, discomfort, and oppression,
+or walk. Railroad systems absorb short lines and control traffic over
+great districts; unless they are under government regulation they may
+adjust their time schedules and freight charges arbitrarily and impose
+as large a burden as the traffic will bear; the public is helpless,
+because there is no other suitable conveyance for passengers or
+freight. It is for these reasons that the United States has taken the
+control of interstate commerce into its own hands and regulated it,
+while the States have shown a disposition to inflict penalties upon
+recalcitrant corporations operating within State boundaries. It is the
+policy of government, also, to prevent control of one railroad by
+another, to the added inconvenience and expense of the public. But
+since 1890 there has been a rapid tendency toward a consolidation of
+business enterprises, by which railroads became united into a few
+gigantic systems, street railways were consolidated into a few large
+companies, and ocean-steamship companies amalgamated into an
+international combination.</p>
+
+<p>215. <b>Government Ownership vs. Regulation.</b>&mdash;Nor did monopoly confine
+itself to transportation. The control of public utilities has passed
+into fewer hands. Coal companies, gas and electric light corporations,
+telegraph and telephone companies tend to monopolize business over
+large sections of country. Some of these possess a natural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>monopoly
+right, and if managed in the interests of the public that they serve,
+may be permitted to carry on their business without interference. But
+their large incomes and disposition to oppress their constituents has
+produced many demands for government ownership, especially of coal
+companies and railroads, and though for less reason of telephone and
+telegraph lines. Government ownership has been tried in Europe and in
+Australasia, but experience does not prove that it is universally
+desirable. There are financial objections in connection with purchase
+and operation, and the question of efficiency of government employees
+is open to debate. Enough experiments have been tried in the United
+States to render very doubtful the advisability of government
+ownership of any of these large enterprises where politics wield so
+large a power and democracy delights to shift office and
+responsibility. But it is desirable that the government of State and
+nation have power to regulate business associations that control the
+public welfare as widely as do railroads, telegraph-lines, and
+navigation companies. By legislation, incorporation, and taxation the
+government may keep its hand upon monopoly and, if necessary,
+supersede it, but the system which has grown up by a natural process
+is to be given full opportunity to justify itself before government
+assumes its functions. It is hardly to be expected that government
+regulation will be faultless, American experience with regulating
+commissions has not been altogether satisfactory, but society needs
+protection, and this the government may well provide.</p>
+
+<p>216. <b>Trusts.</b>&mdash;The tendency to monopoly is not confined to any one
+department of economic activity. Manufacturing, mercantile, and
+banking companies have all tended to combine in large corporations,
+partly for greater economy, partly for an increase of profits through
+manipulating reorganization of stock companies, and partly for
+centralization of control. In the process, while the cost of certain
+products has been reduced by economy in operating expenses, the
+enormous dividend requirements of heavily capitalized corporations has
+necessitated high prices, a large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>business, and the danger of
+overproduction, and a virtual monopoly has made it possible to lift
+prices to a level that pinches the consumer. By a grim irony of
+circumstance, these giant and often ruthless corporations have taken
+the name of trusts, but they do not incline to recognize that the
+people's rights are in their trust. Not every trust is harmful to
+society, and certainly trusts need not be destroyed. They have come
+into existence by a natural economic process, and as far as they
+cheapen the cost of production and improve the manufacture and
+distribution of the product they are a social gain, but they need to
+be controlled, and it is the function of government to regulate them
+in the interests of society at large. It has been found by experience
+that publicity of corporate business is one of the best methods of
+control. In the long run every social organization must obtain the
+sanction of public opinion if it is to become a recognized
+institution, and in a democratic country like the United States no
+trust can become so independent or monopolistic that it can afford to
+disregard the public will and the public good, as certain American
+corporations have discovered to their grief.</p>
+
+<p>217. <b>The Chances of Progress.</b>&mdash;Every economic problem resolves
+itself into a social problem. The satisfaction of human wants is the
+province of the manufacturer, the merchant, and the transporter, but
+it is not limited to any one or all of these, nor is society under
+their control. The range of wants is so great, the desires of social
+beings branch out into so many broad interests, that no one line of
+enterprise or one group of men can control more than a small portion
+of society. The whole is greater than any of its parts. There will be
+groups that are unfortunate, communities and races that will suffer
+temporarily in the process of social adjustment, but the welfare of
+the many can never long be sacrificed to the selfishness of the few.
+Social revolution in some form will take place. It may not be
+accomplished in a day or a year, but the social will is sure to assert
+itself and to right the people's wrongs. The social process that is
+going on in the modern city has aggravated the friction of industrial
+relations; the haste with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>which business is carried on is one of its
+chief causes; but the very speed of the movement will carry society
+the sooner out of its acute distresses into a better adjusted system
+of industry. So far most of the world's progress has been by a slow
+course of natural adjustment of individuals and groups to one another;
+that process cannot be stopped, but it can be directed by those who
+are conscious of the maladjustments that exist and perceive ways and
+means of improvement. Under such persons as leaders purposive progress
+may be achieved more rapidly and effectually in the near future.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hadley</span>: <i>Standards of Public Morality</i>, pages 33-96.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing</span>: <i>Wages in the United States</i>, pages 93-96.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 241-255, 314-320.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Vrooman</span>: <i>American Railway Problems</i>, pages 1-181.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bolen</span>: <i>Plain Facts as to the Trusts and the Tariff</i>,
+pages 3-236.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bogart</span>: <i>Economic History of the United States</i>, pages
+186-216, 305-337, 400-418.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Montgomery</span>: <i>Vital American Problems</i>, pages 3-91.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE PEOPLE WHO WORK</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>218. <b>Economic vs. Social Values.</b>&mdash;Economic interests may receive
+first attention in the city, but the work that is done is of less
+importance than the people who work. Things may so fill the public
+mind that the real values of the various elements that enter into life
+may become distorted. A penny may be held so close to the eye as to
+hide the sun. Making a living may seem more important than making the
+most of life. Persons who are absorbed in business are liable to lose
+their sense of proportion between people and property; the capitalist
+overburdens himself with business cares until he breaks down under the
+nervous strain, and overworks his subordinates until they often become
+physical wrecks, but it is not because he personally intends to do
+harm. Eventually the social welfare of every class will become the
+supreme concern and the study of social efficiency will fill a larger
+place than the study of economic efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>219. <b>The Social Classes.</b>&mdash;There is a natural line of social cleavage
+that has made it a customary expression to speak of the upper, the
+middle, and the lower classes. It is impossible to separate them
+sharply, for they shade into one another. Theoretically, in a
+democratic country like America there should be no class distinctions,
+but in colonial days birth and education had an acknowledged social
+position that did not belong to the common man, and in the nineteenth
+century a wealthy class came into existence that wrested supremacy
+from professional men and those who could rely alone on their
+intellectual achievements. It has never been impossible for
+individuals to push their way up the social path of success, but it
+has been increasingly difficult for a self-made man to break through
+into <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>the circle of the <i>&eacute;lite</i>. There are still young men who come
+out of the country without pecuniary capital but with physical
+strength and courage and, after years of persistent attack, conquer
+the citadel of place and power, but the odds are against the youth
+without either capital or a higher education than the high school
+gives. Without unusual ability and great strength of will it is
+impossible to rise high if one lacks capital or influential friends,
+but with the help of any two of these it is quite possible to gain
+success. Employers complain that the vast majority of persons whom
+they employ are lacking in energy, ambition, and ability. Important as
+is the possession of wealth and influence it seems to be the psychic
+values that ultimately determine the individual's place in American
+society. We shall expect, therefore, to find an upper class in society
+composed of some who hold their place because of the prestige that
+belongs to birth or property, and of others who have made their own
+way up because they had the necessary qualities to succeed. Below them
+in the social scale we shall expect to find a larger class who,
+because they were not consumed by ambition to excel, or because they
+lacked the means to achieve distinction, have come to occupy a place
+midway between the high and the low, to fill the numerous professional
+and business positions below the kings and great captains, and to hold
+the balance of power between the aristocracy and the proletariat.
+Below these, in turn, are the so-called masses, who fill the lower
+ranks of labor, and who are essential to the well-being of those who
+are reckoned above them.</p>
+
+<p>220. <b>The Worth of the Upper Class.</b>&mdash;It is a common belief among the
+lowly that the people who hold a place in the upper ranks are not
+worthy of their lofty position, and there are many who hope to see
+such a general levelling as took place during the French Revolution.
+They are fortified in their opinion by the lavish and irresponsible
+way in which the wealthy use their money, and they are tantalized by
+the display of luxury which, if times are hard, are in aggravating
+contrast to the hardship and suffering of the poor. The scale of
+living of the millionaire cannot justify <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>itself in the eyes of the
+man who finds it difficult to make both ends meet. Undoubtedly society
+will find it necessary some day to devise a more equitable method of
+distribution. But it is a mistake to suppose that most of the rich are
+idle parasites on society, or that their service, as well, as their
+wealth, could be dispensed with in the social order. In spite of the
+impression fostered by a sensational press that the average person of
+wealth devotes himself to the gaieties and dissipations of a
+pleasure-loving society, the truth is that after the self-centred
+years of callow youth are over most men and women take life seriously
+and only the few are idlers. If the investigator should go through the
+wealthy sections of the cities and suburbs, and record his
+observations, he would find that the men spend their days feeling the
+pulse of business in the down-town offices, directing the energies of
+thousands of individuals, keeping open the arteries of trade, using as
+productive capital the wealth that they count their own, making
+possible the economic activity and the very existence of the persons
+who find fault with their worthlessness. He would find the women in
+the nature of the case less occupied with public affairs, but
+interested and enlisted in all sorts of good enterprises, and, while
+often wasteful of time and money, bearing a part increasingly in the
+promotion of social reforms by active participation and by generous
+contributions. The immense gains that have come to society through
+philanthropy and social organization, as well as through the channels
+of industry, would have been impossible without the sympathetic
+activity of the so-called upper class.</p>
+
+<p>221. <b>Who Belong to the City Aristocracy?</b>&mdash;Most of those who belong
+to the upper class are native Americans. They may not be far removed
+from European ancestry, but for themselves they have had the advantage
+of a rearing in American ways in the home, the school, and society at
+large. They are both city and country bred. The country boy has the
+advantage of physical strength and better manual training, but he
+often lacks intellectual development, and usually has little capital
+to start with. The city youth knows the city ways and possesses the
+asset of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>acquaintances and friendships, if not of capital, in the
+place where he expects to make a living. He is helped to success if
+the way is prepared for him by relatives who have attained place and
+property, but he is as often cursed by having more money and more
+liberty than is good for him, while still in his irresponsible years.
+No place is secure until the young man has proved his personal worth,
+whether he is from the city or the country and has come up out of
+poverty or from a home of wealth.</p>
+
+<p>222. <b>Sources of Wealth.</b>&mdash;The large majority of persons of wealth
+have won or inherited their property from the economic industries of
+manufacturing, trade, commerce, and transportation, or real estate.
+Certain individuals have been fortunate in their mining or
+public-service investments; others make a large income as corporation
+officials, lawyers, physicians, engineers, and architects, but most of
+them have attained their success as capitalists, and they are able to
+maintain a position of prominence and ease because they use rather
+than hoard their wealth. It is easy to underestimate the usefulness of
+human beings who finance the world of industry, and in estimating the
+returns that are due to members of the various social classes this
+form of public service that is so essential to the prosperity of all
+must receive recognition.</p>
+
+<p>223. <b>How They Live.</b>&mdash;Unfortunately, the possession of money
+furnishes a constant temptation to self-indulgence which, if carried
+far, is destructive of personal health and character, weakens family
+affection, and threatens the solidarity of society. The dwelling-house
+is costly and the furnishings are expensive. A retinue of servants
+performs many useless functions in the operation of the establishment.
+Ostentation often carried to the point of vulgarity marks habits of
+speech, of dress, and of conduct both within and outside of the home.
+Every member of the family has his own friends and interests and
+usually his own share of the family allowance. The adults of the
+family are unreasonably busy with social functions that are not worth
+their up-keep; the children are coddled and supplied with predigested
+culture in schools that cater to the trade, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>if they are not
+spoiled in the process of preparation go on to college as a form of
+social recreation. There are exceptions, of course, to this manner of
+life, but those who follow it constitute a distinct type and by their
+manner of living exert a disintegrating influence in American society.</p>
+
+<p>224. <b>The Middle Class.</b>&mdash;The middle class is not so distinct a
+stratum of society as are the upper and lower classes. It includes the
+bulk of the population in the United States, and from its ranks come
+the teachers, ministers, physicians, lawyers, artists, musicians,
+authors, and statesmen; the civil, mechanical, and electrical
+engineers, the architects, and the scientists of every name; most of
+the tradesmen of the towns and the farmers of the country; office
+managers and agents, handicraftsmen of the better grade, and not a few
+of the factory workers. They are the people who maintain the
+Protestant churches and their enterprises, who make up a large part of
+the constituency of educational institutions and buy books and
+reviews, and who patronize the better class of entertainments and
+amusements. These people are too numerous to belong to any one race,
+and they include both city and country bred. The educated class of
+foreigners finds its place among them, assimilates American culture,
+and intermarries in the second generation. Into the middle class of
+the cities is absorbed the constant stream of rural immigration,
+except the few who rise into the upper class or fall into the lower
+class. In the city itself grow up thousands of boys and girls who pass
+through the schools and into business and home life in their native
+environment, and who constitute the solid stratum of urban society.</p>
+
+<p>These people have not the means to make large display. They are
+influenced by the fashions of the upper class, sometimes are induced
+to applaud their poses or are hypnotized to do their bidding, but they
+have their own class standards, and most of them are contented to
+occupy their modest station. Only a minority of them own their homes,
+but as a class they can afford to pay a reasonable rent and to furnish
+their houses tastefully, to hire one or two household servants, and to
+live in comfort. Twenty years ago they owned bicycles and enjoyed
+century runs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>into the country on Sunday: since then some of them have
+been promoted to automobiles and enjoy a low-priced car as much as the
+wealthy appreciate their high-priced limousines. As in rural villages,
+so in the city they form various groups of neighbors or friends based
+on a common interest, and find entertainment and intellectual stimulus
+from such companionship. On the roster of social organizations are
+musical societies and bridge clubs, literary and art circles, dramatic
+associations, women's clubs, and men's fraternities. The people meet
+at dances, teas, and receptions; they mingle with others of their kind
+at church or theatre, and co-operate with other workers in settlements
+and charity organizations. They educate their children in the public
+schools and in increasing numbers give them the benefit of a college
+education.</p>
+
+<p>People of the middle class are by no means debarred from passing up to
+a higher social grade if they have the ability or good fortune to get
+ahead, nor are they guaranteed a permanent place in their own native
+group unless they are competent to keep their footing. There is no
+surety to keep the independent tradesman from failing in business or
+the careless youth from falling into intemperate or vicious habits;
+many hazards must be crossed and hindrances overcome before an assured
+position is secured in the community, but the opportunities are far
+better than for the handicapped strugglers below.</p>
+
+<p>225. <b>Bonds of Union Between Classes.</b>&mdash;Though the middle class is
+distinct from the aristocracy of society in America, it is not shut
+off from association with it. The same is true in a less degree of the
+lowest class. Party lines are vertical, not horizontal. Religious and
+intellectual lines are only less so. The politician cannot afford to
+ignore a single vote, and the working man's counts as much as the
+plutocrat's. There are few churches that do not have representatives
+of all classes, from the gilded pew-holder to the workman with dingy
+hands who sits under the gallery. The school is no respecter of class
+lines. The store, the street-car, and the railroad are all common
+property, where one jostles another without regard to class.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>Friendship oversteps all boundaries, even of race and creed.</p>
+
+<p>226. <b>The Lower Class.</b>&mdash;The lower class consists of those who are
+dependent upon others for the opportunity to work or for the charity
+that keeps them alive. They commonly lack initiative and ambition; if
+they have those qualities they are hindered by their environment from
+ever getting ahead. Sometimes they make an attempt in a small way to
+carry on trade on their own resources, but they seldom win success.
+Their skill as factory operatives is not so great as to gain for them
+a good wage, and when business is slack they are the first to be laid
+off the pay-roll, and they help to swell the ranks of the unemployed.
+Because of the American system of compulsory education they are not
+absolutely illiterate, but their ability is small; they leave school
+early, and what little education they have does not help them to earn
+a living. They do not usually choose an occupation, but they follow
+the line of least resistance, taking the first job that offers, and
+often finding later that they never can hope for advancement in it.
+Frequently they are the victims of weak will and inherited tendencies
+that lead to intemperance, vice, and crime. Thousands of them are
+living in the unwholesome tenements that lack comfort and
+attractiveness. There is no inducement to cultivate good habits, and
+no possibility of keeping the children free from moral and physical
+contamination. As a class they are continually on the edge of poverty
+and often submerged in it. They know what it is to feel the pinch of
+hunger, to shiver before the blasts of winter, and to look upon coal
+and ice as luxuries. They become discouraged from the struggle as they
+grow older, often get to be chronically dependent on charity, and not
+infrequently fall at last into a pauper's grave.</p>
+
+<p>227. <b>The Degenerate American.</b>&mdash;Many of these people are Americans,
+swarms of them are foreigners who have come here to better their
+fortunes and have been disappointed or, finding the difficulties more
+than they anticipated, have settled down fairly contented in the city.
+Many persons think that it is the alien immigrant who <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>causes the
+increase in intemperance and crime that has been characteristic of
+city life, but statistics lay much of the guilt upon the degenerate
+American. There are poor whites in the cities as there are in the
+South country. The riffraff drifts to town from the country as the
+Roman proletariat gravitated to the capital in the days of decadence.
+A great many young persons who enter the city with high hopes of
+making a fortune fail to get a foothold or gradually lose their grip
+and are swept along in the current of the city's d&eacute;bris. Illness,
+accident, and repeated failure are all causes of degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>Along with misfortune belongs misconduct. Those causes which produce
+poverty like intemperance, idleness, and ignorance, are productive of
+degeneracy, also. They render the individual unfit to meet the
+responsibilities of life, and tend not only to incompetence but also
+to sensuality and even crime. Added to the various physical causes are
+such psychical influences as contact with degraded minds or with base
+literature or art, loss of religious faith, and loss of
+self-confidence as to one's ability to succeed.</p>
+
+<p>Personal degeneracy tends to perpetuate itself in the family. Drunken,
+depraved, or feeble-minded parents usually produce children with the
+same inheritances or tendencies; family quarrelling and an utter
+absence of moral training do not foster the development of character.
+A slum environment in the city strengthens the evil tendencies of such
+a home, as it counterbalances the good effects of a wholesome home
+environment. Mental and moral degeneracy is always present in society,
+and if unchecked spreads widely; physical degeneracy is so common as
+to be alarming, resulting in dangerous forms of disease, imbecility,
+and insanity. Society is waking to the need of protecting itself
+against degeneracy in all its forms, and of cutting out the roots of
+the evil from the social body.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing</span>: <i>Social Religion</i>, pages 104-157.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Commons</span>: "Is Class Conflict in America Growing?" art. in
+<i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 13: 756-783.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 276-283.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 185-193.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Warner</span>: <i>American Charities</i>, pages 59-117, 276-292.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Patten</span>: <i>Social Basis of Religion</i>, pages 107-133.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Blackmar and Gillin</span>: <i>Outlines of Sociology</i>, pages
+499-512.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE IMMIGRANT</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>228. <b>The Immigrant Problem.</b>&mdash;An increasing proportion of the city's
+population is foreign born or of foreign parentage. For a hundred
+years America has been the goal of the European peasant's ambition,
+the magnet that has drawn him from interior hamlet and ocean port.
+Migration has been one of the mighty forces that have been reshaping
+society. The American people are being altered by it, and it is a
+question whether America will maintain its national characteristics if
+the volume of immigration continues unchecked. Europe has been deeply
+affected, and the people who constitute the migrating mass have been
+changed most of all. And the end is not yet.</p>
+
+<p>The immigrant constitutes one of the problems of society. Never has
+there been in history such a race movement as that which has added to
+one nation a population of more than twenty million in a half century.
+It is a problem that affects the welfare of races and continents
+outside of America, as well as here, and that affects millions yet
+unborn, and millions more who might have been born were it not for the
+unfavorable changes that have taken place because of the shift in
+population. It is a problem that has to do with all phases of group
+life&mdash;its economic, educational, political, moral, and religious
+interests. It is a problem that demands the united wisdom of all who
+care for the welfare of humanity in the days to come. The heart of the
+problem is first whether the immigrant shall be permitted to crowd
+into this country unhindered, or whether sterner barriers shall be
+placed in the way of the increasing multitude; secondly, if
+restrictions are decided upon what shall be their nature, and whose
+interests shall <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>be considered first&mdash;those of the immigrant, of the
+countries involved, or of world progress as a whole?</p>
+
+<p>The problem can be approached best by considering (1) the history of
+immigration, (2) the present facts about immigration, (3) the
+tendencies and effects of immigration. Migrations have occurred
+everywhere in history, and they are progressing in these days in other
+countries besides the United States. Canada is adding thousands every
+year, parts of South America are already German or Italian because of
+immigration, in lesser numbers emigrants are going to the colonies
+that the European nations, especially the English, have located all
+over the world. European immigration to North America has been so
+prolonged and abundant that it constitutes the particular phenomenon
+that most deserves attention. Other nations have fought wars to secure
+additional territory for their people; the immigrant occupation of
+America has been a peaceful conquest.</p>
+
+<p>229. <b>The Irish.</b>&mdash;Although the early occupation of this continent was
+by immigration from Europe, after the Revolution the increase of
+population was almost entirely by natural growth. Large families were
+the rule and a hardy people was rapidly gaining the mastery of the
+eastern part of the continent. It was not until 1820 that the new
+immigration became noticeable and the government took legislative
+action to regulate it (1819). Between 1840 and 1880 three distinct
+waves of immigration broke on American shores. The first was Irish.
+The Irish peasants were starving from a potato famine that extended
+over several years in the forties, and they poured by the thousand
+into America, the women becoming domestic servants and the men the
+unskilled laborers that were needed in the construction camps. They
+built roads, dug canals, and laid the first railways. Complaint was
+made that they lowered the standards of wages and of living, that
+their intemperate, improvident ways tended to complicate the problem
+of poverty, and that their Catholic religion made them dangerous, but
+they continued to come until the movement reached its climax, in 1851,
+when 272,000 passed through <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>the gates of the Atlantic ports. The
+Irish-American has become an important element of the population,
+especially in the Eastern cities, and has shown special aptitude for
+politics and business.</p>
+
+<p>230. <b>Germans and Scandinavians.</b>&mdash;The Irishman was followed by the
+German. He was attracted by-the rich agricultural lands of the Middle
+West and the opportunities for education and trade in the towns and
+cities. German political agitators who had failed to propagate
+democracy in the revolutionary days of 1848 made their way to a place
+where they could mould the German-American ideas. While the Irish
+settled down in the seaboard towns, the Germans went West, and
+constituted one of the solid groups that was to build the future
+cosmopolitan nation. The German was followed by the Scandinavian. The
+people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were increasing in number, but
+their rough, cold country could not support them all. As the Norsemen
+took to the sea in the ninth century, so the Scandinavian did in the
+nineteenth, but this time in a peaceful migration toward the setting
+sun. They began coming soon after the Civil War, and by 1882 they
+numbered thirteen per cent of the total immigration. They were a
+specially valuable asset, for they were industrious agriculturists and
+occupied the valuable but unused acres of the Northwest, where they
+planted the wheat belt of the United States, learned American ways and
+founded American institutions, and have become one of the best strains
+in the American blood.</p>
+
+<p>231. <b>The New Immigrants.</b>&mdash;If the United States could have continued
+to receive mainly such people as these from northern Europe, there
+would be little cause to complain of the volume of immigration, but
+since 1880 the tide has been setting in from southern and eastern
+Europe and even from Asia, bringing in large numbers of persons who
+are not of allied stock, have been little educated, and do not
+understand or fully sympathize with American principles and ideals,
+and for the most part are unskilled workmen. These have come in such
+enormous numbers as to constitute a real menace and to compel
+attention.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>TABLE OF IMMIGRATION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1914</h4>
+
+<p class="cen">(Races numbering less than 10,000 each are not included)</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="50%" summary="Immigration, 1914" style="border: 2px black solid;">
+  <tr>
+  <td width="80%" class="tdlp" style="padding-top: 1em;">South Italians</td>
+  <td width="20%" class="tdrp" style="padding-top: 1em;">251,612</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Jews</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">138,051</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Poles</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">122,657</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Germans</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">79,871</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">English</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">51,746</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Greeks</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">45,881</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Russians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">44,957</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">North Italians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">44,802</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Hungarians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">44,538</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Croatians and Slovenians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">37,284</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Ruthenians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">36,727</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Scandinavians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">36,053</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Irish</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">33,898</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Slovaks</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">25,819</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Roumanians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">24,070</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Lithuanians</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">21,584</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Scotch</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">18,997</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">French</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">18,166</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Bulgarians, Servians, and Montenegrins</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">15,084</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Mexicans</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">13,089</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Finns</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">12,805</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp">Dutch and Flemings</td>
+  <td class="tdrp">12,566</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdlp" style="padding-bottom: 1em;">Spanish</td>
+  <td class="tdrp" style="padding-bottom: 1em;">11,064</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p>232. <b>Italians and Slavs.</b>&mdash;Most numerous of these are the Italians.
+At home they feel the pressure of population, the pinch of small
+income, and heavy taxation. Here it costs less to be a citizen and
+there are more opportunities for a livelihood. Gangs of Italian
+laborers have taken the place of the Irish. Italians have established
+themselves in the small trades, and some of them find a place in the
+factory. Two-thirds of them are from the country, and they find
+opportunity to use their agricultural knowledge as farm laborers. In
+California and Louisiana they have established settlements of their
+own, and in the East they make a foreign fringe on the outskirts of
+suburban towns. North Italy is more progressive than the south and the
+qualities of the people are of higher grade, but the bulk of
+emigration is from the region of Naples and Sicily. Among the southern
+Italians the percentage of illiteracy is high, they have the
+reputation of being slippery in business relations, and not a few
+anarchists and criminals are found among them. It is not reasonable to
+expect that these people will measure up to the level of the steady,
+reliable, and hard-working American or north European, especially <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>as
+large numbers of them are birds of passage spending the winter in
+Italy or going home for a time when business in America is depressed.
+Yet the great majority of those who settle here are peaceable,
+ambitious, and hard-working men and women.</p>
+
+<p>Alongside the Italian is the Slav. There are so many varieties of him
+that he is confusing. He comes from the various provinces of Russia,
+from the conglomerate empire of Austro-Hungary, and from the Balkan
+states. In physique he is sturdier than the Italian and mentally he is
+less excitable and nervous, but he drinks heavily and is often
+murderous when not sober. The Slav has come to America to find a place
+in the sun. At home he has suffered from political oppression and
+poverty; he has had little education of body or mind; he is subject to
+his primitive impulses as the west European long ago ceased to be. It
+is not easy for America to assimilate large numbers of such backward
+peoples, but the Slav is coming at the rate of three hundred thousand
+a year. The Slav is depended upon for the hard labor of mine and
+foundry, of sugar and oil refineries, and of meat-packing
+establishments. Hundreds and thousands are in the coal and iron
+regions of Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and West Virginia. The
+Bohemians and Poles more frequently than the others bring their
+families with them, and to some extent settle in the rural districts,
+but the bulk of the Slavs are men who herd in congested
+boarding-houses, move frequently from one industrial centre to
+another, and naturally are very slow to become assimilated.</p>
+
+<p>233. <b>The Jews.</b>&mdash;Of all the races that have found asylum in America
+none have felt abroad the heavy hand of oppression more than the Jew.
+He has been the world's outcast through nineteen centuries, but in
+America he has found freedom to expand. One-fifth of all the Jews are
+already in America, and the rate of immigration is not far from
+140,000 a year. The immigrant Jews are of different grades, some are
+educated and well-to-do, but the masses are poor, and the most recent
+immigrants have low ideals of living. Few of those who come settle in
+the country <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>districts; the large majority herd in the city tenements
+and engage in small trades and manufacturing. Jewish masters are
+unmerciful as sweaters, unprincipled as landlords, and disreputable as
+white slavers, but no man rises above limitations that others have set
+for him like the Jew, and with ambition, ability, and persistence the
+race is pushing its way to the front. The young people are eager for
+an education, and are often among the keenest pupils in their classes.
+Later they make their mark in the professions as well as in business.
+The Jew has found a new Canaan in the West.</p>
+
+<p>234. <b>The Lesser Peoples.</b>&mdash;Besides these great groups that constitute
+the bulk of the incoming millions, there are representatives from all
+the nations and tribes of Europe. All parts of Great Britain have sent
+their people, and from Canada so many have come as almost to
+impoverish certain sections. French-Canadians are numerous in the mill
+cities of New England. From the Netherlands there has always been a
+small contingent. Portugal has sent islanders from the Azores and Cape
+Verde. The Finns are here, the Lithuanians from Russia, the Magyars
+from Hungary. The Greeks are pouring in from their sunny hills and
+valleys; they rival the Italians in the fruit trade, and monopolize
+the bootblack industry in certain cities. With the twentieth century
+have come the Turks and their Asiatic subjects, the Syrians and the
+Armenians. All these peoples have race peculiarities, prejudices, and
+superstitions. Most of their members belong in the lower grades of
+society and their coming is a distinct danger to the nation's future.
+There can be no question, of course, that individuals among them
+possess ability and even talent, and that certain groups like those
+from Great Britain and the Netherlands are exceptions to the general
+rule, but there is a strong conviction among social workers and
+students that those who are here should be assimilated before many
+more arrive. Definite measures are advocated by which it is expected
+that the government or private agencies may be able to make over these
+latest aliens into reputable, useful American citizens.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>235. <b>Public Attitude toward Immigration.</b>&mdash;Although interest in
+national and immigrant welfare is far less keen than it well might be,
+the tremendous consequences of the wide-spread movement have not
+passed unnoticed. Wage-earners already here have felt the effects of
+low-grade competition and have clamored for restrictive legislation.
+On race rather than economic grounds Asiatics have been excluded
+except for the few already here. Federal regulation has been increased
+with reference to all immigrant traffic. This has been based
+increasingly on investigation by private effort and government
+commission, and governments and churches have established bureaus on
+immigration. Aid associations maintain agents to safeguard the
+newcomer from exploitation, both on the journey and in port. From all
+these sources a body of information has been gathered that throws
+light on the causes and effects of immigration.</p>
+
+<p>236. <b>Causes and Effects.</b>&mdash;The primary cause is industrial. The
+desire of the people to improve their economic and social condition is
+the compelling motive that drives them, in spite of homesickness and
+ignorance, to venture into an unknown country and to face dangers and
+difficulties that could not be foreseen. Three out of four who come
+are males, pioneers oftentimes of a family that looks forward to a
+larger migration later on. Friends on this side encourage others and
+commonly supply the necessary funds. Eighty per cent of all who come
+into Massachusetts make the venture in hope of finding better
+industrial conditions or to join relatives or friends. In some
+countries, like Russia, religious and political oppression are
+expelling causes, and the military service required by the European
+Powers drives young men away. It has been demonstrated that forty per
+cent of the immigration is not permanent, but that for various reasons
+individuals return for a season, some permanently.</p>
+
+<p>Immigration has its good and bad effects. There are certain good
+qualities in many of the immigrant strains that are valuable to
+American character, and it cannot be denied that the exploitation of
+national resources and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>execution of public works could not have
+been accomplished so rapidly without the immigrant. But the bad
+effects furnish a problem that is not easily solved. Immigrants come
+now in such large numbers that they tend to form alien groups of
+increasing proportions in the midst of the great cities. There is
+danger that the city will become a collection of districts&mdash;little
+Italy, little Hungary, and little Syria&mdash;and the sense of civic unity
+be destroyed. Even more significant is the high birth-rate of the
+foreigner. Statistics show that with the greater birth-rate of the
+immigrants there is a corresponding decline in the native birth-rate,
+so that the alien is supplanting the native American stock. Along with
+race degeneracy goes lack of industrial skill and declining wages, for
+the foreigner is ignorant, often unorganized, and willing to work and
+live under worse conditions than the native American. Among the
+disastrous social effects are increasing poverty and crime, lack of
+sanitation, and an increase of diseases that thrive in filth.
+Illiteracy and slow mentality lower the general level of intelligence.
+Lack of training in democracy renders the average immigrant a poor
+citizen, though some State laws give him the ballot without delay. In
+morals and religion there is more loss than gain by immigration.
+American liberty tends to become license, scores of thousands lose all
+interest in the church, and moral restraint is thrown off with the
+ecclesiastical yoke. Plainly when the immigrant population is
+predominant in a great city the problem of immigration becomes vital
+not only to the local municipality but also to the nation, which is
+fast becoming urban.</p>
+
+<p>237. <b>Americanizing the Alien.</b>&mdash;After all is said, the immigrant
+problem is not insoluble. There is much in the situation to make one
+optimistic. Thus far the native stock has been able to survive and to
+give its best to the newcomer. The immigrant himself has no desire to
+destroy American institutions. He comes longing to share in their
+benefits. America is to him an Eldorado, a promised land flowing with
+milk and honey. His children, through the schools and other contacts,
+learn the language that his tongue is slow to acquire, and absorb the
+ideas and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>ideals that are typically American. After all, it is the
+spirit rather than the form of the institutions that make them
+valuable. The upper-class American, who is too indifferent to go to
+the polls on election day, is less patriotic and more harmful to
+American institutions than the Italian who is too ignorant to vote,
+but would die on the battle-field for the defense of his adopted
+country. Many agencies are at work to help the alien adjust himself to
+American ways and to make him into a good citizen. In the last resort
+the Americanization of the foreigner rests with the attitude of the
+native American toward him rather than with the immigrant himself.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>The Old World in the New</i>, pages 24-304.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Fairchild</span>: <i>Immigration</i>, pages 213-368.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Commons</span>: <i>Races and Immigrants in America</i>, pages
+198-238.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Roberts</span>: <i>The New Immigration.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Jenks and Lauck</span>: <i>Immigration.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Woods</span>: <i>Americans in Process.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Willis</span>: "Findings of the Immigration Commission," art. in
+<i>The Survey</i>, 25: 571-578.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>HOW THE WORKING PEOPLE LIVE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>238. <b>In Europe.</b>&mdash;A large proportion of the immigrants from Europe
+have been peasants who have come out of rural villages to find a home
+in the barracks of American cities. In the Old World they have lived
+in houses that lacked comfort and convenience; they have worked hard
+through a long day for small returns; and a government less liberal
+and more burdened than the United States has mulcted them of much of
+their small income by heavy taxes. Young men have lost two or three
+years in compulsory military training, and their absence has kept the
+women in the fields. From the barracks men often return with the
+stigma of disease upon them, which, added to the common social evils
+of intemperance and careless sex relations, keeps moral standards low.
+Thousands of them are illiterate, few of them have time for
+recreation, and those who do understand little of its possibilities.
+Religion is largely a matter of inherited superstition, and as a
+superior force in life is quite lacking. To people of this sort comes
+the vision of a land where government is democratic, military
+conscription is unknown, wages are high, and there is unlimited
+opportunity to get ahead. Encouraged by agents of interested parties,
+many a man accumulates or borrows enough money to pay his passage and
+to get by the immigration officer on the American side, and faces
+westward with high hope of bettering his condition.</p>
+
+<p>239. <b>In America.</b>&mdash;On the pier in America he is met by a friend or
+finds his way by force of gravity into the immigrant district of the
+city. Usually unmarried, he is glad to find a boarding place with a
+compatriot, who cheerfully admits him to a share of his small
+tenement, because he will help to pay the rent. With assistance he
+finds a job and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>within a week regards himself as an American. Later
+if it seems worth while he will take steps to become a citizen, but
+recently immigrants are less disposed to do this than formerly. Many
+immigrants do not find their new home in the port of landing; they are
+booked through to interior points or locate in a manufacturing town
+within comfortable reach of the great city; but they find a place in
+the midst of conditions that are not far different. Unskilled Italians
+commonly join construction gangs, and for weeks at a time make their
+home in a temporary shack which quickly becomes unsanitary. Wherever
+the immigrant goes he tends to form foreign colonies and to reproduce
+the low standards of living to which he has been accustomed. If he
+could be introduced to better habits and surrounded with improved
+conditions from the moment of his arrival he would gain much for
+himself, and far more speedily would become assimilated into an
+American; as it is, he is introducing foreign elements on a large
+scale into a city life that is overburdened with problems already.</p>
+
+<p>Changes in the manner of living are often for the worse. Instead of
+their village houses set in the midst of the open fields here, they
+herd like rabbits in overpopulated, unhealthy warrens, frequently
+sleeping in rooms continually dark and ill-ventilated. They still work
+for long hours, but here under conditions that breed discouragement
+and disease, in the sweat-shop or the dingy factory, and often in an
+occupation dangerous to life or limb. Though they are free from the
+temptations of the military quarters, they find them as numerous at
+the corner saloon and the brothel, and even in the overcrowded
+tenement itself. If they bring over their families or marry here, they
+can expect no better home than the tenement, unless they have the
+courage to get out into the country, away from all that which is
+familiar. Rather than do that or knowing no better way, they swarm
+with others of their kind in the immigrant hive.</p>
+
+<p>240. <b>Tenement House Conditions.</b>&mdash;In New York large tenements from
+five to seven stories high, with three or four families on each floor,
+shelter many thousands of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>city's workers. These are often built
+on lots too small to permit of air and light space between buildings.
+Some of them contain over a hundred individuals. Three-fourths of the
+population of Manhattan is in dwellings that house not less than
+twenty persons each. The density of population is one hundred and
+fifty to the acre. Twelve to eighteen dollars a month are charged for
+a suite of four rooms, some of them no better than dark closets.
+Instances can be multiplied where adults of both sexes and children
+are crowded into one or two rooms, where they cook, eat, and sleep,
+and where privacy is impossible. Thousands of children grow up
+unmoral, if not immoral, because their natural sense of modesty and
+decency has been blunted from childhood. The poorest classes live in
+cellars that reek with disease germs of the worst kind, and sanitary
+conditions are indescribable.</p>
+
+<p>If these conditions were confined to the immigrant population,
+Americans might shrug their shoulders and dismiss the subject with
+disparaging remarks about the dirty foreigner, but housing conditions
+like these are not restricted to the immigrant, whether he be Jew or
+Gentile. The American working man who finds work in the factory towns
+is little better off. The natural desire of landlords to spend as
+little as possible on their property, and to get the largest possible
+returns, makes it very difficult for the worker to find a suitable
+home for his family that he can afford to pay for. Yet he must live
+near his work to save time and expense. Old and dilapidated houses are
+ready for his occupancy, but though they are often not so bad as the
+large tenements, with their more attractive exteriors, they are not
+fit dwellings for his growing family. A flat in a three-decker may be
+obtained at a moderate rental, but such houses are usually poorly
+built, of the flimsiest inflammable material, and they, too, lack
+privacy and modern conveniences.</p>
+
+<p>241. <b>Effects of these Conditions.</b>&mdash;It must not be supposed that
+these evils have been overlooked. Building associations and private
+philanthropists have erected improved tenements, and have proved that
+the right sort of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>structures may be made paying investments. State
+and municipal governments have appointed commissions and departments
+on housing, fire protection has been provided, better sanitary
+conditions have been enforced, and hopelessly bad buildings have been
+destroyed. But slums grow faster than they can be improved, and the
+rapidly growing tenement districts need more drastic and comprehensive
+measures than have yet been taken. The housing problem affects the
+tenant first of all, and in countless instances his unwholesome
+environment is ruining his health, ability, and character; but it also
+affects the community and the nation, for persons produced by such an
+environment do not make good citizens. The roots of family life are
+destroyed, gaunt poverty and loathsome disease hold hands along dark
+and dirty stairways and through the halls, foul language mingles with
+the foul air, and drunkenness is so common as to excite no remark.
+Sexual impurity finds its nest amid the darkness and ill-endowed
+children swarm in the streets.</p>
+
+<p>242. <b>Possible Improvements.</b>&mdash;There must be some way out of these
+evil conditions that is practicable and that will be permanent. Those
+who are interested in housing reform favor two kinds of
+measures&mdash;first, the prevention of building in the future the kind of
+houses that have become so common but so unsatisfactory, and the
+improvement of those already in existence; second, provision of
+inexpensive, attractive, and sanitary dwellings outside of the city,
+and cheap and rapid transit to and from the places of labor. Both of
+these methods are practicable either by voluntary association or State
+action, and both are called for by the social need of the present.
+There are definite principles to be observed in the redistribution of
+population. The principle of association calls for group life in a
+neighborhood, and it is as idle to think that people from the slums
+can be contented on isolated farms as it is to suppose that they can
+be converted readily into prosperous American agriculturists. Close
+connection with the town is indispensable. The principle of adaptation
+demands that the new homes shall answer to the needs of the people
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>for whom they are provided, and that the neighborhood shall be suited
+to those needs. The houses will need to be enough better than those in
+town to offset the greater effort of travel. The principle of control
+demands that the new life of the people be regulated as effectively as
+it can be by municipal authority, and if necessary that such municipal
+authority be extended or State authority be localized. There are
+difficulties in the way of all such enterprises, but social welfare
+requires improvements in the way the working people live.</p>
+
+<p>It is notorious that immigrants and working people generally have
+larger families than the well-to-do. The children of the city streets
+form a class of future citizens that deserve most careful attention.
+The problem of the tenement and the flat is especially serious,
+because they are the factories of human life. There the next
+generation is in the making, and there can be no doubt about the
+quality of the product if conditions continue as they are. It is
+important to inquire how the children live, what are their occupations
+and means of recreation, their moral incentives and temptations, and
+their opportunities for the development of personality.</p>
+
+<p>243. <b>How the Children Live.</b>&mdash;The best way to understand how the
+children live is to put oneself in their place. Imagine waking in the
+morning in a stuffy, overcrowded room, eating a slice of bread or an
+onion for breakfast and looking forward to a bite for lunch and an
+ill-cooked evening meal, or in many cases starting out for the day
+without any breakfast, glad to leave the tenement for the street, and
+staying there throughout waking hours, when not in school, using it
+for playground, lunch-room, and loafing-place, and regarding it as
+pleasanter than home. Imagine going to school half fed and poorly
+clothed, sometimes the butt of a playmate's gibes because of a drunken
+father or a slatternly mother, required to study subjects that make no
+appeal to the child and in a language that is not native, and then
+back to the street, perhaps to sell papers until far into the night,
+or to run at the beck and call of the public as a messenger boy. Many
+a child, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>spite of the public opposition to child labor, is put to
+work to help support the family, and department store and bootblack
+parlor are conspicuous among their places of occupation. Mills and
+factories employ them for special kinds of labor, and States are lax
+in the enforcement of child-labor laws after they are on the statute
+books.</p>
+
+<p>244. <b>The Street Trades.</b>&mdash;Employment in the street trades is very
+common among the children of the tenements. There are numerous
+opportunities to peddle fruit and small wares at a small wage;
+messenger and news boys are always in demand, and the bootblacking
+industry absorbs many of the immigrant class. By these means the
+family income is pieced out, sometimes wholly provided, but the ill
+effects of such child labor are disturbing to the peace of mind of the
+well-wishers of children. Street labor works physical injury from
+exposure to inclement weather and to accident, from too great fatigue,
+and from irregular habits of eating and sleeping. It provokes resort
+to stimulants and sows the seeds of disease, vice, and petty crime.
+Moral deterioration follows from the bad habits formed, from the
+encouragement to lawbreaking and independence of parental authority,
+and from the evil environment of the people and places with which they
+come into contact. Children are susceptible to the influence of their
+elders, and easily form attachments for those who treat them well.
+Saloons and disorderly houses are their patrons, and when still young
+the children learn to imitate those whom they see and hear. Even for
+the children who do not work, the street has its influence for evil.
+The street was intended as a means of transit, not for trade or play,
+but it is the most convenient place for games and social enjoyments of
+all sorts. The little people become familiar with profane and obscene
+language, with quarrelling and dishonesty, and even with more serious
+crime, and no intellectual education in the schoolroom can counteract
+the moral lessons of the street.</p>
+
+<p>245. <b>Playgrounds.</b>&mdash;Various experiments for keeping children off the
+street have been proposed and tried. Vacation schools in the summer
+provide interesting <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>occupations and talks for those who can be
+induced to attend; their success is assured, but they reach only a
+small part of the children. Gymnasiums in the winter attract others of
+the older class, but the most useful experiments are equipped and
+supervised playgrounds. For the small children sand piles have met the
+desire for occupation, and kindergarten games have satisfied the
+instinct for association. The primitive nature of the child demanded
+change, and one kind of game after another was added for those of
+different ages. Swings, climbing ladders, and poles are always
+popular, and for the older boys opportunities for ball playing,
+skating, and coasting. All these activities must be under control. The
+characteristics of children on the playground are the same as those of
+their elders in society. Authority and instruction are as necessary as
+in school; indeed, playgrounds are a supplement to the indoor
+education of American children.</p>
+
+<p>246. <b>The City School.</b>&mdash;The school is expected to be the
+foster-mother of every American child, whether native or adopted. It
+is expected to take the children from the avenue and the slum, those
+with the best influences of heredity and environment, and those with
+the worst, those who are in good health and those who are never well,
+and putting them all through the same intellectual process, to turn
+out a finished product of boys and girls qualified for American
+citizenship. It is an unreasonable expectation, and the American
+school falls far short of meeting its responsibility. It often has to
+work with the poorest kind of material, sometimes it has to feed the
+pupil before his mental powers can get to work. It has to see that the
+physical organs function properly before it can get satisfactory
+intellectual results. The school is the victim of an educational
+system that was made to fit other conditions than those of the
+present-day city; the whole system needs reconstructing, but the
+management is conservative, ignorant, or parsimonious in many cases,
+or too radical and given to fads and experiments. Yet, in spite of all
+its faults and delinquencies, the public schools of the city are the
+hope of the future.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>The school is the melting-pot of the city's youth. It is the
+training-school of municipal society. In the absence of family
+training it provides the social education that is necessary to equip
+the child for life. It accustoms him to an orderly group life and
+establishes relations with others of similar age from other streets or
+neighborhoods than those with which he is familiar. It teaches him how
+intelligent public opinion is formed, and brings him within the circle
+of larger interests than those with which he is naturally connected.
+He learns how to accommodate himself to the group rather than to fight
+or worm his way through for a desired end, as is the method of the
+street. He learns good morals and good manners. He finds out that
+there are better ways of expressing his ideas than in the slang of the
+alley, and in time he gains an understanding of a social leadership
+that depends on mental and moral superiority instead of physical
+strength or agility. As he grows older he becomes acquainted with the
+worth of established institutions, and his hand is no longer against
+every man and every man's hand against him. He likes to share in the
+social activities that occur as by-products of the school&mdash;the musical
+and dramatic entertainments, the athletic contests, and the debating
+and oratorical rivalries. By degrees he becomes aware that he is a
+responsible member of society, that he is an individual unit in a
+great aggregation of busy people doing the work of the world, and that
+the school is given him to make it possible for him to play well his
+part in the activities of the city and nation to which he belongs.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Veiller</span>: <i>Housing Reform</i>, pages 3-46.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Riis</span>: <i>How the Other Half Lives.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Clopper</span>: <i>Child Labor in the City Streets.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Martin</span>: "Exhibit of Congestion," art. in <i>The Survey</i>,20:
+27-39.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goodyear</span>: "Household Budgets of the Poor," art. in
+<i>Charities</i>, 16: 191-197.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">"The Pittsburgh Survey," arts, in <i>The Survey</i>, vol. 21.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Lee</span>: <i>Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy</i>, pages
+109-184.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXII" id="CHAPTER_XXXII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE DIVERSIONS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>247. <b>The Demand for Recreation.</b>&mdash;The natural instinct for recreation
+is felt by the working people in common with persons of every class.
+They cannot afford to spend on the grand scale of those who patronize
+the best theatres and concerts, nor can they relax all summer at
+mountains or seashore, or play golf in the winter at Pinehurst or Palm
+Beach. They get their pleasures in a less expensive way in the parks
+or at the beach resorts in the summer, and at the "movies,"
+dance-halls, and cheap theatres in the winter. They have little money
+to spend, but they get more real enjoyment out of a dime or a quarter
+than thousands of dollars give to some society buds and millionaires
+who are surfeited with pleasure. Recreation to the working people is
+not an occupation but a diversion. Their occupation is usually
+strenuous enough to furnish an appetite for entertainment, and they
+are not particular as to its character, though the more piquant it is
+the greater is the satisfaction. Craving for excitement and a stimulus
+that will restore their depleted energies, they flock into the
+dance-halls and the saloons, where they find the temporary
+satisfaction that they wanted, but where they are tempted to lose the
+control that civilization has put upon the primitive passions and to
+let the primitive instincts have their sway.</p>
+
+<p>It is a prerogative of childhood to be active. If activity is one of
+the striking characteristics of all social life, it is especially so
+of child life. The country child has all out-of-doors for the scope of
+his energies, the city boy and girl are cramped by the tenement and
+the narrow street, with occasional resort to a small park. It requires
+ingenuity to devise methods of diversion in such small areas, but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>necessity is the mother of invention, and the children of the city
+become expert in outwitting those whose business it is to keep them
+within bounds. This kind of education has a smack of practicality in
+that it sharpens the wits for the struggle for existence that makes up
+much of the experience of city folk, but it also tends to develop a
+crookedness in mental and moral habits through the constant effort to
+get ahead of the agents of social control.</p>
+
+<p>248. <b>Street Games.</b>&mdash;To understand how the youth of the city get
+their diversions it is well to examine a cross-section of city life on
+Saturday afternoon or Sunday. Family quarters are crowded. Tenements
+and apartments have little spare space inside or outside. Children
+find it decidedly irksome indoors and naturally gravitate to the
+street, to the relief of their elders and their own satisfaction.
+There they quickly find associates and proceed to give expression to
+their restless spirits. It is the child's nature to play, and he uses
+all his wits to find the materials and the room for sport. His
+ingenuity can adapt sticks and stones to a variety of uses, but the
+street makes a sorry substitute for a ball-field, and while the girl
+may content herself with the sidewalk and door-steps, the boy soon
+looks abroad for a more satisfying occupation. Among the gangs of city
+boys no diversion is more enjoyable than the game of craps, learned
+from the Southern negro. With a pair of dice purchased for a cent or
+two at the corner news-stand and a few pennies obtained by newspaper
+selling or petty thieving the youngster is equipped with the necessary
+implements for gambling, and he soon becomes adept in cleaning out the
+pockets of the other fellows.</p>
+
+<p>249. <b>Young People's Amusements.</b>&mdash;Meantime the older boys and girls
+are seeking their diversions. At fourteen or fifteen most of them have
+found work in factory or store, but evenings and Sundays they, too,
+are looking for diversion. The girls find it attractive to walk the
+streets, while the boys frequent the cheap pool-room, where they find
+a chance to gamble and listen to the tales of the idlers who find
+employment as cheap thieves and hangers-on of immoral houses. From
+these headquarters they sally forth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>upon the streets to find
+association with the other sex, and together they give themselves up
+to a few hours' entertainment. A few are contented to promenade the
+streets, but amusement houses are cheap, and the "movies" and
+vaudeville shows attract the crowd. For a few dimes a couple can have
+a wide range of choice. If the tonic of the playhouse is not
+sufficient, a small fee admits to the public dance-hall, where it is
+easy to meet new acquaintances and to find a partner who will go to
+any length in the mad hunt for pleasures that will satisfy. From the
+dance-hall it is an easy path to the saloon and the brothel, as it is
+from the game of craps and the pool-room to the gambling-den and the
+criminal joint. It is the lack of proper means for diversion and
+proper oversight of places of entertainment that is increasing the
+vice, drunkenness, and crime that curse the lives of thousands and
+give to the city an evil reputation.</p>
+
+<p>250. <b>The Saloon as the Poor Man's Club.</b>&mdash;The saloon is an
+institution peculiar to America, but it is the successor of a long
+line of public drinking houses. There were caf&eacute;s among the ancients,
+public houses among the Anglo-Saxons, and taverns in the colonies. At
+such places the traveller or the working man could find social
+companionship along with his glass of wine or grog, and by a natural
+evolution the saloon became the poor man's club. It is successful as a
+place of business, because it caters to primitive wants and social
+interests in considerable variety. It is a never-failing source of
+supply of the strong waters that bring the good cheer of intoxication,
+and lull into torpid content the mind that wants to forget its worry
+or its misery. It is a place where conventionality is laid aside and
+human beings meet on the common level of convivial good-fellowship. It
+is the avenue to fuller enjoyment in billiard-room, at card-table, in
+dance-hall, and in house of assignation, but though the door is open
+to them there is no obligation to enter. It is first aid to the
+sporting fraternity, the resort of those who delight in pugilism,
+baseball, and the racetrack, the dispenser of athletic news of all
+sorts that is worth talking about. It frequently provides a free
+lunch, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>music, and games. It is the agent of the political boss who
+mixes neighborhood charity with the dispensing of party jobs. "The
+saloon is a day-school, a night-school, a vacation-school, a
+Sunday-school, a kindergarten, a college, a university, all in one. It
+runs without term ends, vacations, or holidays.... It influences the
+thoughts, morals, politics, social customs, and ideals of its
+patrons."</p>
+
+<p>251. <b>Substitutes for the Saloon.</b>&mdash;An institution that fills a place
+as large as this in the social life of the American city must be given
+careful consideration, and cannot be impatiently dismissed as an
+unmitigated social evil. The saloon is unsparingly denounced as the
+cause of intemperance, prostitution, poverty, and crime, and much of
+the charge is a fair indictment, but it is easier to condemn its
+abuses than to find a satisfactory substitute for the social service
+that it performs. If the saloon must go, something must be put in its
+place to perform its helpful functions. It may have to be legislated
+out of existence in order to check intemperance, for the satisfaction
+of thirst is its principal attraction, and its prime function is to
+furnish drink, but the law can be more easily enforced if other social
+centres are available where the average man can feel equally at home.
+A model saloon managed by church people or labor unionists has been
+tried, but has failed to solve the problem. The Young Men's Christian
+Association on its present basis does not reach the class of men that
+frequents the saloon. Coffee-houses, reading-rooms, municipal
+gymnasiums, and baths, may each provide a small part, but none of
+these nor all together fill the gap that is left after the saloon is
+abolished. Attractive quarters, recreational facilities, and a spirit
+of democracy and freedom appear absolutely essential to any successful
+experiment in substitution. The patrons wish to be consulted as to
+what they want and what they will pay for, and unless the substitute
+is self-supporting it is sure to fail. The most promising experiment
+is an athletic club maintained by regular dues, where there is
+abundant room for sport and conversation, and where it is possible to
+secure food at a moderate price and to enjoy lively music at the same
+time. Under a reasonable amount <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>of regulation such an establishment
+cannot become a public nuisance, and it supplies a social need on a
+sound economic basis.</p>
+
+<p>252. <b>Monopoly Experiments.</b>&mdash;It has been proposed to draw the virus
+of the saloon by removing the element of private profit and placing
+the traffic under State management. The South Carolina dispensary
+system was such an attempt. It broke up the saloon as a social centre,
+for drinking was not allowed on the premises, but it did not stop the
+consumption of liquor, the profits went to the public, and the saloon
+element became a vicious element in politics. The Norwegian or
+Gothenburg system was another experiment of a similar sort. The liquor
+traffic was made respectable by the government chartering a monopoly
+company and by putting business on the basis not of profit, but of
+supplying a reasonable demand of the working class. Fifty years' trial
+has reduced consumption one-half, has improved the character of the
+saloon, and has removed the immoral annexes. The system is not
+compulsory, but the people must choose between it and prohibition. The
+main objection raised against State monopoly or charter is that the
+government makes an alliance with a traffic that is injurious to
+society, and that is contrary to the fundamental principle of
+government. At best it can be regarded as only a half measure toward
+the abolition of the trade in intoxicants.</p>
+
+<p>253. <b>The Seriousness of the Liquor Problem.</b>&mdash;There can be no doubt
+that the liquor problem is one of the serious menaces to modern
+health, morals, and prosperity. Intemperance is closely bound up with
+the home, it is a regular accompaniment of unchastity, it is both the
+cause and the result of poverty, it vitiates much charity, it is a
+leading cause of imbecility and insanity, and a provocative of crime.
+It stands squarely in the way of social progress. It is a complex
+problem. It is first a personal question, affecting primarily the
+drinker; secondly, a social question, affecting the family and the
+community; thirdly, an economic and political question, affecting
+society at large. Consequently the solution of the problem is not
+simple. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>Different phases of the problem demand a variety of methods.
+Intemperance may be approached from the standpoint of disease or
+immorality. It may be treated in medical or legislative fashion. It
+may receive the special condemnation of the churches. One of the most
+effective arguments against it is on the basis of economic waste. The
+best statistics are incomplete, but the conservative estimate of a
+national trade journal gave as the total direct expense in 1912,
+$1,630,000,000. This minimum figure means eighteen dollars for every
+man, woman, and child in the country. The indirect cost to society of
+the wretchedness and crime that result from intemperance is vastly
+greater. United States internal-revenue statistics indicate an
+increased consumption in all kinds of liquor between 1900 and 1910,
+although the territory under prohibition was steadily enlarging.</p>
+
+<p>254. <b>Causes and Effects of the Traffic.</b>&mdash;The leading causes of
+intemperance are the natural craving of appetite and the pleasure of
+mild intoxication, the congenial society of the saloon and the habit
+of treating, and the presence of the public bar on the streets of the
+poorer districts of the city. The mere presence of the saloon is a
+standing invitation to the men and boys of the neighborhood, and it
+grows to seem a natural part of the environment. It is far more
+attractive than the cheerless tenement and the tiresome street. The
+sedative to tired nerves and stimulant for weary muscles is there; the
+social customs of the past or of the homeland re-enforce the social
+instincts of the present and draw with the power of a magnet.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of intemperance may be classified as physical losses,
+economic losses, and social losses. The immediate physical effect is
+exhilaration, but this is succeeded by lassitude and incompetency. The
+stimulus gained is momentary, the loss is permanent. It is well
+established that even small quantities of alcohol weaken the will
+power and benumb the mental powers. Habitual use depletes vitality and
+so predisposes to disease. Life-insurance policies consider the
+alcoholic a poor risk. The economic effect is a great preponderance of
+loss over gain. Somebody makes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>money out of the consumer, but it is
+not the farmer who produces the grain, the railroad company that
+transports it, or the government that taxes it; less than formerly is
+it the individual saloon-keeper, but the brewer and distiller who in
+increasing numbers own the local plant as well as manufacture the
+liquor. Neither the nation that taxes the manufacture for the sake of
+the internal revenue, nor the city or town that licenses the sale,
+gets enough to compensate for the economic loss to society. Among the
+specific losses to consumers are irregularity and cessation of
+employment, due to the unreliability of the intemperate workman and
+the consequent reluctance of employers to hire him&mdash;a reluctance
+increased since employers are made liable to compensate workmen for
+accidents; the poverty and destitution of the families of habitual
+drinkers; and the enormous waste of millions of dollars that, if not
+thus wasted, might have gone into the channels of legitimate trade.
+Finally, there is a wide-spread social effect. Intemperance ranks next
+to heredity as the cause of insanity. One-third to one-half of the
+crime in the country is charged to intemperance. Alcohol makes men
+quarrelsome, upsets the brain balance, and introduces the user to
+illegal and immoral practices. The saloon corrupts politics. It has
+been estimated that the liquor traffic controls two million votes, and
+some of it is easily purchasable. When it is remembered that the
+saloon is in close alliance with the gambling interest, the
+white-slave interest, the graft element, the political bosses, and the
+corrupt lobbies, it is easy to see that it constitutes a serious
+danger to good government throughout the nation.</p>
+
+<p>255. <b>The Temperance Crusade.</b>&mdash;Intemperance has grown to be so
+wide-spread and serious an evil that a crusade against it has gathered
+strength through the nineteenth century. In colonial days the use of
+liquors was universal and excited little comment, but groups of
+persons here and there, especially the church people, opposed the
+common practice of tippling and began to organize in order to check
+it. It was not a total-abstinence movement at first, but was designed
+particularly to check the use of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>spirituous liquors. Temperance
+revivals swept over whole States, but were too emotional to be
+permanent. When the second half of the century began organization
+became more thorough and the Good Templars and Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union assumed the leadership of the cause. These
+organizations stood for total abstinence and State prohibition, and by
+temperance evangelism and temperance education the women especially
+pushed their campaign nationally and abroad. Among all temperance
+agencies the Anti-Saloon League organized in Ohio in 1893, and
+extending through the United States, has been most effective. It has
+federated existing agencies and enlisted organized religion. It has
+pushed no-license campaigns in States that had an optional law, has
+secured the extension of prohibition to scores of counties in the
+South and West, and has extended the area of State-wide prohibition,
+an experiment begun in Maine in 1851, until eighteen States are now
+under a prohibitory law (1915).</p>
+
+<p>256. <b>Remedies for Intemperance.</b>&mdash;There is a general agreement among
+people who reflect upon social ills that intemperance is a curse upon
+large numbers of individuals and families through both its direct and
+indirect effects. It seems well established that even moderate
+drinking produces physical and mental weakness and even as a temporary
+stimulant is of small value. It is not so clear how to check the evil
+without injuring personal interests and violating the liberty which
+every citizen claims for himself as a right. Three methods have been
+proposed and tried as remedies for intemperance. The first of these is
+public appeal and education. Public addresses in which arguments are
+presented and an appeal made to the emotions have led to the signing
+of pledges, and sometimes to the control of elections, but they have
+to be repeated frequently to keep the individual who is moved by his
+impulses up to the standard. Slower is education through the press and
+through the school, where the evil effects of alcohol are demonstrated
+scientifically, but it has been tried patiently, and there is
+continually a large output of temperance literature.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>257. <b>Regulation.</b>&mdash;A second method that has been used extensively is
+regulation. It seems to many persons that the use of liquor cannot be
+stopped, and if it is to be manufactured and sold, it is best to
+regulate it by a form of license. In many of the American States the
+people are allowed local option and vote periodically, whether they
+will permit the legal manufacture and sale of intoxicants, or will
+attempt to prevent it for a time. Local option has kept a great many
+towns and counties "dry" for years, and it is a step toward
+wide-spread prohibition. It is regarded by many as a better method
+than a State prohibition that is ineffective. Those who oppose all
+licensing on principle, do so on the ground that there should be no
+legal recognition of that which is known to be a social evil.</p>
+
+<p>258. <b>Prohibition.</b>&mdash;Prohibition is to most temperance advocates the
+master key that will unlock the door to happiness and prosperity. The
+enforcement of prohibition in Russia after the European war began in
+1914 had very impressive results in the better conduct and enterprise
+of the people. Where it has been carried out effectively in the United
+States, the results soon appear in diminished poverty and wretchedness
+and in a decrease of vice and crime. The legitimacy of this method is
+recognized even by liquor manufacturers, and they are willing to spend
+millions of dollars to prevent national prohibition, realizing that
+though it would not destroy their business it would greatly lessen the
+profits. The prohibition policy has bitter enemies among some who are
+not personally interested in the business. They think it is too
+drastic and call attention to the sociological principle that
+prohibitions are a primitive method of social control, but the trend
+of public opinion is strongly against them on the ground that
+prohibitions are necessary in an imperfect human society. Government
+increases its regulation of business of all kinds, and the police
+their regulation of individuals. The failure of half-way measures has
+added to the conviction that prohibition rigidly enforced is likely to
+be the only effective method for the solution of the liquor problem.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Stelzle</span>: <i>The Workingman and Social Problems</i>, pages
+21-50.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Moore</span>: "Social Value of the Saloon," art. in <i>American
+Journal of</i> <i>Sociology</i>, 3: 1-12.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Melendy</span>: "The Saloon in Chicago," art. in <i>American
+Journal of</i> <i>Sociology</i>, 6: 289-306, 433-464.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Calkins</span>: <i>Substitutes for the Saloon.</i> <i>Regulation of the
+Liquor Traffic</i> (American Academy), pages 1-127.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Peabody</span>: <i>The Liquor Problem: A Summary.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Grant</span>: "Children's Street Games," art. in <i>The Survey</i>,
+23: 232-236.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Partridge</span>: <i>The Psychology of Intemperance</i>, pages
+222-239.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CRIME AND ITS CURE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>259. <b>The Problem of Crime.</b>&mdash;Habitual self-indulgence is at odds with
+the idea of social control. The man who resents interference with his
+diversions and pleasures is disposed to defy law, and if he feels that
+society is not treating him properly he is liable to become a
+lawbreaker. This is one of the reasons for the prevalence of crime,
+which on the whole increases rather than diminishes, and is a factor
+of disturbance in city life. Statistics in the United States show that
+in thirty years, from 1880 to 1910, the criminal population increased
+relative to population by one-third. This is only partly due to
+immigration, nor is it mainly because a large majority of criminals
+escape punishment. Two facts are to be kept constantly in mind: (1)
+Crime depends upon certain subjective and objective elements, and
+tends to increase or decrease without much regard to police
+protection. (2) As long as there are persons whose habits and
+character predispose them to crime, as long as there are social
+inequalities and wants that provoke to criminal acts, and as long as
+there are attractive or easy victims, so long will thieving and arson,
+rape and murder take place.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of crime is not a simple one. The individual and his
+family and his social environment are all involved and changes in
+economic conditions affect the amount of crime. The task of the social
+reformer is to determine the causes of crime and to apply measures of
+reform and prevention. The science of the phenomena of crime is called
+criminology, that of punishment is named penology.</p>
+
+<p>260. <b>Its Causes.</b>&mdash;If there is to be any effective prevention of
+crime there is needed a clearer understanding of its causes.
+Criminologists are not agreed about these; one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>school emphasizes
+physical abnormalities as characteristic of the criminal, another
+considers environment the controlling influence. The removal of
+physical defect has repeatedly made an antisocial person normal in his
+conduct, and it seems plain, especially from the investigations of
+European criminologists, that certain individuals are born with a
+predisposition to crime, like the alcoholic inheriting a weak will, or
+with insane or epileptic tendencies that may lead early to criminal
+conduct; but it is not yet proven that a majority of offenders are
+hereditary perverts. A stronger reason for crime is the unsatisfied
+desire or the uncontrolled impulse that drives a man to take by force
+that to which he has no lawful claim. This desire is strengthened by
+the social conditions of the present. In all grades of society there
+are individuals who resort to all sorts of means to get money and
+pleasure, and those who are brought up without moral and social
+training, and who feel an inclination to disregard the interests of
+others are ready to justify themselves by illegal examples in high
+life. Given a tenement home, the streets for a playground, the saloon
+as a social centre, hard, unpleasant, and poorly paid labor, a yellow
+press, and a prevailing spirit of envy and hatred for the rich, and it
+is not difficult to manufacture any amount of crime.</p>
+
+<p>261. <b>Special Reasons for Crime.</b>&mdash;Certain special circumstances have
+tended to encourage crime within the last few generations. The freedom
+and natural roughness of frontier life gave an opportunity for
+lawlessness and appealed to those who are scarcely to be reckoned as
+friends of society. In the mining and lumber camps gambling and
+drinking were common, and robbery and murder not infrequent. The
+American Civil War, like every war, stimulated the elemental passions
+and nourished criminal tendencies. Human life and rights were
+cheapened. The brute in man was evoked when it became lawful to kill
+and plunder. The moral effects of war are among the most lasting and
+the most pernicious. More recently the conditions of existence in the
+cities have generated crime and are certain to continue to do so as
+long as slums exist.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>The liberty that is characteristic of America easily becomes license,
+especially if restraint has been thrown off suddenly, as in the case
+of the immigrant, or of the country youth arriving in the city for the
+first time and dazzled by the opportunities of his new freedom or with
+a grudge against society because it has not been hospitable to him.
+The amount of crime is increased also by the constant increase of
+legislation. The social regulations that are necessary in the city
+tend to become confused with the more serious violations of the moral
+code, and because the first are frequently broken with impunity acts
+of crime seem less iniquitous. All these reasons help to explain the
+increase of crime in the cities. It is worth noticing that the blame
+for it is not to be placed on the immigrant. In spite of his
+misunderstanding of American law and custom, his overcrowding in
+houses and streets, his ill-treatment economically and socially, and
+his common disappointment and discouragement because his dreams of
+wealth and progress have not materialized, the immigrant as a rule is
+law-abiding when sober and is less responsible for crime than the
+degenerate American. It is important to remember that there is a
+constant inflow of undesirable elements of American population into
+the cities, as well as an influx of aliens from Europe. The
+proletariat is not all foreign.</p>
+
+<p>262. <b>Measures of Prevention.</b>&mdash;Crime calls for prevention and
+punishment. Improvements in both are taking place. Various methods of
+prevention are being proposed and these should be considered
+systematically. The first step is to prevent the reproduction of the
+bad. It has even been proposed to take away the life of all who are
+regarded as hopeless delinquents. Less severe but still radical is the
+proposal, actually in practice in several States, to sterilize such
+persons as idiots, rapists, and confirmed criminals. The same end
+demanded by eugenics may be accomplished by segregating in life
+confinement all but the occasional criminals. A second step is the
+right training of children by the improvement home conditions, to
+include pensioning the mother if necessary, that she may hold the
+family together and bring the children up properly. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>school helps
+to train the children, but industrial training is needed to take the
+place of the street trades.</p>
+
+<p>A third step is provision for specific moral and religious education.
+Many persons think that however good may be the moral influence of a
+school, there is need of supplementary instruction in the home and the
+church. In the school itself character study in history and literature
+helps, and attention to the noble deeds in current life; the
+introduction of forms of self-government and the study of the life and
+organization of society are also useful; but some way should be
+devised for the definite training of children in social and moral
+principles that will act as an antidote to antisocial tendencies.
+Experiments have been tried in the affiliation of church and school,
+and it has been urged that the State should appropriate money for
+religious training in the church, but the objection is made that such
+procedure is contrary to the American principle of the separation of
+church and state. The need of such education awaits a satisfactory
+solution.</p>
+
+<p>263. <b>The Big Brother Idea.</b>&mdash;The most hopeful method of prevention is
+to provide a friend for the human being who needs safeguarding. Many a
+grown person needs this help, but especially the boy who is often
+tempted to go wrong. The Big Brother movement, starting in New York in
+1905, befriended more than five thousand boys in six years, and
+branches were formed in cities all over the country. In Europe the
+minister is often made a probation officer by the state, to see that
+the boy or youth keeps straight. In this country through the agency of
+court or charitable society in some cities each boy in need has his
+special adviser, as each family has its friendly visitor; sometimes it
+is a probation officer, sometimes the judge of a juvenile court,
+sometimes only a charitably minded individual who loves boys. Through
+this friend work is found, to him difficulties are brought and
+intimate thoughts confided, and the boy is encouraged to grow morally
+strong. The immigrant, whether boy or man, often ignorant and stupid,
+especially needs such friendly assistance. The Boy Scout movement may
+be extended, or a substitute found <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>for it, but some such organization
+is needed for the immigrant boy and the native American who is
+compelled to rely on his own resources. The fear of the law is
+undoubtedly a deterrent from crime, but it is inferior to the
+inspiration that comes from friendliness.</p>
+
+<p>264. <b>Educating Public Opinion.</b>&mdash;One of the important preventives of
+crime is work&mdash;steady, well-paid, and not disagreeable work, with
+proper intervals of recreation; added to this a social interest to
+take the place of the saloon and the dance-hall. With these belong
+improved housing, a better police system, and cleaner politics. The
+education of public opinion will eventually lead to a general demand
+for all of these. The press has the great opportunity to mould public
+opinion, but in its search for news, especially of a sensational
+character, it discusses crime in such a way as to excite a morbid
+interest in its details, and sometimes in its repetition, and the
+newspaper rarely discusses measures of crime prevention. Many believe
+that a large responsibility rests upon the church to educate public
+opinion with regard to social obligation. They declare that the people
+need to be taught that certain social conditions are turning out
+criminals as regularly as the factory machine turns out its particular
+product, and then they need to be aroused in conscience until the will
+to prevent the evil is fixed. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+summoned by the age to be both a prophet and a teacher of ways and
+means to a people too often unheeding and careless.</p>
+
+<p>265. <b>Theories of Punishment.</b>&mdash;The old theory of punishment was that
+the state must punish the criminal in proportion to the seriousness of
+his crime, and that the penalty must be sufficiently severe to deter
+others from similar crime. This primitive theory has been giving way
+to the new theory of reformation. This theory is that the object of
+arrest and imprisonment is not merely the safety of the public during
+the criminal's term of imprisonment, but even more the reformation of
+the guilty man that he may be turned into a useful member of society.
+The reformatory method has been introduced with conspicuous success
+into a number of the American States, and is being <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>extended until it
+seems likely to supplant the old theory altogether.</p>
+
+<p>266. <b>Three Elements in the Method of Reformation.</b>&mdash;The reformatory
+system includes three elements that are comparatively new. The first
+of these is the indeterminate sentence now generally in practice in
+the United States. According to this principle, the sentence of a
+prisoner is not for a fixed period, but maximum and minimum limits are
+set, and the actual length of imprisonment is determined by the record
+the prisoner makes for himself. The second element is reformatory
+discipline. The whole treatment of the prisoner, his assignment to
+labor, his participation in mental, moral, and religious class
+exercises, are all designed to stimulate manhood and to work a
+complete reformation of character. The third element is conditional
+liberation, or the dismissal of the prisoner on parole. According to
+this method, the prisoner is freed on probation, if his record has
+been good, before his full term has expired, and is under obligation
+to report to the probation officer at stated intervals until his final
+discharge. If his conduct is not satisfactory he can be returned to
+prison at any time. This probation principle has been extended in
+application, so that most first offenders are not sent to a penal
+institution at all, but are placed on their good behavior under the
+watchful eye of the probation officer. Experience with the reformatory
+method shows that about eighty per cent of the cases turn out well. In
+the sifting process of the reformatory there are always a few
+incorrigibles who are turned over to the penitentiary, and most
+recidivists, or old offenders, are sentenced there directly.</p>
+
+<p>267. <b>Helping the Discharged Prisoner.</b>&mdash;Two experiments have been
+tried to help the discharged prisoner and to improve the treatment of
+the juvenile criminal. It is a part of the reformatory system to
+prepare the way for a prisoner's return to society by teaching him a
+trade while in confinement, and finding him a place to work when he
+goes out, but under the old system a man was turned loose from prison
+with a small sum of money, to redeem himself, when he felt the
+timidity natural to an ex-convict and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>stigma of his reputation,
+and in most cases took the easiest road and returned to crime. To aid
+him friendly societies were organized, and even now they prove
+necessary to get a man on his feet. The Volunteer Prison League was
+organized by Mrs. Ballington Booth to help in the reformation of men
+in prison and to aid them when they return to society, and homes have
+been established to give them temporary refuge. Through these efforts
+not a few criminals that seemed incurable have been reformed.</p>
+
+<p>268. <b>The Juvenile Court.</b>&mdash;The juvenile court is the result of the
+enlightened modern policy of dealing with the criminal. It was the old
+custom to conduct the trial of the juvenile offender in the same way
+as older men were tried, and to commit them to the same prisons. They
+soon became hardened criminals through their associations. But
+experience proves that with the right treatment a majority of those
+who fall into crime before the age of sixteen can be redeemed to
+normal social conduct. Experiments with boys showed that there was a
+better way of trial and punishment than that which had been in vogue,
+and the juvenile courts that they devised have been widely adopted.
+The new plan is based on the principle of making friends with the boy.
+Personal inquiry into the conditions of his life is made before the
+trial, then the judge hears the case in private conference with the
+boy, and after consultation gives directions for his future conduct.</p>
+
+<p>It is plain that the right principle of dealing with crime is to
+secure the reformation of the criminal and the protection of society
+with a minimum amount of punishment. Retaliation is no longer the
+accepted principle; reformation has taken its place. Fundamental to
+all the rest is the prevention of crime by providing for the needs of
+children and youth. Methods of reform and reclamation are made
+necessary, because youthful impulses are not gratified in a way that
+would be beneficial, and habits are allowed to develop that lead to
+antisocial practices. Society can protect itself only by providing
+means for comfortable living, suitable employment, wholesome
+recreation, and social education.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Cause and Cure of Crime.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wines</span>: <i>Punishment and Reformation</i>, pages 1-265.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Barrows</span>: <i>Reformatory System in the United States</i>, pages
+17-47.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Eliot</span>: <i>The Juvenile Court and the Community</i>, pages
+1-185.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Travis</span>: <i>The Young Malefactor</i>, pages 100-183.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>AGENCIES OF CONTROL</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>269. <b>Characteristics of City Government.</b>&mdash;The activities and
+associations of such large groups as the people who live in cities
+must be under social control. It is a principle of American life that
+the individual be permitted to direct his own energies as long as he
+does not interfere with the comfort and happiness of others, and in
+the country there is a large measure of freedom, but in the close
+contacts of city life constraint has to be in force. In contrast to
+the strict surveillance that is practised in certain countries,
+Americans, even in the cities, have seldom been watched or interfered
+with. The police have been guardians of peace and safety at street
+crossings and on the sidewalks; occasionally it has been necessary to
+arrest the doings of disorderly persons, to the annoyance of convivial
+spirits and small boys, but their functions as petty guardsmen have
+not given police officers great dignity in the eyes of citizens. City
+officials have confined their efforts to the routine affairs of their
+office, and have so often spent their spare time and the city's money
+freely for the satisfaction of their personal interests that municipal
+government has gained the reputation of being notoriously corrupt, and
+has been left to ward politicians by the better class of citizens.
+Nevertheless, municipal government represents the principle of control
+and stands in the background as the preserver of the interests of all
+the people.</p>
+
+<p>270. <b>The Relation of the City to the State.</b>&mdash;The American city is
+almost universally a creature of the State. Town and county government
+were transplanted from England and naturally accompanied the settlers
+into the interior, but the city came as a late artificial arrangement
+for the better management of large aggregations of population, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>the form and details of government were prescribed by State charter.
+The State has continued to be the guardian of the city, often to the
+detriment of municipal interests. If a city wishes to change the form
+of local administration, it must ask permission from the State
+Legislature, and every such question becomes entangled with State
+politics, and so is not likely to be judged on the merits of the
+question. Indeed, the whole history of city government condemns the
+intense partisanship that has directed the affairs of the city in its
+own interest when the real interests of all the people irrespective of
+party should have been cared for with business efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>271. <b>Functions of the City Government.</b>&mdash;Among the recognized
+functions of the city government is, first, the normal function of
+operation. This includes the activity of the various municipal
+departments like the maintenance of streets, the prosecution of
+various public works, and the care of health by inspection and
+sanitation. Secondly, there are the regulative and reformatory
+functions, which make it necessary to organize and maintain a police
+and judicial force and to provide the necessary places of detention
+and punishment. Thirdly, there are educational and recreational
+functions represented by schools, public libraries, parks, and
+playgrounds. The tendency is for the city government to extend its
+functions in order to promote the various interests of its citizens.
+It is demanded that the city provide musical entertainments, theatres,
+and athletic grounds, that it open the schools as social centres and
+equip them for that purpose, that it beautify itself with the most
+approved adornments for twentieth-century cities; in short, that it
+regard itself as the agent of every kind of social welfare at whatever
+cost. Obviously, this programme involves the city in large expense,
+and there is a limit to the taxation and bonded indebtedness to which
+it can resort, but better financial management would save much waste
+and make larger funds available for social purposes without the
+necessity of raising large additional sums.</p>
+
+<p>272. <b>How the Regulative Function Works.</b>&mdash;Doubtless it will be always
+true that the regulative function in its <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>largest sense will be the
+main business of the city government. The interests of individuals
+clash. The self-interest of one often runs counter to the interests of
+another, and the city government is their mediator. At every turn one
+sees evidences of public oversight. The citizen leaves home to go to
+work in the morning. A sidewalk is provided for his convenience and
+safety if he needs or prefers to walk. The abutters must keep it in a
+safe condition; open coal scuttles, heaps of sand or gravel, or other
+obstructions must not remain there, and in winter ice must not
+threaten hurt. A street is kept clear for the citizen's carriage or
+automobile if he drives down-town, and a franchise is given a
+street-railway on certain conditions to provide cheap and rapid
+transit. For the convenience of the public the street is properly
+drained and paved, at night it is lighted and patrolled. No
+householder is permitted to throw ashes or garbage upon the public
+thoroughfare, no landowner can rear a building above a certain height
+to shut out light and air. The citizen arrives down-town. The public
+building in which he works or where he trades is inspected by the city
+authorities, the market where he buys his produce is subject to
+regulation, the street hawker who calls his own wares must procure a
+license to sell goods&mdash;law is omnipresent.</p>
+
+<p>273. <b>The Police.</b>&mdash;The offender who violates city ordinances must
+expect to be arrested. Policemen are on the watch to detect such
+violations and promptly give warning that they cannot be permitted.
+Repeated violation leads to arrest and trial before a police-court
+justice, with the probable penalty of a fine or temporary detention in
+jail. In case of serious crime, the trial is before a higher court,
+and the punishment is more severe. Such control is necessary for the
+preservation of order because there are always social delinquents
+ready to take advantage of too great freedom. A certain class of
+offenses seems to require different handling. Moral obliquity such as
+the maintenance of disorderly houses is a corrupting influence, and
+the police departments of cities have frequently been charged with
+conniving at immoral practices. Police officials have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>found to
+have their price, and graft has become notorious. For this reason a
+special morals police has been proposed to have charge of such cases,
+and experiments have been tried already on that plan.</p>
+
+<p>274. <b>Organization of the City Government.</b>&mdash;(1) <i>In America.</i> The
+police department is but one of several boards or official departments
+for the management of municipal affairs. The administrative officers
+are appointed or elected, and are usually under the supervision of the
+city executive. The usual form of city government is modelled upon the
+State; a mayor corresponds to the governor and a city council of one
+or two chambers usually elected by wards is parallel to the State
+Legislature. The mayor is the executive officer and the head of the
+administrative system, the council assists or obstructs him,
+appropriates funds, and attends to the details of municipal
+legislation. Political considerations rather than fitness for office
+have usually determined the choice of persons for positions.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>In Europe.</i> In Europe municipal government is treated as a
+business or professional matter, not one of politics, and the results
+have been so much more satisfactory that American cities have begun to
+reform their governments. In England cities are governed according to
+the Local Government Act of 1888, by which cities of more than fifty
+thousand people become counties for administrative purposes, and
+control of administration is vested in a council elected by voters of
+the city. Councillors are regarded with high honor, but their work is
+a work of patriotism, for they are unpaid, with the result that the
+best men enter the city councils. Administration is carried on through
+various committees and through department officials who are retained
+permanently. In Germany the cities are managed like large households,
+and their officials are free to undertake improvements without
+specific legislative permission. The mayor or burgomaster is usually
+one who makes a profession of magistracy, and he need not be a citizen
+of the city that he serves. In administration he is assisted by a
+board of experts known as magistrates, who are elected by the council,
+usually for life. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>The council is the real governing body, and its
+members are elected by the people for six years, one-third of them
+retiring periodically, as in the United States Senate. The activities
+of the German cities are more numerous than in this country, yet they
+are managed economically and efficiently.</p>
+
+<p>275. <b>Organizing Municipal Reform.</b>&mdash;The earliest reform movements in
+the United States were spasmodic uprisings of outraged citizens who
+were convinced of the corruption of city government. Among the
+pioneers in organization were leagues of reform in Chicago, Baltimore,
+and Boston, organized between 1874 and 1885. In 1887 the Massachusetts
+Society for Promoting Good Citizenship was formed. The weakness of the
+early movements was the temporary enthusiasm that soon died away after
+a victory for reform was gained at the polls; within a short time the
+grafters were in the saddle again. The year 1892 marked an epoch, for
+in that year the first City Club was organized in New York, followed
+by Good Government Clubs in many cities, and finally by the National
+Municipal League in 1894. Two hundred reform leagues in the larger
+cities united in the National Reform League, with its centre in
+Philadelphia. After 1905 a new impetus was given to civic reform by
+the new moral emphasis in business and politics. Better officials were
+elected and others were reminded that they were responsible to the
+people more than to the political machine. An extension of reform
+effort through direct primary nominations came into vogue on the
+principle that government ought to be by the people themselves: that
+democracy means self-control. The extension of municipal ownership was
+widely discussed on the principle that the people's interests demanded
+the better control of public utilities. There was apparent a new
+recognition that the city government was only an agent of popular
+control, not an irresponsible bureau for the enrichment of a few
+officials at the public expense.</p>
+
+<p>276. <b>Commission Government.</b>&mdash;In a number of cases radical changes
+were made in the charter of the city. Galveston and several other
+Texas cities tried the experiment <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>of substituting a commission for
+the mayor and council. The Galveston idea originated in 1901, after a
+hurricane had devastated the city, and the mayor and aldermen proved
+unable to cope with the situation. Upon request of an existing civic
+committee the State legislature gave to the city a new charter, with
+provision for a commission of five, including a mayor who ordinarily
+has no more power than any other commissioner. Each man was to manage
+a department and receive a salary. In four years the commission saved
+the city a million dollars. Des Moines, Iowa, added to the Galveston
+plan the initiative, the referendum, and the recall, put in force a
+merit system for subordinate officials, and adopted the non-partisan
+open primary. These experiments proved so popular that in 1908-9 not
+less than one hundred and thirty-eight cities, including most of the
+large ones, proposed to make important changes in their charters,
+adopting the most prominent features of the new plan, or adapting the
+new to the old system.</p>
+
+<p>Commission government has been defined as "that form of city
+government in which a small board, elected at large, exercises
+substantially the entire municipal authority, each member being
+assigned as head of a rather definite division of the administrative
+work; the commission being subject to one or more means of direct
+popular control, such as publicity of proceedings, recall, referendum,
+initiative, and a non-partisan ballot." Commission government is less
+cumbersome and less partisan than the old system and tends to be more
+efficient, but the public needs to remember that it is the men in
+office and not the form of government that make the control of
+municipal affairs a success or failure. In a few cases only
+disappointment has resulted from the changes made, and commission
+government is still in its experimental stage.</p>
+
+<p>277. <b>The City Manager.</b>&mdash;A modification of the commission plan was
+tried in several cities of the South and Middle West in 1913-14. This
+has been called the city-manager plan. It is founded on the belief
+that the city needs business administration, and that a board of
+directors is not so efficient as a single manager employed by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>commission, who shall have charge of all departments, appoint
+department heads as his subordinates, and thus unify the whole
+administration of municipal affairs. The manager is responsible to the
+commission, and through it to the people, and may be removed by the
+commission, or even by popular recall. Such a plan as this is, of
+course, liable to abuse, unless the commissioners are high-minded,
+conscientious men, and it has not been tried long enough to prove its
+worth. The best element in the whole history of recent municipal
+changes is the earnest effort of the people to find a form of
+administrative control that will work well, and this gives ground for
+belief that the experiments will continue until the American city will
+cease to be notorious for misgovernment and become, instead, a model
+for the whole nation.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><i>Commission Government and the City Manager Plan</i> (American
+Academy), pages 3-11, 103-109, 171-179, 183-201.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goodnow</span>: <i>City Government in the United States</i>, pages
+69-108.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bryce</span>: <i>The American Commonwealth</i> (abridged edition),
+pages 417-427.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Shaw</span>: <i>Municipal Government in Continental Europe</i>, pages
+1-145.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Zueblin</span>: <i>American Municipal Progress</i> (revised edition),
+pages 376-394.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXV" id="CHAPTER_XXXV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>DIFFICULTIES OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORK</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>278. <b>The Fact of Misery.</b>&mdash;A brief study of the conditions in which a
+city's toilers live and work and play makes it plain that the people
+have to contend with numerous difficulties. Large numbers of them are
+in misery, and there are few who are not living in constant fear of
+it. To a foreigner who did not understand America, it would seem
+incredible that misery should be prevalent in the midst of wealth and
+unbounded natural resources, when mines and factories are making
+record-breaking outputs, when harbors are thronged with ships and the
+call for workers goes across the sea. But no one who visits the
+tenements and alleys of the city fails to find abundant evidence of
+misery and want. People do not live in dark rooms and dirty
+surroundings from choice, sometimes as many as two thousand in a
+single block. They do not willingly pay a large percentage of their
+earnings in rent for a tenement that breeds fever and tuberculosis.
+They do not feed their babies on impure milk and permit their children
+to forage among the garbage cans because they care nothing for their
+young. They do not shiver without heat or lose vitality for lack of
+food until they have struggled for a comfortable existence to the
+point of exhaustion. Misery is here as it is in the Old World cities,
+and it leads to weakness and disease, drunkenness, vice, and crime.</p>
+
+<p>279. <b>Easy Explanations.</b>&mdash;It is impossible to unravel completely the
+skein of difficulties in which the people are enmeshed, or to simplify
+the causes of the tangle. It is easy to blame a person's wretchedness
+on his individual misconduct and incompetency, to say, for example,
+that a man's family is sick and poor because he is intemperate. There
+might be truth in the charge, but it would probably <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>not be the whole
+truth. It is easy to go back of the circumstance to the weak will of
+the man that made him a prey to impulse and appetite and kept him
+primitive in his habits, but that alone would not explain conditions.
+It is easy to charge misery upon the ignorance of the woman in the
+home who is wasteful of food and does not know how to provide for her
+family, or to charge lack of common sense to the home-makers when they
+try to raise six children on an income that is not enough for two. It
+is very common to lay all misery at the door of the capitalist who
+underpays labor and feels no responsibility for the life conditions of
+his employee. No one of these explains the presence of misery.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to propose to society a simple remedy like better housing,
+prohibition, or socialism, when the only correct diagnosis of
+conditions demands a prolonged and expensive course of treatment that
+involves surgical action in the social body. It is easy to raise money
+for charity, to endow hospitals, and to talk about made-to-order
+schemes for ending unemployment, poverty, and panic, but it is soon
+discovered that there is no panacea for the evils that infest society.
+Back of all personal misconduct or misfortune, of all social specific
+or cure-all, is the fundamental difficulty that misery exists, that
+its causes are complex, and that all efforts to provide efficient
+relief on a large scale have failed, as far as history records.</p>
+
+<p>280. <b>Poverty and Its Extent.</b>&mdash;Misery appears commonly in the form of
+sickness, vice, and poverty. One of these reacts upon another, and is
+both the cause and the result of another. Mental and moral incapacity,
+ignorance of hygiene, weakness of will, habits that seem incurable,
+all of these produce the first two in a seemingly hopeless way;
+poverty appears to be incurable above the rest. It is poverty that
+prevents fortifying the will by increasing physical stamina and moral
+courage, it is poverty that drives a man; to drink or desperation, and
+it is poverty that prescribes the unfavorable surroundings that do so
+much to keep a man down. Poverty is a danger flag that indicates the
+probability of deeper degradation and calls for the individual or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>group that is better off to lend a hand. Poverty is a goad, a thorn
+in the flesh of society, that is pushing it along the road of social
+reform. Private philanthropy, legislative enactment, and much talking
+are being tried as experiments to find a solution of the difficulty,
+but theorists and practitioners are not yet in full agreement as to
+the way out.</p>
+
+<p>There are, of course, different degrees of poverty, ranging from the
+helpless incompetents at the bottom of the scale to those who are in a
+fair degree of comfort, but who have so little laid aside for a rainy
+day that they live in constant fear of the poorhouse. Some struggle
+harder than others, and maintain an existence on or just above the
+poverty line&mdash;these are technically the poor. Charles Booth defines
+the poor as those "living in a state of struggle to obtain the
+necessaries of life." A few cease to struggle at all and, if they
+continue to live, manage it only by living on permanent charity&mdash;these
+are the paupers. This is a distinction that is carefully made by
+sociologists and is always convenient.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to estimate the extent of poverty with any accuracy,
+but a few estimates of skilled observers indicate its wide extent.
+Charles Booth thought that thirty per cent of the people of London
+were on or below the poverty line. Robert Hunter has declared that in
+1899 eighteen per cent of the people in New York State received aid,
+and that ten per cent of those who died in Manhattan received pauper
+burial. Alongside these statements are the various estimates of 80,000
+persons in almshouses in the United States, 3,000,000 receiving public
+or private aid, with a total annual expense of $200,000,000. The
+number of those who have small resources in reserve are many times as
+great, but industrious, frugal, and self-respecting, they manage to
+take care of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>281. <b>Causes of Poverty.</b>&mdash;It is still more difficult to speak exactly
+of the relative importance of the causes of poverty. Investigation of
+hundreds of cases in certain localities makes it plain that poverty
+comes through a combination of several factors, including personal
+incompetence or misconduct, misfortune, and the effects of
+environment. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>In Boston out of one thousand cases investigated
+twenty-five years ago (1890-91), twenty per cent was due to drink, a
+figure nearly twice as much as the average found in other large
+cities; nine per cent more was due to such misconduct as
+shiftlessness, crime, and vagrancy; while seventy per cent was owing
+to misfortune, including defective employment and sickness or death in
+the family. Five thousand families investigated at another time in New
+York City showed that physical disability was present in three out of
+four families, and unemployment was responsible in two out of three
+cases. In nearly half the families there was found defect of
+character, and in a third of the cases there was widowhood or
+desertion or overcrowding. Added to these were old-age incapacity,
+large families, and ill adjustment to environment due to recent
+arrival in the city.</p>
+
+<p>Taking these as fair samples, it is proper to conclude that the causes
+commonly to be assigned to poverty are both subjective and objective,
+or individual and social. It was formerly customary to throw most of
+the blame on the poor themselves, to charge them with being lazy,
+intemperate, vicious, and generally incompetent, and it is useless to
+deny that these appear to be the direct causes in great numbers of
+instances, but as much of the negro and poor white trash in the South
+was found to be due to hookworm infection, so very many of the faults
+of the shiftless poor in the cities are due more indirectly to lack of
+nourishment, of education, and of courage. Over and over again, it may
+be, has the worker tried to get on better, only to get sick or lose
+his job just as he was improving his lot. The tendency of opinion is
+in the direction of putting the chief blame upon the disposition of
+the employer to exploit the worker, and the indifference of society to
+such exploitation; it is the discouraging conditions in which the
+working man lives, the uncertainty of employment and the high cost of
+living, the danger of accident and disease that constantly hangs over
+the laborer and his family, that devitalizes and disheartens him, and
+casts him before he is old on the social scrap heap.</p>
+
+<p>Summing up, it is convenient to classify the causes of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>poverty as
+individual and social, including under the first head ignorance,
+inefficiency, illness or accident, intemperance, and immorality, and
+under the second unemployment, widowhood, or desertion, overcrowding
+and insanitation, the high cost of living versus low wages, and lack
+of adjustment to environment.</p>
+
+<p>Poverty is one of those social conditions that appear in all parts of
+the country, even in the smaller villages, but it is more dreadful and
+wide-spread in the great cities. In smaller communities the cases are
+few and can be taken care of without great difficulty; to the larger
+centres have drifted the poor from the rural regions, and there
+congregate the immigrants who have failed to make good, until in large
+numbers they drain the vitals of the city's strength. Yet the problem
+of poverty is not new. It would be difficult to find any ancient city
+that did not have its rabble or medi&aelig;val village without its
+"ne'er-do-weel"; and in every period church or state or feudal group
+has taken its turn in providing relief. In recent years the principle
+of bestowing charity has been giving way to the principle of
+destroying poverty at the roots by removing the causes that produce
+it. This is no easy task, but experience has shown that it is the only
+effective way to get rid of the difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>282. <b>Proposed Methods of Solution.</b>&mdash;The solution of the problem of
+poverty cannot be found in charity. Properly administered charity is a
+helpful means of temporary relief, but if it becomes permanent it
+pauperizes. It never will cure poverty. In spite of all charity
+organization, poverty increases as the cities grow, until it is clear
+that the causes must be removed if there is to be any hope of
+permanent relief. A better education is proposed as an offset to
+ignorance. Women need instruction in cooking, home making, and the
+care of children, for girls graduating from a machine or the counter
+of a department store into matrimony cannot reasonably be expected to
+know much about housekeeping. Such evils as divorce, desertion,
+intemperance, and poverty are due repeatedly to failure to make a
+home. Proper hygienic habits, care of sanitation, simple precautions
+against colds, coughs, and tuberculosis, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>make a great difference in
+the amount of misery. It is a question worth considering whether the
+home end of the poverty problem is not as important as the employment
+end. For the man's ignorance and inefficiency it is proposed that the
+vocational education of boys be widely extended.</p>
+
+<p>The social causes of poverty lead into other departments of
+sociological study, like the industrial problem, and it is useless to
+talk about a cure for poverty as an isolated phenomenon, yet there are
+certain principles that are necessarily involved. The whole subject of
+the poor needs thorough study. Organizations like the charity
+societies already have much data. The Russell Sage Foundation in New
+York City is making invaluable contributions to public knowledge. The
+reports of the national and State bureaus of labor contain a vast
+amount of statistical information. All this needs digestion. Then on
+the basis of investigation and digestion of information comes prompt
+and intelligent legislation for the amelioration of poverty, until the
+most shameful conditions in employment and housing are made
+impossible. Only persistent legislation and enforcement of law can
+make greedy landlords and capitalists do the right thing by the poor,
+until all society is spiritualized by the new social gospel of mutual
+consideration and educated to apply it to community life.</p>
+
+<p>283. <b>Pauperism.</b>&mdash;Pauperism is poverty become chronic. When a family
+has been hopelessly dependent so long that self-respect and initiative
+are wholly gone, it seems useless to attempt to galvanize it into
+activity or respectability, and when a group of such families
+pauperizes a neighborhood, heroic measures become necessary. The
+families must be broken up, their members placed in institutions where
+they cannot remain sodden in drink or become violent in crime, and the
+neighborhood cleansed of its human d&eacute;bris. Pauperism is a social pest,
+and it must be rooted out like any other pest. If it is allowed to
+remain it festers; nothing short of eradication will suffice. But when
+once it is destroyed living conditions must be so reformed that
+pauperism will not recur, and that can be only by constant <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>vigilance
+to prevent a continuance of poverty. The problem is one, and its
+solution must involve both poverty and pauperism.</p>
+
+<p>284. <b>Unemployment.</b>&mdash;One of the causes of wide-spread poverty is
+unemployment. This is due sometimes to physical weakness or lack of
+ability or character, but as often to industrial depression or lack of
+adjustment between the labor supply and the employer. There is always
+an army of the unemployed, and it has increased so greatly through
+immigration and otherwise that it has demanded the serious attention
+of sociologists and legislators. Charitable organizations have given
+relief, but it is not properly a question of charity; private agencies
+have made a business of bringing together the employer and the
+employee, but not always treating fairly the employee; permanent free
+labor exchanges are now being tried by governments.</p>
+
+<p>The National Conference on Unemployment, meeting in 1914, recommended
+three constructive proposals, which include most of the experiments
+already tried in Europe and America. These are first the regularizing
+of business by putting it on a year-round basis instead of seasonal;
+second, the organization of a system of labor exchanges, local and
+State, to be supervised and co-ordinated by a national exchange; and
+third, a national insurance system for the unemployed, such as has
+been inaugurated successfully in Germany and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of unemployment is less complicated than many social
+problems, and there is every reason to believe that through careful
+legislation and administration it can be largely removed. The problem
+of those who are unable to work or unwilling to work is solved by
+means of public institutions. The whole problem of poverty awaits only
+intelligent, energetic, and united action for its successful solution.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Devine</span>: <i>Misery and Its Causes</i>, pages 3-50.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Hunter</span>: <i>Poverty</i>, pages 66-105, 318-340.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents</i>,
+second edition, pages 12-97, 160-209.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carlton</span>: <i>History and Problems of Organized Labor</i>, pages
+431-445.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Martin</span>: "Remedy for Unemployment," art. in <i>The Survey</i>,
+22: 115-117.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Booth</span>: <i>Pauperism.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXXVI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHARITY AND THE SETTLEMENTS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>285. <b>The Impulse to Charity.</b>&mdash;The first impulse that stirs a person
+who sees another in want is immediately to relieve the want. This
+impulse to charity makes public begging profitable. It is an impulse
+creditable to the human heart, but its effects have not been approved
+by reason, for indiscriminate charity provokes deception, and is
+certain to result in chronic dependency. Wise methods of charity,
+therefore, constitute a problem as truly as poverty itself. Experience
+has proved so conclusively that the old methods of relief are
+unsatisfactory, that it has become necessary to determine and
+formulate true principles of relief for those who really desire to
+exercise their philanthropy helpfully. How to help is the question.</p>
+
+<p>286. <b>History of Relief.</b>&mdash;Some light is thrown on the subject from
+the experience of the past. The whole notion of charity as a social
+duty was foreign to ancient thought. Families and clans had their own
+dependents, and benefit societies helped their own members. The Hebrew
+prophets called for mercy and kindness, Jesus spoke his parable of the
+good Samaritan, and the primitive Christians went so far as to
+organize their charity, so that none of their members would fail of a
+fair share. The church taught alms-giving as a deed of merit before
+God, and all through its history the Catholic Church has done much for
+its poor. In the Middle Ages it was a part of the feudal theory that
+the lord would care for his serfs, but in reality they got most help
+at the doors of a monastery. In modern times the church has shifted
+its burden to the state. This was inevitable in countries where there
+was no state church, and it was in accordance with the modern
+principle that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>the state is organized society functioning for the
+social welfare of all the people.</p>
+
+<p>In America the colonies and then the States adopted the English custom
+of relieving extreme need. At first it was possible for local
+committees to take care of their poor by doles furnished sparingly in
+their homes, and to place the chronic dependents in almshouses. The
+former practice is known as outdoor relief, the latter as indoor
+relief. Such relief was not administered scientifically, and did not
+help to reduce the amount of poverty. The almshouses were the
+dumping-ground of a community's undesirables, including idiots and
+even insane, cripples and incurables, epileptics, old people, and
+orphan children, constituting a social environment that was anything
+but helpful to human development. After a time it became necessary for
+the State to relieve the local authorities. The defectives and
+dependents became too numerous for the local community to take care
+of, and enlightened philanthropy was learning better methods. The
+result has been the gradual extension of State care and the
+segregation of the various classes of incompetents in various State
+institutions, including hospitals for the insane, the epileptic, and
+the morally deficient, sanitaria for those who suffer from alcoholic
+and tuberculous diseases, and schools for the proper training of the
+youth who have come under public oversight.</p>
+
+<p>287. <b>Voluntary Charity.</b>&mdash;Public relief has been supplemented
+extensively by voluntary charity. This has become increasingly
+scientific. Indeed popular ideas have been largely transformed during
+the last generation. In the small towns and villages where there was
+little destitution, and where all knew one another's needs, there was
+no special need of scientific investigation or charitable
+organization, but in the large cities it became necessary. Thomas
+Chalmers in Scotland and Edward Denison and Octavia Hill in England
+demonstrated the conditions and the advantages of organized effort.
+The first charity organization society was organized in 1869 in
+London. Its fundamental principle was to help the poor to help
+themselves rather than to give them alms. Its aim was to federate all
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>the charitable efforts of London, and while this has not proved
+practicable, it has greatly increased efficiency and has helped to
+bind together philanthropic effort all over England. The income of the
+various charitable agencies of London alone was reported to be
+$43,000,000 in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the first organization on the English model was
+the charity organization society of Buffalo, founded in 1877; Boston
+followed with a similar organization the next year. These were
+followed by the organization of a National Conference of Charities and
+Corrections, which holds annual meetings and publishes reports that
+are a valuable storehouse of information. Many charitable agencies of
+various kinds contribute to the work of relief, some of them really
+helpful, others actually blocking the way of genuine progress, but all
+showing the strength of the philanthropic motive in American cities.
+The closer their alliance with the associated charities the more
+effective are their measures of charity. Three stages have marked the
+history of the charitable organization societies, as they have learned
+from experience. The first has been called the repressive stage. The
+fear of pauperizing recipients of charity made the societies too
+strict in their alms-giving, so that hardships resulted that were
+unnecessary, but such a course was the natural reaction against the
+indiscriminate charity that had been in vogue. This stage was
+succeeded by the discriminative, in which help is given
+discriminatingly, as investigation shows a real need at the same time
+that efforts are being put forth to make prolonged giving unnecessary.
+Closely combined with this discrimination, which is in constant use,
+is the third method of construction. By this constructive method the
+worker tries to get at the cause of the particular case of poverty and
+to alter the social conditions so that the cause shall no longer act.
+Experience and experiment have produced numerous specific measures of
+a constructive sort, like the establishment of playgrounds and public
+parks, kindergartens and schools for specific purposes, social
+settlements and school centres, municipal baths and gymnasiums,
+tenement-house reforms and the prevention of disease.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>288. <b>Friendly Visiting.</b>&mdash;The functions of charity organization
+societies have been described as the co-ordination and co-operation of
+local societies rather than direct relief from the central
+organization, thorough investigation of all cases, with temporary
+relief where necessary, the establishment of friendly relations
+between the poor and the well-to-do, the finding of work for those who
+need it, and the accumulation of knowledge on poverty conditions. The
+actual contact of charitable societies with the people has been mainly
+through friendly visitors who voluntarily engage to call on the needy,
+and who meet at regular intervals to discuss concrete cases as well as
+general methods. These visitors have the advantage of bringing their
+spontaneous sympathy to bear upon the specific instances that come to
+their personal attention, whereas the officials of the charity
+organization society inevitably become more callous to suffering and
+tend to look upon each family as a case to be pigeonholed or
+scientifically treated, but the conviction is growing, nevertheless,
+that the situation can be effectively handled only by men and women
+who are genuinely experts, trained in the social settlements or in the
+schools of philanthropy. Whether a voluntary church worker or a
+charity expert, it is the business of the visitor to make thorough
+investigation of conditions, not merely inquiring of landlord or
+neighbors, or taking the hurried testimony of the family, but
+patiently searching for information from those who have known the case
+over a long period, preferably through the charity organization
+society. Actual relief may be required temporarily and must be
+adequate to the occasion, but the problem of the visitor is to devise
+a method of self-help, and to furnish the courage necessary to
+undertake and carry it through. It is important to consider in this
+connection the character and ancestry of the family, its environment
+and the social ideals and expectations of its members, if the steps
+taken are to be effective. The two principles that underlie the whole
+practice of relief are, first, to restore the individual or family to
+a normal place in society from which it has fallen, or to raise it to
+a normal standard of living which it has never <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>before reached;
+secondly, to make all charity discriminative and co-operative, that it
+may accomplish the end sought without pauperizing the recipient.</p>
+
+<p>289. <b>Public and Private Agencies.</b>&mdash;Institutions and agencies of
+relief are of two kinds, public and private. It is one of the
+functions of every social group to promote the welfare of its members.
+It is to be expected, therefore, that the church and the trade-union
+will help their own poor, but it is just as proper to expect that the
+whole community, and even the whole state, will take care of its own
+needy. The distinction between public and private agencies is not one
+of fundamental sociological principle, but one of convenience and
+efficiency of administration. Where the state has extended its
+activities, as in Germany, relief by such a method as the Elberfeld
+system is practicable; where public opinion, as in the United States,
+is not favorable to remanding as much as possible to the government,
+it is thought best that private agencies should supplement State aid,
+and in most cases make it unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>290. <b>Arguments for and Against Private Agencies of Relief.</b>&mdash;Some
+argue that private agencies should do it all. In spite of the large
+resources at the command of the state and the frequent necessity of
+legislation to handle the problem, they claim that public aid
+humiliates and degrades the recipient, while private assistance may
+put him on his feet without destroying his self-respect; and that
+public charity is too often unfeeling and tends to become a routine
+affair, while private aid can deal better with specific cases, show
+real interest and try experiments in the improvement of methods. There
+are those who would have all charity given back to the church. They
+believe the responsibility would stimulate the church's own life,
+extend its influence among the unchurched, show that it had an
+interest in the bodies as well as the souls of the people, and bring
+about co-operation between churches in the districts of town or city.
+It is of the genius of true religion to be helpful, and the church
+could soon learn wise methods. In answer to this argument the reply is
+that at present the indiscriminate charity of the church is doing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>real harm; that the church does not like to co-operate with other
+agencies; that it does not have adequate resources to deal with the
+problem or legal authority to restrain mendicants or segregate the
+various classes of dependents; and that all persons in the community
+ought to share in the responsibility of poor relief, and not all are
+in the church. They recognize the valuable aid of such organizations
+as the Hebrew Charities and the work of the St. Vincent de Paul
+Society of the Catholics, but they believe that such as these at best
+can be only auxiliary to the state.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration of the usefulness of private associations appears in a
+group of seven boys of foreign parentage in New York City, who
+organized themselves in 1903 into a quick-aid-to-the-hungry committee.
+They were only thirteen years old and poor. They lived on the East
+Side, and pennies and nickels did not make a full treasury. But they
+knew the need and had an instinct for helping the right people. In
+seven years these boys helped in more than two hundred and fifty
+emergency cases; their pennies grew to dollars as they earned more;
+their charity developed their self-respect; they held weekly meetings
+for debate, and several of them made their way through college. Funds
+were supplied, also, from friends outside, who were glad to aid such a
+worthy enterprise. The great need among private agencies is fuller
+co-operation with one another and with public boards and institutions.
+Then duplication of effort, misunderstandings, and wastefulness are
+avoided, and the hope of a decline in conditions of poverty increases.</p>
+
+<p>There are limits, however, to the ability of private agencies to
+control the situation. There are cases where the organized community
+or state must take a hand. There are lazy persons who will not support
+themselves or their families; there are certain persons who are
+chronically ill or dependent; there are various types of defectives
+and delinquents. All these need the authority of the public agencies.
+Then there are constructive activities that require the assistance and
+sanction of government, like parks and playgrounds, industrial
+schools, employment bureaus, the establishment and administration of
+state <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>institutions, and the enforcement of health, sanitary, and
+building laws. Of course there is often inefficiency in government
+management. The local almshouse needs reforming, and the overseers of
+the poor should be trained experts. The organization and
+superintendence of state institutions is not ideal, and building
+arrangements need improvement, but there is a steady gain in the
+efficiency of boards of trustees and local managers. There is a
+willingness to learn from experience and a disposition to raise the
+standards in all departments of administration.</p>
+
+<p>291. <b>The Social Settlement.</b>&mdash;However efficient an official board may
+be in the discharge of its duties, it cannot expect to call out from
+the beneficiary so enthusiastic a response as can a real friend. The
+best friends of the poor are their neighbors. It is well known that a
+group of families in a tenement house will help one of their number
+that is in specific difficulty, and that the poor give more generously
+to help their own kind than do those who are more well-to-do. It was a
+conviction of these principles of friendliness and neighborliness that
+led to the first social settlements. Because a person lives in an
+undesirable part of the city he is not necessarily a subject for
+charity, and the settlement is in no sense to be thought of as a
+charitable agency. It is a home established among the less-favored
+part of the population by educated, refined, sympathetic people who
+want to be neighborly and to bring courage and cheer and helpfulness
+to the struggling masses. The original residents of Hull House in
+Chicago believed that class alienation could be overcome best by the
+establishment of intimate social relationships, and they were willing
+to sacrifice their natural social advantages for the larger good.</p>
+
+<p>Settlements are not exclusively of the city, but the stress of life is
+sternest in the cities, and most of the experiments have been made
+there. They are oases in the desert of the buildings and pavements of
+brick, with their grime and monotony, and if the people of the desert
+will camp for an hour and drink of the spring, those who have planted
+the oasis will be well pleased. To attract them the settlement workers
+have organized clubs and classes for united study <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>and activity in
+matters that naturally interest the people of the neighborhood; they
+have music and dancing and amateur theatricals, and often they supply
+domestic or industrial training in a small way for the young people
+who frequent the settlement. The residents aim to give the people what
+they want; they do not impose anything upon them. They try to satisfy
+economic and social wants. They try to stimulate the people of the
+neighborhood to desire the best things that they can get. They
+co-operate with the police and other departments of the city
+government, with the library, and with the school. They assist in
+procuring work for those who want it; they encourage the people to be
+thrifty and temperate; they help them to get baths and gymnastic
+facilities, playgrounds, and social centres. They frequently carry on
+investigations that are of great value and assist charitable agencies
+in their inquiries and beneficence. They call frequently upon the
+people in their homes and encourage them to ask for counsel and help
+if they are in trouble.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement idea grew out of a growing interest in the common
+people. It was stimulated by Maurice's establishment at London of a
+working man's college, with recent Cambridge graduates as teachers,
+and by university extension work in Cambridge; it was suggested
+further by the location of Edward Denison in the East End of London in
+1867. In 1885 Canon Barnett, of St. Jude's Church, London, founded
+Toynbee Hall under Oxford auspices. The first settlement in the United
+States was established in New York in 1887, and soon became known as
+the University Settlement. Hull House in Chicago was started two years
+later; the first settlement in Boston was founded under the auspices
+of the Andover Theological Seminary. Most settlements avoid church
+connections, because of the danger of misunderstandings among people
+of widely differing faiths.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement has existed long enough to become a true social
+institution. It has remained true to its original principle of
+neighborliness, but it has increased its activities as occasion
+demanded. It has been a useful object-lesson <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>to churches and city
+governments; some of its methods have been imitated, and in some of
+the cities its efforts have become unnecessary in certain directions
+because the city government itself has adopted its plans. The
+settlement has its critics and its devoted supporters; it is one of
+the voluntary experiments that shows the spirit of its promoters and
+that helps along social progress, and it must be estimated among the
+assets of a community. Here and there in the country among certain
+groups, as lumbermen, miners, or construction workers, or even in a
+settled town, many of the methods of the settlement are likely to find
+acceptance, and the settlement idea of neighborliness is fundamental
+to all happy and successful social life.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Devine</span>: <i>Principles of Relief</i>, pages 10-28, 171-181.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Warner</span>: <i>American Charities</i>, pages 301-393.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Conyngton</span>: <i>How to Help</i>, pages 56-219.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Modern Methods of Charity</i>, pages 380-511.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Settlements.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Addams</span>: <i>Twenty Years at Hull House</i>, pages 89-153.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>292. <b>The Schools of the City.</b>&mdash;An important function of city
+government and of other institutions is the education of the people
+who make their home in the city or come to it to broaden their
+culture. The city provides for its young people as the country
+community does, by locating school-buildings within convenient reach
+of the people of every district, but on a much larger and usually a
+more efficient scale. Better trained teachers, better grading, a more
+modern equipment and well-proved methods give an advantage in
+education to the city child, though there are drawbacks in overcrowded
+buildings and narrow yards for play. The opportunities for social
+education are broader in the city, for the child comes into contact
+with many types of people, with a great variety of social
+institutions, and with all sorts of activities. It is these
+advantages, together with the higher institutions for study, that
+attract hundreds and sometimes thousands of students to the prominent
+social centres. The colleges and universities, the normal schools, the
+music and art institutes and lecture systems are numerous and attract
+correspondingly.</p>
+
+<p>293. <b>The Press as an Educator.</b>&mdash;The institutions directly concerned
+with instruction are supplemented by other educational agencies. Among
+these is the press. The press is an institution that exerts a mighty
+force upon every department of the city's life. It is at the same time
+a business enterprise and a social institution. It is a public
+misfortune that the newspaper, the magazine, and the book publishing
+house is a private business undertaking, and often stands for class,
+party, or sectarian interests before those of the whole of society.
+There is always a temptation to sacrifice principle to policy, to
+publish distorted or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>half-true statements from selfish interest, and
+to prostitute influence to individuals or groups that care little for
+the public welfare. The publication of a statement or narrative of a
+crime or other misdemeanor tends by suggestion to the imitation of the
+wrong by others; it is a well-known fact that a sensational story of
+suicide or murder is likely to provoke others in the same manner. It
+is a grave question whether the realistic fiction so much in vogue and
+published in such quantities is not a baneful text-book on modern
+society. But when it chooses the press becomes an instrument of
+immense value to the public. It can turn the light of publicity on
+dark and dirty places. It can and does provide a means of wise
+utterance on questions of the day. It keeps a record of the good as
+well as the evil that is done. It is a means of communication between
+local groups everywhere, for it publishes what everybody wants to know
+about everybody else. It introduces the antipodes to each other, and
+makes it possible for far-sundered groups to unite even
+internationally for a good cause. As the railroad binds together
+portions of a continent, so the press links the minds of human beings.</p>
+
+<p>294. <b>A Metropolitan Newspaper.</b>&mdash;Take a metropolitan newspaper and
+see how it reflects the current life of society. Economic interests of
+buyer and seller are exploited in the advertising columns. In no other
+way could a merchant so persuasively hawk his wares or a purchaser
+learn so readily about the market. The wholesaler and jobber find
+their interests attended to in special columns provided particularly
+for them. Financial interests are cared for by stock-exchange
+quotations, news items, and advertisements. All kinds of social
+concerns are taken care of in the news columns, items collected at
+great expense from the four quarters of the globe. Gatherings for a
+great variety of purposes are recorded. Educational and religious
+interests are given space, as well as sports and amusements; last
+Sunday's sermon jostles the latest scandal on Monday morning; weather
+probabilities and shipping news have their corners, as well as the
+fashion department and the cartoon. The newspaper is a moving picture
+of the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>295. <b>The Value of the Press.</b>&mdash;The most valuable service rendered by
+the press is its education of the public mind, so that public opinion
+may register itself in intelligent action. It provides a forum for the
+discussion of issues that divide sects and parties, and helps to
+preserve religious freedom and popular government. Except that it is
+so frequently trammelled in uttering itself frankly on important
+public questions, it gives an indication of the trend of sentiment and
+so makes possible a forecast of future public action. The very variety
+of printed publications, from the sensational daily sheet to the
+published proceedings of a learned society, insures a healthy
+interchange of ideas that helps to level social inequalities and
+promotes a mutual understanding among all groups and grades of
+society. The cheapened process of book publication on a large scale,
+and the investment of large sums of money in the publishing business,
+with its mechanics of sale management as well as printing, has made
+possible an enormous output of literature on all subjects and has
+widened the range of general information in possession of the public.
+The whole system of modern life would be impossible without the press.</p>
+
+<p>296. <b>The Library and the Museum.</b>&mdash;In spite of the efficient methods
+used for selling the output of the press, large numbers of books would
+be little read were it not for the collections of books that are
+available to the public, either free or at small cost. The public
+library is an educative agency that serves its constituency as
+faithfully as the school and the press. Its presence for use is one of
+the advantages that the city has over the country, though the public
+library has been extended far within one or two decades. The child
+goes from home to school and widens the circle of his acquaintances in
+the community; through the daily newspaper the adult gets into touch
+with a far wider environment, reaching even across the oceans; in the
+library any person, without respect to age, color, or condition, if
+only he possess the key of literacy to unlock knowledge, can travel to
+the utmost limits of continents and seas, can dig with the geologist
+below the surface, or soar with the astronomer beyond the limits of
+aviation, can <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>hob-nob with ancient worthies or sit at the feet of the
+latest novelist or philosopher, and can learn how to rule empires from
+as good text-books as kings or patriarchs possess.</p>
+
+<p>What the library does for intellectual satisfaction the museum and
+art-gallery do for &aelig;sthetic appreciation. They make their appeal to
+the love of beauty in form, color, or weave, and call out oftentimes
+the best efforts of an individual's own genius. Often the gift of one
+or more public-spirited citizens, they register a disposition to serve
+society that is sometimes as useful as charity. Philanthropy that
+uplifts the mind of the recipient is as desirable as benevolence that
+plans bodily relief; the soul that is filled has as much cause to
+bless its minister as the stomach that is relieved of hunger. The
+picture-galleries of Europe, the tapestries, the metal and wood work,
+the engravings, and the frescoes, are the precious legacy of the past
+to the present, not easily reproduced, but serving as a continual
+incentive to modern production. They set in motion spiritual forces
+that uplift and expand the human mind and spur it to future
+achievement.</p>
+
+<p>297. <b>Music and the Drama.</b>&mdash;Music and the drama have a similar
+stimulating and refining influence when they are not debauched by a
+sordid commercialism. They strengthen the noblest impulses, stir the
+blood to worthy deeds by their rhythmic or pictorial influence, unite
+individual hearts in worship or play, throb in unison with the
+sentiments that through all time have swayed human life. Often they
+have catered to the lower instincts, and have served for cheap
+amusement or entertainment not worth while, but concert-hall and
+theatre alike are capable of an educative work that can hardly be
+equalled elsewhere. When in combination they appeal to both eye and
+ear, they provide avenues for intellectual understanding and activity
+that neither school nor press can parallel. Recent mechanical
+inventions, such as automatic musical instruments and moving pictures,
+have added greatly to the range and effectiveness of music and the
+drama, but they only intensify and popularize the appeal to the
+senses. It is to be remembered that individual and social stimuli must
+be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>varied enough to touch men at all points and call out a response
+from every faculty of their nature. These arts, therefore, that make
+life real and socialize it and cheer men and women on their way, play
+a vital part in the education of society and deserve as serious
+consideration as the other educational agencies and institutions that
+find a place in the social economy of the community. Numerous amateur
+musical and dramatic societies testify to the interest of the people
+in these refined arts.</p>
+
+<p>298. <b>The Need of Social Centres.</b>&mdash;Books and pictures, music and the
+drama are so many mild stimulants to those who use and appreciate
+them, but there are large numbers of people who rarely read anything
+but the newspaper, and who attend only cheap entertainments. These
+people need a spur to high thoughts and noble action, but they do not
+move in the world of culture. They need a stronger stimulant, the tang
+of virile debate about questions that touch closely their daily
+concerns, discussions in which they can share if they feel disposed.
+In large circles of the city's population there is a lack of
+facilities for such public discussion, and for that reason the people
+fall back on the prejudices of the newspapers for the formation of
+their opinions on public questions. Disputes sometimes wax warm in the
+saloon about the merits of a pugilist or baseball-player; questions of
+the rights of labor are aired in the talk of the trade-union
+headquarters; but the vital issues of city, state, and nation, and the
+underlying principles that are at stake find few avenues to the minds
+of the mass of the people. In the country the town meeting or the
+gathering at the district schoolhouse provides an occasional
+opportunity, or the grange meeting supplies a forum for its members,
+but even there the rank and file of the people do not talk over large
+questions often enough. In the city the need is great.</p>
+
+<p>299. <b>The City Neighborhood.</b>&mdash;It is well understood that large cities
+have most of their public buildings and business structures in one
+quarter, and their residences in another; also that the character of
+the residential districts varies according to the wealth and culture
+of their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>inhabitants or the nationality and occupation to which they
+belong. The city is a coalition of semidetached groups, each of which
+has a unity of its own. The necessities of work draw all the people
+together down-town along the lines of streets and railways; now and
+then the different classes are shaken together in elevators and
+subways; but when they are free to follow their own volition they flow
+apart. Those who are on terms of intimacy live in a neighboring
+street; the grocer from whom they buy is at the corner; the school
+where their children go is within a few blocks; the theatre they
+patronize or the church they attend is not far away; the physician
+they employ lives in the neighborhood. Except the few who get about
+easily in their own conveyances and have a wide acquaintance, city
+dwellers have all but their business interests in the district in
+which they live, and which is seldom over a square mile in extent.</p>
+
+<p>Some municipalities are coming to see that each district is a
+neighborhood in itself and needs all the democratic institutions of a
+neighborhood. Among these belongs the assembly hall for free speech.
+It may well become a centre for a variety of social purposes, but it
+is fundamentally important that it provide a forum for public
+discussion. As the rich man has his club where he may meet the
+globetrotter or the leader of public affairs distinguished in his own
+country, and as the woman's club of high-minded women has its own
+lecturers and celebrities of all kinds, so the working man and his
+wife have a right to come into contact with stimulating personalities
+who will talk to them and to whom they can talk back.</p>
+
+<p>300. <b>Forum for Public Discussion.</b>&mdash;Such democratic gatherings fall
+into two classes. There is the public lecture or address, after which
+an opportunity for questions and public discussion is given, and there
+is the neighborhood forum or town meeting, at which a question of
+general interest is taken up and debated in regular parliamentary
+fashion. In a number of cities both plans have been adopted. On a
+Sunday afternoon or evening, or at a convenient time on another
+evening of the week, a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>popular speaker addresses the audience on a
+theme of social interest, after it has been entertained for a half
+hour with music; following the address a brief intermission allows for
+relaxation, and then for an hour the question goes to the house, and
+free discussion takes place under the direction of the leader of the
+meeting. Sometimes series of this sort are supplied by churches or
+other social organizations; in that case many of the speakers are
+clergymen, and in some forums the topics are connected with religious
+or strictly moral interests; but even then the discussion is on the
+broad plane of the common concerns of humanity, and there is a zest to
+the occasion that the ordinary religious gathering does not inspire.
+The second plan is modelled after the old-fashioned town meeting that
+was transplanted from the mother country to New England, and has
+spread to other parts of the United States. It is a gathering of all
+who wish to discuss freely some question that interests them all, and
+it is more strictly co-operative than the first plan, for there is no
+one speaker to contribute the main part of the debate, but each may
+make his own contribution, and by the power of his own persuasion win
+for his argument the decision of the meeting. Besides stimulating the
+interest of those who take part, such a debate is a most effective
+educator of the public mind in matters of social weal.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Henderson</span>: <i>Social Elements</i>, pages 228-253.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">King</span>: <i>Social Aspects of Education</i>, pages 65-97,
+264-290.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ward</span>: <i>The Social Center</i>, pages 212-251.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wolfe</span>: <i>The Lodging House Problem</i>, pages 109-114.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association,
+1905</i>, pages 644-650, "Music as a Factor in Culture."</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXVIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE CHURCH</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>301. <b>The Place of the Church in the Urban Community.</b>&mdash;In the city,
+as in the country, the religious instinct expresses itself socially
+through the institution of the church or synagogue. Spiritual force
+cannot be confined within the limits of a single institution; religion
+is a dynamic that permeates the life of society; yet in this age of
+specialization, and especially in a country like the United States,
+where religion is a voluntary affair, not to be entangled with the
+school or the State, religion has naturally exerted its influence most
+directly through the church. Charity and settlement workers are
+inspired by a religion that makes humanitarianism a part of its creed,
+and a large majority of them are church members, but as a rule they do
+not attempt to introduce any religious forms or exercises into their
+programmes. Most public-school teachers have their religious
+connections and recognize the important place of religion in moulding
+character, but religious teaching is not included in the curriculum
+because of the recognized principle of complete religious liberty and
+the separation of church and state. The result has been that religion
+is not consciously felt as a vital force among many people who axe not
+directly connected with an ecclesiastical institution. Those who are
+definitely connected with the church in America contribute voluntarily
+to its expenses, sometimes even at personal sacrifice. Most people who
+have little religious interest realize the value of the mere presence
+of a meeting-house in the community as a reminder of moral obligations
+and an insurance against disorder. Its spire seems to point the way to
+heaven, and to make a mute appeal to the best motives and the highest
+ideals. The decline of the church is, therefore, regarded as a sign of
+social degeneracy.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>302. <b>Worship and Church Attendance.</b>&mdash;The church exists in the city
+because it has certain specific functions to perform. To maintain
+public worship, to persuade to definite convictions and inspire to
+noble conduct, to furnish religious education, and to promote social
+reform are its essential responsibilities. Worship is a natural
+attitude to the individual who is prompted by a desire to adjust
+himself to the universe and to obtain the peace of mind that follows
+upon the establishment of a right relationship. To most people it is
+easier to get into the proper atmosphere and spirit of worship in a
+public assembly, and they therefore are accustomed to meet at stated
+intervals and bow side by side as if in kinship together before the
+Unseen. Long-established habit and a superstitious fear of the
+consequences that may follow neglect keep some persons regular in
+church attendance when they have no sense of spiritual satisfaction in
+worship. Others go to church because of the social opportunities that
+are present in any public gathering.</p>
+
+<p>In recent years church attendance has not kept pace with the
+increasing population of the city. A certain pride of intellect and a
+feeling of security in the growing power of man over nature has
+produced an indifference to religion and religious teachers.
+Multiplicity of other interests overshadows the ecclesiastical
+interests of the aristocracy; fatigue and hostility to an institution
+that they think caters to the rich keeps the proletariat at home. In
+addition the tendency of foreigners is to throw off religion along
+with other compulsory things that belonged to the Old World life and
+to add to the number of the unchurched.</p>
+
+<p>303. <b>Evangelism and the History of Religious Conviction.</b>&mdash;A second
+function of the church is to exert spiritual and moral suasion. It is
+a social instinct to communicate ideas; language developed for that
+purpose. It is natural, therefore, that a church that has definite
+ideas about human obligation toward God and men should try to
+influence individuals and even send out evangelists and missionaries
+to propagate its faith widely. Those churches that think alike have
+organized into denominations, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>have arranged extensive propaganda
+and trained and ordained their preachers to reason with and persuade
+their auditors to receive and act upon the message that is spoken.
+Several of the large cities of the United States contain
+denominational headquarters where world-wide activities receive
+direction, veritable dynamos for the generation of one of the vital
+forces of society.</p>
+
+<p>The convictions that prompt evangelism and missionary zeal are the
+result of centuries of race experience. The Catholic, the Protestant,
+and the Jewish churches have all grown out of religious experience and
+religious thinking that have their roots in early human history. The
+very forms of worship and of creed that constitute the framework of
+religion in a modern city church date far back in their origins. The
+religious instinct appears to be common to the whole human race. In
+primitive times religious interest was prompted by fear, and the early
+customs of sacrifice and worship were established by the group to
+bring its members into friendly relations with the Power outside
+themselves that might work to their undoing. Temples and shrines
+testified to man's devotion and stirred his emotions by their symbols
+and ceremonies. A special class of men was organized, a priesthood to
+mediate with the gods for mankind. Children were taught to respect and
+fear the higher powers, and their elders were often warned not to stir
+the anger of deity. As the human mind developed, impulse and emotion
+were supplemented by intellect. As man ruminated upon nature and human
+experience he was satisfied that there was intelligence and power in
+the universe, divine personality similar to but greater than himself,
+and his reason sanctioned the religious acts to which he had become
+accustomed. He added a creed to his cult. He did not associate his
+moral ideas and habits with his religious obligations; these ideas and
+habits grew out of the customs that had been found to work best in
+social relations. Pagan religions were slow to develop any kinship
+between religion and morals. It was among the Hebrews that the loftier
+idea of a God of holiness and justice, who demanded right and kindly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>conduct among men, came into prominence, and a few religious prophets
+went so far as to declare that sacrifice was less important than
+conduct. The fundamental teachings of Christianity were based on the
+same conception of social duty and on the religious conception of God
+as benevolent and loving, calling out loving fealty of heart rather
+than external rite and sacrifice. In Christian times religion has
+become a spiritual and moral motive power throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>304. <b>Church Organization.</b>&mdash;Throughout its long history society has
+adjusted the organization of its religious activities to social custom
+and social need. The church in any country is a name for an organized
+system, with its nerve-centres and its ganglia ramifying into the
+remotest localities. In the local community it binds together its
+members in mutual relations, even though they live on different sides
+of a city, or even in the suburbs. It has its relations to young and
+old, and plans for the spiritual welfare of human beings of every age
+through its boards and committees, classes and clubs. It presents a
+variety of group types to match the inclinations and opinions of
+different types of mind. One type is that of a closely knit,
+centralized organization, claiming ecclesiastical authority over
+individual opinions and practices on the principle that religion is a
+static thing, a law fixed in the eternal order, and not to be improved
+upon or questioned. Another type is that of loosely federated
+ecclesiastical units, flexible in organization and creed, cherishing
+religion as a dynamic thing, suiting itself to the changing mind of
+man and adjusting itself to individual and social need. It is a social
+law that both theology and organization conform in a degree to the
+prevailing social philosophy and constitution, and therefore no type
+can remain unchanged, but relatively one is always conservative and
+the other always liberal, with a blending of types between the two
+extremes. Denominational divisions are due partly to variety of
+opinion, partly to ancestry, and partly to historical circumstance;
+some of these divisions are international in extent; but through every
+communion runs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>the line of cleavage between conservatism and
+liberalism in the interpretation of custom and creed. The tendency of
+the times is to minimize differences and to bring together divergent
+types in federation or union on the ground that the church needs unity
+in order to use its strength, and that religion can exert its full
+energy in the midst of society only as the friction of too much
+machinery is removed.</p>
+
+<p>305. <b>Religious Education.</b>&mdash;A third function of the church is
+religious education. This function of education in religion belongs
+theoretically to the church, in common with the home and the school,
+but the tendency has been to turn the religious education of children
+over to the school of the church. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+the chief teacher of faith and duty, but in the Sunday-school the
+laity also has found instruction of the young people to be one of its
+functions. Instruction by both of these is supplemented by schools of
+a distinctly religious type and by a religious press. As long as
+society at large does not undertake to perform this function of
+religious education, the church conceives it to be one of its chief
+tasks to teach as well as to inspire the human will, by interpreting
+the best religious thought that the centuries of history have handed
+down, and for this purpose it uses the latest scientific knowledge
+about the human mind and tries to devise improved methods to make
+education more effective. Education is the twin art of evangelization.</p>
+
+<p>306. <b>Promotion of Social Reform.</b>&mdash;As an institution hoary with age,
+the church is naturally conservative, and it has been slow to champion
+the various social reforms that have been proposed as panaceas. It has
+been quite as much concerned with a future existence as with the
+present, and has been prompt to point to heavenly bliss as a balance
+for earthly woe. It has concerned itself with the soul rather than the
+body, and with individual salvation rather than social reconstruction.
+It is only within a century that the modern church has given much
+attention to promoting social betterment as one of its principal
+functions, but within a few years the conscience of church people has
+been goading them to undertake a campaign <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>of social welfare. Other
+institutions have needed the help of the church, and in some cases the
+church has had to take upon itself the burden that belonged to other
+organizations; moral movements, like temperance, have asked for the
+powerful sanction of religion, and the church has used its influence
+to persuade men. What has been spontaneous and intermittent is now
+becoming regular and continuous, until a social gospel is taking its
+place alongside individual evangelism. The Biblical phrase, "the
+kingdom of God," is being interpreted in terms of an improved social
+order. Religion, therefore, becomes a present-day force for progress,
+and the church an agency for social uplift.</p>
+
+<p>307. <b>Adapting the Church to the Twentieth Century City.</b>&mdash;The church
+in the country has a comparatively simple problem of existence. It
+fits into the social organization of the community, and in most cases
+seldom has to readjust itself by radical changes to fit a swift change
+in the community. It is different with the church in the city. Urban
+growth is one of the striking phenomena of recent decades; local
+churches find themselves caught in the swirl, grow rapidly for a time,
+and then are left high and dry as the current sweeps the crowd farther
+along. Often the particular type that it represents is not suited to
+the newer residents who settle in the section where the church stands.
+It has the option of following the crowd or attempting a readjustment.
+To decamp is usually the easier way; readjustment is often so
+difficult as to be almost impossible. Financial resources have been
+depleted. The existing organization is not geared to the customs of
+the newcomers. Forms of worship must be improved if the church is to
+function satisfactorily. The popular appeal of religion must be
+couched in a new phraseology, often in a new language. Religious
+educational methods must be revised. Social service must be fitted to
+the new need. Small groups of workers must be organized to manage
+classes and clubs, and to get into personal contact with individuals
+whose orbit is on a different plane. The church must become a magnet
+to draw them <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>within the influence of religion. It finds itself
+compelled to adopt such methods as these if it is not to become a mere
+survival of a better day.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, a locally disabled church can call upon the resources of
+a whole denomination, it may be able to make the necessary adjustments
+with ease, or even to continue its spiritual ministry along the old
+lines by means of subsidies. It is reasonable to believe that society
+will find a way to adjust the church to the needs of city people. It
+cannot afford to do without it. The church has been the conserver and
+propagator of spiritual force. It has supplied to thousands of persons
+the regenerative power of religion that alone has matched the
+degenerating influence of immoral habits. It has produced auxiliary
+organizations, like the Young Men's Christian Association and the
+Young Women's Christian Association. It has found a way, as in the
+Salvation Army, to get a grip upon the weak-willed and despairing.
+Missions and chapels in the slums and synagogues in the ghettos have
+carried religion to the lowest classes. These considerations argue for
+a wider co-operation among city people in strengthening an institution
+that represents social idealism.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Trawick</span>: <i>The City Church and Its Social Mission</i>, pages
+14-22, 50-76, 95-99, 122-160.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Strayer</span>: <i>Reconstruction of the Church</i>, pages 161-249.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Menzies</span>: <i>History of Religion</i>, pages 19-78.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Rauschenbusch</span>: <i>Christianizing the Social Order</i>, pages
+7-29, 96-102.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">McCulloch</span>: <i>The Open Church for the Unchurched</i>, pages
+33-164.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Coe</span>: <i>Education in Religion and Morals</i>, pages 373-388.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XXXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXXIX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XXXIX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE CITY IN THE MAKING</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>308. <b>Experimenting in the Mass.</b>&mdash;The modern city is a gigantic
+social experiment. Never before have so many people crowded together,
+never has there been such a close interlocking of economic and social
+and religious associations, never has there been such ease of
+communication and transit. Modern invention has given its aid to the
+natural effort of human beings to get together. The various interests
+that produce action have combined to make settlement compact. The city
+is a severe test of human ability to live peaceably and co-operatively
+at close quarters. In the country an unfriendly man can live by
+himself much of the time; in the city he is continually feeling
+somebody's elbows in his ribs. It is not strange that there is as yet
+much crudeness about the city. Its growth has been dominated by the
+economic motive, and everything has been sacrificed to the desire to
+make money. Dirty slums, crowded tenements, uncouth business blocks,
+garish bill-boards and electric signs, dumped rubbish on vacant lots,
+constant repairs of streets and buildings&mdash;these all are marks of
+crudity and experimentation, evidences that the city is still in the
+making. Many of the weaknesses that appear in urban society can be
+traced to this situation as a cause. The craze for amusement is partly
+a reaction from the high speed of modern industry, but partly, also, a
+social delirium produced by the new experience of the social whirl.
+Naturally more serious efforts are neglected for a time, and
+institutions of long standing, like the family, threaten to go to
+pieces. A thought-provoking lecture or a sermon on human obligation
+does not fit in with the mood of the thousands who walk or ride along
+the streets, searching <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>for a sensation. The student who looks at
+urban society on the surface easily becomes pessimistic.</p>
+
+<p>309. <b>Reasons for Optimism.</b>&mdash;This new experience of society will run
+its course. Undoubtedly there will go with it much of social loss, but
+there is firm ground for believing that there will be more of social
+gain. It is quite necessary for human beings to learn to associate
+intimately, for population is steadily increasing and modern
+civilization makes all classes and all nations more and more dependent
+on one another. The pace of life will slow down after a time, there
+will be less of social intoxication, and men and women will take their
+pleasures more sanely. Eventually they will listen to a message that
+is adapted to them, however serious it may be. One of the most hopeful
+factors in the situation is the presence of individuals and organized
+groups who are able to diagnose present conditions, and who are
+working definitely for their improvement. Much of modern progress is
+conscious and purposeful, where formerly men lived blindly, subject,
+as they believed, to the caprice of the gods. We know much about
+natural law, and lately we have learned something about social law;
+with this knowledge we can plan intelligently for the future. There is
+less excuse for social failure than formerly. Cities are learning how
+to make constructive plans for beautifying avenues and residential
+sections, and making efficient a whole transportation system; they
+will learn how to get rid of overcrowding, misery, and disease. What
+is needed is the will to do, and that will come with experience.</p>
+
+<p>310. <b>Reasonable Expectations of Improvement.</b>&mdash;Any soundly
+constructive plan waits on thorough investigation. Such an
+organization as the Russell Sage Foundation, which is gathering all
+sorts of data about social conditions, is supplying just the
+information needed on which to base intelligent and effective action.
+On this foundation will come the slow process of construction. There
+will be diffusion of information, an enlistment of those who are able
+to help, and an increased co-operation among the numerous agencies of
+philanthropy and reform. The most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>obvious evils and those that seem
+capable of solution will be attacked first. Intelligent public opinion
+will not tolerate the continued existence of curable ills. Pure water,
+adequate sewerage, light, and air, and sanitary conveniences in every
+home will be required everywhere. Community physicians and nurses will
+be under municipal appointment to see that health conditions are
+maintained, and to instruct city families how to live properly.
+Vocational schools and courses in domestic science will prepare boys
+and girls for marriage and the home, and will tend to lessen poverty.
+Undoubtedly the time will come when it will be seen clearly that the
+interests of society demand the segregation of those who cannot take
+care of themselves and are an injury to others. Hospitals and places
+of detention for mental and moral defectives, and the victims of
+chronic vice and intemperance, as well as criminals of every sort,
+will seem natural and necessary. Larger questions of immigration,
+industrial management, and municipal administration will be studied
+and gradually solved by the united wisdom of city, state, and nation.</p>
+
+<p>311. <b>Agencies of Progress and Gains Achieved.</b>&mdash;An examination of
+what has been achieved in this direction by almost any one of the
+larger cities in the United States shows encouraging progress. Smaller
+cities and even villages have made use of electricity for lighting,
+transportation, and telephone service. The water and sewerage systems
+of larger centres are far in advance of what they were a few years
+ago. Bathrooms with open plumbing and greater attention to the
+preservation of health have supplemented more thorough efforts to the
+spread of communicable diseases. Increasing agitation for more
+practical education has led to the creation of various kinds of
+vocational schools, including a large variety of correspondence
+schools for those who wish specific training. There are still
+thousands of boys and girls who enter industrial occupations in the
+most haphazard way, and yield to irrational impulse in choosing or
+giving up a particular job or a place to live in; similar impulse
+induces them to mate in the same haphazard way, and as lightly to
+separate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>if they tire of each other; but the very fact that
+enlightened public opinion does not countenance these practices, that
+there are social agencies contending against them, and that they are
+contrary to the laws of happiness, of efficiency, and even of
+survival, makes it unlikely that such irrational conduct can persist.
+As for the social ills that have seemed unavoidable, like sexual vice,
+current investigation and agitation, followed by increasing
+legislation and segregation of the unfit, promises to work a change,
+however gradual the process may be. Numerous organizations are at work
+in the fields of poverty, immigration, the industrial problem, reform
+of government, penology, business, education, and religion, and
+thousands of social workers are devoting their lives to the betterment
+of society.</p>
+
+<p>312. <b>Conference and Co-operation.</b>&mdash;Improvement will be more rapid
+when the various agencies of reform have learned to pull together more
+efficiently. It is frequently charged that the friction between
+different temperance organizations has delayed progress in solving the
+problem of intemperance. It is often said that there would be less
+poverty if the various charitable agencies would everywhere organize
+and work in association. The independent temper of Americans makes it
+difficult to work together, but co-operation is a sound sociological
+principle, and experience proves that such principles must be obeyed.
+If the principle of combination that has been applied to business
+should be carried further and applied to the problems of society,
+there can be no question that results would speedily justify the
+action. Perhaps the greatest need in the city to-day is a union of
+resources. If an honest taxation would furnish funds, if the best
+people would plan intelligently and unselfishly for the city's future
+development, if boards and committees that are at odds would get
+together, there is every reason to think that astonishing changes for
+the better would soon be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose that in every city of our land representatives of the chamber
+of commerce, of the city government, of the associated charities, of
+the school-teachers, of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>ministers of the city, of the women's
+clubs, of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's
+Christian Association, of the labor-unions, and of the agencies that
+cater to amusement should sit together once in two weeks in conference
+upon the interests of all the people of the city, and should honestly
+and frankly discuss the practical questions that are always at the
+fore in public discussion, and then should report back for further
+conference in their own groups, there can be no doubt that the various
+groups would have a far better understanding and appreciation of one
+another, and in time would find ways and means to adopt such a
+programme as might come out of all the discussion.</p>
+
+<p>313. <b>The Crucial Test of Democracy.</b>&mdash;World events have shown clearly
+since the outbreak of the European war that intelligent planning and
+persistent enforcement of a political programme can long contend
+successfully against great odds, when there is autocratic power behind
+it all. Democracy must show itself just as capable of planning and
+execution, if it is to hold its own against the control of a few,
+whether plutocrats, political bosses, or a centralized state, but its
+power to make good depends on the enlistment of all the abilities of
+city or nation in co-operative effort. There is no more crucial test
+of the ability of democracy to solve the social problems of this age
+than the present-day city. The social problem is not a question of
+politics, but of the social sciences. It is a question of living
+together peaceably and profitably. It involves economics, ethics, and
+sociological principles. It is yet to be proved that society is ready
+to be civilized or even to survive on a democratic basis. The time
+must come when it will, for associated activity under the self-control
+of the whole group is the logical and ethical outcome of sound
+sociological principle, but that time may not be near at hand. If
+democracy in the cities is to come promptly to its own, social
+education will soon change its emphasis from the material gain of the
+individual to co-operation for the social good, and under the
+inspiration of this idea the various agencies will unite for effective
+social service.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Howe</span>: <i>The Modern City and Its Problems</i>, pages 367-376.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Goodnow</span>: <i>City Government in the United States</i>, pages
+302-308.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Eldridge</span>: <i>Problems of Community Life</i>, pages 3-7.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ely</span>: <i>The Coming City.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Boston Directory of Charities</i>, 1914.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XL" id="CHAPTER_XL"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>PART V&mdash;SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XL<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE BUILDING OF A NATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>314. <b>Questions of the Larger Group.</b>&mdash;In any study of social life we
+have to find a place for larger groups than the family and the
+neighborhood or even the city. There are national units and even a
+certain amount of international unity in the world. How have they come
+to exist? What are the interests that hold them together? What are the
+forms of association that are practicable on such a large scale? Is
+there a tendency to stress the control of the group over its
+individual members, even its aristocracy 01 birth or wealth? These are
+questions that require some sort of an answer. Beyond them are other
+questions concerning the relations between these larger groups. Are
+there common interests or compelling forces that have merged hitherto
+sovereign states into federal or imperial union? Is it conceivable
+that such mutually jealous nations as the European powers may
+surrender willingly their individual interests of minor importance for
+the sake of the larger good of the whole? Can political independence
+ever become subordinate to social welfare? Are there any spiritual
+bonds that can hold more strongly than national ambitions and national
+pride? Such questions as these carry the student of society into a
+wider range of corporate life than the average man enters, but a range
+of life in which the welfare of every individual is involved.</p>
+
+<p>315. <b>The Significance of National Life.</b>&mdash;The nation is a group of
+persons, families, and communities united for mutual protection and
+the promotion of the general welfare, and recognizing a sovereign
+power that controls them all. Some nations have been organized from
+above in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>obedience to the will of a successful warrior or peaceful
+group; others have been organized peacefully from below by the
+voluntary act of the people themselves. The nation in its capacity as
+a governing power is a state, but a nation exercises other functions
+than that of control; it exists to promote the common interests of
+mankind over a wider area than that of the local community. The
+historic tendency of nations has been to grow in size, as the
+transmission of ideas has become easy, and the extension of control
+has been made widely possible. The significance of national life is
+the social recognition at present given to community of interest by
+millions of individuals who believe that it is profitable for them to
+live under the same economic regulations, social legislation, and
+educational system, even though of mingled races and with various
+ideals.</p>
+
+<p>316. <b>How the Nation Developed.</b>&mdash;The nation in embryo can be found in
+the primitive horde which was made up of families related by ties of
+kin, or by common language and customs. The control was held by the
+elderly men of experience, and exercised according to unwritten law.
+The horde was only loosely organized; it did not own land, but ranged
+over the hunting-grounds within its reach, and often small units
+separated permanently from the larger group. When hunting gave place
+to the domestication of animals, the horde became more definitely
+organized into the tribe, strong leadership developed in the defense
+of the tribe's property, and the military chieftain bent others in
+submission to his will. As long as land was of value for pasturage
+mainly, it was owned by the whole tribe in common. When agriculture
+was substituted for the pastoral stage of civilization, the tribe
+broke up by clans into villages, each under its chief and advisory
+council of heads of families. So far the mode of making a living had
+determined custom and organization.</p>
+
+<p>Village communities may remain almost unchanged for centuries, as in
+China, or here and there one of them may become a centre of trade, as
+in medi&aelig;val Germany. In the latter case it draws to itself all classes
+of people, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>develops wealth and culture, and presently dominates its
+neighbors. Small city states grew up in ancient time along the Nile in
+Egypt, and by and by federated under a particularly able leader, or
+were conquered by the band of an ambitious chieftain, who took the
+title of king. In such fashion were organized the great kingdoms and
+empires of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>Social disintegration and foreign conquest broke up the great empires,
+and for centuries in the Middle Ages society existed in local groups;
+but common economic and racial interests, together with the political
+ambition of princes and nobles, drew together semi-independent
+principalities and communes, until they became welded into real
+nations. At first the state was monarchical, because a few kings and
+lords were able to dominate the mass, and because strength and
+authority were more needed than privileges of citizenship; then the
+economic interest became paramount, and merchants and manufacturers
+demanded a share in government for the protection of their interests.
+Education improved the general level of intelligence, and invention
+and growing commerce improved the condition of the people until
+eventually all classes claimed a right to champion their own
+interests. The most progressive nations racially, politically, and
+economically, outstripped the others in world rivalry until the great
+modern nations, each with its own peculiar qualities of efficiency,
+overtopped their predecessors of all time.</p>
+
+<p>317. <b>The Story of the United States.</b>&mdash;The story of national life in
+the United States is especially noteworthy. Within a century and a
+half the people of this country have passed through the economic
+stages, from clearing the forests to building sky-scrapers; in
+government they have grown from a few jealous seaboard colonies along
+the Atlantic to a solidly welded federal nation that stretches from
+ocean to ocean; in education and skill they have developed from
+provincial hand-workers to expert managers of corporate enterprises
+that exploit the resources of the world; and in population they have
+grown from four million native Americans to a hundred million people,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>gathered and shaken together from the four corners of the earth. In
+that century and a half they have developed a new and powerful
+national consciousness. When the British colonies asserted their
+independence, they were held together by their common ambition and
+their common danger, but when they attempted to organize a government,
+the incipient States were unwilling to grant to the new nation the
+powers of sovereignty. The Confederation was a failure. The sense of
+common interest was not strong enough to compel a surrender of local
+rights. But presently it appeared that local jealousies and divisions
+were imperilling the interests of all, and that even the independence
+of the group was impossible without an effective national government.
+Then in national convention the States, through their representatives,
+sacrificed one after another their sovereign rights, until a
+respectable nation was erected to stand beside the powers of Europe.
+It was given power to make laws for the regulation of social conduct,
+and even of interstate commerce, to establish executive authority and
+administrative, judicial, and military systems, and to tax the
+property of the people for national revenue. To these basic functions
+others were added, as common interests demanded encouragement or
+protection.</p>
+
+<p>318. <b>Tests of National Efficiency.</b>&mdash;Two tests came to the new nation
+in its first century. The first was the test of control. It was for a
+time a question whether the nation could extend its sovereignty over
+the interior. State claims were troublesome, and the selfish interests
+of individuals clashed with revenue officers, but the nation solved
+these difficulties. The second test was the test of unity, and was
+settled only after civil war. Out of the struggle the nation emerged
+stronger than it had ever been, because henceforth it was based on the
+principle of an indissoluble union. With its second century have come
+new tests&mdash;the test of absorbing millions of aliens in speech and
+habits, the test of wisely governing itself through an intelligent
+citizenship, the test of educating all of its people to their
+political and social responsibilities. Whether <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>these tests will be
+met successfully is for the future to decide, but if the past is any
+criterion, the American republic will not fail. National structures
+have risen to a certain height and then fallen, because they were not
+built on the solid foundations of mutual confidence, co-operation, and
+loyalty. Building a self-governing nation that will stand the test of
+centuries is possible only for a people that is conscious of its
+community of interests, and is willing to sacrifice personal
+preferences and even personal profits for the common good.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bryce</span>: <i>The American Commonwealth</i> (Abridged Edition),
+pages 3-21.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Development of the State</i>, pages 26-48.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bluntschli</span>: <i>Theory of the State</i>, pages 82-102.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Mulford</span>: <i>The Nation</i>, pages 37-60.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bagehot</span>: <i>Physics and Politics</i>, pages 81-155.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Usher</span>: <i>Rise of the American People</i>, pages 151-167,
+182-195, 269-281.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLI" id="CHAPTER_XLI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PEOPLE AS A NATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>319. <b>The Reality of the Nation.</b>&mdash;Ordinarily the individual is not
+pressed upon heavily by his national relationships. He is conscious of
+them as he reads the newspaper or goes to the post-office, but except
+at congressional or presidential elections they are not brought home
+to him vividly. He thinks and acts in terms of the community. The
+nation is an artificial structure and most of its operations are
+centralized at a few points. The President lives and Congress meets at
+the national capital. The departments of government are located there,
+and the Supreme Court holds its sessions in the same city. Here and
+there at the busy ports are the custom-houses, with their revenue
+officers, and at convenient distances are district courts and United
+States officers for the maintenance of national order and justice. The
+post-office is the one national institution that is found everywhere,
+matched in ubiquity only by the flag, the symbol of national unity and
+strength. But though not noticeably exercised, the power of the nation
+is very real. There is no power to dispute its legislation and the
+decisions of its tribunals. No one dares refuse to contribute to its
+revenues, whether excise tax or import duties. No one is unaware that
+a very real nation exists.</p>
+
+<p>320. <b>The Social Nature of the Nation.</b>&mdash;In thinking of the nation it
+is natural to consider its power as a state, but other functions
+belong to it as a social unit that are no less important. Its general
+function is not so much to govern as to promote the general welfare.
+The social nature of national organization is well expressed in the
+preamble to the national Constitution: "We the people of the United
+States, in order to form a more perfect union, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>establish justice,
+insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote
+the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves
+and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
+United States of America." The general welfare is a somewhat vague
+term, but it includes all the interests of the people, and so
+indicates the scope of the national function.</p>
+
+<p>321. <b>The Economic Function.</b>&mdash;The nation has an economic function. It
+is its business to encourage trade by means that seem most likely to
+help, whether by subsidies, tariffs, or expert advice; to protect all
+producers, distributers, and consumers by just laws and tribunals, so
+that unfair privileges shall not be enjoyed by the few at the expense
+of the many, and to provide in every legitimate way for the spread of
+information and for experimentation that agriculture, mining, and
+manufacturing may be improved. Evidences of the attempt of the United
+States to measure up to these responsibilities are the various tariffs
+that have been established for protection as well as revenue, the
+interstate and trade commissions that exist for the regulation of
+business, and the individuals and boards that are maintained for
+acquiring and disseminating information relating to all kinds of
+economic interests. The United States Patent Office encourages
+invention, and American inventors outnumber those of other nations.
+The United States Department of Agriculture employs many experimenters
+and expert agents and even distributes seeds of a good quality, in
+order that one of the most important industries of the American people
+may flourish. At times some of the national machinery has been
+prostituted to private gain, and there is always danger that the
+individual will try to prosper at the expense of society, but the
+people more than ever before are conscious that it is the function of
+the nation to promote the <i>general</i> welfare, and private interests,
+however powerful, must give heed to this.</p>
+
+<p>322. <b>Manufacturing in Corporations and Associations.</b>&mdash;Back of all
+organization and legislation lies a real <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>national unity, through
+which the nation exercises indirectly an economic function. In spite
+of a popular jealousy of big business in the last decade, there is a
+pride in the ability of American business men to create a profitable
+world commerce, and middle-class people in well-to-do circumstances
+subscribe to the purchase of stocks and bonds in trusted corporations.
+Without this general interest and participation such a rapid extension
+of industrial enterprise could not have taken place. Without the lines
+of communication that radiate from great commercial and financial
+centres, without the banking connections that make it possible for the
+fiscal centres to support any particular institution that is in
+temporary distress, without the consciousness of national solidarity
+in the great departments of business life, economic achievement in
+America would have come on halting feet. This unity is fostered but
+not created by government, and no hostile government can destroy it
+altogether.</p>
+
+<p>To further economic interests throughout the nation all sorts of
+associations exist and hold conventions, from American poultry
+fanciers to national banking societies. Occasionally these
+associations pool their interests and advertise their concerns through
+a national exposition. In this way they find it possible to make an
+impression upon thousands of people whom they are educating indirectly
+through the printing-press. It would be an interesting study and one
+that would throw light on the complexity and ubiquity of national
+relations, if it could be ascertained locally how many individuals are
+connected with such national organizations, and what particular
+associations are most popular. If this examination were extended from
+purely economic organizations to associations of every kind, we should
+be able to gauge more accurately the strength of national influence
+upon social life.</p>
+
+<p>323. <b>Health Interests.</b>&mdash;If this national unity exists in the
+economic field it is natural to expect to find it in the less material
+interests of society. The sense of common interests is all-pervasive.
+National health conditions bring the physicians together to discuss
+the causes and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>therapeutics. How to keep well and to get strong,
+how to dress the baby and to bring up children are perennial topics
+for magazines with a national circulation. Insurance companies with a
+national constituency prescribe physical tests for all classes.
+Government takes cognizance of the physical interest of all its
+citizens, and passes through Congress pure-food and pure-drug acts.
+National societies of a voluntary nature also cater to health and
+happiness. Long-named organizations exist for moral prophylaxis and
+for the prevention of cruelty to children and animals. Vigilance
+associations of all sorts stand guard to keep children and their
+elders from contamination. Society protects itself over wide areas
+through such associated recognition of the mutual interests of all its
+members.</p>
+
+<p>324. <b>National Sport.</b>&mdash;Recreation and sport also present national
+features. Every new phase of recreation from playgrounds to philately
+presently has its countrywide association. There is a conscious
+reaching out for wide fellowship with those who are interested in the
+same pursuits. The attraction of like-mindedness is a potent force in
+every department of life. Certain forms of relaxation or spirited
+rivalry have attained to the dignity of national sports. England has
+its football, Scotland its golf, Canada its lacrosse, the United
+States its baseball. The enthusiasm and excitement that hold whole
+cities in thrall as a national league season draws to its close, is a
+more striking phenomenon than Roman gladiatorial shows or Spanish
+bull-fights. Persons who seldom if ever attend a game, who do not know
+one player from another, wax eloquent over the merits of a team that
+represents their own city, while individuals who attain to the title
+of "fans" handle familiarly the details of the teams throughout the
+league circuit. Why should Olympic contests held in recent years
+between representatives of different nations, or international tennis
+championships, arouse universal interest? It is inexplicable except as
+evidence of collective consciousness and a national pride and loyalty.</p>
+
+<p>The same spirit has entered into university athletics. The great
+universities have their "rooters" scattered all <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>over the land, and
+the whole nation is interested in the Thames or Henley races and the
+Poughkeepsie regattas. There are intercollegiate tennis championships
+and chess tournaments, football contests between the leaders East and
+West, all-America teams, and even international rivalries.</p>
+
+<p>325. <b>The Function of Education.</b>&mdash;Nation-wide ties and loyalties in
+sport do not call for the official action of the nation, though
+national officials as individuals are often devoted to certain sports,
+but the nation has other functions that may be classed as social. No
+duty is more pressing, not even that of efficient government, than the
+task of education. The National Bureau of Education supplemented by
+State boards, officially takes cognizance of society's educational
+interests. In education local independence plays a large part, but it
+is the function of government to make inquiry into the best theories
+and methods anywhere in vogue, to extend information to all who are
+interested, and to use its large influence toward the adoption of
+improvements. Government in certain States of the American Union even
+goes so far as to co-operate with local communities in maintaining
+joint school superintendents of towns or counties. It is appropriate
+that a democratic nation should give much attention to the education
+of the people because the success of democracy depends on popular
+intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>The efforts of the government are seconded by voluntary organization.
+It is not unusual for college presidents or ordinary teachers to meet
+in conference and discuss their difficulties and aspirations, but a
+National Education Association is cumulative evidence that Americans
+think in terms of a continent, and that their interests are the same
+educationally in all parts of the land. It is no less true of other
+agencies of culture than the schools. Cultural associations of all
+kinds abound. Some of them are limited by State boundaries, not a few
+are national in their scope. There is a national Chautauqua;
+institutes with the same name hold their sessions all over the land.
+Music, art, and the drama, sometimes the same organized group <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>of
+artists, appeal to appreciative audiences in Boston, New Orleans,
+Chicago, and San Francisco. Popular songs from the opera, popular
+dances from the music-halls sweep the country with a wave of imitative
+enthusiasm. There are national whims and national tastes that chase
+each other from ocean to ocean, almost as fast as the sun moves from
+meridian to meridian.</p>
+
+<p>326. <b>National Philanthropy.</b>&mdash;So much of national life is voluntary
+in direction and organization in America, as compared with Germany or
+Russia, that it is easy to overlook its national significance. As a
+national state the United States does not attempt philanthropy. The
+separate States have their asylums as they have penitentiaries and
+reformatories, but the nation performs no such function. Yet
+philanthropic organization girdles the continent. The National
+Conference of Charities and Corrections is one instance of a society
+that meets annually in the interest of the depressed classes,
+discusses their problems, and reports its findings to the public as a
+basis for organized activity. Such an organization not only represents
+the humanitarian principles and interest of individuals here and
+there, but it helps to bind together local groups all over the country
+that are working on an altruistic basis. Whole sections of territory
+join in discussing still wider human interests. The Southern
+Sociological Conference appeals to the whole South and calls upon the
+rest of the country for speakers of reputation and wisdom.</p>
+
+<p>327. <b>The Federal Council of Churches.</b>&mdash;It is fundamental to the
+spirit and word of the American Constitution that church and state
+shall not be united, but this does not prevent religious interests
+from being cherished nationally, and ecclesiastical organizations from
+having national affiliations. Modern churches are grouped first of all
+in denominations, because of certain peculiarities, but most of the
+denominations have spread over the country and propagated their type
+as opportunity offered. National conferences and conventions,
+therefore, take place regularly, bringing together Episcopalians,
+Presbyterians, Baptists, or Methodists, as the case may be, to
+consider the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>interests that are most vital to the denomination as a
+whole, or which the denomination as a whole, in place of the local
+churches, holds within its sphere of control. Politics and sectional
+interests have sometimes divided denominations, large bodies have
+sometimes split along conservative or radical lines, but the national
+ideal has never been lost sight of, and national organizations enjoy
+dignity and prestige. One of the most recent illustrations of a still
+broader interest and deeper consciousness is the federation of more
+than thirty evangelical Protestant denominations for better
+acquaintance and larger achievement. Temporary movements and even a
+definite Evangelical Alliance have been in evidence before, but now
+has come a permanent organization, to include all the religious
+interests that can be held in common, and especially to stress the
+more ambitious programme of social regeneration. The Federal Council
+of the Churches of Christ in America has yet to prove that it is not
+ahead of the times, but it is an earnest of a religious interest that
+oversteps the bounds of creed and denominational organization and
+calls upon the various divisions of the Protestant Church to unite for
+a national campaign.</p>
+
+<p>328. <b>The Scope of National Life.</b>&mdash;Social life in the nation is not
+confined to any organization. It does not wait upon government to
+perform its various functions. It goes on because of the constant flow
+and counterflow of population through all the channels of acquaintance
+and correspondence, of travel and trade. People feel the need of one
+another, are in constant touch with one another, and inevitably are
+continually exchanging commodities and ideas. Barriers of race and
+language, of tariff walls and national conventions stand in the way of
+exchange between individuals of different nations, though a strenuous
+commercial age succeeds in making breaches in the barriers, but
+opportunity within the nation is free, and such natural barriers as
+language and race differences speedily give way before the mutual
+desires of the native and the hyphenated American.</p>
+
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Development of the State</i>, pages 63-115.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Reports of the Commissioner of Education.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>American Year Book</i>, 1914, <i>passim.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ward</span>: <i>Year Book of the Church and Social Service</i>, 1916,
+pages 24-29.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLII" id="CHAPTER_XLII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE STATE</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>329. <b>The State and Its Sovereignty.</b>&mdash;The various economic and social
+functions that are exercised by the people as a nation can be
+performed in an orderly and effective way only when the people are
+organized politically, and the nation has full powers of sovereignty.
+When the nation functions politically it is a state. States may be
+large like Russia, or small like Montenegro; they may have full
+sovereignty like Great Britain, or limited sovereignty like New York;
+the fact that they exercise political authority makes them states. It
+is conceivable that this political authority may be exercised through
+the sheer force of public opinion, but the experience of the newly
+organized United States under the Articles of Confederation showed
+that national moral suasion was not effective. History seems to prove
+that society needs a machinery of government able to legislate and
+enforce its laws, and the tendency has been for a comparatively small
+number of states to extend their authority over more and more of the
+earth's surface. This has become possible through the maintenance of
+efficient military forces and wise local administration, aided by
+increasing ease of communication and transportation. Once it was a
+question whether the United States could enforce its law as far away
+as western Pennsylvania; now Great Britain bears unquestioned sway
+over the antipodes. Many persons look forward to the time when the
+people of all nations will unite in a universal state, with power to
+enforce its will without resort to war.</p>
+
+<p>330. <b>Why the State is Necessary.</b>&mdash;There are some persons, commonly
+known as anarchists, who do not believe that government is necessary.
+They would have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>human relations reduced to their lowest terms, and
+then trust to human nature to behave itself properly. There are other
+persons known as Socialists, who would have the people in their
+collective capacity exercise a larger control than now over human
+action. Neither of these classes represents the bulk of society.
+Common sense and experience together seem to demand a government that
+will exercise a reasonable control, and by reasonable is meant a
+control that will preserve the best interests of all and make general
+progress possible. The political function of the nation is both
+coercive and directive. When we think of a state we naturally think of
+the power that it possesses to make peace or war with foreign powers,
+to keep order within the nation, to enforce its authority over any
+individual or group that breaks the laws that it has made; but while
+such power of control is essential and its exercise often spectacular,
+it is paralleled by the directive power. There are many social
+relations that need definition and much social conduct that needs
+direction. A man and a woman live together and bring up a family of
+children. Who is to determine their legal status, the terms of
+marriage, the rights of parenthood, the claims of childhood, the
+rights and obligations of the family as a part of the community? The
+family accumulates property in lands, houses, and movable possessions.
+Who will make the acquisition legal, insure property protection, and
+provide legally for inheritance? Every individual has his personal
+relation to the state, and privileges of citizenship are important.
+Who shall determine the right to vote and to hold office, or the duty
+to pay taxes or serve in the army or navy? In these various ways the
+state is no less functioning politically for the benefit of the people
+than when coercing recalcitrant citizens, warning or fighting other
+nations, or legislating in its congressional halls. Its opportunity to
+regulate the social interests of its citizens is almost illimitable,
+for while a written constitution may prescribe what a state may and
+may not do, those who made the constitution have the power to revise
+it or to override its provisions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>331. <b>Theories of the State.</b>&mdash;Arch&aelig;ological and historical evidence
+point to the family as the nursery of the state. There was a time when
+the contract theory was popular. It was believed that the state became
+possible when individuals agreed to give up some of their own
+individual rights for the sake of living in peace with their neighbors
+and enjoying mutual protection. There is no doubt that such a mutual
+arrangement was made in the troublous feudal period of medi&aelig;val
+European history, just as the original thirteen American colonies gave
+up some of their individual powers to make possible a real American
+state, but the social-contract theory is no longer accepted as a
+satisfactory explanation of the origin of government. There was no
+<i>Mayflower</i> compact with the bushmen when Englishmen decided to live
+with the natives in Australia.</p>
+
+<p>There is another theory that eminently wise men, with or without
+divine assistance, formulated law and government for cities and
+tribes, and that their codes were definitely accepted by the people,
+but the work of these men, as far as it is historical at all, seems to
+have been a work of codifying laws which had grown out of custom
+rather than of making new laws. Still another theory that was once
+held strenuously by a few was that of the divine right of kings, as if
+God had given to one dynasty or one class the right to rule
+irresponsibly over their fellows. Individual political philosophers,
+like the Greek Aristotle and the German Bluntschli have published
+their theories, and have influenced schools of publicists, but the
+political science of the present day, basing its theories on observed
+facts, is content to trace the gradual changes that have taken place
+in the unconscious development of the past, and to point out the
+possibilities of intelligent progress in future evolution.</p>
+
+<p>332. <b>How the State Came to Be.</b>&mdash;The true story of the development of
+the state seems to have been as follows. The roots of the state are in
+the family group. When the family expanded into the tribe, family
+discipline and family custom easily passed over to tribal discipline
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>and tribal custom, strengthened by religious superstition and the
+will of the priest. But not all chieftains and all tribes have the
+same ability or the same disposition, so that while political custom
+and religious sanctions tended in the main to remain unchanged, an
+occasional exception upset the social equilibrium. Race mixture and
+conflicting interests compelled organization on a civil rather than a
+tribal basis. Or an ambitious prince or a restless tribe interfered
+with the established relations, and presently a powerful military
+state was giving law to subjugated tribes. Egypt, Persia, Rome, Turkey
+have been such states. On a larger scale, something of the same sort
+has happened in the conquest of outlying parts of the world by the
+European Powers, until one man in Petrograd can give law to Kamchatka,
+a cabinet in London can determine a policy for the government of
+India, or the United States Congress can change the administration of
+affairs in the Philippines. Military power has been the weapon by
+which authority has been imposed from without, legislative action the
+instrument by which authority has been extended within.</p>
+
+<p>333. <b>The Government of Great Britain.</b>&mdash;The government of Great
+Britain is one of the best concrete examples of the growth of a
+typical state. Its Teutonic founders learned the rudiments of
+government in the German forests, where the principles of democracy
+took root. Military and political exigencies gave the prince large
+power, but the people never forgot how to exert their influence
+through local assembly or national council. In the thirteenth century,
+when the King displeased the men of the nation, they demanded the
+privileges of Magna Carta, and when King and lords ruled
+inefficiently, the common people found a way to enlarge their own
+powers. Representatives of the townsmen and the country shires took
+their places in Parliament, and gradually, with growing wisdom and
+courage, assumed more and more prerogatives. Three times in the
+seventeenth century Parliament demanded successfully certain rights of
+citizenship, though once it had to fight and once more to depose a
+king. In the nineteenth century, by a succession of reform acts, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>King
+and Parliament admitted tradesmen, farmers, and working men to a full
+share in the workings of the state, and only recently the Commons have
+supplanted the Lords as the leading legislative body of the nation.
+The story of Great Britain is a tale of growing democracy and
+increasing efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The story of local government and the story of imperial government
+might be placed side by side with the story of national government,
+and each would reveal the political principles that have guided
+British progress. Social need, patient experiment, and growth in
+efficiency are significant phrases that help to explain the story.
+Every nation has worked out its government in its own way, interfered
+with occasionally by interested parties on the outside, but the
+general line of progress has been the same&mdash;local experimentation,
+federation or union more often imposed than agreed upon by popular
+consent, and a slow growth of popular rights over government by a
+privileged few. Present tendency is in the direction of safeguarding
+the interests of all by a fully representative government, in which
+the individual efficiency of prince or commoner alike shall have due
+weight, but no one sovereign or class shall rule the people as a
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>334. <b>The Organization of Government.</b>&mdash;The political organization
+depends upon the functions that the state has to perform, as the
+structure of any group corresponds to its functions. The modern
+national machinery is a complicated system, and is becoming more so as
+constitutional conventions define more in detail the powers and forms
+of government, and as legislatures enter the field of social reform,
+but the simplest attempt at regulation involves several steps, and so
+naturally there are several departments of government. The first step
+is the election of those who are to make the laws. Practically all
+modern states recognize the principle that the people are at least to
+have a share in government; this is managed by the popular election of
+their representatives in the various departments of government. The
+second step is lawmaking by the representative legislature, congress,
+or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>parliament, usually after previous deliberation and recommendation
+by a committee; in some states the people have the right by referendum
+to ratify or reject the legislation, and even to initiate such
+legislation as they desire. The third step is the arrangement for
+carrying out the law that has been passed. This is managed by the
+executive department of the government. The fourth step is the actual
+administration of law and government by officials who are sometimes
+elected and sometimes appointed, and who constitute the administrative
+department of the political organization. A fifth step is the passing
+upon law and the relation of an individual or group to it by judicial
+officers attached to a system of courts. These departments of the
+state, with whatever auxiliary machinery has been organized to assist
+in their working, make up the political organization of the typical
+modern state.</p>
+
+<p>335. <b>The Electoral System.</b>&mdash;There is great variety in the degree of
+self-government enjoyed by the people. In the most advanced nations
+the electoral privileges are widely distributed, in the backward
+nations it is only recently that the people have had any voice in
+national affairs. Usually suffrage is reserved for those who have
+reached adult manhood, but an increasing number of States of the
+American Union and several foreign nations have admitted women to
+equal privileges. Lack of property or education in many countries is a
+bar to electoral privilege. Pauperism and crime and sometimes
+religious heterodoxy disfranchise. The variety and number of officials
+to be elected varies greatly. The head of the nation in the states of
+the Old World generally holds his position by hereditary right, and he
+has large appointive power directly or indirectly. In some states the
+judiciary is appointed rather than elected on the ground that it
+should be above the influence of party politics. The chief power of
+the people is in choosing their representatives to make the laws. Most
+of these representatives are chosen for short terms and must answer to
+the people for their political conduct; by these means the people are
+actually self-governing, though the execution of the law may be in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>the hands of officers whom they have not chosen. Democratic
+government is nevertheless subject to all the forces that affect large
+bodies exerted through party organizations, demagogues, and a party
+press, but even opponents of democracy are willing to admit that the
+people are learning political lessons by experience.</p>
+
+<p>336. <b>The Legislative System.</b>&mdash;Legislation by representatives of all
+classes of the people is a new political phenomenon tried out most
+thoroughly among the large nations by Great Britain, France, and the
+United States. Even now there is much distrust of the ability of the
+ordinary man in politics, and considerably more of the ordinary woman.
+But there have been so many extraordinary individuals who have risen
+to political eminence from the common crowd, that the legislative
+privilege can no longer be confined to an aristocracy. The old
+aristocratic element is represented to-day by a senate, or upper
+house, composed of men who are prominent by reason of birth, wealth,
+or position, but the upper house is of minor importance. The real
+legislative power rests with the lower chamber, which directly
+represents the middle and lower classes, professional, business, and
+industrial. The action of lawmaking bodies is usually limited in scope
+by the provisions of a written constitution, and is modified by the
+public opinion of constituents. Important among the necessary
+legislation is the regulation of the economic and social relations of
+individuals and corporations, provision for an adequate revenue by
+means of a system of taxation, appropriation for the maintenance of
+departments of government and necessary public works, and the
+determination of an international policy. In the United States an
+elaborate system of checks and balances gives the executive a
+provisional veto on legislation, but gives large advisory powers to
+Congress. In Great Britain the executive is the chief of the dominant
+party in Parliament, and if he loses the confidence of the legislative
+body he loses his position as prime minister unless sustained in a
+national election.</p>
+
+<p>In all legislative bodies there are inevitable differences of opinion
+and conflicts of interests resulting in party <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>divisions and such
+opposite groups as conservatives and radicals. The formulation and
+pursuance of a national policy is, therefore, not an easy task, and
+the conflict of interests often necessitates compromise, so that a
+history of legislation over a series of years shows that national
+progress is generally accomplished by liberalism wresting a modicum of
+power from conservatism, then giving way for a little to a period of
+reaction, and then pushing forward a step further as public opinion
+becomes more intelligent or more courageous.</p>
+
+<p>337. <b>The Executive Department.</b>&mdash;Legislative bodies occasionally take
+vacations; the executive is always on duty in person or through his
+subordinates. Popularly considered, the executive department of
+government consists of the president, the king, or the prime minister;
+actually it includes an advisory council or cabinet, which is
+responsible to its chief, but shares with him the task of the
+management of national affairs. The executive department of the
+government stands in relation to the people of the nation as the
+business manager of a corporation stands in relation to the
+stockholders. He must see that the will of the people, as expressed by
+their representatives, is carried into effect; he must appoint the
+necessary administrative officials for efficient service; he must keep
+his finger upon the pulse of the nation, and use his influence to hold
+the legislature to its duty; he must approve or veto laws which are
+sent to him to sign; above all, he must represent his nation in all
+its foreign relations, appoint the personnel of the diplomatic force,
+negotiate treaties, and help to form the international law of the
+world. It is the business of the executive to maintain the honor and
+dignity of the nation before the world, and to carry out the law of
+his own nation if it requires the whole military force available.</p>
+
+<p>338. <b>Administrative Organization.</b>&mdash;The executive department includes
+the advisers of the head, who constitute the cabinet. In Europe the
+cabinet is responsible to the sovereign or the parliament, and the
+members usually act unitedly. In the United States they are appointed
+by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>President, and are individually responsible to him alone. In
+their capacity as a cabinet they help to formulate national policy,
+and their influence in legislation and in moulding public opinion is
+considerable, but their chief function is in administering the
+departments of which they have charge. It is the custom for the heads
+of the chief departments of government to constitute the cabinet, but
+their number differs in different states, and titles vary, also. In
+general, the department of state or foreign affairs ranks first in
+importance, and its secretary is in charge of all correspondence with
+the diplomatic representatives of the nation located in the world's
+capitals; the department of the treasury or the exchequer is usually
+next in importance; others are the departments of the army and navy,
+of colonial possessions, of manufacturing and commerce, mining, or
+agriculture, of public utilities, of education or religion, and for
+judicial business. Each of these has its subordinate bureaus and an
+army of civil-service officials, some of whom owe their appointment to
+personal influence, others to real ability. The civil officials with
+which the public is most familiar are postal employees, officers of
+the federal courts, and revenue officials. Such persons usually hold
+office while their party is in power or during good behavior. Long
+tenure of office tends to conservative measures and the spirit of
+bureaucracy, while a system by which civil office is regarded as party
+spoil tends to corruption and inefficiency. The business of
+administration is becoming increasingly important in the modern state.</p>
+
+<p>339. <b>The Judicial System.</b>&mdash;There is always danger that law may be
+misinterpreted or prove unconstitutional. It is the function of the
+judicial department of government to make decisions, interpreting and
+applying the law of the nation in particular cases brought before the
+courts. The law of the nation is superior to all local or sectional
+law; so is the national judiciary supreme in its authority and
+national in its jurisdiction. The judicial system of the United States
+includes a series of courts from the lowest district courts, which are
+located <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>throughout the country, to the Supreme Court in Washington,
+which deals with the most momentous questions of national law. In the
+United States the judicial system is complicated by a system of lesser
+courts, State and local, independent of federal control, attached to
+which is a body of police, numerous judges, juries, and lawyers; the
+higher courts also have their justices and practising lawyers, but
+there is less haste and confusion and greater dignity and ability
+displayed. There has been much criticism in recent years of antiquated
+forms of procedure, cumbrous precedent, and unfair use of
+technicalities for the defeat of justice, but however imperfect
+judicial practice may be, the system is well intrenched and is not
+likely to be changed materially.</p>
+
+<p>340. <b>The Relation of National to District Governments.</b>&mdash;In some
+nations there are survivals of older political divisions which once
+possessed sovereignty, but which have sacrificed most, if not all, of
+it for the larger good. This is the case in such federal states as the
+German Empire, Switzerland, and the United States. Each State in the
+American nation retains its own departments of government, and so has
+its governor and heads of departments, its two-chambered legislature,
+and its State judiciary. State law and State courts are more familiar
+to the people than most of the national legislation. In the German
+Empire each state has its own prince, and in many respects is
+self-governing, but has been more and more sinking its own
+individuality in the empire. In the British Empire there is still
+another relation. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were once
+independent of each other, but military and dynastic events united
+them. For local legislation and administration they tend to separate,
+and already Ireland has obtained home rule. Beyond seas a colonial
+empire has arisen, and certain great dominions are united by little
+more than ties of blood and loyalty to the mother country. Canada,
+Australia, and South Africa have gained a larger measure of
+sovereignty. India is held as an imperial possession, but even there
+experiments of self-government are being tried. The whole <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>tendency of
+government, both here and abroad, seems to be to leave matters of
+local concern largely to the local community and matters that belong
+to a section or subordinate state to that district, and to centralize
+all matters of national or interstate concern in the hands of a small
+body of men at the national capital. In every case national or
+imperial authority is the court of last resort.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bliss</span>: <i>New Encyclopedia of Social Reform</i>, art.
+"Anarchism."</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Development of the State</i>, pages 127-234.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Wilson</span>: <i>The State</i>, pages 555-571.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bluntschli</span>: <i>Theory of the State</i>, pages 61-73.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>Constitution of the United States.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Bryce</span>: <i>The American Commonwealth</i> (abridged edition),
+pages 22-242, 287-305.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLIII" id="CHAPTER_XLIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>PROBLEMS OF THE NATION</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>341. <b>Government as the Advance Agent of Prosperity.</b>&mdash;It is common
+philosophy that society owes every man a living, and it seems to be a
+common belief that the government owes every man a job. There are, of
+course, only a few government positions, and these are rushed after by
+a swarm of office-seekers, but campaign orators have talked so much
+about a full dinner pail and the government as the advance agent of
+prosperity, that there seems to be a popular notion that the
+government, as if by a magician's wand, could cure unemployment, allay
+panics, dispel hard times, and increase a man's earning power at will.
+A little familiarity with economic law ought to modify this notion,
+but it is difficult to eradicate it. Society cannot, through any one
+institution, bring itself to perfection; many elements enter into the
+making of prosperity. It depends on individual ability and training
+for industry, on an understanding of the laws of health and keeping
+the body and brain in a state of efficiency, on peaceful relations
+between groups, on the successful balancing of supply and demand, and
+of wages and the cost of living, on personal integrity and group
+co-operation. All that the government can do is to instruct and
+stimulate. This it has been doing and will continue to do with growing
+effectiveness, but it has to feel its way and learn by experience, as
+do individuals.</p>
+
+<p>342. <b>How It Has Met Its Responsibility.</b>&mdash;This problem of prosperity
+which is both economic and social, is the concern of all the people of
+the nation, and any attempt to solve it in the interest of one section
+or a single group cannot bring success. That is one reason for many of
+the social weaknesses everywhere visible. Government <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>has legislated
+in the interests of a group of manufacturers, or the courts have
+favored the rich, or trusts have been attacked at the demands of a
+reforming party, or labor has been immune from the application of a
+law against conspiracy when corporations were hard hit. These
+weaknesses, which are characteristic of American democracy, find their
+parallels in all countries where modern industrial and social
+conditions obtain. But government has lent its energies to the
+upbuilding of a sound social structure. It has recognized the need of
+education for the youth of the land at a minimum cost, and the States
+of the American Union have made liberal grants for both academic and
+special training to their State universities, agricultural colleges,
+and normal schools. It encourages the country people to enrich their
+life and to increase their earnings for their own sake and for the
+prosperity of the people who are dependent upon them. It stimulates
+improved processes in manufacturing and mining, and protects business
+against foreign competition by a tariff wall; it tries to prevent
+recurring seasons of financial panics by a stable currency and the
+extension of credits. It provides the machinery for settling labor
+difficulties by conciliation and arbitration, and tries to mediate
+between gigantic combinations of trade and transportation and the
+public. It has pensioned liberally its old soldiers. It has attempted
+to find a method of taxation that would not bear heavily on its
+citizens, but that at the same time would provide a sufficient revenue
+to meet the enormous expense of catering to the multifarious interests
+of a population of a hundred million people.</p>
+
+<p>343. <b>The Problem of Democracy.</b>&mdash;The problem of prosperity is
+complicated by the problem of democracy. If by a satisfactory method a
+body of wise men could be selected to study carefully each specific
+problem involved, could experiment over a term of years in the
+execution of plans worked out free from fear of being thrown out at
+any time as the result of elective action by an impatient people,
+prosperity might move on more rapid feet. In a country where power is
+in the hands of a few a specific <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>programme can be worked out without
+much friction and rapid industrial and social progress can be made, as
+has been the case during the last fifty years in Germany; but where
+the masses of the people must be consulted and projects depend for
+success upon their sustained approval, progress is much more spasmodic
+and uncertain. Everything depends on an intelligent electorate,
+controlled by reason rather than emotion and patient enough to await
+the outcome of a policy that has been inaugurated.</p>
+
+<p>This raises the question as to the education of the electorate or the
+establishment of an educational qualification, as in some States. Is
+there any way by which the mass of the working people, who have only
+an elementary education, and never see even the outside of a State
+university, can be made intelligent and self-restrained? They will not
+read public documents, whether reports of expert commissions or
+speeches in Congress. Shall they be compelled to read what the
+government thinks is for their good, or be deprived of the suffrage as
+a penalty? They get their political opinions from sensational
+journals. Shall these publications be placed under a ban and the
+nation subsidize its own press? These are questions to be considered
+by the educational departments of State and nation, with a view to a
+more intelligent citizenship. Democracy cannot be said to be a
+failure, but it is still a problem. Government will not be any better
+than the majority of the citizens want it to be; hence its standards
+can be raised only as the mental and moral standards of the electorate
+are elevated. Education, a conscious share in the responsibility of
+legislation, and sure justice in all controverted cases, whether of
+individuals or classes, are necessary elements in winning even a
+measure of success.</p>
+
+<p>344. <b>The Race Problem.</b>&mdash;The difficulties of American democracy are
+enormously enhanced by the race problem. If common problems are to be
+solved, there must be common interests. The population needs to be
+homogeneous, to be seeking the same ends, to be conscious of the same
+ideals. Not all the races of the world are thus homogeneous; it would
+be difficult to think of Englishmen, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span>Russians, Chinese, South
+Americans, and Africans all working with united purpose, inspired by
+the same ideals, yet that is precisely what is expected in America
+under the tutelage and leadership of two great political parties, not
+always scrupulous about the methods used to obtain success at the
+polls. It is rather astonishing that Americans should expect their
+democracy to work any better than it does when they remember the
+conditions under which it works. To hand a man a ballot before he
+feels himself a part of the nation to which he has come, before he is
+stirred to something more than selfish achievement, before he is
+conscious of the real meaning of citizenship, is to court disaster,
+yet in being generous with the ballot the people of America are arming
+thousands of ignorant, irresponsible immigrants with weapons against
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The race problem of America is not at all simple. It is more than a
+problem of immigration. The problem of the European immigrant is one
+part of it. There is also the problem of the relation of the American
+people to the yellow races at our back door, and the problem of the
+negro, who is here through no fault of his own, but who, because he is
+here, must be brought into friendly and helpful relation with the rest
+of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>345. <b>The Problem of the European Immigrant.</b>&mdash;The problem of the
+European immigrant is one of assimilation. It is difficult because the
+alien comes in such large numbers, brings with him a different race
+heritage, and settles usually among his own people, where American
+influence reaches him only at second hand. Environment may be expected
+to change him gradually, the education of his children will modify the
+coming generation, but it will be a slow task to make him over into an
+American in ideals and modes of thinking, as well as in industrial
+efficiency, and in the process the native American is likely to suffer
+loss in the contact, with a net lowering of standards in the life of
+the American people. To see the danger is not to despair of escaping
+it. To understand the danger is the first step in providing a
+safeguard, and to this end exact knowledge of the situation should be
+a part of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>teaching of the schools. To seek a solution of the
+problem is the second step. The main agency is education, but this
+does not mean entirely education in the schools. Education through
+social contact is the principal means of assimilating the adult; for
+this purpose it is desirable that some means be found for the better
+distribution of the immigrant, and as immigration is a national
+problem, it is proper for the national government to attack that
+particular phase of it. Then it belongs to voluntary agencies, like
+settlements, churches, and philanthropic and educational societies to
+give instruction in the essentials of language, civics, industrial
+training, and character building. For the children the school provides
+such education, but voluntary agencies may well supplement its secular
+training with more definite and thorough instruction in morals and
+religion. It cannot be expected that the immigrant problem will settle
+itself; at least, a purposeful policy wisely and persistently carried
+out will accomplish far better and quicker results. Nor is it an
+insoluble problem; it is not even necessary that we should severely
+check immigration. But there is need of intelligent and co-operative
+action to distribute, educate, and find a suitable place for the
+immigrant, that he may make good, and to devise a restrictive policy
+that will effectually debar the most undesirable, and will hold back
+the vast stream of recent years until those already here have been
+taken care of.</p>
+
+<p>346. <b>The Problem of the Asiatic Immigrant.</b>&mdash;The problem of the
+Asiatic immigrant is quite different. It is a problem of race conflict
+rather than of race assimilation. The student of human society cannot
+minimize the importance of race heredity. In the case of the European
+it holds a subordinate place, because the difference between his
+heritage and that of the American is comparatively slight. But the
+Asiatic belongs to a different race, and the century-long training of
+an entirely different environment makes it improbable that the Asiatic
+and the American can ever assimilate. Each can learn from the other
+and co-operate to mutual advantage, but race <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>amalgamation, or even a
+fusion of customs of thought and social ideals is altogether unlikely.
+It is therefore not to the advantage of either American or Asiatic
+that much Asiatic immigration into the United States should take
+place. To agree to this is not to be hostile to or scornful of the
+yellow man. The higher classes are fully as intelligent and capable of
+as much energy and achievement as the American, but the vast mass of
+those who would come here if immigration were unrestricted are
+undesirable, because of their low industrial and moral standards,
+their tenacity of old habits, and with all the rest because of their
+immense numbers, that would overrun all the western part of the United
+States. When the Chinese Exclusion Act passed Congress in 1882, the
+Chinese alone were coming at the rate of nearly forty thousand a year,
+and that number might have been increased tenfold by this time, to say
+nothing of Japanese and Hindoos. While, therefore, the United States
+must treat Asiatics with consideration and live up to its treaty
+obligations, it seems the wise policy to refuse to admit the Asiatic
+masses to American residence.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the Asiatic problem, however, is the political relation of
+the United States and the Asiatic Powers, especially in the Pacific.
+This is less intimately vital, but is important in view of the rapidly
+growing tendency of both China and Japan to expand in trade and
+political ambitions. This is a problem of political rather than social
+science, but since the welfare of both races is concerned, and of
+other peoples of the Pacific Islands, it needs the intelligent
+consideration of all students. It is desirable to understand one
+another, to treat one another fairly and generously, and to find
+means, if possible, of co-operation rather than conflict, where the
+interests of one impinge upon another. All mediating influences, like
+Christian missions, are to be welcomed as helping to extend mutual
+understanding and to soften race prejudices and animosities.</p>
+
+<p>347. <b>The Negro Problem.</b>&mdash;Not a few persons look upon the negro
+problem as the most serious social <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>question in America. Whatever its
+relative merits, as compared with other problems, it is sufficiently
+serious to call for careful study and an attempt at solution. The
+negro race in America numbers approximately ten millions, twice as
+many as at the close of the Civil War. The negro was thrust upon
+America by the cupidity of the foreign slave-trader, and perpetuated
+by the difficulty of getting along without him. His presence has been
+in some ways beneficial to himself and to the whites among whom he
+settled, but it has been impossible for two races so diverse to live
+on a plane of equality, and the burden of education upon the South has
+been so heavy and the race qualities of the negro so discouraging,
+that progress in the solution of the negro problem has been slow.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of the colored race is not one of assimilation or of
+conflict. In spite of an admixture of blood that affects possibly a
+third of the American negroes, there never will be race fusion.
+Assimilation of culture was partly accomplished in slave days, and it
+will go on. There is no serious conflict between white and colored,
+when once the question of assimilation is understood. The problem is
+one of race adjustment. Fifty years have been insufficient to perfect
+the relations between the two races, but since they must live
+together, it is desirable that they should come to understand and
+sympathize with each other, and as far as possible co-operate for
+mutual advancement. The problem is a national one, because the man of
+color is not confined to the South, and even more because the South
+alone is unable to deal adequately with the situation. The negro
+greatly needs efficient social education. He tends to be dirty, lazy,
+and improvident, as is to be expected, when left to himself. Like all
+countrymen&mdash;a large proportion live in the country&mdash;he is backward in
+ways of thinking and methods of working. He is primitive in his
+passions and much given to emotion. He shows the traits of a people
+not far removed from savagery. It is remarkable that his white master
+was able to civilize him as much as he did, and it is not strange that
+there has been many a relapse under conditions of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>unprepared freedom,
+but it is only the more reason why negro character should be raised
+higher on the foundation already laid.</p>
+
+<p>The task is not very different from that which is presented by the
+slum population of the cities of the North. The children need to be
+taught how to live, and then given a chance to practise the
+instruction in a decent environment. They need manual and industrial
+training fitted to their industrial environment, and every opportunity
+to employ their knowledge in earning a living. They need noble ideals,
+and these they can get only by the sympathetic, wise teaching of their
+superiors, whether white or black. They and their friends need
+patience in the upward struggle, for it will not be easy to socialize
+and civilize ten million persons in a decade or a century. Such
+institutions as Hampton and Tuskegee are working on a correct basis in
+emphasizing industrial training; these schools very properly are
+supplemented by the right kind of elementary schools, on the one hand,
+and by cultural institutions of high grade on the other, for the negro
+is a human being, and his nature must be cultivated on all sides, as
+much as if he were white.</p>
+
+<p>348. <b>The Race Problem a Part of One Great Social Problem.</b>&mdash;The race
+problem as a whole is not peculiar to America, but is intensified here
+by the large mixture of all races that is taking place. It is
+inevitable, as the world's population shifts in meeting the social
+forces of the present age. It is complicated by race inequalities and
+race ambitions. It is fundamentally a problem of adjustment between
+races that possess a considerable measure of civilization and those
+that are not far removed from barbarism. It is discouraging at times,
+because the supposedly cultured peoples revert under stress of war or
+competition or self-indulgence to the crudities of primitive
+barbarism, but it is a soluble problem, nevertheless. The privileged
+peoples need a solemn sense of the responsibility of the "white man's
+burden," which is not to cultivate the weaker man for the sake of
+economic exploitation, but to improve him for the weaker man's own
+sake, and for the sake of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>the world's civilization. The policy of any
+nation like the United States must be affected, of course, by its own
+interests, but the European, the Asiatic, the negro, and every race or
+people with which the American comes in contact ought to be regarded
+as a member of a world society in which the interlocking of
+relationships is so complete that the injury of one is the injury of
+all, and that which is done to aid the least will react to the benefit
+of him who already has more.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Development of the State</i>, pages 300-314.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Usher</span>: <i>Rise of the American People</i>, pages 392-404.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Mecklin</span>: <i>Democracy and Race Friction</i>, pages 77-122.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Commons</span>: <i>Races and Immigrants in America</i>, pages 17-21,
+198-238.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Coolidge</span>: <i>Chinese Immigration</i>, pages 423-458, 486-496.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Gulick</span>: <i>The American Japanese Problem</i>, pages 3-27,
+90-196, 281-307.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLIV" id="CHAPTER_XLIV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLIV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>INTERNATIONALISM</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>349. <b>The New World Life.</b>&mdash;The social life that started in the family
+has broadened until it has circled the globe. It is possible now to
+speak in terms of world life. The interests of society have reached
+out from country to country, and from zone to zone, just as a child's
+interests as he grows to manhood expand from the home to the community
+and from the community to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of the social solidarity of all peoples is still new. Ever
+since the original divergence of population from its home nest, when
+groups became strange and hostile to one another because of mountain
+and forest barriers, changing languages, and occasionally clashing
+interests, the tendency of the peoples was to grow apart. But for a
+century past the tendency has been changing from divergence to
+convergence, from ignorance and distrust of one another to
+understanding, sympathy, and good-will, from independence and
+ruthlessness to interdependence and co-operation. Numerous agencies
+have brought this about&mdash;some physical like steam and electricity,
+some economic like commerce and finance, some social like travel and
+the interchange of ideas through the press, some moral and religious
+like missions and international organizations for peace. The history
+of a hundred years has made it plain that nations cannot live in
+isolation any more than individuals can, and that the tendency toward
+social solidarity must be the permanent tendency if society is to
+exist and prosper, even though civilization and peace may be
+temporarily set back for a generation by war.</p>
+
+<p>350. <b>The Principle of Adaptation vs. Conflict.</b>&mdash;This New World life
+is not unnatural, though it has been slow in coming. A human being is
+influenced by his physical <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>needs and desires, his cultivated habits,
+his accumulated interests, the customs of the people to whom he
+belongs, and the conditions of the environment in which he finds
+himself. While a savage his needs, desires, and interests are few, his
+habits are fixed, his relations are simple and local; but when he
+begins to take on civilization his needs multiply, his habits change,
+and his relations extend more widely. The more enlightened he becomes
+the greater the number of his interests and the more points of contact
+with other people. So with every human group. The process of social
+development for a time may intensify conflict, but there comes a time
+when it is made clear to the dullest mind that conflict must give way
+to mutual adaptation. No one group, not even a supernation, can have
+everything for itself, and for the sake of the world's comfort and
+peace it will be a decided social gain when that principle receives
+universal recognition. World federations and peace propaganda cannot
+be effective until that principle is accepted as a working basis for
+world life.</p>
+
+<p>351. <b>The Increasing Recognition of the Principle of
+Adaptation.</b>&mdash;This principle of adaptation has found limited
+application for a long time. Starting with individuals in the family
+and family groups in the clan, it extended until it included all the
+members of a state in their relations to each other. Many individual
+interests conflict in business and society and different opinions
+clash, but all points of difference within the nation are settled by
+due process of law, except when elemental passions break out in a
+lynching, or a family feud is perpetuated among the hills. But war
+continued to be the mode of settling international difficulties.
+Military force restrained a vassal from hostile acts under the Roman
+peace. But the next necessary step was for states voluntarily to
+adjust their relations with one another. In some instances, even in
+ancient times, local differences were buried, and small federations,
+like the Ach&aelig;an League of the Greeks and the Lombard League of the
+Middle Ages, were formed for common defense. These have been followed
+by greater alliances in modern times. But the striking instances of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>real interstate progress are found in the federation of such States
+as those that are included within the present United States of
+America, and within the new German Empire that was formed after the
+Franco-Prussian War. Sinking their differences and recognizing one
+another's rights and interests, the people of such united nations have
+become accustomed to a large national solidarity, and it ought not to
+require much instruction or persuasion to show them that what they
+have accomplished already for themselves is the correct principle for
+their guidance in world affairs.</p>
+
+<p>352. <b>International Law and Peace.</b>&mdash;This principle of recognizing one
+another's rights and interests is the foundation of international law,
+which has been modified from time to time, but which from the
+publication of Hugo Grotius's <i>Law of War and Peace</i> in the
+seventeenth century slowly has bound more closely together the
+civilized nations. There has come into existence a body of law for the
+conduct of nations that is less complete, but commands as great
+respect as the civil law of a single state. This law may be violated
+by a nation in the stress of conflict, as civil law may be derided by
+an individual lawbreaker or by an excited mob, but eventually it
+reasserts itself and slowly extends its scope and power. Without
+international legislative organization, without a tribunal or a
+military force to carry out its provisions, by sheer force of
+international opinion and a growing regard for social justice it
+demands attention from the proudest nations. Text-books have been
+written and university chairs founded to present its claims,
+international associations and conventions have met to define more
+accurately its code, and tentative steps have been taken to strengthen
+its position by two Hague Conferences that met in 1899 and 1907. Large
+contributions of money have been made to stimulate the cause of peace,
+and as many as two hundred and fifty peace societies have been
+organized.</p>
+
+<p>353. <b>Arbitration and an International Court.</b>&mdash;Experiments have been
+tried at settling international disputes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>without resort to war. Great
+Britain and the United States have led the way in showing to the world
+during the last one hundred years that all kinds of vexatious
+differences can be settled peacefully by submitting them to
+arbitration. These successes have led the United States to propose
+general treaties of arbitration to other nations, and advance has been
+made in that direction. It was possible to establish at The Hague a
+permanent court of arbitration, and to refer to it really important
+cases. Such a calamity as the European war, of course, interrupts the
+progress of all such peaceful methods, but makes all the plainer the
+dire need of a better machinery for settling international
+differences. There is reasonable expectation that before many years
+there may be established a permanent international court of justice,
+an international parliament, and a sufficient international police
+force to restrain any one nation from breaking the peace. Only in this
+way can the dread of war be allayed and disarmament be undertaken;
+even then the success of such an experiment in government will depend
+on an increase of international understanding, respect, and
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>354. <b>Intercommunication and Its Rewards.</b>&mdash;The gain in social
+solidarity that has been achieved already is due first of all to
+improved communication between nations. In the days of slow sailing
+vessels it took several weeks to cross the Atlantic, and there was no
+quicker way to convey news. The news that peace had been arranged at
+Ghent in 1814 between Great Britain and the United States did not
+reach the armies on this side in time to prevent the battle of New
+Orleans. Even the results of the battle of Waterloo were not known in
+England for several days after Napoleon's overthrow. Now ocean
+leviathans keep pace with the storms that move across the waters, and
+the cable and the wireless flash their messages with the speed of the
+lightning. Power to put a girdle around the earth in a few minutes has
+made modern news agencies possible, and they have made the modern
+newspaper essential. The newspaper requires the railroad and the
+steamship for its distribution, and business men depend upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>them all
+to carry out their plans. These physical agencies have made possible a
+commerce that is world-wide. There are ports that receive ships from
+every nation east and west. Great freight terminal yards hold cars
+that belong to all the great transportation lines of the country.
+Lombard Street and Wall Street feel the pulse of the world's trade as
+it beats through the channels of finance.</p>
+
+<p>Improved communication has made possible the unification of a great
+political system like the British Empire. In the Parliament House and
+government offices of Westminster centre the political interests of
+Canada, Australia, South Africa, Egypt, and India, as well as of
+islands in every sea. Better communication has brought into closer
+relations the Pan-American states, so that they have met more than
+once for their mutual benefit.</p>
+
+<p>Helpful social results have come from the travel that has grown
+enormously in volume since ease and cheapness of transportation have
+increased. The impulse to travel for pleasure keeps persons of wealth
+on the move, and the desire for knowledge sends the intellectually
+minded professional man or woman of small means globe-trotting. In
+this way the people of different nations learn from one another; they
+become able to converse in different languages and to get one
+another's point of view; they gain new wants while they lose some of
+their professional interests; they return home poorer in pocket but
+richer in experience, more interested in others, more tolerant. These
+are social values, certain to make their influence felt in days to
+come, and by no means unappreciable already.</p>
+
+<p>355. <b>International Institutions.</b>&mdash;These values are conserved by
+international institutions. Societies are formed by like-minded
+persons for better acquaintance and for the advancement of knowledge.
+The sciences are cherished internationally, interparliamentary unions
+and other agencies for the preservation of peace hold their
+conferences, working men meet to air their grievances or plan
+programmes, religious denominations consult for pushing their
+campaigns. The organizations that grow out of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>these relations and
+conferences develop into institutions that have standing. The
+international associations of scholars are as much a part of the
+world's institutional assets as the educational system is a recognized
+asset of any country. They are clearing-houses of information, as
+necessary as an international clearing-house of finance. The World's
+Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the International Young Men's
+Christian Association are moral agencies that bring together those who
+have at heart the same interests, and when they have once made good
+they must be reckoned among the established organizations that help to
+move the world forward. Not least among such institutions are the
+religious organizations. The closely knit Roman Catholic Church, that
+has held together millions of faithful adherents in many lands for
+centuries, and whose canon law receives an unquestioning obedience as
+the law of a nation, is an illustration of what an international
+religious institution may be. Protestant Churches, naturally more
+independent, have moved more slowly, but their world alliances and
+federations are increasing to the point where they, too, are likely to
+become true institutions.</p>
+
+<p>356. <b>Missions as a Social Institution.</b>&mdash;Those institutions and
+movements are most useful that aim definitely to stimulate the highest
+interests of all mankind. It is comparatively simple to provide local
+stimulus for a better community life, but to help move the world on to
+higher levels requires clear vision, patient hope, and a definite plan
+on a large scale. Christian missionaries are conspicuous for their
+lofty ideals, their personal devotion to an unselfish task, their
+persistent optimism, and their unswerving adherence to the programme
+marked out by the pioneers of the movement. It is no argument against
+them that they have not accomplished all that a few enthusiasts
+expected of them in a few years. To socialize and Christianize half
+the people of the world is the task of centuries. With broad
+statesmanship missionary leaders have undertaken to do both of these.
+Mistakes in method or detail of operation do not invalidate the whole
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>enterprise, and all criticism must keep in mind the noble purpose to
+lift to a higher level the social, moral, and religious ideas and
+practices of the most backward peoples. The purpose is certainly no
+less laudable than that of a Chinese mission to England to persuade
+Great Britain to end the opium traffic, or a diplomatic mission from
+the United States to stop civil strife in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>357. <b>Education as a Means to Internationalism.</b>&mdash;Internationalism
+rests on the broad basis of the social nature of mankind, a nature
+that cannot be unsocialized, but can be developed to a higher and more
+purposeful socialization. As there are degrees of perfection in the
+excellence of social relations, so there are degrees of obligation
+resting upon the nations of the world to give of their best to a
+general levelling up. The dependable means of international
+socialization is education, whether it comes through the press, the
+pulpit, or the school. Every commission that visits one country from
+another to learn of its industries, its institutions, and its ideals,
+is a means to that important end. Every exchange professor between
+European and American universities helps to interpret one country to
+the other. Every Chinese, Mexican, or Filipino youth who attends an
+American school is borrowing stimulus for his own people. Every
+visitor who does not waste or abuse his opportunities is a unit in the
+process of improving the acquaintance of East and West, of North and
+South. Internationalism is not a social Utopia to be invented in a
+day; it is rather an attitude of mind and a mode of living that come
+gradually but with gathering momentum as mutual understanding and
+sympathy increase.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Strong</span>: <i>Our World</i>, pages 3-202.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Foster</span>: <i>Arbitration and the Hague Court.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Faunce</span>: <i>Social Aspects of Foreign Missions.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Maurenbrecker</span>: "The Moral and Social Tasks of World
+Politics," art. in <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, 6:
+307-315.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Trueblood</span>: <i>Federation of the World</i>, pages 7-20, 91-149.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLV" id="CHAPTER_XLV"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>PART VI&mdash;SOCIAL ANALYSIS</h2>
+<br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>358. <b>Constant Factors in Social Phenomena.</b>&mdash;Our study of social life
+has made it plain that it is a complex affair, but it has been
+possible to classify society in certain groups, to follow the gradual
+extension of relations from small groups to large, and to take note of
+the numerous activities and interests that enter into contemporary
+group life. It is now desirable to search for certain common elements
+that in all periods enter into the life of every group, whether
+temporary or permanent, so that we may discover the constant factors
+and the general principles that belong to the science of society. Some
+of these have been referred to already among the characteristics of
+social life, but in this connection it is useful to classify them for
+closer examination.</p>
+
+<p>First among these is the physical factor which conditions human
+activity but is not a compelling force, for man has often subdued his
+environment when it has put obstacles in his way. This physical
+element includes the geographical conditions of mountain, valley, or
+seashore, the climate and the weather, the food and water supply, the
+physical inheritance of the individual and the laws that control
+physical development, and the physical constitution of the group. A
+second factor is the psychic nature of human beings and the psychical
+interaction that goes on between individuals within the group and that
+produces reactions between groups.</p>
+
+<p>359. <b>The Natural Environment.</b>&mdash;The early sociologists put the
+emphasis on the physical more than the psychic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>factors, and
+especially on biological analogies in society. It seemed to them as if
+it was nature that brought men together. Mountains and ice-bound
+regions were inhospitable, impassable rivers and trackless forests
+limited the range of animals and men, violent storms and temperature
+changes made men afraid. Avoiding these dangers and seeking a
+food-supply where it was most plentiful, human beings met in the
+favored localities and learned by experience the principles of
+association. Everywhere man is still in contact with physical forces.
+He has not yet learned to get along without the products of the earth,
+extracting food-supplies from the soil, gathering the fruits that
+nature provides, and mining the useful and precious metals. The
+city-dweller seems less dependent on nature than is the farmer, but
+the urban citizen relies on steam and electricity to turn the wheels
+of industry and transportation, depends on coal and gas for heat and
+light, and uses winter's harvest of ice to relieve the oppressive heat
+of summer. Rivers and seas are highways of his commerce. Everywhere
+man seems hedged about by physical forces and physical laws.</p>
+
+<p>Yet with the prerogative of civilization he has become master rather
+than servant of nature. He has improved wild fruits and vegetables by
+cultivation, he has domesticated wild animals, he has harnessed the
+water of the streams and the winds of heaven. He has tunnelled the
+mountains, bridged the rivers, and laid his cables beneath the ocean.
+He has learned to ride over land and sea and even to skim along the
+currents of the air. He has been able to discover the chemical
+elements that permeate matter and the nature and laws of physical
+forces. By numerous inventions he has made use of the materials and
+powers of nature. The physical universe is a challenge to human wits,
+a stimulus to thought and activity that shall result in the wonderful
+achievements of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>360. <b>The Human Physique.</b>&mdash;Another element that enters into every
+calculation of success or failure in human life is the physical
+constitution of the individual and the group. The individual's
+physique makes a great difference <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>in his comfort and activity. The
+corpulent person finds it difficult to get about with ease, the
+cripple finds himself debarred from certain occupations, the person
+with weak lungs must shun certain climates and as far as possible must
+avoid indoor pursuits. By their power of ingenuity or by sheer force
+of will men have been able to overcome physical limitations, but it is
+necessary to reckon with those limitations, and they are always a
+handicap. The physical endowment of a race has been a deciding factor
+in certain times of crisis. The physical prowess of the Anakim kept
+back the timid Israelites from their intended conquest of Canaan until
+a more hardy generation had arisen among the invaders; the sturdy
+Germans won the lands of the Roman Empire in the West from the
+degenerate provincials; powerful vikings swept the Western seas and
+struck such terror into the peaceful Saxons that they cried out: "From
+the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us."</p>
+
+<p>361. <b>Biological Analogies.</b>&mdash;The physical factor in society received
+emphasis the more because society itself was thought of as an organism
+resembling physical organisms and dependent upon similar laws. As a
+man's physical frame was essential to his activity and limited his
+energies, so the visible structure of social organization was deemed
+more important than social activity and function. Particularly did the
+method of evolution that had become so famous in biology appeal to
+students of sociology as the only satisfactory explanation of social
+change. The study of animal evolution made it clear that heredity and
+environment played a large part in the development of animal life, and
+Darwin pointed out that progress came by the elimination of those
+individuals and species least fitted to survive in the struggle for
+existence and the perpetuation of those that best adapted themselves
+to environment. It was easy to find social analogies and to reach the
+conclusion that in the same way individuals and groups were creatures
+of heredity and environment, and the all-important task of society was
+to conform itself to environment. Of course, history disproved the
+universality of such a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>law, for more than once a race has risen above
+its environment or altered it, but it seemed a satisfactory working
+principle.</p>
+
+<p>Biological analogies, however, were overemphasized. It was a gain to
+know the workings of race traits and the relation of the individual to
+his ancestry, but to excuse crime on the ground of racial degeneracy
+or to despise a race and believe that none of its members can excel
+because it is conspicuous for certain race weaknesses has been
+unfortunate. Similarly there was advantage in remembering that
+environment is either a great help or a great hindrance to social
+progress, but it would be a social calamity to believe in a physical
+determinism that leaves to human beings no choice as to their manner
+of life. The important truth to keep in mind is that man and
+environment must be adapted to each other, but it often proves better
+to adapt environment to man than to force man into conformity to
+environment. It is the growing independence of environment through his
+own intellectual powers that has given to civilized man his ascendancy
+in the world. It is a mistake, also, to think that a struggle for
+existence is the only means of survival. As in the animal world, there
+comes a time in the process of evolution when the struggle for selfish
+existence becomes subordinated to effort to preserve the life of the
+young or to help the group by the sacrifice of the individual self, so
+in society it is reasonable to believe that the selfish struggle of
+individuals will give way by degrees to purposeful effort for social
+welfare, and that the solidarity of the group rather than the interest
+of the individual will seem the highest good. Then the group will care
+for the weak, and all will gain from the strength and prosperity of
+the whole.</p>
+
+<p>362. <b>The Importance of the Individual.</b>&mdash;While it is true that
+individual interests are bound up with the prosperity of the group,
+and that the food that he eats, the clothes that he wears, and the
+money that he handles and uses are all his because social industry
+prevails, there is some danger of overlooking the importance of the
+individual. Though he does not exist alone, the individual <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span>with his
+distinctive personality is the unit of society. Without individuals
+there would be no society, without the action of the individual mind
+there would be no action of the social mind, without individual
+leadership there would be little order or progress. The single cell
+that made up the lowest forms of animal life is still the unit of that
+complex thing that we call the human body, and the well-being of the
+single cell is essential to the health and even the existence of the
+whole body; so the single human being is fundamental to the existence
+and health of the social body. No analysis of society is at all
+complete that does not include a study of the individual man.</p>
+
+<p>363. <b>The Psychology of the Individual.</b>&mdash;Self-examination during the
+course of a single day helps to explain the life forces that act upon
+other individuals now and that have forged human history. In such
+study of self it soon becomes apparent to the student that the
+physical factor is subordinate to the psychic, but that they are
+connected. As soon as he wakes in the morning his mental processes are
+at work. Something has called back his consciousness from sleep. The
+light shining in at his window, the bell calling him to meet the day's
+schedule, the odor of food cooking in the kitchen, are physical
+stimuli calling out the response of his sense-perceptions; his mind
+begins at once to associate these impressions and to react upon his
+will until he gets out of bed and proceeds to prepare himself for the
+day. These processes of sensation, association, and volition
+constitute the simple basis of individual life upon which the complex
+structure of an active personality is built.</p>
+
+<p>The individual will is moved to activity by many agencies. There is
+first the instinct. As a person inherits physical traits from his
+ancestors, so he gets certain mental traits. The demand for food is
+the cry of the instinct for self-preservation. The grimace of the
+infant in response to the mother's smile is an expression of the
+instinct for imitation. The reaching out of its hand to grasp the
+sunshine is in obedience to the instinct for acquisition. All human
+association is due primarily to the instinct for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>sociability. These
+instincts are inborn. They cannot be eradicated, but they can be
+modified and controlled.</p>
+
+<p>Obedience to these native instincts produces fixed habits. These are
+not native but acquired, and so are not transmitted to posterity, in
+the belief of most scientists, but they are powerful factors in
+individual conduct. The individual early in the morning is hungry, and
+the appetite for food recurs at intervals through the day; it becomes
+a habit to go at certain hours where he may obtain satisfaction. So it
+is with many activities throughout the day.</p>
+
+<p>Instincts and habits produce impulses. The savage eats as often as he
+feels like it, if he can find berries or fruit or bring down game;
+impulse alone governs his conduct. But two other elements enter in to
+modify impulse, as experience teaches wisdom. The self-indulgent man
+remembers after a little that indulgence of impulse has resulted
+sometimes in pain rather than satisfaction, and his imagination
+pictures a recurrence of the unhappy experience. Feeling becomes a
+guide to regulate impulse. Feeling in turn compels thought. Presently
+the individual who is going through the civilizing process formulates
+a resolve and a theory, a resolve to eat at regular times and to
+abstain from foods that injure him, a theory that intelligent
+restraint is better than unregulated indulgence. In a similar way the
+individual acts with reference to selecting his environment. Instinct
+and habit act conservatively, impelling the individual to remain in
+the place where he was born and reared, and to follow the occupation
+of his father. But he feels the discomforts of the climate or the
+restrictions of his particular environment, he thinks about it,
+bringing to bear all the knowledge that he possesses, and he makes his
+choice between going elsewhere or modifying his present environment.
+Discovery and invention are both products of such choices as these.</p>
+
+<p>364. <b>Desires and Interests.</b>&mdash;These complexes of thinking, feeling,
+and willing make up the conscious desires and interests that mould the
+individual life. Through the processes of attention to the stimuli
+that act upon human nature, discrimination between them, association
+of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>impressions and ideas that come from present and past experience,
+and deliberate judgments of value, the mind moves to action for the
+satisfaction of personal desires and interests. These desires and
+interests have been classified in various ways. For our present
+purpose it is useful to classify them as those that centre in the
+self, and those that centre in others beyond the self. The primitive
+desires to get food and drink, to mate, and to engage in muscular
+activity, all look toward the self-satisfaction which comes from their
+indulgence. There are various acquired interests that likewise centre
+in the self. The individual goes to college for the social pleasure
+that he anticipates, for intellectual satisfaction, or to equip
+himself with a training that will enable him to win success in the
+competition of business. In the larger society outside of college the
+art-lover gathers about him many treasures for his own &aelig;sthetic
+delight, the politician exerts himself for the attainment of power and
+position, the religious devotee hopes for personal favors from the
+unseen powers. These are on different planes of value, they are
+estimated differently by different persons, but they all centre in the
+individual, and if society benefits it is only indirectly or
+accidentally.</p>
+
+<p>As the individual rises in the scale of social intelligence, his
+interests become less self-centred, and as he extends his acquaintance
+and associations the scope of his interests enlarges. He begins to act
+with reference to the effect of his actions upon others. He sacrifices
+his own convenience for his roommate; he restrains his self-indulgence
+for the sake of the family that he might disgrace; he exerts himself
+in athletic prowess for the honor of the college to which he belongs;
+he is willing to risk his life on the battle-field in defense of the
+nation of which he is a citizen; he consecrates his life to missionary
+or scientific endeavor in a far land for the sake of humanity's gain.
+These are the social interests that dominate his activity. Mankind has
+risen from the brute by the process that leads the individual up from
+the low level of life moulded by primitive desires to the high plane
+of a life directed by the broad interests of society at large. It is
+the task of education <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>to reveal this process, and to provide the
+stimuli that are needed for its continuance.</p>
+
+<p>365. <b>Personality.</b>&mdash;No two persons are actuated alike in daily
+conduct. The pull of their individual desires is not the same, the
+influence of the various social interests is not in the same
+proportion. The situation is complicated by hereditary tendencies, and
+by physical and social environment. Consequently every human being
+possesses his own distinctive individuality or personality. Variations
+of personality can be classified and various persons resemble each
+other so much that types of personality are distinguished. Thus we
+distinguish between weak personality and forceful personality,
+according to the strength of individuation, a narrow or a broad
+personality according as interests are few and selfish or broadly
+social, a fixed or a changing personality according to conservatism or
+unsettled disposition. Personality is a distinction not always
+appreciated, a distinction that separates man from the brute because
+of his self-consciousness and power of self-direction by rational
+processes, and relieves him from the dead level that would exist in
+society if every individual were made after the same pattern. It is
+the secret of social as well as individual progress, for it is a great
+personality that sways the group. It is the great boon of present life
+and the great promise of continued life hereafter.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Foundations of Sociology</i>, pages 165-181.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology in its Psychological Aspects</i>, pages
+94-123.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 96-98, 200-230.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 60-98.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Darwin</span>: <i>Descent of Man</i>, chap. XXI.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Drummond</span>: <i>Ascent of Man</i>, pages 41-57, 189-266.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Inductive Sociology</i>, pages 249-278.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLVI" id="CHAPTER_XLVI"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLVI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>366. <b>The Social Mind.</b>&mdash;As individual life is compounded of many
+psychic elements that make up one mind, so the life of every group
+involves various factors of a psychic nature that constitute the
+social mind. The social mind does not exist apart from individual
+minds, but it is nevertheless real. When emotional excitement stirs a
+mob to action, the unity of feeling is evidence of a social mind. When
+a congregation recites a creed of the church the unity of belief shows
+the existence of a social mind. When a political land-slide occurs on
+the occasion of a presidential election in the United States, the
+unity of will expresses the social mind. The emotional phase is
+temporary, public opinion changes more slowly; all the time the social
+mind is gaining experience and learning wisdom, as does the
+individual. Social consciousness, which at first is slight, increases
+gradually, until it fructifies in social purpose which results in
+achievement. History is full of illustrations of such development.</p>
+
+<p>367. <b>How the Social Mind is Formed.</b>&mdash;The formation of this social
+mind and its subsequent workings may be illustrated from a common
+occurrence in frontier history. Imagine three hunters meeting for the
+first time around a camp-fire, and analyze their mental processes. The
+first man was tired and hungry and camped to rest and eat. The second
+happened to come upon the camp just as a storm was breaking, saw the
+smoke of the fire, and turned aside for its comfort. The third picked
+up the trail of the second and followed it to find companionship. Each
+obeying a primal instinct and conscious of his kind, came into
+association with others, and thus by the process of aggregation a
+temporary group was formed. Sitting about the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span>fire, each lighted his
+pipe in imitation of one another; they communicated with one another
+in language familiar to all; one became drowsy and the others yielded
+to the suggestion to sleep. Waking in the morning, they continued
+their conversation, and in sympathy with a common purpose and in
+recognition of the advantages of association, they decided to keep
+together for the remainder of the hunt. Thus was constituted the group
+or social mind.</p>
+
+<p>With the consciousness that they were congenial spirits and shared a
+common purpose, each was willing to sacrifice some of his own habits
+and preferences in the interest of the group. One man might prefer
+bacon and coffee for breakfast, while a second wished tea; one might
+wish to break camp at sunrise, another an hour later; each
+subordinated his own desires for the greater satisfaction of camp
+comradeship. The strongest personality in the group is the determining
+factor in forming the habits of the group, though it may be an
+unconscious leadership. The mind of the group is not the same as that
+of the leader, for the mutual mental interaction produces changes in
+all, but it approaches most nearly to his mind.</p>
+
+<p>368. <b>Social Habits.</b>&mdash;By such processes of aggregation,
+communication, imitation, and association, individuals learn from one
+another and come to constitute a like-minded group. Sometimes it is a
+genetic group like the family, sometimes an artificial group like a
+band of huntsmen; in either case the group is held together by a
+psychic unity and comes to have its peculiar group characteristics.
+Fixed ways of thinking and acting are revealed. Social habits they may
+be called, or folk-ways, as some prefer to name them. These habits are
+quickly learned by the members of the group, and are passed on from
+generation to generation by imitation or the teaching of tradition.
+There are numerous conservative forces at work in society. Custom
+crystallizes into law, tradition is fortified by religion, a system of
+morals develops out of the folk-ways, the group life tends to become
+static and uniform.</p>
+
+<p>369. <b>Adaptation.</b>&mdash;Two influences are continually at work, however,
+to change social habits&mdash;the forces of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>natural environment and
+interaction between different groups. Both of these compel adaptation
+to surroundings if permanence of group life is to be secured. Family
+life in the north country illustrates the working of this principle of
+adaptation. In the days of settlement there was a partial adaptation
+to the physical environment. Houses were built tight and warm to
+provide shelter, abundant food was supplied from the farm, on which
+men toiled long hours to make a living, homespun clothing was
+manufactured to protect against the rigors of winter, but ignorance
+and lack of sufficient means prevented complete adaptation, and
+society was punished for its failure to complete the adaptation.
+Climate was severe and the laws of health were not fully worked out or
+observed, therefore few children lived to maturity, although the
+birth-rate was high. Economic success came only as the reward of
+patient and unremitting toil, the shiftless family failed in the
+struggle for existence. Tradition taught certain agricultural methods,
+but diminishing returns threatened poverty, unless methods were better
+adapted to soil and climate. Thus the people were forced slowly to
+improve their methods and their manner of living to conform to what
+nature demanded.</p>
+
+<p>No less powerful is the influence of the social environment. The
+authority of custom or government tends to make every family conform
+to certain methods of building a house, cooking food, cultivating
+land, selling crops, paying taxes, voting for local officials, but let
+one family change its habits and prove conclusively that it has
+improved on the old ways, and it is only a question of time when
+others will adapt themselves better to the situation that environs
+them. The countryman takes a city daily and notes the weather
+indications and the state of the market, he installs a rural telephone
+and is able to make contracts for his crops by long-distance
+conversation, he buys an improved piece of machinery for cultivating
+the farm, a gasolene engine, or a motor-wagon for quick delivery of
+produce; presently his neighbors discover that he is adapting himself
+more effectually to his environment than they are, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>and one by one
+they imitate him in adopting the new methods. By and by the community
+becomes known for its progressiveness, and it is imitated by
+neighboring communities.</p>
+
+<p>This process of social adaptation is a mental process more or less
+definite. A particular family may not consciously follow a definite
+plan for improved adaptation, but little by little it alters its ways,
+until in the course of two or three generations it has changed the
+circumstances and habits that characterized the ancestral group. In
+that case the change is slow. Certain families may definitely
+determine to modify their habits, and within a few years accomplish a
+telic change. In either case there are constantly going on the
+processes of observation, discrimination, and decision, due to the
+impact of mind upon mind, both within and outside of the group, until
+mental reactions are moving through channels that are different from
+the old.</p>
+
+<p>370. <b>Genetic Progress.</b>&mdash;The modification of folk-ways in the
+interest of better adaptation to environment constitutes progress.
+Such modification is caused by the action of various mental stimuli.
+The people of a hill village for generations have been contented with
+poor roads and rough side-paths, along which they find an uneasy way
+by the glimmer of a lantern at night. They are unaccustomed to
+sanitary conveniences in their houses or to ample heating arrangements
+or ventilation in school or church. They have thought little about
+these things, and if they wished to make improvements they would be
+handicapped by small numbers and lack of wealth. But after a time
+there comes an influx of summer visitors; some of them purchase
+property and take up their permanent residence in the village. They
+have been accustomed to conveniences; in other words, to a more
+complete adaptation to environment; they demand local improvements and
+are willing to help pay for them. More money can be raised for
+taxation, and when public opinion has crystallized so that social
+action is possible, the progressive steps are taken.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>What takes place thus in a small way locally is typical of what is
+going on continually in all parts of the world. Accumulating wealth
+and increasing knowledge of the good things of the city make country
+people emigrate or provide themselves with a share of the good things
+at home. The influence of an enthusiastic individual or group who
+takes the lead in better schools, better housing, or better government
+is improving the cities. The growing cosmopolitanism of all peoples
+and their adoption of the best that each has achieved is being
+produced by commerce, migration, and "contact and cross-fertilization
+of cultures."</p>
+
+<p>371. <b>Telic Progress.</b>&mdash;Most social progress has come without the full
+realization of the significance of the gradual changes that were
+taking place. Few if any individuals saw the end from the beginning.
+They are for the most part silent forces that have been modifying the
+folk-ways in Europe and America. There has been little conception of
+social obligation or social ideals, little more than a blind obedience
+to the stimuli that pressed upon the individual and the group. But
+with the awakening of the social consciousness and a quickening of the
+social conscience has come telic progress. There is purpose now in the
+action of associations and method in the enactments of legislatures
+and the acts of administrative officers. There are plans and
+programmes for all sorts of improvements that await only the proper
+means and the sanction of public opinion for their realization. Like a
+runner poised for a dash of speed, society seems to be on the eve of
+new achievement in the direction of progress.</p>
+
+<p>372. <b>Means of Social Progress.</b>&mdash;There are three distinct means of
+telic progress. Society may be lifted to a higher level by compulsion,
+as a huge crane lifts a heavy girder to the place it is to occupy in
+the construction of a great building. A prohibitory law that forbids
+the erection of unhealthy tenements throughout the cities of a state
+or nation is a distinctly progressive step, compulsory in its nature.
+Or the group may be moved by persuasion. A board of conciliation may
+persuade conflicting industrial <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>groups to adjust their differences by
+peaceful methods, and thus inaugurate an ethical movement in industry
+greatly to the advantage of all parties. Or progress may be achieved
+by the slow process of education. The average church has been
+accustomed to conceive of its functions as pertaining to the
+individual rather than to the whole social order. It cannot be
+compelled to change by governmental action, for the church is free and
+democratic in America. It cannot easily be persuaded to change its
+methods in favor of a social programme. By the slower process of
+training the young people it can and does gradually broaden its
+activities and make itself more efficiently useful to the community in
+which it finds its place.</p>
+
+<p>373. <b>Criticism as a Means of Social Education.</b>&mdash;Education is not
+confined to the training of the schools. It is a continuous process
+going on through the life of the individual or the group. It is the
+intellectual process by which the mind is focussed on one problem
+after another that rises above the horizon of experience and uses its
+powers to improve the adaptation now existing between the situation
+and the person or the group. The educational process is complex. There
+must be first the incitement to thought. Most effective in this
+direction is criticism. If the roads are such a handicap to the
+comfort and safety of travel that there is caustic criticism at the
+next town meeting, public opinion begins to set definitely in the
+direction of improvement. If city government is corrupt and the tax
+rate mounts steadily without corresponding benefits to the taxpayers,
+the newspapers call the attention of citizens to the fact, and they
+begin to consider a change of administration. Criticism is the knife
+that cuts to the roots of social disease, and through the infliction
+of temporary pain effects a cure. Criticism has started many a reform
+in church and state. The presence of the critic in any group is an
+irritant that provokes to progressive action.</p>
+
+<p>374. <b>Discussion.</b>&mdash;Criticism leads to discussion. There is sure to be
+a conflict of ideas in every group. Conservative and progressive
+contend with each other; sometimes it is a matter of belief, sometimes
+of practice. Knots of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>individuals talk matters over, leaders debate
+on the public platform, newspapers take part on one side or the other.
+In this way national policies are determined, first by Congress or
+Parliament, and then by the constituents of the legislators. Freedom
+of discussion is regarded as one of the safeguards of popular
+government. If social conduct should be analyzed on a large scale it
+would be found that discussion is a constant factor. In every business
+deal there is discussion of the pros and cons of the proposition, in
+every case that comes before the courts there are arguments made on
+both sides, in the maintenance of every social institution that costs
+money there is a consideration of its worth. Even if the discussion
+does not find voice, the human intellect debates the question in its
+silent halls. So universal is the practice of discussion and so prized
+is the privilege that this is sometimes called the Age of Discussion.</p>
+
+<p>375. <b>Decision.</b>&mdash;Determination of action follows criticism and
+discussion in the group, as volition follows thinking in the case of
+the individual. One hundred years ago college education was classical.
+In the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation a revival of
+interest in the classics produced a reaction against medi&aelig;valism, and
+in time fastened a curriculum upon the universities that was composed
+mainly of the ancient languages, mathematics, and a deductive
+philosophy and theology. In the nineteenth century there began a
+criticism of the classical curriculum. It was declared that such a
+course of study was narrow and antiquated, that new subjects, such as
+history, the modern languages, and the sciences were better worth
+attention, and presently it was argued that a person could not be
+truly educated until he knew his own times by the study of sociology,
+politics, economics, and other social sciences. Of course, there was
+earnest resentment of such criticism, and discussion ensued. The
+argument for the plaintiff seemed to be well sustained, and one by one
+the governing boards of the colleges decided to admit new studies to
+the curriculum, at first grudgingly and then generously, until
+classical education has become <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>relatively unpopular. Public opinion
+has accepted the verdict, and many schools have gone so far as to make
+vocational education supplant numerous academic courses. Similarly
+criticism, discussion, and change of front have occurred in political
+theories, in the attitude of theologians to science, in the practice
+of medicine, and even in methods of athletic training.</p>
+
+<p>Criticism and discussion, therefore, instead of being deprecated,
+ought to be welcome everywhere. Without them society stagnates, the
+intellect grows rusty, and prejudice takes the place of rational
+thought and volition. Feeling is bottled up and is likely to ferment
+until it bursts its confinement and spreads havoc around like a
+volcano. Free speech and a free press are safety-valves of democracy,
+the sure hope of progress throughout society.</p>
+
+<p>376. <b>Socialized Education.</b>&mdash;A second step in the educational process
+is incitement to action. As criticism and discussion are necessary to
+stimulate thought, so knowledge and conviction are essential to
+action. The educational system that is familiar is individualistic in
+type because it emphasizes individual achievement, and is based on the
+conviction that individual success is of greatest consequence in life.
+There is increasing demand for a socialized education which will have
+as its foundation a body of sociological information that will teach
+individuals their social relations, a fund of ideas that will be
+bequeathed from generation to generation as the finest heritage, and a
+system of social ethics that will produce a conviction of social
+obligation. The will to do good is the most effective factor that
+plays a part in social life. This socializing education has its place
+in the school grades, properly becomes a major subject of study in the
+higher schools, and ideally belongs to every scheme of continued
+education in later life. The social sciences seem likely to vie with
+the physical sciences, if not eventually to surpass them as the most
+important department of human knowledge, for while the physical
+sciences unlock the mysteries of the natural world the social sciences
+hold the key to the meaning of ideal human life.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects</i>, pages
+329-340.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Principles of Sociology</i>, pages 132-152,
+376-399.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Descriptive and Historical Sociology</i>, pages
+124-185.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Cooley</span>: <i>Social Organization</i>, pages 3-22.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ward</span>: <i>Psychic Factors of Civilization</i>, pages 291-312.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Blackmar and Gillin</span>: <i>Outlines of Sociology</i>, pages
+329-348.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 67-68, 84-87, 243-257.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology and Modern Social Problems</i>, revised
+edition, pages 354-367.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLVII" id="CHAPTER_XLVII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLVII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>SOCIAL THEORIES</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>377. <b>Theories of Social Order and Efficiency.</b>&mdash;Out of social
+experience and social study have emerged certain theories of social
+order and efficiency which have received marked attention and which
+to-day are supported by cogent arguments. These theories fall under
+the three following heads: (1) Those theories that make social order
+and efficiency dependent upon the control of external authority; (2)
+those theories that trust to the force of public opinion trained by
+social education; (3) those theories that regard self-control coming
+through the development of personality as the one essential for a
+better social order.</p>
+
+<p>378. <b>External Authority in History.</b>&mdash;The first theory rests its case
+on the facts of history. Certain social institutions like the family,
+the state, and the church have thrown restraint about the individual,
+and when this restraint is removed he tends to run amuck. From the
+beginning the family was the unit of the social order, and the
+authority of its head was the source of wisdom. Self-control was not a
+substitute for paternal discipline, but was a fact only in presence of
+the dread of paternal discipline. The idea of absolute authority
+passed over into the state, and absolutism was the theory of
+efficiency in the ancient state, down to the fall of the Roman Empire
+in the West. It was a theory that made slavery possible. It
+strengthened the position of the high priest of every religious cult,
+created the thought of the kingdom of God and moulded the Christian
+creeds, and made possible the medi&aelig;val papacy. It has been the
+fundamental principle of all monarchical government. It has remained a
+royal theory in eastern Europe and Asia until our own day, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>and
+survives in the political notion of the right of the strongest and in
+the business principle that capital must control the industrial system
+if prosperity and efficiency are to endure.</p>
+
+<p>Irresponsible absolutism has been giving way slowly to paternalism.
+This showed itself first in a growing conviction that kings owed it to
+their subjects to rule well. Certain enlightened monarchs consulted
+the interests of the people and, relying on their own wisdom,
+instituted measures of reform. This type of paternalism was not
+successful, but it has been imitated by modern states, even republics
+like the United States, in various paternalistic measures of economic
+and social regulation. Those who hold the theory that external
+authority is necessary have been urgent in calling for the regulation
+of railroads, of trusts, and of combinations of labor, until some have
+felt that the authority of representative democracy bore more heavily
+than the authority of monarchy. It is the principle of those who favor
+government regulation that only by governmental restraint can free
+competition continue, and everybody be assured of a square deal; their
+opponents argue that such restraint throttles ambition and is
+destructive of the highest efficiency that comes as a survival of the
+fittest in the economic struggle.</p>
+
+<p>379. <b>Socialism.</b>&mdash;Socialism is a third variety of the theory that
+social order and efficiency depend on external authority. Socialists
+aim at improving the social welfare by the collective control of
+industry. While the advocates of government regulation give their main
+attention to problems of production, the Socialists emphasize the
+importance of the proper distribution of products to the consumers,
+and would exercise authority in the partition of the rewards of labor.
+They propose that collective ownership of the means of production take
+the place of private ownership, that industry be managed by
+representatives of the people, that products be distributed on some
+just basis yet to be devised by the people. All that will be left to
+them as individuals will be the right to consume and the possession of
+material things not essential <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>to the socialistic economy. Certain
+Socialist theories go farther than this, but this is the essence of
+Socialism. Socialists vary, also, as to the use of revolutionary or
+evolutionary means of obtaining their ends.</p>
+
+<p>The main objections that are made to the theory of Socialism are: (1)
+That it is contrary to nature, which develops character and progress
+through struggle; (2) that private property is a natural right, and
+that it would be unjust to deprive individuals of what they have
+secured through thrift and foresight, even in the interest of the
+whole of society; (3) that an equitable distribution of wealth would
+be impossible in any arbitrary division; (4) that no government can
+possibly conduct successfully such huge enterprises as would fall to
+it; (5) that Socialism would destroy private incentive and enterprise
+by taking away the individual rewards of effort; (6) that a
+socialistic r&eacute;gime would be as unendurable an interference with
+individual liberty as any absolutist or paternal government that the
+past has seen.</p>
+
+<p>380. <b>Educated Public Opinion.</b>&mdash;The second group of theorists is
+composed of those who would get rid of prohibitions and regulations as
+far as possible, and trust to the force of an educated public opinion
+to maintain a high level of social order and efficiency. It is a part
+of the theory that constraint exercised by a government established by
+law marks a stage of lower social development than restraint exercised
+by the force of public opinion. But it must be an educated public
+opinion, trained to appreciate the importance of society and its
+claims upon the individual, to function rationally instead of
+impulsively, and to seek the methods that will be most useful and
+least expensive for the social body. This training of public opinion
+is the task of the school first and then of the press, the pulpit, and
+the public forum. Public and private commissions, organized and
+maintained to furnish information and suggest better methods, make
+useful contributions; public reports, if presented intelligibly,
+impartially, and concisely, are among the helpful instruments of
+instruction; reform pamphlets will again perform <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>valuable service, as
+they have in past days of moral and social intensity; but it is
+especially through the newspapers and the forums for public discussion
+that the social thinker can best reach his audience, and through these
+means that commission reports can best be brought to the attention of
+the people. It may very likely be necessary that press and platform be
+subsidized either by government or by private endowment to do this
+work of social training.</p>
+
+<p>381. <b>Individualism.</b>&mdash;The third group of theorists rejects all
+varieties of external control as of secondary value, and has no faith
+in the working of public opinion, however well educated, unless the
+character of the individuals that make up the group is what it should
+be. These theorists regard self-control coming through the development
+of personal worth as the one essential for a better social order. This
+individualist theory is held by those who are still in bondage to the
+individualism that has characterized social thinking in the last four
+hundred years. There is much in the history of that period that
+justifies faith in the worth of the individual. Along the lines of
+material progress, especially, the individualist has made good.
+Looking upon what has been achieved the modern democrat expects
+further improvement in society through individual betterment.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments in defense of the individualist theory are: (1) That
+natural science has proved that social development is achieved only
+through individual competition, and that the best man wins; (2) that
+experience has shown that progress has been most rapid where the
+individual has had largest scope; (3) that it is the teaching of
+Christian ethics that the individual must work out the salvation of
+his own character, must learn by experience how to gain self-reliance
+and strength of will, and so has the right to fashion his own course
+of conduct.</p>
+
+<p>382. <b>The Development of Personal Worth.</b>&mdash;It is evident, however,
+that the usefulness of the individual, both to himself and to others,
+depends on his personal worth. The self-controlled man is the man of
+personal worth, but self-control is not easy to secure. Defendants of
+the first <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>two theories may admit that self-control is an ideal, but
+they claim that in the progress of society it must follow, not
+antedate, external authority and the cultivation of public opinion,
+and that time is not yet come. Only the few can be trusted yet to
+follow their best judgment on all occasions, to be on the alert to
+maintain in themselves and others highest efficiency. Human nature is
+slowly in the making. One by one men and women rise to higher levels;
+social regeneration must therefore wait on individual regeneration.
+Seeing the need of a dynamic that will create personal worth, the
+individualist has turned to religion and preached a doctrine of
+personal salvation. He has seen what religion has done to transform
+character, and he believes with confidence that it and it alone can
+create social salvation if we give it time.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time there is an increasing number of social thinkers
+who regard each of these three theories as containing elements of
+value, but believe that there is something beyond them that is
+necessary to the highest efficiency. They consider that external
+authority has been necessary, and look upon a strong centralized
+government with power to create social efficiency as essential, but
+they expect that an increasing social consciousness will make the
+exercise of authority gradually less necessary. They have great
+confidence in trained public opinion, but do not forget that opinion
+must be vitalized by a strong motive, and mere education does not
+readily supply the motive. They look for a time when individual worth
+will be greater than now, and they recognize religion as a powerful
+dynamic in the building of character, but they regard religion as
+turned inward too much upon the individual. They would develop
+individual character for the sake of society, and make a socialized
+religion the motive power to vitalize public opinion so that it shall
+function with increasing efficiency. A socialized religion supplies a
+principle, a method, and a power. The Hebrew prophets and Jesus laid
+down the principle that there is a solidarity of interests to which
+the claims of the individual must be subordinate and must be
+sacrificed on occasion. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>prophets and Jesus taught a method of
+experimentation, calling upon the people whom they addressed to test
+the principle and see if it worked. The prophets and Jesus showed that
+power comes in the will to do and in actual obedience to the
+principle. They looked for an improved social system reared on this
+basis which would be a real "kingdom of God," not merely the economic
+commonwealth of the Socialist, but a commonwealth governed by the
+principle of consecration to the social welfare, spiritual as well as
+physical.</p>
+
+<p>383. <b>Social Ideals.</b>&mdash;At the basis of every theory lies the
+individual with social relations. To socialize him external authority
+is the primitive agent. This authority may give way in time to the
+restraint of public opinion made intelligent by a socialized
+education, but effective public opinion is dependent on the
+development of personal worth in the individual. The most powerful
+dynamic for such development and for social welfare in general is a
+socialized religion. If all this be true, what is it that comprises
+social welfare? In a word, it is the efficient functioning of every
+social group. The family, the community, the nation, and every minor
+group, will serve effectually the economic, cultural, social, and
+spiritual needs of the individuals of whom it is composed. Perfect
+functioning can follow only after a long period of progress. Such
+progress is the ideal that society sets for itself. In that process
+there must be full recognition of all the factors that enter into
+social life. There is the individual with his rights and obligations,
+who must be protected and encouraged to grow. There are the
+institutions like the family, the church, and the state that must
+receive recognition and maintenance. There must be liberty for each
+group to function freely without arbitrary interference, as long as
+its privileges and acts do not interfere with the public good. Ideal
+social control is to be exercised by an enlightened and
+self-restrained public opinion energized by a socialized religion. All
+improvements must not be looked for in a moment, but can come only
+slowly and by frequent testing if they are to be permanently
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>accepted. The system that would result would be neither absolutist,
+socialistic, nor individualistic, but would contain the best elements
+of all. It would not be forced upon a people, but would be worked out
+slowly by education and experiment. Social institutions would not be
+tyrannous but helpful, and human happiness would be materially
+increased.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects</i>, pages
+352-381.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Nearing and Watson</span>: <i>Economics</i>, pages 443-493.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Blackmar and Gillin</span>: <i>Outlines of Sociology</i>, pages
+373-392.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 351-361.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Skelton</span>: <i>Socialism</i>, pages 16-61.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Carnegie</span>: <i>Problems of To-day</i>, pages 121-139.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="CHAPTER_XLVIII" id="CHAPTER_XLVIII"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XLVIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+
+<h4>THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY</h4>
+<br />
+
+<p>384. <b>Sociology vs. Social Philosophy.</b>&mdash;Sociology is one of the
+recent sciences. It had to wait for the scientific method of exact
+investigation and the scientific principle of forming conclusions upon
+abundant data. Naturally, theories of society were held long before
+any science came into existence, but they were of value only as
+philosophizing. Some of these theories were published and attracted
+the attention of thoughtful persons, but they did not affect social
+life. Some of them developed into philosophies of history, based on
+the preconceived ideas of their authors. Now and then in the first
+part of the nineteenth century certain social experiments were made in
+the form of co-operative communities, which it was fondly hoped would
+become practical methods for a better social order, but they almost
+uniformly failed because they were artificial rather than of natural
+growth, and because they were based on principles that public opinion
+had not yet sanctioned. The story of the predecessors of modern
+sociology naturally is preliminary to the history of sociology itself.</p>
+
+<p>385. <b>Philosophers and Prophets.</b>&mdash;Two classes of men in ancient time
+worked on the problems of society, one from the practical standpoint,
+the other from the philosophic. One group of names includes the great
+statesmen and lawgivers, like Moses, who laid the foundations of the
+Hebrew nation and gave it the nucleus of a legal system; Solon and
+Lycurgus, traditional lawgivers of Athens and Sparta, and several of
+the earlier kings and later emperors of Rome. The other group is
+composed of men who thought much about human life and disseminated
+their opinions by writing and teaching. For the most part they were
+idealistic philosophers, but their influence was far-reaching in time.
+In the list belong Plato, who in his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span><i>Republic</i> outlined an ideal
+society that was the prototype of later fanciful commonwealths;
+Aristotle, who made a real contribution to political science in his
+<i>Politics</i>; Cicero, who himself participated actively in government
+and wrote out his theories or spoke them in public, and Augustine, who
+gave his conception of a Christian state in the <i>City of God</i>.</p>
+
+<p>During the period when ancient ways were giving place to modern, and a
+transition was taking place in the realm of ideas, Thomas More, in his
+<i>Utopia</i>, and Campanella in his <i>City of the Sun</i>, published their
+conceptions of an ideal state, while Machiavelli took society as it
+was, and in his <i>Prince</i> suggested how it might be governed better.
+These are all evidences that there was dissatisfaction with existing
+systems, but no unanimity of opinion as to possible improvements.
+Later theories were no more satisfactory. The French Revolutionary
+philosophers, especially Rousseau, with his theory of voluntary social
+contract, and the Utopian dreamers who followed, were longing for
+justice and political efficiency, but their theories seem crude and
+visionary from the point of view of the social science of the present
+day.</p>
+
+<p>386. <b>Experimenting with Society.</b>&mdash;Robert Owen in England and Fourier
+and Saint-Simon in France were prophets of an ideal order which they
+tried to establish. Believing that all men were intended to be happy,
+and that happiness depended on a reorganization of the social
+environment in which property should be socialized, at least in part,
+they organized volunteers into model communities, expecting that their
+success would attract men everywhere to imitate the new organization.
+The arrangement of industry was planned in detail, a co-operative
+system was organized that would keep every man busy at useful labor
+without working him too hard, would take away the profits of the
+middleman by a well-planned system of distribution, and would allow
+liberty in social relations as far as consistent with the general
+good, but would subordinate the individual to the community. Certain
+of the Utopians thought that it would be necessary for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>state to
+determine the minuti&aelig; of daily life, and for a few directors to
+prescribe activities, and they introduced a uniformity in dress, food,
+and houses that savored of the old-fashioned orphan asylum. These
+features, together with the failure to understand that social
+institutions could not be made to order, and that human nature was not
+of such quality as to make an ideal commonwealth at once actual, soon
+wrecked these utopian schemes and brought to an end the first period
+of socialistic experiments.</p>
+
+<p>387. <b>Biological Sociologists.</b>&mdash;Not a few writers in the eighteenth
+and nineteenth centuries, before sociology was born, recognized the
+need and the possibility of a true science of society. Scholars were
+studying and writing upon other sciences that are related to
+sociology&mdash;biology, history, economics, and politics. Scientific
+information about the various races of mankind was accumulating. At
+length Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, found a place for sociology among
+the sciences and declared it to be the highest of them all. In 1842 he
+completed the publication of the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, in which he
+maintained that human society is an organism similar to biological
+organisms, and that its activities can be systematized and
+generalizations be deduced therefrom for the formation of a true
+science. In his <i>Descriptive Sociology</i> and later works Herbert
+Spencer in England amplified the theory of Comte and arranged a mass
+of facts as evidence of its truth. He put too much emphasis on
+biological resemblances in the opinion of present-day sociologists,
+but his emphasis on inductive study and his generalizations from
+biology were important contributions to the development of the new
+science.</p>
+
+<p>388. <b>Psychological Sociologists.</b>&mdash;Comte and Spencer were followed by
+other biological sociologists whose names are well known to students
+of the science. Interest was aroused in Great Britain, on the
+continent of Europe, and in America. Students were influenced by
+conclusions that were being reached in biology, in economics, and in
+other allied departments of thought, but the one science which became
+most prominent to the minds of sociologists was psychology. Ward's
+<i>Dynamic Sociology</i>, published in 1883, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>marked an epoch, because it
+called special attention to the psychic factors that enter into social
+life. After him it became increasingly clear that the true social
+forces were psychic, though physical conditions affected social
+progress. A younger school of sociologists has come into existence,
+and the science is being developed on that basis. More than one
+individual thinker has made his special contribution, and there is
+still a variety of opinion on details, but the general principles of
+the science are being worked out in substantial agreement. It is not
+to be expected that such a complex and comprehensive science could be
+completed in its short history of approximately half a century, or
+that it can ever be made exact, like mathematics or the natural
+sciences, but there is every reason to expect the development of a
+body of classified facts that will be of inestimable value in
+attacking social problems, and of principles that will serve as a
+guide through the labyrinth of social life. The value of any science
+is not in the perfection of its system, but in the practical
+application which can be made of it to human progress.</p>
+
+<p>389. <b>Relation of Sociology to the Natural Sciences.</b>&mdash;Sociology has
+relations to an outer circle of general sciences and to an inner
+circle of social sciences. It is itself but one of the social
+sciences, though it is regarded as chief among them. Man looks out
+upon the universe, of which he is but an atom, and asks questions.
+Astronomy brings to him the findings of its telescopes and spectrum
+analyses. Geology explains the transformations that have taken place
+in the earth on which he lives. Physics and chemistry analyze its
+substance and reveal the laws of nature. Biology opens up the field of
+life. Psychology investigates the structure and functions of the human
+mind, and shows that all activity is at base mental. At last the new
+sociology discloses human life in all its complex relationships, the
+function of the social mind, and the channels through which it works.
+Since social life is lived in a world where physical and mental
+factors are constantly in action, there is a close connection between
+all the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>sciences. Although social life is not so closely similar to
+animal life as was thought previously, the principles of biology are
+important to the sociologist because biology is the science of all
+life. Psychology is important because it is the science of all mind.</p>
+
+<p>390. <b>Relations of Sociology and Other Social Sciences.</b>&mdash;There are
+many phases of human experience and differences of relationship.
+Obviously the specific sciences that deal with them have a still
+closer relation to sociology. Economics, for example, has as its field
+the economic relations and activities that are connected with the
+business of making a living. The production, distribution, and use of
+material things is the subject that absorbs the economist. The
+sociologist makes use of the facts and principles of economics to
+throw light on the economic functions of society, but the economic
+field is only one sector of his concern. In a similar way political
+science is related to sociology. It deals with the organization and
+development of government and embraces the departments of national and
+international law, but the governmental function of the social group
+is but one of the divisions of the interests that absorb the
+sociologist. He uses the data and conclusions of the political
+scientists, but in a more general way. It is the same with the
+sociologist and history. History supplies much of the data of the
+sociologist from the records of the past. It deals with social life in
+the concrete, and historical interpretation is essential to an
+understanding of social phenomena, but sociology takes the past with
+the present, analyzes both, and generalizes from both as to the laws
+of the social process. Pedagogy deals with the history and principles
+of education. Sociology is interested in the educational function of
+the family, of the community, and of the nation, but again its
+interest is from the standpoint of abstraction and generalization.
+Ethics is a science that treats of the right and wrong conduct of
+human beings. It is very closely associated with sociology, because
+the valuation of conduct depends on social effects, but the moral
+functioning of the group is but one phase of social life, and,
+therefore, ethics is far <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>narrower in its range than sociology.
+Theology, the science of religion, has sociological implications. As
+far as it is a science and not a philosophy, it rests upon human
+interest and human experience, and it is becoming increasingly
+recognized that these human interests depend on social relationships,
+but all the religious interests of men are but one part of the field
+of sociology.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that each of the social sciences holds a relation to
+sociology of the particular to the general. Sociology seeks out the
+laws and principles that unify all the rest. It does not include them
+all, as does the term social science, but it correlates and interprets
+them all. It is not the same as philosophy, for that subject has for
+its field all knowledge, and especially tries to probe to the secrets
+of all being, and to learn the meaning of the universe as a whole,
+while sociology is restricted to social life. Each has its distinct
+place among the studies of the human mind, and each should be
+distinguished carefully from its rivals and associates.</p>
+
+<p>391. <b>Social Classification.</b>&mdash;When we enter into the field of
+sociology itself we find other distinctions to be necessary. The
+novice frequently confounds similar terms. Not infrequently sociology
+and socialism are used as synonymous terms by persons who know little
+of either, so that it is necessary to point out that socialism is a
+particular theory of social organization and functioning, while
+sociology is the general science that includes all varieties of social
+theory, along with social fact, and especially is it necessary to
+explain that any fallacies of socialistic theory do not invalidate
+well-established conclusions of social science. Another common error
+is to identify sociology with social reform. Social pathology is too
+important a branch of sociology to be omitted or minimized, but it is
+only one division of the subject, and all measures as well as theories
+of social reform are only a small part of the concern of sociology.
+Such terms as philanthropy, criminology, and penology all have
+connection with sociology, but they need to be carefully
+differentiated from the more general term.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>Sociology itself has been variously classified under the terms pure
+and applied, static and dynamic, descriptive and theoretical. Terms
+have changed somewhat, as the psychological emphasis has supplanted
+the biological. It is important that terms should be used correctly
+and should be sanctioned by custom, but it is not necessary to make
+sharp distinction between all the different divisions, old and new.
+Classification is a matter of convenience and technic; though it may
+have a scientific basis, it is entirely a matter of form. There is
+always danger that a particular classification may become a fetich. It
+is the life of society that we study, it is the improvement of social
+relations at which we aim. Whatever method best contributes to this
+end is valid in classification for all except those who delight in
+science for science's sake.</p>
+
+<p>392. <b>The Permanent Place of Sociology.</b>&mdash;The study of the science of
+social life is eminently worth while, for it deals with matters that
+are of vital importance to the human race and every one of its
+individual members. For that reason it is likely to receive growing
+recognition as among the most important subjects with which the human
+mind can deal. It is vast in its range, exacting in its demand of
+unremitting investigation and careful generalization, stimulating in
+its intense practicality. Its abstractions require the closest
+reasoning of the scholar, but its basis in the concrete facts of daily
+life tends to make it popular. Once understood and appreciated,
+sociology is likely to become the guide-book by which social effort
+will be directed, and the standard by which it will be measured. As
+progress becomes in this way more telic it will become more rapid.
+Social life will approach more nearly the norm that sociology
+describes, but until the day that society ceases to be pathological,
+sociology will teach a social ideal as a goal toward which society
+must bend its energies. As human life is the most precious gift that
+the world bestows, so the science of that life is worthy of being
+called the gem of the sciences.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span><br />
+
+<h4>READING REFERENCES</h4>
+
+<div class="block"><p class="hang"><span class="sc">Dealey</span>: <i>Sociology</i>, pages 19-40.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Blackmar and Gillin</span>: <i>Outlines of Sociology</i>, pages
+13-47, 541-564.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Giddings</span>: <i>Principles of Sociology</i>, pages 3-51.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ellwood</span>: <i>Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects</i>, pages
+29-65.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Ross</span>: <i>Foundations of Sociology</i>, pages 15-28, 256-348.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><span class="sc">Small</span>: <i>General Sociology</i>, pages 40-97.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>INDEX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h3>
+<br />
+
+<ul><li>Achievement, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Activity, <a  href="#Page_2">2-6</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Adaptation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a  href="#Page_333">333-335</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a  href="#Page_349">349-351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Administration, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Adultery, <a  href="#Page_75">75-78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>&AElig;sthetics, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aggregation, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agricultural clubs, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agricultural colleges, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agricultural fairs, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Agriculture, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almshouses, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>American Civic Federation, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>American Federation of Labor, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>American Vigilance Association, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amusements, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a  href="#Page_238">238-240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ancestor-worship, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arbitration, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Art, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assimilation, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Association, <a  href="#Page_6">6-9</a>, <a  href="#Page_17">17-23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a  href="#Page_344">344-346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Athletics, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Attention, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Banks, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Big Brother idea, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Biological analogies, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birth-rate, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boards of Conciliation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boy Scouts, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boys' Clubs, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Cabinet, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Camp-Fire Girls, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catholic Church, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Census of marriage and divorce, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Change, <a  href="#Page_10">10-13</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a  href="#Page_173">173-176</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charity, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a  href="#Page_271">271-277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charity organization, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a  href="#Page_272">272-276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charter, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chautauqua Movement, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Child labor, <a  href="#Page_49">49-53</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Children, <a  href="#Page_42">42-59</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Dependency of, <a  href="#Page_56">56-58</a>.</li>
+  <li>Relief of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rights of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a  href="#Page_53">53-55</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Children's aid societies, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinese Exclusion Act, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Christianity, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Church, The, <a  href="#Page_156">156-161</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a  href="#Page_287">287-293</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>In the city, <a  href="#Page_287">287-293</a>.</li>
+  <li>In the country. See Rural church.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Church charity, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Church organization, <a  href="#Page_290">290-293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>City, The, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> ff., <a  href="#Page_294">294-299</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Attraction of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+  <li>Characteristics of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Economic interests in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+  <li>Government of, <a  href="#Page_256">256-262</a>.</li>
+  <li>Growth of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of, <a  href="#Page_177">177-179</a>.</li>
+  <li>Importance of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Improvement of, <a  href="#Page_295">295-298</a>.</li>
+  <li>In the making, <a  href="#Page_294">294-298</a>.</li>
+  <li>Manager, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+  <li>Neighborhood, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+  <li>Opportunities in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Classes, <a  href="#Page_212">212-218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Classification, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clubs, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a  href="#Page_110">110-112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Collective bargaining, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>College life, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Commerce, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Commission government, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Commissions, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Communication, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Community house, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Community leadership, <a  href="#Page_164">164-168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Community obligation, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Competition, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Conference, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Conflict, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Congregational churches, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Control, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a  href="#Page_197">197-199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a  href="#Page_208">208-210</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Co-operation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a  href="#Page_105">105-107</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a  href="#Page_198">198-200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cost of living, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Country store, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Court of Domestic Relations, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Courts. See Judiciary.</li>
+
+<li>Craft guilds, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crime, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a  href="#Page_248">248-255</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Causes of, <a  href="#Page_248">248-250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Discharge, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+  <li>Prevention of, <a  href="#Page_250">250-252</a>.</li>
+  <li>Punishment, <a  href="#Page_252">252-254</a>.</li>
+  <li>Reformation, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Criticism, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crowds, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cruelty, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Custom, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Dance-halls, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Decision, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Defectives, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Degeneracy, <a  href="#Page_43">43-46</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delinquency, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Crime.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Democracy, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a  href="#Page_316">316-319</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Democracy in industry, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Department stores, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dependency, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Charity.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Desertion, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Desires, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a  href="#Page_345">345-347</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Difficulties of working people, <a  href="#Page_263">263-270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Discrimination, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Discussion, <a  href="#Page_284">284-286</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Division of labor, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Divorce, <a  href="#Page_74">74-80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Catholic attitude toward, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>Causes of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Difficulty of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>In Europe, <a  href="#Page_74">74-78</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laws of, <a  href="#Page_74">74-79</a>.</li>
+  <li>Protestant attitude toward, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Remedies for, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Divorce court, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Divorce proctor, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drama, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Theatre.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Duelling, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dynamic society, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>East, The, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Economics, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Education, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a  href="#Page_120">120-131</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a  href="#Page_353">353-355</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Agricultural, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cultural, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+  <li>Industrial, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+  <li>Moral and religious, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+  <li>Principles of, <a  href="#Page_120">120-124</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rural, <a  href="#Page_120">120-131</a>.</li>
+  <li>Vocational, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+  <li>Weaknesses of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Edwards family, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elberfeld system, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Election, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Employers' liability, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Environment, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a  href="#Page_340">340-343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Erdman Act, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ethics, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eugenics, <a  href="#Page_43">43-47</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euthenics, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evangelical Alliance, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evangelism, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evolution, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exchange, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a  href="#Page_201">201-203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Executive, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Experimentation, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Factory life, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Factory system, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a  href="#Page_182">182-184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Family, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> f., <a  href="#Page_88">88-90</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Changes in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a  href="#Page_67">67-69</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Functions of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of, <a  href="#Page_29">29-33</a>.</li>
+  <li>Medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a  href="#Page_37">37-39</a>.</li>
+  <li>On the farm, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+  <li>Reform, <a  href="#Page_88">88-90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Roman, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li>Study of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+  <li>Urban, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Farmers' Institute, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Farmers' Union, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Federal Council of churches, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,</li>
+<li>311.</li>
+
+<li>Federation, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Feeling, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Feminism, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Folk-ways. See Social habits.</li>
+
+<li>Forum, <a  href="#Page_284">284-286</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Friendly visiting, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Galveston plan, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gambling, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gangs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a  href="#Page_109">109-111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Germans, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Girls' clubs, in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Government, <a  href="#Page_136">136-143</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a  href="#Page_256">256-262</a>, <a  href="#Page_313">313-327</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>City, <a  href="#Page_256">256-262</a>.</li>
+  <li>National, <a  href="#Page_313">313-323</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rural, <a  href="#Page_136">136-143</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Government ownership, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grange, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Group consciousness, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Habits, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hague Conferences, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Health, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a  href="#Page_144">144-148</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Clubs, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nurses and physicians, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+  <li>Officials, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Hebrew Charities, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heredity, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+
+<li>History, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Home, <a  href="#Page_37">37-42</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Children in the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Education in the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of the, <a  href="#Page_37">37-39</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ideal, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+  <li>Man in the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+  <li>Modern, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a  href="#Page_67">67-71</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rural, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+  <li>Values of the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+  <li>Women in the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Home economics, <a  href="#Page_60">60-66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hospitals, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hours of labor, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Housing, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a  href="#Page_230">230-234</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hull House, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Imitation, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Immigrants and Immigration, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a  href="#Page_221">221-229</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a  href="#Page_327">327-329</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Asiatic, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+  <li>Causes and effects of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+  <li>German, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of, <a  href="#Page_221">221-226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Irish, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Italian, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jewish, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lesser peoples, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Problems of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+  <li>Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+  <li>Slavs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Imprisonment, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Crime.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Impulse, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Individual, The, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a  href="#Page_343">343-347</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Individualism, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Industrial control, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Industrial problem, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a  href="#Page_186">186-200</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Principles for solution of the, <a  href="#Page_197">197-200</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Industrial reform, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Industrial revolution, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Industrial schools, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Initiative, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insanity, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Instincts, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insurance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Intemperance, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Results of, <a  href="#Page_242">242-244</a>.
+    <ul class="nest">
+    <li>See Temperance.</li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Interests, <a  href="#Page_302">302-304</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a  href="#Page_345">345-347</a>.</li>
+
+<li>International law, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>International Workers of the World, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Internationalism, <a  href="#Page_333">333-339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Invention, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irish, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Italians, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Jews, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Judiciary, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jukes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Juvenile courts, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Kallikak family, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Labor, <a  href="#Page_61">61-63</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Division of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hired, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+  <li>Organization of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Labor bureaus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Labor conditions, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Labor exchanges, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Labor unions, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Lack of support, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Law, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lawgivers, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lawlessness, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legislation, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Social legislation.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Liberty, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Libraries, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>License, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Like-mindedness, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Local Government Act, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Local option, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Manufacturing, <a  href="#Page_180">180-185</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>History of, <a  href="#Page_181">181-183</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Marriage, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a  href="#Page_20">20-36</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Ideals of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laws of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+  <li>Reforms, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Mass meeting, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Massachusetts Society for Promoting Good Citizenship, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maternity benefits, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metronymic period, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Misery, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Missions, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mobs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, SS, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monogamy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monopoly, <a  href="#Page_208">208-210</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morals, <a  href="#Page_151">151-155</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Definition of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+  <li>In the city, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rural, <a  href="#Page_151">151-155</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Morals commission, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morals court, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moving pictures, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Municipal ownership, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Municipal reform, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Music, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Nation, The, <a  href="#Page_300">300-332</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Economics in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+  <li>Education in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+  <li>Functions of, <a  href="#Page_305">305-311</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+  <li>Government of, <a  href="#Page_313">313-323</a>.</li>
+  <li>Health in, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+  <li>History of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+  <li>Philanthropy in, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+  <li>Problems of, <a  href="#Page_324">324-332</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sport in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>National Bureau of Education, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Conference of Charities and Corrections, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Conference on Unemployment, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Divorce Reform League, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Education Association, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Insurance Act, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Municipal League, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>National Reform League, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nature study, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neglect, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Negro problem, <a  href="#Page_329">329-331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newspapers, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Occupations, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Offices, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Organization, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a  href="#Page_182">182-184</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a  href="#Page_200">200-293</a>, <a  href="#Page_317">317-323</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Organization of labor, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Parks, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parole, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paternalism, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Patriarchal household, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pauperism, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Personality, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Personal worth, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Persuasion, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philosophers, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Placing-out system, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Play, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Police, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Political science, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Politics, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Polyandry, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Polygyny, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Population, <a  href="#Page_100">100-103</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Characteristics of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li>Composition of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li>Congestion of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Growth of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Poverty, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a  href="#Page_266">266-270</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Causes of, <a  href="#Page_267">267-269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Remedies for, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Press, The, <a  href="#Page_280">280-282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Primaries, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Probation, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Profanity, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Profit-sharing, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Progress, <a  href="#Page_351">351-353</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Genetic, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+  <li>Telic, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Prophets, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prosperity, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prostitution, <a  href="#Page_81">81-88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Protestant-Episcopal Church, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Psychology, <a  href="#Page_344">344-346</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Public opinion, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a  href="#Page_359">359-361</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Punishment. See Crime.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Race problem, <a  href="#Page_327">327-332</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Railways, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raines Law hotels, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reading-circles, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reason, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Recall, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Recreation, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a  href="#Page_108">108-114</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Referendum, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reformatories, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Relief, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a  href="#Page_271">271-277</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religion, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a  href="#Page_287">287-293</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Religious education, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Remarriage, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rescue homes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Royal Commission on Divorce, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rural church, <a  href="#Page_156">156-161</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Function of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  <li>Minister of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+  <li>Needs of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  <li>New, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+  <li>Problems of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+  <li>Value of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Rural emigration, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rural Life Commission, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Russell Sage Foundation, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>St. Vincent de Paul Society, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saloon, The, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salvation Army, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schools, The, <a  href="#Page_120">120-131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Consolidated, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,</li>
+  <li>Continuation, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Curriculum of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+  <li>District, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+  <li>Normal, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+  <li>State, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+  <li>Teaching in, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>School districts, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scientific management, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Segregation, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Self-control, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Servant class, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Settlements, <a  href="#Page_277">277-279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sewing-circles, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sex hygiene, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sexual impurity, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Prostitution.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Slavery, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slavs, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slums, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a  href="#Page_231">231-233</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sociability, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social analysis, <a  href="#Page_340">340-371</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social centres, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a  href="#Page_176">176-179</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a  href="#Page_284">284-286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social characteristics, <a  href="#Page_2">2-14</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social contract, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social degeneration, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social development, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social education, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social elements. See Social factors.</li>
+
+<li>Social factors, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a  href="#Page_340">340-356</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Physical, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+  <li>Psychic, <a  href="#Page_344">344-356</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Social groups, <a  href="#Page_14">14-23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social habits, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social ideals, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social institutions, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a  href="#Page_115">115-120</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a  href="#Page_337">337-339</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social legislation, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social mind, <a  href="#Page_17">17-19</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social organization. See Organization.</li>
+
+<li>Social pathology, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social problems, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social reform, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social relations, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a  href="#Page_6">6-8</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social science, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social selection, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social service, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social sympathy, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social theories, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a  href="#Page_357">357-363</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social utility, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social values, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social weaknesses, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Social welfare, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Socialism, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Objections to, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Society, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sociology, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a  href="#Page_364">364-371</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Biological, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+  <li>Psychological, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+  <li>Relations of, <a  href="#Page_367">367-369</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Source material, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>South, The, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>South Carolina dispensary system, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Southern Sociological Conference, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Standard of living, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+<li>State, The, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a  href="#Page_313">313-323</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>History of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+  <li>Theories of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>State schools, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Static society, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sterilization, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stimulus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stock exchange, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Street trades, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Strikes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Struggle for existence, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Summer visitors, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sweating, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syndicalism, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Telephone, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Temperance, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Anti-Saloon League, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Education, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Good Templars, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>No license, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Prohibition, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+  <li>Regulation, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+  <li>Total abstinence, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Woman's Christian Temperance Union, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Tenant farming, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tenements, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a  href="#Page_84">84-86</a>, <a  href="#Page_230">230-234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theatre, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theology, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Theories. See Social theories.</li>
+
+<li>Town meetings, <a  href="#Page_140">140-142</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a  href="#Page_284">284-286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toynbee Hall, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tradition, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Transportation, <a  href="#Page_204">204-208</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trusts, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Unemployment, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>United Mine Workers, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>United States, <a  href="#Page_302">302-304</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
+
+<li>United States Census, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>United States Department of Agriculture, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>United States Patent Office, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Universities, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+
+<li>University of Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>University Settlement, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Unorganized groups, <a  href="#Page_16">16-23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Utopians, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Venereal disease, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vice commissions, <a  href="#Page_83">83-85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vice reform, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Village, The, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>Improvement Society, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nurse, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Vocational training, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Volunteer Prison League, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Wages, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>War, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+
+<li>West, The, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>White-slave traffic, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.
+  <ul class="nest">
+  <li>See Prostitution.</li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+
+<li>Will of the individual, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Will of the people, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woman's Christian Temperance Union, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woman's clubs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Woman's work, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Working people, The, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a  href="#Page_230">230-234</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a  href="#Page_263">263-270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Worship, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br /><br /></li>
+
+
+<li>Young Men's Christian Association, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Young Women's Christian Association, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Society
+       Its Origin and Development
+
+Author: Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2007 [EBook #21609]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jeannie Howse and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                           SOCIETY
+
+                  ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+
+                              BY
+                  HENRY KALLOCH ROWE, Ph.D.
+
+    ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY IN NEWTON
+                   THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION
+
+
+
+                   CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+                  NEW YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON
+
+
+
+
+                     COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
+                   CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In studying biology it is convenient to make cross-sections of
+laboratory specimens in order to determine structure, and to watch
+plants and animals grow in order to determine function. There seems to
+be no good reason why social life should not be studied in the same
+way. To take a child in the home and watch it grow in the midst of the
+life of the family, the community, and the larger world, and to cut
+across group life so as to see its characteristics, its interests, and
+its organization, is to study sociology in the most natural way and to
+obtain the necessary data for generalization. To attempt to study
+sociological principles without this preliminary investigation is to
+confuse the student and leave him in a sea of vague abstractions.
+
+It is not because of a lack of appreciation of the abstract that the
+emphasis of this book is on the concrete. It is written as an
+introduction to the study of the principles of sociology, and it may
+well be used as a prelude to the various social sciences. It is
+natural that trained sociologists should prefer to discuss the
+profound problems of their science, and should plunge their pupils
+into material for study where they are soon beyond their depth; much
+of current life seems so obvious and so simple that it is easy to
+forget that the college man or woman has never looked upon it with a
+discriminating eye or with any attempt to understand its meaning. If
+this is true of the college student, it is unquestionably true of the
+men and women of the world. The writer believes that there is need of
+a simple, untechnical treatment of human society, and offers this book
+as a contribution to the practical side of social science. He writes
+with the undergraduate continually in mind, trying to see through his
+eyes and to think with his mind, and the references are to books that
+will best meet his needs and that are most readily accessible. It is
+expected that the pupil will read widely, and that the instructor will
+show how principles and laws are formulated from the multitude of
+observations of social phenomena. The last section of the book sums up
+briefly some of the scientific conclusions that are drawn from the
+concrete data, and prepares the way for a more detailed and technical
+study.
+
+If sociology is to have its rightful place in the world it must become
+a science for the people. It must not be permitted to remain the
+possession of an aristocracy of intellect. The heart of thousands of
+social workers who are trying to reform society and cure its ills is
+throbbing with sympathy and hope, but there is much waste of energy
+and misdirection of zeal because of a lack of understanding of the
+social life that they try to cure. They and the people to whom they
+minister need an interpretation of life in social terms that they can
+understand. Professional persons of all kinds need it. A world that is
+on the verge of despair because of the breakdown of harmonious human
+relations needs it to reassure itself of the value and the possibility
+of normal human relations. Doubtless the presentation of the subject
+is imperfect, but if it meets the need of those who find difficulty in
+using more technical discussions and opens up a new field of interest
+to many who hitherto have not known the difference between sociology
+and socialism, the effort at interpretation will have been worth
+while.
+
+                                                    HENRY K. ROWE
+
+  NEWTON CENTRE, MASSACHUSETTS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART ONE--INTRODUCTORY
+
+CHAPTER                                                      PAGE
+
+      I. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL LIFE                         1
+
+     II. UNORGANIZED GROUP LIFE                                16
+
+
+PART TWO--LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP
+
+    III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE FAMILY                             24
+
+     IV. THE HISTORY OF THE FAMILY                             29
+
+      V. THE MAKING OF THE HOME                                37
+
+     VI. CHILDREN IN THE HOME                                  42
+
+    VII. WORK, PLAY, AND EDUCATION                             51
+
+   VIII. HOME ECONOMICS                                        60
+
+     IX. CHANGES IN THE FAMILY                                 67
+
+      X. DIVORCE                                               74
+
+     XI. THE SOCIAL EVIL                                       81
+
+    XII. CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES                        88
+
+
+PART THREE--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+   XIII. THE COMMUNITY AND ITS HISTORY                         91
+
+    XIV. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE                               99
+
+     XV. OCCUPATIONS                                          104
+
+    XVI. RECREATION                                           108
+
+   XVII. RURAL INSTITUTIONS                                   115
+
+  XVIII. RURAL EDUCATION                                      120
+
+    XIX. THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL                                 127
+
+     XX. RURAL GOVERNMENT                                     136
+
+    XXI. HEALTH AND BEAUTY                                    144
+
+   XXII. MORALS IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY                        151
+
+  XXIII. THE RURAL CHURCH                                     156
+
+   XXIV. A NEW TYPE OF RURAL INSTITUTION                      162
+
+
+PART FOUR--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY
+
+    XXV. FROM COUNTRY TO CITY                                 169
+
+   XXVI. THE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE                         180
+
+  XXVII. THE INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM                               186
+
+ XXVIII. EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION                          201
+
+   XXIX. THE PEOPLE WHO WORK                                  212
+
+    XXX. THE IMMIGRANT                                        221
+
+   XXXI. HOW THE WORKING PEOPLE LIVE                          230
+
+  XXXII. THE DIVERSIONS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE                 238
+
+ XXXIII. CRIME AND ITS CURE                                   248
+
+  XXXIV. AGENCIES OF CONTROL                                  256
+
+   XXXV. DIFFICULTIES OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORK                  263
+
+  XXXVI. CHARITY AND THE SETTLEMENTS                          271
+
+ XXXVII. EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES                                 280
+
+XXXVIII. THE CHURCH                                           287
+
+  XXXIX. THE CITY IN THE MAKING                               294
+
+
+PART FIVE--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION
+
+     XL. THE BUILDING OF A NATION                             300
+
+    XLI. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PEOPLE AS
+         A NATION                                             305
+
+   XLII. THE STATE                                            313
+
+  XLIII. PROBLEMS OF THE NATION                               324
+
+   XLIV. INTERNATIONALISM                                     333
+
+
+PART SIX--SOCIAL ANALYSIS
+
+    XLV. PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF
+         SOCIETY                                              340
+
+   XLVI. SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS                               348
+
+  XLVII. SOCIAL THEORIES                                      357
+
+ XLVIII. THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY                             364
+
+         INDEX                                                373
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SOCIETY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+PART I--INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL LIFE
+
+
+1. =Man and His Social Relations.=--A study of society starts with the
+obvious fact that human beings live together. The hermit is abnormal.
+However far back we go in the process of human evolution we find the
+existence of social relations, and sociability seems a quality
+ingrained in human nature. Every individual has his own personality
+that belongs to him apart from every other individual, but the
+perpetuation and development of that personality is dependent on
+relations with other personalities and with the physical environment
+which limits his activity.
+
+As an individual his primary interest is in self, but he finds by
+experience that he cannot be independent of others. His impulses, his
+feelings, and his ideas are due to the relations that he has with that
+which is outside of himself. He may exercise choice, but it is within
+the limits set by these outside relations. He may make use of what
+they can do for him or he may antagonize them, at least he cannot
+ignore them. Experience determines how the individual may best adapt
+himself to his environment and adapt the environment to his own needs,
+and he thus establishes certain definite relationships. Any group of
+individuals, who have thus consciously established relationships with
+one another and with their social environment is a society. The
+relations through whose channels the interplay of social forces is
+constantly going on make up the social organization. The
+readjustments of these relations for the better adaptation of one
+individual to another, or of either to their environment, make up the
+process of social development. A society which remains in equilibrium
+is termed static, that which is changing is called dynamic.
+
+2. =The Field and the Purpose of Sociology.=--Life in society is the
+subject matter of sociological study. Sociology is concerned with the
+origin and development of that life, with its present forms and
+activities, and with their future development. It finds its material
+in the every-day experiences of men, women, and children in whatever
+stage of progress they may be; but for practical purposes its chief
+interest is in the normal life of civilized communities, together with
+the past developments and future prospects of that life. The purpose
+of sociological study is to discover the active workings and
+controlling principles of life, its essential meaning, and its
+ultimate goal; then to apply the principles, laws, and ideals
+discovered to the imperfect social process that is now going on in the
+hope of social betterment.
+
+3. =Source Material for Study.=--The source material of social life
+lies all about us. For its past history we must explore the primitive
+conduct of human beings as we learn it from anthropology and
+archaeology, or as we infer it from the lowest human races or from
+animal groups that bear the nearest physical and mental resemblance to
+mankind. For present phenomena we have only to look about us, and
+having seen to attempt their interpretation. Life is mirrored in the
+daily press. Pick up any newspaper and examine its contents. It
+reveals social characteristics both local and wide-spread.
+
+4. =Social Characteristics--Activity.=--The first fact that stands out
+clearly as a characteristic of social life is _activity_. Everybody
+seems to be doing something. There are a few among the population,
+like vagrants and the idle rich, who are parasites, but even they
+sustain relations to others that require a certain sort of effort.
+Activity seems fundamental. It needs but a hasty survey to show how
+general it is. Farmers are cultivating their broad acres, woodsmen are
+chopping and hewing in the forest, miners are drilling in underground
+chambers, and the products of farm, forest, and mine are finding their
+way by river, road, and rail to the great distributing centres. In the
+town the machinery of mill and factory keeps busy thousands of
+operatives, and turns out manufactured products to compete with the
+products of the soil for right of way to the cities of the New World
+and the Old. Busiest of all are the throngs that thread the streets of
+the great centres, and pour in and out of stores and offices. Men rush
+from one person to another, and interview one after another the
+business houses with which they maintain connection; women swarm about
+the counters of the department stores and find at the same time social
+satisfaction and pecuniary reward; children in hundreds pour into the
+intellectual hopper of the schoolroom and from there to the
+playground. Everybody is busy, and everybody is seeking personal
+profit and satisfaction.
+
+5. =Mental Activity.=--There is another kind of activity of which
+these economic and social phases are only the outward expression, an
+activity of the mind which is busy continually adjusting the needs of
+the individual or social organism and the environment to each other.
+Some acts are so instinctive or habitual that they do not require
+conscious mental effort; others are the result of reasoning as to this
+or that course of action. The impulse of the farmer may be to remain
+inactive, or the schoolboy may feel like going fishing; the call of
+nature stimulates the desire; but reason reaches out and takes control
+and directs outward activity into proper channels. On the other hand,
+reason fortifies worthy inclinations. The youth feels an inclination
+to stretch his muscles or to use his brains, and reason re-enforces
+feeling. The physical need of food, clothing, and shelter acts as a
+goad to drive a man to work, and reason sanctions his natural
+response. This mental activity guides not only individual human
+conduct but also that of the group. Instinct impels the man to defend
+his family from hardship or his clan from defeat, and reason confirms
+the impulse. His sociable disposition urges him to co-operate in
+industry, and reason sanctions his inclination. The history of society
+reveals an increasing influence of the intellect in thus directing
+instinct and feeling. It is a law of social activity that it tends to
+become more rational with the increase of education and experience.
+But it is never possible to determine the quantitative influence of
+the various factors that enter into a decision, or to estimate the
+relative pressure of the forces that urge to activity. Alike in mental
+and in physical activity there is a union of all the causative
+factors. In an act of the will impulse, feeling, and reflection all
+have their part; in physical activity it is difficult to determine how
+compelling is any one of the various forces, such as heredity and
+environment, that enter into the decision.
+
+6. =The Valuation of Social Activities.=--The importance to society of
+all these activities is not to be measured by their scope or by their
+vigor or volume, but by the efficiency with which they perform their
+function, and the value of the end they serve. Domestic activities,
+such as the care of children, may be restricted to the home, and a
+woman's career may seem to be blighted thereby, but no more important
+work can be accomplished than the proper training of the child.
+Political activity may be national in scope, but if it is vitiated by
+corrupt practices its value is greatly diminished. Certain activities
+carry with them no important results, because they have no definite
+function, but are sporadic and temporary, like the coming together of
+groups in the city streets, mingling in momentary excitement and
+dissolving as quickly.
+
+The true valuation of activities is to be determined by their social
+utility. The employment of working men in the brewing of beer or the
+manufacture of chewing-gum may give large returns to an individual or
+a corporation, but the social utility of such activity is small.
+Business enterprise is naturally self-centred; the first interest of
+every individual or group is self-preservation, and business must pay
+for itself and produce a surplus for its owner or it is not worth
+continuing from the economic standpoint; but a business enterprise
+has no right selfishly to disregard the interests of its employees and
+of the public. Its social value must be reckoned as small or great,
+not by the amount of business carried on, but by its contribution to
+human welfare.
+
+Take a department store as an illustration. It may be highly
+profitable to its owners, giving large returns on the investment,
+while distributing cheap and defective goods and paying its employees
+less than a decent living wage. Its value is to be determined as small
+because its social utility is of little worth. When the value of
+activity is estimated on this basis, it will be seen that among the
+noblest activities are those of the philanthropist who gives his time
+and interest without stint to the welfare of other folk; of the
+minister who lends himself to spiritual ministry, and the physician
+who gives up his own comfort and sometimes his own life to save those
+who are physically ill; of the housewife who bears and rears children
+and keeps the home as her willing contribution to the life of the
+world; and of the nurses, companions, and teachers who are mothers,
+sisters, and wives to those who need their help.
+
+7. =Results of Activity.=--The product of activity is achievement. The
+workers of the world are continually transforming energy into material
+products. To clear away a forest, to raise a thousand bushels of
+grain, to market a herd of cattle or a car-load of shoes, to build a
+sky-scraper or an ocean liner, is an achievement. But it is a greater
+achievement to take a child mind and educate it until it learns how to
+cultivate the soil profitably, how to make a machine or a building of
+practical value, and how to save and enrich life.
+
+The history of human folk shows that achievement has been gradual, and
+much of it without conscious planning, but the great inventors, the
+great architects, the great statesmen have been men of vision, and
+definite purpose is sure to fill a larger place in the story of
+achievement. Purposive progress rather than unconscious, telic rather
+than genetic, is the order of the evolution of society.
+
+The highest achievement of the race is its moral uplift. The man or
+woman who has a noble or kindly thought, who has consecrated life to
+unselfish ends and has spent constructive effort for the common good,
+is the true prince among men. He may be a leader upon whom the common
+people rely in time of stress, or only a private in the ranks--he is a
+hero, for his achievement is spiritual, and his mastery of the inner
+life is his supreme victory.
+
+8. =Association.=--A second characteristic of social life is that
+activity is not the activity of isolated individuals, but it is
+_activity in association_. Human beings work together, play together,
+talk together, worship together, fight together. If they happen to act
+alone, they are still closely related to one another. Examine the
+daily newspaper record and see how few items have to do with
+individuals acting in isolation. Even if a person sits down alone to
+think, his mind is working along the line on which it received the
+push of another mind shortly before. A large part of the work of the
+world is done in concert. The ship and the train have their crew, the
+factory its hands, the city police and fire departments their force.
+Men shout together on the ball field, and sing folk-songs in chorus.
+As an audience they listen to the play or the sermon, as a mob they
+rush the jail to lynch a prisoner, or as a crowd they riot in high
+carnival on Mardi Gras. The normal individual belongs to a family, a
+community, a political party, a nation; he may belong, besides, to a
+church, a few learned societies, a trade-union, or any number of clubs
+or fraternities.
+
+Human beings associate because they possess common interests and means
+of intercourse. They are affected by the same needs. They have the
+power to think in the same grooves and to feel a common sympathy.
+Members of the same race or community have a common fund of custom or
+tradition; they are conscious of like-mindedness in morals and
+religion; they are subject to the same kind of mental suggestion; they
+have their own peculiar language and literature. As communication
+between different parts of the world improves and ability to speak in
+different languages increases, there comes a better understanding
+among the world's peoples and an increase of mutual sympathy.
+
+Experience has taught the value of association. By it the individual
+makes friends, gains in knowledge, enlarges interests. Knowing this,
+he seeks acquaintances, friends, and companions. He finds the world
+richer because of family, community, and national life, and if
+necessary he is willing to sacrifice something of his own comfort and
+peace for the advantages that these associations will bring.
+
+9. =Causes of Association.=--It is the nature of human beings to enjoy
+company, to be curious about what they see and hear, to talk together,
+and to imitate one another. These traits appear in savages and even in
+animals, and they are not outgrown with advance in civilization. These
+inborn instincts are modified or re-enforced by the conscious workings
+of the mind, and are aided or restricted by external circumstances. It
+is a natural instinct for men to seek associates. They feel a liking
+for one and a dislike for another, and select their friends
+accordingly. But the choice of most men is within a restricted field,
+for their acquaintance is narrow. College men are thrown with a
+certain set or join a certain fraternity. They play on the same team
+or belong to the same class. They may have chosen their college, but
+within that institution their environment is limited. It is similar in
+the world at large. Individuals do not choose the environment in which
+at first they find themselves, and the majority cannot readily change
+their environment. Within its natural limits and the barriers which
+caste or custom have fixed, children form their play groups according
+to their liking for each other, and adults organize their societies
+according to their mutual interests or common beliefs. With increasing
+acquaintance and ease of communication and transportation there comes
+a wider range of choice, and environment is less controlling. The will
+of the individual becomes freer to choose friends and associates
+wherever he finds them. He may have widely scattered business and
+political connections. He may be a member of an international
+association. He may even take a wife from another city or a distant
+nation. Mental interaction flows in international channels.
+
+10. =Forms of Association.=--It is possible to classify all forms of
+association in two groups as natural, like a gang of boys, or
+artificial, like a political party. Or it is possible to arrange them
+according to the interests they serve, as economic, scientific, and
+the like. Again they may be classified according to thoroughness of
+organization, ranging from the crowd to the closely knit corporation.
+But whatever the form may be, the value of the association is to be
+judged according to the degree of social worth, as in the case of
+activities. On that basis a company of gladiators or a pugilist's club
+ranks below a village improvement society; that in turn yields in
+importance to a learned association of physicians discussing the best
+means of relieving human suffering. In the slow process of social
+evolution those forms that do not contribute to the welfare of the
+race will lose their place in society.
+
+11. =Results of Association.=--The results of association are among
+the permanent assets of the race. Man has become what he is because of
+his social relations, and further progress is dependent upon them. The
+arts that distinguish man from his inferiors are the products of
+inter-communication and co-operation. The art of conversation and the
+accompanying interchange of ideas and thought stimulus are to be
+numbered among the benefits. The art of conciliation that calms
+ruffled tempers and softens conflict belongs here. The art of
+co-operation, that great engine of achievement, depends on learning
+through social contact how to think and feel sympathetically. Finally,
+there is the product of social organization. Chance meetings and
+temporary assemblies are of small value, though they must be noted as
+phenomena of association. More important are the fixed institutions
+that have grown out of relations continually tested by experience
+until they have become sanctioned by society as indispensable. Such
+are the organized forms of business, education, government, and
+religion. But all groups require organization of a sort. The gang has
+its recognized leader, the club its officers and by-laws. Even such
+antisocial persons as outlaws frequently move in bands and have their
+chiefs. Organization goes far to determine success in war or
+politics, in work or play. Like achievement, organization is the
+result of a gradual growth in collective experience, and must be
+continually adapted to the changing requirements of successive periods
+by the wisdom of master minds. It must also gradually include larger
+groups within its scope until, like the International Young Men's
+Christian Association or the Universal Postal Union, it reaches out to
+the ends of the earth.
+
+12. =Control.=--The public mirror of the press reveals a third
+characteristic of social life. Activity and association are both under
+_control_. Activity would result in exploitation of the weak by the
+strong, and finally in anarchy, if there were no exercise of control.
+Under control activities are co-ordinated, individuals and classes are
+brought to work in co-operation and not in antagonism, and under an
+enlightened and sanctioned authority life becomes richer, fuller, and
+more truly free.
+
+Social control begins in the individual mind. Instincts and feelings
+are held in the leash of rational thought. Intelligence is the guide
+to action. Control is exerted externally upon the individual from
+early childhood. Parental authority checks the independence of the
+child and compels conformity to the will of his elders. Family
+tradition makes its power felt in many homes, and family pride is a
+compelling reason for moral rectitude. Every member of the family is
+restrained by the rights of the others, and often yields his own
+preferences for the common good. When the child goes out from the home
+he is still under restraint, and rigid regulations become even more
+pronounced. The rules of the schoolroom permit little freedom. The
+teacher's authority is absolute during the hours when school is in
+session. In the city when school hours are over there are municipal
+regulations enforced by watchful police that restrict the activity of
+a boy in the streets, and if he visits the playground he is still
+under the reign of law. Similarly the adult is hedged about by social
+control. Custom decrees that he must dress appropriately for the
+street, that he must pass to the right when he meets another person,
+and that he must raise his hat to an acquaintance of the opposite sex.
+The college youth finds it necessary to acquaint himself with the
+customs and traditions that have been handed down from class to class,
+and these must be observed under pain of ostracism. Faculty and
+trustees stand in the way of his unlimited enjoyment. His moral
+standards are affected by the atmosphere of the chapter house, the
+athletic field, and the examination hall. In business and civil
+relations men find themselves compelled to recognize laws that have
+been formulated for the public good. State and national governments
+have been able to assert successfully their right to control corporate
+action, however large and powerful the corporation might be. But
+government itself is subject to the will of the people in a democratic
+nation, and public opinion sways officials and determines local and
+national policies. Religious beliefs have the force of law upon whole
+peoples like the Mohammedans.
+
+Social control is exercised in large measure without the mailed fist.
+Moral suasion tends to supersede the birch stick and the policeman's
+billy. Within limits there is freedom of action, and the tacit appeal
+of society is to a man's self-control. But the newspaper with its
+sensation and police-court gossip never lets us forget that back of
+self-control is the court of judicial authority and the bar of public
+opinion.
+
+The result of the constant exercise of control is the existence of
+order. The normal individual becomes accustomed to restraint from his
+earliest years, and it is only the few who are disorderly in the
+schoolroom, on the streets, or in the broader relations of life.
+Criminals make up a small part of the population; anarchy never has
+appealed to many as a social philosophy; unconventional people are
+rare enough to attract special attention.
+
+13. =Change.=--A fourth characteristic of social life is _change_.
+Control tends to keep society static, but there are powerful dynamic
+forces that are continually upsetting the equilibrium. In spite of the
+natural conservatism of institutions and agencies of control, group
+life is as continually changing as the physical elements in nature.
+Continued observation recorded over a considerable period of time
+reveals changing habits, changing occupations, changing interests,
+even changing laws and governments. Inside the group individuals are
+continually readjusting their modes of thought and activity to one
+another, and between groups there is a similar adjustment of social
+habits. Without such change there can be no progress. War or other
+catastrophe suddenly alters wide human relations. External influences
+are constantly making their impression upon us, stimulating us to
+higher attainment or dragging us down to individual and group
+degeneration.
+
+14. =Causes of Change.=--The factors that enter into social life to
+produce change are numerous. Conflict of ideas among individuals and
+groups compels frequent readjustment of thought. The free expression
+of opinion in public debate and through the press is a powerful
+factor. Travel alters modes of conduct, and wholesale migration
+changes the characteristics of large groups of population. Family
+habits change with accumulation of wealth or removal from the farm to
+the city. The introduction of the telephone and the free mail delivery
+with its magazines and daily newspapers has altered currents of
+thought in the country. Summer visitors have introduced country and
+city to each other; the automobile has enlarged the horizon of
+thousands. New modes of agriculture have been adopted through the
+influence of a state agricultural college, new methods of education
+through a normal school, new methods of church work through a
+theological seminary. Whole peoples, as in China and Turkey, have been
+profoundly affected by forces that compelled change. Growth in
+population beyond comfortable means of subsistence has set tribes in
+motion; the need of wider markets has compelled nations to try
+forcible expansion into disputed areas. The desire for larger
+opportunities has sent millions of emigrants from Europe to America,
+and has been changing rapidly the complexion of the crowds that walk
+the city streets and enter the polling booths. Certain outstanding
+personalities have moulded life and thought through the centuries,
+and have profoundly changed whole regions of country. Mohammed and
+Confucius put their personal stamp upon the Orient; Caesar and Napoleon
+made and remade western Europe; Adam Smith and Darwin swayed economic
+and scientific England; Washington and Lincoln were makers of America.
+
+Through such social processes as these--through unconscious
+suggestion, through communication and discussion that mould public
+opinion, through changes in environment and the influence of new
+leaders of thought and action--the evolution of folk life has carried
+whole races, sometimes to oblivion, but generally out of savagery and
+barbarism into a material and cultural civilization.
+
+15. =Results of the Process.=--The results of the process of social
+change are so far-reaching as to be almost incalculable. Particularly
+marked are the changes of the last hundred years. The best way to
+appreciate them is by a comparison of periods. Take college life in
+America as an example. Scores of colleges now large and prosperous
+were not then in existence, and even in the older colleges conditions
+were far inferior to what they are in the newer and smaller colleges
+to-day. There were few preparatory schools, and the young man--of
+course there were no college women--fitted himself as best he could by
+private instruction. To reach the college it was necessary to drive by
+stage or private conveyance to the college town, to find rooms in an
+ill-equipped dormitory or private house, to be content with plain food
+for the body and a narrow course of study for the mind. The method of
+instruction was tedious and uninspiring; text-books were unattractive
+and dull. There were no libraries worthy of the name, no laboratories
+or observatories for research. Scientific instruction was conspicuous
+by its absence; the social sciences were unknown. Gymnasiums had not
+been evolved from the college wood-pile; intercollegiate sports were
+unknown. Glee clubs, dramatic societies, college journalism, and the
+other arts and pastimes that give color and variety to modern
+university life were unknown.
+
+In the same period modes of thinking have changed. Scientific
+discoveries and the principles that have been based on them have
+wrought a revolution. Evolution has become a word to conjure with.
+Scholars think in terms of process. Biological investigation has opened
+wide the whole realm of life and emphasized the place of development in
+the physical organism. Psychological study has changed the basis of
+philosophy. Sociology has come with new interpretations of human life.
+Rapid changes are taking place at the present time in education, in
+religion, and in social adjustments. The rate of progress varies in
+different parts of the world; there are handicaps in the form of race
+conservatism, local and individual self-satisfaction and independence,
+maladjustments and isolation; sometimes the process leads along a
+downward path. On the whole, however, the history is a story of
+progress.
+
+16. =Weaknesses.=--In the thinking of not a few persons the handicaps
+that lie in the path of social development bulk larger than the
+engines of progress. They are pessimistic over the _weaknesses_ that
+constitute a fifth characteristic of social life. These are certainly
+not to be overlooked, but they are an inevitable result of incomplete
+adaptations during a constant process of change. There are numerous
+illustrations of weakness. Social activity is not always wisely
+directed. Association frequently develops antagonism instead of
+co-operation. In trade and industry individuals do not "play fair."
+Corporations are sometimes unjust. Politics are liable to become
+corrupt. In the various associations of home and community life
+indifference, cruelty, unchastity, and crime add to the burdens of
+poverty, disease, and wretchedness. A yellow press mirrors a
+scandalous amount of intrigue, immorality, and misdemeanor. Government
+abuses its power; public opinion is intolerant and unjust; fashion is
+tyrannical; law is uncompromising. In times like our own economic
+interests frequently overshadow cultural interests. In college
+estimation athletics appear to bulk larger than the curriculum. In the
+public mind prejudice and hasty judgments take precedence over
+carefully weighed opinions and judicial decisions. Conservatism blocks
+the wheels of progress, or radicalism, in its unbalanced enthusiasm,
+destroys by injudiciousness the good that has been gradually
+accumulating. The social machinery gets out of gear, or proves
+inefficient for the new burdens that frequently are imposed upon it.
+The social order is not perfect and needs occasional amendment.
+
+17. =Resultant Problems.=--These weaknesses precipitate specific
+social problems. Some of them are bound up in the family
+relationships, like the better regulation of marriage and divorce, the
+prevention of desertion, and the rights of women and children. Others
+are questions that relate to industry, such as the rights of employees
+with reference to wages and hours of labor, or the unhealthy
+conditions in which working people live and toil. Certain matters are
+issues in every community. It is not easy to decide what shall be done
+with the poor, the unfortunate, and the weak-willed members of
+society. Some problems are peculiar to the country, the city, or the
+nation, like the need of rural co-operation, the improvement of
+municipal efficiency, or the regulation of immigration. A few are
+international, like the scourge of war. Besides such specific problems
+there are always general issues demanding the attention of social
+thinkers and reformers, such as the adjustment of individual rights to
+social duties, and the improvement of moral and religious efficiency.
+
+18. =The Social Groups.=--A broad survey of the current life of
+society leads naturally to the questions: How is this social life
+organized? and How did it come to be? The answers to these questions
+appear in certain social groupings, each of which has a history and
+life of its own, but is only a segment of the whole circle of active
+association. These groupings include the family, the rural community,
+the city, and the nation. In the natural environment of the home
+social life finds its apprenticeship. When the child has become in a
+measure socialized, he enters into the larger relations of the
+neighborhood. Half the people of the United States live in country
+communities, but an increasing proportion of the population is found
+in the midst of the associations and activities of the larger civic
+community. All are citizens or wards of the nation, and have a part
+in the social life of America. Consciously or not they have still
+wider relations in a world life that is continually growing in social
+content. Each of these groups reveals the same fundamental
+characteristics, but each has its peculiar forms and its dominant
+energies; each has its perplexing problems and each its possibilities
+of greater good. Through the environment the forces of the mind are
+moulding a life that is gradually becoming more nearly like the social
+ideal.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 363-399.
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      237-240.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 58-73.
+
+  ROSS: _Social Control_, pages 49-61.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 182-255.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 271-282.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+UNORGANIZED GROUP LIFE
+
+
+19. =Temporary Groups.=--A study of the organization and development
+of social life is mainly a study of the mental and physical activities
+of individuals associated in permanent groups. Conditions change and
+there is a continual shifting of contacts as in a kaleidoscope, but
+the group is a fixed institution in the life of society. But besides
+the permanent groups there are temporary unorganized associations that
+have a place in social life too important to be overlooked. They vary
+in size from a chance meeting of two or three friends who stop on the
+street corner and separate after a few minutes of conversation, to the
+great mass-meeting, that is called for a special purpose and interests
+a whole neighborhood, but adjourns _sine die_. Such groups are subject
+to the same physical and psychic forces that affect the family, the
+community, and the nation, but they tend to act more on impulse,
+because there is no habitual subordination to an established rule or
+order. A simple illustration will show the influences that work to
+produce these temporary groupings and that govern conduct.
+
+20. =How the Group Forms.=--Imagine a working man on the morning of a
+holiday. Without a fixed purpose how he will spend the day, his mind
+works along the line of least resistance, inviting physical or mental
+stimulus, and sensitive to respond. He is not accustomed to remain at
+home, nor does he wish to be alone. He is used to the companionship of
+the factory, and instinctively he longs for the association of his
+kind. He is most likely to meet his acquaintances on the street, and
+he feels the pull of the out-of-doors. The influences of instinct and
+habit impel him to activity, and he makes a definite choice to leave
+the house. Once on the street he feels the zest of motion and the
+anticipation of the pleasure that he will find in the companionship
+of his fellows. Reason assures him from past experience that he has
+made a good choice, and on general principles asserts that exercise is
+good for him, whatever may be the social result of his stroll. Thus
+the various factors that produce individual activity are at work in
+him. They are similarly at work in others of his kind. Presently these
+factors will bring them together.
+
+Unconsciously the working man and his friend are moving toward each
+other. The attention and discrimination of each man is brought into
+play with every person that he meets, but there is no recognition of
+acquaintance until each comes within the range of vision of the other.
+They greet each other with a hail of good-fellowship and a cordial
+hand-shake and stop for conversation. An analysis of the psychological
+elements that enter into such an incident would make plain the part of
+sense-perception and memory, of feeling and volition in the act of
+each, but the significant fact in the incident is that these mental
+factors are set to work because of the contact of one mind upon the
+other. It is the mental interaction arising from the moment's
+association that produces the social phenomenon. What are the social
+phenomena of this particular occasion? They are the acts that have
+taken place because of association. The individual would not greet
+himself or shake hands with himself, or stop to talk with himself.
+They are dependent upon the presence of more than one person; they are
+phenomena of the group. Why do they shake hands and talk? First,
+because they feel alike and think alike, and sympathy and
+like-mindedness seek expression in gesture and language, and,
+secondly, because their mode of action is under the control of a
+social custom that directs specific acts. If the meeting was on the
+continent of Europe the men might embrace, if it was in the jungle of
+Africa they might raise a yell at sight of each other, but American
+custom limits the greeting to a hand-clasp, supplemented on occasion
+by a slap on the shoulder. In Italy the language used is peculiar to
+the race and is helped out by many gestures; in New England of the
+Puritans the language used would be of a type peculiar to itself, and
+would hardly have the assistance of a changing facial expression.
+To-day two men have formed a temporary group, group action has taken
+place, and the action, while impulsive, is under the constraint of
+present custom. What happens next?
+
+21. =The Working of the Social Mind.=--Conversation in the group
+develops a common purpose. The two men are conscious of common desires
+and interests, or through a conflict of ideas the will of one
+subordinates the will of the other, and under the control of the joint
+purpose, which is now the social mind, they move toward one goal. This
+goal soon appears to be the objective point of a larger social mind,
+for other men and boys are converging in the same direction. At the
+corner of another street the two companions meet other friends, and
+after a mutual greeting the augmented party finds its way to the
+entrance of a ball park. The same instincts and habits and the same
+feelings and thoughts have stirred in every member of the group; they
+have felt the pull of the same desires and interests; they have put
+themselves in motion toward the same goal; they have greeted one
+another in similar fashion, and they find satisfaction in talking
+together on a common topic; but they do not constitute a permanent or
+organized group, and once separated they may never repeat this chance
+meeting.
+
+22. =The Impulse of the Crowd.=--Once within the ball park and seated
+on the long benches they are part of a far larger group of like-minded
+human beings, and they feel a common thrill in anticipation of the
+pleasure of the sport. They feel the stimulus that comes from
+obedience to a common impulse. A shout or a joke arouses a sympathetic
+outburst from hundreds. When they came together at first most of them
+were strangers, but common interests and emotions have produced a
+group consciousness. The game is called, and hundreds in unison fix
+their attention on the men in action. A hit is made, in breathless
+suspense the crowd watches to see the result, and with a common
+impulse cries out simultaneously in approbation or disgust over the
+play. As the game proceeds primitive passions play over the crowd and
+emotions find free expression in the language that habit and custom
+provide. The crowd is in a state of high suggestibility; it responds
+to the stimulus of a chance remark, the misplay of a player, or the
+misjudgment of an umpire; one moment it is thrown into panic by the
+prospect of defeat, and the next into paroxysms of delight as the tide
+of victory turns. On sufficient provocation the crowd gets into
+motion, impelled by a common excitement to unreasoning action; it
+pours upon the field, and, unless prevented, wreaks its anger upon
+team or umpire that has aroused it to fury, but met with superior
+force the crowd melts away, dissolving into its smaller groups and
+then into its individual elements. A crowd of the sort described
+constitutes one type of the incomplete group. It is a chance assembly,
+moved by a common purpose but coalescing only temporarily, guided by
+elemental impulses, and readily breaking up without permanent
+achievement other than obtaining the recreation sought.
+
+23. =The Mass-Meeting.=--Another and more orderly type appears in a
+meeting of American residents in a foreign city to protest against an
+outrage to their flag or an injustice to one of their number. Those
+who assemble are not members of a definite organization with a regular
+machinery for action. They are, however, moved by common emotion and
+purpose, because they are conscious of a permanent bond that creates
+mutual sympathy. They are citizens of the same country. They are
+mindful of a national history that is their common heritage. They are
+proud of the position of eminence that belongs to the Western
+republic. There is a peculiar quality to the patriotism that they all
+feel and that calls out a unanimous expression. Their minds work
+alike, and they come together to give expression to their feelings and
+convictions. They are under the direction of a presiding officer and
+the procedure of the meeting is according to the parliamentary rules
+that guide civilized assemblies. However urgent of purpose, the
+speakers hold themselves in leash, and the listeners content
+themselves with conventional applause when their enthusiasm is
+aroused. After a reasonable amount of discussion has taken place, the
+assembly crystallizes its opinions in the form of resolutions couched
+in earnest but dignified language and disperses to await the action of
+those in authority.
+
+24. =International Association.=--Still another type is the incomplete
+group that is composed of men and women of similar moral or religious
+convictions who never assemble in one place, but constitute a certain
+kind of association. Kipling could sing,
+
+    "The East is East and the West is West
+    And never the twain shall meet,"
+
+yet through missionary efforts people of very different races and
+habits of living and thinking have been brought to cherish the same
+beliefs and to adopt similar customs. Thousands of such people in all
+parts of the world constitute a unified group because of their mental
+interaction, though they may never meet and are not organized in
+common. The only medium through which one section has influenced
+another may be a single missionary or book, but the electric current
+of sympathy passes from one to another as effectively as the wireless
+carries a message across leagues of space. In the same way sentiment
+and opinion spread and reproduce themselves, even through long periods
+of time. Before the middle of the nineteenth century Chinese sentiment
+was so strong against the importation of opium from India that war
+broke out with England, with the result that the curse was fastened
+upon the Orient. The evil increased, spreading through many countries.
+Meantime international fortunes brought the United States to the
+Philippines and trade carried opium to the United States. Foreigners
+in China combated the evil. The nation took a determined stand, and
+finally, through international agreement under American leadership,
+the trade and the consumption of opium were checked. Similarly slavery
+was put under the opprobrium of Christendom, public opinion in one
+nation after another was formed against it, laws were passed
+condemning it, and at last it received an international ban. At the
+present time, through agitation and conference, a world sentiment
+against war is increasing, and pacifists in every land constitute an
+expanding group of like-minded men and women who are determined that
+wars shall cease in the future. These are all examples of unorganized
+associations or incomplete groups.
+
+25. =Experiments in Association.=--In the history of human kind
+numerous experiments in association have been made; those which have
+served well in the competition between groups have survived, and have
+tended to become permanent types of association, receiving the
+sanction of society, and so to be reckoned as social institutions;
+others have been thrown on the rubbish heap as worthless. It is
+generally believed, for example, that many related families in
+primitive times associated in a loosely connected horde, but the horde
+could not compete successfully with an organized state and gave way
+before it. The local community in New England once carried on its
+affairs satisfactorily in yearly mass-meeting, where every citizen had
+an equal privilege of speaking and voting directly upon a proposed
+measure, but there proved to be a limit to the efficiency of such
+government when the population increased, so that a meeting of all the
+citizens was impossible, and a constitutional assembly of
+representative citizens was devised. Similarly national governments
+have been organized for greater efficiency and machinery is being
+invented frequently to increase their value.
+
+26. =Kinds of Unorganized Groups.=--Unorganized groups are of three
+kinds: There are first the normal groups that are continually being
+formed and dissolved, but that perform a useful function while they
+exist. Such are the chance meetings and conversations of friends in
+all walks of life, and the crowds that gather occasionally to help
+forward a good cause. They promote general intelligence, provide a
+free exchange of ideas, and help to form a body of public opinion for
+social guidance. There is often an open-mindedness among the common
+people that is not vitiated by the grip of vested interests upon their
+unwarped judgments, and the people can be trusted in the long run to
+make good. Democracy is based upon the reliability of public opinion.
+
+The second kind of unorganized group is one that is on the way to
+becoming a permanent group sanctioned by society. A group of this type
+is the boy's gang. By most persons the spontaneous association of a
+dozen boys who live near together and range over a certain district
+has been condemned as a social evil; recently it has become recognized
+as a normal group, forming naturally at a certain period of boy life
+and falling to pieces of its own accord a few years later. The
+tendency of boy leaders is not only to give it recognition as
+legitimate, but to use the gang instinct to promote definite
+organizations of greater value to their members and to the community.
+Another group of the same type is a so-called "movement," composed of
+a few individuals who associate themselves in a loose way to further a
+definite purpose, like the promotion of temperance, hold
+mass-meetings, and create public opinion, but do not at once proceed
+to a permanent organization. Eventually, when the movement has
+gathered sufficient headway or has shown that it is permanently
+valuable, a fixed organization may be accomplished.
+
+The third kind of unorganized group is an abnormality in the midst of
+civilization, a relic of the primitive days when impulse rather than
+reason swayed the mind of a group. Such is the crowd that gathers in a
+moment of excitement and yields to a momentary passion to lynch a
+prisoner, or a revolutionary mob that loots and burns out of a sheer
+desire for destruction. Such a group has not even the value of a
+safety-valve, for its passion gathers momentum as it goes, and, like a
+conflagration, it cannot be stopped until it has burned itself out or
+met a solid wall of military authority.
+
+27. =The Popular Crowd vs. the Organized Group.=--In the routine life
+of a disciplined society there is always to be found at least one of
+these types. Even the abnormal type of the passionate crowd is not
+unusual in its milder form. Any unusual event like a fire or a circus
+will draw scores and hundreds together, and the crowd is always liable
+to fall into disorder unless officers of the law are in attendance.
+This is so well understood that the police are always in evidence
+where there are large congregations of people at church or theatre,
+where a prominent man is to be seen or a procession is to pass. But
+the popular mass is a volatile thing, and in proportion to its size it
+expends little useful energy. It is never to be reckoned as equal in
+importance to the organized company, however small it may be, that has
+a definite purpose guiding its regular action, and that persists in
+its purpose for years together. It is the fixed group, the social
+institution, that does the work of the world and carries society
+forward from lower to higher levels of civilization. Social efficiency
+belongs to the organized type.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 149-156.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Elements of Sociology_, pages 129-140.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 120-138.
+
+  ROSS: _Social Psychology_, pages 43-82.
+
+  MUeNSTERBERG: _Psychology, General and Applied_, pages 269-273.
+
+  DAVENPORT: _Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals_, pages 25-31.
+
+
+
+
+PART II--LIFE IN THE FAMILY GROUP
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FOUNDATIONS OF THE FAMILY
+
+
+28. =The Fundamental Importance of the Family.=--Social life can be
+understood best by taking the simplest organized group of human beings
+and analyzing its activities, its organization, and its development.
+The family is such a group and is, therefore, a natural basis for
+study. It illustrates most of the phases of social activity, it is
+simple in its organization, its history goes back to primitive times,
+and it is rapidly changing in the present. Family life is made up of
+the interactions of individual life, and, therefore, the individual in
+his social relations and not the family is the unit of sociological
+investigation, but until recent years the family group has been
+regarded as of greater importance than the individual, and in the
+Orient the family still occupies the place of importance. Out of the
+family have developed such institutions as property, law, and
+government, and on the maintenance of the family rests the future
+welfare of society. It has been claimed that "the study of the single
+family on its homestead would yield richer scientific knowledge and
+more practical results in the great social sciences than almost any
+other single object in the social world. Pursued historically, the
+student would find himself at the roots of property, separate
+ownership of land, inheritance, taxation, free trade and tariff, and
+discover the germs of international law and the state. The great
+questions of the day, as we call them, are little more than incidents
+to the working out of the great social institutions, and these are the
+expansions and modified forms of the family amid its unceasing support
+and activity."
+
+29. =The Family on the Farm.=--The best environment in which to study
+the family is the farm. There the relations and activities of the
+larger world appear in miniature, but with a greater simplicity and
+unity than elsewhere. There the family gets closer to the soil, and
+its members feel their relation to nature and the restrictions that
+nature imposes upon human activity. There appear the occupations of
+the successive stages of history--hunting, the care of domesticated
+animals, agriculture, and manufacturing; there are the activities of
+production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods. There a
+consciousness of mutual dependence is developed, and the value of
+co-operation is illustrated. There the mind ranges less fettered than
+in the town, yet is less inclined toward radical changes. There the
+family preserves and hands down from one generation to another the
+heritage of the past, and stimulates its members to further progress.
+In the family on the farm children learn how to live in association
+with their kin and with hired employees; there much of the mental,
+moral, and religious training is begun; and there is found most of the
+sympathy and encouragement that nerves the boy to go out from home for
+the struggle of life in the larger community and the world.
+
+30. =Physical Conditions of Farm Life.=--Every group, like every
+individual, is dependent in a measure on its physical environment. The
+prosperity of the family on the farm and the daily activities of its
+members wait often upon the quality of climate and soil and the temper
+of the weather. The rocky hillsides of mountain lands like Switzerland
+breed a hardy, self-reliant people, who make the most of small
+opportunities for agriculture. A well-watered, rolling country pours
+its riches into the lap of the husbandman; in such surroundings he is
+likely to be more cheerful but less gritty than the Scottish
+highlander. The pioneer settlers of America, in their trek into the
+ulterior, faced the forest and its terrors, and every member of the
+family who was old enough added his ounce of effort to the struggle to
+subdue it. Their descendants enjoy the fruits of the earlier victory.
+The well-trimmed woodland and fertile field are attractive to him;
+nature in varying moods interests him. Even on the edge of the Western
+desert the farmer is the master of a process of dry farming or
+irrigation, so that he can smile at nature's effort to drive him out.
+Science and education have helped to make man more independent of
+natural forces and natural moods, but still it is nature that provides
+the raw materials, that supplies the energy of wind and water and
+sunshine, and that hastens prosperity if man learns to co-operate with
+it. Success in the economic struggle of the family has always been
+conditioned upon the physical environment, and it will always remain
+one of the factors that shape human destiny.
+
+31. =Inheritance of Family Traits.=--Another factor that enters into
+family life is the physical nature of its members, the quality of the
+stock from which the family is descended. Heredity is as important in
+sociological study as environment. It is well known that a child
+inherits racial and family traits from his ancestors, and these he
+cannot shake off altogether as he grows older. Families have their
+peculiarities that continue from one generation to another. The family
+endowment is often the foundation of individual success. Without
+physical sturdiness the man and woman on the farm are seriously
+handicapped and are liable to succumb in the struggle for existence;
+without mental ability and moral stamina members of the family fail to
+make a broad mark on the community, and the family influence declines.
+Mere acquisition or transmission of wealth does not constitute good
+fortune. This fact of heredity must therefore be reckoned with in all
+the activities of the family, and cannot be overlooked in a study of
+the psychic factors which are the real social forces.
+
+32. =The Domestic Function of the Family.=--The farm family for the
+purpose of study may be thought of as composed of husband and wife,
+children and servants, but the makers of the family are of first
+importance for its understanding. The family has a long history, but
+it exists, not because it is a long-established institution, but
+because it satisfies present human needs, as all institutions must if
+they are to survive. The family serves many ends, but as the primary
+social instincts are to mate and to eat, so the principal functions of
+the family are the _domestic_ and the _economic_. The normal adult
+desires to mate, to have and rear children, and to make a home. To
+this his sexual and parental instincts impel him; they are nature's
+provision for the perpetuation of the race. The sex instinct attracts
+the man and the woman to each other, and marriage is the sanction of
+society to their union; the parental instinct gives birth to children
+and leads the father and mother to protect the child through the long
+years of dependence. Marriage and parenthood are twin obligations that
+the individual owes to the race. Celibacy makes no contribution to the
+perpetuation of the race, and unregulated sexual intercourse is a
+blight upon society. Marriage lays the foundation of the home and
+makes possible the values that belong to that institution. Children
+hold the family together; separation and divorce are most common in
+childless homes. Personal service and sacrifice are engendered in the
+care of children; therefore it is that the family without children is
+not a perfect family, but an abnormality as a social institution. For
+these reasons custom and law protect the home, and religion declares
+marriage a sacred bond and reproduction a sacred function.
+
+It is the long experience of the race that has made plain the
+fundamental importance of the marriage relation, and history shows how
+step by step man and woman have struggled toward higher standards of
+mutual appreciation and co-operation. From past history and present
+tendencies it is possible to determine values and weaknesses and to
+point out dangers and possibilities. As the family group is
+fundamental to an understanding of the community, so the relation of
+man and woman are essential to a comprehension of the complete family,
+and investigation of their relations must precede a study of the
+social development of the child in the home, or of the economic
+relations of the farmer and his assistants. Nothing more clearly
+illustrates the factors that enter into all human relations than the
+story of how the family came to be.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 62-70.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, 1913 edition,
+      pages 74-82.
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 241-259.
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 1-11.
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: "Rural Life and the Family," _American Journal of
+      Sociology_, vol. 14, pages 721-725.
+
+  HENDERSON: "Are Modern Industry and City Life Unfavorable to the
+      Family?" _American Journal of Sociology_, vol. 14, pages
+      668-675.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE FAMILY
+
+
+33. =How the Family Came to Be.=--The modern family among civilized
+peoples is based almost universally on the union of one man and one
+woman. There is good reason to believe that this practice of monogamy
+was in vogue among primitive human beings, but marriage was unstable
+and it was only through long experimentation that monogamy proved
+itself best fitted to survive. At first conjugal affection, which has
+become intelligent and moral, was merely a sexual desire that led the
+man to seek a mate and the maid to choose among her suitors. Unbound
+by long-continued custom or legal and ceremonial restriction, the
+primitive couple were free to separate if they pleased, but the
+instinctive feeling that they belonged to each other, the habits of
+association, adaptation, and co-operation, and jealousy at any
+attention shown by another tended to preserve the relationship. The
+presence of offspring sealed the bond as long as the children were
+dependent, and strengthened the sense of mutual responsibility. The
+children were peculiarly the mother's children since she gave them
+birth, but the father instinctively protected the family that was
+growing up around him, and procured food and shelter for its members,
+though it is doubtful if he had any realization of his part in giving
+life to a new generation.
+
+During this period of social development, when the mother's presence
+constituted the home and the children were regarded as belonging
+primarily to her, descent was reckoned in the female line, the
+children were attached to the maternal clan of blood relatives, and
+such relatives began to move in bands, for the same reason that
+animals move in packs and herds. Some writers speak of it as a
+matriarchal period, but it does not appear that women governed; it is
+more proper to speak of the family as metronymic, for the children
+bore the mother's name and maternity outweighed paternity in social
+estimate.
+
+34. =The Patriarchal Household.=--When population increased and food
+consequently became more difficult to obtain, the domestication of
+animals was achieved, and nomadic habits carried the family from
+pasture to pasture; rival clans wanted the same regions, wars broke
+out, and physical superiority asserted its claims. The man supplanted
+the woman as the important member of the household, reduced the others
+to submission, added to his wives and servants by capture or purchase,
+and established the patriarchal system. Descent henceforth was
+reckoned in the paternal line, and society had become patronymic
+instead of metronymic. It must not be supposed that this change
+occurred very suddenly. It may have taken many centuries to bring it
+about, but as the man learned his part in procreation and his power in
+society, he delighted in his self-importance to lord it over the woman
+and her children. The marriage relation ceased to be free and
+reciprocal. The wife no longer had a choice in marriage. Bought or
+captured, she was no longer wooed for a companion, but was valued
+according to her economic worth. As population pressed, the
+domestication of plants followed the taming of animals, but the
+agricultural settlement of the family only made the woman's lot
+harder, for she was the burden bearer on the farm.
+
+35. =Polygyny.=--a better term than polygamy--was the inevitable
+result of the patriarchal system. Man made the law and the law
+recognized no restraint upon his sexual and parental instincts.
+Improvements in living added to the resources of the family and made
+it possible to maintain large households of wives, children, and
+slaves. Polygyny had some social utility, because it increased the
+number of children, and this gave added prestige and power to the
+family, as slavery had utility because it provided a labor force; but
+both were weaknesses in ancient society, because they did not tend in
+the long run to human welfare. Polygyny brutalized men, degraded
+women, and destroyed that affection and comradeship between parents
+and their offspring that are the proper heritage of children. Wherever
+it has survived as a system, polygyny has hindered progress, and
+wherever it exists in the midst of monogamy it tends to break down
+civilization.
+
+Another variety of marriage that has been less common than polygyny is
+polyandry. It is a term that signifies the marriage of one woman to
+several husbands, and seems to have occurred, as in the interior of
+Asia, only where subsistence was especially difficult or women
+comparatively few. Neither polygyny nor polyandry were universal, even
+where they were a frequent practice. Only the few could afford the
+indulgence, much the largest percentage of the people remained
+monogamous.
+
+36. =Conflict and Social Selection.=--The supreme business of the
+social group is to adapt itself to the conditions that affect its
+life. It must learn to get on with its physical environment and with
+other social groups with which it comes into relation. The methods of
+adaptation are conflict and co-operation. The primitive savage and his
+wife learned to work together, and his family and hers very likely
+kept the peace, until through the increase of population they felt the
+pinch of hunger when the supply did not equal the demand. Then came
+conflict. Conflict is an essential element in all progress. There is
+conflict between the lower and higher impulses in the human mind,
+conflict between selfish ambition and the welfare of the group,
+conflict among individuals and races for a place in the sun. It is
+conceivable that the baser impulses that provoke much social conflict
+may give way to more rational and altruistic purpose, but it is
+difficult to see how all friction can be avoided in social relations.
+It is certainly to be reckoned with in the history of group life.
+
+The story of human progress shows that in the social conflict those
+groups survive which have become best adapted to life conditions and
+so are fitted to cope with their enemies. In the story of the family
+male leadership proved most useful and was perpetuated, but the
+practice of polygyny and polyandry proved in the long run to be
+hurtful to success in the sturdy struggle for existence.
+
+37. =Ancestor-Worship.=--When a practice or institution is seen to
+work well it soon becomes indorsed by social custom, law, or religion.
+The patriarchal system became fortified by ancestor-worship, which
+helped to keep the family subordinate to its male head. Even the dead
+hand of the patriarch ruled. The paternal ancestors of the family were
+believed to have the power to bless or curse their descendants, and
+they were faithfully placated with gifts and veneration, as has
+continued to be the custom in China. Among the Romans the household
+gods were cherished at the hearth long before Jupiter became king of
+heaven; AEneas must save his ancestral-images if he lost all else in
+the fall of Troy. At Rome the worship of a common ancestor was the
+strongest family bond. The marriage ceremony consisted of a solemn
+transfer of the bride from her duties to her own ancestors over to the
+adoption of her husband's gods. This transfer of allegiance helped to
+perpetuate the patriarchal system, and the sanction of religion
+greatly strengthened the wedded relation, so that divorce and polygyny
+were unknown in the old Roman period. But the absolute patriarchal
+control of wife and children made the man selfish and arbitrary and
+weakened the bond of affection and mutual interests, while Roman
+political conquest strengthened the pride and power of the imperial
+masters. Religion lost its prestige and the family bond loosened,
+until from being one of the purest of social institutions in the early
+days of the republic, the Roman family became one of the most
+degenerate. This boded ill for the future of the race and empire.
+
+38. =The Mediaeval Family.=--The Roman family seemed in danger of
+disintegrating, for the matron claimed rights that ran counter to the
+rights of the man, when two new forces entered Roman society and
+checked this tendency toward disintegration. The first was
+Christianity, the second was Teutonic conquest. Christianity taught
+consideration for women and children, but it taught submission to the
+man in the home, and so was a constructive force in the conservation
+of the family. Teutonic custom was similar to the early Roman. When
+Teutonic enterprise pushed a new race over the goal of race conflict
+and took in charge the administration of affairs in Roman society,
+there was a restoration of the rule of force and so of masculine
+supremacy. In the lord's castle and the peasant's hut the authority of
+the man continued unquestioned through the Middle Ages, and the church
+made monogamous marriage a binding sacrament; but sexual infidelity
+was common, especially of the husband, and divorce was not unknown. In
+the civilized lands of Christendom monogamy was the only form of
+marriage recognized by civil law, and with the slow growth toward
+higher standards of civilization the harshness of patriarchal custom
+has become softened and the rights of women and children have been
+increased by law, though not without endangering the solidarity of the
+family. Similarly, the standards of sex conduct have improved.
+
+39. =Advantages of Monogamy.=--The advantages of monogamy are so many
+that in spite of the present restiveness under restraint it seems
+certain to become the permanent and universal type as reason asserts
+its right and controls impulse. Nature seems to have predetermined it
+by maintaining approximately an equal number of the sexes, and nature
+frowns upon promiscuity by penalizing it with sterility and neglect of
+the few children that are born, so that in the struggle for existence
+the fittest survive by a process of natural selection. A study of
+biology and anthropology gives added evidence that nature favors
+monogamy, for in the highest grade of animals below man the monogamic
+relation holds almost without exception, and low-grade human races
+follow the same practice.
+
+There are moral advantages in monogamy that alone are sufficient to
+insure its permanence. It is to the advantage of society that
+altruistic and kindly feelings should outweigh jealousy, anger, and
+selfishness. Monogamy encourages affection and mutual consideration,
+and in that atmosphere children learn the graces and virtues that make
+social life wholesome and attractive. Welcomed in the home, they
+receive the care and instruction of both parents and become socialized
+for the larger and later responsibilities of the social order. In the
+altruism thus developed lie the roots of morals and religion. It is
+well agreed that the essence of each is the right motive to conduct.
+Love to men and to God is an accepted definition of religion, and
+ethics is grounded on that principle. Love is the ruling principle of
+the monogamic family; from the narrower domestic circle it extends to
+the community and to all mankind.
+
+40. =Marriage Laws.=--In spite of the general practice of monogamy as
+a form of marriage and the noble principles that underlie the
+monogamic type of family, sex relations need the restraint of law.
+Human desires are selfish and ideals too often give way before them
+unless there is some kind of external control. There have been times
+when the church had such control, and in certain countries individual
+rulers have determined the law; but since the eighteenth century there
+has been a steady trend in the direction of popular control of all
+social relations. This tendency has been carried farthest in the
+United States, where public opinion voices its convictions and compels
+legislative action. It is natural that the people of certain States
+should be more progressive or radical than others, and therefore in
+the absence of a national law, there is considerable variety in the
+marriage and divorce laws, but no other country has higher ideals of
+the married relation and at the same time as large a measure of
+freedom.
+
+At present marriage laws in the United States agree generally on the
+following provisions:
+
+(1) Every marriage must be licensed by the State and the act of
+marriage must be reported to the State and registered.
+
+(2) Marriage is not legal below a certain age, and consent of parents
+must be obtained usually until the man is twenty-one and the woman
+eighteen.
+
+(3) Certain persons are forbidden marriage because of near
+relationship or personal defect. Such marriage if performed may be
+annulled.
+
+(4) Remarriage may take place after the death of husband or wife,
+after disappearance for a period varying from three to seven years, or
+a certain time after divorce.
+
+In the twenty-year period between 1886 and 1906 covered by the United
+States Census of Marriage and Divorce slow improvements were made in
+legislation, but a number of States are far behind others in the
+enactment of suitable laws, and most of the States do not make the
+provisions that are desirable for law enforcement. Yet there is a
+limit of strictness beyond which marriage laws cannot safely go,
+because they hinder marriage and provoke illicit relations. That limit
+is fixed by the sanction of public opinion. After all, there is less
+need of better regulation than of the education of public opinion to
+the sacredness of marriage and to its importance for human welfare.
+Without the restraints put upon impulse by the education of the
+understanding and the will, young people often assume family
+obligations thoughtlessly and even flippantly, when they are ill-mated
+and often unacquainted with each other's characteristic qualities.
+Such marriages usually bring distress and divorce instead of growing
+affection and unity. Without education in the obligation of marriage
+many well-qualified persons delay it or avoid it altogether, because
+they are unwilling to bear the burdens of family support,
+childbearing, and housekeeping. Society suffers loss in both cases.
+
+41. =Reforms and Ideals.=--Because of all these deficiencies several
+remedies have been proposed and certain of them adopted. Because of
+the economic difficulties, it is urged that as far as possible by
+legislation, illegitimate ways of heaping up wealth for the few at the
+expense of the many should be checked, and that by vocational training
+boys should be fitted for a trade and girls prepared for housekeeping.
+To meet other difficulties it is proposed that popular instruction be
+given from press and pulpit, in order that the moral and spiritual
+plane of married life may be uplifted. The marriage ideal is a
+well-mated pair, physically and intellectually qualified, who through
+affection are attracted to marriage and through mutual consideration
+are ready unselfishly to seek each other's welfare, and who recognize
+in marriage a divinely ordered provision for human happiness and for
+the perpetuation of the race. Such a marriage does not plant the seeds
+of discord and neighborly scandal or compel a speedy resort to the
+divorce court.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 12-84.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, II, pages 388-497.
+
+  GOODSELL: _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_,
+      pages 5-47.
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, part I. "Report on Marriage and Divorce,
+      1906," _Bureau of the Census_, I, pages 224-226.
+
+  BLISS: _Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Family."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE MAKING OF THE HOME
+
+
+42. =The Story of the Home.=--Marriage is the gateway of the home; the
+home is the shelter of the family. It is the cradle of children, the
+nursery of mutual affection, and the training-school for citizenship
+in the community. The physical comfort of its inmates depends upon the
+house and its furnishings, but fondness for the home develops only in
+an atmosphere of good-will and kindness.
+
+The home has a story of its own, as has the family. In primitive days
+there was little necessity of a dwelling-place, except as a nest for
+young or a cache for provisions. A cave or a rough shelter of boughs
+was a makeshift for a home. Thither the hunter brought the game that
+he had killed, and there slept the glutton's sleep or went supperless
+to bed. When the hunter became a herdsman and shepherd and moved from
+place to place in search of pasture, he found it convenient to fashion
+a tent for his home, as the Hebrew patriarchs did when they roamed
+over Canaan and as the Bedouin of the desert does still.
+
+A settled life with a measure of civilization demanded a better and a
+stationary home, the degree of comfort varying with the desire and
+ambition of the householder and the amount of his wealth. To thousands
+home was little more than a place to sleep. Even in imperial Rome the
+proletariat occupied tall, ramshackle tenements, like the submerged
+poor who exist in the slums of modern cities. In mediaeval Europe the
+peasant lived in a one-room hovel, clustered with others in a squalid
+hamlet upon the estate of a great landowner. The hut was poorly built,
+often of no better material than wattled sticks, cemented with mud,
+covered over with turf or thatch, usually without chimneys or even
+windows. The place was absolutely without conveniences. Summer and
+winter the family huddled together in the single room of the hut,
+faring forth to work in the morning, sleeping at night on bundles of
+straw, each person in the single garment that he wore through the day,
+and at convenient intervals breaking fast on black bread, salt meat,
+and home-brewed beer. There was no inducement for a landless serf to
+spend care or labor upon houses or surroundings; pigs and babies were
+permitted to tumble about both indiscriminately.
+
+Peasant homes in the Orient are little if any better now than European
+homes in the Middle Ages. The houses are rude structures and ill-kept.
+In the villages of India it is not unusual to occupy one house until
+it becomes so unsanitary as to be uninhabitable, and then to move
+elsewhere. Even royal courts in mediaeval Europe moved from palace to
+palace for the same reason. It is a mistake to suppose that the
+squalid conditions found in the slums are peculiar to them; they are
+survivals of a lower stage of human existence found in all parts of
+the world, due to psychical, social, and economic conditions that are
+not easily changed, but conspicuous in the midst of modern progress.
+
+43. =The Ancestral Type.=--In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome only the
+higher classes enjoyed any degree of comfort. Accustomed to
+inconveniences, few even among them knew such luxuries as are common
+to middle-class Americans. The castle and manor-house of the mediaeval
+lord were still more comfortless. In America the colonial log cabin
+and the sod house of the prairie pioneer were primitively incomplete.
+The struggle for existence and the difficulty of manufacture and
+transportation allowed few comforts. American homes, even a hundred
+years ago, knew nothing of furnaces and safety-matches, refrigerators
+and electric fans, bathtubs and sanitary accommodations,
+carpet-sweepers and vacuum cleaners, screen doors and double windows,
+hammocks and verandas. Neither law nor social custom required a good
+water or drainage system. A healthful or attractive location for the
+house received little thought; outbuildings were in close proximity to
+the house, if not attached to it. The furnishings of the house lacked
+comfort and beauty. Interior decorations of harmonious design were
+absent. Instruments of music were rare; statuary and paintings were
+beyond the reach of any but the richest purse.
+
+44. =Social Values.=--On the other hand, there was in many a dwelling
+a home atmosphere that made up for the lack of conveniences. There was
+a bond of unity that was felt by every member of the family, and a
+spirit of mutual affection and self-sacrifice that stood a hard strain
+through poverty, sickness, and ill fortune of every sort. Father and
+mother, boys and girls were not afraid to work, and when the time came
+for relaxation there was little to attract away from the home circle.
+People had less to enjoy, but they were better contented with what
+they had. They had little money to spend, but their frugal tastes and
+habits of thrift fortified them against want, and there was little
+need of public or private charity.
+
+The home was frequently a school of moral and religious education.
+Selfishness in all its forms was discountenanced. There was no room
+for the idler, no time for laziness. Social hygiene and domestic
+science were not taught as such, but young people learned their
+responsibilities and grew up equipped to establish homes of their own.
+Parents were faithful instructors in the homely virtues of
+truthfulness, honesty, faithfulness, kindness, and love. Religion in
+the family was by no means universal, but in hundreds of homes
+religion was recognized as having legitimate demands upon the
+individual; religious exercises were observed at the mother's knee,
+the table, and the family altar; all the family attended church
+together, and were expected to take upon themselves the
+responsibilities of church membership.
+
+45. =Gains and Losses.=--In the making of a modern home there have
+been both addition and subtraction. Life has gained immeasurably in
+comfort and convenience for the well-to-do, but the comfortless
+quarters of the poor drive the man to the saloon and the child to the
+streets. For the fortunate the home has become enriched with music,
+art, and literature, but it has lost much of the earlier simplicity,
+economic thrift, moral sturdiness, and religious principle and
+practice. For the poor life is so hard that the good qualities, if
+they ever existed, have tended to disappear without any compensation
+in culture.
+
+It is well understood that the home environment has most to do with
+shaping individual character. If the homely virtues are not cultivated
+there, society will suffer; if cold and cheerlessness are
+characteristic of its atmosphere, there will be little warmth in the
+disposition of its inmates toward society. Every home of the right
+sort is an asset to the community. It is an experiment station for
+social progress. Every married couple that sets up housekeeping starts
+a new centre of group life. If they diffuse a helpful atmosphere
+social virtues will develop and social efficiency increase. On the
+other hand, many homes are a menace to the community, because an
+ill-mated pair, poorly equipped for the struggle of existence, create
+a centre of group life in which the individual is handicapped
+physically and morally and too often becomes a curse to society at
+large. When it is remembered that the home is at the same time the
+power-house that generates the forces that push society forward, and
+the channel through which are transmitted the ideas and achievements
+of all the past, it will seem to be the supremely important
+institution that human experience has devised and sanctioned.
+
+46. =The Ideal Home.=--The ideal home toward which the average home
+will be gradually approximating will be housed in a well-built
+dwelling of approved architecture; erected in a healthy location with
+room enough around it to give air space, and a bit of out-of-doors to
+enjoy; tastefully furnished and decorated inside, but without
+ostentation or extravagance; occupied by a healthy, happy family of
+parents and children who care more for each other and for their
+neighbors than for selfish pleasure and display, and who are learning
+how to play a worthy part in the folk life of their community and
+nation, and how to appreciate the highest and finest qualities that
+mind and spirit can develop in themselves or others. If for economic
+or social reasons any of this is impossible, there is a weakness in
+society that calls for prompt repair.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STARR: _First Steps in Human Progress_, pages 149-158.
+
+  JESSOPP: _The Coming of the Friars_, pages 87-104.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Constructive Rural Sociology_, pages 170-178.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 18-38.
+
+  RICHARDS: "The Farm Home," art. in _Cyclopedia of Agriculture_,
+      IV, pages 280-284.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CHILDREN IN THE HOME
+
+
+47. =Children Complete the Home.=--If the legend of the Pied Piper of
+Hameln should come true and all the children should run away from
+home, or if by some strange stroke of fortune no children should be
+born in a village or town for ten years or more, the tragedy of the
+childless home would be realized. There are localities and even
+nations where the birth-rate is so small that population is little
+more than stationary. In the United States the native birth-rate tends
+to decline, while the rate of immigrant foreigners greatly exceeds it.
+The higher the degree of comfort and luxury in the home the smaller
+the birth-rate seems to be a principle of social experience. There are
+selfish people who shirk the responsibilities and troubles of
+parenthood, and there are social diseases that tend to sterility, but
+the childless home is always an incomplete home. Children are the
+crown of marriage, the enrichment of the home, the hope of society in
+the future. The needs of the children stimulate parents to unselfish
+endeavor. Children are the comfort of the poor and distressed. The
+wedded life of a human pair may be ideal in every other respect, but
+one of the main functions of marriage is unaccomplished when the
+family remains incomplete.
+
+48. =The Right to be Well-Born.=--The child comes into the home in
+obedience to the same primary instinct that draws the parents to each
+other. He calls out the affections of the parents and their
+intellectual resources, for he is dependent upon them, and often taxes
+their best judgment in coping with the difficulties that beset child
+life. But they often fail to realize that the child has certain
+inalienable rights as an individual and a potential member of society
+that demand their best gifts.
+
+There is first the right to be well-born. There is so much to contend
+with when once ushered into the world, that a child needs the best
+possible bodily inheritance. He needs to be rid of every encumbrance
+of physical unfitness if he is to live long and become a blessing and
+not a burden to society. Handicapped at the start, he cannot hope to
+achieve a high level of attainment. It is little short of criminal for
+a child to be condemned to lifelong weakness or suffering, because his
+parents were not fit to give him birth. Yet large numbers of parents
+make the thought of child welfare subordinate to their own desires. A
+man's primary concern in choosing a wife is his own personal
+satisfaction, not the birth and mothering of his children. Many young
+women regard the attractiveness, social position, or wealth of a young
+man as of greater consequence than his physical or moral fitness to
+become the father of her children. There are thousands of persons who
+are mentally deficient or unmoral, who nevertheless are unrestrained
+by society from association and even marriage. It is a social
+misfortune that the unfit should be taken care of by the tender
+mercies of philanthropists and even permitted to propagate their kind,
+while no special encouragement is given to those who are supremely fit
+to give their best to the upbuilding of the race. The principle of
+brotherly kindness requires that the weak and unfortunate be taken
+care of, but they should not be permitted to increase. It is a
+principle of social welfare that those who are incapable of exercising
+self-control should be placed under the control of the larger group.
+
+49. =Eugenics in Legislation.=--It is the conviction that the right to
+be well-born is a valid one, that has given rise to the science of
+eugenics. As a science it was first discussed by Francis Gallon, and
+it has interested writers, investigators, and legislators in all
+progressive countries. Various specific proposals have been made in
+the interest of posterity, and agitation has resulted in certain
+experiments in legislation. It is not proposed that any should be
+required to marry, but it is thought possible to encourage the well
+qualified and to discourage and restrain the incapable. Some of these
+proposals, such as the offering of a premium by the State for healthy
+children, or endowing mothers as public functionaries, are not widely
+approved, but Great Britain in a National Insurance Act in 1911
+included the provision of maternity benefits in recognition of the
+mother's contribution to the citizenship of the nation. Restrictive
+laws have been passed by certain of the States in America, which are
+eugenic experiments. Feeble-mindedness, in so many ways a social evil,
+is readily reproduced, and the weak-minded are easily controlled by
+the sex instinct. To prevent this certain State legislatures have
+forbidden the marriage of any feeble-minded or epileptic woman under
+the age of forty-five. It is well known that insanity is a family
+trait, and that criminal insanity is liable to recur if those who are
+afflicted are permitted to indulge in parenthood. Certain States
+accordingly annul the marriage of insane persons. Venereal disease is
+easily transmitted; there has been a beginning of legislation
+prohibiting persons thus tainted to marry. It is well established that
+very many persons, while not actually tainted with such diseases as
+tuberculosis and alcoholism, are predisposed to yield to their attack.
+For this reason the scope of eugenic legislation is likely to be
+extended. Some States have gone so far as to sterilize the unfit, that
+they may not by any chance exercise the powers of parenthood; it is
+urged in many quarters that clergymen require a medical certificate of
+good health before sanctioning marriage.
+
+50. =Family Degeneracy.=--Several impressive illustrations have been
+published of degenerate families that show the far-reaching effects of
+heredity. In contrast to these pictures, has been set the life story
+of families who have won renown in successive generations because of
+unusual ability. Nothing so effective is presented by any argument as
+that of concrete cases. Perhaps the best known of these stories is
+that of the Jukes family. About the middle of the eighteenth century a
+normal man with a coarse, lazy vein in his nature built himself a hut
+in the woods of central New York. In five generations he had several
+hundred descendants. A study of twelve hundred persons who belonged
+to the family by kinship or marriage was made carefully, with the
+following findings. Nearly all of the family were lazy, ignorant, and
+coarse. Four hundred were physically diseased by their own fault. Two
+hundred were criminals; seven of them murderers. Fifty of the women
+were notoriously immoral. Three hundred of the children died from
+inherited weakness or neglect. More than three hundred members of the
+family were chronic paupers. It is estimated that they cost the State
+a thousand dollars apiece for pauperism and crime.
+
+Another family called the Kallikak family, which has been made the
+subject of investigation, is a still better example of heredity. The
+family was descended from a Revolutionary soldier, who had an
+illegitimate feeble-minded son by an imbecile young woman. The line
+continued by feeble-minded descent and marriage until four hundred and
+eighty descendants have been traced. Of these one hundred and
+forty-three were positively defective, thirty-six were illegitimate,
+thirty-three sexually immoral, mostly prostitutes, eight kept houses
+of ill repute, three were criminal, twenty-four were confirmed
+drunkards, and eighty-two died in infancy.
+
+On the other hand, there are striking examples of what good birth and
+breeding can do. It happened that the ancestor of the Kallikak family,
+after he had sown his wild oats, married well and had about five
+hundred descendants. All of them were normal, only two were alcoholic,
+and one sexually loose. The family has been prominent socially and in
+every way creditable in its history. In contrast to the Jukes family,
+the history of the Edwards family has been written. Its members
+married well, were well-bred, and gave much attention to education.
+Out of fourteen hundred individuals more than one hundred and twenty
+were Yale graduates, and one hundred and sixty-five more completed
+their education at other colleges; thirteen were college presidents,
+and more than a hundred college professors; they were founders of
+schools of all grades; more than one hundred were clergymen,
+missionaries, and theological professors; seventy-five were officers
+in the army and navy; more than eighty have been elected to public
+office; more than one hundred were lawyers, thirty judges, sixty
+physicians, and sixty prominent in literature. Not a few of them have
+been active in philanthropy, and many have been successful in
+business. It is impossible to escape from the conviction that whatever
+may be the physical and social environment, heredity perpetuates
+physical and mental worth or defectiveness and tends to produce social
+good or evil, and that the right to a worthy parentage belongs with
+the other rights to which individuals lay claim. It is as important as
+the right to a living, to an education, to a good home, or to the
+franchise. Without it society is incalculably poorer and the ultimate
+effects of failure are startling to consider.
+
+51. =Marriage and Education.=--Some enthusiasts have demanded that to
+make sure of a good bodily inheritance, individuals be permitted to
+produce children without the trammels of marriage if they are well
+fitted for parenthood, but such persons seem ignorant or forgetful
+that free love has never proved otherwise than disastrous in the
+history of the race, and that physical perfection is not the sole good
+with which the child needs to be endowed, but that it must be
+supplemented with moral, mental, and spiritual endowment, and with the
+permanent affection and care of both parents in the home. Galton
+himself acknowledges marriage as a prerequisite in eugenics by saying:
+"Marriage, as now sanctified by religion and safeguarded by law in the
+more highly civilized nations, may not be ideally perfect, nor may it
+be universally accepted in future times, but it is the best that has
+hitherto been devised for the parties primarily concerned, for their
+children, for home life, and for society."
+
+The greatest hope of eugenics lies in social education. Sex hygiene
+must in some way become a part of the child's stock of information,
+but knowledge alone does not fortify action. More important is it to
+deal with the springs of action, to teach the equal standard of purity
+for men and women, and the moral responsibility of parenthood to
+adolescent youth, and at the same time to impress upon the whole
+community its responsibility of oversight of morals for the good of
+the next generation. Conviction of personal and social responsibility
+as superior to individual preferences is the only safety of society in
+all its relations, from eugenics through economics to ethics and
+religion.
+
+52. =Euthenics.=--Euthenics is the science of controlled environment,
+as eugenics is the science of controlled heredity. The health and good
+fortune of the child depend on his surroundings as well as on his
+inheritance, and the gift of a perfect physique may be vitiated by an
+unwholesome environment. Environment acts directly upon the physical
+system of the individual through climate, home conditions, and
+occupation; it acts indirectly by affecting the personal desires,
+idiosyncrasies, and possible conduct. When the child of an early
+settler was carried away from home on an Indian raid, and brought up
+in the wigwam of the savage, he forgot his civilized heritage, and
+love for his foster-parents sometimes proved stronger than his natural
+affections. The child of the Russian Jew in Europe has little ambition
+and rises to no high level, but in America he gains distinction in
+school and success in business. A natural environment of forest or
+plain may determine the occupation of a whole community; a fickle
+climate vitally affects its prosperity. Whole races have entered upon
+a new future by migration.
+
+It is necessary to be cautious and not to ascribe to environment, as
+some do, the sole influence. Every individual is the creature of
+heredity plus environment plus his own will. But it is not possible to
+overlook environment as some do, and expect by a miracle to make or
+preserve character in the midst of conditions of spiritual
+asphyxiation. If social life is to be pure and strong, communities and
+families, through the official care of overseers of health and
+industry and through the loving care of parents in the homes, must see
+that children grow up with the advantages of nourishing food, pure
+air, proper clothing, and means for cleanliness; that at the proper
+age they be given mental and moral instruction and fitted for a worthy
+vocation; that wholesome social relations be established by means of
+playgrounds, clubs, and societies; that industrial conditions be
+properly supervised, and young people be able to earn not alone a
+living but a marriageable wage; and that some means of social
+insurance be provided sufficient to prevent suffering and want in
+sickness and old age. In such an environment there is opportunity to
+realize the value that will accrue from a good inheritance, and there
+is incentive to make the most of life's possibilities as they come and
+go.
+
+Ever since the importance of environment was made plain in the
+nineteenth century, social physicians have been trying all sorts of
+experiments in community therapeutics. Many of the remedies will be
+discussed in various connections. It is enough to remark here that
+social education, social regulation, and social idealism are all
+necessary, and that a social Utopia cannot be obtained in a day.
+
+53. =The Right to Proper Care.=--Granted the right of the child to be
+well-born and the right to a favorable environment, there follows the
+right to be taken care of. This may be involved in the subject of a
+proper environment, but it deserves consideration by itself. There is
+more danger to the race from neglect than from race suicide. It is
+better that a child should not be born at all, than that he should be
+condemned to the hard knocks of a loveless home or a callous
+neighborhood. There is first the case of the child born out of
+wedlock, often a foundling with parentage unacknowledged. Then there
+is the child who is legitimately born as far as the law is concerned,
+but whose parents had no legitimate right to bring him into the world,
+because they had no reasonable expectation that they could provide
+properly for his wants. The wretched pauper recks nothing of the
+future of his offspring. Since the family group can never remain
+independent of the community, it may well be debated whether society
+is not under obligation to interfere and either by prohibition of
+excessive parenthood or by social provision for the care of such
+children, to secure to the young this right of proper care.
+
+Cruelty is a twin evil of neglect. The history of childhood deserves
+careful study side by side with the history of womanhood. In primitive
+times not even the right to existence was recognized. Abortion and
+infanticide, especially in the case of females, were practices used at
+will to dispose of unwelcome children, and these practices persisted
+among the backward peoples of Asia and Africa, until they were
+compelled to recognize the law of the white master when he extended
+his dominion over them. In the patriarchal household of classic lands,
+the child was under the absolute control of his father. Religious
+regulations might demand that he be instructed in the history and
+obligations of the race, as in the case of the Hebrew child, or the
+interests of the state might require physical training for its own
+defense, as in the case of Sparta, but there was no consideration of
+child rights in the home. Until the eighteenth century European
+children shared the hardships of poverty and discomfort common to the
+age, and often the cruelty of brutal and degraded parents; they were
+often condemned to long hours of industry in factories after the new
+industrial order caught them in its toils. In the mine and the mill
+and on the farm children have been bound down to labor for long and
+weary hours, until modern legislation has interfered.
+
+There are a number of reasons why child labor has been common.
+Hereditary custom has decreed it. Children have been looked upon by
+many races as a care and a burden rather than a responsibility and a
+blessing. Their economic value was their one claim to be regarded as a
+family asset. Even the religious teaching of Jews and Christians about
+the value and responsibility of children has not been influential
+enough to compel a recognition of their worth, though their innocence
+and purity, their faith and optimism are qualities indispensable to
+the race of mankind if social relations are to approach the ideal.
+
+54. =The Value of Work.=--Labor is a social blessing rather than a
+curse. There can be no doubt that habits of industry are desirable for
+the child as well as for the adult. Idleness is the forerunner of
+ignorance, laziness, and general incapacity. It is no kindness to a
+child to permit him to spend all his time out of school in play. It
+gives him skill, a new respect for labor, and a new conception of the
+value of money, if he has a paper route, mows a lawn, shovels snow, or
+hoes potatoes. Especially is it desirable that a boy should have some
+sort of an occupation for a few hours a day during the long summer
+vacation. The child on the farm has no lack of opportunity, but for
+the boy of the city streets there is little that is practicable,
+outside of selling papers or serving as messenger boy or bootblack;
+for the girl there is little but housework or department-store
+service. Both need steady employment out of doors, and he who devises
+a method by which boys and girls can be taught such an occupation as
+gardening on vacant lots or in the city outskirts, and at the same
+time can be given a love for work and for the growing things of the
+country, will help to solve the problem of child labor and,
+incidentally, may contribute to the solution of poverty, incipient
+crime, and even of the rural problem and the high cost of living.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 299-314.
+
+  GODDARD: _The Kallikak Family._
+
+  EAMES: _Principles of Eugenics._
+
+  SALEEBY: _Parenthood and Race Culture_, pages 213-236.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 171-196.
+
+  GALTON: _Inquiries into Human Faculty._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+WORK, PLAY AND EDUCATION.
+
+
+55. =Child Labor and Its Effects.=--Excessive child labor away from
+home is one of the evils that has called for reform more than the lack
+of employment. The child has a right to the home life. It is injurious
+for him to be kept at a monotonous task under physical or mental
+strain for long hours in a manufacturing establishment, or to be
+deprived of time to study and to play. Yet there are nearly two
+million children in the United States under sixteen years of age who
+are denied the rights of childhood through excessive labor.
+
+This evil began with the adoption of the factory system in modern
+industry. The introduction of light machinery into the textile mills
+of England made it possible to employ children at low wages, and it
+was profitable for the keepers of almshouses to apprentice pauper
+children to the manufacturers. Some of them were not more than five or
+six years old, but were kept in bondage more than twelve hours a day.
+Children were compelled to hard labor in the coal-mines, and to the
+dirty work of chimney sweeping. In the United States factory labor for
+children did not begin so soon, but by 1880 children eight years old
+were being employed in Massachusetts for more than twelve hours a day,
+and in parts of the country children are still employed at long hours
+in such occupations as the manufacture of cotton, glass, silk, and
+candy, in coal-mines and canning factories. Besides these are the
+newsboys, bootblacks, and messengers of the cities, children in
+domestic and personal service, and the child laborers on the farms.
+
+The causes of child labor lie in the poverty and greed of parents, the
+demands of employers, and often the desire of the children to escape
+from school and earn money. In spite of agitation and legislation, the
+indifference of the public permits it to continue and in some
+sections to increase.
+
+The harmful effects of child employment are numerous. It is true that
+two-thirds of the boys and nearly one-half of the girls employed in
+the United States are occupied with agriculture, most of them with
+their own parents, an occupation that is much healthier than indoor
+labor, yet agriculture demands long hours and wearisome toil. In the
+cities there is much night-work and employment in dangerous or
+unhealthy occupations. The sweating system has carried its bad effects
+into the homes of the very poor, for the younger members of the family
+can help to manufacture clothing, paper boxes, embroidery, and
+artificial flowers, and in spite of the law, such labor goes on far
+into the night in congested, ill-ventilated tenements. Children cannot
+work in this way day after day for long hours without serious physical
+deterioration. Some of them drop by the way and die as victims of an
+economic system and the social neglect that permits it. Others lose
+the opportunity of an education, and so are mentally less trained than
+the normal American child, and ultimately prove less efficient as
+industrial units. For the time they may add to the family income, but
+they react upon adult labor by lowering the wage of the head of the
+family, and they make it impossible for the child when grown to earn a
+high wage, because of inefficiency. The associations and influences of
+the street are morally degrading, and in the associations of the
+workroom and the factory yard the whole tone of the life of
+individuals is frequently lowered.
+
+56. =Child-Labor Legislation.=--Friends of the children have tried to
+stop abuses. Trade-unions, consumers' leagues, and State bureaus have
+taken the initiative. Voluntary organizations, like the National Child
+Labor Committee, make the regulation of child labor their special
+object. They have succeeded in the establishment of a Federal
+Children's Bureau in Washington, and have encouraged State and
+national legislation. Most of the States forbid the employment of
+children under a certain age, usually twelve or fourteen years, and
+require attention to healthful conditions and moderate hours. They
+insist also that children shall not be deprived of education, but
+there is often inadequate provision made for inspection and proper
+enforcement of laws.
+
+The friends of the children are desirous of a uniform child-labor law
+which, if adopted and enforced by competent inspectors, would prevent
+factory work for all under fourteen years of age, and for weak
+children under sixteen would prescribe a limited number of hours and
+allow no night-work, would require certain certificates of age and
+health before employment is given, and would compel school attendance
+and the attainment of a limited education before permission is granted
+to go into the factory. Without doubt, it is a hardship to families in
+poverty that strong, growing children should not be permitted to go to
+work and help support those in need, but it is better for the social
+body to take care of its weak members in some other way, and for its
+own sake, as well as for the sake of the child, to make sure that he
+is physically and mentally equipped before he takes a regular place in
+the ranks of the wage-earners.
+
+57. =The Right to Play.=--The play group is the first social
+training-ground for the child outside of the home, and it continues to
+be a desirable form of association, even into adult life, but it is
+only in recent years that adults have recognized the legitimacy of
+such a claim as the right to play. It was thought desirable that a boy
+should work off his restlessness, but the wood-pile provided the usual
+safety-valve for surplus energy. Play was a waste of time. Now it is
+more clearly understood that play has a distinct value. It is
+physically beneficial, expanding the lungs, strengthening muscle and
+nerve, and giving poise and elasticity to the whole body. It is
+mentally educational in developing qualities of quickness, skill, and
+leadership. It is socially valuable, for it requires honesty, fair
+play, mutual consideration, and self-control. Co-operation of effort
+is developed as well in team-play as in team-work, and the child
+becomes accustomed to act with thought of the group. The play group is
+a temporary form of association, varying in size and content as the
+whim of the child or the attraction of the moment moves its members.
+It is an example of primitive groupings swayed by instinctive
+impulses. Children turn quickly from one game to another, but for the
+time are absorbed in the particular play that is going on. No
+achievement results from the activity, no organization from the
+association. The rapid shifting of the scenes and the frequent
+disputes that arise indicate lack of control. Yet it is out of such
+association that the social mind develops and organized action becomes
+possible.
+
+If these are the advantages of play, the right to play may properly
+demand an opportunity for games and sports in the home and the yard,
+and the necessary equipment of gymnasium and field. It may call for
+freedom from the school and home occupations sufficient to give the
+recreative impulse due scope. As its importance becomes universally
+recognized, there will be no neighborhood, however congested, that
+lacks its playground for the children, and no industry, however
+insistent, that will deprive the boy or girl of its right to enjoy a
+certain part of every day for play.
+
+58. =The Right to Liberty.=--The present tendency is to give large
+liberty to the child. Not only is there freedom on the playground; but
+social control in the home also has been giving place during the last
+generation to a recognition of the right of the individual child to
+develop his own personality in his own way, without much interference
+from authority. It is true that there is a nominal control in the
+home, in the school, and in the State, but in an increasing degree
+that control is held in abeyance while parent, teacher, and constable
+leniently indulge the child. This is a natural reaction from the
+discipline of an earlier time, and is a welcome indication that
+children's rights are to find recognition. Like most reactions, there
+is danger of its going too far. An inexperienced and headstrong child
+needs wise counsel and occasional restraint, and within the limits of
+kindness is helped rather than harmed by a deep respect for authority.
+Lawlessness is one of the dangers of the current period. It appears in
+countless minor misdemeanors, in the riotous acts of gangs and mobs,
+in the recklessness of corporations and labor unions, and in national
+disregard for international law; and its destructive tendency is
+disastrous for the future of civilized society unless a new restraint
+from earliest childhood keeps liberty from degenerating into license.
+
+59. =The Right to Learn.=--There is one more right that belongs to
+children--the right of an opportunity to learn. Approximately three
+million children are born annually in the United States. Each one
+deserves to be well-born and well-reared. He needs the affectionate
+care of parents who will see that he learns how to live. This
+instruction need not be long delayed, and should not be relegated
+altogether to the school. There is first of all physical education. It
+is the mother's task to teach the child the principles of health, to
+inculcate proper habits of eating, drinking, and bathing. It is for
+her to see that he learns how to play with pleasure and profit, and is
+permitted to give expression to his natural energies. It is her
+privilege to make him acquainted with nature, and in a natural way
+with the illustration of flower and bird and squirrel she can give the
+child first lessons in sex hygiene. It is the function of the mother
+in the child's younger years and of the father in adolescent boyhood
+to open the mind of the child to understand the life processes. The
+lack of knowledge brings sorrow and sin to the family and injures
+society. Seeking information elsewhere, the boy and girl fall into bad
+habits and lay the foundation of permanent ills. The adolescent boy
+should be taught to avoid self-abuse, to practise healthful habits,
+and to keep from contact with physical and moral impurity; the
+adolescent girl should be given ample instruction in taking care of
+herself and in preparing for the responsibility of adult life.
+
+60. =Mental and Moral Education.=--Mental education in the home is no
+less important. It is there that the child's instinctive impulses
+first find expression and he learns to imitate the words and actions
+of other members of the home. The things he sees and handles make
+their impressions upon him. He feels and thinks and wills a thousand
+times a day. The channels of habit are being grooved in the brain. It
+is the function of the home to protect him from that which is evil, to
+stimulate in him that which is good. Mental and moral education are
+inseparably interwoven. The first stories told by the mother's lips
+not only produce answering thoughts in the child mind, but answering
+modes of conduct also. The chief function of the intellect is to guide
+to right choice.
+
+Character building is the supreme object of life. It begins early.
+Learning to obey the parent is the first step toward self-control.
+Learning to know the beautiful from the ugly, the true from the false,
+the good from the evil is the foundation of a whole system of ethics.
+Learning to judge others according to character and attainment rather
+than according to wealth or social position cultivates the naturally
+democratic spirit of the child, and makes him a true American. Sharing
+in the responsibility of the home begets self-reliance and
+dependableness in later life.
+
+The supreme lesson of life is to learn to be unselfish. The child in
+the home is often obliged to yield his own wishes, and finds that he
+gets greater satisfaction than if he had contended successfully for
+his own claims. In the home the compelling motive of his life may be
+consecrated to the highest ideals, long before childhood has merged
+into manhood. Such consecration of motive is best secured through a
+knowledge of the concrete lives of noble men and women. The noble
+characters of history and literature are portraits of abstract
+excellences. It is the task of moral education in the home to make the
+ideal actual in life, to show that it is possible and worth while to
+be noble-minded, and that the highest ambition that a person can
+cherish is to be a social builder among his fellows.
+
+61. =Child Dependents.=--Many children are not given the rights that
+belong to them in the home. They come into the world sickly or
+crippled, inheriting a weak constitution or a tendency toward that
+which is ill. They have little help from environment. One of a
+numerous family on a dilapidated farm or in an unhealthy tenement, the
+child struggles for an existence. Poverty, drunkenness, crime,
+illegitimacy stamp themselves upon the home life. Neglect and cruelty
+take the place of care and education. The death of one or both parents
+robs the children of home altogether. The child becomes dependent on
+society. The number of such children in the United States approximates
+one hundred and fifty thousand.
+
+In the absence of proper home care and training, society for its own
+protection and for the welfare of the child must assume charge. The
+State becomes a foster-parent, and as far as possible provides a
+substitute for the home. The earlier method was to place the
+individual child, with many other similar unfortunates, in a public or
+private philanthropic institution. In such an environment it was
+possible to maintain discipline, to secure instruction and a wholesome
+atmosphere for social development, and to have the advantage of
+economical management. But experience proved that a large institution
+of that kind can never be a true home or provide the proper
+opportunity for the development of individuality. The placing-out
+system, therefore, grew in favor. Results were better when a child was
+adopted into a real home, and received a measure of family affection
+and individual care. Even where a public institution must continue to
+care for dependent children, it is plainly preferable to distribute
+them in cottages instead of herding them in one large building. The
+principle of child relief is that life shall be made as nearly normal
+as possible.
+
+It is an accepted principle, also, that children shall be kept in
+their own home whenever possible, and if removal is necessary that
+they be restored to home associations at the earliest possible moment.
+In case of poverty, a charity organization society will help a needy
+family rather than allow it to disintegrate; in case of cruelty or
+neglect such an organization as the Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children will investigate, and if necessary find a better
+guardian; but the case must be an aggravated one before the society
+takes that last step, so important does the function of the home seem
+to be.
+
+62. =Special Institutions.=--It is, of course, inevitable that some
+children should be misplaced and that some should be neglected by the
+civil authorities, but public interest should not allow such
+conditions to persist. Social sensitiveness to the hard lot of the
+child is a product of the modern conscience. Time was when the State
+remanded all chronic dependents to the doubtful care of the almshouse,
+and children were herded indiscriminately with their elders, as child
+delinquents were herded in the prisons with hardened criminals.
+Idiots, epileptics, and deformed and crippled children were given no
+special consideration. A kindlier public policy has provided special
+institutions for those special cases where under State officials they
+may receive adequate and permanent attention, and for normal dependent
+children there is a variety of agencies. The most approved form is the
+State school. This is virtually a temporary home where the needy child
+is placed by investigation and order of the court, is given a training
+in elementary subjects, manual arts, and domestic science, and after
+three or four years is placed in a home, preferably on a farm, where
+he can fill a worthy place in society.
+
+63. =Children's Aid Societies.=--Another aid society is the private
+aid society supervised and sometimes subsidized by the State. This is
+a philanthropic organization supported by private gifts, making public
+reports, managed by a board of directors, with a secretary or
+superintendent as executive officer, and often with a temporary home
+for the homeless. With these private agencies the placing-out
+principle obtains, and children are soon removed to permanent homes.
+The work of the aid societies is by no means confined to finding
+homes. It aids parents to find truant children, it gives outings in
+the summer season, it shelters homeless mothers with their children,
+it administers aid in time of sickness. In industrial schools it
+teaches children to help themselves by training them in such practical
+arts as carpentry, caning chairs, printing, cooking, dressmaking, and
+millinery.
+
+Efficient oversight and management, together with co-operation among
+child-saving agencies, is a present need. A national welfare bureau is
+a decided step in advance. Prevention of neglect and cruelty in the
+homes of the children themselves is the immediate goal of all
+constructive effort. The education of public opinion to demand
+universal consideration for child life is the ultimate aim.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  MANGOLD: _Problems of Child Welfare_, pages 166-184, 271-341.
+
+  CLOPPER: _Child Labor in the City Street._
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Training the Boy_, pages 203-213.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 26-36.
+
+  LEE: _Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy_, pages 123-184.
+
+  FOLKS: _Care of Destitute and Neglected Children._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOME ECONOMICS
+
+
+64. =The Economic Function of the Home.=--Up to this point the
+domestic function of the family has been under consideration. Marriage
+and parenthood must hold first place, because they are fundamental to
+the family and to the welfare of the race. But the family has an
+economic as well as a domestic function. The primitive instinct of
+hunger finds satisfaction in the home, and economic needs are supplied
+in clothing, shelter, and bodily comforts. Production, distribution,
+and consumption are all a part of the life of the farm. Domestic
+economy is the foundation of all economics, and the family on the farm
+presents the fundamental principles and phenomena that belong to the
+science of economics as it presents the fundamentals of sociology. The
+hunger for food demands satisfaction even more insistently than the
+mating instinct. Birds must eat while they woo each other and build
+their nests, and when the nest is full of helpless young both parents
+find their time occupied in foraging for food. Similarly, when human
+mating is over and the family hearth is built, and especially when
+children have entered into the home life, the main occupation of man
+and wife is to provide maintenance for the family. The need of food,
+clothing, and shelter is common to the race. The requirements of the
+family determine largely both the amount and the kind of work that is
+done to meet them. However broad and elevated may be the interests of
+the modern gentleman and his cultured wife, they cannot forget that
+the physical needs of their family are as insistent as those of the
+unrefined day laborer.
+
+65. =Primitive Economics.=--In primitive times the family provided
+everything for itself. In forest and field man and woman foraged for
+food, cooked it at the camp-fire that they made, and rested under a
+temporary shelter. If they required clothing they robbed the wild
+beasts of their hide and fur or wove an apron of vegetable fibre.
+Physical wants were few and required comparatively little labor. In
+the pastoral stage the flocks and herds provided food and clothing.
+Under the patriarchal system the woman was the economic slave. She was
+goatherd and milkmaid, fire-tender and cook, tailor and tent-maker. It
+was she who coaxed the grains to grow in the first cultivated field,
+and experimented with the first kitchen garden. She was the dependable
+field-hand for the sowing and reaping, when agriculture became the
+principal means of subsistence. But woman's position has steadily
+improved. She is no longer the slave but the helper. The peasant woman
+of Europe still works in the fields, but American women long ago
+confined themselves to indoor tasks, except in the gathering of
+special crops like cotton and cranberries. Home economics have taught
+the advantage of division of labor and co-operation.
+
+66. =Division of Labor.=--Because of greater fitness for the heavy
+labor of the field and barn, the man and his sons naturally became the
+agriculturists and stock-breeders as civilization improved. It was
+man's function to produce the raw material for home manufacture. He
+ploughed and fertilized the soil, planted the various seeds,
+cultivated the growing crops, and gathered in the harvest. It was his
+task to perform the rougher part of preparing the raw material for
+use. He threshed the wheat and barley on the threshing-floor and
+ground the corn at the mill, and then turned over the product to his
+wife. He bred animals for dairy or market, milked his cows, sheared
+his sheep, and butchered his hogs and beeves; it was her task to turn
+then to the household's use. She learned how to take the wheat and
+corn, the beef and pork, and to prepare healthful and appetizing meals
+for the household; she practised making butter and cheese for home use
+and exchange. She took the flax and wool and spun and wove them into
+cloth, and with her needle fashioned garments for every member of the
+household and furnishings for the common home. She kept clean and tidy
+the home and its manufacturing tools.
+
+When field labor was slack the man improved the opportunity to fashion
+the plough and the horseshoe at the forge, to build the boat or the
+cart in the shop, to hew store or cut timber for building or firewood,
+to erect a mill for sawing lumber or grinding grain. Similarly the
+woman used her spare time in knitting and mending, and if time and
+strength permitted added to her duties the care of the poultry-house.
+
+67. =The Servant of the Household.=--Long before civilization had
+advanced the household included servants. When wars broke out the
+victor found himself possessed of human spoil. With passion
+unrestrained, he killed the man or woman who had come under his power,
+but when reason had a chance to modify emotion he decided that it was
+more sensible to save his captives alive and to work them as his
+slaves. The men could satisfy his economic interest, the women his sex
+desire. The men were useful in the field, the women in the house.
+Ancient material prosperity was built on the slave system of industry.
+The remarkable culture of Athens was possible because the citizens,
+free from the necessity of labor, enjoyed ample leisure. Lords and
+ladies could live in their mediaeval castles and practise chivalry with
+each other, because peasants slaved for them in the fields without
+pay. Slowly the servant class improved its status. Slaves became serfs
+and serfs became free peasants, but the relation of master and servant
+based on mutual service lasted for many centuries.
+
+The time came when it was profitable for both parties to deal on a
+money basis, and the workman began to know the meaning of
+independence. The actual relation of master and servant remained about
+the same, for the workman was still dependent upon his employer. It
+took him a long time to learn to think much for himself, and he did
+not know how to find employment outside of the community or even the
+household where he had grown up. In the growing democracy of England,
+and more fully in America, the workman learned to negotiate for
+himself as a free man, and even to become himself a freeholder of
+land.
+
+68. =Hired Labor on the Farm.=--In the process of production in doors
+and out it was impossible on a large farm for the independent farmer
+and his wife to get on alone. There must be help in the cultivation of
+many acres and in the care of cattle and sheep. There must be
+assistance in the home when the birth and care of children brought an
+added burden to the housewife. Later the growing boys and girls could
+have their chores and thus add their contribution to the co-operative
+household, but for a time at least success on the farm depended on the
+hired laborer. Husband and wife became directors of industry as well
+as laborers themselves. In the busy summer season it was necessary to
+employ one or more assistants in the field, less often indoors, and
+the employee became for a time a member of the family. Often a
+neighbor performed the function of farm assistant, and as such stood
+on the same level as his employer; there was no servant class or
+servant problem, except the occasional shortage of laborers. Young men
+and women were glad of an opportunity to earn a little money and to
+save it in anticipation of the time when they would set up farming in
+homes of their own. The spirit and practice of co-operation dignified
+the employment in which all were engaged.
+
+69. =Co-operation.=--The control of the manufacturing industry on a
+large scale by corporations makes hearty co-operation between the
+employing group and the employees difficult, but on the farm the
+personal relations of the persons engaged made it easy and natural.
+The art of working together as well as living together was an
+achievement of the home, at first beginning unconsciously, but later
+with a definite purpose. The practice of co-operation is a continual
+object-lesson to the children, as they become conscious of the mutual
+dependence of each and all. The farmer has no time to do the small
+tasks, and so the boy must do the chores. There is a limit to the
+strength of the mother, and so the daughter or housemaid must
+supplement her labors. Without the grain and vegetables the housewife
+cannot provide the meals, but the man is equally dependent upon the
+woman for the preparation of the food. Without the care and industry
+of the parents through the helpless years of childhood, the children
+could not win in the struggle for existence. Nor is it merely an
+economic matter, but health and happiness depend upon the mutual
+consideration and helpfulness of every member of the household.
+
+70. =Economic Independence of the Farm.=--Until well into the
+nineteenth century the American farm household provided for most of
+its own economic needs. A country store, helped out if necessary by an
+occasional visit to town, supplied the few goods that were not
+produced at home. Economic wants were simple and means of purchase
+were not abundant. On the other hand, most of the products of the farm
+were consumed there. In the prevailing extensive agriculture the
+returns per acre were not great, methods of efficiency were not known
+or were given little attention, families were large and children and
+farm-hands enjoyed good appetites, and production and consumption
+tended to equalize themselves. In the process of the home manufacture
+of clothing it was difficult to keep the family provided with the
+necessary comforts; there was no thought of laying by a surplus beyond
+the anticipated needs of the family and provision for the wedding
+store of marriageable daughters.
+
+The distribution of any accumulated surplus was effected by the
+simplest mechanism of exchange. If the supply of young cattle was
+large or the wood-lot furnished more firewood than was needed, the
+product was bartered for seed corn or hay. There was swapping of
+horses by the men or of fruit or vegetable preserves by the women.
+Eggs and butter disposed of at the store helped to pay for sugar,
+salt, and spices. New incentives to larger production came with the
+extension of markets. When wood and hay could be shipped to a distance
+on the railroad, when a milk route in the neighborhood or a milk-train
+to the city made dairy products more profitable, or when market
+gardening became possible on an extensive scale, better methods of
+distribution were provided to take care of the more numerous
+products.
+
+71. =Social and Economic Changes in the Family.=--The fundamental
+principles that govern the economic activities of the family are the
+same as they used to be. Industry, thrift, and co-operation are still
+the watchwords of prosperity. But with the development of civilization
+and the improvements in manufacture, communication, and
+transportation, the economic function of the family has changed.
+Instead of producing all the crops that he may need or the tools of
+his occupation, the farmer tends to produce the particular crops that
+he can best cultivate and that will bring him the largest returns.
+Because of increasing facilities of exchange he can sell his surplus
+and purchase the goods that will satisfy his other needs. The farmer's
+wife no longer spins and weaves the family's supply of clothing; the
+men buy their supply at the store and often even she turns over the
+task of making up her own gowns to the village dressmaker. Where there
+is a local creamery she is relieved of the manufacture of butter and
+cheese, and the cannery lays down its preserves at her door. Household
+manufacturing is confined almost entirely to the preparation of food,
+with a varying amount of dressmaking and millinery. In the towns and
+cities the needs of the family are even more completely supplied from
+without. Children are relieved of all responsibility, women's care are
+lightened by the stock of material in the shops, and the bakery and
+restaurant help to supply the table. Family life loses thereby much of
+its unity of effort and sympathy. The economic task falls mainly upon
+the male producer. Even he lives on the land and in the house of
+another man; he owns not the tools of his industry and does business
+in another's name. He hires himself to a superior for wage or salary,
+and thereby loses in a measure his own independence. But there is a
+gain in social solidarity, for the chain of mutual dependence reached
+farther and binds more firmly; there is gain in community
+co-operation, for each family is no longer self-sufficient.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BOSANQUET: _The Family_, pages 221-227, 324-333.
+
+  THOMAS: _Sex and Society_, pages 123-146.
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      105-108.
+
+  MASON: _Woman's Share in Primitive Culture._
+
+  WEEDEN: _Economic and Social History of New England_, I, pages
+      324-326.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CHANGES IN THE FAMILY
+
+
+72. =Causes of Changes in the Family.=--The family at the present time
+is in a transition era. Its machinery is not working smoothly. Its
+environment is undergoing transformation. A hundred years ago the
+family was strictly rural; not more than three per cent of the people
+lived in large communities. Now nearly one-half are classified as
+urban by the United States census of 1910, and those who remain rural
+feel the influences of the town. There is far less economic
+independence on the farm than formerly, and in the towns and cities
+the home is little more than a place in which to sleep and eat for an
+increasing number of workers, both men and women. The family on the
+farm is no longer a perfectly representative type of the family in the
+more populous centres.
+
+These changes are due mainly to the requirements of industry, but
+partly at least to the desire of all members of the family to share in
+urban life. The increasing ease of communication and travel extends
+the mutual acquaintance of city and country people and, as the city is
+brought nearer, its pull upon the young people of the community
+strengthens. There is also an increasing tendency of the women folk to
+enter the various departments of industry outside of the home. It is
+increasingly difficult for one person to satisfy the needs of a large
+family. This tends to send the family to the city, where there are
+wider opportunities, and to drive women and children into socialized
+industry; at the same time, it tends to restrict the number of
+children in families that have high ideals for women and children.
+Family life everywhere is becoming increasingly difficult, and at the
+same time every member of the family is growing more independent in
+temper. The result is the breaking up of a large number of homes,
+because of the departure of the children, the separation of husband
+and wife, the desertion of parents, or the legal divorce of married
+persons. The maintenance of the family as a social institution is
+seriously threatened.
+
+73. =Static vs. Dynamic Factors.=--There are factors entering into
+family life that act as bonds to cement the individual members
+together. Such are the material goods that they enjoy in common, like
+the home with its comforts and the means of support upon which they
+all rely. In addition to these there are psychical elements that enter
+into their relations and strengthen these bonds. The inheritance of
+the peculiar traits, manners, and customs that differentiate one
+family from another; the reputation of the family name and pride in
+its influence; an affection, understanding, and sympathy that come
+from the intimacy of the home life and the appreciation of one
+another's best qualities are ties that do not easily rend or loosen.
+
+On the other hand, there are centrifugal forces that are pushing the
+members of the family apart. At the bottom is selfish desire, which
+frets at restriction, and which is stimulated by the current emphasis
+upon personal pleasure and individual independence. The family
+solidarity which made the sons Democrats because their father voted
+that party ticket, or the daughters Methodists because their mother's
+religious preferences were for that denomination, has ceased to be
+effective. Every member of the family has his daily occupations in
+diverse localities. The head of the household may find his business
+duties in the city twenty miles away, or on the road that leads him
+far afield across the continent. For long hours the children are in
+school. The housewife is the only member of the family who remains at
+home and her outside interests and occupations have multiplied so
+rapidly as to make her, too, a comparative stranger to the home life.
+Modern industrialism has laid its hand upon the women and children,
+and thousands of them know the home only at morning and night.
+
+74. =The Strain on the Urban Family.=--The rapid growth of cities,
+with the increase of buildings for the joint occupancy of a number of
+families, tends to disunity in each particular family and to a
+reduction in the size of families. The privacy and sense of intimate
+seclusion of the detached home is violated. The modern apartment-house
+has a common hall and stairway for a dozen families and a common
+dining-room and kitchen on the model of a hotel. The tenements are
+human incubators from which children overflow upon the streets,
+boarders invade the privacy of the family bedroom, and even sanitary
+conveniences are public. Home life is violated in the tenement by the
+pressure of an unfavorable environment; it perishes on the avenue
+because of a compelling desire to gain as much freedom as possible
+from household care.
+
+The care of a modern household grows in difficulty. Although the
+housekeeper has been relieved of performing certain economic functions
+that added to the burden of her grandmother, her responsibilities have
+been complicated by a number of conditions that are peculiar to the
+modern life of the town. Social custom demands of the upper classes a
+far more careful observance of fashion in dress and household
+furnishings, and in the exchange of social courtesies. The increasing
+cost of living due to these circumstances, and to a constantly rising
+standard of living, reacts upon the mind and nerves of the housewife
+with accelerating force. And not the least of her difficulties is the
+growing seriousness of the servant problem. Custom, social
+obligations, and nervous strain combine to make essential the help of
+a servant in the home. But the American maid is too independent and
+high-minded to make a household servant, and the American matron in
+the main has not learned how to be a just and considerate mistress.
+The result has been an influx of immigrant labor by servants who are
+untrained and inefficient, yet soon learn to make successful demands
+upon the employer for larger wages and more privileges because they
+are so essential to the comfort and even the existence of the family.
+Family life is increasingly at the mercy of the household employee. It
+is not strange that many women prefer the comfort and relief of an
+apartment or hotel, that many more hesitate to assume the
+responsibility of marriage and children, preferring to undertake their
+own self-support, and that not a few seek divorce.
+
+75. =Family Desertion.=--While the burden of housekeeping rests upon
+the wife, there are corresponding weights and annoyances that fall
+upon the man. Business pressure and professional responsibility are
+wearying; he, too, feels the strain upon his nerves. When he returns
+home at evening he is easily disturbed by a worried wife, tired and
+fretful children, and the unmistakable atmosphere of gloom and
+friction that permeates many homes. He contrasts his unenviable
+position with the freedom and good-fellowship of the club, and chafes
+under the family bonds. In many cases he breaks them and sets himself
+free by way of the divorce court. The course of men of the upper class
+is paralleled by that of the working man or idler who meets similar
+conditions in a home where the servant does not enter, but where there
+is a surplus of children. He finds frequent relief in the saloon, and
+eventually escapes by deserting his family altogether, instead of
+having recourse to the law. This practice of desertion, which is the
+poor man's method of divorce, is one of the continual perplexities of
+organized charity, and constitutes one of the serious problems of
+family life. There are gradations in the practice of desertion, and it
+is not confined to men. The social butterfly who neglects her children
+to flutter here and there is a temporary deserter, little less
+culpable than the lazy husband who has an attack of _wanderlust_
+before the birth of each child, and who returns to enjoy the comforts
+of home as soon as his wife is again able to assume the function of
+bread-winner for the growing family. From these it is but a step to
+the mutual desertion of a man and a woman, who from incompatibility of
+temper find it advisable to separate and go their own selfish ways, to
+wait until the law allows a final severance of the marriage bond.
+
+It is indisputable that this breaking up of the home is reacting
+seriously upon the moral character of the present generation; there is
+a carelessness in assuming the responsibility of marriage, and too
+much shirking of responsibility when the burden weighs heavily. There
+is a weakening of real affection and a consequent lack of mutual
+forbearance; there is an increasing feeling that marriage is a lottery
+and not worth while unless it promises increased satisfaction of
+sexual, economic, or social desires and ambitions.
+
+76. =Feminism.=--There can be no question that the growing
+independence of woman has complicated the family situation. In
+reaction against the long subjection that has fallen to her lot, the
+modern woman in many cases rebels against the control of custom and
+the expectations of society, refuses to regard herself as strictly a
+home-keeper, and in some cases is unwilling to become a mother. She
+seeks wider associations and a larger range of activities outside of
+the home, she demands the same rights and privileges that belong to
+man, and she dreams of the day when her power as well as her influence
+will help to mould social institutions. The feminist movement is in
+the large a wholesome reaction against an undeserved subserviency to
+the masculine will. Undoubtedly it contains great social potencies. It
+deserves kindly reception in the struggle to reform and reconstruct
+society where society is weak.
+
+The present situation deserves not abuse, but the most careful
+consideration from every man. In countless cases woman has not only
+been repressed from activities outside of the family group, but has
+been oppressed in her own home also. America prides itself on its
+consideration for woman in comparison with the general European
+attitude toward her, but too often chivalry is not exercised in the
+home. Often the wife has been a slave in the household where she
+should have been queen. She has been subject to the passion of an hour
+and the whim of a moment. She has been servant rather than helpmeet.
+Upon her have fallen the reproaches of the unbridled temper of other
+members of the family; upon her have rested the burdens that others
+have shirked. Husband and children have been free to find diversion
+elsewhere; family responsibilities or broken health have confined her
+at home. Her husband might even find sex satisfaction away from home,
+but public opinion would be more lenient with him than with her if
+she offended. The time has come when it is right that these
+inequalities and injustices should cease. Society owes to woman not
+only her right to her own person and property, but the right to bear,
+also, her fair share of social responsibility in this modern world.
+
+Yet in the process of coming to her own, there is danger that the wife
+will forget that marriage is the most precious of human relations;
+that the home has the first claim upon her; that motherhood is the
+greatest privilege to which any woman, however socially gifted, can
+aspire; and that social institutions of tried worth are not lightly to
+be cast upon the rubbish heap. It is by no means certain that society
+can afford or that women ought to demand individualistic rights that
+will put in jeopardy the welfare of the remainder of the family. The
+average woman has not the strength to carry properly the burden of
+home cares plus large political and social responsibilities, nor has
+she the money to employ in the home all the modern improvements of
+labor-saving devices and skilled service that might in a measure take
+her place. Nor is it at all certain that the granting of individual
+rights to women would tend to purify sex relations, but it is quite
+conceivable that the old moral and religious sanctions of marriage may
+disappear and the State assume the task of caring for all children. It
+is clear that the rights and duties of women constitute a very serious
+part of the problem of family life.
+
+77. =Individual Rights vs. Social Duties.=--The greatest weakness to
+be found in twentieth-century society is the disposition on the part
+of almost all individuals to place personal rights ahead of social
+duties. The modern spirit of individualism has grown strong since the
+Renaissance and the Reformation. It has forced political changes until
+absolutism has been yielding everywhere to democracy. It has extended
+social privileges until it has become possible for any one with push
+and ability to make his way to the top rung of the ladder of social
+prestige. It has permitted freedom to profess and practise any
+religion, and to advocate the most bizarre ideas in ethics and
+philosophy. It has brought human individuals to the place where they
+feel that nothing may be permitted to stand between them and the
+satisfaction of personal desire. The disciples of Nietzsche do not
+hesitate to stand boldly for the principle that might makes right,
+that he who can crush his competitors in the race for pleasure and
+profit has an indisputable claim on whatever he can grasp, and that
+the principle of mutual consideration is antiquated and ridiculous.
+Such principles and privileges may comport with the elemental
+instincts and interests of unrestrained, primitive creatures, but they
+do not harmonize with requirements of social solidarity and
+efficiency. Social evolution in the past has come only as the struggle
+for individual existence was modified by consideration for the needs
+of another, and social welfare in the future can be realized only as
+men and women both are willing to sacrifice age-long prejudice or
+momentary pleasure and profit to the permanent good of the larger
+group.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 356-371.
+
+  BRANDT AND BALDWIN: _Family Desertion._
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 85-95,
+      109-118.
+
+  GOODSELL: _The Family as a Social and Educational Institution_,
+      pages 456-477.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 239-250.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+DIVORCE
+
+
+78. =The Main Facts About Divorce.=--An indication of the emphasis on
+individual rights is furnished by the increase of divorce, especially
+in the United States, where the demands of individualism and
+industrialism are most insistent. The divorce record is the
+thermometer that measures the heat of domestic friction. Statistics of
+marriage and divorce made by the National Government in 1886 and again
+in 1906 make possible a comparison of conditions which reveal a rapid
+increase in the number of divorces granted by the courts. Certain
+outstanding facts are of great importance.
+
+(1) The number of divorces in twenty years increased from 23,000 to
+72,000, which is three times the rate of increase of the population of
+the country. If this rate of progress continues, more than half the
+marriages in the United States will terminate in divorce by the end of
+the present century.
+
+(2) In the first census it was discovered that the number of divorces
+in the United States exceeded the total number of divorces in all the
+European countries; in the second census it was shown that the United
+States had increased its divorces three times, while Japan, with the
+largest divorce rate in the world, had reduced its rate one-half.
+
+(3) Divorces in the United States are least common among people of the
+middle class; they are higher among native whites than among
+immigrants, and they are highest in cities and among childless
+couples.
+
+(4) Two-thirds of the divorces are granted on the demands of the wife.
+
+(5) Divorce laws are very variable in the different States, but most
+divorces are obtained from the States where the applicants reside.
+
+79. =Causes of Divorce.=--The causes recorded in divorce cases do not
+represent accurately the real causes, for the reason that it is easier
+to get an uncontested decision when the charges are not severe, and
+also for the reason that State laws vary and that which best fits the
+law will be put forward as the principal cause. Divorce laws in the
+United States generally recognize adultery, desertion, cruelty,
+drunkenness, lack of support, and crime as legitimate grounds for
+divorce. In the five years from 1902 to 1906 desertion was given as
+the ground for divorce in thirty-eight per cent of the cases, cruelty
+in twenty-three per cent, and adultery in fifteen per cent.
+Intemperance was given as the direct cause in only four per cent, and
+neglect approximately the same. The assignment of marital
+unfaithfulness in less than one-sixth of the cases, as compared with
+one-fourth twenty years before does not mean, however, that there is
+less unfaithfulness, but that minor offenses are considered sufficient
+on which to base a claim; the small percentage of charges of
+intemperance as the principal cause ought not to obscure the fact that
+it was an indirect cause in one-fifth of the cases.
+
+It is natural that the countries of Europe should present greater
+variety of laws and of causes assigned. In England, where the law has
+insisted on adultery as a necessary cause, divorces have been few. In
+Ireland, where the church forbids it, divorce is rare, less than one
+to thirty-five marriages. In Scotland fifty per cent of the cases
+reported are due to adultery. Cruelty was the principal cause ascribed
+in France, Austria, and Rumania; desertion in Russia and Sweden. The
+tendency abroad is to ascribe more rather than less to adultery.
+
+The real causes for divorce are more remote than the specific acts of
+adultery, desertion, or cruelty that are mentioned as grounds for
+divorce. The primary cause is undoubtedly the spirit of individual
+independence that demands its rights at the expense of others. In the
+case of women there is less hesitancy than formerly in seeking
+freedom from the marriage bond because of the increasing opportunity
+of self-support. The changing conditions of home life in the city,
+with the increasing cost of living, coupled with the ease of divorce,
+encourage resort to the courts. The unscrupulousness of some lawyers,
+who fatten their purses at the expense of marital happiness, and the
+meddlesomeness of relatives are also contributing causes. Finally the
+restraint of religion has relaxed, and unhappy and ill-mated persons
+do not shrink from taking a step which was formerly condemned by the
+church.
+
+80. =History of Divorce.=--The history of divorce presents various
+opinions and practices. The Hebrews had high ideals, but frequently
+fell into lax practices; the Greeks began well but degenerated sadly
+to the point where marriage was a mere matter of convenience; the
+Romans, noted for their sterling qualities in the early days of the
+republic, practised divorce without restraint in the later days of the
+empire.
+
+The influence of Christianity was greatly to restrict divorce. The
+teaching of the Bible was explicit that the basis of marriage was the
+faithful love of the heart, and that impure desire was the essence of
+adultery. Illicit intercourse was the only possible moral excuse for
+divorce. True to this teaching, the Christian church tried hard to
+abolish divorce, as it attempted to check all sexual evils, and the
+Catholic Church threw about marriage the veil of sanctity by making it
+one of the seven sacraments. As a sacrament wedlock was indissoluble,
+except as money or influence induced the church to turn back the key
+which it alone possessed. Separation was allowed by law, but not
+divorce. Greater stability was infused into the marriage relation. Yet
+it is not possible to purify sex relations by tying tightly the
+marriage bond. Unfaithfulness has been so common in Europe among the
+higher classes that it occasioned little remark, until the social
+conscience became sensitive in recent decades, and among the lower
+classes divorce was often unnecessary, because so many unions took
+place without the sanction of the church. In Protestant countries
+there has been a variable recession from the extreme Catholic ground.
+The Episcopal Church in England and in colonial America recognized
+only the one Biblical cause of unfaithfulness; the more radical
+Protestants turned over the whole matter to the state. In New England
+desertion and cruelty were accepted alongside adultery as sufficient
+grounds for divorce, and the legislature sometimes granted it by
+special enactment.
+
+81. =Investigation and Legislation in the United States and
+England.=--The divorce question provoked some discussion in this
+country about the time of the Civil War, and some statistics were
+gathered. Twenty years later the National Government was induced by
+the National Divorce Reform League to take a careful census of
+marriage and divorce. This was published in 1889, and revised and
+reissued in 1909. These reports aroused the States which controlled
+the regulation of marriage and divorce to attempt improved
+legislation. Almost universally among them divorce was made more
+difficult instead of easier. The term of residence before divorce
+could be obtained was lengthened; certain changes were made in the
+legal grounds for divorce; in less than twenty years fourteen States
+limited the privilege of divorced persons to remarry until after a
+specified time had elapsed, varying from three months to two years.
+Congress passed a uniform marriage law for all the territories. It was
+believed almost universally that the Constitution should be amended so
+as to secure a federal divorce law, but experience proved that it was
+better that individual States should adopt a uniform law. The later
+tendency has been in this direction.
+
+At the same time, the churches of the country interested themselves in
+the subject. The Protestant Episcopal Church took strong ground
+against its ministers remarrying a divorced person, and the National
+Council of Congregational Churches appointed a special committee which
+reported in 1907 in favor of strictness. Fourteen Protestant churches
+combined in an Interchurch Committee to secure united action, and the
+Federal Council of Churches recorded itself against the prevailing
+laxness. The purpose of all this group action was to check abuses and
+to create a more sensitive public opinion, especially among moral and
+religious leaders.
+
+In Great Britain, on the other hand, divorce had always been
+difficult. There the strictness of the law led to a demand for a study
+of the subject and a report to Parliament. The result was the
+appointment of a Royal Commission on Divorce and Matrimonial Causes,
+consisting of twelve members, which investigated for three years, and
+in 1912 presented its report. It recognized the fact that severe
+restrictions were in force, and a majority of the commission regarding
+marriage as a legal rather than a sacramental bond, favored easier
+divorce and a single standard of morality for both sexes. It was
+proposed that the grounds for legal divorce should be adultery,
+desertion extending over three years, cruelty, incurable insanity
+after confinement for five years, habitual drunkenness found incurable
+after three years, or imprisonment carrying with it a sentence of
+death. A minority of the committee still regarding marriage as a
+sacrament, favored no relaxation of the law as it stood.
+
+82. =Proposed Remedies.=--Various remedies have been proposed to stem
+the tide of excessive divorce. There are many who see in divorce
+nothing more than a healthy symptom of individual independence, a
+revolt against conditions of the home that are sometimes almost
+intolerable. Many others are alarmed at the rapid increase of divorce,
+especially in the United States, and believe that checks are necessary
+for the continued existence of the family and the well-being of
+society. The first reform proposed as a means of prevention of divorce
+is the revision of the marriage laws on a higher model. The second is
+a stricter divorce law, made as uniform as possible. The third is the
+adoption of measures of reconciliation which will remove the causes
+that provoke divorce.
+
+The proposed laws include such provisions as the prohibition of
+marriage for those who are criminal, degenerate, or unfitted to
+perform the sex function; the requirement of six months' publication
+of matrimonial banns and a physical certificate before marriage; a
+strictly provisional decree of divorce; the establishment of a court
+of domestic relations, and a prohibition of remarriage of the
+defendant during the life of the plaintiff. These are reasonable
+restrictions and seem likely to be adopted gradually, as practicable
+improvements over the existing laws. It is also proposed that the
+merits of every case shall be more carefully considered, and the
+judicial procedure improved by the appointment of a divorce proctor in
+connection with every court trying divorce cases, whose business it
+shall be to make investigations and to assist in trying or settling
+specific cases. Experiment has proved the value of such an officer.
+
+83. =Court of Domestic Relations.=--One of the most significant
+improvements that has taken place is the establishment of a court of
+domestic relations, which already exists in several cities, and has
+made an enviable record. In the early experiments it seemed
+practicable in Kansas to make such a court a branch of the circuit and
+juvenile courts, so arranged that it would be possible to deal with
+the relations of the whole family; in Chicago the new tribunal was
+made a part of the municipal court. By means of patient questioning,
+first by a woman assistant and then by the judge himself, and by good
+advice and explicit directions as to conduct, with a warning that
+failure would be severely treated, it has been possible to unravel
+hundreds of domestic entanglements.
+
+84. =Tendencies.=--There can be no question that the present tendency
+is in the direction of greater freedom in the marriage relation.
+Society will not continue to sanction inhumanity and immorality in the
+relations of man to woman. Marriage is ideally a sacred relation, but
+when it is not so treated, when love is dead and repulsion has taken
+its place, and especially when physical contact brings disease and
+suffering, public opinion is likely to consider that marriage is
+thereby virtually annulled, and to permit ratification of the fact by
+a decree of divorce. On the other hand, it is probable that increasing
+emphasis will be put on serious and well-prepared marriage, on the
+inculcation of a spirit of mutual love and forbearance through the
+agency of the church, and on the exhaustion of every effort to
+restore right relations, if they have not been irreparably destroyed,
+before any grant of divorce will be allowed. In this, as in all
+problems of the family, the spirit of mutual consideration for the
+interests of all concerned is that which must be invoked for a speedy
+and permanent solution. Education of young people in the importance of
+the family as a social institution and in the responsibility which
+every individual member should feel to make and keep the family pure
+and strong as a bulwark of social stability, is the surest means of
+preventing altogether its dissolution.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  "Report on Marriage and Divorce," 1906, _Bureau of the Census_,
+      I, pages 272-274, 331-333.
+
+  "Reports of the National League for the Protection of the Family."
+
+  POST: _Ethics of Marriage and Divorce_, pages 62-84.
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 96-108.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 3-160.
+
+  WILLCOX: _The Divorce Problem._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE SOCIAL EVIL
+
+
+85. =Sexual Impurity.=--A prime factor in the breaking up of the home
+is sexual impurity. The sex passion, an elemental instinct of
+humanity, is sanctified by the marriage relation, but unbridled in
+those who seek above all else their own pleasure, becomes a curse in
+body and soul. It is not limited to either sex, but men have been more
+self-indulgent, and have been treated more leniently than erring
+women. Sexual impurity is wide-spread, but public opinion against it
+is steadily strengthening, and the tendency is to hold men and women
+equally responsible. For the sake of clearness it is advisable to
+distinguish between various forms of impurity, and to observe the
+proper terms. The sexual evil appears in aggravated form in commercial
+prostitution, but is more prevalent as an irregularity among
+non-professionals. Sexual intercourse before marriage, or fornication,
+was not infrequent in colonial days, and in Europe is startlingly
+common; very frequently among the lower classes there is no marriage
+until a child is born. Sexual infidelity after marriage, or adultery,
+is the cause of the ruin of many homes. In the cities and among the
+well-to-do classes the keeping of mistresses is an occasional
+practice, but it is far less common than was the case in former days,
+when it was the regular custom at royal courts and imitated by those
+lower in the social scale.
+
+86. =Prostitution.=--Prostitution, softened in common speech to "the
+social evil," is a term for promiscuity of sex relationship for pay or
+its equivalent. It is a very old practice, and has existed in the East
+as a part of religious worship in veneration of the power of
+generation. In the West it is a frequent accompaniment of intemperance
+and crime. Modern prostitutes are recruited almost entirely from the
+lower middle class, both in Europe and America. Ignorant and helpless
+immigrant girls are seduced on the journey, in the streets of American
+cities, and in the tenements. Domestic servants and employees in
+factories and department stores seem to be most subject to
+exploitation, but no class or employment is immune. A great many
+girls, while still in their teens, have begun their destructive
+career. They are peculiarly susceptible in the evening, after the
+strain of the day's labor, when they are hunting for fun and
+excitement in theatres, dance-halls, and moving-picture shows. In
+summer they are themselves hunted on excursion steamers, and at the
+parks and recreation grounds. The seduction and exploitation of young
+women has become a distinct occupation of certain worthless young men,
+commonly known as cadets, who live upon the earnings of the women they
+procure. Three-fourths of the prostitutes have such men dependent on
+them, to whom they remain attached through fear or need of pecuniary
+relief in case of arrest, or even through a species of affection,
+though they receive nothing but abuse in return. Once secured, the
+victim is not permitted to escape. Not many women enter the life of
+prostitution from choice, but when they have once yielded to
+temptation or force, they lose their self-respect and usually sink
+into hopeless degradation, and then do not shrink from soliciting
+business within doors or on the streets.
+
+87. =Promotion and Regulation of Vice.=--The social evil is centred in
+houses of ill fame managed by unprincipled women. The business is
+financed and the profits enjoyed by men who constantly stimulate the
+trade to make it more profitable. As a result of investigations in New
+York, it is estimated that the number of prostitutes would be not more
+than one-fourth of what it is were it not for the ruthless greed of
+these men. The houses are usually located in the poorer parts of the
+city, but they are also to be found scattered elsewhere. In cases
+where public opinion does not warrant rigid enforcement of the law
+against it, the illicit traffic is disregarded by the police, and
+often they are willing to share in the gains as the price of their
+leniency. As a rule the business is kept under cover and not
+permitted to flaunt itself on the streets. Definite segregation in a
+particular district has been attempted, and has sometimes been favored
+as a means of checking vice, but this means is not practised or
+favored after experiment has shown its uselessness as a check upon the
+trade. Government regulation by a system of license, with registration
+of prostitutes and regular though superficial examination of health,
+is in vogue in parts of western and southern Europe, but it is not
+favored by vice commissions that have examined into its workings.
+
+88. =Extent of the Social Evil.=--It is probable that estimates as to
+the number of prostitutes in the great urban centres has been much
+exaggerated. In the nature of the case it is very difficult to get
+accurate reports, but when it is remembered that the number of men who
+frequent the resorts is not less than fifteen times the number of
+women, and that in most cases the proportion is larger, it is not
+difficult to conceive of the immense profits to the exploiters, but
+also of the enormous economic waste, the widely prevalent physical
+disease, and the untold misery of the women who sin, and of the
+innocent women at home who are sinned against by those who should be
+their protectors.
+
+A "white-slave traffic" seems to have developed in recent years that
+has not only increased the number of local prostitutes, but has united
+far-distant urban centres. It is very difficult to prove an intercity
+trade, but investigation has produced sufficient evidence to show that
+there is an organized business of procuring victims and that they have
+been exported to distant parts of the world, including South America,
+South Africa, and the Far East.
+
+89. =The Causes.=--The social evil has usually been blamed upon the
+perversity of women and their pecuniary need, but investigation makes
+it plain that the causes go deeper than that. The first cause is the
+ignorance of girls who are permitted to grow up and go out into the
+world innocently, unaware of the snares in which they are liable to
+become enmeshed. Added to this ignorance is the lack of moral and
+religious training, so that there is often no firm conviction of right
+and wrong, an evil which is intensified in the city tenements by the
+conditions of congested population. A third grave cause is the public
+neglect of persons of defective mentality and morality. Women who are
+not capable of taking care of themselves are allowed full liberty of
+conduct, and frequently fall victims to the seducer. An investigation
+of cases in the New York Reformatory for Women at Bedford in 1913
+showed one-third very deficient mentally; the Massachusetts Vice
+Commission in 1914 reported one-half to three-fourths of three hundred
+cases to be of the same class. It seems clear that a large proportion
+of prostitutes generally belong in this category. It has been
+estimated that there are now (1915) as many defective women at large
+in Massachusetts as there are in public institutions.
+
+Poverty is an important factor in the extension of the sexual evil. It
+is notorious that thousands of women workers are underpaid. In
+factories, restaurants, and department stores they frequently receive
+wages much less than the eight dollars a week required by women to
+maintain themselves, if dependent on their own resources. The American
+woman's pride in a good appearance, the natural human love of ease,
+luxury, and excitement, the craving for relaxation and thrill, after
+the exacting labor of a long day, all contribute to the welcome of an
+opportunity for an indulgence that brings money in return. The agency
+of the dance-hall and the saloon has also an important place in the
+downfall of the tempted. Intemperance and prostitution go together,
+and places where they can be enjoyed are factories of vice and crime.
+Many so-called hotels with bar attachment are little more than houses
+of evil resort. Especially notorious for a time were the Raines Law
+hotels in New York City, designed to check intemperance, but proving
+nurseries of prostitution. Commercial profit is large from both kinds
+of traffic, and one stimulates the other.
+
+Among minor causes of the social evil is the postponement or
+abandonment of marriage by many young people, the celibate life
+imposed upon students and soldiers, the declaration of some physicians
+that continence is injurious, and lax opinion, especially in Europe.
+
+90. =The Consequences.=--It is impossible to measure adequately the
+consequences of sexual indulgence. It is destructive of physical
+health among women and of morals among both sexes. It results in a
+weakening of the will and a blunting of moral discernment. It is an
+economic waste, as is intemperance, for even on the level of economic
+values it is plain that money could be much better spent for that
+which would benefit rather than curse. But the great evil that looms
+large in public view is the legacy of physical disease that falls upon
+self-indulgent men and their families. The presence of venereal
+disease in Europe is almost unbelievable; so great has it been in
+continental armies that governments have become alarmed as to its
+effects upon the health and morale of the troops. College men have
+been reckless in sowing wild oats, and have suffered serious physical
+consequences. Most pathetic is the suffering that is caused to
+innocent wives and children in blindness, sterility, and frequent
+abdominal disease. This is a subject that demands the attention of
+every person interested in human happiness and social welfare.
+
+91. =History of Reform.=--Spasmodic efforts to suppress the social
+evil have occurred from time to time. The result has been to scatter
+rather than to suppress it, and after a little it has crept back to
+its old haunts. Scattering it in tenements and residential districts
+has been very unfortunate. The cure is not so simple a process.
+Neither will segregation help. It is now generally agreed, especially
+as a result of recent investigations by vice commissioners in the
+large cities, that there must be a brave, sustained effort at
+suppression, and then the patient task of reclaiming the fallen and
+preventing the evil in future.
+
+Organization and investigation are the two words that give the key to
+the history of reform. International societies are agitating abroad;
+other associations are directly engaged in checking vice in the United
+States, most prominent of which is the American Vigilance Association.
+Rescue organizations are scattered through the cities. Especially
+active have been the commissions of investigation appointed privately
+and by municipal, State, and Federal Governments, which have issued
+illuminating reports. The United States in 1908 joined in an
+international treaty to prevent the world-wide traffic in white
+slaves, and in 1910 Congress passed the Mann White Slave Act to
+prevent interstate traffic in America.
+
+92. =Measures of Prevention and Cure.=--The social evil is one about
+which there have been all sorts of wild opinions, but the facts are
+becoming well substantiated by investigations, and these
+investigations are the basis upon which all scientific conclusions
+must rest, alike for public education and for constructive
+legislation. No one remedy is adequate. There are those who believe
+that the church has it in its power to stir a wave of indignation that
+would sweep the whole traffic from the land, but it is not so simple a
+process. It is generally agreed that both education and legislation
+are necessary to check the evil. The first is necessary for the public
+health, and to support repressive laws. As a helpful means of
+repression it is proposed that the social evil, along with questions
+of social morals, like gambling, excise, and amusements, shall be
+taken out of the hands of the municipal police and the politicians,
+and lodged with an unpaid morals commission, which shall have its own
+special corps of expert officers and a morals court for the trial of
+cases appropriate to its jurisdiction. This experiment actually has
+been tried in Berlin. Measures of prevention as well as measures of
+repression are needed. Restraint is needed for defectives; protection
+for immigrants and young people, especially on shipboard, in the
+tenements, and in the moving-picture houses; better housing, better
+amusements, and better wages for all the people. Finally, the wrecks
+must be taken care of. Rescue homes and other agencies manage to save
+a few to reformed lives; homes are needed constantly for temporary
+residence. Private philanthropy has provided them thus far, but the
+United States Government has discussed the advisability of building
+them in sufficient numbers to meet every local need. Many old and
+hardened offenders need reformatories with farm and hospital where
+they can be cared for during a long time; some of the States have
+provided these already. The principles upon which a permanent cure of
+the social evil must be based are similar to those that underlie all
+family reform, namely, the rescue as far as possible of those already
+fallen, the social and moral education of youth to nobler purpose and
+will, the removal of unfavorable economic and social conditions, and
+the improvement of family life until it can satisfy the human cravings
+that legitimately belong to it.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ADDAMS: _A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil._
+
+  WILLSON: _The American Boy and the Social Evil._
+
+  MORROW: _Social Diseases and Marriage_, pages 331-353.
+
+  KNEELAND: _Commercialized Prostitution in New York City_, pages
+      253-271.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES
+
+
+93. =Social Characteristics Illustrated by the Family.=--A study of
+the family such as has been made illustrates the characteristics of
+social life that were noted in the introductory chapter. There is
+activity in the performance of every domestic, economic, and social
+function. There is association in various ways for various purposes
+between all members of the family. Control is exercised by paternal
+authority, family custom, and personal and family interest. The
+history of the family shows gradual changes that have produced
+varieties of organization, and the present situation discloses
+weaknesses that are precipitating upon society very serious problems.
+Present characteristics largely determine future processes; always in
+planning for the future it is necessary to take into consideration the
+forces that produce and alter social characteristics. Specific
+measures meet with much scepticism, and enthusiastic reformers must
+always reckon with inertia, frequent reactions, and slow social
+development. In the face of sexualism, divorce, and selfish
+individualism, it requires patience and optimism to believe that the
+family will continue to exist and the home be maintained.
+
+94. =Principles of Family Reform.=--It is probably impossible to
+restore the home life of the past, as it is impossible to turn back
+the tide of urban migration and growth. But it is possible on the
+basis of certain fundamental principles to improve the conditions of
+family life by means of methods that lie at hand. The first principle
+is that the home must function properly. There must be domestic and
+economic satisfactions. Without the satisfaction of the sexual and
+parental instincts and an atmosphere of comfort and freedom from
+anxiety, the home is emptied of its attractions. The second principle
+is that social sympathy and service rather than individual
+independence shall be the controlling motive in the home. As long as
+every member of the family consults first his own pleasure and comfort
+and contributes only half-heartedly to create a home atmosphere and to
+perform his part of the home functions, there can be no real gain in
+family life. The home is built on love; it can survive on nothing less
+than mutual consideration.
+
+95. =The Method of Economic Adjustment.=--The first method by which
+these principles can be worked out is economic adjustment. It is
+becoming imperative that the family income and the family requirements
+shall be fitted together. Less extravagance and waste of expenditure
+and a living wage to meet legitimate needs, are both demanded by
+students of economic reform. It is not according to the principles of
+social righteousness that any family should suffer from cold or
+hunger, nor is it right that any social group should be wasteful of
+the portion of economic goods that has come to it. There is great
+need, also, that the expense of living should be reduced while the
+standards of living shall not be lowered. The business world has been
+trying to secure economies in production; there is even greater need
+of economies in distribution. Millions are wasted in advertising and
+in the profits of middlemen. Some method of co-operative buying and
+selling will have to be devised to stop this economic leakage. It
+would relieve the housewife from some of the worries of housekeeping
+and lighten the heart of the man who pays the bills. A third
+adjustment is that of the household employee to the remainder of the
+household. The servant problem is first an economic problem, and
+questions of wages, hours, and privileges must be based on economic
+principles; but it is also a social problem. The servant bears a
+social relation to the family. The family home is her home, and she
+must have a certain share in home comforts and privileges. A fourth
+reform is better housing and equipment. Attractive and comfortable
+houses in a wholesome environment of light, air, and sunshine, built
+for economical and easy housekeeping, are not only desirable but
+essential for a permanent and happy family life.
+
+96. =The Method of Social Education.=--A second general method by
+which the principles of home life may be carried out is social
+education. Given the material accessories, there must be the education
+of the family in their use. Children in the home need to know the
+fundamentals of personal and sex hygiene and the principles of
+eugenics. In home and in school the emphasis in education should be
+upon social rather than economic values, on the significance of social
+relationships and the opportunities of social intercourse in the home
+and the community, on the personal and social advantages of
+intellectual culture, on the importance of moral progress in the
+elimination of drunkenness, sexualism, poverty, crime, and war, if
+there is to be future social development, and on the value of such
+social institutions as the home, the school, the church, and the state
+as agencies for individual happiness and group progress. Especially
+should there be impressed upon the child mind the transcendent
+importance of affectionate co-operation in the home circle, parents
+sacrificing personal preferences and anticipations of personal
+enjoyment for the good of children, and children having consideration
+for the wishes and convictions of their elders, and recognizing their
+own responsibility in rendering service for the common good.
+Sanctioned by law, by the custom of long tradition, by economic and
+social valuations, the home calls for personal devotion of will and
+purpose from every individual for the welfare of the group of which he
+is a privileged member. The family tie is the most sacred bond that
+links individuals in human society; to strengthen it is one of the
+noblest aspirations of human endeavor.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _The Family in Its Sociological Aspects_, pages 119-134.
+
+  POST: _Ethics of Marriage and Divorce_, pages 105-127.
+
+  HOWARD: _History of Matrimonial Institutions_, III, pages 253-259.
+
+  THWING: _The Recovery of the Home._ A Pamphlet.
+
+
+
+
+PART III--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE COMMUNITY AND ITS HISTORY
+
+
+97. =Broadening the Horizon.=--Out of the kindergarten of the home the
+child graduates into the larger school of the community. Thus far
+through his early years the child's environment has been restricted
+almost entirely to the four walls of the home or the limits of the
+farm. His horizon has been bounded by garden, pasture, and orchard,
+except as he has enjoyed an occasional visit to the village centre or
+has found playmates on neighboring farms. He has shared in the
+isolation of the farm. The home of the nearest neighbor is very likely
+out of sight beyond the hill, or too far away for children's feet to
+travel the intervening distance; on the prairie the next door may be
+over the edge of the horizon. The home has been his social world. It
+has supplied for him a social group, persons to talk with, to play
+with, to work with. Inevitably he takes on their characteristics, and
+his life will continue to be narrow and to grow conservative and hard,
+unless he enlarges his experience, broadens his horizon, tries new
+activities, enjoys new associations, tests new methods of social
+control, and lets the forces that produce social change play upon his
+own life.
+
+Happy is he when he enters definitely into community life by taking
+his place in the district school. The schoolhouse may be at the
+village centre or it may stand aloof among the trees or stark on a
+barren hillside along the country road; physical environment is of
+small consequence as compared with the new social environment of the
+schoolroom itself. The child has come into contact with others of his
+kind in a permanent social institution outside the home, and this
+social contact has become a daily experience. Every child that goes to
+school is one of many representatives from the homes of the
+neighborhood. He brings with him the habits and ideas that he has
+gathered from his own home, and he finds that they do not agree or
+fuse easily with the ideas and habits of the other children. In the
+schoolroom and on the playground he repeats the process of social
+adjustments which the race has passed through. Conflicts for
+ascendancy are frequent. He must prove his physical prowess on the
+playground and his intellectual ability in the schoolroom. He must
+test his body of knowledge and the value of his mental processes by
+the mind of his teacher. He must have strength of conviction to defend
+his own opinions, but he must have an open mind to receive truths that
+are new to him. One of the great achievements of the school is to fuse
+dissimilar elements into common custom and opinion, and thus to
+socialize the independent units of community life.
+
+98. =Learning Social Values in the Community.=--The school is the door
+to larger social opportunity than the home can provide, but it is not
+the only door. The child in passing to and from school comes into touch
+with other institutions and activities. He passes other homes than his
+own. He sees each in the midst of its own peculiar surroundings, and he
+makes comparisons of one with another and of each with his own. He
+estimates more or less consciously the value of that which he sees, not
+so much in terms of economic as of social worth, and congratulates or
+pities himself or his schoolmates, according to the judgments that he
+has made. He stops at the store, the mill, or the blacksmith shop,
+through frequent contact becomes familiar with their functions, and
+thinks in turn that he would like to be storekeeper, miller, and
+blacksmith. He sees the farmer on other farms than his own gathering
+his harvest in the fall, hauling wood in the winter, or ploughing his
+field in the spring, and he becomes conscious of common habits and
+occupations in this rural community. He gets acquainted with the
+variety of activities that enter into life in the country district in
+which his home is located, and he learns to appreciate the importance
+of the instruments upon which such activity depends for travel from
+place to place. By all these means the child is learning social values.
+After a little he comes to understand that the community, with its
+roads, its public buildings, and its established institutions, exists
+to satisfy certain economic and social needs that the single family
+cannot supply. By and by he learns that, like the family, it has grown
+out of the experience of relationships, and can be traced far back in
+history, and that as time passes it is slowly changing to adapt itself
+to the changing wants and wishes of its inhabitants. He becomes aware
+of a present tendency for the community to imitate the larger social
+life outside, to make its village centre a reproduction in miniature of
+the urban centres; later he realizes that the introduction of foreign
+elements into the population is working for the destruction of the
+simple, unified life of former days, and is introducing a certain
+flavor of cosmopolitanism.
+
+It is this growth of social consciousness in a single child,
+multiplied by the number of children in the community, that
+constitutes the process of social education. A community with no
+dynamic influences impinging upon it reproduces itself in this way
+generation after generation, and at best seems to maintain but a
+static existence. In reality, few communities stand still. The
+principle of change that is characteristic of social life is
+continually working to build up or tear down the community structure
+and to modify community functioning. The causes of change and their
+methods of operation appear in the history of the rural community.
+
+99. =Rural History.=--The history of the rural community falls into
+two periods--first, when the village was necessary to the life of the
+individual; second, when the individual pioneer pushed out into the
+forest or prairie, and the village followed as a convenient social
+institution. The community came into existence through the bond of
+kinship. Every clan formed a village group with its own peculiar
+customs. These were primitive, even among semi-civilized peoples.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the village elders sat by the gate to
+administer justice in the name of the clan; in China the old men still
+bask on a log in the sun and pronounce judgment in neighborly gossip.
+The village existed for sociability and safety. The mediaeval Germans
+left about each village a broad strip of waste land called the mark,
+and over this no stranger could come as a friend without sounding a
+trumpet. Later the village was surrounded by a wall called a tun, and
+by a transfer of terms the village frequently came to be called a
+mark, or tun, later changed to town. Place names even in the United
+States are often survivals of such a custom, as Charlestown or
+Chilmark. The Indian village in colonial America was similarly
+protected with a palisade, and village dogs heralded the approach of a
+stranger, as they do still in the East.
+
+100. =The Mediaeval Village.=--The peasant village of the Middle Ages
+constitutes a distinct type of rural community. A consciousness of
+mutual dependence between the owner of the land and the peasants who
+were his serfs produced a feudal system in which the landlord
+undertook to furnish protection and to permit the peasant to use
+portions of his land in exchange for service. Strips of fertile soil
+were allotted to the village families for cultivation, while
+pasture-land, meadow, and forest were kept for community use. Even in
+the heart of the city Boston Common remains as a relic of the old
+custom. On the mediaeval manor people lived and worked together, most
+of them on the same social level, the lord in his manor-house and the
+peasants in a hamlet or larger village on his land, huddling together
+in rude huts and in crude fashion performing the social and economic
+functions of a rural community. In the village church the miller or
+the blacksmith held his head a little higher than his neighbors, and
+sometimes the lord of the manor did not deign to worship in the common
+parish church, but the mass of the people were fellow serfs, owning a
+common master, working at the same tasks, by custom sowing and reaping
+the same kind of grain on the same kind of land in the same week of
+the year. They attended the court of the master, who exercised the
+functions of government. They worshipped side by side in the church.
+The same customs bound them and the same superstitions worried their
+waking hours. There was thus a community solidarity that less commonly
+exists under modern conditions.
+
+There was no stimulus to progress on the manor itself. There were no
+schools for the peasant's children, and there was little social
+intelligence. The finer side of life was undeveloped, except as the
+love of music was stirred by the travelling bard, or martial fervor or
+the love of movement aroused the dance. There was no desire for
+religious independence or understanding of religious experience. The
+mass in the village church satisfied the religious instinct. There was
+no dynamic factor in the community itself. Besides all this, the
+community lived a self-centred life, because the people manufactured
+their own cloth and leather garments and most of the necessary tools,
+and, except for a few commodities like iron and salt, they were
+independent of trade. The result was that every stimulus of social
+exchange between villages was lacking.
+
+The broadening influence of the Crusades with their stimulus to
+thought, their creation of new economic wants, and their contact of
+races and nationalities, set in motion great changes. Out of the
+manorial villages went ambitious individuals, making their way as
+industrial pioneers to the opportunity of the larger towns, as now
+young people push out from the country to the city. New towns were
+founded and new enterprises were begun. Trade routes were opened up.
+The feudal principality grew into the modern state. Cultural interests
+demanded their share of attention. Schools were founded, and art and
+literature began again to develop. Even law and religion, most
+conservative among social institutions, underwent change.
+
+101. =The Village in American History.=--The spirit of enterprise and
+the disturbed political and religious conditions impelled many groups
+in western Europe to emigrate to new lands after the geographical
+discoveries that ushered in the sixteenth century. They were free to
+go, for serfdom was disappearing from most of the European countries.
+The village life of Europe was transplanted to America. In the South
+the mediaeval feudal village became the agricultural plantation, where
+the planter lived on his own estate surrounded by the rude cabins of
+his dusky peasantry. The more democratic, homogeneous village life of
+middle-class Englishmen reproduced itself in New England, where the
+houses of the settlers clustered about the village meeting-house and
+schoolhouse, and where habits of industry, frugality, and sobriety
+characterized every local group. In this new village life there came
+to be a stronger feeling of self-respect, and under the hard
+conditions of life in a new continent there developed a self-reliance
+that was destined to work wonders in days to come. The New World bred
+a spirit of independence that suited well the individualistic
+philosophy and religion of the modern Englishman. All these qualities
+prophesied much of individual achievement. Yet this tendency toward
+individualism threatened the former social solidarity, though there
+was a recognition of mutual interests and a readiness to show
+neighborly kindness in time of stress, and a perception of the social
+value of democracy in church and state.
+
+102. =Individual Pioneering.=--The pioneer American colonies were
+group settlements, but they produced a new race of individual pioneers
+for the West. Occasionally a whole community emigrated, but usually
+hardy, venturesome individuals pushed out into the wilderness, opening
+up the frontier continually farther toward the setting sun. By the
+brookside the pioneer made a clearing and erected his log house; later
+on the unbroken prairie he built a rude hut of sod. On the land that
+was his by squatter's right or government claim he planted and reaped
+his crops. About him grew up a brood of children, and as the years
+passed, others like himself followed in the path that he had made,
+single men to work for a time as hired laborers, families to break new
+ground, until the countryside became sparsely settled and the nucleus
+of a village was made.
+
+Such pioneers were hard-working people, lonely and introspective.
+They knew little of the comforts and none of the refinements of life.
+They prescribed order and administered justice at the weapon's point.
+They were emotional in religion. They required the stimulus of
+abundant food and often of strong drink to goad them to their various
+tasks. Frontier pioneering in America reproduced many of the features
+of former ages of primitive life and compressed centuries into the
+space of a generation. It was distinctly individualistic, and needed
+socializing. The large farm or cattle-range kept men apart, the
+freedom of the open country attracted an unruly population, and in
+consequence frontier life tended to rough manners and lawlessness.
+Isolation and loneliness produced despondency and inertia, and tended
+to individual and group degeneration.
+
+Even in a growing village men and women of this type had few social
+institutions. There was little time for schooling or recreation. A
+circuit-riding preacher held religious services once or twice a month,
+and in certain regions at a certain season religious enthusiasm found
+vent in a camp-meeting, but religion often had little effect on habits
+and morals. Local government and industry were home-made. The settlers
+brought with them customs and traditions which they cherished, but in
+the mingling of pioneers from different districts there was continual
+change and fusion, until the West became the most enterprising and
+progressive part of the nation, continually open to new ideas and new
+methods. There was a wholesome respect for church and school, and as
+villages grew the settlers did not neglect the organization and
+housing of such institutions; store, mill, and smithy found their
+place as farther east, and later the lawyer and physician came, but
+the pioneer could do without them for a time. Inventiveness and
+individual initiative were characteristics of the rural people, made
+necessary by their remoteness and isolation.
+
+103. =The Development of the West.=--With increasing settlement the
+rural pioneer gave place to the farmer. It was no longer necessary for
+him to break new ground, for arable acres could be purchased; neither
+was it necessary to turn from one occupation to another to satisfy
+personal or household needs, for division of labor provided
+specialists. Hardship gave way to comfort, for the land was fertile
+and experience had taught its values for the cultivation of particular
+crops. Loneliness and isolation were felt less severely as neighbors
+became more frequent and travelled roads made communication easier.
+Group life expanded and institutions became fixed. Every neighborhood
+had its school-teacher, and even the academy and college began to dot
+the land. Churches of various denominations found root in rural soil,
+and a settled minister became more common. A general store and
+post-office found place at the cross-roads, and the permanent
+machinery of local government was set up. Out of the forest clearings
+and prairie settlements evolved the prosperous farm life that has been
+so characteristic of the Middle West.
+
+But the prosperous life of these rural communities has not remained
+unchanged. Speculation in land has been creating a class of
+non-resident agricultural capitalists and tenant cultivators, and has
+been transforming the type of agricultural population over large
+sections of country. Soil exhaustion is leading to abandonment of the
+poorest land and is compelling methods of scientific agriculture on
+the remainder. These conditions are producing their own social
+problems for the rural community.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  SMALL AND VINCENT: _Introduction to the Study of Society_, pages
+      112-126.
+
+  CHEYNEY: _Industrial and Social History of England_, pages 31-56.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 1-62.
+
+  WILSON: _Evolution of the Country Community_, pages 1-61.
+
+  CARVER: _Principles of Rural Economics_, pages 74-116.
+
+  ROSS: "The Agrarian Revolution in the Middle West," _North
+      American Review_, September, 1909.
+
+  GILLETTE: "The Drift to the City in Relation to the Rural
+      Problem," _American Journal of Sociology_, March, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
+
+
+104. =Physical Types.=--To understand the continually changing rural
+life of the present, it is necessary to examine into the physical
+characteristics of the country districts, the elements of the
+population, the functions of the rural community, and its social
+institutions.
+
+The physical characteristics have a large part in determining
+occupations and in fashioning social life. A natural harbor,
+especially if it is at the mouth of a river, seems destined by nature
+for a centre of commerce, as the falls of a swift-flowing stream
+indicate the location of a manufacturing plant. A mineral-bearing
+mountain invites to mining, and miles of forest land summon the
+lumberman. Broad and well-watered plains seem designed for
+agriculture, and on them acres of grain slowly mature through the
+summer months to turn into golden harvests in the fall. The
+Mississippi valley and the Western plain into which it blends have
+become the granary of the American nation. The railroad-train that
+rushes day and night from the Great Lakes toward the setting sun moves
+hour after hour through the extensive rural districts that
+characterize the great West. There are the mammoth farms that are
+given to the one enormous crop of wheat or corn. Alongside the
+railroad loom the immense elevators where the grain is stored to be
+shipped to market. Here and there are the farm-buildings where the
+owner or tenant lives, but villages are small and scattered and
+community activity is slight.
+
+Similarly, in the South before the Civil War there were large
+plantations of cotton and tobacco, dotted only here and there with the
+planter's mansion and clumps of negro cabins. Village life was not a
+characteristic of Southern society. The old South had its picturesque
+plantation life, and the aristocracy made its sociable visits from
+family to family, but that rural type disappeared with the war. With
+the breaking up of the old plantations there came a greater
+diversification of agriculture, which is going on at an accelerated
+pace, and social centres are increasing, but there is still much rural
+isolation. Among the remoter mountains lingers the most conservative
+American type of citizens in the arrested development of a century
+ago, with antique tools and ancient methods, scratching a few acres
+for a garden and corn-field, and living their backward, isolated life,
+without comfort or even peace, and almost without social institutions.
+
+In the East the country is more broken. Large farms are few, and
+agriculture is carried on intensively as a business, or is united with
+another occupation or as a diversion from the cares and tasks of the
+town. Farms of a score to a few hundred acres, only part of which are
+cultivated, form rural communities among the hills or along a river
+valley. Here and there a few houses cluster in village or hamlet,
+where each house yard has its garden patch, but the inhabitants of the
+village depend on other means than agriculture for a living. On the
+farms dairy and poultry products share with agriculture in rural
+importance, and no one crop constitutes an agricultural staple. In New
+England the villages are comparatively near together, and social life
+needs only prodding to produce a healthy development.
+
+105. =Characteristics of Population.=--Rural life feels in each region
+the reactions of nature. The narrow life of the hills, the open life
+of the plains, the peaceful life of the comfortable plantation with
+its lazy river and its delightful climate, each has its peculiar
+characteristics that are due in part at least to nature. But these
+features are complicated by social elements of population. The
+American rural community of to-day is composed of individuals who
+differ in age and fortune and kinship, and who vary in qualities and
+resemblances. There are old and young and middle-aged persons, men and
+women, married and single, persons with many relatives and others with
+few, native and foreign born, strong and weak, well and ill, good and
+bad, educated and illiterate. Yet there are certain characteristics
+that are typical.
+
+In the first place, for example, there is a considerable uniformity of
+age in the population of a certain type of community. In those
+agricultural districts where individuals own their own homes, the
+number of elderly people is larger than it is in the city, and the
+young people are comparatively few, for the reason that their
+ambitions carry them to the city for its larger opportunities, and in
+the older States many a farm becomes abandoned on the death of the old
+people. In districts where tenant-farming is largely in vogue, gray
+hairs are much fewer. The tendency is for the original farmers who
+have been successful to sell or rent their property and move to town
+to enjoy its comforts and attractions, leaving the tenants and their
+families of children.
+
+In the second place, it is characteristic of long-settled rural
+communities that there is an interlocking of family relationship, with
+a number of prevailing family names and a great preponderance of
+native Americans; but in portions of the West and in rural districts
+not very remote from the large cities of the East there is a large
+mixture, and in spots a predominance of the foreign element. In the
+third place, small means rather than wealth and a sluggish contentment
+rather than ambition is characteristic of the older rural sections; in
+newer districts ambition to push ahead is more common, and prosperity
+and an air of opulence are not unusual.
+
+106. =The Composition of Rural Communities.=--In an analysis of
+population it is proper to consider its composition and its manner of
+growth. In making a survey or taking a census of a community there are
+included at least statistics as to age, sex, number and size of
+families, degree of kinship, race parentage, and occupations. Records
+of age, sex, and size of family show the tendencies of a community as
+to growth or race suicide; kinship and race parentage indicate whether
+population is homogeneous; and occupations indicate the place that
+agriculture holds in a particular section of country. By a comparative
+study of statistics it is easy to determine whether a community is
+advancing, retrograding, or standing still, and what its position is
+relative to its neighbors; also to find out whether or not its
+occupations and characteristics are changing.
+
+107. =Manner of Growth.=--The manner of growth of a community is by
+natural excess of births over deaths, and by immigration of persons
+from outside. As long as the former condition obtains, population is
+homogeneous, and the community is conservative in customs and beliefs;
+when immigration is extensive, and more especially when it goes on at
+the same time with a declining birth-rate and a considerable
+emigration of the native element, the population is becoming
+heterogeneous, and the customs and interests of the people are growing
+continually more divergent. The immigration of an earlier day was from
+one American community to another, or from northern Europe, but rural
+communities East and West are feeling the effects of the large foreign
+immigration of the last decade from southern and eastern Europe and
+from Asia.
+
+108. =Decline of the Rural Population.=--The rural exodus to the
+cities is even more impressive and more serious in its consequences
+than the foreign influx into the country, though both are dynamic in
+their effects. This exodus is partly a matter of numbers and partly of
+quality. A distinction must be made first between the relative loss
+and the actual loss. The rural population in places of less than
+twenty-five hundred persons is steadily falling behind in proportion
+to the urban population in the country at large. There are many
+localities where there is also an actual loss in population, and in
+the North and Middle West the States generally are making no rural
+gain. But the most disheartening element in the movement of population
+from the point of view of rural communities is the loss of the most
+substantial of the older citizens, who move to the city to enjoy the
+reward of years of toil, and of the most ambitious of the young people
+who hope to get on faster in the city. Loss of such as these means
+loss of competent, progressive leaders. Added to this is the loss of
+laborers needed to cultivate the farms to their capacity for urban as
+well as rural supply. The loss of labor is not a serious economic
+misfortune, for it can be remedied to a large extent by the
+introduction of more machinery and new methods, but the loss of
+population reproduces in a measure the isolation of earlier days, and
+so tends to social degeneration. It is idle to expect that the
+far-reaching causes that are contributing to city growth will stop
+working for the sake of the rural community, but it is possible to
+enrich community life so that there will be less relative attraction
+in the city, and so that those who remain may enjoy many of the
+advantages that hitherto have been associated with the city alone.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 11-37.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 32-46, 281-292.
+
+  ANDERSON: _The Country Town_, pages 57-91.
+
+  SEMPLE: _Influences of Geographic Environment._
+
+  GALPIN: "Method of Making a Social Survey in a Rural Community,"
+      _University of Wisconsin Circular of Information_, No. 29.
+
+  CARROLL: _The Community Survey._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+OCCUPATIONS
+
+
+109. =Rural Occupations.=--An important part of the study of the rural
+community is its social functions. These do not differ greatly in name
+from the functions of the family, but they have wider scope. The
+domestic functions are confined almost entirely to the homes. The
+village usually includes a boarding-house or a country inn for the
+homeless few, and here and there an almshouse shelters the few
+derelicts whom the public must support.
+
+Economic activities in the main are associated with the farm home. The
+common occupation in the country is agriculture. Individuals are born
+into country homes, learn the common occupation, and of necessity in
+most cases make it their means of livelihood. Rural people are
+accustomed to hard labor for long hours. There are seasons when
+comparative inactivity renders life dull; there are individuals who
+enjoy pensions or the income of inherited or accumulated funds, and so
+are not compelled to resort to manual labor, and there are directors
+of agricultural industry; there are always a shiftless few who are
+lazy and poor; but these are only exceptions to the general rule of
+active toil. Not all rural districts are agricultural. Some are
+frontier settlements where lumbering or mining are the chief
+interests. Even where agriculture prevails there are varieties such as
+corn-raising or fruit-growing regions; there are communities that are
+progressively making use of the latest results of scientific
+agriculture, and communities that are almost as antique in their
+methods as the ancient Hebrews. Also, even in homogeneous districts,
+like those devoted to cotton-growing or tobacco-culture, there are
+always individuals who choose or inherit an occupation that supplies a
+special want to the community, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, and
+masters of other crafts. Occupations indicate an attempt to gear
+personal energies to the opportunities or requirements of a physical
+or social environment.
+
+All these occupations have more than economic value; they are
+fundamental to social prosperity. It is self-evident that the
+physician and the school-teacher render community service, but it is
+not so clear that the farmer who keeps his house well painted and his
+grounds in order, and who is improving his cattle and increasing the
+yield of his fields and woodland by scientific methods, and who
+organizes his neighbors for co-operative endeavor, is doing more than
+an economic service. Yet it is by means of inspiration, information,
+and co-operation that the community moves forward, and he who supplies
+these is a social benefactor.
+
+110. =Differentiation of Occupation.=--If community life is to
+continue there must be the producers who farm or mine or manufacture;
+in rural districts they are farmers, hired laborers, woodcutters,
+threshers, and herdsmen. In the co-operation of village life there
+must be the craftsmen and tradesmen who finish and distribute the
+products that the others have secured, such as the miller, the
+carpenter, the teamster, and the storekeeper. For comfort and peace in
+the neighborhood there must be added the physician, the minister, the
+school-teacher, the justice of the peace, and such public
+functionaries as postmaster, mail-carrier, stage-driver, constable or
+sheriff, and other town or county officials. Without specific
+allotment of lands as on the feudal estate, or distribution of tasks
+as in a socialistic commonwealth, the community accomplishes a natural
+division of labor and diversification of industry, supports its own
+institutions by self-imposed taxes and voluntary contributions, and
+supplies its quota to the larger State of which it forms a democratic
+part. In spite of the constant exercise of individual independence and
+competition, there is at the foundation of every rural community the
+principle of co-operation and service as the only working formula for
+human life.
+
+111. =Co-operation.=--One great advantage of community life over the
+home is the increased opportunity for co-operation. In new
+communities families work together to erect buildings, make roads,
+support schools, and organize and maintain a church. They aid each
+other in sickness, accident, and distress. Farmers find it profitable
+to unite for purposes of production, distribution, communication,
+transportation, and insurance. It may not seem worth while for a
+single farmer to buy an expensive piece of agricultural machinery for
+his own use, but it is well worth while for four or five to club
+together and buy it. The cost of an irrigation plant is much too high
+for one man, but a community can afford it when it will add materially
+to the production of all the farms in a district. In a region
+interested mainly in dairying a co-operative creamery can be made very
+profitable; in grain-producing sections co-operative elevator service
+makes possible the storage of grain until the demand increases values;
+in fruit-raising regions co-operation in selling has made the
+difference between success and failure. A co-operative telephone
+company has been the means of supplying several adjacent communities
+with easy communication. Co-operative banks are a convenient means of
+securing capital for agricultural use, and co-operative insurance
+companies have proved serviceable in carrying mutual risks.
+
+The advantages of such co-operation are by no means confined to
+economic interests. The best result is the increasing realization of
+mutual dependence and common concern. Co-operation is an antidote to
+the evils of isolation and independence. A co-operative telephone
+company may not pay large dividends, and may eventually sell out to a
+larger corporation, but it has introduced people to one another,
+brightened circumscribed lives, and taught the people social
+understanding and sympathy. But aside from all such artificial forms
+of co-operation, the very custom of providing such common institutions
+as the school and the church is a valuable form of social service,
+entirely apart from the specific results that come from the exercises
+of the schoolroom and the meeting-house.
+
+112. =Why Co-operation May Fail.=--Many co-operative enterprises fail,
+and this is not strange. There is always the natural conservatism and
+individualism of the American people to contend with; there is
+jealousy of the men who have been elected to responsible offices, and
+there is lack of experience and good judgment by those who undertake
+to engineer the active organization. Sometimes the method of
+organization or financing is faulty. Such enterprises work best among
+foreigners who have a good opinion of them, and know how to conduct
+them because they have seen them work well in Europe. Every successful
+attempt at economic co-operation is a distinct gain for rural
+community betterment, for upon co-operation depends the success of the
+efforts being put forth for rural improvement generally.
+
+113. =Competition Within the Group.=--Co-operation is of greatest
+value when it includes within it a wholesome amount of individual
+competition for the sake of general as well as individual gain. Boys'
+agricultural clubs, organized in the South and West, have raised the
+standards of corn and tomato production by stimulating a friendly
+spirit of rivalry among boys, and as a result the fathers of the boys
+have adopted new and more scientific methods to increase their own
+production. Agricultural fairs may be made powerful agencies for a
+similar stimulus. At State and county fairs agricultural colleges and
+experiment stations find it worth while to exhibit their methods and
+processes with the results obtained; wide-awake farmers get new ideas,
+which they try out subsequently at home; young people are encouraged
+to try for the premiums offered the next year, and steadily the
+general level of excellence rises throughout the district.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 171-196, 275-305.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 20-31.
+
+  "Country Life," _Annals of American Academy_, pages 58-68.
+
+  KERN: _Among Country Schools_, pages 129-157.
+
+  FORD: _Co-operation in New England_, pages 87-185.
+
+  COULTER: _Co-operation Among Farmers_, pages 3-23.
+
+  HERRICK: _Rural Credits_, pages 456-480.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+RECREATION
+
+
+114. =Recreation and Culture.=--Besides the economic function the
+community has recreative and cultural functions to perform, and these
+need recognition and improvement. As the child in the home has a right
+to time and means for play, so the community, especially the young
+people, may lay claim to an opportunity for recreation; as the child
+has the right to learn in the home, so the people of the community
+should have cultural privileges. These demands are the more
+imperative, because the city has so much of this sort to offer, and
+the country community cannot hold its young people unless it provides
+a reasonable amount of attractions. It needs no particular institution
+to bring this about, but it needs a new spirit to recognize and enjoy
+the advantages that are possible even in thinly settled localities.
+Every opportunity for sociability strengthens just so much a natural
+instinct, increases the sense of social values, and enlarges the
+sphere of relationships.
+
+In the community, as in the home, children have the first claim to
+consideration. The recreative impulse is strong in them. When they
+graduate from the home into the school they find opportunity for the
+expression of this impulse through their new associations. On the way
+to and from school and at recess they have opportunity to indulge
+their impulses and to use their powers of invention. Among the younger
+children the desire for muscular activity makes running games of all
+sorts popular; as boys grow older they imitate the primitive impulse
+to hit and run, so well provided for in games of ball; girls enjoy
+their recreation in a quieter way as they grow older, and show a
+tendency to association in pairs. Associations formed in play are not
+usually lasting ones, but the playground reveals individual
+temperament and personal qualities that are likely to determine
+popularity or unpopularity. These play associations develop qualities
+of leadership, loyalty, honesty, and co-operation that tend to label a
+child among his mates with a reputation that he carries into later
+life.
+
+115. =The Gang.=--Since play is a natural instinct it is to be
+expected that children will seek a natural rather than an artificial
+way of expressing the instinct. Organization at best can only direct
+activities, giving recognition to the social inclinations of
+childhood. For example, it is not easy for a school-teacher to
+organize a boys' society and to direct it in such activities as appeal
+to him. The boys prefer to choose their own mates and their own chief,
+and the activities that appeal to them are not the same as those that
+seem to their elders to be most suitable. Between the ages of ten and
+sixteen the boy tends to gang life. He may work on the farm all day,
+but evenings and Sundays, if he is permitted to amuse himself, he
+joins a gang. Obviously the characteristics of the gang are seen best
+in the city, but they are not materially different in the country.
+Hunting and fishing may be enjoyed at odd times of leisure by the boy
+without companions, but the delights of the swimming-hole can be
+enjoyed thoroughly only as he has the companionship of other boys, and
+skating gains in virtue as a sport with the possibility of hockey on
+the ice. This liking for companionship exhibits itself in the habitual
+association of boys of a certain district for mutual enjoyment. On
+every possible opportunity they get together in the woods, pretend
+they are Indians, hunt, fish, and fight in company, build their own
+camps and plunder the camps of other gangs, and practise other
+activities characteristic of the savage age through which they are
+passing. Gangs exhibit a love of cruelty to those whom they may
+plague, a fondness for appropriating property which does not belong to
+them, and if possible provoking chase for the sake of the thrill that
+comes from the attempt to get away. Group athletics of various sorts
+are popular. Six out of seven gangs have physical activities as the
+purpose of their organization. The boys do not necessarily adopt any
+particular organization or choose a leader; on the contrary, they are
+a natural group, tacitly acknowledging the leadership of the most
+masterly and versatile individual, finding their own headquarters and
+adopting the forms of activity that appeal most to the group,
+according to the season and the opportunities of the region of country
+where they belong.
+
+116. =Leadership of Boys.=--The gang is but one expression of the
+group instinct. It is often a nursery of bad habits that sometimes
+lead to crime and degeneracy, but it is capable of being used for the
+good of boyhood. The gang develops the virtues of loyalty to the group
+and loyalty to the group principles. It stimulates self-sacrifice and
+co-operation, honor and courage. These virtues can be cultivated by
+the man who aspires to boy leadership and directed into channels of
+usefulness as the boy passes on toward manhood. But there must be a
+frank recognition of the place of the gang in boy life, and not only a
+remembrance of one's own boyhood days, but also an appreciation of
+them. One of the best ways that has been devised for securing adult
+leadership without loss of the gang spirit and characteristics is the
+Boy Scout movement. It transforms the unorganized gang into the
+organized patrol, and affiliates it with other patrols in a wide
+organization, adopts the natural activities of boys as a part of its
+programme, and adds others of absorbing interest. Obedience is added
+to the boy's other virtues, and social education is acquired rapidly.
+
+117. =Varieties of Boys' Clubs.=--The gang is one of the few natural
+groups of the community, and should be related to other institutions.
+It should not be hampered by them, but should receive the
+encouragement and assistance of home, school, and church. The Boy
+Scout movement has been associated with the churches; other boys'
+organizations have been connected with the Sunday-schools; the home
+and the day-school may well provide resources or quarters for the
+gang, and recognize its activities. But the gang is not the only
+organization suited to the boys of a community. There are special
+interests provided for in more artificial groups, such as athletic,
+debating, agricultural, or natural history clubs. These attract
+like-minded individuals from all parts of the community, and help to
+balance the clan spirit developed by the gang. These clubs may centre
+in school or meeting-house or have quarters of their own. One
+provision that is needed for the satisfaction of boy life in the rural
+community is the field or green where two rival gangs may contend
+legitimately for supremacy in sport, or clubs from different
+neighborhoods may test their prowess and arouse local pride and
+enthusiasm. The green needs little or no equipment, but it gains
+recognition as the boys' own training-field and serves as a safeguard
+to the health and morals of the youth of the community. The gang and
+the green are the proper social institutions of boy life in the rural
+community.
+
+118. =Girls' Clubs.=--The instinct of the girl is not the same as that
+of the boy. She has other interests that require different
+organization. Her disposition is less active, and she does not so
+readily form a group organization. She associates with other girls in
+a set that is less democratic than her brother's gang. It has its
+rivalries and enmities, but hateful thoughts, angry words, and
+slighting attitudes take the place of the active warfare of the boys.
+Girls enjoy clubs that are adapted to their interests. Reading clubs,
+cooking clubs, sewing clubs, musical organizations, and philanthropic
+societies are useful forms of neighborhood association, and their
+activities may be correlated with the work of the home, the school,
+and the church more easily than those of their brothers.
+
+In the country girls' organizations are very properly based on the
+interests of the farm, with which they are so closely related. They
+combine, as their brothers do, on the economic principle, organizing
+their poultry clubs, preserving clubs, or knitting clubs, but the
+social purpose is not lost sight of in the particular economic
+concern. An hour of sociability properly follows an hour of economic
+discussion or activity. Schoolgirls are very willing to accept the
+leadership of their teacher in a nature or culture club which will
+broaden their interests and stimulate their ambitions. One of the
+organizations that has sprung into existence on the model of the Boy
+Scout movement is the organization of Camp-Fire Girls. It is designed
+to meet the demand for companionship in a wholesome, pleasant way, and
+by its incentives to healthy activity and womanly virtue it helps to
+build character.
+
+119. =Recreation in the Country.=--The recreative instinct is not
+confined to children. For the adult labor is lightened, worries
+banished, and carking care is less corroding, if now and then an
+evening of diversion interrupts the monotony of rural life, or a day
+off is devoted to a picnic or neighborhood frolic. There is the same
+interest in the country that there is in the city in methods of
+entertainment that satisfy primitive instincts. The instinct for human
+society enters into all of them. Other specific causes produce a
+fondness for the various forms of diversion indulged in. Among
+uncultured people especially an evening gathering soon proves dull
+unless there is something to do. Cards occupy the mind and hands and
+create a mild excitement that banishes troublesome thoughts and
+anxieties. Dancing breaks up the stiffness of a party, brings the
+sexes together, and provides the exhilaration of rhythmic motion. Barn
+frolics at maple-sugar or harvest time accomplish the same end, only
+less satisfactorily. Musicales and amateur theatricals provide an
+exhibition of skill, cultivate the aesthetic nature, gratify the
+dramatic instinct, and furnish opportunity for mutual acquaintance
+among the people of the community, who meet all too seldom in social
+gatherings, and at the same time they furnish wholesome entertainment
+for the community at small expense. The proceeds are used for local
+advantage, instead of being carried out of town. The passing show and
+moving pictures are less desirable. They are often cheap and
+degrading, though the kinetoscope can be made valuable for education.
+
+The out-of-door gatherings that occur when the countryside is not too
+busy to plan or enjoy them are a helpful means of cultivating a
+community spirit. Athletic contests on the boys' own field readily
+become a community affair, with a speech and refreshments afterward,
+and the award of a prize or pennant to the victorious individual or
+team. The old-fashioned picnic to lake or woods or hilltop is one of
+the best means for forming and strengthening friendships and for
+giving persons of all ages a good time. Friendly contests of various
+sorts all come into play to add to the pleasure of the day. Fourth of
+July, Arbor Day, Old Home Week, and other occasions, give opportunity
+for recreation and the cultivation of neighborhood interests.
+
+120. =A Community Centre.=--Aside from the natural isolation and lack
+of energy and social interest among country people, the lack of
+efficient leadership is the most serious handicap to organized
+sociability. Added to these is the want of a neighborhood centre both
+convenient and suitable. A community building, tasteful in
+architecture and equipped for community use, is a great desideratum,
+but is not often available. There seems to be no good reason why the
+schoolhouse should not be such a social centre as the community needs,
+but most school buildings are not adapted to such use. In the absence
+of any other provision it is the privilege of the rural church to
+furnish the opportunity for neighborhood gatherings, and there is a
+growing conviction that this is one of the opportunities of the church
+to ally itself to general community interests. The church represents,
+or should represent, the whole community of men, women, young people,
+and children. It has all their interests at heart. It makes provision
+for them in Sunday-school, young people's societies, and other groups.
+It recognizes the social interests in festivals and sociables. It may
+usefully add to its functions that of raising the standards of
+community recreation, if no other proper provision for it exists; it
+is under obligation to find wholesome substitutes for the abuses that
+exist in the field of amusement which it commonly condemns.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CURTIS: _Play and Recreation for the Open Country._
+
+  PUFFER: _The Boy and His Gang._
+
+  _Boy Scout Handbook; Handbook for Scout Masters._
+
+  _The Book of the Campfire Girls._
+
+  STERN: _Neighborhood Entertainments._
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 117-126.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+RURAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+
+121. =The Complexity of Social Life.=--Closely allied to the agencies
+of recreation are the institutions that promote sociability and
+incidentally provide means of culture. It is not possible to separate
+social life into compartments and designate an institution as purely
+recreational or cultural or religious. There is a blending of
+interests and of functions in such an organization as the grange or
+the church, as there is in one individual or group a variety of
+interests and activities. The whole social system is complex,
+interwoven with a multitude of separate strands of personal desires
+and prejudices, group clannishness and conservatism, rival
+institutions developing friction and continually compelled to find new
+adjustments. Society in constantly in motion like the sea, its units
+continually striking against one another in perpetual conflict, and as
+continually melting into the harmony of a mighty wave breaking against
+the shore and forming anew to repeat the process. The difference is
+that social life is on an upward plane, its activities are not mere
+repetitions of a process, but they result in definite achievement,
+which in the process of centuries becomes an accumulated asset for the
+race. The most lasting achievements are the social institutions.
+
+122. =The Village and the Country Store.=--Of all the social
+institutions of the rural community, the most important is the village
+itself. There scattered homesteads find their common centre of
+attraction; there houses are located nearer together and the spirit of
+neighborliness develops; there tradesmen and professional persons make
+their homes and at the same time diversify interests and provide for
+the wants of the community. The school and the church are often
+located in the open country, but the village forms the nucleus of
+social intercourse and there are most of the institutions of the
+community.
+
+The most primitive among these institutions is the country store. It
+has economic, social, and educational functions. It supplies goods
+that cannot be produced in the community, it serves as a mercantile
+exchange for local produce. It helps to remove the necessity of home
+manufacture of many articles. On occasion it may include an agency for
+insurance or real estate; it is frequently the village post-office; it
+contains the public bulletin-board; often the proprietor undertakes to
+perform the banking function to the extent of cashing checks. Socially
+the store serves a useful purpose, for it is the centre to which all
+the inhabitants come, and from which radiate lines of communication
+all over the neighborhood. It is a clearing-house for news and gossip,
+and takes the place of a local press. It was formerly, and to some
+extent is still, the social club of the men of the community during
+the long winter evenings. As such it performed in the past an
+educational function. Boxes, firkins, bales of goods, superannuated
+chairs, and the end of a counter constituted the sittings, and men of
+all ages occupied them, as they listened to harangues and joined in
+the discussions. The group constituted the forum of democracy, where
+politics were frequently on debate, where public opinion was formed,
+where conservatism and progressivism fought their battles before they
+tested conclusions at the ballot-box, where science and religion
+entered the lists, where local interests were threshed out in the
+absence of more general excitement and crops and agricultural methods
+filled in the pauses. In recent years the store circle has
+degenerated. The better class of habitual members has organized its
+lodges or found satisfaction in the grange, while the hangers-on at
+the store, barber-shop, or other loafing-place indulge in small talk
+on matters of no real concern.
+
+123. =The Sewing Circle.=--What the country store has done for the men
+as a means of communication and stimulus, the ladies' aid society or
+church sewing circle has done for the women. Its opportunities are
+less frequent, but it provides an outlet for ideas and opinions that
+without it cannot easily find expression. At the same time it provides
+active occupation for a good cause, which is more than can be said of
+the men's forum. When it adds to its exercises a supper to which the
+other sex is admitted, it performs a yet wider social service.
+
+124. =The Grange.=--The grange is an institution that includes both
+sexes and combines the interests of young people with those of their
+elders. Its primary purpose was to consolidate the common interests of
+a farming community and to stimulate economic prosperity, but it has
+included several social features, and in many localities exists merely
+for social purposes. It is an institution that is well adapted to
+become a social and educational centre for the rural community. When
+the child has advanced from the home to the school and, graduating
+from school, has entered into the adult life of the community, the
+grange serves as a training-school for civic service. In the
+grange-room, in company with his like-minded parents and friends in
+the community, he learns how to hold his own in debate in
+parliamentary fashion, he discusses improved agriculture and listens
+to lectures from masters of the science, he gains literary and
+historical knowledge, and from time to time he participates in the
+social diversions that take place under grange auspices. Music
+enlivens the meetings, and occasionally a feast is spread or an
+entertainment elaborated. The Farmers' Union is a similar
+organization, originating in the South in 1902.
+
+Such rural interests as these have come into existence spontaneously
+and continue to provide social centres of community life because other
+institutions do not satisfy. The home, the school, and the church are
+often spoken of as the essential institutions of the American
+community, but they do not at best perform all the functions of
+neighborhood life. The boys' gang, the circle of men about the stove
+at the corner grocery, the women's sewing circle or club, and the
+grange, each in its own way performs a necessary part of the group
+activities, and deserves recognition among the institutions that are
+worth while. It is scarcely necessary to note that they have their
+evils, but these are not of the nature of the institution. As the gang
+can be guided to worthy ends, so the energies of the store club and
+the sewing circle can be turned into channels of usefulness and low
+talk and scandal-mongering abolished. As for the grange, it is capable
+of becoming the most valuable social centre of the community, if it
+maintains the ideals of its existence and co-operates heartily with
+other social institutions of worth, like the church.
+
+125. =Farmers' Institutes.=--Another type of organization exists which
+can hardly be called institutional, but which performs a useful
+community service. As illustrations may be mentioned the farmers'
+club, the farmers' institute, and the Chautauqua movement. These are
+organizations or movements for stimulating and broadening the
+interests of farm regions. They bring together the farmers and their
+families, sometimes from several neighborhoods and for several days,
+for the consideration of agricultural problems and for entertainment
+and mutual acquaintance. They are able to attract speakers from the
+State agricultural college or board, and even from national halls, and
+they become a valuable clearing-house of ideas and experience. They
+serve much the same purpose as a church or teachers' convention, and
+are restricted to a limited number of persons. Farmers' institutes
+have become a regular part of the State system of agricultural
+education throughout the country, and a large staff of lecturers and
+demonstrators exists for local instruction. The particular interests
+of women and young people are receiving recognition in institutes of
+their own in connection with the larger gatherings. The expense of
+such institutes is met by the government. Their success is, of course,
+dependent on the attendance and intelligent interest of the farm
+people, who gain greatly in inspiration and knowledge from contact
+with one another and from the experts to whom they listen. The
+institutes prove the value of association for the enrichment of
+individual and family life by means of suggestion, communication, and
+concerted activity.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BUCK: _The Granger Movement._
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: _Chapters in Rural Progress_, pages 104-120, 136-161.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 90-107.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 208-213.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 117-159.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+RURAL EDUCATION
+
+
+126. =The School as a Social Institution.=--There is one institution
+in every American community that stands as the gateway into the
+promised land of a richer life. This is the school. It supplements
+home training and prepares for the broader experiences of community
+existence. Into it goes the raw material of the bodies and minds of
+the children, and out of it comes the product of years of education
+for the making or marring of the children of the community. The school
+of the present is of two types. One is the relic of an earlier time,
+with few changes in equipment, organization, or function; it has not
+shared in the process of evolution enjoyed by certain other
+institutions of society. The other type is progressive. It has been
+continually finding adjustment to its environment, fitting itself to
+meet local needs, and is therefore abreast of the times in educational
+science. The demand of the age is that the progressive school keep
+advancing, and as fast as possible the backward school work up to the
+standard of efficiency.
+
+It is a sociological principle that every social institution
+approximates to the standards of the community as a whole. If
+community life is static, school and church stay in the ruts; if it is
+retrograding, they are losing ground; if it is progressive, they
+gradually show improvement. On the other hand, the community
+frequently feels external stimulus, first through one of its
+institutions, so that the institution becomes a means of betterment.
+Recent years furnish examples of a new impulse generated in the
+neighborhood by a teacher or a minister who enters the locality with
+new ideas and unquenchable zeal.
+
+127. =Three Fundamental Principles of Education.=--There are three
+fundamental principles that ought to have recognition in every
+school. The first of these is the principle that education is to be
+social. The pupil has to learn how to live in the community. In the
+home he becomes socialized so far as to learn how to get along with
+his own relatives and intimates, but the school teaches him how to
+deal with all sorts of people. He gets acquainted with his
+environment, both social and physical. What kind of people are living
+in the homes of the neighborhood? What are their characteristics,
+their ideals, their failings? What are their occupations, their race
+or nationality, their measure of comfort, poverty, or wealth? How are
+they hindered or helped by their natural surroundings, and have they
+easy means of communication and transit with the outside world? What
+are the principles that govern social intercourse, and how can the
+pupil learn to put them into practice? How is he to reconcile his own
+individual rights with his social obligations? These are fundamental
+questions that deserve careful answer, and that must be made a part of
+the school curriculum if the community is to enjoy social health. It
+matters little how such subjects are named in any course of study, but
+it is essential that the principles of social living should be taught
+under some title.
+
+A second principle of education is that it should be vocational. The
+school children, after graduation, must make their own way in the
+world. Every normal youth looks forward in anticipation to the time
+when he will be earning his own support and the support of a family of
+his own. Every normal girl hopes to be mistress of a home of her own.
+There are certain things that they need to know if they are to make a
+success and to build happy homes. Their first business is to know how
+to make a home. Naturally they want to know the story of the family as
+a social institution, how the home is purchased or rented, the
+essentials of a good home, both in its equipment and in the spirit
+that animates it, the duties and rights of every member of the family,
+and the relations of the family to the community. The question arises:
+How may the home-maker provide for the support of the family? What are
+the available occupations, and how by manual and mental training may
+he equip himself for usefulness? How may the home-keeper do her part
+to make the home attractive and comfortable by a study of domestic
+science and home-management? Obviously, the curriculum should have a
+place for such studies as these that are so essential to peace and
+happiness and comfort in the home.
+
+A third principle is that education is to be cultural. Social and
+vocational knowledge are essential, broad culture of the mind is
+highly desirable. No citizen of the United States is expected to grow
+to maturity ignorant of the simple arts of reading or spelling
+correctly, writing a fair hand, and solving correctly the simple
+problems of arithmetic. Beyond this many schools provide a smattering
+of aesthetic training through music and drawing. These are subjects of
+study in the elementary schools. But culture involves more than these.
+An appreciation of literature, of the meaning and value of history, of
+the importance of science in the modern world, of the life of nations
+and races outside of our own country, of right thinking and right
+conduct with reference to all our individual relations, constitutes
+for all persons a mental training that is almost indispensable. To
+acquire this cultural education requires time and the elimination of
+the less valuable from the accepted course of study. It is a most
+wholesome tendency that is prolonging the terms and the years of
+compulsory education if that education is based on the right
+principles, and that is discussing the possibility, first, of using
+part of the long summer vacation to supplement the work of the present
+school year, and, secondly, of giving to the young people of every
+State a free university education. It is never to be forgotten that
+culture may and should go on through life, but that will not occur
+unless habits of study are formed in early years, and the school years
+will always remain the golden opportunity for an education.
+
+128. =Education as It Is.=--On these fundamental principles every
+educational system should be built. Actual education falls far short
+of the standard. This standard cannot be reached without proper
+educational ideals, expert teaching, and adequate equipment. The
+ideal has been narrow. Stress is put upon one type of education. In
+the past it has been cultural above the lower grades, and, because it
+has been almost exclusively so, more than half the pupils have dropped
+out of school before entering high school. In recent years there has
+been a new emphasis on practical training, and vocational courses have
+tended to crowd out some of the cultural courses. The social education
+which is most important of all has been incidental or omitted
+altogether. Public opinion needs to be educated to the point of
+understanding that all three types of training are imperatively
+needed.
+
+There is a serious difficulty, however, in the way of a supply of
+teachers for this broad education. It is necessary to extend reform
+among the normal schools, but this can take place only after they have
+felt the demand from the grades. Another difficulty is the expense of
+providing the necessary equipment for vocational education. This does
+not prevent the introduction of social teaching or a proper attention
+to culture, but courses in manual training and domestic science
+usually cost more than most school boards are willing to meet. This is
+not an insurmountable obstacle, for cheap appliances are in the market
+and better school boards can be elected when the people want them.
+
+129. =Wanted--a Better Rural Education.=--The school in the rural
+community has its own peculiar weaknesses. First among these
+weaknesses is the fact that education is not in terms of rural
+experience. It is an accepted educational principle of instruction to
+begin with that which is simple and familiar, and to work out to that
+which is complex and more remote. On that principle the rural school
+should make use of local geography, of rural material in arithmetic,
+of literature and music with a rural flavor, of nature study with
+drawings from nature. The opposite has been the case, with the result
+that the child appreciates neither his surroundings nor his
+opportunities, but looks upon them as something to be avoided for the
+more important urban life, with whose activities he has become
+familiar through his daily tasks.
+
+A second weakness is that rural education omits so much of importance
+to the child who must make his living in the country. To discuss rural
+conditions in a natural and systematic way, beginning with the family
+and working out into the social life of the community; to study the
+economic side of life first on the farm and then in the neighborhood,
+getting hold of the underlying principles of agriculture, becoming
+familiar with the action of various soils and crops and the best
+methods of cultivation and protection from harm, to prepare by a few
+simple lessons in household science for the responsibility of the
+home, is to provide the bases of success and happiness for the boys
+and girls of the country. Rural education, therefore, needs
+redirection.
+
+130. =The Quality of Teaching.=--The child in the country has a right
+to as good instruction as the city child, but because of the poverty
+and penuriousness of school districts and the maintenance of too many
+small schools, rural communities pay small salaries and cannot command
+good teaching. There are thousands of schools scattered over the
+country with less than ten pupils in attendance, housed in cheap,
+unattractive buildings, with teachers who have had no normal-school
+training, and who have no enthusiasm for the work they have to do.
+They may hear twenty or more classes recite on numerous subjects in
+the course of a day, but there is no stimulus to teacher or pupil, and
+school hours provide little more than a conventional method for
+passing the time. In such communities as these there is rarely any
+efficient superintendence of teaching by a paid supervisor, and the
+school board is unqualified to judge on any other basis than the cost
+of schooling for a limited number of weeks.
+
+The small district school has the effect of strengthening the
+isolation that is the bane of the country regions. It continues to
+exist because every farmer wants the school near by for the
+convenience of his own family. The history of the "little red
+schoolhouse" throws a glamour of romance about the district
+headquarters, but in actual experience the district school has
+outlived its usefulness. There is a strong movement to consolidate
+district schools and at some conveniently central point, with
+attractive and ample grounds, to build, equip, and man a school
+adequate to the needs of the community. Experience shows that the
+expense need be no greater, because better teachers can be secured for
+a given expenditure when fewer are needed, and with a greater number
+of scholars there may be a regular system of grading and classes large
+enough to arouse enthusiasm and ambition. The district school operates
+on the principle of division of labor in educational production, but
+it does not enjoy the benefits of co-operation or combination for
+efficiency, while the consolidated school secures these advantages and
+at the same time a better division of labor through the grades. Rural
+education needs reorganization.
+
+131. =A Discouraging Environment.=--Too many a rural community, like
+old China, has been facing the past. It has lacked courage and
+ambition. The atmosphere has been one of gloom and discouragement.
+This community temper appears in the social groups; it is felt in the
+home, and it is present in the school. It has been typical of whole
+sections of rural country. Dilapidated school buildings, plain and
+unkempt in appearance and cheap in construction, have been set in the
+midst of barren surroundings, unshaded by trees and unadorned with
+shrubs, without walks or drives to the entrance, and without even a
+flagpole as an evidence of patriotic enthusiasm. Inside the building
+there is insufficient light and ventilation, and the old-fashioned
+furniture is ill adapted to the needs of the pupils. The whole
+structure is almost devoid of the conveniences and modern devices for
+making school life either comfortable or worth while. In such an
+environment there is none of the stimulus that the school should
+furnish. The best pupil, who might respond quickly to stimulus, tends
+to sink to the level of the meanest, the mental horizon, cramped at
+home, is hardly broadened during school hours, and the main purpose
+for the existence of the institution is not achieved.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country_, pages 151-170.
+
+  FOGHT: _The American Rural School_, pages 154-253.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 133-301.
+
+  KERN: _Among Country Schools._
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 233-263.
+
+  BRYAN: _Poems of Country Life._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE NEW RURAL SCHOOL
+
+
+132. =Nature Study in the New Rural School.=--In striking contrast to
+such a defective rural institution as has been presented is the new
+rural school and the country-life movement of which it is a vital
+part. The first step in the new education is a growing recognition of
+the function of the school to relate its courses of study and its
+activities to the daily experience of the pupil. The background of
+country life is nature; therefore nature study is fundamental in the
+new curriculum. Careful observation of natural objects comes first,
+until the child is able to identify bird and bee and flower. To
+knowledge is added appreciation. The beauty of fern and leaf, of
+brookside and hillside, of star-dotted and cloud-dappled sky, is not
+appreciated by mere observation, but waits on the education of the
+mind. This is part of the task of the teacher. The economic use of
+natural objects and natural forces is secondary, and should remain so,
+but the new education takes the knowledge which has been gained by
+observation and the enthusiasm which has been distilled through
+appreciation, and applies them to the social need. Agriculture comes
+to seem not only an occupation for economic ends, but a vocation for
+social welfare also. With all the rest there is a moral and religious
+value in nature study. Nature is pre-eminently under the reign of law;
+obedience to that law, adjustment to the inexorable demands of nature,
+are essential to nature's children. No more wholesome moral lesson
+than this can be taught to the present generation of children. Nature
+ministers also to the spiritual. Power, order, beauty, intelligence
+speak through the language of the natural world to the human soul, and
+the thoughtful child can be led to see through nature to nature's
+God. Such a God is not a theory; in nature the divine presence is
+self-evident.
+
+All theory in the new rural school is based on experimentation.
+Together the new teacher and the pupils beautify the grounds and the
+interior of the school building; they plan and make gardens and try
+all sorts of gardening experiments; they grow the plants that they
+study, and, best of all, they see the process of growth; from the use
+of soil and seed and proper care they learn lessons in practical
+agriculture that give satisfaction to all employed as book studies
+alone never could, and they make possible a far better type of
+agriculture when the pupils have fields of their own. Nor is it
+necessary for pupils to wait for their maturity, for many a lesson
+learned at school and demonstrated in the neighborhood is promptly
+applied on the neighboring farms.
+
+133. =The Study of the Individual.=--A second subject of study in the
+new rural schools is the individual. Nature study is essential to a
+rural school, but "the noblest study of mankind is man." Though it is
+highly important that the individual should regard social
+responsibility as out-weighing his own rights, it would be unfortunate
+if the importance of the individual were ever overlooked. The nature
+of the physical self, the requirement of diet and hygiene, the moral
+virtues that belong to noble manhood and womanhood, the possible
+self-development in the midst of the rural environment that is the
+pupil's natural habitat are among the worthy subjects of patient and
+serious study through the grades. Neither physiology, psychology, nor
+ethics need be taught as such, but the elementary principles that
+enter into all of them belong among the mental assets of every
+individual.
+
+134. =Rural Social Science.=--In the same way it is not necessary and
+perhaps may not be advisable to teach rural sociology or economics by
+name, even in the high school. With the extension of the curriculum to
+include agriculture, there is need of some consideration of the
+principles of the ownership and use of land, farm management, and
+marketing. Practical instruction in accounts, manual training, and
+domestic science find place in the new school. Fully as important as
+these is it to explain the social relations that properly exist in the
+home, the school, and the neighborhood, to show the mutual dependence
+of all upon one another, and to point out the advantages of
+co-operation over a prideful individualism and frequent social
+friction. Along with these relationships, or supplementary to them,
+belong the larger relations of country and town and the reciprocal
+service that each can render to the other, the characteristics and
+tendencies of social life in both types of community, and the effects
+of the changes that are taking place in methods of doing business and
+in the nature and characteristics of the people of either community.
+Following these topics come the problems of rural socialization
+through such agencies as the school, the grange, and the church, and
+the application of the principles already learned in a study of social
+relations.
+
+135. =Improvement in Economy and Efficiency.=--While the curriculum of
+the schools is being fitted to the needs of the community, it is
+desirable that there should be improvement of economy and efficiency
+in the whole system of education. This is being accomplished partly by
+better supervision and teaching, but also by a consolidation of
+schools which makes possible better grading, an enlarged curriculum,
+improved teaching, and a deeper interest among the pupils. But one of
+the best results that come from school consolidation is to the
+community itself. A consolidated school means a larger and
+better-equipped building. It often has a large assembly hall, a
+library, and an agricultural laboratory. The new school has within it
+tremendous potencies. It may become under proper direction an
+educational centre for people of all ages and degrees of attainment.
+Continuation schools for adults, especially the young and middle-aged
+people, who were born too soon to enjoy the advantages of the new
+education, are possible in the late autumn and winter. Popular
+lectures and demonstrations on subjects of common concern and
+entertainments based on rural interests find place at this centre.
+Mixed occasionally with a rural programme belongs instruction in wider
+social relations and world affairs.
+
+136. =The Teacher a Community Leader.=--With the consolidated school
+comes the well-trained teacher, and such a teacher deserves new
+recognition as a community leader. In Europe and in some parts of
+rural America the teacher has a permanent home near the schoolhouse,
+as a minister has a parsonage near the meeting-house. Such a teacher
+has an interest in community welfare, and a willingness to aid in
+community betterment. Whether man or woman, he becomes naturally a
+community leader, and with the backing of public sentiment and
+adequate support a distinct community asset. Such a teacher is more
+than a school instructor. He becomes a social educator of the people
+by interpreting to them their community life; he becomes a social
+inspirer to hope, ambition, and courage as he unfolds possible social
+ideals; he becomes a guide to a new prosperity as he defines the
+methods and principles on which other communities have worked out
+their own local successes. Through the medium of the teacher the
+neighborhood may be brought into vital contact with other communities
+in a district or whole county, and may be brought together to consider
+their common interests and to try experiments in co-operation, first
+for educational purposes and then for general community prosperity.
+
+At first the rural teacher in many localities will have enough to do
+with securing proper accommodations for the children in school, for
+good buildings frequently wait for a teacher who has the courage to
+demand and persist in getting them; but the larger work for the
+community is only second in importance and adds greatly to the
+responsiveness of the older people to the suggestions of the teacher.
+One great weakness in the past has been the short term of service of
+the average teacher. It takes time to accomplish changes in a
+conservative community, and the new education will be successful only
+as the new teacher becomes a comparative fixture. To build oneself
+into the life of a rural community as does the physician, and to
+ennoble it with new ideas and higher ideals, is a missionary service
+that can hardly be surpassed at the present time in America.
+
+137. =Higher Education.=--The normal school, the rural academy or
+county high school, and the college have their part in rural
+education. It rests with the normal school to supply the trained
+teacher and the normal schools rapidly are meeting the demands of the
+present situation. Training classes for rural teachers have been
+established in high schools or academies in twelve or more States.
+More and more these higher schools are relating their courses of study
+to the rural life in which so many of them are placed.
+
+138. =What the University Can Do.=--An increasing number of young
+people from the country are going to college. The college was founded
+on the principle of educating American youth in a higher culture than
+local elementary schools could provide. It is the function of the
+college and the university to open wider vistas for the individual
+mind than is otherwise possible, to do on an infinitely larger scale
+what the teacher is attempting in the elementary grades. These higher
+schools are passing through a humanizing process; they are making more
+of the social sciences and the art of living well; and they are
+allying themselves with practical life. In the case of established
+institutions with traditions, and often with trustees and alumni of
+conservative tastes and tendencies, there are difficulties in the way
+of their rapid adaptation to vocational needs. It is probably best
+that a certain class of them should stand primarily for intellectual
+culture, as technical and agricultural schools stand for their
+specialties, but the true university should be representative of all
+the social interests of all the people in the State.
+
+An illustration of what the university can do in social service for a
+whole State occurs in the recent history of the University of
+Wisconsin. It conceived its function to be not solely to educate
+students who came for the full university course. It considered the
+needs of the people of the State, and it planned to provide
+information and intellectual stimulus for as wide a circle as
+possible. It provided correspondence courses. It sent out a corps of
+instructors to carry on extension courses. It made affiliations with
+other State institutions. It reached all classes of the people and
+touched all their social interests. It became especially useful to the
+farmers. In spite of scepticism on the part of the people and some of
+the university officers, those who had faith in the wider usefulness
+of the university pushed their plan until they succeeded in organizing
+a short winter course in agriculture for farmers' sons and then for
+the older farmers, branched out into domestic courses for the women,
+and even made provision for the interests of the boys and girls.
+Reaching out still further, the university organized farmers' courses
+in connection with the county agricultural schools, established
+experiment stations, and encouraged the boys to enter local contests
+for agricultural prizes. By these means the university has become
+widely popular and has been exceedingly beneficial to the people of
+the State.
+
+139. =The Public Library.=--While the school stands out as the leading
+educational institution of the rural community, it is by no means the
+sole agency of culture. Alongside it is the library. Home libraries in
+the country rarely contain books of value, either culturally or for
+practical purposes. Circulating libraries of fiction are little
+better. School libraries and village libraries that contain
+well-selected literature are to be included among the desiderata of
+every countryside. A few of the great books of all time belong there,
+a small collection of current literature, including periodicals, and
+an abundant literature on country life in all its phases. It is the
+function of the library to instruct the people what to read and how to
+read by supplying book lists and book exhibits, and by demonstrating
+occasionally through the school or the church how books may be read to
+get the most out of them. In the days before public libraries were
+common in this country, library associations were formed to secure
+good literature. Such associations are still useful in small
+communities that find it impossible to sustain a public library, and
+they serve as a medium for securing from the State a travelling
+library, which has the special advantage of frequent substitution of
+books. Or the school library may be the nucleus of a literary
+collection for the whole community--advantageously so if the school
+building is kept open as a community centre.
+
+140. =Reading Circles and Musical Clubs.=--The value of the library
+to the public consists, of course, not in the presence of books on the
+shelves, but in their use. Such use is encouraged by the existence of
+literary or art clubs and reading circles. They supply the twofold
+want of companionship and culture. The proper basis of association is
+similarity of interests. Local history or geology, nature study,
+current public events in State or nation, art in some of its phases,
+or the literature of a particular country or period, may be the
+special consideration of a club or reading circle; in every case the
+library is the laboratory of investigation. One of the conspicuously
+successful organizations of the last thirty years, showing how
+organization grows out of social need, is the Chautauqua movement.
+Starting as an undertaking in Sunday-school extension by means of a
+summer assembly and local reading circles, in which the study of
+history, literature, and science was added to Bible study, the
+movement has grown, until it is represented by a thousand summer
+institutes, with numerous popular lectures and entertainments, and it
+is one of the most useful educational agencies anywhere in the United
+States.
+
+Every community is interested in music. Music has a place on every
+programme, whether of church, school, or public assembly. A musical
+club is one of the effective types of organization for those who are
+like-minded in country or town. There are two varieties of
+organization, the first of persons who join for the pleasure that
+comes from agreeable society, the second of those who enter the
+organization for the musical culture to be obtained. Whether for
+diversion or study, a musical club is well worth while. Under the
+influence of music antagonisms soften, moroseness disappears, and
+sociability and good cheer take their place. The old-fashioned
+singing-school was one of the most popular of local social
+institutions; something is needed to fill its place. A club or band
+for the serious study of instrumental music not only gives culture to
+individuals, but is also an asset of increasing value to a church or
+community.
+
+141. =Woman's Clubs.=--These have become so common that they need no
+special description, but as a social phenomenon they have their
+significance. They mark a new era in the emancipation of ideas; they
+are indicative of a new interest and ambition, and they are
+training-schools for future citizenship. They are of special value
+because of the wide areas of human interest that are brought within
+scope of discussion. For rural women they are a great boon, and while
+they have been most numerous in the larger centres, they may easily
+become a universal stimulus and guide to higher culture everywhere. In
+the absence of a grange they may serve as a centre of farm interests,
+and discussion may be made practical by the application of acquired
+knowledge to local problems, but their great value is in broadening
+the women's horizon of thought and interest beyond their own affairs.
+If rural men would organize local associations or brotherhoods for
+similar assembly and discussion of State and national interests they
+could multiply many times the benefits that come from the associations
+and discussions that occur on special days of political rally and
+voting. The rural mind needs frequent stimulus, and it needs frequent
+association with many minds. For this reason the cultural function is
+to be provided for by a method of congregation and organization
+approved by experience, leadership is to be provided and occasional
+stimulus applied, and life is to be enriched at many points. It is for
+the people themselves to carry on such enterprises, but the initiation
+of them often comes from outside. Usually, perhaps, the number of
+people locally who have a real desire for culture are few, but it is
+through the training of these few that judicious, capable leaders of
+the community are to be obtained.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 197-277.
+
+  CUBBERLEY: _Rural Life and Education_, pages 161-347.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 336-340.
+
+  DAVIS: _Agricultural Education in the Public Schools._
+
+  EGGLESTON AND BRUERE: _The Work of the Rural School_, pages
+      193-223.
+
+  HOWE: _Wisconsin: an Experiment in Democracy_, pages 140-182.
+
+  _Country Life_, pages 200-210.
+
+  FOGHT: _The American Rural School_, pages 254-281.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+RURAL GOVERNMENT
+
+
+142. =The Necessity of Government.=--Institutions of recreation and
+culture are in most cases the voluntary creation of local groups of
+individuals, except as the state has adopted a system of compulsory
+education. Government may be self-imposed or fixed by external
+authority, in any case it cannot be escaped. It can be changed in form
+and efficiency; it depends for its worth upon standards of public
+opinion; but it cannot cease to exist. As the activity of the child
+needs to be regulated by parental control in the home and by the
+discipline of the teacher in the school, so the activity of the people
+in the community needs to be regulated by the authority of government.
+Self-control on the part of each individual or the existence of custom
+or public opinion without an executive agency for the enforcement of
+the social will, is not sufficient to safeguard and promote the
+interests of all. Government has everywhere been necessary.
+
+143. =The Reign of Law.=--The existence of regulation in the community
+is continually evident. The child comes into relation to law when he
+is sent to school to conform to the law of compulsory education. He
+goes to school along a road built and maintained by law, takes his
+place in a school building provided by a board of education or school
+committee that executes the law, and accepts the instruction of a
+teacher who is employed and paid according to the law. His hours of
+schooling and the length of terms and vacations are determined by the
+same authority. During his periods of recreation he is still under the
+reign of law, for game laws regulate the times when he may or may not
+hunt and fish. When he grows older and assumes the rights of
+citizenship he must bear his part of the burdens of society. He has
+the right to vote as one of the lawmakers of the land, but he is not
+thereby free to cast off the restraints of law. He must pay his
+proportion of the taxes that sustain the government that binds him,
+local, State, and federal taxes. He must perform the public duty of
+sitting on a jury or administering civic office if he is summoned
+thereto. Even in his own domicile, though he be householder and head
+of a family, he may not injure the public health or morals by
+nuisances on his own premises, his financial obligations to creditors
+are secured against him by law, even the possession of his acres is
+made certain only by public record. It makes no difference whether the
+legal restrictions under which he lives are local or national, they
+are all a part of the system for which he and his neighbors are
+responsible, and which as citizens they are under obligation to
+maintain.
+
+144. =Political Terms.=--It is important to understand and use
+correctly certain terms which occur in this connection. The state is
+the people organized for the purpose of exercising the authority of
+social control. In its sociological sense it is not restricted to a
+large or small area, but in political parlance it is used with
+reference to a large district which possesses a certain degree of
+authority over all the people, as the State of New York, or the
+sovereign state of Great Britain. Government is the institution that
+functions for social control in accordance with the will of the people
+or of an individual to whose authority they submit. Politics is the
+science and art of government, and includes statesmanship as its
+highest type and the manipulation of party machinery as its lowest
+type. Law is the body of social regulations administered by government
+ostensibly for the public good. Each of these may be and in the past
+has been prostituted for private advantage. In the state one man or a
+small group has seized and held the sovereign power through the force
+of personal ascendancy or the prestige of birth or wealth, and has
+used it for himself, as history testifies by numerous examples. The
+forms of government in many cases have not been well adapted to the
+functions that they were designed to perform. The despotic
+administrative agencies that were overthrown by the French Revolution
+were ill-adapted to the governmental needs of the lower classes. Much
+of the governmental machinery of the American republic has not matched
+the constitutional forms that were originally provided, and the
+Constitution has had to be stretched or amended if the government of
+the founders of the republic was not to be revolutionized. So law and
+politics have had to be reorganized, revised, and reinterpreted to fit
+into the social need. Law is a conservative factor in progress, but it
+adapts itself of necessity to the demands of equity.
+
+145. =The Will of the People.=--On the continent of Europe rural
+government is arranged usually by the central authority of the nation;
+in America it is more independent of national control. On this side of
+the water the colonial governments often interfered little with local
+freedom, and after the Revolution the people fashioned their own
+national organization, and in giving it certain powers jealously
+guarded their own local privileges. They were willing to sacrifice a
+general lawmaking power and grudgingly to permit the nation to have
+executive and judicial authority, but they retained the management of
+local affairs, including the raising and expenditure of direct taxes.
+Local government, therefore, has continued to reflect the mind of the
+community, a mind occasionally swayed by emotional impulse, but
+usually controlled by a love of order, and by an Anglo-Saxon pride in
+self-restraint. The will of the people has made the government and
+sanctions its actions. It may be that the will is not fixed or united
+enough to force itself effectually upon a set of public officials, and
+may await reform or revolution to become forceful, yet in the last
+resort and in the long run the will of the people prevails. By the
+provisions of a democratic constitution judgment is frequently passed
+by the people upon the administration of government, and it is within
+their power to change the administrative policy or to reject the
+agents of government whom they have previously elected. Locally they
+have the advantage of knowing all candidates for office. The
+efficiency of rural government depends much on its revenue, and
+farmers are reluctant to increase the tax rate; slowly they are
+learning the value of good roads and good schools.
+
+146. =The Ancient History of the Community.=--The government of the
+rural community has a history of its own, as has the community itself.
+This government gradually fits itself to meet local needs, but it is
+slow to put away the survivals of earlier forms and customs that have
+outlived their usefulness. The history of the community goes back to
+primitive times, when the clan group recognized common interests and
+acknowledged the leadership of the chief or head man. Custom was the
+law of the clan, and its older members assisted the chief in
+interpreting custom. Government in the community developed in two
+ways, one along the path of centralization of authority, the other in
+the growth of democracy. One tendency was to attach an undue
+importance to ancient custom, and to throw about it a veil of sanctity
+by connecting it with religion. Such a community in its conservatism
+came to possess in time a static civilization, but it lacked virility
+and commonly fell under the control of a neighboring energetic
+community or prince. This is the usual history of the Oriental
+community. The other tendency was to adapt local law and organization
+to changing circumstances, and to make use of the abilities of all the
+members of the community, to give them a voice in the local assembly,
+and a right to hold public office. Such progressive communities were
+the city states of Greece, the republic of Rome, and the rural
+communities of the barbarian Germans before they settled in the Roman
+Empire. When the Greek communities became decadent they fell under
+foreign dominion; Rome imperialized the republic, but never forgot how
+to rule well in her municipalities; the Germans passed on their
+democratic ways to the English, and from that source they were brought
+to America.
+
+147. =Two Types of Rural Government.=--In America there have been two
+types of rural government growing out of the manner of original
+settlement. In New England the colonists settled near together in
+villages grouped about the meeting-house. One or more villages
+constituted a town for purposes of government. In these small
+districts it was possible for all the citizens to meet frequently, and
+in an annual assembly the voters of the community elected their
+officers and adopted the necessary local regulations. Long custom
+transplanted oversea had kept a close connection between church and
+state, and until the new American principle of separation was
+universally adopted, the annual town meeting in Massachusetts was a
+parish meeting, in which the community voted with reference to the
+needs of the church as well as of the state. In the South community
+life was less closely knit, and town meetings were not in vogue. The
+parish held its vestry meetings for the transaction of ecclesiastical
+business, for episcopacy was the established church; overseers of the
+poor were elected at the same meetings. There were county assemblies
+for social and judicial purposes, but in each a few prominent people
+in the neighborhood managed affairs and perpetuated their privileges,
+as among the landed gentry of England. It was in these ways that
+popular government continued along the path of material and social
+progress in the North, while in the South a plantation aristocracy
+conservatively maintained its colonial ideas and institutions,
+including slavery.
+
+With wider settlement there was an extension of these sectional
+differences, except near the border of both, where a blending of the
+two took place to some extent. County organization was necessary for a
+time, while the country was thinly settled, but neighborhoods
+organized as school districts, and by a natural process the school
+district became the nucleus of a township government, at first for
+school purposes and later for the self-government of the whole
+community. In some cases, as in Illinois, it was made optional with
+the people of a county whether they would organize a township
+government or not, but wherever the two systems entered into
+comparison and competition the township government proved the more
+popular. As long as pure democracy remains there must be a small local
+unit of government, and the New England town meeting seems wonderfully
+well adapted to the purpose of self-government. The recent tendency
+to extend democracy in the form of political primaries and the
+referendum is a stimulus to such organization, and it may be expected
+that the town system will continue to extend, even in the South.
+
+148. =Town and County Officials.=--The town meeting is held in a
+public building. In colonial days the close connection between church
+and state made it proper that the meeting should be in the
+meeting-house; in the West, where the school was the nucleus of local
+organization, the schoolhouse was the natural voting place. In
+present-day New England even a small village has its town house,
+containing a large hall, which serves for town meetings and for
+community assemblies for various social purposes. In the town meeting
+the administrative officers, called selectmen, are chosen annually,
+and minor officers, including clerk, treasurer, constables, and school
+committee; there the community taxes itself for the salaries of its
+officials, for the support of the town poor, for the maintenance of
+highways, and for such modern improvements as street lights and a
+public library. Personal ability counts for more than party
+allegiance, though each political party usually puts its candidates in
+the field. An important function of the local voters is the decision
+under the local-option system that prevails in the East, as to whether
+the sale of intoxicating liquors shall be licensed for the ensuing
+year; under an increasing referendum policy the acts of the State
+legislature are frequently submitted for review to the local voters.
+
+Where the town system does not exist or is part of a larger county,
+officers are elected for more extended responsibility. The functions
+of county officers are mainly judicial. Among the county officers are
+the sheriff elected by the people to preserve order and justice
+throughout the region, the coroner whose duty has been to investigate
+sudden death or disaster, and to hold an inquest to determine the
+origin of crime if it existed. The county commissioners or supervisors
+are executive officers, corresponding to the selectmen of the town;
+the clerk and treasurer of the county have duties similar to the town
+officers with those titles.
+
+149. =Political Relations and Responsibilities.=--The local
+community, alike under township and county government, is a part of a
+larger political unit, and so has relations with and responsibilities
+to the greater State. The town meeting may legislate on such matters
+as the erection of a new schoolhouse or the building of a town
+highway, but it cannot locate the post-office or change the location
+of a State or county road. It may make its local taxes large or small,
+but it cannot increase or diminish the amount of the State tax or
+regulate the national tariff. The townsman lives under the
+jurisdiction of a law that is made by his representatives in the State
+legislature or the national Congress, and he is tried and punished for
+the infraction of law in a county, State, or national court. As a
+citizen of these larger political units he may vote for county, State,
+and national officials, and may himself aspire to the highest office
+in the gift of his countrymen.
+
+150. =Political Standards.=--To a foreigner such a system of
+government may seem exceedingly complex, but by it self-government is
+preserved to the people of the nation, and a good degree of efficiency
+is maintained. There are problems of social control that need study
+and that produce various experiments in one State or another before
+they are widely adopted; there is corruption of party politics with
+unscrupulous methods and machinery that is too well oiled with
+"tainted" money; but local government averages up to the level of the
+intelligence and morals of the community. If the schoolhouse is an
+efficient centre for the proper training of boys and girls to
+understand their social relations and civic responsibilities, and if
+the meeting-house is an efficient centre for the discussion of social
+ethics and a religion that moves on the plane of earth as well as
+heaven, then the town house will give a good account of itself in
+intelligent voting and clean political methods. If the school-teacher
+and the minister have won for themselves positions of community
+leadership, and are educators of a forceful public opinion, and if the
+community is sufficiently in touch with the best constructive forces
+in the national political arena to feel their stimulus, the political
+type locally is not likely to be very low. A self-governing people
+will always have as good a government as it wants, and if the
+government is not what it should be, the will of the people has not
+been well educated.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  FAIRLIE: _Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Villages._
+
+  FISKE: _Civil Government in the United States_, pages 34-95.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 292-317.
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 92-105.
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 402-410.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+HEALTH AND BEAUTY
+
+
+151. =Health and Beauty in the Community.=--Rural government formerly
+limited its range of activity to political and economic concerns. The
+individualism of Americans resented the interference of government in
+other matters. If property was made secure and taxed judiciously for
+the maintenance of public institutions, the duty of government was
+accomplished. The individual man was prepared to assume all further
+responsibility for himself and family. Such matters as the health of a
+rural community and its aesthetic appearance were left to individual
+initiative and generally were neglected. On many occasions the
+housewife showed her sympathy and kindliness by nursing a sick
+neighbor, but the members of the community had little appreciation of
+the seriousness of contagion and infection, no knowledge of germs, and
+small thought of preventive measures. The appearance of their
+buildings and grounds was nobody's business but their own. They had no
+conception of the social obligation of each for all and of all for
+each. The result was an unnecessary amount of illness, especially of
+tuberculosis and typhoid fever, because of insanitary buildings and
+grounds, and a general air of shabbiness and neglect that pervaded
+many communities. It was not that the people lacked the aesthetic
+sense, but it had not been trained, and in the struggle for the
+subjugation of a new continent all such minor considerations must give
+way to the satisfaction of elemental wants.
+
+Slowly it is becoming understood that health and beauty are matters
+that demand public attention and regulation. Good fortune and
+happiness are not purely economic and political concerns. Well-kept
+roads, clean and well-planned public buildings, sanitary farm
+structures, properly drained farm lands, and pure drinking water may
+not add to the number of bushels an acre, but they prolong life and
+add to its comfort and satisfaction.
+
+When it seems no longer strange to bother about health conditions, it
+will be relatively easy to give attention to rural aesthetics. If a
+schoolhouse or a meeting-house is to be erected, it will give greater
+satisfaction to the community if the principles of good architecture
+are observed and the building is set in the midst of trees and
+shrubbery and well-kept lawn. With such an object-lesson, the people
+of the community will presently contrast their own property with that
+of the public, the imitative impulse will begin to work, and
+individuals will begin to make improvements as leisure permits. There
+are villages that are ugly scars on a landscape which nature intended
+should be beautiful. With misdirected energy, farmers have destroyed
+the wild beauty of the fence corners and roadsides, mowing down the
+weeds and clearing out the brush and vines in an effort to make
+practical improvements, while with curious oversight they have
+permitted the weeds to grow in the paths and the grass to lengthen in
+the yard. Many a farm in rural communities has untidy refuse heaps,
+tottering outbuildings, rusting machinery, and general litter that
+reveal the absence of all sense of beauty or even neatness, yet the
+farmer and his wife may be thrifty, hard-working people, and
+scrupulously particular indoors. Their minds have not been sensitized
+to outdoor beauty and hideousness. They forget that nature is
+aesthetic; they live in the midst of her beauty, but their eyes are dim
+and their ears are dull, and it is difficult to instruct them.
+Happily, recent years have brought with them a new sense of the
+possibilities of rural beauty. Children are learning to appreciate it
+in the surroundings of the schoolhouse and the tasteful decorations of
+its interior; their elders are buying lawn-mowers and painting their
+fences, and America may yet rival in attractiveness the fair
+countryside of old England.
+
+152. =Is the Town Healthier than the Country?=--It has been commonly
+believed that country people are healthier than townspeople. Their
+life in the open, with plenty of exercise and hard work, toughens
+fibre and strengthens the body to resist disease. It has also been
+supposed that the city, with its crowded quarters, vitiated air, and
+communicable diseases, has a much larger death-rate. It is true that
+city life is more dangerous to health than a country existence if no
+health precautions are taken, but city ordinances commonly regulate
+community health, while in the country there is greater license.
+Exposure gives birth to colds and coughs in the country; these are
+treated with inadequate home remedies, because physicians are
+inconveniently distant or expensive, and chronic diseases fasten
+themselves upon the individual. Ignorance of hygienic principles,
+absence of bathrooms, poor ventilation, unscreened doors and windows,
+and impure water and milk are among the causes of disease.
+
+There is as much need of pure air, pure water, and pure food in the
+country as in the city, and the danger from disease is no less
+menacing. The farmer loses vitality through long hours of labor, and
+is susceptible to disease scarcely less than is the working man in
+town. And he is more at fault if he suffers, for there is room to
+build the home in a healthful location, where drainage is easy and
+pure air and sunshine are abundant; there is water without price for
+cleansing purposes, and sanitation is possible without excessive cost.
+In most cases it is lack of information that prevents a realization of
+perils that lurk, and every rural community should have instruction in
+hygiene from school-teacher, physician, or resident nurse.
+
+153. =Rural Health Preservers.=--Three health preservers are needed in
+every rural community. These are the health official, the physician,
+and the nurse. There is need first of one whose business it shall be
+to inspect the sanitary conditions of public and private buildings,
+and to watch the health of the people, old and young. It matters
+little whether the official is under State or local authority, if he
+efficiently and fearlessly performs his duty. Constant vigilance alone
+can give security, and it is a small price to pay if the community is
+compelled to bear even the whole expense of such a health official.
+Community health is often intrusted to the town fathers or a district
+board with little interest in the matter; on the other hand, the agent
+of a State board is not always a local resident, and is liable to
+overlook local conditions. It is desirable that the health official be
+an individual of good training, familiar with the locality, and with
+ample authority, for in this way only can safety be reasonably secure.
+
+It is by no means impracticable to give a local physician the
+necessary official authority. He is equipped with information and
+skilled by experience to know bad conditions when he sees them and to
+appreciate their seriousness. Whether or not a physician is the
+official health protector of the community, a physician there should
+be who can be reached readily by those who need him, and who should be
+required to produce a certificate of thorough training in both
+medicine and surgery. If such a medical practitioner does not
+establish himself in the district voluntarily, the community might
+well afford to employ such a physician on a salary and make him
+responsible for the health of all. As civilization advances it will
+become increasingly the custom in the country as well as in the city
+to employ a physician to keep one's general health good, as now one
+employs a dentist to examine and preserve the teeth. Medical practice
+must continually become more preventive and less remedial. It may seem
+as if it were an unwarranted expansion of the social functions of a
+community that it should care for the health of individuals, but as
+the interdependence of individuals becomes increasingly understood,
+the community may be expected to extend its care for its own welfare.
+
+154. =The Village Nurse.=--Alongside the physician belongs the village
+or rural nurse. Already there are many communities that are becoming
+accustomed to such a functionary, who visits the schools, examines the
+children, prescribes for their small ailments or recommends a visit to
+the physician, and who stands ready to perform the duties of a trained
+nurse at the bedside of any sufferer. The support of such a nurse is
+usually maintained by voluntary subscription, but there seems to be no
+good reason why she should not be appointed and paid by the organized
+community as a local official. She is as much needed as a
+road-surveyor, surely as valuable as hog-reeve or pound-keeper. It is
+a valid social principle, though rural observation does not always
+justify it, that human life is not only intrinsically more valuable to
+the individual or family than the life of an animal of the herd, but
+it is actually worth more to the community.
+
+155. =The Village Improvement Society.=--To secure good health
+conditions, interested persons in the community may organize a health
+club. Its feasibility is well proved by the history of the village
+improvement society. There are two hundred such societies in
+Massachusetts alone, and the whole movement is organized nationally in
+the American Civic Federation. Their object is the toning up of the
+community by various methods that have proved practicable. They owe
+their organization to a few public-spirited individuals, to a woman's
+club, or sometimes to a church. Their membership is entirely
+voluntary, but local government may properly co-operate to accomplish
+a desired end. Expenses are met by voluntary contribution or by means
+of public entertainments, and its efforts are limited, of course, by
+the fatness of its purse. Examples of the useful public service that
+they perform are the demolition of unsightly buildings and the
+cleaning up of unkempt premises, the beautification of public
+structures and the building of better roads, the erection of drinking
+troughs or fountains, and the improvement of cemeteries. Besides such
+outdoor interests village improvement societies create public spirit,
+educate the community by means of high-class entertainments, art and
+nature exhibits, and public discussion of current questions of local
+interest. They stand back of community enterprises for recreation,
+fire protection, and other forms of social service, including such
+economic interests as co-operative buying and marketing and the
+extension of telephone or transportation service.
+
+The initial impulse that sets in motion various forms of village
+improvement frequently comes from the summer visitor or from a teacher
+or minister who brings new ideas and a will to carry them into
+action. In certain sections of country, like the mountain region of
+northern New England, summer people are very numerous, through the
+weeks from June to October, and not a few of them revisit their
+favorite rural haunts for a briefer time in the winter. It is not to
+be expected that they are always a force for good. Sometimes they make
+country residents envious and dissatisfied. But it is not unusual that
+they give an intellectual stimulus to the young people and the women,
+compel the men to observe the proprieties of social intercourse, and
+encourage downcast leaders of church and neighborhood to renewed
+industry and hope. They demand multiplied comforts and conveniences,
+and expect attractive and healthful accommodations. Where they
+purchase and improve lands and buildings of their own they provide
+useful models to their less particular neighbors, and thus the leaven
+of a better type of living does its work in the neighborhood.
+
+156. =Principles of Organization.=--The principles that lie at the
+basis of every organization for improvement are simple and practicable
+everywhere. They have been enumerated as a democratic spirit and
+organization, a wide interest in community affairs, and a perennial
+care for the well-being of all the people. Public spirit is the reason
+for its existence, and the same public spirit is the only force that
+can keep the organization alive. Every community in this democratic
+country has its fortunes in its own hands. If it is so permeated with
+individualism or inertia that it cannot awake to its duties and its
+privileges, it will perish in accordance with the law of the survival
+of the fittest; if, on the contrary, it adopts as its controlling
+principles those just mentioned, it will find increasing strength and
+profit for itself, because it keeps alive the spirit of co-operation
+and mutual help.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 66-82, 106-130.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Rural Sociology_, pages 147-167.
+
+  HARRIS: _Health on the Farm._
+
+  FARWELL: _Village Improvement_, pages 47-53, Appendix.
+
+  WATERS: _Village Nursing in the United States._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+MORALS IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY
+
+
+157. =Social Disease and Its Causes.=--Rural morals are a phase of the
+public health of the community. Immorality is a kind of social
+disease, for which the community needs to find a remedy. The amount of
+moral ill varies widely, but it can be increased by neglect or
+lessened by effort, as surely as can the amount of physical disease.
+Moral ill is due to the individual and to the community. The judgment
+of the individual may be warped, his moral consciousness defective, or
+his will weak. He may have low standards and ill-adjusted
+relationships. Selfishness may have blunted his sympathy. All these
+conditions contribute to the common vices of community life. But the
+individual is sometimes less to blame than the community. Much moral
+ill is a consequence of the imperfect functioning of the community. A
+man steals because he is hungry or cold, and the motive to escape pain
+is stronger than the motive to deal lawfully with his neighbor; but if
+the community saw to it that adequate provision was made for all
+economic need, and if moral instruction was not lacking, it would be
+unlikely to happen. Similar reasons may be found for other evils. It
+is as much the business of the community to keep the social atmosphere
+wholesome as it is to keep the air and water of its farms pure. It
+should provide moral training and moral exercise.
+
+158. =How Morals Develop.=--Without attempting a thoroughly scientific
+definition of morals, we may call good morals those habitual acts
+which are in harmony with the best individual and social interests of
+the people of the community, and bad morals the absence of such
+habits. Of course the acts are the consequence of motives, and in the
+last analysis the question of morals is rooted in the field of
+psychology or religion; but the inner motive is revealed in the
+outward act, and it is customary to speak of the act as moral or
+immoral. Moral standards are not unvarying. One race differs from
+another and one period of history differs from another. Primitive
+custom was the first standard, and was determined by what was good for
+the group, and the individual conformed to it from force of
+circumstances. If he was to remain a member of the group and enjoy its
+benefits he must be willing to sacrifice his selfish desires. His
+consciousness of the solidarity of the group deepens with experience,
+and his feelings of sympathy grow stronger, until impulsive altruism
+becomes a habit and eventually a fixed and purposeful patriotism. By
+and by religion throws about conduct its sanctions and interprets the
+meaning of morality. However imperfect may be the relations between
+good morals and pagan religions, Judaism and Christianity have
+combined religion with high moral ideals. The Hebrew prophets declared
+that God demanded justice, kindness, and mercy in human relations
+rather than acts of ceremony and sacrifice to himself, and Jesus made
+love to neighbor as fundamental to holiness as love to God. Such a
+religion becomes dynamic in producing moral deeds.
+
+159. =The Social Stimulus to Morality.=--It is customary to think of
+the homely virtues of truthfulness, sobriety, thrift, and kindliness
+as individual obligations, but they are not wrought out in isolation.
+Isolation is never complete, and virtue is a social product. The
+farmer makes occasional visits to the country store, where he
+experiences social contacts; there is habitual association with
+individual workers on the farm or traders with whom the farmer carries
+on a business transaction. His personal contacts may not be helpful,
+and his wife may lack them almost altogether outside of the home; the
+result is often a tendency toward vice or degeneration, sometimes to
+insanity or suicide, but it is seldom that there are not helpful
+influences and relations available if the individual will put himself
+in the way of enjoying them. Good morals are dependent on right
+associations. Human beings need the stimulus of good society,
+otherwise the mind vegetates or broods upon real or fancied wrongs
+until the moral nature is in danger of atrophy or warping. Family
+feuds develop, as among the Scotch highlanders or the mountain people
+in certain parts of the South. Lack of social sympathy increases as
+the interests become self-centred; out of this characteristic grow
+directly such evils as petty lawlessness, rowdyism, and crime. The
+country districts need the help of high-grade schools and proper
+places of recreation, of the Young Men's Christian Association or an
+association of like principles, and most of all of a virile church
+that will interpret moral obligation and furnish the power that is
+needed to move the will to right action.
+
+160. =Rural Vices.=--The moral problems of the rural community do not
+differ greatly from those of the town. The most common rural vices are
+profanity, drunkenness, and sexual immorality. Profanity is often a
+habit rather than a defect in moral character, and is due sometimes to
+a narrow vocabulary. It is a mark of ignorance and boorishness. In
+many localities it is less common than it used to be. The average
+community life is wholesome. Not more than twenty per cent of American
+rural communities have really bad conditions in any way, according to
+the investigations made by the United States Rural Life Commission in
+1908. Considering the monotony and hardships of rural life, it is much
+to the credit of the people that most communities are temperate and
+law-abiding. Intemperance is one of the most common evils; there is a
+longing for the stimulant of liquor, which appears in some cases in
+moderate drinking and in other cases in the habit of an occasional
+spree in a near-by town, when reason abdicates to appetite. Lumbermen
+and miners, whose work is especially hard and isolation from good
+society complete, have been notorious for their lapses into
+intemperance, but it is not a serious problem in three out of four
+communities the country over, and a wave of temperance sentiment has
+swept strongly over rural districts. Gambling is a diversion that
+appeals to those who have few mental and pecuniary resources as an
+offset to the daily monotony, but this habit is not typical of rural
+communities.
+
+Investigations of the Rural Life Commission showed that sexual
+immorality prevails in ten to fifteen per cent of the rural
+communities, and they trace much of it to late evening drives and
+dances and unchaperoned calls, but on the whole the perversion of the
+sex instinct is less common than in the cities. The young are
+generally trained in moral principles, the religious sanctions are
+more strongly operative, and the conduct and character of every
+individual is constantly under the public eye. Young people in the
+country marry at an earlier age than in the city, and husband and wife
+are normally faithful. Crime in the country is peculiar to degenerate
+communities, elsewhere it is rare. Juvenile delinquency occurs, and
+there are not such helpful influences as the juvenile court of the
+city; on the other hand, most boys are in touch with home influences,
+feel the restraint of a law-abiding community, and know that
+lawbreaking is almost certain to be found out and punished.
+
+161. =Community Obligation.=--Moral delinquency in the rural community
+lies in the failure to provide social stimulus to individual members.
+The farmer has as good reason to be ambitious for success and to feel
+pride in it as has the city merchant, but he has small local
+encouragement to develop better agriculture on his own farm. He has as
+much right to the benefits of association in toil and co-operation in
+effecting economies and disposing of his products as the employer or
+working man in town. He is equally entitled to good government, to
+wholesome recreation, to a suitable and efficient education, and to
+the spiritual leadership of a progressive church. Without the spur of
+community fellowship his life narrows and his abilities are not
+developed. With the help of community stimulus the individual may
+develop capacity for individual achievement and social leadership of
+as fine a quality as any urban centre can supply. It is well known
+that the strong men of the cities in business and the professions have
+come in large proportion from the country. If such qualities developed
+in the comparative isolation and discomfort of the past, it is a moral
+obligation of rural communities of the future to do even more to
+produce the brawn and brain of city leaders in days to come.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  WILSON: _The Evolution of the Country Community_, pages 171-188.
+
+  ANDERSON: _The Country Town_, pages 95-106.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 146-165.
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 166-175.
+
+  HOBHOUSE: _Morals in Evolution_, I, pages 364-375.
+
+  SPENCER: _Data of Ethics_, chapter 8.
+
+  _Report of Committee on Morals and Rural Conditions of the General
+      Association of Congregational Churches of Massachusetts_,
+      1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE RURAL CHURCH
+
+
+162. =The Value of the Rural Church.=--Of all the local institutions
+of the rural community, none is so discouraging and at the same time
+so potential for usefulness as the country church. It has had a noble
+past; it is passing through a dubious present; it should emerge into a
+great future. The church is the conserver of the highest ideals. Like
+every long-established institution, it is conservative in methods as
+well as in principles. It regards itself as the censor of conduct and
+the mentor of conscience, and it fills the role of critic as often as
+it holds out an encouraging hand to the weary and hard pressed in the
+struggle for existence and moral victory. It is the guide-post to
+another world, which it esteems more highly than this. Sometimes it
+puts more emphasis on creed than on conduct, on Sunday scrupulousness
+than on Monday scruple. But in spite of its failings and its frequent
+local decline, the church is the hope of rural America. It is
+notorious that the absence of a church means a distinctly lower type
+of community life, both morally and socially. Vice and crime flourish
+there. Property values tumble when the church dies and the minister
+moves away. Many residents rarely if ever enter the precincts of the
+meeting-house or contribute to the expense of its maintenance, yet
+they share in the benefits that it gives and would not willingly see
+it disappear when they realize the consequences. In the westward march
+of settlement the missionary kept pace with the pioneer, and the
+church on the frontier became the centre of every good influence. It
+is impossible to estimate the value of the rural church in the onrush
+of civilization. Religion has been the saving salt of humanity when it
+was in danger of spoiling. In the lumber and the mining camp, on the
+cattle-ranch and the prairie, the missionary has sweetened life with
+his ministry and given a tone to the life of the open and the wild
+that in value is past calculation.
+
+163. =The Church in Decline.=--In the days when it seems declining,
+the strength of the rural church is worth preserving. There are
+hundreds of rural communities where the young people have gone to the
+town and population has steadily fallen behind. There are hundreds
+more where the people of a community have drawn wealth from the soil,
+and with a succession of good crops and high prices have accumulated
+enough to keep them comfortable, and then have sold or leased their
+property and moved into town. The purchasers or tenants who replaced
+them have been less able to contribute to church support or have been
+of a different faith or race, and the churches have found it difficult
+to survive. Doubtless some of these churches could be spared without
+great loss, for in the rush of real or expected settlement, certain
+localities became over-churched, but the spectacle of scores of
+abandoned churches in the Middle West has as doleful an appearance as
+abandoned farms in New England.
+
+164. =Is It Worth Preserving?=--It would be a misfortune for the
+church to perish out of the rural districts, for it performs a
+religious function that no other institution performs. It cherishes
+the beliefs that have strengthened man through the ages and given him
+the upward look that betokens faith in his destiny and power in his
+life. It calls out the best that is in him to meet the tasks of every
+day. It ministers to him in times of greatest need. It teaches him how
+to relate himself to an Unseen Power and to the fellowship of human
+kind. The meeting-house is a community centre drawing to itself like a
+magnet family groups and individuals from miles around, overcoming
+their isolation and breaking into the daily monotony of their lives,
+and with its worship and its sermon awakening new thoughts and
+impulses for the enrichment of life. Nor does its ministry confine
+itself to things of the spirit. The weekly Sunday assembly provides
+opportunity for social intercourse, if no more than an exchange of
+greetings, and now and then a sociable evening gathering or
+anniversary occasion brings an added social opportunity.
+
+165. =The Country Minister.=--The faithful rural minister also carries
+the church to the people. His parish is broad, but he finds his way
+into the homes of his parishioners, acquaints himself with their
+characteristics and their needs, and fits his ministrations to them.
+Especially does he carry comfort to the sick and soothe the suffering
+and the dying. No other can quite fill his place; no other so builds
+himself into the hearts of the people. He may not be a great thinker
+or preach polished sermons; his hands may be rough and his clothes
+ill-fitting; but if he is a loyal friend and ministers to real
+spiritual need, he is saint and prophet to those whom he has
+brothered.
+
+In the rural economy each public functionary is worthy or unworthy,
+according to his personal fidelity to his particular task. A poorly
+equipped board of government is not worth half the salary of the
+school-teacher. That official may not hold his place or gain the
+respect of his pupils unless he meets their needs of instruction with
+a degree of efficiency. But a public servant who fills full the
+channels of his usefulness is worth twice what he is likely to get as
+his stipulated wage. The community can well afford to look kindly upon
+a minister of that type, to encourage him in his efforts for the
+upbuilding of the community, and to contribute to an honorable stipend
+for his support.
+
+166. =The Problems.=--The rural church has its problems and so has the
+rural minister. There are the indifferent people who are irreligious
+themselves and have no share in the activities of the religious
+institution. There are the insincere people who belong to the church
+but are not sympathetic in spirit or conduct. There are the
+cold-blooded people who gather weekly in the meeting-house but do not
+respond to intellectual or spiritual stimulus, and who chill the heart
+of the minister and soon quench his enthusiasm. It is not surprising
+if he is restless and changes location frequently, or if he becomes
+listless and apparently indifferent to the welfare of his flock, when
+he meets no response and himself enjoys no stimulus from his own kind.
+All these conditions constitute the spiritual problem. Beyond this
+there is the institutional problem. The church finds maintenance
+difficult, often impossible without outside assistance. Failing to
+minister to any purely community need except on special occasions, or
+to assume any responsibility of leadership in civic or social affairs,
+it does not receive the cordial support of the community to which as a
+social institution, conserving the highest interests, it is reasonably
+entitled. It must be remembered that in America there can be no
+established church supported by the State, as in England. The church
+is on a different footing in every community from that of the public
+school. It is therefore dependent on the good-will of the community
+and must cultivate that good-will if it is to succeed. Most rural
+churches have yet to become a vital force, not only energizing their
+own members, but reaching out also to the whole community, seeking not
+their own growth as their chief end, but by ministering to the
+community's needs, realizing a fuller, richer life of their own.
+
+167. =The Needs of the Church.=--The rural church needs reorganization
+for efficiency, but changes must be gradual. A local church that is
+democratic in its form of organization, with no external oversight, is
+likely to need strengthening in administration; a church that intrusts
+control to a small board or is governed from the outside probably
+needs to get closer to the people, but differences in church
+government are of small practical consequence. It does not appear that
+it makes much difference in the success of a rural church whether its
+organization is Episcopal, Presbyterian, or Congregational. The
+machinery needs modernizing, whatever the pattern. It is a part of the
+task to be undertaken by every up-to-date country minister to consider
+possible improvements in the various departments of the church. It is
+as likely that the children are being as inefficiently taught in the
+Sunday-school as in the every-day school, that organizations and
+opportunities for the young people are as lacking as in the community
+at large, that discussions in the Bible class are as pointless as
+those in any local forum. It is more than likely that the church is
+failing to make good in a given locality because it is depending on a
+few persons to carry on its activities, and these few do not
+co-operate well with one another or with other Christian people. The
+functions of the church are neither well understood nor properly
+performed. It has small assets in community good-will, and it is in no
+real sense a going concern.
+
+168. =The New Rural Church.=--Here and there a church of a new type is
+meeting manfully these various needs. It has set itself first to
+answer the question whether the church is a real religious force in
+the community, and what method may best be used to energize the
+countryside more effectually for moral and religious ends. Old forms
+or times of worship have needed changing, or an innovating individual
+has taken a hand temporarily. Then it has faced the practical problem
+of religious education. Most churches maintain a Sunday-school and a
+Woman's Missionary or Aid Society. Certain of them have young people's
+organizations, and a few have organized men's classes or clubs. Each
+of these groups goes on its own independent course. There is no
+attempt to correlate the studies with which each concerns itself, and
+there is much waste of effort in holding group sessions that
+accomplish nothing. The new church directors simplify, correlate, and
+systematize all the educational work that is being attempted, improve
+courses of study and methods of teaching, and propose to all concerned
+the attainment of certain definite standards. In the third place, the
+new rural church adopts for itself a well-considered programme of
+community service. Its opportunity is unlimited, but its efforts are
+not worth much unless it approaches the subject intelligently, with a
+knowledge of local conditions, of its own resources, and of the
+methods that have been used successfully in other similar localities.
+Nothing less than these three tasks of investigation, education, and
+service belong to every church; toward this ideal is moving an
+increasing number of churches in the country.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BUTTERFIELD: _The Country Church and the Rural Problem._
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country._
+
+  WILSON: _The Church of the Open Country._
+
+  NESMITH: Chapter on "The Rural Church" in _Social Ministry._
+
+  HART: _Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities_,
+      pages 176-196.
+
+  _Report of Country Life Commission_, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+A NEW TYPE OF RURAL INSTITUTION
+
+
+169. =A New Type of Institution.=--The rural community everywhere is
+in need of a new social institution. Those which exist have been
+individualistic in purpose and method and only incidentally have been
+socially constructive. The school has existed to make individuals
+efficient intellectually, that they might be able to struggle
+successfully for existence. The church has existed as a means to
+individual salvation from future ill. Social good has resulted from
+these institutions, but it has not been fundamental in their purpose.
+The new rural institution that is needed is a centre for community
+reconstruction. If the school or the church can adapt itself to the
+need, either may become such an institution; if not, there must be a
+new type.
+
+It has often been said that the characteristic evil of rural life is
+the isolation of the people, but this must be understood to mean not
+merely an isolated location of farm dwellings but a lack of human
+fellowship. In the city the majority of people might as well live in
+isolated houses as far as acquaintance with neighbors is concerned,
+but they do not lack human fellowship because they have group
+connections elsewhere. In the country it is hardly possible to choose
+associates or institutional connections. There is one school prepared
+to receive the children of a certain age, and no other, unless they
+are conveyed to a distance at great inconvenience; the variety of
+suitable churches is not large. It is necessary to cultivate neighbors
+or to go without friendships. But rural social relations are not well
+lubricated. There are few common topics of conversation, except the
+weather, the crops, or a bit of gossip. There are few common interests
+about which discussion may centre. There is need of an institution
+that shall create and conserve such common interests.
+
+170. =A Community House.=--The first task is to bring people together
+to a common gathering place, where perfect democracy will prevail, and
+where there may be unrestricted discussion. There is no objection to
+using the schoolhouse for the purpose, but ordinarily it is not
+adapted to the purposes of an assembly-room. The meeting-house may
+serve the purpose, but to many persons it seems a desecration of a
+sacred building, and except in the case of a single community church
+there is too much of the denominational flavor about it to make it an
+unrestricted forum. Ideally there should be a community house erected
+at a convenient location, and large enough to accommodate as many as
+might desire to assemble. It should be equipped for all the social
+uses to which it might be put. It should be paid for by the voluntary
+contributions of all the people, but title to the property should be
+in the hands of a board of trustees or associates who would be
+responsible for its maintenance and for the uses to which it would be
+put. These persons must be men and women of the town in whose judgment
+the people have full confidence. Regular expenses should be met by
+annual payments, as the Young Men's Christian Association is sustained
+in cities all over the country, and by occasional entertainments. A
+limited endowment fund would be helpful, but too large endowment tends
+to pauperize a local institution.
+
+171. =Intellectual Stimulus.=--The second task is to put the community
+house to use. There are numerous ways by which this can be done, but
+the best are those that fit local need. Of all the needs the greatest
+is stimulus to thought. Ideally this should come from the pulpit of
+the rural church, but its stimulus is usually not strong, it is
+commonly confined to religious exhortation, and it reaches only a few.
+All the people of the community need to think seriously about their
+economic and social interests, and to be drawn out to express
+themselves on such subjects. The old-fashioned town meeting provided a
+channel for such discussion once a year. What is needed is a
+town-meeting extension through eight or nine months of the year. The
+community house offers an opportunity for such an extension. Under
+the initiative and guidance of one or two energetic local leaders,
+inspired by an occasional outside lecturer, such as can be obtained at
+small expense from agricultural colleges and other public agencies,
+almost any American community ought to carry on a forum of public
+discussion for weeks, taking up first the most urgent questions of
+community interest and passing on gradually to matters of broader
+concern.
+
+172. =Social Satisfaction.=--As the adults of the community need
+intellectual stimulus, so the young people need social satisfactions.
+The salvation of the American rural community lies largely in the
+contentment of the young people, for without that quality of mind they
+leave the country for the town, or settle back in an unprogressive,
+unsocial state of sullen resignation. There must be opportunity for
+recreation. The community house should function for the entertainment
+of its constituency in ways that approve themselves to the associates
+in charge. But it is not so much entertainment that is wanted as an
+opportunity for sociability, occasions when all the youth of the
+community can meet for mutual acquaintance and the beginnings of
+courtship, and for the stimulus that comes from human association. If
+association and activity are characteristic of normal social life, it
+is unreasonable to suppose that rural young people will be contented
+to vegetate. If they cannot have legitimate opportunities to realize
+their impulse to associated activity, they will provide less
+satisfactory unconventional opportunities. One of the best means for
+promoting sociability and providing an outlet for youthful energy in
+concert has been found in the use of music. The old-fashioned
+singing-school filled a real need and its passing has left a distinct
+gap. Where musical gatherings have been revived experience has shown
+that they are a most effective stimulus to a new community
+consciousness. The country church choir has long been regarded as a
+useful social as well as religious institution, but the community
+chorus is far more effective. It is possible to uncover latent talent
+and to cultivate it so that it will furnish more attractive
+entertainment for the people than that which is imported at far
+greater expense from outside. Among the foreigners who are finding
+their way into rural localities, there is sometimes discovered a
+musical ability that outranks the native, and no other method of
+approach to the immigrant is so easy as by giving his young people a
+place in the social activities of the community.
+
+173. =Continuation Schooling.=--A further use for the community house
+is educational. The older education of the district school was
+defective, and the new education is not enjoyed by many a farmer's boy
+or girl, because they cannot be spared in the later years of youth for
+long schooling. An adaptation of the idea of continuation schools for
+rural young people so that they may apply the new sciences to country
+life is greatly to be desired. The local school principal or county
+superintendent or an extension teacher from a State institution may be
+found available as director, and it belongs to the community to
+provide the necessary funds. For older people some of the same courses
+are suitable, but they should be supplemented with lectures of all
+sorts. It has been demonstrated many times that popular lecturers can
+be secured at small expense in different parts of the country,
+especially in these days when there are so many agencies to push the
+new agricultural science, and other subjects over a wide range of
+interests will not fail to find exponents if a demand for them can be
+created.
+
+174. =Community Leadership.=--In the last analysis the prime factor in
+the rural situation is the community leader. Institutions can do
+little for the enrichment of rural life if personality is wanting. It
+is the leader's energy that keeps the wheels of the machinery turning,
+his wisdom that gears their action to the needs of the community. It
+is desirable that the leader should spring from the community itself,
+acquainted with its needs and voicing its aspirations. But more
+communities get their leaders from outside and are often more willing
+to accept such a leader than if he came up out of their midst, for the
+proverb is often true that a prophet is without honor in his own
+country.
+
+175. =Qualities of Leadership.=--Social leadership is dependent upon
+certain qualities in the person who leads and in those who are led.
+The attitude of the people of the community is fundamental. The
+stimulus that the leader applies must find response in their inner
+natures if his energy is to become socially effective. If there is not
+a latent capacity to action, no amount of stimulus will avail. It is
+safe to assume that there are few local communities in America that
+will fail to respond to the right kind of leadership, but certain
+qualities in the leader are essential for inspiration. It is not
+necessary that he should be country born, but it is essential that he
+love the country, appreciate its opportunities, and be conscious of
+its needs. He cannot hope to call out these qualities in the people if
+he does not himself possess them. And it must be a genuine love and
+appreciation that is in him, for only sincerity and perfect honesty
+can win men for long. It is essential that he have breadth of sympathy
+for all the interests of the people that he seeks for his own; he may
+not think lightly of farming or storekeeping, of education or
+recreation, of morals or religion. He must be devoted to the
+community, its servant as well as its leader, content to build himself
+into its life. It is not necessary that the leader should be a trained
+expert, a finished product of the schools, desirable as such equipment
+is, but it is essential that he know how to call out the best that is
+in others, to play upon their emotions, to appeal to their intellects,
+to energize their wills. He must not only understand their present
+mental processes, but he must have a vision of them when they have
+become transformed with new impulses and ambitions, and converted to
+new and nobler purposes. He needs an unquenchable enthusiasm, a gentle
+patience, an invincible, aggressive persistency, a contagious optimism
+that will carry him over every obstacle to ultimate victory. It is
+essential that he possess fertility of resource to adapt himself to
+circumstances, that he have power to call out action and executive
+ability to direct it. Most important of all is a magnetic personality
+such as belonged to the great chieftains of history who in war or
+peace have been able to attract followers and to mould them in
+obedience to their own will.
+
+176. =Broad Opportunities.=--A leader such as that described has an
+almost unlimited field of opportunity to mould social life. In the
+city the opportunity for leadership may seem to be larger, but few can
+dominate more than a small group. In the country the start may be
+slower and more discouraging, but the goal reaches out ahead. From
+better agriculture the leader may draw on the people to better social
+ideals, to a new appreciation of education and broad culture, to a
+truer understanding of ethics and religion. He may refashion
+institutions that may express the new in modern terms. But when this
+is accomplished his work is not done. He may reach out over the
+countryside and make his village a nucleus for wider progress through
+a whole county. Even then his influence is not spent. The rural
+communities in America are feeders of the cities; in them is the
+nursery of the men and women who are to become leaders in the larger
+circles of business and professional life, in journalism and
+literature, in religion and social reform. Many a rural teacher or
+pastor has built himself into the affections of a boy or a girl,
+incarnating for them the noblest ideals and stimulating them to
+achievement and service in an environment that he himself could never
+hope to fill and with a power of influence that he could never expect
+to wield. The avenues of opportunity are becoming more numerous. The
+teacher and the minister have advantages of leadership over the county
+Young Men's Christian Association secretary and the village nurse, but
+since personal qualities are the determining factors, no man or woman,
+whatever their position, can make good the claim without proving
+ability by actual achievement. Any man or woman who enters a
+particular community for the first time, or returns to it from
+college, may become a dynamo of blessing to it. There waits for such a
+leader the loyalty of the boys who may be won for noble manhood, of
+the girls who may become worthy mothers of a better generation of
+future citizens, of men and women for whom the glamour of youth has
+passed into the sober reality of maturer years, but who are still
+capable of seeing visions of a richer life that they and their
+children may yet enjoy. There are ready to his hand the institutions
+that have played an important part, however inefficiently in rural
+life, the heritage of social custom and community character that have
+come down from the past, and the material environment that helps or
+hinders but does not control human relations and human deeds. These
+constitute the measure of his world; these are clay for the potter and
+instruments for his working; upon him is laid the responsibility of
+the product.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CURTIS: _Play and Recreation for the Open Country_, pages
+      195-259.
+
+  FISKE: _The Challenge of the Country_, pages 225-266.
+
+  COOLEY: _Human Nature and the Social Order_, pages 283-325.
+
+  MCNUTT: "Ten Years in a Country Church," _World's Work_, December,
+      1910.
+
+  MCKEEVER: _Farm Boys and Girls_, pages 129-145.
+
+  CARNEY: _Country Life and the Country School_, pages 1-17,
+      302-327.
+
+
+
+
+PART IV--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE CITY
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+FROM COUNTRY TO CITY
+
+
+177. =Enlarging the Social Environment.=--In the story of the family
+and the rural community it has become clear that the normal individual
+as he grows to maturity lives in an expanding circle of social
+relations. The primary unit of his social life is the family in the
+home. There the elemental human instincts are satisfied. There while a
+child he learns the first lessons of social conduct. From the home he
+enters into the larger life of the community. He takes his place in
+the school, where he touches the lives of other children and learns
+that he is a part of a larger social order. He gets into the current
+of community life and finds out the importance of local institutions
+like the country store and the meeting-house. He becomes accustomed to
+the ways that are characteristic of country people, and finds a place
+for himself in the industry and social activity of the countryside.
+When the boy who has grown up in a rural community comes to manhood,
+his natural tendency is to accept the occupation of farming with which
+he has become acquainted in boyhood, to woo a country maid for a mate,
+and to make for himself a rural home after the pattern of his
+ancestors. In that case his social environment remains restricted. His
+relations are with nature rather than with men. His horizon is narrow,
+his interests limited. The institutions that mould him are few, the
+forces that stimulate to progress are likely to be lacking altogether.
+He need not, but he usually does, cease to grow.
+
+178. =Characteristics of the City.=--Certain individuals find the
+static life of the country unbearable. Their nature demands larger
+scope in an expanding environment. To them the stirring town beckons,
+and they are restless until they escape. The city is a centre of
+social life where the individual feels a greater stimulus than in the
+home or the rural community. It resembles the family and the village
+in providing social relations and an interchange of ideas, but it
+surpasses them in the large scale of its activities. It presents many
+of the same social characteristics that they do, but geared in each
+case for higher speed. Its activities are swifter and more varied. Its
+associations are more numerous and kaleidoscopic. Its people are less
+independent than in the country; control, economic and political, is
+more pervasive, even though crude in method. Change is more rapid in
+the city, because the forces that are at work are charged with dynamic
+energy. Weakness in social structure and functioning is conspicuous.
+In the large cities all these are intensified, but they are everywhere
+apparent whenever a community passes beyond the village stage. The
+line that separates the village or small town from the city is an
+arbitrary one. The United States calls those communities rural that
+have a population not exceeding twenty-five hundred, but it is less a
+question of population than of interests and activities. When
+agriculture gives place to trade or manufacturing as the leading
+economic interest; when the community takes on the social
+characteristics that belong to urban life; and when places of business
+and amusement assume a place of importance rather than the home, the
+school, and the church, the community passes into the urban class.
+Names and forms of government are of small consequence in
+classification compared with the spirit and ways of the community.
+
+179. =How the City Grows.=--The city grows by the natural excess of
+births over deaths and by immigration. Without immigration the city
+grows more slowly but more wholesomely. Immigration introduces an
+alien element that has to adjust itself to new ways and does not
+always fuse readily with the native element. This is true of
+immigration from the country village as well as from a foreign
+country, but an American, even though brought up differently, finds it
+easier to adapt himself to his new environment. An increasingly large
+percentage of children are born and grow to maturity in the city.
+There are thousands of urban communities of moderate size in America,
+where there are few who come in from any distance, but for nearly a
+hundred years in the older parts of the country a rural migration has
+been carrying young people into town, and the recent volume of foreign
+immigration is spilling over from the large cities into the smaller
+urban centres, so that the mixture of population is becoming general.
+
+180. =The Attraction of the City.=--Foreign immigration is a subject
+that must be treated by itself; rural immigration needs no prolonged
+discussion once the present limitations of life in the country are
+understood. Multitudes of ambitious young people are not contented
+with the opportunities offered by the rural environment. They want to
+be at the strategic points of the world's activities, struggling for
+success in the thick of things. The city attracts the country boy who
+is ambitious, exactly as old Rome attracted the immature German. The
+blare of its noisy traffic, the glare of its myriad lights, the rush
+and the roar and the rabble all urge him to get into the scramble for
+fun and gain. The crowd attracts. The instinct of sociability draws
+people together. Those who are unfamiliar with rural spaces and are
+accustomed to live in crowded tenements find it lonesome in the
+country, and prefer the discomfort of their congested quarters in town
+to the pure air and unspoiled beauty of the country. They love the
+stir of the streets, and enjoy sitting on the door-steps and wandering
+up and down the sidewalks, feeling the push of the motley crowd. Those
+who leave the country for the city feel all these attractions and are
+impelled by them, but beyond these attractions, re-enforcing them by
+an appeal to the intellect, are the economic advantages that lie in
+the numerous occupations and chances for promotion to high-salaried
+positions, the educational advantages for children and youth in the
+better-graded schools, the colleges, the libraries, and the other
+cultural institutions, and such social advantages as variety of
+entertainment, modern conveniences in houses and hotels, more
+beautiful and up-to-date churches, well-equipped hospitals, and
+comfortable and convenient means of transportation from place to
+place.
+
+181. =Making a Countryman into a Citizen.=--It is important to enter
+into the spirit of the young people who prefer the streets and blocks
+of the town to the winding country roads, and are willing to sacrifice
+what there is of beauty and leisure in rural life for the ugliness,
+sordidness, and continuous drive of the city; to understand that a
+greater driving force, stirring in the soul of youth and thrusting
+upon him with every item of news from the city, is impelling him to
+disdain what the country can give him and to magnify the
+counter-attractions of the town. He has felt the monotony and the
+contracted opportunity of farm life as he knows it. He has experienced
+the drudgery of it ever since he began to do the chores. Familiar only
+with the methods of his ancestors, he knows that labor is hard and
+returns are few. He may look across broad acres that will some day be
+his, but he knows that his father is "land poor." As a farmer he sees
+no future for agriculture. He has known the village and the
+surrounding country ever since he graduated from the farmyard to the
+schoolhouse, and came into association with the boys and girls of the
+neighborhood. He knows the economic and social resources of the
+community and is satisfied that he can never hope for much enjoyment
+or profit in the limited rural environment. The school gave him little
+mental stimulus, but opened the door ajar into a larger world. The
+church gave him an orthodox gospel in terms of divinity and its
+environment rather than humanity on earth, but stirred vaguely his
+aspirations for a fuller life. He has sounded the depths of rural
+existence and found it unsatisfying. He wants to learn more, to do
+more, to be more.
+
+One eventful day he graduates from the village to the city, as years
+before he graduated from the home into the community. By boat or
+train, or by the more primitive method of stage-coach or afoot, he
+travels until he joins the surging crowd that swarms in the streets.
+He feels himself thrilling with the consciousness that he is moving
+toward success and possibly greatness. He does not stop to think that
+hundreds of those who seek their fortune in the city have failed, and
+have found themselves far worse off than the contented folk back in
+the home village. The newcomer establishes himself in a boarding-house
+or lodging-house which hundreds of others accept as an apology for a
+home, joins the multitude of unemployed in a search for work, and is
+happy if he finds it in an office that is smaller and darker than the
+wood-shed on the farm, or behind a counter where fresh air and
+sunlight never penetrate. He will put up with these non-essentials,
+for he expects in days ahead to move higher up, when the large rewards
+that are worth while will be his.
+
+In the ranks of business he measures his wits with others of his kind.
+He apes their manners, their slang, and their tone inflections. He
+imitates their fashions in clothes, learns the popular dishes in the
+restaurants, and if of feminine tastes gives up pie for salad. He goes
+home after hours to his small and dingy bedroom, tired from the drain
+upon his vitality because of ill-ventilated rooms and ill-nourishing
+food, but happy and free. There are no chores waiting for him now, and
+there is somewhere to go for entertainment. Not far away he may have
+his choice of theatres and moving-picture shows. If he is aesthetically
+or intellectually inclined, there are art-galleries and libraries
+beckoning him. If his earnings are a pittance and he cannot afford the
+theatre, and if his tastes do not draw him to library or museum, the
+saloon-keeper is always ready to be his friend. The youth from the
+country would be welcomed at the Young Men's Christian Association on
+the other side of the city, or at a church if there happened to be a
+social or religious function that opened the building, but the saloon
+is always near, always open, and always cordial. Poor or rich, or a
+stranger, it matters not, let him enter and enjoy the poor man's club.
+It is warm and pleasant there and he will soon make friends.
+
+182. =Mental and Moral Changes.=--The readjustments that are necessary
+in the transfer from country to city are not accomplished without
+considerable mental and moral shock. Changing habits of living are
+paralleled by changing habits of thought. Old ideas are jostled by
+new every hour of the day. At the table, on the street, in office or
+store, at the theatre or church the currents of thought are different.
+Social contacts are more numerous, relations are more shifting,
+intellectual affinities and repulsions are felt constantly; mental
+interactions are so frequent that stability of beliefs and
+independence of thought give way to flexibility and uncertainty and
+openness to impression. Group influence asserts its power over the
+individual.
+
+Along with the influence of the group mind goes the influence of what
+may be called the electrical atmosphere of the city. The newcomer from
+the country is very conscious of it; to the old resident it becomes
+second nature. City life is noisy. The whole industrial system is
+athrob with energy. The purring of machinery, the rattle and roar of
+traffic, the clack and toot of the automobile, the clanging of bells,
+and the chatter of human tongues create a babel that confuses and
+tires the unsophisticated ear and brain. They become accustomed to the
+sounds after a time, but the noise registers itself continually on the
+sensitive nervous system, and many a man and woman breaks at last
+under the strain. Another element that adds to the nervous strain is
+haste. Life in the city is a stern chase after money and pleasure.
+Everybody hurries from morning until night, for everything moves on
+schedule, and twenty-four hours seem not long enough to do the world's
+work and enjoy the world's fun. Noise and hurry furnish a mental
+tension that charges the urban atmosphere with excitement. Purveyors
+of news and amusement have learned to cater to the love of excitement.
+The newspaper editor hunts continually for sensations, and sometimes
+does not scruple to twist sober fact into stirring fiction. The
+book-stall and the circulating library supply the novel and the cheap
+magazine to give smack to the jaded palate that cannot relish good
+literature. The theatre panders to the appetite for a thrill.
+
+In these circumstances lie the possibilities of moral shock. In the
+city there is freedom from the old restraint that the country
+community imposed. In the city the countryman finds that he can do as
+he pleases without the neighbors shaking their heads over him. In the
+absence of such restraint and with the social contact of new friends
+he may rapidly lower his moral standards as he changes his manners and
+his mental habits. It does not take long to shuffle off the old ways;
+it does not take much push or pull to make the unsophisticated boy or
+girl lose balance and drift toward lower ideals than those with which
+they came. Not a few find it hard to keep the moral poise in the
+whirlpool of mental distraction. It is these effects of the urban
+environment that help to explain the social derelicts that abound in
+the cities. It is the weakness of human nature, along with the
+economic pressure, that accounts for the drunkenness, vice, and crime
+that constitute so large a problem of city life and block the path of
+society's development. They are a part of the imperfection that is
+characteristic of this stage of human progress, and especially of the
+twentieth-century city. They are not incurable evils, they demand a
+remedy, and they furnish an inspiring object of study for the
+practitioner of social disease.
+
+He who escapes business and moral failure has open wide before him in
+the city the door of opportunity. He may, if he will, meet all the
+world and his wife in places where the people gather, touching elbows
+with individuals from every quarter of the country, with persons of
+every class and variety of attainment, with believers of every
+political, aesthetic, and religious creed. In such an atmosphere his
+mind expands like the exotic plant in a conservatory. His individual
+prejudices fall from him like worn-out leaves from the trees. He
+begins to realize that other people have good grounds for their
+opinions and practices that differ from his own, and that in most
+cases they are better than his, and he quickly adjusts himself to
+them. The city stimulates life by its greater social resources, and
+forms within its borders more highly developed human groups. Beyond
+the material comforts and luxuries that the city supplies are the
+social values that it creates in the associations and organizations of
+men and women allied for the philanthropic, remedial, and
+constructive purposes that are looking forward to the slow progress of
+mankind toward its highest ideals.
+
+183. =The City as a Social Centre.=--The city is an epitome of
+national and even world life, as the farm is community life in
+miniature. Its social life is infinitely complex, as compared with the
+rural village. Distances that stretch out for miles in the country,
+over fields and woods and hills, are measured in the city by blocks of
+dwellings and public buildings, with intersecting streets, stretching
+away over a level area as far as the eye can see. Social institutions
+correspond to the needs of the inhabitants, and while there are a few
+like those in the country, because certain human needs are the same,
+there is a much larger variety in the city because of the great number
+of people of different sorts and the complexity of their demands.
+Every city has its business centres for finance, for wholesale trade,
+and for retail exchange, its centres for government, and for
+manufacturing; it has its railroad terminals and often its wharves and
+shipping, its libraries, museums, schools, and churches. All these are
+gathering places for groups of people. But there is no one social
+centre for all classes; rather, the people of the city are associated
+in an infinite number of large and small groups, according to the
+mutual interests of their members. But if the city has no four
+corners, it is itself a centre for a large district of country. As the
+village is the nucleus that binds together outlying farms and hamlets,
+so the city has far-flung connections with rural villages and small
+towns in a radius of many miles.
+
+184. =The Importance of the City.=--The city has grown up because it
+was located conveniently for carrying on manufacturing and trade on a
+large scale. It is growing in importance because this is primarily an
+industrial age. Its population is increasing relatively to the rural
+population, and certain cities are growing enormously, in spite of Mr.
+Bryce's warning that it is unfortunate for any city to grow beyond a
+population of one hundred thousand. The importance of the city as a
+social centre is apparent when we remember that in America, according
+to the census of 1910, 46.3 per cent of the people live in
+communities of more than 2,500 population, while 31 per cent of the
+whole are inhabitants of cities of 25,000 or more population. When
+nearly one-third of all the people of the nation live in communities
+of such size, the large city becomes a type of social centre of great
+significance. At the prevailing rate of growth a majority of the
+American people will soon be dwelling in cities, and there seems to be
+no reason to expect a reversal of tendency because modern invention is
+making it possible for fewer persons on the farm to supply the
+agricultural products that city people need. This means, of course,
+that the temper and outlook of mind will be increasingly urban, that
+social institutions generally will have the characteristics of the
+city, that the National Government will be controlled by that part of
+the American citizens that so far has been least successful in
+governing itself well.
+
+185. =Municipal History.=--The city has come to stay, and there is in
+it much of good. It has come into existence to satisfy human need, and
+while it may change in character it is not likely to be less important
+than now. Its history reveals its reasons for existence and indicates
+the probabilities of its future. The ancient city was an overgrown
+village that had special advantages for communication and
+transportation of goods, or that was located conveniently for
+protection against neighboring enemies. The cities of Greece
+maintained their independence as political units, but most social
+centres that at first were autonomous became parts of a larger state.
+The great cities were the capitals of nations or empires, and to
+strike at them in war was to aim at the vitals of an organism. Such
+were Thebes and Memphis in Egypt, Babylon and Nineveh in the
+Tigris-Euphrates valley, Carthage and Rome in the West. Such are
+Vienna and Berlin, Paris and London to-day. Lesser cities were centres
+of trade, like Corinth or Byzantium, or of culture, such as Athens.
+Such was Florence in the Middle Ages, and such are Liverpool and
+Leipzig to-day. The municipalities of the Roman Empire marked the
+climax of civic development in antiquity.
+
+The social and industrial life of the Middle Ages was rural. Only a
+few cities survived the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, and new
+centres of importance did not arise until trade revived and the
+manufacturing industry began to concentrate in growing towns about the
+time of the Crusades. Then artisans and tradesmen found their way to
+points convenient to travel and trade, and a city population began the
+processes of aggregation and congregation. They grew up rough in
+manners and careless of sanitation and hygiene, but they developed
+efficiency in local government and an inclination to demand civic
+rights from those who had any outside claim of control; they began to
+take pride in their public halls and churches, and presently they
+founded schools and universities. Wealth increased rapidly, and some
+of the cities, like the Hansa towns of the north, and Venice and Genoa
+in the south, commanded extensive and profitable trade routes.
+
+Modern cities owe their growth to the industrial revolution and the
+consequent increase of commerce. The industrial centres of northern
+England are an illustration of the way in which economic forces have
+worked in the building of cities. At the middle of the eighteenth
+century that part of Great Britain was far less populous and
+progressive than the eastern and southern counties. It had small
+representation in Parliament. It was provincial in thought, speech,
+and habits. It was given over to agriculture, small trade, and rude
+home manufacture. Presently came the revolutionary inventions of
+textile machinery, of the steam-engine, and of processes for
+extracting and utilizing coal and iron. The heavy, costly machinery
+required capital and the factory. Concentrated capital and machinery
+required workers. The working people were forced to give up their
+small home manufacturing and their unprofitable farming and move to
+the industrial barracks and workrooms of the manufacturing centres.
+These centres sprang up where the tools were most easily and cheaply
+obtained, and where lay the coal-beds and the iron ore to be worked
+over into machinery. From Newcastle on the east, through Sheffield,
+Leeds, Birmingham, and Manchester, to Liverpool on the west and
+Glasgow over the Scottish border grew up a chain of thriving cities,
+and later their people were given the ballot that was taken from
+certain of the depopulated rural villages. These cities have obtained
+a voice of power in the councils of the nation. In America the
+industrial era came somewhat later, but the same process of
+centralizing industry went on at the waterfalls of Eastern rivers, at
+railroad centres, and at ocean, lake, and Gulf ports. Commerce has
+accelerated the growth of many of these manufacturing towns. Increase
+of industry and population has been especially rapid in the great
+ports that front the two oceans, through whose gates pour the floods
+of immigrants, and in the interior cities like Chicago, that lie at
+especially favorable points for railway, lake, or river traffic. As in
+the Middle Ages, universities grew because teachers went where
+students were gathered, and students were attracted to the place where
+teachers were to be found, so in the larger cities the more people
+there are and the more numerous is the population, the greater the
+amount of business. It pays to be near the centre of things.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HOWE: _The Modern City and Its Problems_, pages 9-49.
+
+  GILLETTE: _Constructive Rural Sociology_, pages 32-46.
+
+  STRONG: _Our World_, pages 228-283.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 123-132.
+
+  GIRY AND REVILLE: _Emancipation of the Mediaeval Towns._
+
+  BLISS: _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Cities."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE
+
+
+186. =Preponderance of Economic Interests.=--Such a social centre as
+the city has several functions to perform for its inhabitants. Though
+primarily concerned with business, the people have other interests to
+be conserved; the city, therefore, has governmental, educational, and
+recreational functions as a social organization, and within its limits
+all kinds of human concerns find their sponsors and supporters.
+Unquestionably, the economic interests are preponderant. On the
+principle that social structure corresponds to function, the structure
+of the city lends itself to the performance of the economic function.
+Business streets are the principal thoroughfares. Districts near the
+great factories are crowded with the tenements that shelter the
+workers. Little room is left for breathing-places in town, and little
+leisure in which to breathe. Government is usually in the hands of
+professional politicians who are too willing to take their orders from
+the cohort captains of business. Morals, aesthetics, and recreation are
+all subordinate to business. Even religion is mainly an affair of
+Sunday, and appears to be of relatively small consequence compared
+with business or recreation. The great problems of the city are
+consequently economic at bottom. Poverty and misery, drunkenness,
+unemployment, and crime are all traceable in part, at least, to
+economic deficiency. Economic readjustments constitute the crying need
+of the twentieth-century city.
+
+187. =The Manufacturing Industry.=--It is the function of the
+agriculturist and the herdsman, the miner and the lumberman, to
+produce the raw material. The sailor and the train-hand, the
+longshoreman and the teamster, transport them to the industrial
+centres. It is the business of the manufacturer and his employees to
+turn them into the finished product for the use of society.
+Manufacturing is the leading occupation in thousands of busy towns and
+small cities of all the industrial nations of western Europe and
+America, and shares with commerce and trade as a leading enterprise in
+the cosmopolitan centres. The merchant or financier who thinks his
+type of emporium or exchange is the only municipal centre of
+consequence, needs only to mount to the top of a tall building or
+climb a suburban hill where he can look off over the city and see the
+many smoking chimneys, to realize the importance of the factory. With
+thousands of tenement-house dwellers it is as natural to fall into the
+occupation of a factory hand as in the rural regions for the youth to
+become a farmer. The growing child who leaves school to help support
+the family has never learned a craftsman's trade, but he may find a
+subordinate place among the mill or factory hands until he gains
+enough skill to handle a machine. From that time until age compels him
+to join the ranks of the unemployed he is bound to his machine, as
+firmly as the mediaeval serf was bound to the soil. Theoretically he is
+free to sell his labor in the highest market and to cross the
+continent if he will, but actually he is the slave of his employer,
+for he and his family are dependent upon his daily wage, and he cannot
+afford to lose that wage in order to make inquiries about the labor
+market elsewhere. Theoretically he is a citizen possessed of the
+franchise and equal in privilege and importance to his employer as a
+member of society, but actually he must vote for the party or the man
+who is most likely to benefit him economically, and he knows that he
+occupies a position of far less importance politically and socially
+than his employer. Employment is an essential in making a living, but
+it is an instrument that cuts two ways--it establishes an aristocracy
+of wealth and privilege for the employer and a servile class of
+employees who often are little better than peasants of the belt and
+wheel.
+
+188. =History of Manufacturing.=--The history of the manufacturing
+industry is a curious succession of enslavement and emancipation.
+Until within a century and a half it was closely connected with the
+home. Primitive women fashioned the utensils and clothing of the
+primitive family, and when slaves were introduced into the household
+it became their task to perform those functions. The slave was a
+bondman. Neither his person nor his time was his own, and he could not
+hold property; but he was taken care of, fed and clothed and housed,
+and by a humane master was kindly treated and even made a friend. When
+the slave became a serf on the manorial estate of mediaeval Europe,
+manufacturing was still a household employment and old methods were
+still in use. These sufficed, as there was little outside demand from
+potential buyers, due to general poverty and lack of the means of
+exchange and transportation. Certain industries became localized, like
+the forging of iron instruments at the smithy and the grinding of
+grain at the mill, and the monastery buildings included apartments for
+various kinds of handicraft, but the factory was not yet. Then
+artisans found their way to the town, associated themselves with
+others of their craft, and accepted the relation of journeyman in the
+employ of a master workman; there, too, the young apprentice learned
+his trade without remuneration. The group was a small one. For greater
+strength in local rivalries they organized craft guilds or
+associations, and established over all members convenient rules and
+restrictions. Increasing opportunities for exchange of goods
+stimulated production, but the output of hand labor was limited in
+amount. The position of the craftsman locally was increasingly
+important, and his fortunes were improving. The craft guilds
+successfully disputed with their rivals for a share in the government
+of the city; there was democracy in the guild, for master and
+journeyman were both included, and they had interests much in common.
+A journeyman confidently expected to become a master in a workshop of
+his own.
+
+189. =Alteration of Status.=--Under the factory system the employee
+becomes one of many industrial units, having no social or guild
+relation to his employer, receiving a money wage as a quit claim from
+his employer, and dependent upon himself for labor and a living. For
+a time after the factory system came into vogue there were small shops
+where the employer busied himself among his men and personally
+superintended them, but the large factory tends to displace the small
+workshop, the corporation takes the place of the individual employer,
+and the employee becomes as impersonal a cog in the labor system as is
+any part of the machine at which he works. It used to be the case that
+a thrifty workman might hope to become in the future an employer, but
+now he has become a permanent member of a distinct class, for the
+large capital required for manufacturing is beyond his reach. The
+manufacturing industry is continually passing under the management of
+fewer individuals, while the number of operatives in each factory
+tends to increase. With concentration of management goes concentration
+of wealth, and the gap widens between rich and poor. Out of the modern
+factory system has come the industrial problem with all its varieties
+of skilled and unskilled work, woman and child labor, sweating, wages,
+hours and conditions of labor, unemployment, and other difficulties.
+
+190. =The Working Grind.=--There are many manufacturing towns and
+small cities that are built on one industry. Thousands of workers,
+young and old, answer the morning summons of the whistle and pour into
+the factory for a day's labor at the machine. A brief recess at noon
+and the work is renewed for the second half of the day. Weary at
+night, the workers tramp home to the tenements, or hang to the trolley
+strap that is the symbol of the five-cent commuter, and recuperate for
+the next day's toil. They are cogs in the great wheel of industry,
+units in the great sum of human energy, indispensable elements in the
+progress of economic success. Sometimes they seem less prized than the
+costly machines at which they work, sometimes they fall exhausted in
+the ranks, as the soldier in the trenches drops under the attack, but
+they are absolutely essential to wealth and they are learning that
+they are indispensable to one another. In the development of social
+organization the working people are gaining a larger part. The
+factory is educating them to a consciousness of the solidarity of
+their class interests. All class organizations have their faults, but
+they teach their members group values and the dependence of the
+individual on his fellows.
+
+191. =The Benefits of the New Industry to the Workers.=--It must not
+be supposed that the industrial revolution and the age of machinery
+have been a social misfortune. The benefits that have come to the
+laboring people, as well as to their employers, must be put into the
+balance against the evils. There is first of all the great increase of
+manufactured products that have been shared in by the workers and the
+greatly reduced price of many necessaries of life, such as matches,
+pins, and cooking utensils. Invention has eased many kinds of labor
+and taken them away from the overburdened housewife, and new machinery
+is constantly lightening the burden of the farm and the home.
+Invention has broadened the scope of labor, opening continually new
+avenues to the workers. It is difficult to see how the rapidly
+increasing number of people in the United States could have found
+employment without the typewriter, the automobile, and the numerous
+varieties of electrical application. The great number of modern
+conveniences that have come to be regarded as necessaries even in the
+homes of the working people, and the local improvements in streets and
+sidewalks, schools and playgrounds that are possible because of
+increasing wealth, are all due to the new type of industry.
+
+Conditions of labor are better. Where building laws are in force,
+factories are lighter, cleaner, and better ventilated than were the
+houses and shops of the pre-factory age, and the hours of labor that
+are necessary to earn a living have been greatly reduced in most
+industries. There have been mental and moral gains, also. It requires
+mental application to handle machinery. An uneducated immigrant may
+soon learn to handle a simple machine, but the complicated machinery
+that the better-paid workmen tend requires intelligence, care, and
+sobriety. The age of machinery has brought with it emancipation from
+slavery, indenture, and imprisonment for debt, and has made possible
+a new status for the worker and his children. The laborer in America
+is a citizen with a vote and a right to his own opinion equal to that
+of his employer; he has time and money enough to buy and read the
+newspaper; and he is encouraged and helped to educate his children and
+to prepare them for a place in the sun that is ampler than his own.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  CHEYNEY: _Industrial and Social History of England_, pages
+      199-239.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 206-212, 256-266.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 143-156.
+
+  ADAMS AND SUMNER: _Labor Problems_, pages 3-15.
+
+  BOGART: _Economic History of the United States_, pages 130-169,
+      356-399.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE INDUSTRIAL PROBLEM
+
+
+192. =What It Means.=--The industrial problem as a whole is a problem
+of adjusting the relations of employer and employee to each other and
+to the rapidly changing age in the midst of which industry exists. It
+is a problem that cannot be solved in a moment, for it has grown out
+of previous conditions and relationships. It must be considered in its
+causes, its alignments, the difficulties of each party, the efforts at
+solution, and the principles and theories that are being worked out
+for the settlement of the problem.
+
+193. =Conflict Between Industrial Groups.=--The industrial problem is
+not entirely an economic problem, but it is such primarily. The
+function of employer and employee is to produce material goods that
+have value for exchange. Both enter into the economic relation for
+what they can get out of it in material gain. Selfish desire tends to
+overcome any consideration of each other's needs or of their mutual
+interests. There is a continual conflict between the wage-earner who
+wants to make a living and the employer who wants to make money, and
+neither stops long to consider the welfare of society as a whole when
+any specific issue arises. The conflict between individuals has
+developed into a class problem in which the organized forces of labor
+confront the organized forces of capital, with little disposition on
+either side to surrender an advantage once gained or to put an end to
+the conflict by a frank recognition of each other's rights.
+
+It is not strange that this conflict has continued to vex society.
+Conflict is one of the characteristics of imperfectly adjusted groups.
+It seems to be a necessary preliminary to co-operation, as war is. It
+will continue until human beings are educated to see that the
+interests of all are paramount to the interests of any group, and
+that in the long run any group will gain more of real value for itself
+by taking account of the interests of a rival. Railroad history in
+recent years has made it very plain that neither railway employees nor
+the public have gained as much by hectoring the railroad corporations
+as either would have gained by considering the interests of the
+railroad as well as its own.
+
+Industrial conflict is due in great part to the unwillingness of the
+employer to deal fairly by his employee. There have been worthy
+exceptions, of course, but capitalists in the main have not felt a
+responsibility to consider the interests of the workers. It has been a
+constant temptation to take advantage of the power of wealth for the
+exploitation of the wage-earning class. Unfortunately, the modern
+industrial period began with economic control in the hands of the
+employer, for with the transfer of industry to the factory the laborer
+was powerless to make terms with the employer. Unfortunately, also,
+the disposition of society was to let alone the relations of master
+and dependent in accordance with the _laisser-faire_ theory of the
+economists of that period. Government was slow to legislate in favor
+of the helpless employee, and the abuses of the time were many. The
+process of adjustment has been a difficult one, and experiment has
+been necessary to show what was really helpful and practicable.
+
+194. =More than an Industrial Problem.=--In the process of experiment
+it has become clear that the industrial problem is more than an
+economic problem; secondarily, it is the problem of making a living
+that will contribute to the enrichment of life. It is not merely the
+adjustment of the wage scale to the profits of the capitalist by class
+conflict or peaceful bargaining, nor is it the problem of unemployment
+or official labor. The primary task may be to secure a better
+adjustment of the economic interests of employer and employee through
+an improvement of the wage system, but in the larger sense the
+industrial problem is a social and moral one. Sociologists reckon
+among the social forces a distinction between elemental desires and
+broader interests. Wages are able to satisfy the elemental desires of
+hunger and sex feeling by making it possible for a man to marry and
+bring up a family and get enough to eat; but there are larger
+questions of freedom, justice, comity, personal and social development
+that are involved in the labor problem. If wages are so small, or
+hours so long, or factory conditions so bad that health is affected,
+proper education made impossible, and recreation and religion
+prevented, the individual and society suffer much more than with
+reference to the elemental desires. The industrial problem is,
+therefore, a complex problem, and not one that can be easily or
+quickly solved. Although it is necessary to remember all as parts of
+one problem of industry, it is a convenience to remember that it is:
+
+(1) An economic problem, involving wages, hours, and conditions of
+labor.
+
+(2) A social problem, involving the mental and physical health and the
+social welfare of both the individual worker, the family, and the
+community.
+
+(3) An ethical problem, involving fairness, justice, comity, and
+freedom to the employer, the employee, and the public.
+
+(4) A complex problem, involving many specific problems, chief of
+which are the labor of women and children, immigrant labor, prison
+labor, organization of labor, insurance, unemployment, industrial
+education, the conduct of labor warfare, and the interest of the
+public in the industrial problem.
+
+195. =Characteristics of Factory Life.=--Group life in the factory is
+not very different in characteristics from group life everywhere. It
+is an active life, the hand and brain of the worker keeping pace with
+the speedy machine, all together shaping the product that goes to
+exchange and storage. It is a social life, many individuals working in
+one room, and all the operatives contributing jointly to the making of
+the product. It is under control. Captains of industry and their
+lieutenants give direction to a group that has been thoroughly and
+efficiently organized. Without control and organization industry could
+not be successfully carried on, but it is open to question whether
+industrial control should not be more democratic, shared in by
+representatives of the workers and of the public as well as by the
+representatives of corporate capital or a single owner. It is a life
+of change. It does not seem so to the operative who turns out the same
+kind of a machine product day after day, sometimes by the million
+daily, but the personnel of the workers changes, and even the machines
+from time to time give way to others of an improved type. It is a life
+that has its peculiar weaknesses. The relations of employer and
+employee are not cordial; the health and comfort of the worker are
+often disregarded; the hours of labor are too long or the wages too
+small; the whole working staff is driven at too high speed; the whole
+process is on a mechanical rather than a human basis, and the material
+product is of more concern than the human producer. These weaknesses
+are due to the concentration of control in the hands of employers. The
+industrial problem is, therefore, largely a problem of control.
+
+196. =Democratizing Industry.=--When the modern industrial system
+began in the eighteenth century the democratic principle played a
+small part in social relations. Parental authority in the family, the
+master's authority in the school, hierarchical authority in the
+church, official authority in the local community, and monarchical
+authority in the nation, were almost universal. It is not strange that
+the authority of the capitalist in his business was unquestioned. Only
+government had the right to interfere in the interest of the lower
+classes, and government had little care for that interest. The
+democratic principle has been gaining ground in family and school,
+state and church; it has found grudging recognition in industry. This
+is because the clash of economic interests is keenest in the factory.
+But even there the grip of privilege has loosened, and the possibility
+of democratizing industry as government has been democratized is being
+widely discussed. There is difference of opinion as to how this should
+be done. The socialist believes that control can be transferred to the
+people in no other way than by collective ownership. Others
+progressively inclined accept the principle of government regulation
+and believe that in that way the people, through their political
+representatives, can control the owners and managers. Others think
+that the best results can be obtained by giving a place on the
+governing board of an industry to working men alongside the
+representatives of capital and permitting them to work out their
+problems on a mutual basis. Each of these methods has been tried, but
+without demonstrating conclusively the superiority of any one.
+Whatever method may come into widest vogue, there must be a
+recognition of the principle of democratic interest and democratic
+control. No one class in society can dictate permanently to the people
+as a whole. Industry is the concern of all, and all must have a share
+in managing it for the benefit of all.
+
+197. =Legislation.=--The history of industrial reform is first of all
+a story of legislative interference with arbitrary management. When
+Great Britain early in the nineteenth century overstepped the bounds
+of the let-alone policy and began to legislate for the protection of
+the employee, it was but a resumption of a paternal policy that had
+been general in Europe before. But formerly government had interfered
+in behalf of the employing class, now it was for the people who were
+under the control of the exploiting capitalist. The abuses of child
+labor were the first to receive attention, and Parliament reduced the
+hours of child apprentices to twelve a day. Once begun, restriction
+was extended. Beginning in 1833, under the leadership of Lord
+Shaftesbury, the working man's friend, the labor of children under
+thirteen was reduced to forty-eight hours a week, and children under
+nine were forbidden to work at all. The work of young people under
+eighteen was limited to sixty-nine hours a week, and then to ten hours
+a day; women were included in the last provision. These early laws
+were applicable to factories for weaving goods only, but they were
+extended later to all kinds of manufacturing and mining. These laws
+were not always strictly enforced, but to get them through Parliament
+at all was an achievement. Later legislation extended the ten-hour law
+to men; then the time was reduced to nine hours, and in many trades
+to eight.
+
+In the United States the need of legislation was far less urgent.
+Employers could not be so masterful in the treatment of their
+employees or so parsimonious in their distribution of wages, because
+the laborer always had the option of leaving the factory for the farm,
+and land was cheap. Women and children were not exploited in the mines
+as in England, pauper labor was not so available, and such trades as
+chimney-sweeping were unknown. Then, too, by the time there was much
+need for legislation, the spirit of justice was becoming wide-spread
+and legislatures responded more quickly to the appeal for protective
+legislation. It was soon seen that the industrial problem was not
+simply how much an employee should receive for a given piece of work
+or time, but how factory labor affected working people of different
+sex or age, and how these effects reacted upon society. Those who
+pressed legislation believed that the earnings of a child were not
+worth while when the child lost all opportunity for education and
+healthful physical exercise, and that woman's labor was not profitable
+if it deprived her of physical health and nervous energy, and weakened
+by so much the stamina of the next generation. The thought of social
+welfare seconded the thought of individual welfare and buttressed the
+claims of a particular class to economic consideration in such
+questions as proper wages. Massachusetts was the first American State
+to introduce labor legislation in 1836; in 1869 the same State
+organized the first labor bureau, to be followed by a National bureau
+in 1884, four years later converted into a government department.
+Among the favorite topics of legislation have been the limitation of
+woman and child labor, the regulation of wage payments, damages and
+similar concerns, protection from dangerous machinery and adequate
+factory inspection, and the appointment of boards of arbitration. The
+doctrine of the liability of employers in case of accident to persons
+in their employ has been increasingly accepted since Great Britain
+adopted an employers' liability act in 1880, and since 1897 compulsory
+insurance of employees has spread from the continent of Europe to
+England and the United States.
+
+198. =The Organization of Labor.=--These measures of protection and
+relief have been due in part to the disinterested activity of
+philanthropists, and in part to the efforts of organized labor, backed
+up by public opinion; occasionally capitalists have voluntarily
+improved conditions or increased wages. The greatest agitation and
+pressure has come from the labor-unions. Unlike the mediaeval guilds,
+these unions exist for the purpose of opposing the employer, and are
+formed in recognition of the principle that a group can obtain
+guarantees that an individual is helpless to secure. Like-mindedness
+holds the group together, and consciousness of common interests and
+mutual duties leads to sacrifice of individual benefit for the sake of
+the group. The moral effect of this sense and practice of mutual
+responsibility has been a distinct social gain, and warrants the hope
+that a time may come when this consciousness of mutual interests may
+extend until it includes the employing class as in the old-time guild.
+
+The modern labor-union is a product of the nineteenth century. Until
+1850 there was much experimenting, and a revolutionary sentiment was
+prevalent both in America and abroad. The first union movement united
+all classes of wage-earners in a nation-wide reform, and aimed at
+social gains, such as education as well as economic gains. It hoped
+much from political activity, spoke often of social ideals, and did
+not disdain to co-operate with any good agency, even a friendly
+employer. Class feeling was less keen than later. But it became
+apparent that the lines of organization were too loose, that specific
+economic reforms must be secured rather than a whole social programme,
+and that little could probably be expected from political activity.
+Labor began to organize on a basis of trades, class feeling grew
+stronger, and trials of strength with employers showed the value of
+collective bargaining and fixed agreements. Out of the period grew the
+American Federation of Labor. More recently has come the industrial
+union, which includes all ranks of labor, like the early labor-union,
+and is especially beneficial to the unskilled. It is much more radical
+in its methods of operation, and is represented by such notorious
+organizations as the United Mine Workers and the International Workers
+of the World.
+
+199. =Strikes.=--The principle of organization of the trade-union is
+democratic. The unit of organization is the local group of workers
+which is represented on the national governing bodies; in matters of
+important legislation, a referendum is allowed. Necessarily, executive
+power is strongly centralized, for the labor-union is a militant
+organization, but much is left to the local union. Though peaceful
+methods are employed when possible, warlike operations are frequent.
+The favorite weapon is the strike, or refusal to work, and this is
+often so disastrous to the employer that it results in the speedy
+granting of the laborers' demands. It requires good judgment on the
+part of the representatives of labor when to strike and how to conduct
+the campaign to a successful conclusion, but statistics compiled by
+the National Labor Bureau between 1881 and 1905 indicate that a
+majority of strikes ordered by authority of the organization were at
+least partially successful.
+
+The successful issue of strikes has demonstrated their value as
+weapons of warfare, and they have been accepted by society as
+allowable, but they tend to violence, and produce feelings of hatred
+and distrust, and would not be countenanced except as measures of
+coercion to secure needed reforms. The financial loss due to the
+cessation of labor foots up to a large total, but in comparison with
+the total amount of wages and profits it is small, and often the
+periods of manufacturing activity are so redistributed through the
+year that there is really no net loss. Yet a strike cannot be looked
+upon in any other way than as a misfortune. Like war, it breaks up
+peaceful if not friendly relations, and tends to destroy the
+solidarity of society. It tends to strengthen class feeling, which,
+like caste, is a handicap to the progress of mankind. Though it may
+benefit the working man, it is harmful to the general public, which
+suffers from the interruption of industry and sometimes of
+transportation, and whose business is disturbed by the blow to
+confidence.
+
+200. =Peaceful Methods of Settlement.=--Strikes are so unsettling to
+industry that all parties find it better to use diplomacy when
+possible, or to submit a dispute to arbitration rather than to resort
+to violence. It is in industrial concerns very much as it is in
+international politics, and methods used in one circle suggest methods
+in the other. Formerly war was a universal practice, and of frequent
+occurrence, and duelling was common in the settlement of private
+quarrels; now the duel is virtually obsolete, and war is invoked only
+as a last resort. Difficulties are smoothed out through the diplomatic
+representatives that every nation keeps at the national capitals, and
+when they cannot settle an issue the matter is referred to an umpire
+satisfactory to both sides. Similarly in industrial disputes the
+tendency is away from the strike; when an issue arises representatives
+of both sides get together and try to find a way out. There is no good
+reason why an employer should refuse to recognize an organization or
+receive its representatives to conference, especially if the employer
+is a corporation which must work through representatives. Collective
+bargaining is in harmony with the spirit of the times and fair for
+all. Conference demands frankness on the part of all concerned. It
+leads more quickly to understanding and harmony if each party knows
+the situation that confronts the other. If the parties immediately
+concerned cannot reach an agreement, a third party may mediate and try
+to conciliate opposition. If that fails, the next natural step is
+voluntarily to refer the matter in dispute to arbitration, or by legal
+regulation to compel the disputants to submit to arbitration.
+
+201. =Boards of Conciliation.=--The history of peaceful attempts to
+settle industrial disputes in the United States helps to explain the
+methods now frequently employed. In 1888, following a series of
+disastrous labor conflicts, Congress provided by legislation for the
+appointment of a board of three commissioners, which should make
+thorough investigation of particular disputes and publish its
+findings. The class of disputes was limited to interstate commerce
+concerns and the commissioners did not constitute a permanent board,
+but the legislative act marked the beginning of an attempt at
+conciliation. Ten years later the Erdman Act established a permanent
+board of conciliation to deal with similar cases when asked to do so
+by one of the parties, and in case of failure to propose arbitration;
+it provided, also, for a board of arbitration. Meantime the States
+passed various acts for the pacification of industrial disputes; the
+most popular have been the appointment of permanent boards of
+conciliation and arbitration, which have power to mediate,
+investigate, and recommend a settlement. These have been supplemented
+by State and national commissions, with a variety of functions and
+powers, including investigation and regulation. The experience of
+government boards has not been long enough to prove whether they are
+likely to be of permanent value, but the results are encouraging to
+those who believe that through conciliation and arbitration the
+industrial problem can best be solved.
+
+202. =Public Welfare.=--There can be no reasonable complaint of the
+interference of the government. The government, whether of State or
+nation, represents the people, and the people have a large stake in
+every industrial dispute. Society is so interdependent that thousands
+are affected seriously by every derangement of industry. This is
+especially true of the stoppage of railways, mines, or large
+manufacturing establishments, when food and fuel cannot be obtained,
+and the delicate mechanism of business is upset. At best the public is
+seriously inconvenienced. It is therefore proper that the public
+should organize on its part to minimize the derangement of its
+interests. In 1901 a National Civic Federation was formed by those who
+were interested in industrial peace, and who were large-minded enough
+to see that it could not be obtained permanently unless recognition
+should be given to all three of the interested parties--the employers,
+the employees, and the public. Many small employers of labor are
+bitterly opposed to any others than themselves having anything to say
+about the methods of conducting industry, but the men of large
+experience are satisfied that the day of independence has passed. This
+organization includes on its committees representatives of all
+parties, and has helped in the settlement of a number of
+controversies.
+
+203. =Voluntary Efforts of Employers.=--It is a hopeful sign that
+employers themselves are voluntarily seeking the betterment of their
+employees. It is a growing custom for corporations to provide for the
+comfort, health, and recreation of men and women in their employ.
+Rest-rooms, reading-rooms, baths, and gymnasiums are provided;
+athletic clubs are organized; lunches are furnished at cost;
+continuation schools are arranged. Some manufacturing establishments
+employ a welfare manager or secretary whose business it shall be to
+devise ways of improving working conditions. When these helps and
+helpers are supplied as philanthropy, they are not likely to be
+appreciated, for working people do not want to be patronized; if
+maintained on a co-operative basis, they are more acceptable. But the
+employer is beginning to see that it is good business to keep the
+workers contented and healthy. It adds to their efficiency, and in
+these days when scientific management is putting so much emphasis on
+efficiency, any measures that add to industrial welfare are not to be
+overlooked.
+
+204. =Profit-Sharing.=--Another method of conferring benefit upon the
+employee is profit-sharing. By means of cash payment or stock bonuses,
+he is induced to work better and to be more careful of tools and
+machinery, while his expectation of a share in the success of the
+business stimulates his interest and his energy and keeps him better
+natured. The objections to the plan are that it is paternalistic, for
+the business is under the control of the employer and the amount of
+profits depends on his honesty, good management, and philanthropic
+disposition. There are instances where it has worked admirably, and
+from the point of view of the employer it is often worth while,
+because it tends to weaken unionism; but it cannot be regarded as a
+cure for industrial ills, because it is a remedy of uncertain value,
+and at best is not based on the principle of industrial democracy.
+
+205. =Principles for the Solution of the Industrial Problem.=--Three
+principles contend for supremacy in all discussions and efforts to
+solve the industrial problem. The first is the doctrine of _employer's
+control_. This is the old principle that governed industrial relations
+until governmental legislation and trade-union activity compelled a
+recognition of the worker's rights. By that principle the capitalist
+and the laborer are free to work together or to fight each other, to
+make what arrangements they can about wages, hours, and health
+conditions, to share in profits if the employer is kindly disposed,
+but always with labor in a position of subordination and without
+recognized rights, as in the old political despotisms, which were
+sometimes benevolent but more often ruthless. Only the selfish,
+stubborn capitalist expects to see such a system permanently restored.
+
+The second principle is the doctrine of _collective control_. This
+theory is a natural reaction from the other, but goes to an opposite
+extreme. It is the theory of the syndicalist, who prefers to smash
+machinery before he takes control, and of the socialist, who contents
+himself with declaring the right of the worker to all productive
+property, and agitates peacefully for the abolition of the wage system
+in favor of a working man's commonwealth. The socialist blames the
+wage system for all the evils of the present industrial order, regards
+the trade-unions as useful industrial agencies of reform, but urges a
+resort to the ballot as a necessary means of getting control of
+industry. There would come first the socialization of natural
+resources and transportation systems, then of public utilities and
+large industries, and by degrees the socialization of all industry
+would become complete. Then on a democratic basis the workers would
+choose their industrial officers, arrange their hours, wages, and
+conditions of labor, and provide for the needs of every individual
+without exploitation, overexertion, or lack of opportunity to work.
+Serious objections are made to this programme for productive
+enterprise on the ground of the difficulty of effecting the transfer
+of the means of production and exchange, and of executive management
+without the incentive of abundant pecuniary returns for efficient
+superintendency; even more because of the natural selfishness of human
+beings who seek personal preferment, and the natural inertia of those
+who know that they will be taken care of whether they exert themselves
+or not. More serious still are the difficulties that lie in the way of
+a satisfactory distribution of the rewards of labor, for there is sure
+to be serious difference of opinion over the proper share of each
+person who contributes to the work of production, and no method of
+initiative, referendum, and recall would avail to smooth out the
+difficulties that would be sure to arise.
+
+206. =Co-operation.=--The third principle is _co-operation_. The
+principle of co-operation is as important to society as the principle
+of division of labor. By means of co-operative activity in the home
+the family is able to maintain itself as a useful group. By means of
+co-operation in thinly settled communities local prosperity is
+possible without any individual possessing large resources. But in
+industry where competition rules and the aim of the employer is the
+exploitation of the worker, general comfort is sacrificed for the
+enrichment of the few and wealth flaunts itself in the midst of
+misery. There will always be a problem in the industrial relations of
+human beings until there is a recognition of this fundamental
+principle of co-operation. The application of the principle to the
+complicated system of modern industrialism is not easy, and attempts
+at co-operative production by working men with small and incapable
+management have not been successful, but it is becoming clear that as
+a principle of industrial relation between classes it is to obtain
+increasing recognition. If it is proper to admit the claims of the
+employer, the employee, and the public to an interest in every labor
+issue, then it is proper to look for the co-operation of them all in
+the regulation of industry. The usual experiments in co-operative
+industry have been the voluntary organization of production, exchange,
+or distribution by a group of middle or working class people to save
+the large expense of superintendents or middlemen. Co-operation in
+production has usually failed; in America co-operative banks and
+building associations, creameries, and fruit-growing associations
+have had considerable success, and in Europe co-operative stores and
+bakeries have had a large vogue in England and Belgium, and
+co-operative agriculture in Denmark. But industry on a large scale
+requires large capital, efficient management, capable, interested
+workmanship, and elimination of waste in material and human life. To
+this end it needs the good-will of all parties and the assistance of
+government. Unemployment, for instance, may be taken care of by giving
+every worker a good industrial education and doing away with
+inefficiency, and then establishing a wide-spread system of labor
+exchanges to adjust the mass of labor to specific requirements.
+Industry is such a big and important matter that nothing less than the
+co-operation of the whole of society can solve its problems.
+
+This co-operation, to be effective, requires a genuine partnership, in
+which the body of stockholders and the body of working men plan
+together, work together, and share together, with the assistance of
+government commissions and boards that continually adjust and, if
+necessary, regulate the processes of production and distribution on a
+basis of equity, to be determined by a consensus of expert opinion. In
+such a system there is no radical derangement of existing industry, no
+destruction of initiative, no expulsion of expert management or
+confiscation of property. Individual and corporate ownership continue,
+the wage system is not abolished, efficient administration is still to
+be obtained, but the body of control is not a board of directors
+responsible only to the stockholders of the corporation, and managing
+affairs primarily for their own gain, but it consists of
+representatives of those who contribute money, superintendence, and
+labor, together with or regulated by a group of government experts,
+all of whom are honestly seeking the good of all parties and enjoying
+their full confidence. Toward such an outcome of present strife many
+interested social reformers are working, and it is to be hoped that
+its advantages will soon appear so great that neither extreme
+alternative principle will have to be tried out thoroughly before
+there will be a general acceptance of the co-operative idea. It may
+seem utopian to those who are familiar with the selfishness and
+antagonism that have marked the history of the last hundred years, but
+it is already being tried out here and there, and it is the only
+principle that accords with the experiences and results of social
+evolution in other groups. It is the highest law that the struggle for
+individual power fails before the struggle for the good of the group,
+and a contest for the success of the few must give way to co-operation
+for the good of all.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 188-194.
+
+  ADAMS AND SUMNER: _Labor Problems_, pages 175-286, 379-432,
+      461-500.
+
+  _Bulletins of the United States Department of Labor._
+
+  CARLTON: _History and Problems of Organized Labor_, pages 228-261.
+
+  GLADDEN: _The Labor Question_, pages 77-113.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 167-206.
+
+  CROSS: _Essentials of Socialism_, pages 11, 12, 106-111.
+
+  WYCKOFF: _The Workers._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORTATION
+
+
+207. =Mercantile Exchange.=--Important as is the manufacturing
+industry in the life of the city, it is only a part of the economic
+activity that is continually going on in its streets and buildings.
+The mercantile houses that carry on wholesale and retail trade, the
+towering office-buildings, and the railway and steamship terminals
+contain numerous groups of workers all engaged in the social task of
+supplying human wants, while streets and railways are avenues of
+traffic. The manufacture of goods is but a part of the process;
+distribution is as important as production. All these sources of
+supply are connected with banks and trust companies that furnish money
+and credit for business of every kind. The economic activities of a
+city form an intricate network in which the people are involved.
+
+Hardly second in importance to manufacturing is mercantile exchange.
+The manufacturer, after he has paid his workers, owns the goods that
+have been produced, but to get his living he must sell them. To do
+this he establishes relations with the merchant. Their relations are
+carried on through agents, some of whom travel from place to place
+taking orders, others establish office headquarters in the larger
+centres of trade. Once the merchant has opened his store or shop and
+purchased his goods he seeks to establish trade relations with as many
+individual customers as he can attract. Mercantile business is carried
+on in two kinds of stores, those which supply one kind of goods in
+wholesale or retail quantities, like groceries or dry goods, and those
+which maintain numerous departments for different kinds of
+manufactured goods. Large department stores have become a special
+feature of mercantile exchange in cities of considerable size, but
+they do not destroy the smaller merchants, though competition is often
+difficult.
+
+208. =The Ethics of Business.=--The methods of carrying on mercantile
+business are based, as in the factory, on the principle of getting the
+largest possible profits. The welfare of employees is a secondary
+consideration. Expense of maintenance is heavy. Rents are costly in
+desirable locations; the expense of carrying a large stock of
+merchandise makes it necessary to borrow capital on which interest
+must be paid; the obligations of a large pay-roll must be met at
+frequent intervals, whether business is good or bad. All these items
+are present in varying degree, whatever the size of the business,
+except where a merchant has capital enough of his own to carry on a
+small business and can attend to the wants of his customers alone or
+with the help of his family. The temptation of the merchant is strong
+to use every possible means to make a success of his business, paying
+wages as low as possible, in order to cut down expenses, and offering
+all kinds of inducements to customers in order to sell his goods. The
+ethics of trade need improvement. It is by no means true, as some
+agitators declare, that the whole business system is corrupt, that
+honesty is rare, and that the merchant is without a conscience.
+General corruption is impossible in a commercial age like this, when
+the whole system of business is built on credit, and large
+transactions are carried on, as on the Stock Exchange, with full
+confidence in the word or even the nod of an operator. Of course,
+shoddy and impure goods are sold over the counter and the customer
+often pays more than an article is really worth, but every mercantile
+house has its popular reputation to sustain as well as its rated
+financial standing, and the business concern that does not deal
+honorably soon loses profitable trade.
+
+Exchange constitutes an important division of the science of
+economics, but its social causes and effects are of even greater
+consequence. Exchange is dependent upon the diffusion of information,
+the expansion of interests, and growing confidence between those who
+effect a transaction. When mutual wants are few it is possible to
+carry on business by means of barter; when trade increases money
+becomes a necessary medium; world commerce requires a system of
+credit which rests on social trust and integrity. Conversely, there
+are social consequences that come from customs of exchange. It
+enlarges human interests. It stimulates socialization of habits and
+broader ideas. It encourages industry and thrift and promotes division
+of labor. It strengthens social organization and tends to make it more
+efficient. Altogether, exchange of goods must be regarded as among the
+most important functions of society.
+
+209. =Business Employees.=--The business ethics that are most open to
+criticism are those that govern the relations of the merchant and his
+employees. Here the system of employment is much the same as in the
+factory. The merchant deals with his employees through superintendents
+of departments. The employment manager hires the persons who seem best
+qualified for the position, and they are assigned to a department.
+They are under the orders of the head of the department, and their
+success or failure depends largely on his good-will. Wages and
+privileges are in his hand, and if he is morally unscrupulous he can
+ruin a weak-willed subordinate. There is little coherence among
+employees; there are always men and women who stand ready to take a
+vacant position, and often no particular skill or experience is
+required. There has been no such solidifying of interests by
+trade-unions as in the factory; the individual makes his own contract
+and stands on his own feet. On the other hand, there is an increasing
+number of employers who feel their responsibility to those who are in
+their employ, and, except in the department stores, they are usually
+associated personally with their employees. Welfare work is not
+uncommon in the large establishments, and a minimum wage is being
+adopted here and there.
+
+One of the worst abuses of the department store is the low-paid labor
+of women and girls. It is possible for girls who live at home to get
+along on a few dollars a week, but they establish a scale of wages so
+low that it is impossible for the young woman who is dependent on her
+own resources to get enough to eat and wear and keep well. The
+physical and moral wrecks that result are disheartening. Nourishing
+food in sufficient quantities to repair the waste of nerve and tissue
+cannot be obtained on five or six dollars a week, when room rent and
+clothing and necessary incidentals, like car-fare, have to be
+included. There are always human beasts of prey who are prepared to
+give financial assistance in exchange for sex gratification, and it is
+difficult to resist temptation when one's nervous vigor and strength
+of will are at the breaking-point. It is not strange that there is an
+economic element among the causes of the social evil; it is remarkable
+that moral sturdiness resists so much temptation.
+
+210. =Offices.=--The numerous office-buildings that have arisen so
+rapidly in recent years in the cities also have large corps of women
+workers. They have personal relations with employers much more
+frequently, for there are thousands of offices where a few
+stenographers or even a single secretary are sufficient. Office work
+is skilled labor, is better paid, and attracts women of better
+attainments and higher ideals than in department store or factory.
+Office relations are pleasant as well as profitable. The demands are
+exacting; labor at the typewriter, the proof-sheets, or the
+bookkeeper's desk is tiresome, but the society of the office is
+congenial, working conditions are healthful and cheerful in most
+cases, and there are many opportunities for increasing efficiency and
+promotion. The office has its hardships. Everything is on a business
+basis, and there is little allowance for feelings or disposition.
+There are days when trials multiply and an atmosphere of irritation
+prevails; there are seasons when the constant rush creates a wearing
+nervous tension, and other seasons, when business is so poor that
+occasionally there are breakdowns of health or moral rectitude; but on
+the whole the office presents a simpler industrial problem than the
+factory or the store.
+
+211. =Transportation.=--A third industry that has its centre in the
+city but extends across continents and seas is the business of
+transportation. Manufactured goods are conveyed from the factory to
+the warehouse and the store, goods sold in the mercantile
+establishment are delivered from door to door, but enormous quantities
+of the products of economic activity are hauled to greater distances
+by truck, car, and steamship. The city is a point to which roads,
+railways, and steamship lines converge, and from which they radiate in
+every direction. By long and short hauls, by express and freight, vast
+quantities of food products and manufactured goods pour into the
+metropolis, part to be used in its numerous dwellings, part to be
+shipped again to distant points. Along the same routes passengers are
+transported, journeying in all directions on a multitude of errands,
+jostling for a moment as they hurry to and from the means of
+conveyance, and then swinging away, each on its individual orbit, like
+comet or giant sun that nods acquaintance but once in a thousand
+years.
+
+The business of transportation occupies the time and attention of
+thousands of workers, and its ramifications are endless. It is not
+limited to a particular region like agriculture, or to towns and
+cities like manufacturing; it is not stopped by tariff walls or ocean
+boundaries. An acre of wheat is cut by the reaper, threshed, and
+carted to the elevator by wagon or motor truck. The railroad-car is
+hauled alongside, and with other bushels of its kind the grain is
+transported to a giant flour-mill, where it is turned into a whitened,
+pulverized product, packed in barrels, and shipped across the ocean to
+a foreign port. Conveyed by rail or truck to the bakery, the flour
+undergoes transformation into bread, and takes its final journey to
+hotel, restaurant, and dwelling-house. Similarly, every kind of raw
+material finds its destination far from the place of its production
+and is consumed directly or as a manufactured product. This gigantic
+business of transportation is the means of providing for the
+sustenance and comfort of millions of human beings, and in spite of
+the extensive use of machinery it requires at every step the
+co-operative labor of human beings.
+
+212. =Growth of Interdependence.=--It is the far-flung lines of
+commerce that bind together the peoples of the world. Formerly there
+were periods of history, as in the European Middle Ages, when a social
+group produced nearly everything that it needed for consumption and
+commerce was small; but now all countries exchange their own products
+for others that they cannot so readily produce. The requirements of
+commerce have broken down the barriers between races, and have
+compelled mutual acquaintance and knowledge of languages, mutual
+confidence in one another's good intentions, and mutual understanding
+of one another's wants. The demands of commerce have precipitated
+wars, but have also brought victories of peace. They have stimulated
+the invention of improved means of communication, as the demands of
+manufacturing stimulated invention of machinery. The slow progress of
+horse-drawn vehicles over poor roads provoked the invention of
+improved highways and then of railroads. The application of steam to
+locomotives and ships revolutionized commerce, and by the steady
+improvements of many years has given to the eager trader and traveller
+the speedy, palatial steamship and the _train de luxe_.
+
+Transportation depends, however, on the man behind the engine rather
+than on the mass of steel that is conjured into motion. Successful
+commerce waits for the willingness and skill of worker and director.
+There must be the same division and direction of labor and the same
+spirit of co-operation; there must be intelligence in planning
+schedules for traffic and overcoming obstacles of nature and human
+frailty and incompetence. The teamster, the longshoreman, the
+freight-handler, and the engineer must all feel the push of the
+economic demand, keeping them steadily at work. A strike on any
+portion of the line ties up traffic and upsets the calculations of
+manufacturer, merchant, and consumer, for they are all dependent upon
+the servants of transportation.
+
+213. =Problems of Transportation.=--There are problems of
+transportation that are of a purely economic nature, but there are
+also problems that are of social concern. The first problem is that of
+safe and rapid transportation. The comfort and safety of the millions
+who travel on business or for pleasure is a primary concern of
+society. If the roads are not kept in repair and the steamship lanes
+patrolled, if the rolling-stock is allowed to deteriorate and become
+liable to accident, if engine-drivers and helmsmen are intemperate or
+careless, if efficiency is not maintained, or if safety is sacrificed
+to speed, the public is not well served. Many are the illustrations of
+neglect and inefficiency that have culminated in accident and death.
+Or the transportation company is slow to adopt new inventions and to
+meet the expense that is necessary to equip a steamer or a railroad
+for speed, or to provide rapid interurban or suburban transit. Poor
+management or single tracks delay fast freights, or congested
+terminals tie up traffic. These inconveniences not only consume
+profits and ruffle the tempers of working men, but they are a social
+waste of time and effort, and they stand in the way of improved living
+conditions. The congestion of population in the cities can easily be
+remedied when rapid and cheap transit make it possible for working men
+to live twenty or thirty miles out of town. The standard of living can
+be raised appreciably when fast trolley or steam service provides the
+products of the farms in abundance and in fresh condition.
+
+Another problem is that of the worker. The same temptation faces the
+transportation manager that appears in the factory and the mercantile
+house. The expenses of traffic are enormous. Railways alone cost
+hundreds of millions for equipment and service, and there are periods
+when commerce slackens and earnings fall away. It is easier to cut
+wages than to postpone improvements or to raise freight or passenger
+rates. In the United States an interstate commerce commission
+regulates rates, but questions of wages and hours of labor are between
+the management and the men. Friction frequently develops, and
+hostility in the past has produced labor organizations that are well
+knit and powerful, so that the railroad man has succeeded in securing
+fair treatment, but there are other branches of transportation service
+where the servants of the public find their labor poorly paid and
+precarious in tenure. Teamsters and freight-handlers find conditions
+hard; sailors and dock-hands are often thrown out of employment. Whole
+armies of transportation employees have been enrolled since
+trolley-lines and automobile service have been organized. Fewer
+persons drive their own horses and vehicles, and many who walked to
+and from business or school now ride. Transportation service has been
+vastly extended, but there are continually more people to be
+accommodated, and motor-men, conductors, and chauffeurs to be adjusted
+to wage scales and service hours.
+
+214. =Monopoly.=--A persistent tendency in transportation has been
+toward monopoly. Express service between two points becomes controlled
+by a single company, and the charges are increased. A street-railway
+company secures a valuable city franchise, lays its tracks on the
+principal streets, and monopolizes the business. Service may be poor
+and fares may be raised, unless kept down by a railroad commission,
+but the public must endure inconvenience, discomfort, and oppression,
+or walk. Railroad systems absorb short lines and control traffic over
+great districts; unless they are under government regulation they may
+adjust their time schedules and freight charges arbitrarily and impose
+as large a burden as the traffic will bear; the public is helpless,
+because there is no other suitable conveyance for passengers or
+freight. It is for these reasons that the United States has taken the
+control of interstate commerce into its own hands and regulated it,
+while the States have shown a disposition to inflict penalties upon
+recalcitrant corporations operating within State boundaries. It is the
+policy of government, also, to prevent control of one railroad by
+another, to the added inconvenience and expense of the public. But
+since 1890 there has been a rapid tendency toward a consolidation of
+business enterprises, by which railroads became united into a few
+gigantic systems, street railways were consolidated into a few large
+companies, and ocean-steamship companies amalgamated into an
+international combination.
+
+215. =Government Ownership vs. Regulation.=--Nor did monopoly confine
+itself to transportation. The control of public utilities has passed
+into fewer hands. Coal companies, gas and electric light corporations,
+telegraph and telephone companies tend to monopolize business over
+large sections of country. Some of these possess a natural monopoly
+right, and if managed in the interests of the public that they serve,
+may be permitted to carry on their business without interference. But
+their large incomes and disposition to oppress their constituents has
+produced many demands for government ownership, especially of coal
+companies and railroads, and though for less reason of telephone and
+telegraph lines. Government ownership has been tried in Europe and in
+Australasia, but experience does not prove that it is universally
+desirable. There are financial objections in connection with purchase
+and operation, and the question of efficiency of government employees
+is open to debate. Enough experiments have been tried in the United
+States to render very doubtful the advisability of government
+ownership of any of these large enterprises where politics wield so
+large a power and democracy delights to shift office and
+responsibility. But it is desirable that the government of State and
+nation have power to regulate business associations that control the
+public welfare as widely as do railroads, telegraph-lines, and
+navigation companies. By legislation, incorporation, and taxation the
+government may keep its hand upon monopoly and, if necessary,
+supersede it, but the system which has grown up by a natural process
+is to be given full opportunity to justify itself before government
+assumes its functions. It is hardly to be expected that government
+regulation will be faultless, American experience with regulating
+commissions has not been altogether satisfactory, but society needs
+protection, and this the government may well provide.
+
+216. =Trusts.=--The tendency to monopoly is not confined to any one
+department of economic activity. Manufacturing, mercantile, and
+banking companies have all tended to combine in large corporations,
+partly for greater economy, partly for an increase of profits through
+manipulating reorganization of stock companies, and partly for
+centralization of control. In the process, while the cost of certain
+products has been reduced by economy in operating expenses, the
+enormous dividend requirements of heavily capitalized corporations has
+necessitated high prices, a large business, and the danger of
+overproduction, and a virtual monopoly has made it possible to lift
+prices to a level that pinches the consumer. By a grim irony of
+circumstance, these giant and often ruthless corporations have taken
+the name of trusts, but they do not incline to recognize that the
+people's rights are in their trust. Not every trust is harmful to
+society, and certainly trusts need not be destroyed. They have come
+into existence by a natural economic process, and as far as they
+cheapen the cost of production and improve the manufacture and
+distribution of the product they are a social gain, but they need to
+be controlled, and it is the function of government to regulate them
+in the interests of society at large. It has been found by experience
+that publicity of corporate business is one of the best methods of
+control. In the long run every social organization must obtain the
+sanction of public opinion if it is to become a recognized
+institution, and in a democratic country like the United States no
+trust can become so independent or monopolistic that it can afford to
+disregard the public will and the public good, as certain American
+corporations have discovered to their grief.
+
+217. =The Chances of Progress.=--Every economic problem resolves
+itself into a social problem. The satisfaction of human wants is the
+province of the manufacturer, the merchant, and the transporter, but
+it is not limited to any one or all of these, nor is society under
+their control. The range of wants is so great, the desires of social
+beings branch out into so many broad interests, that no one line of
+enterprise or one group of men can control more than a small portion
+of society. The whole is greater than any of its parts. There will be
+groups that are unfortunate, communities and races that will suffer
+temporarily in the process of social adjustment, but the welfare of
+the many can never long be sacrificed to the selfishness of the few.
+Social revolution in some form will take place. It may not be
+accomplished in a day or a year, but the social will is sure to assert
+itself and to right the people's wrongs. The social process that is
+going on in the modern city has aggravated the friction of industrial
+relations; the haste with which business is carried on is one of its
+chief causes; but the very speed of the movement will carry society
+the sooner out of its acute distresses into a better adjusted system
+of industry. So far most of the world's progress has been by a slow
+course of natural adjustment of individuals and groups to one another;
+that process cannot be stopped, but it can be directed by those who
+are conscious of the maladjustments that exist and perceive ways and
+means of improvement. Under such persons as leaders purposive progress
+may be achieved more rapidly and effectually in the near future.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HADLEY: _Standards of Public Morality_, pages 33-96.
+
+  NEARING: _Wages in the United States_, pages 93-96.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 241-255, 314-320.
+
+  VROOMAN: _American Railway Problems_, pages 1-181.
+
+  BOLEN: _Plain Facts as to the Trusts and the Tariff_, pages 3-236.
+
+  BOGART: _Economic History of the United States_, pages 186-216,
+      305-337, 400-418.
+
+  MONTGOMERY: _Vital American Problems_, pages 3-91.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE PEOPLE WHO WORK
+
+
+218. =Economic vs. Social Values.=--Economic interests may receive
+first attention in the city, but the work that is done is of less
+importance than the people who work. Things may so fill the public
+mind that the real values of the various elements that enter into life
+may become distorted. A penny may be held so close to the eye as to
+hide the sun. Making a living may seem more important than making the
+most of life. Persons who are absorbed in business are liable to lose
+their sense of proportion between people and property; the capitalist
+overburdens himself with business cares until he breaks down under the
+nervous strain, and overworks his subordinates until they often become
+physical wrecks, but it is not because he personally intends to do
+harm. Eventually the social welfare of every class will become the
+supreme concern and the study of social efficiency will fill a larger
+place than the study of economic efficiency.
+
+219. =The Social Classes.=--There is a natural line of social cleavage
+that has made it a customary expression to speak of the upper, the
+middle, and the lower classes. It is impossible to separate them
+sharply, for they shade into one another. Theoretically, in a
+democratic country like America there should be no class distinctions,
+but in colonial days birth and education had an acknowledged social
+position that did not belong to the common man, and in the nineteenth
+century a wealthy class came into existence that wrested supremacy
+from professional men and those who could rely alone on their
+intellectual achievements. It has never been impossible for
+individuals to push their way up the social path of success, but it
+has been increasingly difficult for a self-made man to break through
+into the circle of the _elite_. There are still young men who come
+out of the country without pecuniary capital but with physical
+strength and courage and, after years of persistent attack, conquer
+the citadel of place and power, but the odds are against the youth
+without either capital or a higher education than the high school
+gives. Without unusual ability and great strength of will it is
+impossible to rise high if one lacks capital or influential friends,
+but with the help of any two of these it is quite possible to gain
+success. Employers complain that the vast majority of persons whom
+they employ are lacking in energy, ambition, and ability. Important as
+is the possession of wealth and influence it seems to be the psychic
+values that ultimately determine the individual's place in American
+society. We shall expect, therefore, to find an upper class in society
+composed of some who hold their place because of the prestige that
+belongs to birth or property, and of others who have made their own
+way up because they had the necessary qualities to succeed. Below them
+in the social scale we shall expect to find a larger class who,
+because they were not consumed by ambition to excel, or because they
+lacked the means to achieve distinction, have come to occupy a place
+midway between the high and the low, to fill the numerous professional
+and business positions below the kings and great captains, and to hold
+the balance of power between the aristocracy and the proletariat.
+Below these, in turn, are the so-called masses, who fill the lower
+ranks of labor, and who are essential to the well-being of those who
+are reckoned above them.
+
+220. =The Worth of the Upper Class.=--It is a common belief among the
+lowly that the people who hold a place in the upper ranks are not
+worthy of their lofty position, and there are many who hope to see
+such a general levelling as took place during the French Revolution.
+They are fortified in their opinion by the lavish and irresponsible
+way in which the wealthy use their money, and they are tantalized by
+the display of luxury which, if times are hard, are in aggravating
+contrast to the hardship and suffering of the poor. The scale of
+living of the millionaire cannot justify itself in the eyes of the
+man who finds it difficult to make both ends meet. Undoubtedly society
+will find it necessary some day to devise a more equitable method of
+distribution. But it is a mistake to suppose that most of the rich are
+idle parasites on society, or that their service, as well, as their
+wealth, could be dispensed with in the social order. In spite of the
+impression fostered by a sensational press that the average person of
+wealth devotes himself to the gaieties and dissipations of a
+pleasure-loving society, the truth is that after the self-centred
+years of callow youth are over most men and women take life seriously
+and only the few are idlers. If the investigator should go through the
+wealthy sections of the cities and suburbs, and record his
+observations, he would find that the men spend their days feeling the
+pulse of business in the down-town offices, directing the energies of
+thousands of individuals, keeping open the arteries of trade, using as
+productive capital the wealth that they count their own, making
+possible the economic activity and the very existence of the persons
+who find fault with their worthlessness. He would find the women in
+the nature of the case less occupied with public affairs, but
+interested and enlisted in all sorts of good enterprises, and, while
+often wasteful of time and money, bearing a part increasingly in the
+promotion of social reforms by active participation and by generous
+contributions. The immense gains that have come to society through
+philanthropy and social organization, as well as through the channels
+of industry, would have been impossible without the sympathetic
+activity of the so-called upper class.
+
+221. =Who Belong to the City Aristocracy?=--Most of those who belong
+to the upper class are native Americans. They may not be far removed
+from European ancestry, but for themselves they have had the advantage
+of a rearing in American ways in the home, the school, and society at
+large. They are both city and country bred. The country boy has the
+advantage of physical strength and better manual training, but he
+often lacks intellectual development, and usually has little capital
+to start with. The city youth knows the city ways and possesses the
+asset of acquaintances and friendships, if not of capital, in the
+place where he expects to make a living. He is helped to success if
+the way is prepared for him by relatives who have attained place and
+property, but he is as often cursed by having more money and more
+liberty than is good for him, while still in his irresponsible years.
+No place is secure until the young man has proved his personal worth,
+whether he is from the city or the country and has come up out of
+poverty or from a home of wealth.
+
+222. =Sources of Wealth.=--The large majority of persons of wealth
+have won or inherited their property from the economic industries of
+manufacturing, trade, commerce, and transportation, or real estate.
+Certain individuals have been fortunate in their mining or
+public-service investments; others make a large income as corporation
+officials, lawyers, physicians, engineers, and architects, but most of
+them have attained their success as capitalists, and they are able to
+maintain a position of prominence and ease because they use rather
+than hoard their wealth. It is easy to underestimate the usefulness of
+human beings who finance the world of industry, and in estimating the
+returns that are due to members of the various social classes this
+form of public service that is so essential to the prosperity of all
+must receive recognition.
+
+223. =How They Live.=--Unfortunately, the possession of money
+furnishes a constant temptation to self-indulgence which, if carried
+far, is destructive of personal health and character, weakens family
+affection, and threatens the solidarity of society. The dwelling-house
+is costly and the furnishings are expensive. A retinue of servants
+performs many useless functions in the operation of the establishment.
+Ostentation often carried to the point of vulgarity marks habits of
+speech, of dress, and of conduct both within and outside of the home.
+Every member of the family has his own friends and interests and
+usually his own share of the family allowance. The adults of the
+family are unreasonably busy with social functions that are not worth
+their up-keep; the children are coddled and supplied with predigested
+culture in schools that cater to the trade, and if they are not
+spoiled in the process of preparation go on to college as a form of
+social recreation. There are exceptions, of course, to this manner of
+life, but those who follow it constitute a distinct type and by their
+manner of living exert a disintegrating influence in American society.
+
+224. =The Middle Class.=--The middle class is not so distinct a
+stratum of society as are the upper and lower classes. It includes the
+bulk of the population in the United States, and from its ranks come
+the teachers, ministers, physicians, lawyers, artists, musicians,
+authors, and statesmen; the civil, mechanical, and electrical
+engineers, the architects, and the scientists of every name; most of
+the tradesmen of the towns and the farmers of the country; office
+managers and agents, handicraftsmen of the better grade, and not a few
+of the factory workers. They are the people who maintain the
+Protestant churches and their enterprises, who make up a large part of
+the constituency of educational institutions and buy books and
+reviews, and who patronize the better class of entertainments and
+amusements. These people are too numerous to belong to any one race,
+and they include both city and country bred. The educated class of
+foreigners finds its place among them, assimilates American culture,
+and intermarries in the second generation. Into the middle class of
+the cities is absorbed the constant stream of rural immigration,
+except the few who rise into the upper class or fall into the lower
+class. In the city itself grow up thousands of boys and girls who pass
+through the schools and into business and home life in their native
+environment, and who constitute the solid stratum of urban society.
+
+These people have not the means to make large display. They are
+influenced by the fashions of the upper class, sometimes are induced
+to applaud their poses or are hypnotized to do their bidding, but they
+have their own class standards, and most of them are contented to
+occupy their modest station. Only a minority of them own their homes,
+but as a class they can afford to pay a reasonable rent and to furnish
+their houses tastefully, to hire one or two household servants, and to
+live in comfort. Twenty years ago they owned bicycles and enjoyed
+century runs into the country on Sunday: since then some of them have
+been promoted to automobiles and enjoy a low-priced car as much as the
+wealthy appreciate their high-priced limousines. As in rural villages,
+so in the city they form various groups of neighbors or friends based
+on a common interest, and find entertainment and intellectual stimulus
+from such companionship. On the roster of social organizations are
+musical societies and bridge clubs, literary and art circles, dramatic
+associations, women's clubs, and men's fraternities. The people meet
+at dances, teas, and receptions; they mingle with others of their kind
+at church or theatre, and co-operate with other workers in settlements
+and charity organizations. They educate their children in the public
+schools and in increasing numbers give them the benefit of a college
+education.
+
+People of the middle class are by no means debarred from passing up to
+a higher social grade if they have the ability or good fortune to get
+ahead, nor are they guaranteed a permanent place in their own native
+group unless they are competent to keep their footing. There is no
+surety to keep the independent tradesman from failing in business or
+the careless youth from falling into intemperate or vicious habits;
+many hazards must be crossed and hindrances overcome before an assured
+position is secured in the community, but the opportunities are far
+better than for the handicapped strugglers below.
+
+225. =Bonds of Union Between Classes.=--Though the middle class is
+distinct from the aristocracy of society in America, it is not shut
+off from association with it. The same is true in a less degree of the
+lowest class. Party lines are vertical, not horizontal. Religious and
+intellectual lines are only less so. The politician cannot afford to
+ignore a single vote, and the working man's counts as much as the
+plutocrat's. There are few churches that do not have representatives
+of all classes, from the gilded pew-holder to the workman with dingy
+hands who sits under the gallery. The school is no respecter of class
+lines. The store, the street-car, and the railroad are all common
+property, where one jostles another without regard to class.
+Friendship oversteps all boundaries, even of race and creed.
+
+226. =The Lower Class.=--The lower class consists of those who are
+dependent upon others for the opportunity to work or for the charity
+that keeps them alive. They commonly lack initiative and ambition; if
+they have those qualities they are hindered by their environment from
+ever getting ahead. Sometimes they make an attempt in a small way to
+carry on trade on their own resources, but they seldom win success.
+Their skill as factory operatives is not so great as to gain for them
+a good wage, and when business is slack they are the first to be laid
+off the pay-roll, and they help to swell the ranks of the unemployed.
+Because of the American system of compulsory education they are not
+absolutely illiterate, but their ability is small; they leave school
+early, and what little education they have does not help them to earn
+a living. They do not usually choose an occupation, but they follow
+the line of least resistance, taking the first job that offers, and
+often finding later that they never can hope for advancement in it.
+Frequently they are the victims of weak will and inherited tendencies
+that lead to intemperance, vice, and crime. Thousands of them are
+living in the unwholesome tenements that lack comfort and
+attractiveness. There is no inducement to cultivate good habits, and
+no possibility of keeping the children free from moral and physical
+contamination. As a class they are continually on the edge of poverty
+and often submerged in it. They know what it is to feel the pinch of
+hunger, to shiver before the blasts of winter, and to look upon coal
+and ice as luxuries. They become discouraged from the struggle as they
+grow older, often get to be chronically dependent on charity, and not
+infrequently fall at last into a pauper's grave.
+
+227. =The Degenerate American.=--Many of these people are Americans,
+swarms of them are foreigners who have come here to better their
+fortunes and have been disappointed or, finding the difficulties more
+than they anticipated, have settled down fairly contented in the city.
+Many persons think that it is the alien immigrant who causes the
+increase in intemperance and crime that has been characteristic of
+city life, but statistics lay much of the guilt upon the degenerate
+American. There are poor whites in the cities as there are in the
+South country. The riffraff drifts to town from the country as the
+Roman proletariat gravitated to the capital in the days of decadence.
+A great many young persons who enter the city with high hopes of
+making a fortune fail to get a foothold or gradually lose their grip
+and are swept along in the current of the city's debris. Illness,
+accident, and repeated failure are all causes of degeneration.
+
+Along with misfortune belongs misconduct. Those causes which produce
+poverty like intemperance, idleness, and ignorance, are productive of
+degeneracy, also. They render the individual unfit to meet the
+responsibilities of life, and tend not only to incompetence but also
+to sensuality and even crime. Added to the various physical causes are
+such psychical influences as contact with degraded minds or with base
+literature or art, loss of religious faith, and loss of
+self-confidence as to one's ability to succeed.
+
+Personal degeneracy tends to perpetuate itself in the family. Drunken,
+depraved, or feeble-minded parents usually produce children with the
+same inheritances or tendencies; family quarrelling and an utter
+absence of moral training do not foster the development of character.
+A slum environment in the city strengthens the evil tendencies of such
+a home, as it counterbalances the good effects of a wholesome home
+environment. Mental and moral degeneracy is always present in society,
+and if unchecked spreads widely; physical degeneracy is so common as
+to be alarming, resulting in dangerous forms of disease, imbecility,
+and insanity. Society is waking to the need of protecting itself
+against degeneracy in all its forms, and of cutting out the roots of
+the evil from the social body.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  NEARING: _Social Religion_, pages 104-157.
+
+  COMMONS: "Is Class Conflict in America Growing?" art. in _American
+      Journal of Sociology_, 13: 756-783.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 276-283.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 185-193.
+
+  WARNER: _American Charities_, pages 59-117, 276-292.
+
+  PATTEN: _Social Basis of Religion_, pages 107-133.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 499-512.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE IMMIGRANT
+
+
+228. =The Immigrant Problem.=--An increasing proportion of the city's
+population is foreign born or of foreign parentage. For a hundred
+years America has been the goal of the European peasant's ambition,
+the magnet that has drawn him from interior hamlet and ocean port.
+Migration has been one of the mighty forces that have been reshaping
+society. The American people are being altered by it, and it is a
+question whether America will maintain its national characteristics if
+the volume of immigration continues unchecked. Europe has been deeply
+affected, and the people who constitute the migrating mass have been
+changed most of all. And the end is not yet.
+
+The immigrant constitutes one of the problems of society. Never has
+there been in history such a race movement as that which has added to
+one nation a population of more than twenty million in a half century.
+It is a problem that affects the welfare of races and continents
+outside of America, as well as here, and that affects millions yet
+unborn, and millions more who might have been born were it not for the
+unfavorable changes that have taken place because of the shift in
+population. It is a problem that has to do with all phases of group
+life--its economic, educational, political, moral, and religious
+interests. It is a problem that demands the united wisdom of all who
+care for the welfare of humanity in the days to come. The heart of the
+problem is first whether the immigrant shall be permitted to crowd
+into this country unhindered, or whether sterner barriers shall be
+placed in the way of the increasing multitude; secondly, if
+restrictions are decided upon what shall be their nature, and whose
+interests shall be considered first--those of the immigrant, of the
+countries involved, or of world progress as a whole?
+
+The problem can be approached best by considering (1) the history of
+immigration, (2) the present facts about immigration, (3) the
+tendencies and effects of immigration. Migrations have occurred
+everywhere in history, and they are progressing in these days in other
+countries besides the United States. Canada is adding thousands every
+year, parts of South America are already German or Italian because of
+immigration, in lesser numbers emigrants are going to the colonies
+that the European nations, especially the English, have located all
+over the world. European immigration to North America has been so
+prolonged and abundant that it constitutes the particular phenomenon
+that most deserves attention. Other nations have fought wars to secure
+additional territory for their people; the immigrant occupation of
+America has been a peaceful conquest.
+
+229. =The Irish.=--Although the early occupation of this continent was
+by immigration from Europe, after the Revolution the increase of
+population was almost entirely by natural growth. Large families were
+the rule and a hardy people was rapidly gaining the mastery of the
+eastern part of the continent. It was not until 1820 that the new
+immigration became noticeable and the government took legislative
+action to regulate it (1819). Between 1840 and 1880 three distinct
+waves of immigration broke on American shores. The first was Irish.
+The Irish peasants were starving from a potato famine that extended
+over several years in the forties, and they poured by the thousand
+into America, the women becoming domestic servants and the men the
+unskilled laborers that were needed in the construction camps. They
+built roads, dug canals, and laid the first railways. Complaint was
+made that they lowered the standards of wages and of living, that
+their intemperate, improvident ways tended to complicate the problem
+of poverty, and that their Catholic religion made them dangerous, but
+they continued to come until the movement reached its climax, in 1851,
+when 272,000 passed through the gates of the Atlantic ports. The
+Irish-American has become an important element of the population,
+especially in the Eastern cities, and has shown special aptitude for
+politics and business.
+
+230. =Germans and Scandinavians.=--The Irishman was followed by the
+German. He was attracted by-the rich agricultural lands of the Middle
+West and the opportunities for education and trade in the towns and
+cities. German political agitators who had failed to propagate
+democracy in the revolutionary days of 1848 made their way to a place
+where they could mould the German-American ideas. While the Irish
+settled down in the seaboard towns, the Germans went West, and
+constituted one of the solid groups that was to build the future
+cosmopolitan nation. The German was followed by the Scandinavian. The
+people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were increasing in number, but
+their rough, cold country could not support them all. As the Norsemen
+took to the sea in the ninth century, so the Scandinavian did in the
+nineteenth, but this time in a peaceful migration toward the setting
+sun. They began coming soon after the Civil War, and by 1882 they
+numbered thirteen per cent of the total immigration. They were a
+specially valuable asset, for they were industrious agriculturists and
+occupied the valuable but unused acres of the Northwest, where they
+planted the wheat belt of the United States, learned American ways and
+founded American institutions, and have become one of the best strains
+in the American blood.
+
+231. =The New Immigrants.=--If the United States could have continued
+to receive mainly such people as these from northern Europe, there
+would be little cause to complain of the volume of immigration, but
+since 1880 the tide has been setting in from southern and eastern
+Europe and even from Asia, bringing in large numbers of persons who
+are not of allied stock, have been little educated, and do not
+understand or fully sympathize with American principles and ideals,
+and for the most part are unskilled workmen. These have come in such
+enormous numbers as to constitute a real menace and to compel
+attention.
+
+TABLE OF IMMIGRATION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1914
+
+(Races numbering less than 10,000 each are not included)
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  South Italians                               251,612  |
+  |  Jews                                         138,051  |
+  |  Poles                                        122,657  |
+  |  Germans                                       79,871  |
+  |  English                                       51,746  |
+  |  Greeks                                        45,881  |
+  |  Russians                                      44,957  |
+  |  North Italians                                44,802  |
+  |  Hungarians                                    44,538  |
+  |  Croatians and Slovenians                      37,284  |
+  |  Ruthenians                                    36,727  |
+  |  Scandinavians                                 36,053  |
+  |  Irish                                         33,898  |
+  |  Slovaks                                       25,819  |
+  |  Roumanians                                    24,070  |
+  |  Lithuanians                                   21,584  |
+  |  Scotch                                        18,997  |
+  |  French                                        18,166  |
+  |  Bulgarians, Servians, and Montenegrins        15,084  |
+  |  Mexicans                                      13,089  |
+  |  Finns                                         12,805  |
+  |  Dutch and Flemings                            12,566  |
+  |  Spanish                                       11,064  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------+
+
+232. =Italians and Slavs.=--Most numerous of these are the Italians.
+At home they feel the pressure of population, the pinch of small
+income, and heavy taxation. Here it costs less to be a citizen and
+there are more opportunities for a livelihood. Gangs of Italian
+laborers have taken the place of the Irish. Italians have established
+themselves in the small trades, and some of them find a place in the
+factory. Two-thirds of them are from the country, and they find
+opportunity to use their agricultural knowledge as farm laborers. In
+California and Louisiana they have established settlements of their
+own, and in the East they make a foreign fringe on the outskirts of
+suburban towns. North Italy is more progressive than the south and the
+qualities of the people are of higher grade, but the bulk of
+emigration is from the region of Naples and Sicily. Among the southern
+Italians the percentage of illiteracy is high, they have the
+reputation of being slippery in business relations, and not a few
+anarchists and criminals are found among them. It is not reasonable to
+expect that these people will measure up to the level of the steady,
+reliable, and hard-working American or north European, especially as
+large numbers of them are birds of passage spending the winter in
+Italy or going home for a time when business in America is depressed.
+Yet the great majority of those who settle here are peaceable,
+ambitious, and hard-working men and women.
+
+Alongside the Italian is the Slav. There are so many varieties of him
+that he is confusing. He comes from the various provinces of Russia,
+from the conglomerate empire of Austro-Hungary, and from the Balkan
+states. In physique he is sturdier than the Italian and mentally he is
+less excitable and nervous, but he drinks heavily and is often
+murderous when not sober. The Slav has come to America to find a place
+in the sun. At home he has suffered from political oppression and
+poverty; he has had little education of body or mind; he is subject to
+his primitive impulses as the west European long ago ceased to be. It
+is not easy for America to assimilate large numbers of such backward
+peoples, but the Slav is coming at the rate of three hundred thousand
+a year. The Slav is depended upon for the hard labor of mine and
+foundry, of sugar and oil refineries, and of meat-packing
+establishments. Hundreds and thousands are in the coal and iron
+regions of Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and West Virginia. The
+Bohemians and Poles more frequently than the others bring their
+families with them, and to some extent settle in the rural districts,
+but the bulk of the Slavs are men who herd in congested
+boarding-houses, move frequently from one industrial centre to
+another, and naturally are very slow to become assimilated.
+
+233. =The Jews.=--Of all the races that have found asylum in America
+none have felt abroad the heavy hand of oppression more than the Jew.
+He has been the world's outcast through nineteen centuries, but in
+America he has found freedom to expand. One-fifth of all the Jews are
+already in America, and the rate of immigration is not far from
+140,000 a year. The immigrant Jews are of different grades, some are
+educated and well-to-do, but the masses are poor, and the most recent
+immigrants have low ideals of living. Few of those who come settle in
+the country districts; the large majority herd in the city tenements
+and engage in small trades and manufacturing. Jewish masters are
+unmerciful as sweaters, unprincipled as landlords, and disreputable as
+white slavers, but no man rises above limitations that others have set
+for him like the Jew, and with ambition, ability, and persistence the
+race is pushing its way to the front. The young people are eager for
+an education, and are often among the keenest pupils in their classes.
+Later they make their mark in the professions as well as in business.
+The Jew has found a new Canaan in the West.
+
+234. =The Lesser Peoples.=--Besides these great groups that constitute
+the bulk of the incoming millions, there are representatives from all
+the nations and tribes of Europe. All parts of Great Britain have sent
+their people, and from Canada so many have come as almost to
+impoverish certain sections. French-Canadians are numerous in the mill
+cities of New England. From the Netherlands there has always been a
+small contingent. Portugal has sent islanders from the Azores and Cape
+Verde. The Finns are here, the Lithuanians from Russia, the Magyars
+from Hungary. The Greeks are pouring in from their sunny hills and
+valleys; they rival the Italians in the fruit trade, and monopolize
+the bootblack industry in certain cities. With the twentieth century
+have come the Turks and their Asiatic subjects, the Syrians and the
+Armenians. All these peoples have race peculiarities, prejudices, and
+superstitions. Most of their members belong in the lower grades of
+society and their coming is a distinct danger to the nation's future.
+There can be no question, of course, that individuals among them
+possess ability and even talent, and that certain groups like those
+from Great Britain and the Netherlands are exceptions to the general
+rule, but there is a strong conviction among social workers and
+students that those who are here should be assimilated before many
+more arrive. Definite measures are advocated by which it is expected
+that the government or private agencies may be able to make over these
+latest aliens into reputable, useful American citizens.
+
+235. =Public Attitude toward Immigration.=--Although interest in
+national and immigrant welfare is far less keen than it well might be,
+the tremendous consequences of the wide-spread movement have not
+passed unnoticed. Wage-earners already here have felt the effects of
+low-grade competition and have clamored for restrictive legislation.
+On race rather than economic grounds Asiatics have been excluded
+except for the few already here. Federal regulation has been increased
+with reference to all immigrant traffic. This has been based
+increasingly on investigation by private effort and government
+commission, and governments and churches have established bureaus on
+immigration. Aid associations maintain agents to safeguard the
+newcomer from exploitation, both on the journey and in port. From all
+these sources a body of information has been gathered that throws
+light on the causes and effects of immigration.
+
+236. =Causes and Effects.=--The primary cause is industrial. The
+desire of the people to improve their economic and social condition is
+the compelling motive that drives them, in spite of homesickness and
+ignorance, to venture into an unknown country and to face dangers and
+difficulties that could not be foreseen. Three out of four who come
+are males, pioneers oftentimes of a family that looks forward to a
+larger migration later on. Friends on this side encourage others and
+commonly supply the necessary funds. Eighty per cent of all who come
+into Massachusetts make the venture in hope of finding better
+industrial conditions or to join relatives or friends. In some
+countries, like Russia, religious and political oppression are
+expelling causes, and the military service required by the European
+Powers drives young men away. It has been demonstrated that forty per
+cent of the immigration is not permanent, but that for various reasons
+individuals return for a season, some permanently.
+
+Immigration has its good and bad effects. There are certain good
+qualities in many of the immigrant strains that are valuable to
+American character, and it cannot be denied that the exploitation of
+national resources and the execution of public works could not have
+been accomplished so rapidly without the immigrant. But the bad
+effects furnish a problem that is not easily solved. Immigrants come
+now in such large numbers that they tend to form alien groups of
+increasing proportions in the midst of the great cities. There is
+danger that the city will become a collection of districts--little
+Italy, little Hungary, and little Syria--and the sense of civic unity
+be destroyed. Even more significant is the high birth-rate of the
+foreigner. Statistics show that with the greater birth-rate of the
+immigrants there is a corresponding decline in the native birth-rate,
+so that the alien is supplanting the native American stock. Along with
+race degeneracy goes lack of industrial skill and declining wages, for
+the foreigner is ignorant, often unorganized, and willing to work and
+live under worse conditions than the native American. Among the
+disastrous social effects are increasing poverty and crime, lack of
+sanitation, and an increase of diseases that thrive in filth.
+Illiteracy and slow mentality lower the general level of intelligence.
+Lack of training in democracy renders the average immigrant a poor
+citizen, though some State laws give him the ballot without delay. In
+morals and religion there is more loss than gain by immigration.
+American liberty tends to become license, scores of thousands lose all
+interest in the church, and moral restraint is thrown off with the
+ecclesiastical yoke. Plainly when the immigrant population is
+predominant in a great city the problem of immigration becomes vital
+not only to the local municipality but also to the nation, which is
+fast becoming urban.
+
+237. =Americanizing the Alien.=--After all is said, the immigrant
+problem is not insoluble. There is much in the situation to make one
+optimistic. Thus far the native stock has been able to survive and to
+give its best to the newcomer. The immigrant himself has no desire to
+destroy American institutions. He comes longing to share in their
+benefits. America is to him an Eldorado, a promised land flowing with
+milk and honey. His children, through the schools and other contacts,
+learn the language that his tongue is slow to acquire, and absorb the
+ideas and ideals that are typically American. After all, it is the
+spirit rather than the form of the institutions that make them
+valuable. The upper-class American, who is too indifferent to go to
+the polls on election day, is less patriotic and more harmful to
+American institutions than the Italian who is too ignorant to vote,
+but would die on the battle-field for the defense of his adopted
+country. Many agencies are at work to help the alien adjust himself to
+American ways and to make him into a good citizen. In the last resort
+the Americanization of the foreigner rests with the attitude of the
+native American toward him rather than with the immigrant himself.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ROSS: _The Old World in the New_, pages 24-304.
+
+  FAIRCHILD: _Immigration_, pages 213-368.
+
+  COMMONS: _Races and Immigrants in America_, pages 198-238.
+
+  ROBERTS: _The New Immigration._
+
+  JENKS AND LAUCK: _Immigration._
+
+  WOODS: _Americans in Process._
+
+  WILLIS: "Findings of the Immigration Commission," art. in _The
+      Survey_, 25: 571-578.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+HOW THE WORKING PEOPLE LIVE
+
+
+238. =In Europe.=--A large proportion of the immigrants from Europe
+have been peasants who have come out of rural villages to find a home
+in the barracks of American cities. In the Old World they have lived
+in houses that lacked comfort and convenience; they have worked hard
+through a long day for small returns; and a government less liberal
+and more burdened than the United States has mulcted them of much of
+their small income by heavy taxes. Young men have lost two or three
+years in compulsory military training, and their absence has kept the
+women in the fields. From the barracks men often return with the
+stigma of disease upon them, which, added to the common social evils
+of intemperance and careless sex relations, keeps moral standards low.
+Thousands of them are illiterate, few of them have time for
+recreation, and those who do understand little of its possibilities.
+Religion is largely a matter of inherited superstition, and as a
+superior force in life is quite lacking. To people of this sort comes
+the vision of a land where government is democratic, military
+conscription is unknown, wages are high, and there is unlimited
+opportunity to get ahead. Encouraged by agents of interested parties,
+many a man accumulates or borrows enough money to pay his passage and
+to get by the immigration officer on the American side, and faces
+westward with high hope of bettering his condition.
+
+239. =In America.=--On the pier in America he is met by a friend or
+finds his way by force of gravity into the immigrant district of the
+city. Usually unmarried, he is glad to find a boarding place with a
+compatriot, who cheerfully admits him to a share of his small
+tenement, because he will help to pay the rent. With assistance he
+finds a job and within a week regards himself as an American. Later
+if it seems worth while he will take steps to become a citizen, but
+recently immigrants are less disposed to do this than formerly. Many
+immigrants do not find their new home in the port of landing; they are
+booked through to interior points or locate in a manufacturing town
+within comfortable reach of the great city; but they find a place in
+the midst of conditions that are not far different. Unskilled Italians
+commonly join construction gangs, and for weeks at a time make their
+home in a temporary shack which quickly becomes unsanitary. Wherever
+the immigrant goes he tends to form foreign colonies and to reproduce
+the low standards of living to which he has been accustomed. If he
+could be introduced to better habits and surrounded with improved
+conditions from the moment of his arrival he would gain much for
+himself, and far more speedily would become assimilated into an
+American; as it is, he is introducing foreign elements on a large
+scale into a city life that is overburdened with problems already.
+
+Changes in the manner of living are often for the worse. Instead of
+their village houses set in the midst of the open fields here, they
+herd like rabbits in overpopulated, unhealthy warrens, frequently
+sleeping in rooms continually dark and ill-ventilated. They still work
+for long hours, but here under conditions that breed discouragement
+and disease, in the sweat-shop or the dingy factory, and often in an
+occupation dangerous to life or limb. Though they are free from the
+temptations of the military quarters, they find them as numerous at
+the corner saloon and the brothel, and even in the overcrowded
+tenement itself. If they bring over their families or marry here, they
+can expect no better home than the tenement, unless they have the
+courage to get out into the country, away from all that which is
+familiar. Rather than do that or knowing no better way, they swarm
+with others of their kind in the immigrant hive.
+
+240. =Tenement House Conditions.=--In New York large tenements from
+five to seven stories high, with three or four families on each floor,
+shelter many thousands of the city's workers. These are often built
+on lots too small to permit of air and light space between buildings.
+Some of them contain over a hundred individuals. Three-fourths of the
+population of Manhattan is in dwellings that house not less than
+twenty persons each. The density of population is one hundred and
+fifty to the acre. Twelve to eighteen dollars a month are charged for
+a suite of four rooms, some of them no better than dark closets.
+Instances can be multiplied where adults of both sexes and children
+are crowded into one or two rooms, where they cook, eat, and sleep,
+and where privacy is impossible. Thousands of children grow up
+unmoral, if not immoral, because their natural sense of modesty and
+decency has been blunted from childhood. The poorest classes live in
+cellars that reek with disease germs of the worst kind, and sanitary
+conditions are indescribable.
+
+If these conditions were confined to the immigrant population,
+Americans might shrug their shoulders and dismiss the subject with
+disparaging remarks about the dirty foreigner, but housing conditions
+like these are not restricted to the immigrant, whether he be Jew or
+Gentile. The American working man who finds work in the factory towns
+is little better off. The natural desire of landlords to spend as
+little as possible on their property, and to get the largest possible
+returns, makes it very difficult for the worker to find a suitable
+home for his family that he can afford to pay for. Yet he must live
+near his work to save time and expense. Old and dilapidated houses are
+ready for his occupancy, but though they are often not so bad as the
+large tenements, with their more attractive exteriors, they are not
+fit dwellings for his growing family. A flat in a three-decker may be
+obtained at a moderate rental, but such houses are usually poorly
+built, of the flimsiest inflammable material, and they, too, lack
+privacy and modern conveniences.
+
+241. =Effects of these Conditions.=--It must not be supposed that
+these evils have been overlooked. Building associations and private
+philanthropists have erected improved tenements, and have proved that
+the right sort of structures may be made paying investments. State
+and municipal governments have appointed commissions and departments
+on housing, fire protection has been provided, better sanitary
+conditions have been enforced, and hopelessly bad buildings have been
+destroyed. But slums grow faster than they can be improved, and the
+rapidly growing tenement districts need more drastic and comprehensive
+measures than have yet been taken. The housing problem affects the
+tenant first of all, and in countless instances his unwholesome
+environment is ruining his health, ability, and character; but it also
+affects the community and the nation, for persons produced by such an
+environment do not make good citizens. The roots of family life are
+destroyed, gaunt poverty and loathsome disease hold hands along dark
+and dirty stairways and through the halls, foul language mingles with
+the foul air, and drunkenness is so common as to excite no remark.
+Sexual impurity finds its nest amid the darkness and ill-endowed
+children swarm in the streets.
+
+242. =Possible Improvements.=--There must be some way out of these
+evil conditions that is practicable and that will be permanent. Those
+who are interested in housing reform favor two kinds of
+measures--first, the prevention of building in the future the kind of
+houses that have become so common but so unsatisfactory, and the
+improvement of those already in existence; second, provision of
+inexpensive, attractive, and sanitary dwellings outside of the city,
+and cheap and rapid transit to and from the places of labor. Both of
+these methods are practicable either by voluntary association or State
+action, and both are called for by the social need of the present.
+There are definite principles to be observed in the redistribution of
+population. The principle of association calls for group life in a
+neighborhood, and it is as idle to think that people from the slums
+can be contented on isolated farms as it is to suppose that they can
+be converted readily into prosperous American agriculturists. Close
+connection with the town is indispensable. The principle of adaptation
+demands that the new homes shall answer to the needs of the people
+for whom they are provided, and that the neighborhood shall be suited
+to those needs. The houses will need to be enough better than those in
+town to offset the greater effort of travel. The principle of control
+demands that the new life of the people be regulated as effectively as
+it can be by municipal authority, and if necessary that such municipal
+authority be extended or State authority be localized. There are
+difficulties in the way of all such enterprises, but social welfare
+requires improvements in the way the working people live.
+
+It is notorious that immigrants and working people generally have
+larger families than the well-to-do. The children of the city streets
+form a class of future citizens that deserve most careful attention.
+The problem of the tenement and the flat is especially serious,
+because they are the factories of human life. There the next
+generation is in the making, and there can be no doubt about the
+quality of the product if conditions continue as they are. It is
+important to inquire how the children live, what are their occupations
+and means of recreation, their moral incentives and temptations, and
+their opportunities for the development of personality.
+
+243. =How the Children Live.=--The best way to understand how the
+children live is to put oneself in their place. Imagine waking in the
+morning in a stuffy, overcrowded room, eating a slice of bread or an
+onion for breakfast and looking forward to a bite for lunch and an
+ill-cooked evening meal, or in many cases starting out for the day
+without any breakfast, glad to leave the tenement for the street, and
+staying there throughout waking hours, when not in school, using it
+for playground, lunch-room, and loafing-place, and regarding it as
+pleasanter than home. Imagine going to school half fed and poorly
+clothed, sometimes the butt of a playmate's gibes because of a drunken
+father or a slatternly mother, required to study subjects that make no
+appeal to the child and in a language that is not native, and then
+back to the street, perhaps to sell papers until far into the night,
+or to run at the beck and call of the public as a messenger boy. Many
+a child, in spite of the public opposition to child labor, is put to
+work to help support the family, and department store and bootblack
+parlor are conspicuous among their places of occupation. Mills and
+factories employ them for special kinds of labor, and States are lax
+in the enforcement of child-labor laws after they are on the statute
+books.
+
+244. =The Street Trades.=--Employment in the street trades is very
+common among the children of the tenements. There are numerous
+opportunities to peddle fruit and small wares at a small wage;
+messenger and news boys are always in demand, and the bootblacking
+industry absorbs many of the immigrant class. By these means the
+family income is pieced out, sometimes wholly provided, but the ill
+effects of such child labor are disturbing to the peace of mind of the
+well-wishers of children. Street labor works physical injury from
+exposure to inclement weather and to accident, from too great fatigue,
+and from irregular habits of eating and sleeping. It provokes resort
+to stimulants and sows the seeds of disease, vice, and petty crime.
+Moral deterioration follows from the bad habits formed, from the
+encouragement to lawbreaking and independence of parental authority,
+and from the evil environment of the people and places with which they
+come into contact. Children are susceptible to the influence of their
+elders, and easily form attachments for those who treat them well.
+Saloons and disorderly houses are their patrons, and when still young
+the children learn to imitate those whom they see and hear. Even for
+the children who do not work, the street has its influence for evil.
+The street was intended as a means of transit, not for trade or play,
+but it is the most convenient place for games and social enjoyments of
+all sorts. The little people become familiar with profane and obscene
+language, with quarrelling and dishonesty, and even with more serious
+crime, and no intellectual education in the schoolroom can counteract
+the moral lessons of the street.
+
+245. =Playgrounds.=--Various experiments for keeping children off the
+street have been proposed and tried. Vacation schools in the summer
+provide interesting occupations and talks for those who can be
+induced to attend; their success is assured, but they reach only a
+small part of the children. Gymnasiums in the winter attract others of
+the older class, but the most useful experiments are equipped and
+supervised playgrounds. For the small children sand piles have met the
+desire for occupation, and kindergarten games have satisfied the
+instinct for association. The primitive nature of the child demanded
+change, and one kind of game after another was added for those of
+different ages. Swings, climbing ladders, and poles are always
+popular, and for the older boys opportunities for ball playing,
+skating, and coasting. All these activities must be under control. The
+characteristics of children on the playground are the same as those of
+their elders in society. Authority and instruction are as necessary as
+in school; indeed, playgrounds are a supplement to the indoor
+education of American children.
+
+246. =The City School.=--The school is expected to be the
+foster-mother of every American child, whether native or adopted. It
+is expected to take the children from the avenue and the slum, those
+with the best influences of heredity and environment, and those with
+the worst, those who are in good health and those who are never well,
+and putting them all through the same intellectual process, to turn
+out a finished product of boys and girls qualified for American
+citizenship. It is an unreasonable expectation, and the American
+school falls far short of meeting its responsibility. It often has to
+work with the poorest kind of material, sometimes it has to feed the
+pupil before his mental powers can get to work. It has to see that the
+physical organs function properly before it can get satisfactory
+intellectual results. The school is the victim of an educational
+system that was made to fit other conditions than those of the
+present-day city; the whole system needs reconstructing, but the
+management is conservative, ignorant, or parsimonious in many cases,
+or too radical and given to fads and experiments. Yet, in spite of all
+its faults and delinquencies, the public schools of the city are the
+hope of the future.
+
+The school is the melting-pot of the city's youth. It is the
+training-school of municipal society. In the absence of family
+training it provides the social education that is necessary to equip
+the child for life. It accustoms him to an orderly group life and
+establishes relations with others of similar age from other streets or
+neighborhoods than those with which he is familiar. It teaches him how
+intelligent public opinion is formed, and brings him within the circle
+of larger interests than those with which he is naturally connected.
+He learns how to accommodate himself to the group rather than to fight
+or worm his way through for a desired end, as is the method of the
+street. He learns good morals and good manners. He finds out that
+there are better ways of expressing his ideas than in the slang of the
+alley, and in time he gains an understanding of a social leadership
+that depends on mental and moral superiority instead of physical
+strength or agility. As he grows older he becomes acquainted with the
+worth of established institutions, and his hand is no longer against
+every man and every man's hand against him. He likes to share in the
+social activities that occur as by-products of the school--the musical
+and dramatic entertainments, the athletic contests, and the debating
+and oratorical rivalries. By degrees he becomes aware that he is a
+responsible member of society, that he is an individual unit in a
+great aggregation of busy people doing the work of the world, and that
+the school is given him to make it possible for him to play well his
+part in the activities of the city and nation to which he belongs.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  VEILLER: _Housing Reform_, pages 3-46.
+
+  RIIS: _How the Other Half Lives._
+
+  CLOPPER: _Child Labor in the City Streets._
+
+  MARTIN: "Exhibit of Congestion," art. in _The Survey_,20: 27-39.
+
+  GOODYEAR: "Household Budgets of the Poor," art. in _Charities_,
+      16: 191-197.
+
+  "The Pittsburgh Survey," arts, in _The Survey_, vol. 21.
+
+  LEE: _Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy_, pages 109-184.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+THE DIVERSIONS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE
+
+
+247. =The Demand for Recreation.=--The natural instinct for recreation
+is felt by the working people in common with persons of every class.
+They cannot afford to spend on the grand scale of those who patronize
+the best theatres and concerts, nor can they relax all summer at
+mountains or seashore, or play golf in the winter at Pinehurst or Palm
+Beach. They get their pleasures in a less expensive way in the parks
+or at the beach resorts in the summer, and at the "movies,"
+dance-halls, and cheap theatres in the winter. They have little money
+to spend, but they get more real enjoyment out of a dime or a quarter
+than thousands of dollars give to some society buds and millionaires
+who are surfeited with pleasure. Recreation to the working people is
+not an occupation but a diversion. Their occupation is usually
+strenuous enough to furnish an appetite for entertainment, and they
+are not particular as to its character, though the more piquant it is
+the greater is the satisfaction. Craving for excitement and a stimulus
+that will restore their depleted energies, they flock into the
+dance-halls and the saloons, where they find the temporary
+satisfaction that they wanted, but where they are tempted to lose the
+control that civilization has put upon the primitive passions and to
+let the primitive instincts have their sway.
+
+It is a prerogative of childhood to be active. If activity is one of
+the striking characteristics of all social life, it is especially so
+of child life. The country child has all out-of-doors for the scope of
+his energies, the city boy and girl are cramped by the tenement and
+the narrow street, with occasional resort to a small park. It requires
+ingenuity to devise methods of diversion in such small areas, but
+necessity is the mother of invention, and the children of the city
+become expert in outwitting those whose business it is to keep them
+within bounds. This kind of education has a smack of practicality in
+that it sharpens the wits for the struggle for existence that makes up
+much of the experience of city folk, but it also tends to develop a
+crookedness in mental and moral habits through the constant effort to
+get ahead of the agents of social control.
+
+248. =Street Games.=--To understand how the youth of the city get
+their diversions it is well to examine a cross-section of city life on
+Saturday afternoon or Sunday. Family quarters are crowded. Tenements
+and apartments have little spare space inside or outside. Children
+find it decidedly irksome indoors and naturally gravitate to the
+street, to the relief of their elders and their own satisfaction.
+There they quickly find associates and proceed to give expression to
+their restless spirits. It is the child's nature to play, and he uses
+all his wits to find the materials and the room for sport. His
+ingenuity can adapt sticks and stones to a variety of uses, but the
+street makes a sorry substitute for a ball-field, and while the girl
+may content herself with the sidewalk and door-steps, the boy soon
+looks abroad for a more satisfying occupation. Among the gangs of city
+boys no diversion is more enjoyable than the game of craps, learned
+from the Southern negro. With a pair of dice purchased for a cent or
+two at the corner news-stand and a few pennies obtained by newspaper
+selling or petty thieving the youngster is equipped with the necessary
+implements for gambling, and he soon becomes adept in cleaning out the
+pockets of the other fellows.
+
+249. =Young People's Amusements.=--Meantime the older boys and girls
+are seeking their diversions. At fourteen or fifteen most of them have
+found work in factory or store, but evenings and Sundays they, too,
+are looking for diversion. The girls find it attractive to walk the
+streets, while the boys frequent the cheap pool-room, where they find
+a chance to gamble and listen to the tales of the idlers who find
+employment as cheap thieves and hangers-on of immoral houses. From
+these headquarters they sally forth upon the streets to find
+association with the other sex, and together they give themselves up
+to a few hours' entertainment. A few are contented to promenade the
+streets, but amusement houses are cheap, and the "movies" and
+vaudeville shows attract the crowd. For a few dimes a couple can have
+a wide range of choice. If the tonic of the playhouse is not
+sufficient, a small fee admits to the public dance-hall, where it is
+easy to meet new acquaintances and to find a partner who will go to
+any length in the mad hunt for pleasures that will satisfy. From the
+dance-hall it is an easy path to the saloon and the brothel, as it is
+from the game of craps and the pool-room to the gambling-den and the
+criminal joint. It is the lack of proper means for diversion and
+proper oversight of places of entertainment that is increasing the
+vice, drunkenness, and crime that curse the lives of thousands and
+give to the city an evil reputation.
+
+250. =The Saloon as the Poor Man's Club.=--The saloon is an
+institution peculiar to America, but it is the successor of a long
+line of public drinking houses. There were cafes among the ancients,
+public houses among the Anglo-Saxons, and taverns in the colonies. At
+such places the traveller or the working man could find social
+companionship along with his glass of wine or grog, and by a natural
+evolution the saloon became the poor man's club. It is successful as a
+place of business, because it caters to primitive wants and social
+interests in considerable variety. It is a never-failing source of
+supply of the strong waters that bring the good cheer of intoxication,
+and lull into torpid content the mind that wants to forget its worry
+or its misery. It is a place where conventionality is laid aside and
+human beings meet on the common level of convivial good-fellowship. It
+is the avenue to fuller enjoyment in billiard-room, at card-table, in
+dance-hall, and in house of assignation, but though the door is open
+to them there is no obligation to enter. It is first aid to the
+sporting fraternity, the resort of those who delight in pugilism,
+baseball, and the racetrack, the dispenser of athletic news of all
+sorts that is worth talking about. It frequently provides a free
+lunch, music, and games. It is the agent of the political boss who
+mixes neighborhood charity with the dispensing of party jobs. "The
+saloon is a day-school, a night-school, a vacation-school, a
+Sunday-school, a kindergarten, a college, a university, all in one. It
+runs without term ends, vacations, or holidays.... It influences the
+thoughts, morals, politics, social customs, and ideals of its
+patrons."
+
+251. =Substitutes for the Saloon.=--An institution that fills a place
+as large as this in the social life of the American city must be given
+careful consideration, and cannot be impatiently dismissed as an
+unmitigated social evil. The saloon is unsparingly denounced as the
+cause of intemperance, prostitution, poverty, and crime, and much of
+the charge is a fair indictment, but it is easier to condemn its
+abuses than to find a satisfactory substitute for the social service
+that it performs. If the saloon must go, something must be put in its
+place to perform its helpful functions. It may have to be legislated
+out of existence in order to check intemperance, for the satisfaction
+of thirst is its principal attraction, and its prime function is to
+furnish drink, but the law can be more easily enforced if other social
+centres are available where the average man can feel equally at home.
+A model saloon managed by church people or labor unionists has been
+tried, but has failed to solve the problem. The Young Men's Christian
+Association on its present basis does not reach the class of men that
+frequents the saloon. Coffee-houses, reading-rooms, municipal
+gymnasiums, and baths, may each provide a small part, but none of
+these nor all together fill the gap that is left after the saloon is
+abolished. Attractive quarters, recreational facilities, and a spirit
+of democracy and freedom appear absolutely essential to any successful
+experiment in substitution. The patrons wish to be consulted as to
+what they want and what they will pay for, and unless the substitute
+is self-supporting it is sure to fail. The most promising experiment
+is an athletic club maintained by regular dues, where there is
+abundant room for sport and conversation, and where it is possible to
+secure food at a moderate price and to enjoy lively music at the same
+time. Under a reasonable amount of regulation such an establishment
+cannot become a public nuisance, and it supplies a social need on a
+sound economic basis.
+
+252. =Monopoly Experiments.=--It has been proposed to draw the virus
+of the saloon by removing the element of private profit and placing
+the traffic under State management. The South Carolina dispensary
+system was such an attempt. It broke up the saloon as a social centre,
+for drinking was not allowed on the premises, but it did not stop the
+consumption of liquor, the profits went to the public, and the saloon
+element became a vicious element in politics. The Norwegian or
+Gothenburg system was another experiment of a similar sort. The liquor
+traffic was made respectable by the government chartering a monopoly
+company and by putting business on the basis not of profit, but of
+supplying a reasonable demand of the working class. Fifty years' trial
+has reduced consumption one-half, has improved the character of the
+saloon, and has removed the immoral annexes. The system is not
+compulsory, but the people must choose between it and prohibition. The
+main objection raised against State monopoly or charter is that the
+government makes an alliance with a traffic that is injurious to
+society, and that is contrary to the fundamental principle of
+government. At best it can be regarded as only a half measure toward
+the abolition of the trade in intoxicants.
+
+253. =The Seriousness of the Liquor Problem.=--There can be no doubt
+that the liquor problem is one of the serious menaces to modern
+health, morals, and prosperity. Intemperance is closely bound up with
+the home, it is a regular accompaniment of unchastity, it is both the
+cause and the result of poverty, it vitiates much charity, it is a
+leading cause of imbecility and insanity, and a provocative of crime.
+It stands squarely in the way of social progress. It is a complex
+problem. It is first a personal question, affecting primarily the
+drinker; secondly, a social question, affecting the family and the
+community; thirdly, an economic and political question, affecting
+society at large. Consequently the solution of the problem is not
+simple. Different phases of the problem demand a variety of methods.
+Intemperance may be approached from the standpoint of disease or
+immorality. It may be treated in medical or legislative fashion. It
+may receive the special condemnation of the churches. One of the most
+effective arguments against it is on the basis of economic waste. The
+best statistics are incomplete, but the conservative estimate of a
+national trade journal gave as the total direct expense in 1912,
+$1,630,000,000. This minimum figure means eighteen dollars for every
+man, woman, and child in the country. The indirect cost to society of
+the wretchedness and crime that result from intemperance is vastly
+greater. United States internal-revenue statistics indicate an
+increased consumption in all kinds of liquor between 1900 and 1910,
+although the territory under prohibition was steadily enlarging.
+
+254. =Causes and Effects of the Traffic.=--The leading causes of
+intemperance are the natural craving of appetite and the pleasure of
+mild intoxication, the congenial society of the saloon and the habit
+of treating, and the presence of the public bar on the streets of the
+poorer districts of the city. The mere presence of the saloon is a
+standing invitation to the men and boys of the neighborhood, and it
+grows to seem a natural part of the environment. It is far more
+attractive than the cheerless tenement and the tiresome street. The
+sedative to tired nerves and stimulant for weary muscles is there; the
+social customs of the past or of the homeland re-enforce the social
+instincts of the present and draw with the power of a magnet.
+
+The effects of intemperance may be classified as physical losses,
+economic losses, and social losses. The immediate physical effect is
+exhilaration, but this is succeeded by lassitude and incompetency. The
+stimulus gained is momentary, the loss is permanent. It is well
+established that even small quantities of alcohol weaken the will
+power and benumb the mental powers. Habitual use depletes vitality and
+so predisposes to disease. Life-insurance policies consider the
+alcoholic a poor risk. The economic effect is a great preponderance of
+loss over gain. Somebody makes money out of the consumer, but it is
+not the farmer who produces the grain, the railroad company that
+transports it, or the government that taxes it; less than formerly is
+it the individual saloon-keeper, but the brewer and distiller who in
+increasing numbers own the local plant as well as manufacture the
+liquor. Neither the nation that taxes the manufacture for the sake of
+the internal revenue, nor the city or town that licenses the sale,
+gets enough to compensate for the economic loss to society. Among the
+specific losses to consumers are irregularity and cessation of
+employment, due to the unreliability of the intemperate workman and
+the consequent reluctance of employers to hire him--a reluctance
+increased since employers are made liable to compensate workmen for
+accidents; the poverty and destitution of the families of habitual
+drinkers; and the enormous waste of millions of dollars that, if not
+thus wasted, might have gone into the channels of legitimate trade.
+Finally, there is a wide-spread social effect. Intemperance ranks next
+to heredity as the cause of insanity. One-third to one-half of the
+crime in the country is charged to intemperance. Alcohol makes men
+quarrelsome, upsets the brain balance, and introduces the user to
+illegal and immoral practices. The saloon corrupts politics. It has
+been estimated that the liquor traffic controls two million votes, and
+some of it is easily purchasable. When it is remembered that the
+saloon is in close alliance with the gambling interest, the
+white-slave interest, the graft element, the political bosses, and the
+corrupt lobbies, it is easy to see that it constitutes a serious
+danger to good government throughout the nation.
+
+255. =The Temperance Crusade.=--Intemperance has grown to be so
+wide-spread and serious an evil that a crusade against it has gathered
+strength through the nineteenth century. In colonial days the use of
+liquors was universal and excited little comment, but groups of
+persons here and there, especially the church people, opposed the
+common practice of tippling and began to organize in order to check
+it. It was not a total-abstinence movement at first, but was designed
+particularly to check the use of spirituous liquors. Temperance
+revivals swept over whole States, but were too emotional to be
+permanent. When the second half of the century began organization
+became more thorough and the Good Templars and Woman's Christian
+Temperance Union assumed the leadership of the cause. These
+organizations stood for total abstinence and State prohibition, and by
+temperance evangelism and temperance education the women especially
+pushed their campaign nationally and abroad. Among all temperance
+agencies the Anti-Saloon League organized in Ohio in 1893, and
+extending through the United States, has been most effective. It has
+federated existing agencies and enlisted organized religion. It has
+pushed no-license campaigns in States that had an optional law, has
+secured the extension of prohibition to scores of counties in the
+South and West, and has extended the area of State-wide prohibition,
+an experiment begun in Maine in 1851, until eighteen States are now
+under a prohibitory law (1915).
+
+256. =Remedies for Intemperance.=--There is a general agreement among
+people who reflect upon social ills that intemperance is a curse upon
+large numbers of individuals and families through both its direct and
+indirect effects. It seems well established that even moderate
+drinking produces physical and mental weakness and even as a temporary
+stimulant is of small value. It is not so clear how to check the evil
+without injuring personal interests and violating the liberty which
+every citizen claims for himself as a right. Three methods have been
+proposed and tried as remedies for intemperance. The first of these is
+public appeal and education. Public addresses in which arguments are
+presented and an appeal made to the emotions have led to the signing
+of pledges, and sometimes to the control of elections, but they have
+to be repeated frequently to keep the individual who is moved by his
+impulses up to the standard. Slower is education through the press and
+through the school, where the evil effects of alcohol are demonstrated
+scientifically, but it has been tried patiently, and there is
+continually a large output of temperance literature.
+
+257. =Regulation.=--A second method that has been used extensively is
+regulation. It seems to many persons that the use of liquor cannot be
+stopped, and if it is to be manufactured and sold, it is best to
+regulate it by a form of license. In many of the American States the
+people are allowed local option and vote periodically, whether they
+will permit the legal manufacture and sale of intoxicants, or will
+attempt to prevent it for a time. Local option has kept a great many
+towns and counties "dry" for years, and it is a step toward
+wide-spread prohibition. It is regarded by many as a better method
+than a State prohibition that is ineffective. Those who oppose all
+licensing on principle, do so on the ground that there should be no
+legal recognition of that which is known to be a social evil.
+
+258. =Prohibition.=--Prohibition is to most temperance advocates the
+master key that will unlock the door to happiness and prosperity. The
+enforcement of prohibition in Russia after the European war began in
+1914 had very impressive results in the better conduct and enterprise
+of the people. Where it has been carried out effectively in the United
+States, the results soon appear in diminished poverty and wretchedness
+and in a decrease of vice and crime. The legitimacy of this method is
+recognized even by liquor manufacturers, and they are willing to spend
+millions of dollars to prevent national prohibition, realizing that
+though it would not destroy their business it would greatly lessen the
+profits. The prohibition policy has bitter enemies among some who are
+not personally interested in the business. They think it is too
+drastic and call attention to the sociological principle that
+prohibitions are a primitive method of social control, but the trend
+of public opinion is strongly against them on the ground that
+prohibitions are necessary in an imperfect human society. Government
+increases its regulation of business of all kinds, and the police
+their regulation of individuals. The failure of half-way measures has
+added to the conviction that prohibition rigidly enforced is likely to
+be the only effective method for the solution of the liquor problem.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STELZLE: _The Workingman and Social Problems_, pages 21-50.
+
+  MOORE: "Social Value of the Saloon," art. in _American Journal of_
+      _Sociology_, 3: 1-12.
+
+  MELENDY: "The Saloon in Chicago," art. in _American Journal of_
+      _Sociology_, 6: 289-306, 433-464.
+
+  CALKINS: _Substitutes for the Saloon._ _Regulation of the Liquor
+      Traffic_ (American Academy), pages 1-127.
+
+  PEABODY: _The Liquor Problem: A Summary._
+
+  GRANT: "Children's Street Games," art. in _The Survey_, 23:
+      232-236.
+
+  PARTRIDGE: _The Psychology of Intemperance_, pages 222-239.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+CRIME AND ITS CURE
+
+
+259. =The Problem of Crime.=--Habitual self-indulgence is at odds with
+the idea of social control. The man who resents interference with his
+diversions and pleasures is disposed to defy law, and if he feels that
+society is not treating him properly he is liable to become a
+lawbreaker. This is one of the reasons for the prevalence of crime,
+which on the whole increases rather than diminishes, and is a factor
+of disturbance in city life. Statistics in the United States show that
+in thirty years, from 1880 to 1910, the criminal population increased
+relative to population by one-third. This is only partly due to
+immigration, nor is it mainly because a large majority of criminals
+escape punishment. Two facts are to be kept constantly in mind: (1)
+Crime depends upon certain subjective and objective elements, and
+tends to increase or decrease without much regard to police
+protection. (2) As long as there are persons whose habits and
+character predispose them to crime, as long as there are social
+inequalities and wants that provoke to criminal acts, and as long as
+there are attractive or easy victims, so long will thieving and arson,
+rape and murder take place.
+
+The problem of crime is not a simple one. The individual and his
+family and his social environment are all involved and changes in
+economic conditions affect the amount of crime. The task of the social
+reformer is to determine the causes of crime and to apply measures of
+reform and prevention. The science of the phenomena of crime is called
+criminology, that of punishment is named penology.
+
+260. =Its Causes.=--If there is to be any effective prevention of
+crime there is needed a clearer understanding of its causes.
+Criminologists are not agreed about these; one school emphasizes
+physical abnormalities as characteristic of the criminal, another
+considers environment the controlling influence. The removal of
+physical defect has repeatedly made an antisocial person normal in his
+conduct, and it seems plain, especially from the investigations of
+European criminologists, that certain individuals are born with a
+predisposition to crime, like the alcoholic inheriting a weak will, or
+with insane or epileptic tendencies that may lead early to criminal
+conduct; but it is not yet proven that a majority of offenders are
+hereditary perverts. A stronger reason for crime is the unsatisfied
+desire or the uncontrolled impulse that drives a man to take by force
+that to which he has no lawful claim. This desire is strengthened by
+the social conditions of the present. In all grades of society there
+are individuals who resort to all sorts of means to get money and
+pleasure, and those who are brought up without moral and social
+training, and who feel an inclination to disregard the interests of
+others are ready to justify themselves by illegal examples in high
+life. Given a tenement home, the streets for a playground, the saloon
+as a social centre, hard, unpleasant, and poorly paid labor, a yellow
+press, and a prevailing spirit of envy and hatred for the rich, and it
+is not difficult to manufacture any amount of crime.
+
+261. =Special Reasons for Crime.=--Certain special circumstances have
+tended to encourage crime within the last few generations. The freedom
+and natural roughness of frontier life gave an opportunity for
+lawlessness and appealed to those who are scarcely to be reckoned as
+friends of society. In the mining and lumber camps gambling and
+drinking were common, and robbery and murder not infrequent. The
+American Civil War, like every war, stimulated the elemental passions
+and nourished criminal tendencies. Human life and rights were
+cheapened. The brute in man was evoked when it became lawful to kill
+and plunder. The moral effects of war are among the most lasting and
+the most pernicious. More recently the conditions of existence in the
+cities have generated crime and are certain to continue to do so as
+long as slums exist.
+
+The liberty that is characteristic of America easily becomes license,
+especially if restraint has been thrown off suddenly, as in the case
+of the immigrant, or of the country youth arriving in the city for the
+first time and dazzled by the opportunities of his new freedom or with
+a grudge against society because it has not been hospitable to him.
+The amount of crime is increased also by the constant increase of
+legislation. The social regulations that are necessary in the city
+tend to become confused with the more serious violations of the moral
+code, and because the first are frequently broken with impunity acts
+of crime seem less iniquitous. All these reasons help to explain the
+increase of crime in the cities. It is worth noticing that the blame
+for it is not to be placed on the immigrant. In spite of his
+misunderstanding of American law and custom, his overcrowding in
+houses and streets, his ill-treatment economically and socially, and
+his common disappointment and discouragement because his dreams of
+wealth and progress have not materialized, the immigrant as a rule is
+law-abiding when sober and is less responsible for crime than the
+degenerate American. It is important to remember that there is a
+constant inflow of undesirable elements of American population into
+the cities, as well as an influx of aliens from Europe. The
+proletariat is not all foreign.
+
+262. =Measures of Prevention.=--Crime calls for prevention and
+punishment. Improvements in both are taking place. Various methods of
+prevention are being proposed and these should be considered
+systematically. The first step is to prevent the reproduction of the
+bad. It has even been proposed to take away the life of all who are
+regarded as hopeless delinquents. Less severe but still radical is the
+proposal, actually in practice in several States, to sterilize such
+persons as idiots, rapists, and confirmed criminals. The same end
+demanded by eugenics may be accomplished by segregating in life
+confinement all but the occasional criminals. A second step is the
+right training of children by the improvement home conditions, to
+include pensioning the mother if necessary, that she may hold the
+family together and bring the children up properly. The school helps
+to train the children, but industrial training is needed to take the
+place of the street trades.
+
+A third step is provision for specific moral and religious education.
+Many persons think that however good may be the moral influence of a
+school, there is need of supplementary instruction in the home and the
+church. In the school itself character study in history and literature
+helps, and attention to the noble deeds in current life; the
+introduction of forms of self-government and the study of the life and
+organization of society are also useful; but some way should be
+devised for the definite training of children in social and moral
+principles that will act as an antidote to antisocial tendencies.
+Experiments have been tried in the affiliation of church and school,
+and it has been urged that the State should appropriate money for
+religious training in the church, but the objection is made that such
+procedure is contrary to the American principle of the separation of
+church and state. The need of such education awaits a satisfactory
+solution.
+
+263. =The Big Brother Idea.=--The most hopeful method of prevention is
+to provide a friend for the human being who needs safeguarding. Many a
+grown person needs this help, but especially the boy who is often
+tempted to go wrong. The Big Brother movement, starting in New York in
+1905, befriended more than five thousand boys in six years, and
+branches were formed in cities all over the country. In Europe the
+minister is often made a probation officer by the state, to see that
+the boy or youth keeps straight. In this country through the agency of
+court or charitable society in some cities each boy in need has his
+special adviser, as each family has its friendly visitor; sometimes it
+is a probation officer, sometimes the judge of a juvenile court,
+sometimes only a charitably minded individual who loves boys. Through
+this friend work is found, to him difficulties are brought and
+intimate thoughts confided, and the boy is encouraged to grow morally
+strong. The immigrant, whether boy or man, often ignorant and stupid,
+especially needs such friendly assistance. The Boy Scout movement may
+be extended, or a substitute found for it, but some such organization
+is needed for the immigrant boy and the native American who is
+compelled to rely on his own resources. The fear of the law is
+undoubtedly a deterrent from crime, but it is inferior to the
+inspiration that comes from friendliness.
+
+264. =Educating Public Opinion.=--One of the important preventives of
+crime is work--steady, well-paid, and not disagreeable work, with
+proper intervals of recreation; added to this a social interest to
+take the place of the saloon and the dance-hall. With these belong
+improved housing, a better police system, and cleaner politics. The
+education of public opinion will eventually lead to a general demand
+for all of these. The press has the great opportunity to mould public
+opinion, but in its search for news, especially of a sensational
+character, it discusses crime in such a way as to excite a morbid
+interest in its details, and sometimes in its repetition, and the
+newspaper rarely discusses measures of crime prevention. Many believe
+that a large responsibility rests upon the church to educate public
+opinion with regard to social obligation. They declare that the people
+need to be taught that certain social conditions are turning out
+criminals as regularly as the factory machine turns out its particular
+product, and then they need to be aroused in conscience until the will
+to prevent the evil is fixed. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+summoned by the age to be both a prophet and a teacher of ways and
+means to a people too often unheeding and careless.
+
+265. =Theories of Punishment.=--The old theory of punishment was that
+the state must punish the criminal in proportion to the seriousness of
+his crime, and that the penalty must be sufficiently severe to deter
+others from similar crime. This primitive theory has been giving way
+to the new theory of reformation. This theory is that the object of
+arrest and imprisonment is not merely the safety of the public during
+the criminal's term of imprisonment, but even more the reformation of
+the guilty man that he may be turned into a useful member of society.
+The reformatory method has been introduced with conspicuous success
+into a number of the American States, and is being extended until it
+seems likely to supplant the old theory altogether.
+
+266. =Three Elements in the Method of Reformation.=--The reformatory
+system includes three elements that are comparatively new. The first
+of these is the indeterminate sentence now generally in practice in
+the United States. According to this principle, the sentence of a
+prisoner is not for a fixed period, but maximum and minimum limits are
+set, and the actual length of imprisonment is determined by the record
+the prisoner makes for himself. The second element is reformatory
+discipline. The whole treatment of the prisoner, his assignment to
+labor, his participation in mental, moral, and religious class
+exercises, are all designed to stimulate manhood and to work a
+complete reformation of character. The third element is conditional
+liberation, or the dismissal of the prisoner on parole. According to
+this method, the prisoner is freed on probation, if his record has
+been good, before his full term has expired, and is under obligation
+to report to the probation officer at stated intervals until his final
+discharge. If his conduct is not satisfactory he can be returned to
+prison at any time. This probation principle has been extended in
+application, so that most first offenders are not sent to a penal
+institution at all, but are placed on their good behavior under the
+watchful eye of the probation officer. Experience with the reformatory
+method shows that about eighty per cent of the cases turn out well. In
+the sifting process of the reformatory there are always a few
+incorrigibles who are turned over to the penitentiary, and most
+recidivists, or old offenders, are sentenced there directly.
+
+267. =Helping the Discharged Prisoner.=--Two experiments have been
+tried to help the discharged prisoner and to improve the treatment of
+the juvenile criminal. It is a part of the reformatory system to
+prepare the way for a prisoner's return to society by teaching him a
+trade while in confinement, and finding him a place to work when he
+goes out, but under the old system a man was turned loose from prison
+with a small sum of money, to redeem himself, when he felt the
+timidity natural to an ex-convict and the stigma of his reputation,
+and in most cases took the easiest road and returned to crime. To aid
+him friendly societies were organized, and even now they prove
+necessary to get a man on his feet. The Volunteer Prison League was
+organized by Mrs. Ballington Booth to help in the reformation of men
+in prison and to aid them when they return to society, and homes have
+been established to give them temporary refuge. Through these efforts
+not a few criminals that seemed incurable have been reformed.
+
+268. =The Juvenile Court.=--The juvenile court is the result of the
+enlightened modern policy of dealing with the criminal. It was the old
+custom to conduct the trial of the juvenile offender in the same way
+as older men were tried, and to commit them to the same prisons. They
+soon became hardened criminals through their associations. But
+experience proves that with the right treatment a majority of those
+who fall into crime before the age of sixteen can be redeemed to
+normal social conduct. Experiments with boys showed that there was a
+better way of trial and punishment than that which had been in vogue,
+and the juvenile courts that they devised have been widely adopted.
+The new plan is based on the principle of making friends with the boy.
+Personal inquiry into the conditions of his life is made before the
+trial, then the judge hears the case in private conference with the
+boy, and after consultation gives directions for his future conduct.
+
+It is plain that the right principle of dealing with crime is to
+secure the reformation of the criminal and the protection of society
+with a minimum amount of punishment. Retaliation is no longer the
+accepted principle; reformation has taken its place. Fundamental to
+all the rest is the prevention of crime by providing for the needs of
+children and youth. Methods of reform and reclamation are made
+necessary, because youthful impulses are not gratified in a way that
+would be beneficial, and habits are allowed to develop that lead to
+antisocial practices. Society can protect itself only by providing
+means for comfortable living, suitable employment, wholesome
+recreation, and social education.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Cause and Cure of Crime._
+
+  WINES: _Punishment and Reformation_, pages 1-265.
+
+  BARROWS: _Reformatory System in the United States_, pages 17-47.
+
+  ELIOT: _The Juvenile Court and the Community_, pages 1-185.
+
+  TRAVIS: _The Young Malefactor_, pages 100-183.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+AGENCIES OF CONTROL
+
+
+269. =Characteristics of City Government.=--The activities and
+associations of such large groups as the people who live in cities
+must be under social control. It is a principle of American life that
+the individual be permitted to direct his own energies as long as he
+does not interfere with the comfort and happiness of others, and in
+the country there is a large measure of freedom, but in the close
+contacts of city life constraint has to be in force. In contrast to
+the strict surveillance that is practised in certain countries,
+Americans, even in the cities, have seldom been watched or interfered
+with. The police have been guardians of peace and safety at street
+crossings and on the sidewalks; occasionally it has been necessary to
+arrest the doings of disorderly persons, to the annoyance of convivial
+spirits and small boys, but their functions as petty guardsmen have
+not given police officers great dignity in the eyes of citizens. City
+officials have confined their efforts to the routine affairs of their
+office, and have so often spent their spare time and the city's money
+freely for the satisfaction of their personal interests that municipal
+government has gained the reputation of being notoriously corrupt, and
+has been left to ward politicians by the better class of citizens.
+Nevertheless, municipal government represents the principle of control
+and stands in the background as the preserver of the interests of all
+the people.
+
+270. =The Relation of the City to the State.=--The American city is
+almost universally a creature of the State. Town and county government
+were transplanted from England and naturally accompanied the settlers
+into the interior, but the city came as a late artificial arrangement
+for the better management of large aggregations of population, and
+the form and details of government were prescribed by State charter.
+The State has continued to be the guardian of the city, often to the
+detriment of municipal interests. If a city wishes to change the form
+of local administration, it must ask permission from the State
+Legislature, and every such question becomes entangled with State
+politics, and so is not likely to be judged on the merits of the
+question. Indeed, the whole history of city government condemns the
+intense partisanship that has directed the affairs of the city in its
+own interest when the real interests of all the people irrespective of
+party should have been cared for with business efficiency.
+
+271. =Functions of the City Government.=--Among the recognized
+functions of the city government is, first, the normal function of
+operation. This includes the activity of the various municipal
+departments like the maintenance of streets, the prosecution of
+various public works, and the care of health by inspection and
+sanitation. Secondly, there are the regulative and reformatory
+functions, which make it necessary to organize and maintain a police
+and judicial force and to provide the necessary places of detention
+and punishment. Thirdly, there are educational and recreational
+functions represented by schools, public libraries, parks, and
+playgrounds. The tendency is for the city government to extend its
+functions in order to promote the various interests of its citizens.
+It is demanded that the city provide musical entertainments, theatres,
+and athletic grounds, that it open the schools as social centres and
+equip them for that purpose, that it beautify itself with the most
+approved adornments for twentieth-century cities; in short, that it
+regard itself as the agent of every kind of social welfare at whatever
+cost. Obviously, this programme involves the city in large expense,
+and there is a limit to the taxation and bonded indebtedness to which
+it can resort, but better financial management would save much waste
+and make larger funds available for social purposes without the
+necessity of raising large additional sums.
+
+272. =How the Regulative Function Works.=--Doubtless it will be always
+true that the regulative function in its largest sense will be the
+main business of the city government. The interests of individuals
+clash. The self-interest of one often runs counter to the interests of
+another, and the city government is their mediator. At every turn one
+sees evidences of public oversight. The citizen leaves home to go to
+work in the morning. A sidewalk is provided for his convenience and
+safety if he needs or prefers to walk. The abutters must keep it in a
+safe condition; open coal scuttles, heaps of sand or gravel, or other
+obstructions must not remain there, and in winter ice must not
+threaten hurt. A street is kept clear for the citizen's carriage or
+automobile if he drives down-town, and a franchise is given a
+street-railway on certain conditions to provide cheap and rapid
+transit. For the convenience of the public the street is properly
+drained and paved, at night it is lighted and patrolled. No
+householder is permitted to throw ashes or garbage upon the public
+thoroughfare, no landowner can rear a building above a certain height
+to shut out light and air. The citizen arrives down-town. The public
+building in which he works or where he trades is inspected by the city
+authorities, the market where he buys his produce is subject to
+regulation, the street hawker who calls his own wares must procure a
+license to sell goods--law is omnipresent.
+
+273. =The Police.=--The offender who violates city ordinances must
+expect to be arrested. Policemen are on the watch to detect such
+violations and promptly give warning that they cannot be permitted.
+Repeated violation leads to arrest and trial before a police-court
+justice, with the probable penalty of a fine or temporary detention in
+jail. In case of serious crime, the trial is before a higher court,
+and the punishment is more severe. Such control is necessary for the
+preservation of order because there are always social delinquents
+ready to take advantage of too great freedom. A certain class of
+offenses seems to require different handling. Moral obliquity such as
+the maintenance of disorderly houses is a corrupting influence, and
+the police departments of cities have frequently been charged with
+conniving at immoral practices. Police officials have been found to
+have their price, and graft has become notorious. For this reason a
+special morals police has been proposed to have charge of such cases,
+and experiments have been tried already on that plan.
+
+274. =Organization of the City Government.=--(1) _In America._ The
+police department is but one of several boards or official departments
+for the management of municipal affairs. The administrative officers
+are appointed or elected, and are usually under the supervision of the
+city executive. The usual form of city government is modelled upon the
+State; a mayor corresponds to the governor and a city council of one
+or two chambers usually elected by wards is parallel to the State
+Legislature. The mayor is the executive officer and the head of the
+administrative system, the council assists or obstructs him,
+appropriates funds, and attends to the details of municipal
+legislation. Political considerations rather than fitness for office
+have usually determined the choice of persons for positions.
+
+(2) _In Europe._ In Europe municipal government is treated as a
+business or professional matter, not one of politics, and the results
+have been so much more satisfactory that American cities have begun to
+reform their governments. In England cities are governed according to
+the Local Government Act of 1888, by which cities of more than fifty
+thousand people become counties for administrative purposes, and
+control of administration is vested in a council elected by voters of
+the city. Councillors are regarded with high honor, but their work is
+a work of patriotism, for they are unpaid, with the result that the
+best men enter the city councils. Administration is carried on through
+various committees and through department officials who are retained
+permanently. In Germany the cities are managed like large households,
+and their officials are free to undertake improvements without
+specific legislative permission. The mayor or burgomaster is usually
+one who makes a profession of magistracy, and he need not be a citizen
+of the city that he serves. In administration he is assisted by a
+board of experts known as magistrates, who are elected by the council,
+usually for life. The council is the real governing body, and its
+members are elected by the people for six years, one-third of them
+retiring periodically, as in the United States Senate. The activities
+of the German cities are more numerous than in this country, yet they
+are managed economically and efficiently.
+
+275. =Organizing Municipal Reform.=--The earliest reform movements in
+the United States were spasmodic uprisings of outraged citizens who
+were convinced of the corruption of city government. Among the
+pioneers in organization were leagues of reform in Chicago, Baltimore,
+and Boston, organized between 1874 and 1885. In 1887 the Massachusetts
+Society for Promoting Good Citizenship was formed. The weakness of the
+early movements was the temporary enthusiasm that soon died away after
+a victory for reform was gained at the polls; within a short time the
+grafters were in the saddle again. The year 1892 marked an epoch, for
+in that year the first City Club was organized in New York, followed
+by Good Government Clubs in many cities, and finally by the National
+Municipal League in 1894. Two hundred reform leagues in the larger
+cities united in the National Reform League, with its centre in
+Philadelphia. After 1905 a new impetus was given to civic reform by
+the new moral emphasis in business and politics. Better officials were
+elected and others were reminded that they were responsible to the
+people more than to the political machine. An extension of reform
+effort through direct primary nominations came into vogue on the
+principle that government ought to be by the people themselves: that
+democracy means self-control. The extension of municipal ownership was
+widely discussed on the principle that the people's interests demanded
+the better control of public utilities. There was apparent a new
+recognition that the city government was only an agent of popular
+control, not an irresponsible bureau for the enrichment of a few
+officials at the public expense.
+
+276. =Commission Government.=--In a number of cases radical changes
+were made in the charter of the city. Galveston and several other
+Texas cities tried the experiment of substituting a commission for
+the mayor and council. The Galveston idea originated in 1901, after a
+hurricane had devastated the city, and the mayor and aldermen proved
+unable to cope with the situation. Upon request of an existing civic
+committee the State legislature gave to the city a new charter, with
+provision for a commission of five, including a mayor who ordinarily
+has no more power than any other commissioner. Each man was to manage
+a department and receive a salary. In four years the commission saved
+the city a million dollars. Des Moines, Iowa, added to the Galveston
+plan the initiative, the referendum, and the recall, put in force a
+merit system for subordinate officials, and adopted the non-partisan
+open primary. These experiments proved so popular that in 1908-9 not
+less than one hundred and thirty-eight cities, including most of the
+large ones, proposed to make important changes in their charters,
+adopting the most prominent features of the new plan, or adapting the
+new to the old system.
+
+Commission government has been defined as "that form of city
+government in which a small board, elected at large, exercises
+substantially the entire municipal authority, each member being
+assigned as head of a rather definite division of the administrative
+work; the commission being subject to one or more means of direct
+popular control, such as publicity of proceedings, recall, referendum,
+initiative, and a non-partisan ballot." Commission government is less
+cumbersome and less partisan than the old system and tends to be more
+efficient, but the public needs to remember that it is the men in
+office and not the form of government that make the control of
+municipal affairs a success or failure. In a few cases only
+disappointment has resulted from the changes made, and commission
+government is still in its experimental stage.
+
+277. =The City Manager.=--A modification of the commission plan was
+tried in several cities of the South and Middle West in 1913-14. This
+has been called the city-manager plan. It is founded on the belief
+that the city needs business administration, and that a board of
+directors is not so efficient as a single manager employed by the
+commission, who shall have charge of all departments, appoint
+department heads as his subordinates, and thus unify the whole
+administration of municipal affairs. The manager is responsible to the
+commission, and through it to the people, and may be removed by the
+commission, or even by popular recall. Such a plan as this is, of
+course, liable to abuse, unless the commissioners are high-minded,
+conscientious men, and it has not been tried long enough to prove its
+worth. The best element in the whole history of recent municipal
+changes is the earnest effort of the people to find a form of
+administrative control that will work well, and this gives ground for
+belief that the experiments will continue until the American city will
+cease to be notorious for misgovernment and become, instead, a model
+for the whole nation.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  _Commission Government and the City Manager Plan_ (American
+      Academy), pages 3-11, 103-109, 171-179, 183-201.
+
+  GOODNOW: _City Government in the United States_, pages 69-108.
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (abridged edition), pages
+      417-427.
+
+  SHAW: _Municipal Government in Continental Europe_, pages 1-145.
+
+  ZUEBLIN: _American Municipal Progress_ (revised edition), pages
+      376-394.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+DIFFICULTIES OF THE PEOPLE WHO WORK
+
+
+278. =The Fact of Misery.=--A brief study of the conditions in which a
+city's toilers live and work and play makes it plain that the people
+have to contend with numerous difficulties. Large numbers of them are
+in misery, and there are few who are not living in constant fear of
+it. To a foreigner who did not understand America, it would seem
+incredible that misery should be prevalent in the midst of wealth and
+unbounded natural resources, when mines and factories are making
+record-breaking outputs, when harbors are thronged with ships and the
+call for workers goes across the sea. But no one who visits the
+tenements and alleys of the city fails to find abundant evidence of
+misery and want. People do not live in dark rooms and dirty
+surroundings from choice, sometimes as many as two thousand in a
+single block. They do not willingly pay a large percentage of their
+earnings in rent for a tenement that breeds fever and tuberculosis.
+They do not feed their babies on impure milk and permit their children
+to forage among the garbage cans because they care nothing for their
+young. They do not shiver without heat or lose vitality for lack of
+food until they have struggled for a comfortable existence to the
+point of exhaustion. Misery is here as it is in the Old World cities,
+and it leads to weakness and disease, drunkenness, vice, and crime.
+
+279. =Easy Explanations.=--It is impossible to unravel completely the
+skein of difficulties in which the people are enmeshed, or to simplify
+the causes of the tangle. It is easy to blame a person's wretchedness
+on his individual misconduct and incompetency, to say, for example,
+that a man's family is sick and poor because he is intemperate. There
+might be truth in the charge, but it would probably not be the whole
+truth. It is easy to go back of the circumstance to the weak will of
+the man that made him a prey to impulse and appetite and kept him
+primitive in his habits, but that alone would not explain conditions.
+It is easy to charge misery upon the ignorance of the woman in the
+home who is wasteful of food and does not know how to provide for her
+family, or to charge lack of common sense to the home-makers when they
+try to raise six children on an income that is not enough for two. It
+is very common to lay all misery at the door of the capitalist who
+underpays labor and feels no responsibility for the life conditions of
+his employee. No one of these explains the presence of misery.
+
+It is easy to propose to society a simple remedy like better housing,
+prohibition, or socialism, when the only correct diagnosis of
+conditions demands a prolonged and expensive course of treatment that
+involves surgical action in the social body. It is easy to raise money
+for charity, to endow hospitals, and to talk about made-to-order
+schemes for ending unemployment, poverty, and panic, but it is soon
+discovered that there is no panacea for the evils that infest society.
+Back of all personal misconduct or misfortune, of all social specific
+or cure-all, is the fundamental difficulty that misery exists, that
+its causes are complex, and that all efforts to provide efficient
+relief on a large scale have failed, as far as history records.
+
+280. =Poverty and Its Extent.=--Misery appears commonly in the form of
+sickness, vice, and poverty. One of these reacts upon another, and is
+both the cause and the result of another. Mental and moral incapacity,
+ignorance of hygiene, weakness of will, habits that seem incurable,
+all of these produce the first two in a seemingly hopeless way;
+poverty appears to be incurable above the rest. It is poverty that
+prevents fortifying the will by increasing physical stamina and moral
+courage, it is poverty that drives a man; to drink or desperation, and
+it is poverty that prescribes the unfavorable surroundings that do so
+much to keep a man down. Poverty is a danger flag that indicates the
+probability of deeper degradation and calls for the individual or
+group that is better off to lend a hand. Poverty is a goad, a thorn
+in the flesh of society, that is pushing it along the road of social
+reform. Private philanthropy, legislative enactment, and much talking
+are being tried as experiments to find a solution of the difficulty,
+but theorists and practitioners are not yet in full agreement as to
+the way out.
+
+There are, of course, different degrees of poverty, ranging from the
+helpless incompetents at the bottom of the scale to those who are in a
+fair degree of comfort, but who have so little laid aside for a rainy
+day that they live in constant fear of the poorhouse. Some struggle
+harder than others, and maintain an existence on or just above the
+poverty line--these are technically the poor. Charles Booth defines
+the poor as those "living in a state of struggle to obtain the
+necessaries of life." A few cease to struggle at all and, if they
+continue to live, manage it only by living on permanent charity--these
+are the paupers. This is a distinction that is carefully made by
+sociologists and is always convenient.
+
+It is difficult to estimate the extent of poverty with any accuracy,
+but a few estimates of skilled observers indicate its wide extent.
+Charles Booth thought that thirty per cent of the people of London
+were on or below the poverty line. Robert Hunter has declared that in
+1899 eighteen per cent of the people in New York State received aid,
+and that ten per cent of those who died in Manhattan received pauper
+burial. Alongside these statements are the various estimates of 80,000
+persons in almshouses in the United States, 3,000,000 receiving public
+or private aid, with a total annual expense of $200,000,000. The
+number of those who have small resources in reserve are many times as
+great, but industrious, frugal, and self-respecting, they manage to
+take care of themselves.
+
+281. =Causes of Poverty.=--It is still more difficult to speak exactly
+of the relative importance of the causes of poverty. Investigation of
+hundreds of cases in certain localities makes it plain that poverty
+comes through a combination of several factors, including personal
+incompetence or misconduct, misfortune, and the effects of
+environment. In Boston out of one thousand cases investigated
+twenty-five years ago (1890-91), twenty per cent was due to drink, a
+figure nearly twice as much as the average found in other large
+cities; nine per cent more was due to such misconduct as
+shiftlessness, crime, and vagrancy; while seventy per cent was owing
+to misfortune, including defective employment and sickness or death in
+the family. Five thousand families investigated at another time in New
+York City showed that physical disability was present in three out of
+four families, and unemployment was responsible in two out of three
+cases. In nearly half the families there was found defect of
+character, and in a third of the cases there was widowhood or
+desertion or overcrowding. Added to these were old-age incapacity,
+large families, and ill adjustment to environment due to recent
+arrival in the city.
+
+Taking these as fair samples, it is proper to conclude that the causes
+commonly to be assigned to poverty are both subjective and objective,
+or individual and social. It was formerly customary to throw most of
+the blame on the poor themselves, to charge them with being lazy,
+intemperate, vicious, and generally incompetent, and it is useless to
+deny that these appear to be the direct causes in great numbers of
+instances, but as much of the negro and poor white trash in the South
+was found to be due to hookworm infection, so very many of the faults
+of the shiftless poor in the cities are due more indirectly to lack of
+nourishment, of education, and of courage. Over and over again, it may
+be, has the worker tried to get on better, only to get sick or lose
+his job just as he was improving his lot. The tendency of opinion is
+in the direction of putting the chief blame upon the disposition of
+the employer to exploit the worker, and the indifference of society to
+such exploitation; it is the discouraging conditions in which the
+working man lives, the uncertainty of employment and the high cost of
+living, the danger of accident and disease that constantly hangs over
+the laborer and his family, that devitalizes and disheartens him, and
+casts him before he is old on the social scrap heap.
+
+Summing up, it is convenient to classify the causes of poverty as
+individual and social, including under the first head ignorance,
+inefficiency, illness or accident, intemperance, and immorality, and
+under the second unemployment, widowhood, or desertion, overcrowding
+and insanitation, the high cost of living versus low wages, and lack
+of adjustment to environment.
+
+Poverty is one of those social conditions that appear in all parts of
+the country, even in the smaller villages, but it is more dreadful and
+wide-spread in the great cities. In smaller communities the cases are
+few and can be taken care of without great difficulty; to the larger
+centres have drifted the poor from the rural regions, and there
+congregate the immigrants who have failed to make good, until in large
+numbers they drain the vitals of the city's strength. Yet the problem
+of poverty is not new. It would be difficult to find any ancient city
+that did not have its rabble or mediaeval village without its
+"ne'er-do-weel"; and in every period church or state or feudal group
+has taken its turn in providing relief. In recent years the principle
+of bestowing charity has been giving way to the principle of
+destroying poverty at the roots by removing the causes that produce
+it. This is no easy task, but experience has shown that it is the only
+effective way to get rid of the difficulty.
+
+282. =Proposed Methods of Solution.=--The solution of the problem of
+poverty cannot be found in charity. Properly administered charity is a
+helpful means of temporary relief, but if it becomes permanent it
+pauperizes. It never will cure poverty. In spite of all charity
+organization, poverty increases as the cities grow, until it is clear
+that the causes must be removed if there is to be any hope of
+permanent relief. A better education is proposed as an offset to
+ignorance. Women need instruction in cooking, home making, and the
+care of children, for girls graduating from a machine or the counter
+of a department store into matrimony cannot reasonably be expected to
+know much about housekeeping. Such evils as divorce, desertion,
+intemperance, and poverty are due repeatedly to failure to make a
+home. Proper hygienic habits, care of sanitation, simple precautions
+against colds, coughs, and tuberculosis, make a great difference in
+the amount of misery. It is a question worth considering whether the
+home end of the poverty problem is not as important as the employment
+end. For the man's ignorance and inefficiency it is proposed that the
+vocational education of boys be widely extended.
+
+The social causes of poverty lead into other departments of
+sociological study, like the industrial problem, and it is useless to
+talk about a cure for poverty as an isolated phenomenon, yet there are
+certain principles that are necessarily involved. The whole subject of
+the poor needs thorough study. Organizations like the charity
+societies already have much data. The Russell Sage Foundation in New
+York City is making invaluable contributions to public knowledge. The
+reports of the national and State bureaus of labor contain a vast
+amount of statistical information. All this needs digestion. Then on
+the basis of investigation and digestion of information comes prompt
+and intelligent legislation for the amelioration of poverty, until the
+most shameful conditions in employment and housing are made
+impossible. Only persistent legislation and enforcement of law can
+make greedy landlords and capitalists do the right thing by the poor,
+until all society is spiritualized by the new social gospel of mutual
+consideration and educated to apply it to community life.
+
+283. =Pauperism.=--Pauperism is poverty become chronic. When a family
+has been hopelessly dependent so long that self-respect and initiative
+are wholly gone, it seems useless to attempt to galvanize it into
+activity or respectability, and when a group of such families
+pauperizes a neighborhood, heroic measures become necessary. The
+families must be broken up, their members placed in institutions where
+they cannot remain sodden in drink or become violent in crime, and the
+neighborhood cleansed of its human debris. Pauperism is a social pest,
+and it must be rooted out like any other pest. If it is allowed to
+remain it festers; nothing short of eradication will suffice. But when
+once it is destroyed living conditions must be so reformed that
+pauperism will not recur, and that can be only by constant vigilance
+to prevent a continuance of poverty. The problem is one, and its
+solution must involve both poverty and pauperism.
+
+284. =Unemployment.=--One of the causes of wide-spread poverty is
+unemployment. This is due sometimes to physical weakness or lack of
+ability or character, but as often to industrial depression or lack of
+adjustment between the labor supply and the employer. There is always
+an army of the unemployed, and it has increased so greatly through
+immigration and otherwise that it has demanded the serious attention
+of sociologists and legislators. Charitable organizations have given
+relief, but it is not properly a question of charity; private agencies
+have made a business of bringing together the employer and the
+employee, but not always treating fairly the employee; permanent free
+labor exchanges are now being tried by governments.
+
+The National Conference on Unemployment, meeting in 1914, recommended
+three constructive proposals, which include most of the experiments
+already tried in Europe and America. These are first the regularizing
+of business by putting it on a year-round basis instead of seasonal;
+second, the organization of a system of labor exchanges, local and
+State, to be supervised and co-ordinated by a national exchange; and
+third, a national insurance system for the unemployed, such as has
+been inaugurated successfully in Germany and Great Britain.
+
+The problem of unemployment is less complicated than many social
+problems, and there is every reason to believe that through careful
+legislation and administration it can be largely removed. The problem
+of those who are unable to work or unwilling to work is solved by
+means of public institutions. The whole problem of poverty awaits only
+intelligent, energetic, and united action for its successful solution.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEVINE: _Misery and Its Causes_, pages 3-50.
+
+  HUNTER: _Poverty_, pages 66-105, 318-340.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents_, second
+      edition, pages 12-97, 160-209.
+
+  CARLTON: _History and Problems of Organized Labor_, pages 431-445.
+
+  MARTIN: "Remedy for Unemployment," art. in _The Survey_, 22:
+      115-117.
+
+  BOOTH: _Pauperism._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+CHARITY AND THE SETTLEMENTS
+
+
+285. =The Impulse to Charity.=--The first impulse that stirs a person
+who sees another in want is immediately to relieve the want. This
+impulse to charity makes public begging profitable. It is an impulse
+creditable to the human heart, but its effects have not been approved
+by reason, for indiscriminate charity provokes deception, and is
+certain to result in chronic dependency. Wise methods of charity,
+therefore, constitute a problem as truly as poverty itself. Experience
+has proved so conclusively that the old methods of relief are
+unsatisfactory, that it has become necessary to determine and
+formulate true principles of relief for those who really desire to
+exercise their philanthropy helpfully. How to help is the question.
+
+286. =History of Relief.=--Some light is thrown on the subject from
+the experience of the past. The whole notion of charity as a social
+duty was foreign to ancient thought. Families and clans had their own
+dependents, and benefit societies helped their own members. The Hebrew
+prophets called for mercy and kindness, Jesus spoke his parable of the
+good Samaritan, and the primitive Christians went so far as to
+organize their charity, so that none of their members would fail of a
+fair share. The church taught alms-giving as a deed of merit before
+God, and all through its history the Catholic Church has done much for
+its poor. In the Middle Ages it was a part of the feudal theory that
+the lord would care for his serfs, but in reality they got most help
+at the doors of a monastery. In modern times the church has shifted
+its burden to the state. This was inevitable in countries where there
+was no state church, and it was in accordance with the modern
+principle that the state is organized society functioning for the
+social welfare of all the people.
+
+In America the colonies and then the States adopted the English custom
+of relieving extreme need. At first it was possible for local
+committees to take care of their poor by doles furnished sparingly in
+their homes, and to place the chronic dependents in almshouses. The
+former practice is known as outdoor relief, the latter as indoor
+relief. Such relief was not administered scientifically, and did not
+help to reduce the amount of poverty. The almshouses were the
+dumping-ground of a community's undesirables, including idiots and
+even insane, cripples and incurables, epileptics, old people, and
+orphan children, constituting a social environment that was anything
+but helpful to human development. After a time it became necessary for
+the State to relieve the local authorities. The defectives and
+dependents became too numerous for the local community to take care
+of, and enlightened philanthropy was learning better methods. The
+result has been the gradual extension of State care and the
+segregation of the various classes of incompetents in various State
+institutions, including hospitals for the insane, the epileptic, and
+the morally deficient, sanitaria for those who suffer from alcoholic
+and tuberculous diseases, and schools for the proper training of the
+youth who have come under public oversight.
+
+287. =Voluntary Charity.=--Public relief has been supplemented
+extensively by voluntary charity. This has become increasingly
+scientific. Indeed popular ideas have been largely transformed during
+the last generation. In the small towns and villages where there was
+little destitution, and where all knew one another's needs, there was
+no special need of scientific investigation or charitable
+organization, but in the large cities it became necessary. Thomas
+Chalmers in Scotland and Edward Denison and Octavia Hill in England
+demonstrated the conditions and the advantages of organized effort.
+The first charity organization society was organized in 1869 in
+London. Its fundamental principle was to help the poor to help
+themselves rather than to give them alms. Its aim was to federate all
+the charitable efforts of London, and while this has not proved
+practicable, it has greatly increased efficiency and has helped to
+bind together philanthropic effort all over England. The income of the
+various charitable agencies of London alone was reported to be
+$43,000,000 in 1906.
+
+In the United States the first organization on the English model was
+the charity organization society of Buffalo, founded in 1877; Boston
+followed with a similar organization the next year. These were
+followed by the organization of a National Conference of Charities and
+Corrections, which holds annual meetings and publishes reports that
+are a valuable storehouse of information. Many charitable agencies of
+various kinds contribute to the work of relief, some of them really
+helpful, others actually blocking the way of genuine progress, but all
+showing the strength of the philanthropic motive in American cities.
+The closer their alliance with the associated charities the more
+effective are their measures of charity. Three stages have marked the
+history of the charitable organization societies, as they have learned
+from experience. The first has been called the repressive stage. The
+fear of pauperizing recipients of charity made the societies too
+strict in their alms-giving, so that hardships resulted that were
+unnecessary, but such a course was the natural reaction against the
+indiscriminate charity that had been in vogue. This stage was
+succeeded by the discriminative, in which help is given
+discriminatingly, as investigation shows a real need at the same time
+that efforts are being put forth to make prolonged giving unnecessary.
+Closely combined with this discrimination, which is in constant use,
+is the third method of construction. By this constructive method the
+worker tries to get at the cause of the particular case of poverty and
+to alter the social conditions so that the cause shall no longer act.
+Experience and experiment have produced numerous specific measures of
+a constructive sort, like the establishment of playgrounds and public
+parks, kindergartens and schools for specific purposes, social
+settlements and school centres, municipal baths and gymnasiums,
+tenement-house reforms and the prevention of disease.
+
+288. =Friendly Visiting.=--The functions of charity organization
+societies have been described as the co-ordination and co-operation of
+local societies rather than direct relief from the central
+organization, thorough investigation of all cases, with temporary
+relief where necessary, the establishment of friendly relations
+between the poor and the well-to-do, the finding of work for those who
+need it, and the accumulation of knowledge on poverty conditions. The
+actual contact of charitable societies with the people has been mainly
+through friendly visitors who voluntarily engage to call on the needy,
+and who meet at regular intervals to discuss concrete cases as well as
+general methods. These visitors have the advantage of bringing their
+spontaneous sympathy to bear upon the specific instances that come to
+their personal attention, whereas the officials of the charity
+organization society inevitably become more callous to suffering and
+tend to look upon each family as a case to be pigeonholed or
+scientifically treated, but the conviction is growing, nevertheless,
+that the situation can be effectively handled only by men and women
+who are genuinely experts, trained in the social settlements or in the
+schools of philanthropy. Whether a voluntary church worker or a
+charity expert, it is the business of the visitor to make thorough
+investigation of conditions, not merely inquiring of landlord or
+neighbors, or taking the hurried testimony of the family, but
+patiently searching for information from those who have known the case
+over a long period, preferably through the charity organization
+society. Actual relief may be required temporarily and must be
+adequate to the occasion, but the problem of the visitor is to devise
+a method of self-help, and to furnish the courage necessary to
+undertake and carry it through. It is important to consider in this
+connection the character and ancestry of the family, its environment
+and the social ideals and expectations of its members, if the steps
+taken are to be effective. The two principles that underlie the whole
+practice of relief are, first, to restore the individual or family to
+a normal place in society from which it has fallen, or to raise it to
+a normal standard of living which it has never before reached;
+secondly, to make all charity discriminative and co-operative, that it
+may accomplish the end sought without pauperizing the recipient.
+
+289. =Public and Private Agencies.=--Institutions and agencies of
+relief are of two kinds, public and private. It is one of the
+functions of every social group to promote the welfare of its members.
+It is to be expected, therefore, that the church and the trade-union
+will help their own poor, but it is just as proper to expect that the
+whole community, and even the whole state, will take care of its own
+needy. The distinction between public and private agencies is not one
+of fundamental sociological principle, but one of convenience and
+efficiency of administration. Where the state has extended its
+activities, as in Germany, relief by such a method as the Elberfeld
+system is practicable; where public opinion, as in the United States,
+is not favorable to remanding as much as possible to the government,
+it is thought best that private agencies should supplement State aid,
+and in most cases make it unnecessary.
+
+290. =Arguments for and Against Private Agencies of Relief.=--Some
+argue that private agencies should do it all. In spite of the large
+resources at the command of the state and the frequent necessity of
+legislation to handle the problem, they claim that public aid
+humiliates and degrades the recipient, while private assistance may
+put him on his feet without destroying his self-respect; and that
+public charity is too often unfeeling and tends to become a routine
+affair, while private aid can deal better with specific cases, show
+real interest and try experiments in the improvement of methods. There
+are those who would have all charity given back to the church. They
+believe the responsibility would stimulate the church's own life,
+extend its influence among the unchurched, show that it had an
+interest in the bodies as well as the souls of the people, and bring
+about co-operation between churches in the districts of town or city.
+It is of the genius of true religion to be helpful, and the church
+could soon learn wise methods. In answer to this argument the reply is
+that at present the indiscriminate charity of the church is doing
+real harm; that the church does not like to co-operate with other
+agencies; that it does not have adequate resources to deal with the
+problem or legal authority to restrain mendicants or segregate the
+various classes of dependents; and that all persons in the community
+ought to share in the responsibility of poor relief, and not all are
+in the church. They recognize the valuable aid of such organizations
+as the Hebrew Charities and the work of the St. Vincent de Paul
+Society of the Catholics, but they believe that such as these at best
+can be only auxiliary to the state.
+
+An illustration of the usefulness of private associations appears in a
+group of seven boys of foreign parentage in New York City, who
+organized themselves in 1903 into a quick-aid-to-the-hungry committee.
+They were only thirteen years old and poor. They lived on the East
+Side, and pennies and nickels did not make a full treasury. But they
+knew the need and had an instinct for helping the right people. In
+seven years these boys helped in more than two hundred and fifty
+emergency cases; their pennies grew to dollars as they earned more;
+their charity developed their self-respect; they held weekly meetings
+for debate, and several of them made their way through college. Funds
+were supplied, also, from friends outside, who were glad to aid such a
+worthy enterprise. The great need among private agencies is fuller
+co-operation with one another and with public boards and institutions.
+Then duplication of effort, misunderstandings, and wastefulness are
+avoided, and the hope of a decline in conditions of poverty increases.
+
+There are limits, however, to the ability of private agencies to
+control the situation. There are cases where the organized community
+or state must take a hand. There are lazy persons who will not support
+themselves or their families; there are certain persons who are
+chronically ill or dependent; there are various types of defectives
+and delinquents. All these need the authority of the public agencies.
+Then there are constructive activities that require the assistance and
+sanction of government, like parks and playgrounds, industrial
+schools, employment bureaus, the establishment and administration of
+state institutions, and the enforcement of health, sanitary, and
+building laws. Of course there is often inefficiency in government
+management. The local almshouse needs reforming, and the overseers of
+the poor should be trained experts. The organization and
+superintendence of state institutions is not ideal, and building
+arrangements need improvement, but there is a steady gain in the
+efficiency of boards of trustees and local managers. There is a
+willingness to learn from experience and a disposition to raise the
+standards in all departments of administration.
+
+291. =The Social Settlement.=--However efficient an official board may
+be in the discharge of its duties, it cannot expect to call out from
+the beneficiary so enthusiastic a response as can a real friend. The
+best friends of the poor are their neighbors. It is well known that a
+group of families in a tenement house will help one of their number
+that is in specific difficulty, and that the poor give more generously
+to help their own kind than do those who are more well-to-do. It was a
+conviction of these principles of friendliness and neighborliness that
+led to the first social settlements. Because a person lives in an
+undesirable part of the city he is not necessarily a subject for
+charity, and the settlement is in no sense to be thought of as a
+charitable agency. It is a home established among the less-favored
+part of the population by educated, refined, sympathetic people who
+want to be neighborly and to bring courage and cheer and helpfulness
+to the struggling masses. The original residents of Hull House in
+Chicago believed that class alienation could be overcome best by the
+establishment of intimate social relationships, and they were willing
+to sacrifice their natural social advantages for the larger good.
+
+Settlements are not exclusively of the city, but the stress of life is
+sternest in the cities, and most of the experiments have been made
+there. They are oases in the desert of the buildings and pavements of
+brick, with their grime and monotony, and if the people of the desert
+will camp for an hour and drink of the spring, those who have planted
+the oasis will be well pleased. To attract them the settlement workers
+have organized clubs and classes for united study and activity in
+matters that naturally interest the people of the neighborhood; they
+have music and dancing and amateur theatricals, and often they supply
+domestic or industrial training in a small way for the young people
+who frequent the settlement. The residents aim to give the people what
+they want; they do not impose anything upon them. They try to satisfy
+economic and social wants. They try to stimulate the people of the
+neighborhood to desire the best things that they can get. They
+co-operate with the police and other departments of the city
+government, with the library, and with the school. They assist in
+procuring work for those who want it; they encourage the people to be
+thrifty and temperate; they help them to get baths and gymnastic
+facilities, playgrounds, and social centres. They frequently carry on
+investigations that are of great value and assist charitable agencies
+in their inquiries and beneficence. They call frequently upon the
+people in their homes and encourage them to ask for counsel and help
+if they are in trouble.
+
+The settlement idea grew out of a growing interest in the common
+people. It was stimulated by Maurice's establishment at London of a
+working man's college, with recent Cambridge graduates as teachers,
+and by university extension work in Cambridge; it was suggested
+further by the location of Edward Denison in the East End of London in
+1867. In 1885 Canon Barnett, of St. Jude's Church, London, founded
+Toynbee Hall under Oxford auspices. The first settlement in the United
+States was established in New York in 1887, and soon became known as
+the University Settlement. Hull House in Chicago was started two years
+later; the first settlement in Boston was founded under the auspices
+of the Andover Theological Seminary. Most settlements avoid church
+connections, because of the danger of misunderstandings among people
+of widely differing faiths.
+
+The settlement has existed long enough to become a true social
+institution. It has remained true to its original principle of
+neighborliness, but it has increased its activities as occasion
+demanded. It has been a useful object-lesson to churches and city
+governments; some of its methods have been imitated, and in some of
+the cities its efforts have become unnecessary in certain directions
+because the city government itself has adopted its plans. The
+settlement has its critics and its devoted supporters; it is one of
+the voluntary experiments that shows the spirit of its promoters and
+that helps along social progress, and it must be estimated among the
+assets of a community. Here and there in the country among certain
+groups, as lumbermen, miners, or construction workers, or even in a
+settled town, many of the methods of the settlement are likely to find
+acceptance, and the settlement idea of neighborliness is fundamental
+to all happy and successful social life.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEVINE: _Principles of Relief_, pages 10-28, 171-181.
+
+  WARNER: _American Charities_, pages 301-393.
+
+  CONYNGTON: _How to Help_, pages 56-219.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Modern Methods of Charity_, pages 380-511.
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Settlements._
+
+  ADDAMS: _Twenty Years at Hull House_, pages 89-153.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES
+
+
+292. =The Schools of the City.=--An important function of city
+government and of other institutions is the education of the people
+who make their home in the city or come to it to broaden their
+culture. The city provides for its young people as the country
+community does, by locating school-buildings within convenient reach
+of the people of every district, but on a much larger and usually a
+more efficient scale. Better trained teachers, better grading, a more
+modern equipment and well-proved methods give an advantage in
+education to the city child, though there are drawbacks in overcrowded
+buildings and narrow yards for play. The opportunities for social
+education are broader in the city, for the child comes into contact
+with many types of people, with a great variety of social
+institutions, and with all sorts of activities. It is these
+advantages, together with the higher institutions for study, that
+attract hundreds and sometimes thousands of students to the prominent
+social centres. The colleges and universities, the normal schools, the
+music and art institutes and lecture systems are numerous and attract
+correspondingly.
+
+293. =The Press as an Educator.=--The institutions directly concerned
+with instruction are supplemented by other educational agencies. Among
+these is the press. The press is an institution that exerts a mighty
+force upon every department of the city's life. It is at the same time
+a business enterprise and a social institution. It is a public
+misfortune that the newspaper, the magazine, and the book publishing
+house is a private business undertaking, and often stands for class,
+party, or sectarian interests before those of the whole of society.
+There is always a temptation to sacrifice principle to policy, to
+publish distorted or half-true statements from selfish interest, and
+to prostitute influence to individuals or groups that care little for
+the public welfare. The publication of a statement or narrative of a
+crime or other misdemeanor tends by suggestion to the imitation of the
+wrong by others; it is a well-known fact that a sensational story of
+suicide or murder is likely to provoke others in the same manner. It
+is a grave question whether the realistic fiction so much in vogue and
+published in such quantities is not a baneful text-book on modern
+society. But when it chooses the press becomes an instrument of
+immense value to the public. It can turn the light of publicity on
+dark and dirty places. It can and does provide a means of wise
+utterance on questions of the day. It keeps a record of the good as
+well as the evil that is done. It is a means of communication between
+local groups everywhere, for it publishes what everybody wants to know
+about everybody else. It introduces the antipodes to each other, and
+makes it possible for far-sundered groups to unite even
+internationally for a good cause. As the railroad binds together
+portions of a continent, so the press links the minds of human beings.
+
+294. =A Metropolitan Newspaper.=--Take a metropolitan newspaper and
+see how it reflects the current life of society. Economic interests of
+buyer and seller are exploited in the advertising columns. In no other
+way could a merchant so persuasively hawk his wares or a purchaser
+learn so readily about the market. The wholesaler and jobber find
+their interests attended to in special columns provided particularly
+for them. Financial interests are cared for by stock-exchange
+quotations, news items, and advertisements. All kinds of social
+concerns are taken care of in the news columns, items collected at
+great expense from the four quarters of the globe. Gatherings for a
+great variety of purposes are recorded. Educational and religious
+interests are given space, as well as sports and amusements; last
+Sunday's sermon jostles the latest scandal on Monday morning; weather
+probabilities and shipping news have their corners, as well as the
+fashion department and the cartoon. The newspaper is a moving picture
+of the world.
+
+295. =The Value of the Press.=--The most valuable service rendered by
+the press is its education of the public mind, so that public opinion
+may register itself in intelligent action. It provides a forum for the
+discussion of issues that divide sects and parties, and helps to
+preserve religious freedom and popular government. Except that it is
+so frequently trammelled in uttering itself frankly on important
+public questions, it gives an indication of the trend of sentiment and
+so makes possible a forecast of future public action. The very variety
+of printed publications, from the sensational daily sheet to the
+published proceedings of a learned society, insures a healthy
+interchange of ideas that helps to level social inequalities and
+promotes a mutual understanding among all groups and grades of
+society. The cheapened process of book publication on a large scale,
+and the investment of large sums of money in the publishing business,
+with its mechanics of sale management as well as printing, has made
+possible an enormous output of literature on all subjects and has
+widened the range of general information in possession of the public.
+The whole system of modern life would be impossible without the press.
+
+296. =The Library and the Museum.=--In spite of the efficient methods
+used for selling the output of the press, large numbers of books would
+be little read were it not for the collections of books that are
+available to the public, either free or at small cost. The public
+library is an educative agency that serves its constituency as
+faithfully as the school and the press. Its presence for use is one of
+the advantages that the city has over the country, though the public
+library has been extended far within one or two decades. The child
+goes from home to school and widens the circle of his acquaintances in
+the community; through the daily newspaper the adult gets into touch
+with a far wider environment, reaching even across the oceans; in the
+library any person, without respect to age, color, or condition, if
+only he possess the key of literacy to unlock knowledge, can travel to
+the utmost limits of continents and seas, can dig with the geologist
+below the surface, or soar with the astronomer beyond the limits of
+aviation, can hob-nob with ancient worthies or sit at the feet of the
+latest novelist or philosopher, and can learn how to rule empires from
+as good text-books as kings or patriarchs possess.
+
+What the library does for intellectual satisfaction the museum and
+art-gallery do for aesthetic appreciation. They make their appeal to
+the love of beauty in form, color, or weave, and call out oftentimes
+the best efforts of an individual's own genius. Often the gift of one
+or more public-spirited citizens, they register a disposition to serve
+society that is sometimes as useful as charity. Philanthropy that
+uplifts the mind of the recipient is as desirable as benevolence that
+plans bodily relief; the soul that is filled has as much cause to
+bless its minister as the stomach that is relieved of hunger. The
+picture-galleries of Europe, the tapestries, the metal and wood work,
+the engravings, and the frescoes, are the precious legacy of the past
+to the present, not easily reproduced, but serving as a continual
+incentive to modern production. They set in motion spiritual forces
+that uplift and expand the human mind and spur it to future
+achievement.
+
+297. =Music and the Drama.=--Music and the drama have a similar
+stimulating and refining influence when they are not debauched by a
+sordid commercialism. They strengthen the noblest impulses, stir the
+blood to worthy deeds by their rhythmic or pictorial influence, unite
+individual hearts in worship or play, throb in unison with the
+sentiments that through all time have swayed human life. Often they
+have catered to the lower instincts, and have served for cheap
+amusement or entertainment not worth while, but concert-hall and
+theatre alike are capable of an educative work that can hardly be
+equalled elsewhere. When in combination they appeal to both eye and
+ear, they provide avenues for intellectual understanding and activity
+that neither school nor press can parallel. Recent mechanical
+inventions, such as automatic musical instruments and moving pictures,
+have added greatly to the range and effectiveness of music and the
+drama, but they only intensify and popularize the appeal to the
+senses. It is to be remembered that individual and social stimuli must
+be varied enough to touch men at all points and call out a response
+from every faculty of their nature. These arts, therefore, that make
+life real and socialize it and cheer men and women on their way, play
+a vital part in the education of society and deserve as serious
+consideration as the other educational agencies and institutions that
+find a place in the social economy of the community. Numerous amateur
+musical and dramatic societies testify to the interest of the people
+in these refined arts.
+
+298. =The Need of Social Centres.=--Books and pictures, music and the
+drama are so many mild stimulants to those who use and appreciate
+them, but there are large numbers of people who rarely read anything
+but the newspaper, and who attend only cheap entertainments. These
+people need a spur to high thoughts and noble action, but they do not
+move in the world of culture. They need a stronger stimulant, the tang
+of virile debate about questions that touch closely their daily
+concerns, discussions in which they can share if they feel disposed.
+In large circles of the city's population there is a lack of
+facilities for such public discussion, and for that reason the people
+fall back on the prejudices of the newspapers for the formation of
+their opinions on public questions. Disputes sometimes wax warm in the
+saloon about the merits of a pugilist or baseball-player; questions of
+the rights of labor are aired in the talk of the trade-union
+headquarters; but the vital issues of city, state, and nation, and the
+underlying principles that are at stake find few avenues to the minds
+of the mass of the people. In the country the town meeting or the
+gathering at the district schoolhouse provides an occasional
+opportunity, or the grange meeting supplies a forum for its members,
+but even there the rank and file of the people do not talk over large
+questions often enough. In the city the need is great.
+
+299. =The City Neighborhood.=--It is well understood that large cities
+have most of their public buildings and business structures in one
+quarter, and their residences in another; also that the character of
+the residential districts varies according to the wealth and culture
+of their inhabitants or the nationality and occupation to which they
+belong. The city is a coalition of semidetached groups, each of which
+has a unity of its own. The necessities of work draw all the people
+together down-town along the lines of streets and railways; now and
+then the different classes are shaken together in elevators and
+subways; but when they are free to follow their own volition they flow
+apart. Those who are on terms of intimacy live in a neighboring
+street; the grocer from whom they buy is at the corner; the school
+where their children go is within a few blocks; the theatre they
+patronize or the church they attend is not far away; the physician
+they employ lives in the neighborhood. Except the few who get about
+easily in their own conveyances and have a wide acquaintance, city
+dwellers have all but their business interests in the district in
+which they live, and which is seldom over a square mile in extent.
+
+Some municipalities are coming to see that each district is a
+neighborhood in itself and needs all the democratic institutions of a
+neighborhood. Among these belongs the assembly hall for free speech.
+It may well become a centre for a variety of social purposes, but it
+is fundamentally important that it provide a forum for public
+discussion. As the rich man has his club where he may meet the
+globetrotter or the leader of public affairs distinguished in his own
+country, and as the woman's club of high-minded women has its own
+lecturers and celebrities of all kinds, so the working man and his
+wife have a right to come into contact with stimulating personalities
+who will talk to them and to whom they can talk back.
+
+300. =Forum for Public Discussion.=--Such democratic gatherings fall
+into two classes. There is the public lecture or address, after which
+an opportunity for questions and public discussion is given, and there
+is the neighborhood forum or town meeting, at which a question of
+general interest is taken up and debated in regular parliamentary
+fashion. In a number of cities both plans have been adopted. On a
+Sunday afternoon or evening, or at a convenient time on another
+evening of the week, a popular speaker addresses the audience on a
+theme of social interest, after it has been entertained for a half
+hour with music; following the address a brief intermission allows for
+relaxation, and then for an hour the question goes to the house, and
+free discussion takes place under the direction of the leader of the
+meeting. Sometimes series of this sort are supplied by churches or
+other social organizations; in that case many of the speakers are
+clergymen, and in some forums the topics are connected with religious
+or strictly moral interests; but even then the discussion is on the
+broad plane of the common concerns of humanity, and there is a zest to
+the occasion that the ordinary religious gathering does not inspire.
+The second plan is modelled after the old-fashioned town meeting that
+was transplanted from the mother country to New England, and has
+spread to other parts of the United States. It is a gathering of all
+who wish to discuss freely some question that interests them all, and
+it is more strictly co-operative than the first plan, for there is no
+one speaker to contribute the main part of the debate, but each may
+make his own contribution, and by the power of his own persuasion win
+for his argument the decision of the meeting. Besides stimulating the
+interest of those who take part, such a debate is a most effective
+educator of the public mind in matters of social weal.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HENDERSON: _Social Elements_, pages 228-253.
+
+  KING: _Social Aspects of Education_, pages 65-97, 264-290.
+
+  WARD: _The Social Center_, pages 212-251.
+
+  WOLFE: _The Lodging House Problem_, pages 109-114.
+
+  _Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association,
+      1905_, pages 644-650, "Music as a Factor in Culture."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+THE CHURCH
+
+
+301. =The Place of the Church in the Urban Community.=--In the city,
+as in the country, the religious instinct expresses itself socially
+through the institution of the church or synagogue. Spiritual force
+cannot be confined within the limits of a single institution; religion
+is a dynamic that permeates the life of society; yet in this age of
+specialization, and especially in a country like the United States,
+where religion is a voluntary affair, not to be entangled with the
+school or the State, religion has naturally exerted its influence most
+directly through the church. Charity and settlement workers are
+inspired by a religion that makes humanitarianism a part of its creed,
+and a large majority of them are church members, but as a rule they do
+not attempt to introduce any religious forms or exercises into their
+programmes. Most public-school teachers have their religious
+connections and recognize the important place of religion in moulding
+character, but religious teaching is not included in the curriculum
+because of the recognized principle of complete religious liberty and
+the separation of church and state. The result has been that religion
+is not consciously felt as a vital force among many people who axe not
+directly connected with an ecclesiastical institution. Those who are
+definitely connected with the church in America contribute voluntarily
+to its expenses, sometimes even at personal sacrifice. Most people who
+have little religious interest realize the value of the mere presence
+of a meeting-house in the community as a reminder of moral obligations
+and an insurance against disorder. Its spire seems to point the way to
+heaven, and to make a mute appeal to the best motives and the highest
+ideals. The decline of the church is, therefore, regarded as a sign of
+social degeneracy.
+
+302. =Worship and Church Attendance.=--The church exists in the city
+because it has certain specific functions to perform. To maintain
+public worship, to persuade to definite convictions and inspire to
+noble conduct, to furnish religious education, and to promote social
+reform are its essential responsibilities. Worship is a natural
+attitude to the individual who is prompted by a desire to adjust
+himself to the universe and to obtain the peace of mind that follows
+upon the establishment of a right relationship. To most people it is
+easier to get into the proper atmosphere and spirit of worship in a
+public assembly, and they therefore are accustomed to meet at stated
+intervals and bow side by side as if in kinship together before the
+Unseen. Long-established habit and a superstitious fear of the
+consequences that may follow neglect keep some persons regular in
+church attendance when they have no sense of spiritual satisfaction in
+worship. Others go to church because of the social opportunities that
+are present in any public gathering.
+
+In recent years church attendance has not kept pace with the
+increasing population of the city. A certain pride of intellect and a
+feeling of security in the growing power of man over nature has
+produced an indifference to religion and religious teachers.
+Multiplicity of other interests overshadows the ecclesiastical
+interests of the aristocracy; fatigue and hostility to an institution
+that they think caters to the rich keeps the proletariat at home. In
+addition the tendency of foreigners is to throw off religion along
+with other compulsory things that belonged to the Old World life and
+to add to the number of the unchurched.
+
+303. =Evangelism and the History of Religious Conviction.=--A second
+function of the church is to exert spiritual and moral suasion. It is
+a social instinct to communicate ideas; language developed for that
+purpose. It is natural, therefore, that a church that has definite
+ideas about human obligation toward God and men should try to
+influence individuals and even send out evangelists and missionaries
+to propagate its faith widely. Those churches that think alike have
+organized into denominations, and have arranged extensive propaganda
+and trained and ordained their preachers to reason with and persuade
+their auditors to receive and act upon the message that is spoken.
+Several of the large cities of the United States contain
+denominational headquarters where world-wide activities receive
+direction, veritable dynamos for the generation of one of the vital
+forces of society.
+
+The convictions that prompt evangelism and missionary zeal are the
+result of centuries of race experience. The Catholic, the Protestant,
+and the Jewish churches have all grown out of religious experience and
+religious thinking that have their roots in early human history. The
+very forms of worship and of creed that constitute the framework of
+religion in a modern city church date far back in their origins. The
+religious instinct appears to be common to the whole human race. In
+primitive times religious interest was prompted by fear, and the early
+customs of sacrifice and worship were established by the group to
+bring its members into friendly relations with the Power outside
+themselves that might work to their undoing. Temples and shrines
+testified to man's devotion and stirred his emotions by their symbols
+and ceremonies. A special class of men was organized, a priesthood to
+mediate with the gods for mankind. Children were taught to respect and
+fear the higher powers, and their elders were often warned not to stir
+the anger of deity. As the human mind developed, impulse and emotion
+were supplemented by intellect. As man ruminated upon nature and human
+experience he was satisfied that there was intelligence and power in
+the universe, divine personality similar to but greater than himself,
+and his reason sanctioned the religious acts to which he had become
+accustomed. He added a creed to his cult. He did not associate his
+moral ideas and habits with his religious obligations; these ideas and
+habits grew out of the customs that had been found to work best in
+social relations. Pagan religions were slow to develop any kinship
+between religion and morals. It was among the Hebrews that the loftier
+idea of a God of holiness and justice, who demanded right and kindly
+conduct among men, came into prominence, and a few religious prophets
+went so far as to declare that sacrifice was less important than
+conduct. The fundamental teachings of Christianity were based on the
+same conception of social duty and on the religious conception of God
+as benevolent and loving, calling out loving fealty of heart rather
+than external rite and sacrifice. In Christian times religion has
+become a spiritual and moral motive power throughout the world.
+
+304. =Church Organization.=--Throughout its long history society has
+adjusted the organization of its religious activities to social custom
+and social need. The church in any country is a name for an organized
+system, with its nerve-centres and its ganglia ramifying into the
+remotest localities. In the local community it binds together its
+members in mutual relations, even though they live on different sides
+of a city, or even in the suburbs. It has its relations to young and
+old, and plans for the spiritual welfare of human beings of every age
+through its boards and committees, classes and clubs. It presents a
+variety of group types to match the inclinations and opinions of
+different types of mind. One type is that of a closely knit,
+centralized organization, claiming ecclesiastical authority over
+individual opinions and practices on the principle that religion is a
+static thing, a law fixed in the eternal order, and not to be improved
+upon or questioned. Another type is that of loosely federated
+ecclesiastical units, flexible in organization and creed, cherishing
+religion as a dynamic thing, suiting itself to the changing mind of
+man and adjusting itself to individual and social need. It is a social
+law that both theology and organization conform in a degree to the
+prevailing social philosophy and constitution, and therefore no type
+can remain unchanged, but relatively one is always conservative and
+the other always liberal, with a blending of types between the two
+extremes. Denominational divisions are due partly to variety of
+opinion, partly to ancestry, and partly to historical circumstance;
+some of these divisions are international in extent; but through every
+communion runs the line of cleavage between conservatism and
+liberalism in the interpretation of custom and creed. The tendency of
+the times is to minimize differences and to bring together divergent
+types in federation or union on the ground that the church needs unity
+in order to use its strength, and that religion can exert its full
+energy in the midst of society only as the friction of too much
+machinery is removed.
+
+305. =Religious Education.=--A third function of the church is
+religious education. This function of education in religion belongs
+theoretically to the church, in common with the home and the school,
+but the tendency has been to turn the religious education of children
+over to the school of the church. The minister, priest, or rabbi is
+the chief teacher of faith and duty, but in the Sunday-school the
+laity also has found instruction of the young people to be one of its
+functions. Instruction by both of these is supplemented by schools of
+a distinctly religious type and by a religious press. As long as
+society at large does not undertake to perform this function of
+religious education, the church conceives it to be one of its chief
+tasks to teach as well as to inspire the human will, by interpreting
+the best religious thought that the centuries of history have handed
+down, and for this purpose it uses the latest scientific knowledge
+about the human mind and tries to devise improved methods to make
+education more effective. Education is the twin art of evangelization.
+
+306. =Promotion of Social Reform.=--As an institution hoary with age,
+the church is naturally conservative, and it has been slow to champion
+the various social reforms that have been proposed as panaceas. It has
+been quite as much concerned with a future existence as with the
+present, and has been prompt to point to heavenly bliss as a balance
+for earthly woe. It has concerned itself with the soul rather than the
+body, and with individual salvation rather than social reconstruction.
+It is only within a century that the modern church has given much
+attention to promoting social betterment as one of its principal
+functions, but within a few years the conscience of church people has
+been goading them to undertake a campaign of social welfare. Other
+institutions have needed the help of the church, and in some cases the
+church has had to take upon itself the burden that belonged to other
+organizations; moral movements, like temperance, have asked for the
+powerful sanction of religion, and the church has used its influence
+to persuade men. What has been spontaneous and intermittent is now
+becoming regular and continuous, until a social gospel is taking its
+place alongside individual evangelism. The Biblical phrase, "the
+kingdom of God," is being interpreted in terms of an improved social
+order. Religion, therefore, becomes a present-day force for progress,
+and the church an agency for social uplift.
+
+307. =Adapting the Church to the Twentieth Century City.=--The church
+in the country has a comparatively simple problem of existence. It
+fits into the social organization of the community, and in most cases
+seldom has to readjust itself by radical changes to fit a swift change
+in the community. It is different with the church in the city. Urban
+growth is one of the striking phenomena of recent decades; local
+churches find themselves caught in the swirl, grow rapidly for a time,
+and then are left high and dry as the current sweeps the crowd farther
+along. Often the particular type that it represents is not suited to
+the newer residents who settle in the section where the church stands.
+It has the option of following the crowd or attempting a readjustment.
+To decamp is usually the easier way; readjustment is often so
+difficult as to be almost impossible. Financial resources have been
+depleted. The existing organization is not geared to the customs of
+the newcomers. Forms of worship must be improved if the church is to
+function satisfactorily. The popular appeal of religion must be
+couched in a new phraseology, often in a new language. Religious
+educational methods must be revised. Social service must be fitted to
+the new need. Small groups of workers must be organized to manage
+classes and clubs, and to get into personal contact with individuals
+whose orbit is on a different plane. The church must become a magnet
+to draw them within the influence of religion. It finds itself
+compelled to adopt such methods as these if it is not to become a mere
+survival of a better day.
+
+If, however, a locally disabled church can call upon the resources of
+a whole denomination, it may be able to make the necessary adjustments
+with ease, or even to continue its spiritual ministry along the old
+lines by means of subsidies. It is reasonable to believe that society
+will find a way to adjust the church to the needs of city people. It
+cannot afford to do without it. The church has been the conserver and
+propagator of spiritual force. It has supplied to thousands of persons
+the regenerative power of religion that alone has matched the
+degenerating influence of immoral habits. It has produced auxiliary
+organizations, like the Young Men's Christian Association and the
+Young Women's Christian Association. It has found a way, as in the
+Salvation Army, to get a grip upon the weak-willed and despairing.
+Missions and chapels in the slums and synagogues in the ghettos have
+carried religion to the lowest classes. These considerations argue for
+a wider co-operation among city people in strengthening an institution
+that represents social idealism.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  TRAWICK: _The City Church and Its Social Mission_, pages 14-22,
+      50-76, 95-99, 122-160.
+
+  STRAYER: _Reconstruction of the Church_, pages 161-249.
+
+  MENZIES: _History of Religion_, pages 19-78.
+
+  RAUSCHENBUSCH: _Christianizing the Social Order_, pages 7-29,
+      96-102.
+
+  MCCULLOCH: _The Open Church for the Unchurched_, pages 33-164.
+
+  COE: _Education in Religion and Morals_, pages 373-388.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+THE CITY IN THE MAKING
+
+
+308. =Experimenting in the Mass.=--The modern city is a gigantic
+social experiment. Never before have so many people crowded together,
+never has there been such a close interlocking of economic and social
+and religious associations, never has there been such ease of
+communication and transit. Modern invention has given its aid to the
+natural effort of human beings to get together. The various interests
+that produce action have combined to make settlement compact. The city
+is a severe test of human ability to live peaceably and co-operatively
+at close quarters. In the country an unfriendly man can live by
+himself much of the time; in the city he is continually feeling
+somebody's elbows in his ribs. It is not strange that there is as yet
+much crudeness about the city. Its growth has been dominated by the
+economic motive, and everything has been sacrificed to the desire to
+make money. Dirty slums, crowded tenements, uncouth business blocks,
+garish bill-boards and electric signs, dumped rubbish on vacant lots,
+constant repairs of streets and buildings--these all are marks of
+crudity and experimentation, evidences that the city is still in the
+making. Many of the weaknesses that appear in urban society can be
+traced to this situation as a cause. The craze for amusement is partly
+a reaction from the high speed of modern industry, but partly, also, a
+social delirium produced by the new experience of the social whirl.
+Naturally more serious efforts are neglected for a time, and
+institutions of long standing, like the family, threaten to go to
+pieces. A thought-provoking lecture or a sermon on human obligation
+does not fit in with the mood of the thousands who walk or ride along
+the streets, searching for a sensation. The student who looks at
+urban society on the surface easily becomes pessimistic.
+
+309. =Reasons for Optimism.=--This new experience of society will run
+its course. Undoubtedly there will go with it much of social loss, but
+there is firm ground for believing that there will be more of social
+gain. It is quite necessary for human beings to learn to associate
+intimately, for population is steadily increasing and modern
+civilization makes all classes and all nations more and more dependent
+on one another. The pace of life will slow down after a time, there
+will be less of social intoxication, and men and women will take their
+pleasures more sanely. Eventually they will listen to a message that
+is adapted to them, however serious it may be. One of the most hopeful
+factors in the situation is the presence of individuals and organized
+groups who are able to diagnose present conditions, and who are
+working definitely for their improvement. Much of modern progress is
+conscious and purposeful, where formerly men lived blindly, subject,
+as they believed, to the caprice of the gods. We know much about
+natural law, and lately we have learned something about social law;
+with this knowledge we can plan intelligently for the future. There is
+less excuse for social failure than formerly. Cities are learning how
+to make constructive plans for beautifying avenues and residential
+sections, and making efficient a whole transportation system; they
+will learn how to get rid of overcrowding, misery, and disease. What
+is needed is the will to do, and that will come with experience.
+
+310. =Reasonable Expectations of Improvement.=--Any soundly
+constructive plan waits on thorough investigation. Such an
+organization as the Russell Sage Foundation, which is gathering all
+sorts of data about social conditions, is supplying just the
+information needed on which to base intelligent and effective action.
+On this foundation will come the slow process of construction. There
+will be diffusion of information, an enlistment of those who are able
+to help, and an increased co-operation among the numerous agencies of
+philanthropy and reform. The most obvious evils and those that seem
+capable of solution will be attacked first. Intelligent public opinion
+will not tolerate the continued existence of curable ills. Pure water,
+adequate sewerage, light, and air, and sanitary conveniences in every
+home will be required everywhere. Community physicians and nurses will
+be under municipal appointment to see that health conditions are
+maintained, and to instruct city families how to live properly.
+Vocational schools and courses in domestic science will prepare boys
+and girls for marriage and the home, and will tend to lessen poverty.
+Undoubtedly the time will come when it will be seen clearly that the
+interests of society demand the segregation of those who cannot take
+care of themselves and are an injury to others. Hospitals and places
+of detention for mental and moral defectives, and the victims of
+chronic vice and intemperance, as well as criminals of every sort,
+will seem natural and necessary. Larger questions of immigration,
+industrial management, and municipal administration will be studied
+and gradually solved by the united wisdom of city, state, and nation.
+
+311. =Agencies of Progress and Gains Achieved.=--An examination of
+what has been achieved in this direction by almost any one of the
+larger cities in the United States shows encouraging progress. Smaller
+cities and even villages have made use of electricity for lighting,
+transportation, and telephone service. The water and sewerage systems
+of larger centres are far in advance of what they were a few years
+ago. Bathrooms with open plumbing and greater attention to the
+preservation of health have supplemented more thorough efforts to the
+spread of communicable diseases. Increasing agitation for more
+practical education has led to the creation of various kinds of
+vocational schools, including a large variety of correspondence
+schools for those who wish specific training. There are still
+thousands of boys and girls who enter industrial occupations in the
+most haphazard way, and yield to irrational impulse in choosing or
+giving up a particular job or a place to live in; similar impulse
+induces them to mate in the same haphazard way, and as lightly to
+separate if they tire of each other; but the very fact that
+enlightened public opinion does not countenance these practices, that
+there are social agencies contending against them, and that they are
+contrary to the laws of happiness, of efficiency, and even of
+survival, makes it unlikely that such irrational conduct can persist.
+As for the social ills that have seemed unavoidable, like sexual vice,
+current investigation and agitation, followed by increasing
+legislation and segregation of the unfit, promises to work a change,
+however gradual the process may be. Numerous organizations are at work
+in the fields of poverty, immigration, the industrial problem, reform
+of government, penology, business, education, and religion, and
+thousands of social workers are devoting their lives to the betterment
+of society.
+
+312. =Conference and Co-operation.=--Improvement will be more rapid
+when the various agencies of reform have learned to pull together more
+efficiently. It is frequently charged that the friction between
+different temperance organizations has delayed progress in solving the
+problem of intemperance. It is often said that there would be less
+poverty if the various charitable agencies would everywhere organize
+and work in association. The independent temper of Americans makes it
+difficult to work together, but co-operation is a sound sociological
+principle, and experience proves that such principles must be obeyed.
+If the principle of combination that has been applied to business
+should be carried further and applied to the problems of society,
+there can be no question that results would speedily justify the
+action. Perhaps the greatest need in the city to-day is a union of
+resources. If an honest taxation would furnish funds, if the best
+people would plan intelligently and unselfishly for the city's future
+development, if boards and committees that are at odds would get
+together, there is every reason to think that astonishing changes for
+the better would soon be seen.
+
+Suppose that in every city of our land representatives of the chamber
+of commerce, of the city government, of the associated charities, of
+the school-teachers, of the ministers of the city, of the women's
+clubs, of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Young Women's
+Christian Association, of the labor-unions, and of the agencies that
+cater to amusement should sit together once in two weeks in conference
+upon the interests of all the people of the city, and should honestly
+and frankly discuss the practical questions that are always at the
+fore in public discussion, and then should report back for further
+conference in their own groups, there can be no doubt that the various
+groups would have a far better understanding and appreciation of one
+another, and in time would find ways and means to adopt such a
+programme as might come out of all the discussion.
+
+313. =The Crucial Test of Democracy.=--World events have shown clearly
+since the outbreak of the European war that intelligent planning and
+persistent enforcement of a political programme can long contend
+successfully against great odds, when there is autocratic power behind
+it all. Democracy must show itself just as capable of planning and
+execution, if it is to hold its own against the control of a few,
+whether plutocrats, political bosses, or a centralized state, but its
+power to make good depends on the enlistment of all the abilities of
+city or nation in co-operative effort. There is no more crucial test
+of the ability of democracy to solve the social problems of this age
+than the present-day city. The social problem is not a question of
+politics, but of the social sciences. It is a question of living
+together peaceably and profitably. It involves economics, ethics, and
+sociological principles. It is yet to be proved that society is ready
+to be civilized or even to survive on a democratic basis. The time
+must come when it will, for associated activity under the self-control
+of the whole group is the logical and ethical outcome of sound
+sociological principle, but that time may not be near at hand. If
+democracy in the cities is to come promptly to its own, social
+education will soon change its emphasis from the material gain of the
+individual to co-operation for the social good, and under the
+inspiration of this idea the various agencies will unite for effective
+social service.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  HOWE: _The Modern City and Its Problems_, pages 367-376.
+
+  GOODNOW: _City Government in the United States_, pages 302-308.
+
+  ELDRIDGE: _Problems of Community Life_, pages 3-7.
+
+  ELY: _The Coming City._
+
+  _Boston Directory of Charities_, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+PART V--SOCIAL LIFE IN THE NATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XL
+
+THE BUILDING OF A NATION
+
+
+314. =Questions of the Larger Group.=--In any study of social life we
+have to find a place for larger groups than the family and the
+neighborhood or even the city. There are national units and even a
+certain amount of international unity in the world. How have they come
+to exist? What are the interests that hold them together? What are the
+forms of association that are practicable on such a large scale? Is
+there a tendency to stress the control of the group over its
+individual members, even its aristocracy 01 birth or wealth? These are
+questions that require some sort of an answer. Beyond them are other
+questions concerning the relations between these larger groups. Are
+there common interests or compelling forces that have merged hitherto
+sovereign states into federal or imperial union? Is it conceivable
+that such mutually jealous nations as the European powers may
+surrender willingly their individual interests of minor importance for
+the sake of the larger good of the whole? Can political independence
+ever become subordinate to social welfare? Are there any spiritual
+bonds that can hold more strongly than national ambitions and national
+pride? Such questions as these carry the student of society into a
+wider range of corporate life than the average man enters, but a range
+of life in which the welfare of every individual is involved.
+
+315. =The Significance of National Life.=--The nation is a group of
+persons, families, and communities united for mutual protection and
+the promotion of the general welfare, and recognizing a sovereign
+power that controls them all. Some nations have been organized from
+above in obedience to the will of a successful warrior or peaceful
+group; others have been organized peacefully from below by the
+voluntary act of the people themselves. The nation in its capacity as
+a governing power is a state, but a nation exercises other functions
+than that of control; it exists to promote the common interests of
+mankind over a wider area than that of the local community. The
+historic tendency of nations has been to grow in size, as the
+transmission of ideas has become easy, and the extension of control
+has been made widely possible. The significance of national life is
+the social recognition at present given to community of interest by
+millions of individuals who believe that it is profitable for them to
+live under the same economic regulations, social legislation, and
+educational system, even though of mingled races and with various
+ideals.
+
+316. =How the Nation Developed.=--The nation in embryo can be found in
+the primitive horde which was made up of families related by ties of
+kin, or by common language and customs. The control was held by the
+elderly men of experience, and exercised according to unwritten law.
+The horde was only loosely organized; it did not own land, but ranged
+over the hunting-grounds within its reach, and often small units
+separated permanently from the larger group. When hunting gave place
+to the domestication of animals, the horde became more definitely
+organized into the tribe, strong leadership developed in the defense
+of the tribe's property, and the military chieftain bent others in
+submission to his will. As long as land was of value for pasturage
+mainly, it was owned by the whole tribe in common. When agriculture
+was substituted for the pastoral stage of civilization, the tribe
+broke up by clans into villages, each under its chief and advisory
+council of heads of families. So far the mode of making a living had
+determined custom and organization.
+
+Village communities may remain almost unchanged for centuries, as in
+China, or here and there one of them may become a centre of trade, as
+in mediaeval Germany. In the latter case it draws to itself all classes
+of people, develops wealth and culture, and presently dominates its
+neighbors. Small city states grew up in ancient time along the Nile in
+Egypt, and by and by federated under a particularly able leader, or
+were conquered by the band of an ambitious chieftain, who took the
+title of king. In such fashion were organized the great kingdoms and
+empires of antiquity.
+
+Social disintegration and foreign conquest broke up the great empires,
+and for centuries in the Middle Ages society existed in local groups;
+but common economic and racial interests, together with the political
+ambition of princes and nobles, drew together semi-independent
+principalities and communes, until they became welded into real
+nations. At first the state was monarchical, because a few kings and
+lords were able to dominate the mass, and because strength and
+authority were more needed than privileges of citizenship; then the
+economic interest became paramount, and merchants and manufacturers
+demanded a share in government for the protection of their interests.
+Education improved the general level of intelligence, and invention
+and growing commerce improved the condition of the people until
+eventually all classes claimed a right to champion their own
+interests. The most progressive nations racially, politically, and
+economically, outstripped the others in world rivalry until the great
+modern nations, each with its own peculiar qualities of efficiency,
+overtopped their predecessors of all time.
+
+317. =The Story of the United States.=--The story of national life in
+the United States is especially noteworthy. Within a century and a
+half the people of this country have passed through the economic
+stages, from clearing the forests to building sky-scrapers; in
+government they have grown from a few jealous seaboard colonies along
+the Atlantic to a solidly welded federal nation that stretches from
+ocean to ocean; in education and skill they have developed from
+provincial hand-workers to expert managers of corporate enterprises
+that exploit the resources of the world; and in population they have
+grown from four million native Americans to a hundred million people,
+gathered and shaken together from the four corners of the earth. In
+that century and a half they have developed a new and powerful
+national consciousness. When the British colonies asserted their
+independence, they were held together by their common ambition and
+their common danger, but when they attempted to organize a government,
+the incipient States were unwilling to grant to the new nation the
+powers of sovereignty. The Confederation was a failure. The sense of
+common interest was not strong enough to compel a surrender of local
+rights. But presently it appeared that local jealousies and divisions
+were imperilling the interests of all, and that even the independence
+of the group was impossible without an effective national government.
+Then in national convention the States, through their representatives,
+sacrificed one after another their sovereign rights, until a
+respectable nation was erected to stand beside the powers of Europe.
+It was given power to make laws for the regulation of social conduct,
+and even of interstate commerce, to establish executive authority and
+administrative, judicial, and military systems, and to tax the
+property of the people for national revenue. To these basic functions
+others were added, as common interests demanded encouragement or
+protection.
+
+318. =Tests of National Efficiency.=--Two tests came to the new nation
+in its first century. The first was the test of control. It was for a
+time a question whether the nation could extend its sovereignty over
+the interior. State claims were troublesome, and the selfish interests
+of individuals clashed with revenue officers, but the nation solved
+these difficulties. The second test was the test of unity, and was
+settled only after civil war. Out of the struggle the nation emerged
+stronger than it had ever been, because henceforth it was based on the
+principle of an indissoluble union. With its second century have come
+new tests--the test of absorbing millions of aliens in speech and
+habits, the test of wisely governing itself through an intelligent
+citizenship, the test of educating all of its people to their
+political and social responsibilities. Whether these tests will be
+met successfully is for the future to decide, but if the past is any
+criterion, the American republic will not fail. National structures
+have risen to a certain height and then fallen, because they were not
+built on the solid foundations of mutual confidence, co-operation, and
+loyalty. Building a self-governing nation that will stand the test of
+centuries is possible only for a people that is conscious of its
+community of interests, and is willing to sacrifice personal
+preferences and even personal profits for the common good.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (Abridged Edition), pages
+      3-21.
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 26-48.
+
+  BLUNTSCHLI: _Theory of the State_, pages 82-102.
+
+  MULFORD: _The Nation_, pages 37-60.
+
+  BAGEHOT: _Physics and Politics_, pages 81-155.
+
+  USHER: _Rise of the American People_, pages 151-167, 182-195,
+      269-281.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLI
+
+ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PEOPLE AS A NATION
+
+
+319. =The Reality of the Nation.=--Ordinarily the individual is not
+pressed upon heavily by his national relationships. He is conscious of
+them as he reads the newspaper or goes to the post-office, but except
+at congressional or presidential elections they are not brought home
+to him vividly. He thinks and acts in terms of the community. The
+nation is an artificial structure and most of its operations are
+centralized at a few points. The President lives and Congress meets at
+the national capital. The departments of government are located there,
+and the Supreme Court holds its sessions in the same city. Here and
+there at the busy ports are the custom-houses, with their revenue
+officers, and at convenient distances are district courts and United
+States officers for the maintenance of national order and justice. The
+post-office is the one national institution that is found everywhere,
+matched in ubiquity only by the flag, the symbol of national unity and
+strength. But though not noticeably exercised, the power of the nation
+is very real. There is no power to dispute its legislation and the
+decisions of its tribunals. No one dares refuse to contribute to its
+revenues, whether excise tax or import duties. No one is unaware that
+a very real nation exists.
+
+320. =The Social Nature of the Nation.=--In thinking of the nation it
+is natural to consider its power as a state, but other functions
+belong to it as a social unit that are no less important. Its general
+function is not so much to govern as to promote the general welfare.
+The social nature of national organization is well expressed in the
+preamble to the national Constitution: "We the people of the United
+States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice,
+insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote
+the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves
+and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
+United States of America." The general welfare is a somewhat vague
+term, but it includes all the interests of the people, and so
+indicates the scope of the national function.
+
+321. =The Economic Function.=--The nation has an economic function. It
+is its business to encourage trade by means that seem most likely to
+help, whether by subsidies, tariffs, or expert advice; to protect all
+producers, distributers, and consumers by just laws and tribunals, so
+that unfair privileges shall not be enjoyed by the few at the expense
+of the many, and to provide in every legitimate way for the spread of
+information and for experimentation that agriculture, mining, and
+manufacturing may be improved. Evidences of the attempt of the United
+States to measure up to these responsibilities are the various tariffs
+that have been established for protection as well as revenue, the
+interstate and trade commissions that exist for the regulation of
+business, and the individuals and boards that are maintained for
+acquiring and disseminating information relating to all kinds of
+economic interests. The United States Patent Office encourages
+invention, and American inventors outnumber those of other nations.
+The United States Department of Agriculture employs many experimenters
+and expert agents and even distributes seeds of a good quality, in
+order that one of the most important industries of the American people
+may flourish. At times some of the national machinery has been
+prostituted to private gain, and there is always danger that the
+individual will try to prosper at the expense of society, but the
+people more than ever before are conscious that it is the function of
+the nation to promote the _general_ welfare, and private interests,
+however powerful, must give heed to this.
+
+322. =Manufacturing in Corporations and Associations.=--Back of all
+organization and legislation lies a real national unity, through
+which the nation exercises indirectly an economic function. In spite
+of a popular jealousy of big business in the last decade, there is a
+pride in the ability of American business men to create a profitable
+world commerce, and middle-class people in well-to-do circumstances
+subscribe to the purchase of stocks and bonds in trusted corporations.
+Without this general interest and participation such a rapid extension
+of industrial enterprise could not have taken place. Without the lines
+of communication that radiate from great commercial and financial
+centres, without the banking connections that make it possible for the
+fiscal centres to support any particular institution that is in
+temporary distress, without the consciousness of national solidarity
+in the great departments of business life, economic achievement in
+America would have come on halting feet. This unity is fostered but
+not created by government, and no hostile government can destroy it
+altogether.
+
+To further economic interests throughout the nation all sorts of
+associations exist and hold conventions, from American poultry
+fanciers to national banking societies. Occasionally these
+associations pool their interests and advertise their concerns through
+a national exposition. In this way they find it possible to make an
+impression upon thousands of people whom they are educating indirectly
+through the printing-press. It would be an interesting study and one
+that would throw light on the complexity and ubiquity of national
+relations, if it could be ascertained locally how many individuals are
+connected with such national organizations, and what particular
+associations are most popular. If this examination were extended from
+purely economic organizations to associations of every kind, we should
+be able to gauge more accurately the strength of national influence
+upon social life.
+
+323. =Health Interests.=--If this national unity exists in the
+economic field it is natural to expect to find it in the less material
+interests of society. The sense of common interests is all-pervasive.
+National health conditions bring the physicians together to discuss
+the causes and the therapeutics. How to keep well and to get strong,
+how to dress the baby and to bring up children are perennial topics
+for magazines with a national circulation. Insurance companies with a
+national constituency prescribe physical tests for all classes.
+Government takes cognizance of the physical interest of all its
+citizens, and passes through Congress pure-food and pure-drug acts.
+National societies of a voluntary nature also cater to health and
+happiness. Long-named organizations exist for moral prophylaxis and
+for the prevention of cruelty to children and animals. Vigilance
+associations of all sorts stand guard to keep children and their
+elders from contamination. Society protects itself over wide areas
+through such associated recognition of the mutual interests of all its
+members.
+
+324. =National Sport.=--Recreation and sport also present national
+features. Every new phase of recreation from playgrounds to philately
+presently has its countrywide association. There is a conscious
+reaching out for wide fellowship with those who are interested in the
+same pursuits. The attraction of like-mindedness is a potent force in
+every department of life. Certain forms of relaxation or spirited
+rivalry have attained to the dignity of national sports. England has
+its football, Scotland its golf, Canada its lacrosse, the United
+States its baseball. The enthusiasm and excitement that hold whole
+cities in thrall as a national league season draws to its close, is a
+more striking phenomenon than Roman gladiatorial shows or Spanish
+bull-fights. Persons who seldom if ever attend a game, who do not know
+one player from another, wax eloquent over the merits of a team that
+represents their own city, while individuals who attain to the title
+of "fans" handle familiarly the details of the teams throughout the
+league circuit. Why should Olympic contests held in recent years
+between representatives of different nations, or international tennis
+championships, arouse universal interest? It is inexplicable except as
+evidence of collective consciousness and a national pride and loyalty.
+
+The same spirit has entered into university athletics. The great
+universities have their "rooters" scattered all over the land, and
+the whole nation is interested in the Thames or Henley races and the
+Poughkeepsie regattas. There are intercollegiate tennis championships
+and chess tournaments, football contests between the leaders East and
+West, all-America teams, and even international rivalries.
+
+325. =The Function of Education.=--Nation-wide ties and loyalties in
+sport do not call for the official action of the nation, though
+national officials as individuals are often devoted to certain sports,
+but the nation has other functions that may be classed as social. No
+duty is more pressing, not even that of efficient government, than the
+task of education. The National Bureau of Education supplemented by
+State boards, officially takes cognizance of society's educational
+interests. In education local independence plays a large part, but it
+is the function of government to make inquiry into the best theories
+and methods anywhere in vogue, to extend information to all who are
+interested, and to use its large influence toward the adoption of
+improvements. Government in certain States of the American Union even
+goes so far as to co-operate with local communities in maintaining
+joint school superintendents of towns or counties. It is appropriate
+that a democratic nation should give much attention to the education
+of the people because the success of democracy depends on popular
+intelligence.
+
+The efforts of the government are seconded by voluntary organization.
+It is not unusual for college presidents or ordinary teachers to meet
+in conference and discuss their difficulties and aspirations, but a
+National Education Association is cumulative evidence that Americans
+think in terms of a continent, and that their interests are the same
+educationally in all parts of the land. It is no less true of other
+agencies of culture than the schools. Cultural associations of all
+kinds abound. Some of them are limited by State boundaries, not a few
+are national in their scope. There is a national Chautauqua;
+institutes with the same name hold their sessions all over the land.
+Music, art, and the drama, sometimes the same organized group of
+artists, appeal to appreciative audiences in Boston, New Orleans,
+Chicago, and San Francisco. Popular songs from the opera, popular
+dances from the music-halls sweep the country with a wave of imitative
+enthusiasm. There are national whims and national tastes that chase
+each other from ocean to ocean, almost as fast as the sun moves from
+meridian to meridian.
+
+326. =National Philanthropy.=--So much of national life is voluntary
+in direction and organization in America, as compared with Germany or
+Russia, that it is easy to overlook its national significance. As a
+national state the United States does not attempt philanthropy. The
+separate States have their asylums as they have penitentiaries and
+reformatories, but the nation performs no such function. Yet
+philanthropic organization girdles the continent. The National
+Conference of Charities and Corrections is one instance of a society
+that meets annually in the interest of the depressed classes,
+discusses their problems, and reports its findings to the public as a
+basis for organized activity. Such an organization not only represents
+the humanitarian principles and interest of individuals here and
+there, but it helps to bind together local groups all over the country
+that are working on an altruistic basis. Whole sections of territory
+join in discussing still wider human interests. The Southern
+Sociological Conference appeals to the whole South and calls upon the
+rest of the country for speakers of reputation and wisdom.
+
+327. =The Federal Council of Churches.=--It is fundamental to the
+spirit and word of the American Constitution that church and state
+shall not be united, but this does not prevent religious interests
+from being cherished nationally, and ecclesiastical organizations from
+having national affiliations. Modern churches are grouped first of all
+in denominations, because of certain peculiarities, but most of the
+denominations have spread over the country and propagated their type
+as opportunity offered. National conferences and conventions,
+therefore, take place regularly, bringing together Episcopalians,
+Presbyterians, Baptists, or Methodists, as the case may be, to
+consider the interests that are most vital to the denomination as a
+whole, or which the denomination as a whole, in place of the local
+churches, holds within its sphere of control. Politics and sectional
+interests have sometimes divided denominations, large bodies have
+sometimes split along conservative or radical lines, but the national
+ideal has never been lost sight of, and national organizations enjoy
+dignity and prestige. One of the most recent illustrations of a still
+broader interest and deeper consciousness is the federation of more
+than thirty evangelical Protestant denominations for better
+acquaintance and larger achievement. Temporary movements and even a
+definite Evangelical Alliance have been in evidence before, but now
+has come a permanent organization, to include all the religious
+interests that can be held in common, and especially to stress the
+more ambitious programme of social regeneration. The Federal Council
+of the Churches of Christ in America has yet to prove that it is not
+ahead of the times, but it is an earnest of a religious interest that
+oversteps the bounds of creed and denominational organization and
+calls upon the various divisions of the Protestant Church to unite for
+a national campaign.
+
+328. =The Scope of National Life.=--Social life in the nation is not
+confined to any organization. It does not wait upon government to
+perform its various functions. It goes on because of the constant flow
+and counterflow of population through all the channels of acquaintance
+and correspondence, of travel and trade. People feel the need of one
+another, are in constant touch with one another, and inevitably are
+continually exchanging commodities and ideas. Barriers of race and
+language, of tariff walls and national conventions stand in the way of
+exchange between individuals of different nations, though a strenuous
+commercial age succeeds in making breaches in the barriers, but
+opportunity within the nation is free, and such natural barriers as
+language and race differences speedily give way before the mutual
+desires of the native and the hyphenated American.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 63-115.
+
+  _Reports of the Commissioner of Education._
+
+  _American Year Book_, 1914, _passim._
+
+  WARD: _Year Book of the Church and Social Service_, 1916, pages
+      24-29.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLII
+
+THE STATE
+
+
+329. =The State and Its Sovereignty.=--The various economic and social
+functions that are exercised by the people as a nation can be
+performed in an orderly and effective way only when the people are
+organized politically, and the nation has full powers of sovereignty.
+When the nation functions politically it is a state. States may be
+large like Russia, or small like Montenegro; they may have full
+sovereignty like Great Britain, or limited sovereignty like New York;
+the fact that they exercise political authority makes them states. It
+is conceivable that this political authority may be exercised through
+the sheer force of public opinion, but the experience of the newly
+organized United States under the Articles of Confederation showed
+that national moral suasion was not effective. History seems to prove
+that society needs a machinery of government able to legislate and
+enforce its laws, and the tendency has been for a comparatively small
+number of states to extend their authority over more and more of the
+earth's surface. This has become possible through the maintenance of
+efficient military forces and wise local administration, aided by
+increasing ease of communication and transportation. Once it was a
+question whether the United States could enforce its law as far away
+as western Pennsylvania; now Great Britain bears unquestioned sway
+over the antipodes. Many persons look forward to the time when the
+people of all nations will unite in a universal state, with power to
+enforce its will without resort to war.
+
+330. =Why the State is Necessary.=--There are some persons, commonly
+known as anarchists, who do not believe that government is necessary.
+They would have human relations reduced to their lowest terms, and
+then trust to human nature to behave itself properly. There are other
+persons known as Socialists, who would have the people in their
+collective capacity exercise a larger control than now over human
+action. Neither of these classes represents the bulk of society.
+Common sense and experience together seem to demand a government that
+will exercise a reasonable control, and by reasonable is meant a
+control that will preserve the best interests of all and make general
+progress possible. The political function of the nation is both
+coercive and directive. When we think of a state we naturally think of
+the power that it possesses to make peace or war with foreign powers,
+to keep order within the nation, to enforce its authority over any
+individual or group that breaks the laws that it has made; but while
+such power of control is essential and its exercise often spectacular,
+it is paralleled by the directive power. There are many social
+relations that need definition and much social conduct that needs
+direction. A man and a woman live together and bring up a family of
+children. Who is to determine their legal status, the terms of
+marriage, the rights of parenthood, the claims of childhood, the
+rights and obligations of the family as a part of the community? The
+family accumulates property in lands, houses, and movable possessions.
+Who will make the acquisition legal, insure property protection, and
+provide legally for inheritance? Every individual has his personal
+relation to the state, and privileges of citizenship are important.
+Who shall determine the right to vote and to hold office, or the duty
+to pay taxes or serve in the army or navy? In these various ways the
+state is no less functioning politically for the benefit of the people
+than when coercing recalcitrant citizens, warning or fighting other
+nations, or legislating in its congressional halls. Its opportunity to
+regulate the social interests of its citizens is almost illimitable,
+for while a written constitution may prescribe what a state may and
+may not do, those who made the constitution have the power to revise
+it or to override its provisions.
+
+331. =Theories of the State.=--Archaeological and historical evidence
+point to the family as the nursery of the state. There was a time when
+the contract theory was popular. It was believed that the state became
+possible when individuals agreed to give up some of their own
+individual rights for the sake of living in peace with their neighbors
+and enjoying mutual protection. There is no doubt that such a mutual
+arrangement was made in the troublous feudal period of mediaeval
+European history, just as the original thirteen American colonies gave
+up some of their individual powers to make possible a real American
+state, but the social-contract theory is no longer accepted as a
+satisfactory explanation of the origin of government. There was no
+_Mayflower_ compact with the bushmen when Englishmen decided to live
+with the natives in Australia.
+
+There is another theory that eminently wise men, with or without
+divine assistance, formulated law and government for cities and
+tribes, and that their codes were definitely accepted by the people,
+but the work of these men, as far as it is historical at all, seems to
+have been a work of codifying laws which had grown out of custom
+rather than of making new laws. Still another theory that was once
+held strenuously by a few was that of the divine right of kings, as if
+God had given to one dynasty or one class the right to rule
+irresponsibly over their fellows. Individual political philosophers,
+like the Greek Aristotle and the German Bluntschli have published
+their theories, and have influenced schools of publicists, but the
+political science of the present day, basing its theories on observed
+facts, is content to trace the gradual changes that have taken place
+in the unconscious development of the past, and to point out the
+possibilities of intelligent progress in future evolution.
+
+332. =How the State Came to Be.=--The true story of the development of
+the state seems to have been as follows. The roots of the state are in
+the family group. When the family expanded into the tribe, family
+discipline and family custom easily passed over to tribal discipline
+and tribal custom, strengthened by religious superstition and the
+will of the priest. But not all chieftains and all tribes have the
+same ability or the same disposition, so that while political custom
+and religious sanctions tended in the main to remain unchanged, an
+occasional exception upset the social equilibrium. Race mixture and
+conflicting interests compelled organization on a civil rather than a
+tribal basis. Or an ambitious prince or a restless tribe interfered
+with the established relations, and presently a powerful military
+state was giving law to subjugated tribes. Egypt, Persia, Rome, Turkey
+have been such states. On a larger scale, something of the same sort
+has happened in the conquest of outlying parts of the world by the
+European Powers, until one man in Petrograd can give law to Kamchatka,
+a cabinet in London can determine a policy for the government of
+India, or the United States Congress can change the administration of
+affairs in the Philippines. Military power has been the weapon by
+which authority has been imposed from without, legislative action the
+instrument by which authority has been extended within.
+
+333. =The Government of Great Britain.=--The government of Great
+Britain is one of the best concrete examples of the growth of a
+typical state. Its Teutonic founders learned the rudiments of
+government in the German forests, where the principles of democracy
+took root. Military and political exigencies gave the prince large
+power, but the people never forgot how to exert their influence
+through local assembly or national council. In the thirteenth century,
+when the King displeased the men of the nation, they demanded the
+privileges of Magna Carta, and when King and lords ruled
+inefficiently, the common people found a way to enlarge their own
+powers. Representatives of the townsmen and the country shires took
+their places in Parliament, and gradually, with growing wisdom and
+courage, assumed more and more prerogatives. Three times in the
+seventeenth century Parliament demanded successfully certain rights of
+citizenship, though once it had to fight and once more to depose a
+king. In the nineteenth century, by a succession of reform acts, King
+and Parliament admitted tradesmen, farmers, and working men to a full
+share in the workings of the state, and only recently the Commons have
+supplanted the Lords as the leading legislative body of the nation.
+The story of Great Britain is a tale of growing democracy and
+increasing efficiency.
+
+The story of local government and the story of imperial government
+might be placed side by side with the story of national government,
+and each would reveal the political principles that have guided
+British progress. Social need, patient experiment, and growth in
+efficiency are significant phrases that help to explain the story.
+Every nation has worked out its government in its own way, interfered
+with occasionally by interested parties on the outside, but the
+general line of progress has been the same--local experimentation,
+federation or union more often imposed than agreed upon by popular
+consent, and a slow growth of popular rights over government by a
+privileged few. Present tendency is in the direction of safeguarding
+the interests of all by a fully representative government, in which
+the individual efficiency of prince or commoner alike shall have due
+weight, but no one sovereign or class shall rule the people as a
+whole.
+
+334. =The Organization of Government.=--The political organization
+depends upon the functions that the state has to perform, as the
+structure of any group corresponds to its functions. The modern
+national machinery is a complicated system, and is becoming more so as
+constitutional conventions define more in detail the powers and forms
+of government, and as legislatures enter the field of social reform,
+but the simplest attempt at regulation involves several steps, and so
+naturally there are several departments of government. The first step
+is the election of those who are to make the laws. Practically all
+modern states recognize the principle that the people are at least to
+have a share in government; this is managed by the popular election of
+their representatives in the various departments of government. The
+second step is lawmaking by the representative legislature, congress,
+or parliament, usually after previous deliberation and recommendation
+by a committee; in some states the people have the right by referendum
+to ratify or reject the legislation, and even to initiate such
+legislation as they desire. The third step is the arrangement for
+carrying out the law that has been passed. This is managed by the
+executive department of the government. The fourth step is the actual
+administration of law and government by officials who are sometimes
+elected and sometimes appointed, and who constitute the administrative
+department of the political organization. A fifth step is the passing
+upon law and the relation of an individual or group to it by judicial
+officers attached to a system of courts. These departments of the
+state, with whatever auxiliary machinery has been organized to assist
+in their working, make up the political organization of the typical
+modern state.
+
+335. =The Electoral System.=--There is great variety in the degree of
+self-government enjoyed by the people. In the most advanced nations
+the electoral privileges are widely distributed, in the backward
+nations it is only recently that the people have had any voice in
+national affairs. Usually suffrage is reserved for those who have
+reached adult manhood, but an increasing number of States of the
+American Union and several foreign nations have admitted women to
+equal privileges. Lack of property or education in many countries is a
+bar to electoral privilege. Pauperism and crime and sometimes
+religious heterodoxy disfranchise. The variety and number of officials
+to be elected varies greatly. The head of the nation in the states of
+the Old World generally holds his position by hereditary right, and he
+has large appointive power directly or indirectly. In some states the
+judiciary is appointed rather than elected on the ground that it
+should be above the influence of party politics. The chief power of
+the people is in choosing their representatives to make the laws. Most
+of these representatives are chosen for short terms and must answer to
+the people for their political conduct; by these means the people are
+actually self-governing, though the execution of the law may be in
+the hands of officers whom they have not chosen. Democratic
+government is nevertheless subject to all the forces that affect large
+bodies exerted through party organizations, demagogues, and a party
+press, but even opponents of democracy are willing to admit that the
+people are learning political lessons by experience.
+
+336. =The Legislative System.=--Legislation by representatives of all
+classes of the people is a new political phenomenon tried out most
+thoroughly among the large nations by Great Britain, France, and the
+United States. Even now there is much distrust of the ability of the
+ordinary man in politics, and considerably more of the ordinary woman.
+But there have been so many extraordinary individuals who have risen
+to political eminence from the common crowd, that the legislative
+privilege can no longer be confined to an aristocracy. The old
+aristocratic element is represented to-day by a senate, or upper
+house, composed of men who are prominent by reason of birth, wealth,
+or position, but the upper house is of minor importance. The real
+legislative power rests with the lower chamber, which directly
+represents the middle and lower classes, professional, business, and
+industrial. The action of lawmaking bodies is usually limited in scope
+by the provisions of a written constitution, and is modified by the
+public opinion of constituents. Important among the necessary
+legislation is the regulation of the economic and social relations of
+individuals and corporations, provision for an adequate revenue by
+means of a system of taxation, appropriation for the maintenance of
+departments of government and necessary public works, and the
+determination of an international policy. In the United States an
+elaborate system of checks and balances gives the executive a
+provisional veto on legislation, but gives large advisory powers to
+Congress. In Great Britain the executive is the chief of the dominant
+party in Parliament, and if he loses the confidence of the legislative
+body he loses his position as prime minister unless sustained in a
+national election.
+
+In all legislative bodies there are inevitable differences of opinion
+and conflicts of interests resulting in party divisions and such
+opposite groups as conservatives and radicals. The formulation and
+pursuance of a national policy is, therefore, not an easy task, and
+the conflict of interests often necessitates compromise, so that a
+history of legislation over a series of years shows that national
+progress is generally accomplished by liberalism wresting a modicum of
+power from conservatism, then giving way for a little to a period of
+reaction, and then pushing forward a step further as public opinion
+becomes more intelligent or more courageous.
+
+337. =The Executive Department.=--Legislative bodies occasionally take
+vacations; the executive is always on duty in person or through his
+subordinates. Popularly considered, the executive department of
+government consists of the president, the king, or the prime minister;
+actually it includes an advisory council or cabinet, which is
+responsible to its chief, but shares with him the task of the
+management of national affairs. The executive department of the
+government stands in relation to the people of the nation as the
+business manager of a corporation stands in relation to the
+stockholders. He must see that the will of the people, as expressed by
+their representatives, is carried into effect; he must appoint the
+necessary administrative officials for efficient service; he must keep
+his finger upon the pulse of the nation, and use his influence to hold
+the legislature to its duty; he must approve or veto laws which are
+sent to him to sign; above all, he must represent his nation in all
+its foreign relations, appoint the personnel of the diplomatic force,
+negotiate treaties, and help to form the international law of the
+world. It is the business of the executive to maintain the honor and
+dignity of the nation before the world, and to carry out the law of
+his own nation if it requires the whole military force available.
+
+338. =Administrative Organization.=--The executive department includes
+the advisers of the head, who constitute the cabinet. In Europe the
+cabinet is responsible to the sovereign or the parliament, and the
+members usually act unitedly. In the United States they are appointed
+by the President, and are individually responsible to him alone. In
+their capacity as a cabinet they help to formulate national policy,
+and their influence in legislation and in moulding public opinion is
+considerable, but their chief function is in administering the
+departments of which they have charge. It is the custom for the heads
+of the chief departments of government to constitute the cabinet, but
+their number differs in different states, and titles vary, also. In
+general, the department of state or foreign affairs ranks first in
+importance, and its secretary is in charge of all correspondence with
+the diplomatic representatives of the nation located in the world's
+capitals; the department of the treasury or the exchequer is usually
+next in importance; others are the departments of the army and navy,
+of colonial possessions, of manufacturing and commerce, mining, or
+agriculture, of public utilities, of education or religion, and for
+judicial business. Each of these has its subordinate bureaus and an
+army of civil-service officials, some of whom owe their appointment to
+personal influence, others to real ability. The civil officials with
+which the public is most familiar are postal employees, officers of
+the federal courts, and revenue officials. Such persons usually hold
+office while their party is in power or during good behavior. Long
+tenure of office tends to conservative measures and the spirit of
+bureaucracy, while a system by which civil office is regarded as party
+spoil tends to corruption and inefficiency. The business of
+administration is becoming increasingly important in the modern state.
+
+339. =The Judicial System.=--There is always danger that law may be
+misinterpreted or prove unconstitutional. It is the function of the
+judicial department of government to make decisions, interpreting and
+applying the law of the nation in particular cases brought before the
+courts. The law of the nation is superior to all local or sectional
+law; so is the national judiciary supreme in its authority and
+national in its jurisdiction. The judicial system of the United States
+includes a series of courts from the lowest district courts, which are
+located throughout the country, to the Supreme Court in Washington,
+which deals with the most momentous questions of national law. In the
+United States the judicial system is complicated by a system of lesser
+courts, State and local, independent of federal control, attached to
+which is a body of police, numerous judges, juries, and lawyers; the
+higher courts also have their justices and practising lawyers, but
+there is less haste and confusion and greater dignity and ability
+displayed. There has been much criticism in recent years of antiquated
+forms of procedure, cumbrous precedent, and unfair use of
+technicalities for the defeat of justice, but however imperfect
+judicial practice may be, the system is well intrenched and is not
+likely to be changed materially.
+
+340. =The Relation of National to District Governments.=--In some
+nations there are survivals of older political divisions which once
+possessed sovereignty, but which have sacrificed most, if not all, of
+it for the larger good. This is the case in such federal states as the
+German Empire, Switzerland, and the United States. Each State in the
+American nation retains its own departments of government, and so has
+its governor and heads of departments, its two-chambered legislature,
+and its State judiciary. State law and State courts are more familiar
+to the people than most of the national legislation. In the German
+Empire each state has its own prince, and in many respects is
+self-governing, but has been more and more sinking its own
+individuality in the empire. In the British Empire there is still
+another relation. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were once
+independent of each other, but military and dynastic events united
+them. For local legislation and administration they tend to separate,
+and already Ireland has obtained home rule. Beyond seas a colonial
+empire has arisen, and certain great dominions are united by little
+more than ties of blood and loyalty to the mother country. Canada,
+Australia, and South Africa have gained a larger measure of
+sovereignty. India is held as an imperial possession, but even there
+experiments of self-government are being tried. The whole tendency of
+government, both here and abroad, seems to be to leave matters of
+local concern largely to the local community and matters that belong
+to a section or subordinate state to that district, and to centralize
+all matters of national or interstate concern in the hands of a small
+body of men at the national capital. In every case national or
+imperial authority is the court of last resort.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  BLISS: _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform_, art. "Anarchism."
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 127-234.
+
+  WILSON: _The State_, pages 555-571.
+
+  BLUNTSCHLI: _Theory of the State_, pages 61-73.
+
+  _Constitution of the United States._
+
+  BRYCE: _The American Commonwealth_ (abridged edition), pages
+      22-242, 287-305.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIII
+
+PROBLEMS OF THE NATION
+
+
+341. =Government as the Advance Agent of Prosperity.=--It is common
+philosophy that society owes every man a living, and it seems to be a
+common belief that the government owes every man a job. There are, of
+course, only a few government positions, and these are rushed after by
+a swarm of office-seekers, but campaign orators have talked so much
+about a full dinner pail and the government as the advance agent of
+prosperity, that there seems to be a popular notion that the
+government, as if by a magician's wand, could cure unemployment, allay
+panics, dispel hard times, and increase a man's earning power at will.
+A little familiarity with economic law ought to modify this notion,
+but it is difficult to eradicate it. Society cannot, through any one
+institution, bring itself to perfection; many elements enter into the
+making of prosperity. It depends on individual ability and training
+for industry, on an understanding of the laws of health and keeping
+the body and brain in a state of efficiency, on peaceful relations
+between groups, on the successful balancing of supply and demand, and
+of wages and the cost of living, on personal integrity and group
+co-operation. All that the government can do is to instruct and
+stimulate. This it has been doing and will continue to do with growing
+effectiveness, but it has to feel its way and learn by experience, as
+do individuals.
+
+342. =How It Has Met Its Responsibility.=--This problem of prosperity
+which is both economic and social, is the concern of all the people of
+the nation, and any attempt to solve it in the interest of one section
+or a single group cannot bring success. That is one reason for many of
+the social weaknesses everywhere visible. Government has legislated
+in the interests of a group of manufacturers, or the courts have
+favored the rich, or trusts have been attacked at the demands of a
+reforming party, or labor has been immune from the application of a
+law against conspiracy when corporations were hard hit. These
+weaknesses, which are characteristic of American democracy, find their
+parallels in all countries where modern industrial and social
+conditions obtain. But government has lent its energies to the
+upbuilding of a sound social structure. It has recognized the need of
+education for the youth of the land at a minimum cost, and the States
+of the American Union have made liberal grants for both academic and
+special training to their State universities, agricultural colleges,
+and normal schools. It encourages the country people to enrich their
+life and to increase their earnings for their own sake and for the
+prosperity of the people who are dependent upon them. It stimulates
+improved processes in manufacturing and mining, and protects business
+against foreign competition by a tariff wall; it tries to prevent
+recurring seasons of financial panics by a stable currency and the
+extension of credits. It provides the machinery for settling labor
+difficulties by conciliation and arbitration, and tries to mediate
+between gigantic combinations of trade and transportation and the
+public. It has pensioned liberally its old soldiers. It has attempted
+to find a method of taxation that would not bear heavily on its
+citizens, but that at the same time would provide a sufficient revenue
+to meet the enormous expense of catering to the multifarious interests
+of a population of a hundred million people.
+
+343. =The Problem of Democracy.=--The problem of prosperity is
+complicated by the problem of democracy. If by a satisfactory method a
+body of wise men could be selected to study carefully each specific
+problem involved, could experiment over a term of years in the
+execution of plans worked out free from fear of being thrown out at
+any time as the result of elective action by an impatient people,
+prosperity might move on more rapid feet. In a country where power is
+in the hands of a few a specific programme can be worked out without
+much friction and rapid industrial and social progress can be made, as
+has been the case during the last fifty years in Germany; but where
+the masses of the people must be consulted and projects depend for
+success upon their sustained approval, progress is much more spasmodic
+and uncertain. Everything depends on an intelligent electorate,
+controlled by reason rather than emotion and patient enough to await
+the outcome of a policy that has been inaugurated.
+
+This raises the question as to the education of the electorate or the
+establishment of an educational qualification, as in some States. Is
+there any way by which the mass of the working people, who have only
+an elementary education, and never see even the outside of a State
+university, can be made intelligent and self-restrained? They will not
+read public documents, whether reports of expert commissions or
+speeches in Congress. Shall they be compelled to read what the
+government thinks is for their good, or be deprived of the suffrage as
+a penalty? They get their political opinions from sensational
+journals. Shall these publications be placed under a ban and the
+nation subsidize its own press? These are questions to be considered
+by the educational departments of State and nation, with a view to a
+more intelligent citizenship. Democracy cannot be said to be a
+failure, but it is still a problem. Government will not be any better
+than the majority of the citizens want it to be; hence its standards
+can be raised only as the mental and moral standards of the electorate
+are elevated. Education, a conscious share in the responsibility of
+legislation, and sure justice in all controverted cases, whether of
+individuals or classes, are necessary elements in winning even a
+measure of success.
+
+344. =The Race Problem.=--The difficulties of American democracy are
+enormously enhanced by the race problem. If common problems are to be
+solved, there must be common interests. The population needs to be
+homogeneous, to be seeking the same ends, to be conscious of the same
+ideals. Not all the races of the world are thus homogeneous; it would
+be difficult to think of Englishmen, Russians, Chinese, South
+Americans, and Africans all working with united purpose, inspired by
+the same ideals, yet that is precisely what is expected in America
+under the tutelage and leadership of two great political parties, not
+always scrupulous about the methods used to obtain success at the
+polls. It is rather astonishing that Americans should expect their
+democracy to work any better than it does when they remember the
+conditions under which it works. To hand a man a ballot before he
+feels himself a part of the nation to which he has come, before he is
+stirred to something more than selfish achievement, before he is
+conscious of the real meaning of citizenship, is to court disaster,
+yet in being generous with the ballot the people of America are arming
+thousands of ignorant, irresponsible immigrants with weapons against
+themselves.
+
+The race problem of America is not at all simple. It is more than a
+problem of immigration. The problem of the European immigrant is one
+part of it. There is also the problem of the relation of the American
+people to the yellow races at our back door, and the problem of the
+negro, who is here through no fault of his own, but who, because he is
+here, must be brought into friendly and helpful relation with the rest
+of the nation.
+
+345. =The Problem of the European Immigrant.=--The problem of the
+European immigrant is one of assimilation. It is difficult because the
+alien comes in such large numbers, brings with him a different race
+heritage, and settles usually among his own people, where American
+influence reaches him only at second hand. Environment may be expected
+to change him gradually, the education of his children will modify the
+coming generation, but it will be a slow task to make him over into an
+American in ideals and modes of thinking, as well as in industrial
+efficiency, and in the process the native American is likely to suffer
+loss in the contact, with a net lowering of standards in the life of
+the American people. To see the danger is not to despair of escaping
+it. To understand the danger is the first step in providing a
+safeguard, and to this end exact knowledge of the situation should be
+a part of the teaching of the schools. To seek a solution of the
+problem is the second step. The main agency is education, but this
+does not mean entirely education in the schools. Education through
+social contact is the principal means of assimilating the adult; for
+this purpose it is desirable that some means be found for the better
+distribution of the immigrant, and as immigration is a national
+problem, it is proper for the national government to attack that
+particular phase of it. Then it belongs to voluntary agencies, like
+settlements, churches, and philanthropic and educational societies to
+give instruction in the essentials of language, civics, industrial
+training, and character building. For the children the school provides
+such education, but voluntary agencies may well supplement its secular
+training with more definite and thorough instruction in morals and
+religion. It cannot be expected that the immigrant problem will settle
+itself; at least, a purposeful policy wisely and persistently carried
+out will accomplish far better and quicker results. Nor is it an
+insoluble problem; it is not even necessary that we should severely
+check immigration. But there is need of intelligent and co-operative
+action to distribute, educate, and find a suitable place for the
+immigrant, that he may make good, and to devise a restrictive policy
+that will effectually debar the most undesirable, and will hold back
+the vast stream of recent years until those already here have been
+taken care of.
+
+346. =The Problem of the Asiatic Immigrant.=--The problem of the
+Asiatic immigrant is quite different. It is a problem of race conflict
+rather than of race assimilation. The student of human society cannot
+minimize the importance of race heredity. In the case of the European
+it holds a subordinate place, because the difference between his
+heritage and that of the American is comparatively slight. But the
+Asiatic belongs to a different race, and the century-long training of
+an entirely different environment makes it improbable that the Asiatic
+and the American can ever assimilate. Each can learn from the other
+and co-operate to mutual advantage, but race amalgamation, or even a
+fusion of customs of thought and social ideals is altogether unlikely.
+It is therefore not to the advantage of either American or Asiatic
+that much Asiatic immigration into the United States should take
+place. To agree to this is not to be hostile to or scornful of the
+yellow man. The higher classes are fully as intelligent and capable of
+as much energy and achievement as the American, but the vast mass of
+those who would come here if immigration were unrestricted are
+undesirable, because of their low industrial and moral standards,
+their tenacity of old habits, and with all the rest because of their
+immense numbers, that would overrun all the western part of the United
+States. When the Chinese Exclusion Act passed Congress in 1882, the
+Chinese alone were coming at the rate of nearly forty thousand a year,
+and that number might have been increased tenfold by this time, to say
+nothing of Japanese and Hindoos. While, therefore, the United States
+must treat Asiatics with consideration and live up to its treaty
+obligations, it seems the wise policy to refuse to admit the Asiatic
+masses to American residence.
+
+A part of the Asiatic problem, however, is the political relation of
+the United States and the Asiatic Powers, especially in the Pacific.
+This is less intimately vital, but is important in view of the rapidly
+growing tendency of both China and Japan to expand in trade and
+political ambitions. This is a problem of political rather than social
+science, but since the welfare of both races is concerned, and of
+other peoples of the Pacific Islands, it needs the intelligent
+consideration of all students. It is desirable to understand one
+another, to treat one another fairly and generously, and to find
+means, if possible, of co-operation rather than conflict, where the
+interests of one impinge upon another. All mediating influences, like
+Christian missions, are to be welcomed as helping to extend mutual
+understanding and to soften race prejudices and animosities.
+
+347. =The Negro Problem.=--Not a few persons look upon the negro
+problem as the most serious social question in America. Whatever its
+relative merits, as compared with other problems, it is sufficiently
+serious to call for careful study and an attempt at solution. The
+negro race in America numbers approximately ten millions, twice as
+many as at the close of the Civil War. The negro was thrust upon
+America by the cupidity of the foreign slave-trader, and perpetuated
+by the difficulty of getting along without him. His presence has been
+in some ways beneficial to himself and to the whites among whom he
+settled, but it has been impossible for two races so diverse to live
+on a plane of equality, and the burden of education upon the South has
+been so heavy and the race qualities of the negro so discouraging,
+that progress in the solution of the negro problem has been slow.
+
+The problem of the colored race is not one of assimilation or of
+conflict. In spite of an admixture of blood that affects possibly a
+third of the American negroes, there never will be race fusion.
+Assimilation of culture was partly accomplished in slave days, and it
+will go on. There is no serious conflict between white and colored,
+when once the question of assimilation is understood. The problem is
+one of race adjustment. Fifty years have been insufficient to perfect
+the relations between the two races, but since they must live
+together, it is desirable that they should come to understand and
+sympathize with each other, and as far as possible co-operate for
+mutual advancement. The problem is a national one, because the man of
+color is not confined to the South, and even more because the South
+alone is unable to deal adequately with the situation. The negro
+greatly needs efficient social education. He tends to be dirty, lazy,
+and improvident, as is to be expected, when left to himself. Like all
+countrymen--a large proportion live in the country--he is backward in
+ways of thinking and methods of working. He is primitive in his
+passions and much given to emotion. He shows the traits of a people
+not far removed from savagery. It is remarkable that his white master
+was able to civilize him as much as he did, and it is not strange that
+there has been many a relapse under conditions of unprepared freedom,
+but it is only the more reason why negro character should be raised
+higher on the foundation already laid.
+
+The task is not very different from that which is presented by the
+slum population of the cities of the North. The children need to be
+taught how to live, and then given a chance to practise the
+instruction in a decent environment. They need manual and industrial
+training fitted to their industrial environment, and every opportunity
+to employ their knowledge in earning a living. They need noble ideals,
+and these they can get only by the sympathetic, wise teaching of their
+superiors, whether white or black. They and their friends need
+patience in the upward struggle, for it will not be easy to socialize
+and civilize ten million persons in a decade or a century. Such
+institutions as Hampton and Tuskegee are working on a correct basis in
+emphasizing industrial training; these schools very properly are
+supplemented by the right kind of elementary schools, on the one hand,
+and by cultural institutions of high grade on the other, for the negro
+is a human being, and his nature must be cultivated on all sides, as
+much as if he were white.
+
+348. =The Race Problem a Part of One Great Social Problem.=--The race
+problem as a whole is not peculiar to America, but is intensified here
+by the large mixture of all races that is taking place. It is
+inevitable, as the world's population shifts in meeting the social
+forces of the present age. It is complicated by race inequalities and
+race ambitions. It is fundamentally a problem of adjustment between
+races that possess a considerable measure of civilization and those
+that are not far removed from barbarism. It is discouraging at times,
+because the supposedly cultured peoples revert under stress of war or
+competition or self-indulgence to the crudities of primitive
+barbarism, but it is a soluble problem, nevertheless. The privileged
+peoples need a solemn sense of the responsibility of the "white man's
+burden," which is not to cultivate the weaker man for the sake of
+economic exploitation, but to improve him for the weaker man's own
+sake, and for the sake of the world's civilization. The policy of any
+nation like the United States must be affected, of course, by its own
+interests, but the European, the Asiatic, the negro, and every race or
+people with which the American comes in contact ought to be regarded
+as a member of a world society in which the interlocking of
+relationships is so complete that the injury of one is the injury of
+all, and that which is done to aid the least will react to the benefit
+of him who already has more.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Development of the State_, pages 300-314.
+
+  USHER: _Rise of the American People_, pages 392-404.
+
+  MECKLIN: _Democracy and Race Friction_, pages 77-122.
+
+  COMMONS: _Races and Immigrants in America_, pages 17-21, 198-238.
+
+  COOLIDGE: _Chinese Immigration_, pages 423-458, 486-496.
+
+  GULICK: _The American Japanese Problem_, pages 3-27, 90-196,
+      281-307.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIV
+
+INTERNATIONALISM
+
+
+349. =The New World Life.=--The social life that started in the family
+has broadened until it has circled the globe. It is possible now to
+speak in terms of world life. The interests of society have reached
+out from country to country, and from zone to zone, just as a child's
+interests as he grows to manhood expand from the home to the community
+and from the community to the nation.
+
+The idea of the social solidarity of all peoples is still new. Ever
+since the original divergence of population from its home nest, when
+groups became strange and hostile to one another because of mountain
+and forest barriers, changing languages, and occasionally clashing
+interests, the tendency of the peoples was to grow apart. But for a
+century past the tendency has been changing from divergence to
+convergence, from ignorance and distrust of one another to
+understanding, sympathy, and good-will, from independence and
+ruthlessness to interdependence and co-operation. Numerous agencies
+have brought this about--some physical like steam and electricity,
+some economic like commerce and finance, some social like travel and
+the interchange of ideas through the press, some moral and religious
+like missions and international organizations for peace. The history
+of a hundred years has made it plain that nations cannot live in
+isolation any more than individuals can, and that the tendency toward
+social solidarity must be the permanent tendency if society is to
+exist and prosper, even though civilization and peace may be
+temporarily set back for a generation by war.
+
+350. =The Principle of Adaptation vs. Conflict.=--This New World life
+is not unnatural, though it has been slow in coming. A human being is
+influenced by his physical needs and desires, his cultivated habits,
+his accumulated interests, the customs of the people to whom he
+belongs, and the conditions of the environment in which he finds
+himself. While a savage his needs, desires, and interests are few, his
+habits are fixed, his relations are simple and local; but when he
+begins to take on civilization his needs multiply, his habits change,
+and his relations extend more widely. The more enlightened he becomes
+the greater the number of his interests and the more points of contact
+with other people. So with every human group. The process of social
+development for a time may intensify conflict, but there comes a time
+when it is made clear to the dullest mind that conflict must give way
+to mutual adaptation. No one group, not even a supernation, can have
+everything for itself, and for the sake of the world's comfort and
+peace it will be a decided social gain when that principle receives
+universal recognition. World federations and peace propaganda cannot
+be effective until that principle is accepted as a working basis for
+world life.
+
+351. =The Increasing Recognition of the Principle of
+Adaptation.=--This principle of adaptation has found limited
+application for a long time. Starting with individuals in the family
+and family groups in the clan, it extended until it included all the
+members of a state in their relations to each other. Many individual
+interests conflict in business and society and different opinions
+clash, but all points of difference within the nation are settled by
+due process of law, except when elemental passions break out in a
+lynching, or a family feud is perpetuated among the hills. But war
+continued to be the mode of settling international difficulties.
+Military force restrained a vassal from hostile acts under the Roman
+peace. But the next necessary step was for states voluntarily to
+adjust their relations with one another. In some instances, even in
+ancient times, local differences were buried, and small federations,
+like the Achaean League of the Greeks and the Lombard League of the
+Middle Ages, were formed for common defense. These have been followed
+by greater alliances in modern times. But the striking instances of
+real interstate progress are found in the federation of such States
+as those that are included within the present United States of
+America, and within the new German Empire that was formed after the
+Franco-Prussian War. Sinking their differences and recognizing one
+another's rights and interests, the people of such united nations have
+become accustomed to a large national solidarity, and it ought not to
+require much instruction or persuasion to show them that what they
+have accomplished already for themselves is the correct principle for
+their guidance in world affairs.
+
+352. =International Law and Peace.=--This principle of recognizing one
+another's rights and interests is the foundation of international law,
+which has been modified from time to time, but which from the
+publication of Hugo Grotius's _Law of War and Peace_ in the
+seventeenth century slowly has bound more closely together the
+civilized nations. There has come into existence a body of law for the
+conduct of nations that is less complete, but commands as great
+respect as the civil law of a single state. This law may be violated
+by a nation in the stress of conflict, as civil law may be derided by
+an individual lawbreaker or by an excited mob, but eventually it
+reasserts itself and slowly extends its scope and power. Without
+international legislative organization, without a tribunal or a
+military force to carry out its provisions, by sheer force of
+international opinion and a growing regard for social justice it
+demands attention from the proudest nations. Text-books have been
+written and university chairs founded to present its claims,
+international associations and conventions have met to define more
+accurately its code, and tentative steps have been taken to strengthen
+its position by two Hague Conferences that met in 1899 and 1907. Large
+contributions of money have been made to stimulate the cause of peace,
+and as many as two hundred and fifty peace societies have been
+organized.
+
+353. =Arbitration and an International Court.=--Experiments have been
+tried at settling international disputes without resort to war. Great
+Britain and the United States have led the way in showing to the world
+during the last one hundred years that all kinds of vexatious
+differences can be settled peacefully by submitting them to
+arbitration. These successes have led the United States to propose
+general treaties of arbitration to other nations, and advance has been
+made in that direction. It was possible to establish at The Hague a
+permanent court of arbitration, and to refer to it really important
+cases. Such a calamity as the European war, of course, interrupts the
+progress of all such peaceful methods, but makes all the plainer the
+dire need of a better machinery for settling international
+differences. There is reasonable expectation that before many years
+there may be established a permanent international court of justice,
+an international parliament, and a sufficient international police
+force to restrain any one nation from breaking the peace. Only in this
+way can the dread of war be allayed and disarmament be undertaken;
+even then the success of such an experiment in government will depend
+on an increase of international understanding, respect, and
+consideration.
+
+354. =Intercommunication and Its Rewards.=--The gain in social
+solidarity that has been achieved already is due first of all to
+improved communication between nations. In the days of slow sailing
+vessels it took several weeks to cross the Atlantic, and there was no
+quicker way to convey news. The news that peace had been arranged at
+Ghent in 1814 between Great Britain and the United States did not
+reach the armies on this side in time to prevent the battle of New
+Orleans. Even the results of the battle of Waterloo were not known in
+England for several days after Napoleon's overthrow. Now ocean
+leviathans keep pace with the storms that move across the waters, and
+the cable and the wireless flash their messages with the speed of the
+lightning. Power to put a girdle around the earth in a few minutes has
+made modern news agencies possible, and they have made the modern
+newspaper essential. The newspaper requires the railroad and the
+steamship for its distribution, and business men depend upon them all
+to carry out their plans. These physical agencies have made possible a
+commerce that is world-wide. There are ports that receive ships from
+every nation east and west. Great freight terminal yards hold cars
+that belong to all the great transportation lines of the country.
+Lombard Street and Wall Street feel the pulse of the world's trade as
+it beats through the channels of finance.
+
+Improved communication has made possible the unification of a great
+political system like the British Empire. In the Parliament House and
+government offices of Westminster centre the political interests of
+Canada, Australia, South Africa, Egypt, and India, as well as of
+islands in every sea. Better communication has brought into closer
+relations the Pan-American states, so that they have met more than
+once for their mutual benefit.
+
+Helpful social results have come from the travel that has grown
+enormously in volume since ease and cheapness of transportation have
+increased. The impulse to travel for pleasure keeps persons of wealth
+on the move, and the desire for knowledge sends the intellectually
+minded professional man or woman of small means globe-trotting. In
+this way the people of different nations learn from one another; they
+become able to converse in different languages and to get one
+another's point of view; they gain new wants while they lose some of
+their professional interests; they return home poorer in pocket but
+richer in experience, more interested in others, more tolerant. These
+are social values, certain to make their influence felt in days to
+come, and by no means unappreciable already.
+
+355. =International Institutions.=--These values are conserved by
+international institutions. Societies are formed by like-minded
+persons for better acquaintance and for the advancement of knowledge.
+The sciences are cherished internationally, interparliamentary unions
+and other agencies for the preservation of peace hold their
+conferences, working men meet to air their grievances or plan
+programmes, religious denominations consult for pushing their
+campaigns. The organizations that grow out of these relations and
+conferences develop into institutions that have standing. The
+international associations of scholars are as much a part of the
+world's institutional assets as the educational system is a recognized
+asset of any country. They are clearing-houses of information, as
+necessary as an international clearing-house of finance. The World's
+Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the International Young Men's
+Christian Association are moral agencies that bring together those who
+have at heart the same interests, and when they have once made good
+they must be reckoned among the established organizations that help to
+move the world forward. Not least among such institutions are the
+religious organizations. The closely knit Roman Catholic Church, that
+has held together millions of faithful adherents in many lands for
+centuries, and whose canon law receives an unquestioning obedience as
+the law of a nation, is an illustration of what an international
+religious institution may be. Protestant Churches, naturally more
+independent, have moved more slowly, but their world alliances and
+federations are increasing to the point where they, too, are likely to
+become true institutions.
+
+356. =Missions as a Social Institution.=--Those institutions and
+movements are most useful that aim definitely to stimulate the highest
+interests of all mankind. It is comparatively simple to provide local
+stimulus for a better community life, but to help move the world on to
+higher levels requires clear vision, patient hope, and a definite plan
+on a large scale. Christian missionaries are conspicuous for their
+lofty ideals, their personal devotion to an unselfish task, their
+persistent optimism, and their unswerving adherence to the programme
+marked out by the pioneers of the movement. It is no argument against
+them that they have not accomplished all that a few enthusiasts
+expected of them in a few years. To socialize and Christianize half
+the people of the world is the task of centuries. With broad
+statesmanship missionary leaders have undertaken to do both of these.
+Mistakes in method or detail of operation do not invalidate the whole
+enterprise, and all criticism must keep in mind the noble purpose to
+lift to a higher level the social, moral, and religious ideas and
+practices of the most backward peoples. The purpose is certainly no
+less laudable than that of a Chinese mission to England to persuade
+Great Britain to end the opium traffic, or a diplomatic mission from
+the United States to stop civil strife in Mexico.
+
+357. =Education as a Means to Internationalism.=--Internationalism
+rests on the broad basis of the social nature of mankind, a nature
+that cannot be unsocialized, but can be developed to a higher and more
+purposeful socialization. As there are degrees of perfection in the
+excellence of social relations, so there are degrees of obligation
+resting upon the nations of the world to give of their best to a
+general levelling up. The dependable means of international
+socialization is education, whether it comes through the press, the
+pulpit, or the school. Every commission that visits one country from
+another to learn of its industries, its institutions, and its ideals,
+is a means to that important end. Every exchange professor between
+European and American universities helps to interpret one country to
+the other. Every Chinese, Mexican, or Filipino youth who attends an
+American school is borrowing stimulus for his own people. Every
+visitor who does not waste or abuse his opportunities is a unit in the
+process of improving the acquaintance of East and West, of North and
+South. Internationalism is not a social Utopia to be invented in a
+day; it is rather an attitude of mind and a mode of living that come
+gradually but with gathering momentum as mutual understanding and
+sympathy increase.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  STRONG: _Our World_, pages 3-202.
+
+  FOSTER: _Arbitration and the Hague Court._
+
+  FAUNCE: _Social Aspects of Foreign Missions._
+
+  MAURENBRECKER: "The Moral and Social Tasks of World Politics,"
+      art. in _American Journal of Sociology_, 6: 307-315.
+
+  TRUEBLOOD: _Federation of the World_, pages 7-20, 91-149.
+
+
+
+
+PART VI--SOCIAL ANALYSIS
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV
+
+PHYSICAL AND PERSONAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY
+
+
+358. =Constant Factors in Social Phenomena.=--Our study of social life
+has made it plain that it is a complex affair, but it has been
+possible to classify society in certain groups, to follow the gradual
+extension of relations from small groups to large, and to take note of
+the numerous activities and interests that enter into contemporary
+group life. It is now desirable to search for certain common elements
+that in all periods enter into the life of every group, whether
+temporary or permanent, so that we may discover the constant factors
+and the general principles that belong to the science of society. Some
+of these have been referred to already among the characteristics of
+social life, but in this connection it is useful to classify them for
+closer examination.
+
+First among these is the physical factor which conditions human
+activity but is not a compelling force, for man has often subdued his
+environment when it has put obstacles in his way. This physical
+element includes the geographical conditions of mountain, valley, or
+seashore, the climate and the weather, the food and water supply, the
+physical inheritance of the individual and the laws that control
+physical development, and the physical constitution of the group. A
+second factor is the psychic nature of human beings and the psychical
+interaction that goes on between individuals within the group and that
+produces reactions between groups.
+
+359. =The Natural Environment.=--The early sociologists put the
+emphasis on the physical more than the psychic factors, and
+especially on biological analogies in society. It seemed to them as if
+it was nature that brought men together. Mountains and ice-bound
+regions were inhospitable, impassable rivers and trackless forests
+limited the range of animals and men, violent storms and temperature
+changes made men afraid. Avoiding these dangers and seeking a
+food-supply where it was most plentiful, human beings met in the
+favored localities and learned by experience the principles of
+association. Everywhere man is still in contact with physical forces.
+He has not yet learned to get along without the products of the earth,
+extracting food-supplies from the soil, gathering the fruits that
+nature provides, and mining the useful and precious metals. The
+city-dweller seems less dependent on nature than is the farmer, but
+the urban citizen relies on steam and electricity to turn the wheels
+of industry and transportation, depends on coal and gas for heat and
+light, and uses winter's harvest of ice to relieve the oppressive heat
+of summer. Rivers and seas are highways of his commerce. Everywhere
+man seems hedged about by physical forces and physical laws.
+
+Yet with the prerogative of civilization he has become master rather
+than servant of nature. He has improved wild fruits and vegetables by
+cultivation, he has domesticated wild animals, he has harnessed the
+water of the streams and the winds of heaven. He has tunnelled the
+mountains, bridged the rivers, and laid his cables beneath the ocean.
+He has learned to ride over land and sea and even to skim along the
+currents of the air. He has been able to discover the chemical
+elements that permeate matter and the nature and laws of physical
+forces. By numerous inventions he has made use of the materials and
+powers of nature. The physical universe is a challenge to human wits,
+a stimulus to thought and activity that shall result in the wonderful
+achievements of civilization.
+
+360. =The Human Physique.=--Another element that enters into every
+calculation of success or failure in human life is the physical
+constitution of the individual and the group. The individual's
+physique makes a great difference in his comfort and activity. The
+corpulent person finds it difficult to get about with ease, the
+cripple finds himself debarred from certain occupations, the person
+with weak lungs must shun certain climates and as far as possible must
+avoid indoor pursuits. By their power of ingenuity or by sheer force
+of will men have been able to overcome physical limitations, but it is
+necessary to reckon with those limitations, and they are always a
+handicap. The physical endowment of a race has been a deciding factor
+in certain times of crisis. The physical prowess of the Anakim kept
+back the timid Israelites from their intended conquest of Canaan until
+a more hardy generation had arisen among the invaders; the sturdy
+Germans won the lands of the Roman Empire in the West from the
+degenerate provincials; powerful vikings swept the Western seas and
+struck such terror into the peaceful Saxons that they cried out: "From
+the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us."
+
+361. =Biological Analogies.=--The physical factor in society received
+emphasis the more because society itself was thought of as an organism
+resembling physical organisms and dependent upon similar laws. As a
+man's physical frame was essential to his activity and limited his
+energies, so the visible structure of social organization was deemed
+more important than social activity and function. Particularly did the
+method of evolution that had become so famous in biology appeal to
+students of sociology as the only satisfactory explanation of social
+change. The study of animal evolution made it clear that heredity and
+environment played a large part in the development of animal life, and
+Darwin pointed out that progress came by the elimination of those
+individuals and species least fitted to survive in the struggle for
+existence and the perpetuation of those that best adapted themselves
+to environment. It was easy to find social analogies and to reach the
+conclusion that in the same way individuals and groups were creatures
+of heredity and environment, and the all-important task of society was
+to conform itself to environment. Of course, history disproved the
+universality of such a law, for more than once a race has risen above
+its environment or altered it, but it seemed a satisfactory working
+principle.
+
+Biological analogies, however, were overemphasized. It was a gain to
+know the workings of race traits and the relation of the individual to
+his ancestry, but to excuse crime on the ground of racial degeneracy
+or to despise a race and believe that none of its members can excel
+because it is conspicuous for certain race weaknesses has been
+unfortunate. Similarly there was advantage in remembering that
+environment is either a great help or a great hindrance to social
+progress, but it would be a social calamity to believe in a physical
+determinism that leaves to human beings no choice as to their manner
+of life. The important truth to keep in mind is that man and
+environment must be adapted to each other, but it often proves better
+to adapt environment to man than to force man into conformity to
+environment. It is the growing independence of environment through his
+own intellectual powers that has given to civilized man his ascendancy
+in the world. It is a mistake, also, to think that a struggle for
+existence is the only means of survival. As in the animal world, there
+comes a time in the process of evolution when the struggle for selfish
+existence becomes subordinated to effort to preserve the life of the
+young or to help the group by the sacrifice of the individual self, so
+in society it is reasonable to believe that the selfish struggle of
+individuals will give way by degrees to purposeful effort for social
+welfare, and that the solidarity of the group rather than the interest
+of the individual will seem the highest good. Then the group will care
+for the weak, and all will gain from the strength and prosperity of
+the whole.
+
+362. =The Importance of the Individual.=--While it is true that
+individual interests are bound up with the prosperity of the group,
+and that the food that he eats, the clothes that he wears, and the
+money that he handles and uses are all his because social industry
+prevails, there is some danger of overlooking the importance of the
+individual. Though he does not exist alone, the individual with his
+distinctive personality is the unit of society. Without individuals
+there would be no society, without the action of the individual mind
+there would be no action of the social mind, without individual
+leadership there would be little order or progress. The single cell
+that made up the lowest forms of animal life is still the unit of that
+complex thing that we call the human body, and the well-being of the
+single cell is essential to the health and even the existence of the
+whole body; so the single human being is fundamental to the existence
+and health of the social body. No analysis of society is at all
+complete that does not include a study of the individual man.
+
+363. =The Psychology of the Individual.=--Self-examination during the
+course of a single day helps to explain the life forces that act upon
+other individuals now and that have forged human history. In such
+study of self it soon becomes apparent to the student that the
+physical factor is subordinate to the psychic, but that they are
+connected. As soon as he wakes in the morning his mental processes are
+at work. Something has called back his consciousness from sleep. The
+light shining in at his window, the bell calling him to meet the day's
+schedule, the odor of food cooking in the kitchen, are physical
+stimuli calling out the response of his sense-perceptions; his mind
+begins at once to associate these impressions and to react upon his
+will until he gets out of bed and proceeds to prepare himself for the
+day. These processes of sensation, association, and volition
+constitute the simple basis of individual life upon which the complex
+structure of an active personality is built.
+
+The individual will is moved to activity by many agencies. There is
+first the instinct. As a person inherits physical traits from his
+ancestors, so he gets certain mental traits. The demand for food is
+the cry of the instinct for self-preservation. The grimace of the
+infant in response to the mother's smile is an expression of the
+instinct for imitation. The reaching out of its hand to grasp the
+sunshine is in obedience to the instinct for acquisition. All human
+association is due primarily to the instinct for sociability. These
+instincts are inborn. They cannot be eradicated, but they can be
+modified and controlled.
+
+Obedience to these native instincts produces fixed habits. These are
+not native but acquired, and so are not transmitted to posterity, in
+the belief of most scientists, but they are powerful factors in
+individual conduct. The individual early in the morning is hungry, and
+the appetite for food recurs at intervals through the day; it becomes
+a habit to go at certain hours where he may obtain satisfaction. So it
+is with many activities throughout the day.
+
+Instincts and habits produce impulses. The savage eats as often as he
+feels like it, if he can find berries or fruit or bring down game;
+impulse alone governs his conduct. But two other elements enter in to
+modify impulse, as experience teaches wisdom. The self-indulgent man
+remembers after a little that indulgence of impulse has resulted
+sometimes in pain rather than satisfaction, and his imagination
+pictures a recurrence of the unhappy experience. Feeling becomes a
+guide to regulate impulse. Feeling in turn compels thought. Presently
+the individual who is going through the civilizing process formulates
+a resolve and a theory, a resolve to eat at regular times and to
+abstain from foods that injure him, a theory that intelligent
+restraint is better than unregulated indulgence. In a similar way the
+individual acts with reference to selecting his environment. Instinct
+and habit act conservatively, impelling the individual to remain in
+the place where he was born and reared, and to follow the occupation
+of his father. But he feels the discomforts of the climate or the
+restrictions of his particular environment, he thinks about it,
+bringing to bear all the knowledge that he possesses, and he makes his
+choice between going elsewhere or modifying his present environment.
+Discovery and invention are both products of such choices as these.
+
+364. =Desires and Interests.=--These complexes of thinking, feeling,
+and willing make up the conscious desires and interests that mould the
+individual life. Through the processes of attention to the stimuli
+that act upon human nature, discrimination between them, association
+of impressions and ideas that come from present and past experience,
+and deliberate judgments of value, the mind moves to action for the
+satisfaction of personal desires and interests. These desires and
+interests have been classified in various ways. For our present
+purpose it is useful to classify them as those that centre in the
+self, and those that centre in others beyond the self. The primitive
+desires to get food and drink, to mate, and to engage in muscular
+activity, all look toward the self-satisfaction which comes from their
+indulgence. There are various acquired interests that likewise centre
+in the self. The individual goes to college for the social pleasure
+that he anticipates, for intellectual satisfaction, or to equip
+himself with a training that will enable him to win success in the
+competition of business. In the larger society outside of college the
+art-lover gathers about him many treasures for his own aesthetic
+delight, the politician exerts himself for the attainment of power and
+position, the religious devotee hopes for personal favors from the
+unseen powers. These are on different planes of value, they are
+estimated differently by different persons, but they all centre in the
+individual, and if society benefits it is only indirectly or
+accidentally.
+
+As the individual rises in the scale of social intelligence, his
+interests become less self-centred, and as he extends his acquaintance
+and associations the scope of his interests enlarges. He begins to act
+with reference to the effect of his actions upon others. He sacrifices
+his own convenience for his roommate; he restrains his self-indulgence
+for the sake of the family that he might disgrace; he exerts himself
+in athletic prowess for the honor of the college to which he belongs;
+he is willing to risk his life on the battle-field in defense of the
+nation of which he is a citizen; he consecrates his life to missionary
+or scientific endeavor in a far land for the sake of humanity's gain.
+These are the social interests that dominate his activity. Mankind has
+risen from the brute by the process that leads the individual up from
+the low level of life moulded by primitive desires to the high plane
+of a life directed by the broad interests of society at large. It is
+the task of education to reveal this process, and to provide the
+stimuli that are needed for its continuance.
+
+365. =Personality.=--No two persons are actuated alike in daily
+conduct. The pull of their individual desires is not the same, the
+influence of the various social interests is not in the same
+proportion. The situation is complicated by hereditary tendencies, and
+by physical and social environment. Consequently every human being
+possesses his own distinctive individuality or personality. Variations
+of personality can be classified and various persons resemble each
+other so much that types of personality are distinguished. Thus we
+distinguish between weak personality and forceful personality,
+according to the strength of individuation, a narrow or a broad
+personality according as interests are few and selfish or broadly
+social, a fixed or a changing personality according to conservatism or
+unsettled disposition. Personality is a distinction not always
+appreciated, a distinction that separates man from the brute because
+of his self-consciousness and power of self-direction by rational
+processes, and relieves him from the dead level that would exist in
+society if every individual were made after the same pattern. It is
+the secret of social as well as individual progress, for it is a great
+personality that sways the group. It is the great boon of present life
+and the great promise of continued life hereafter.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 165-181.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in its Psychological Aspects_, pages 94-123.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 96-98, 200-230.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 60-98.
+
+  DARWIN: _Descent of Man_, chap. XXI.
+
+  DRUMMOND: _Ascent of Man_, pages 41-57, 189-266.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Inductive Sociology_, pages 249-278.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVI
+
+SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS
+
+
+366. =The Social Mind.=--As individual life is compounded of many
+psychic elements that make up one mind, so the life of every group
+involves various factors of a psychic nature that constitute the
+social mind. The social mind does not exist apart from individual
+minds, but it is nevertheless real. When emotional excitement stirs a
+mob to action, the unity of feeling is evidence of a social mind. When
+a congregation recites a creed of the church the unity of belief shows
+the existence of a social mind. When a political land-slide occurs on
+the occasion of a presidential election in the United States, the
+unity of will expresses the social mind. The emotional phase is
+temporary, public opinion changes more slowly; all the time the social
+mind is gaining experience and learning wisdom, as does the
+individual. Social consciousness, which at first is slight, increases
+gradually, until it fructifies in social purpose which results in
+achievement. History is full of illustrations of such development.
+
+367. =How the Social Mind is Formed.=--The formation of this social
+mind and its subsequent workings may be illustrated from a common
+occurrence in frontier history. Imagine three hunters meeting for the
+first time around a camp-fire, and analyze their mental processes. The
+first man was tired and hungry and camped to rest and eat. The second
+happened to come upon the camp just as a storm was breaking, saw the
+smoke of the fire, and turned aside for its comfort. The third picked
+up the trail of the second and followed it to find companionship. Each
+obeying a primal instinct and conscious of his kind, came into
+association with others, and thus by the process of aggregation a
+temporary group was formed. Sitting about the fire, each lighted his
+pipe in imitation of one another; they communicated with one another
+in language familiar to all; one became drowsy and the others yielded
+to the suggestion to sleep. Waking in the morning, they continued
+their conversation, and in sympathy with a common purpose and in
+recognition of the advantages of association, they decided to keep
+together for the remainder of the hunt. Thus was constituted the group
+or social mind.
+
+With the consciousness that they were congenial spirits and shared a
+common purpose, each was willing to sacrifice some of his own habits
+and preferences in the interest of the group. One man might prefer
+bacon and coffee for breakfast, while a second wished tea; one might
+wish to break camp at sunrise, another an hour later; each
+subordinated his own desires for the greater satisfaction of camp
+comradeship. The strongest personality in the group is the determining
+factor in forming the habits of the group, though it may be an
+unconscious leadership. The mind of the group is not the same as that
+of the leader, for the mutual mental interaction produces changes in
+all, but it approaches most nearly to his mind.
+
+368. =Social Habits.=--By such processes of aggregation,
+communication, imitation, and association, individuals learn from one
+another and come to constitute a like-minded group. Sometimes it is a
+genetic group like the family, sometimes an artificial group like a
+band of huntsmen; in either case the group is held together by a
+psychic unity and comes to have its peculiar group characteristics.
+Fixed ways of thinking and acting are revealed. Social habits they may
+be called, or folk-ways, as some prefer to name them. These habits are
+quickly learned by the members of the group, and are passed on from
+generation to generation by imitation or the teaching of tradition.
+There are numerous conservative forces at work in society. Custom
+crystallizes into law, tradition is fortified by religion, a system of
+morals develops out of the folk-ways, the group life tends to become
+static and uniform.
+
+369. =Adaptation.=--Two influences are continually at work, however,
+to change social habits--the forces of the natural environment and
+interaction between different groups. Both of these compel adaptation
+to surroundings if permanence of group life is to be secured. Family
+life in the north country illustrates the working of this principle of
+adaptation. In the days of settlement there was a partial adaptation
+to the physical environment. Houses were built tight and warm to
+provide shelter, abundant food was supplied from the farm, on which
+men toiled long hours to make a living, homespun clothing was
+manufactured to protect against the rigors of winter, but ignorance
+and lack of sufficient means prevented complete adaptation, and
+society was punished for its failure to complete the adaptation.
+Climate was severe and the laws of health were not fully worked out or
+observed, therefore few children lived to maturity, although the
+birth-rate was high. Economic success came only as the reward of
+patient and unremitting toil, the shiftless family failed in the
+struggle for existence. Tradition taught certain agricultural methods,
+but diminishing returns threatened poverty, unless methods were better
+adapted to soil and climate. Thus the people were forced slowly to
+improve their methods and their manner of living to conform to what
+nature demanded.
+
+No less powerful is the influence of the social environment. The
+authority of custom or government tends to make every family conform
+to certain methods of building a house, cooking food, cultivating
+land, selling crops, paying taxes, voting for local officials, but let
+one family change its habits and prove conclusively that it has
+improved on the old ways, and it is only a question of time when
+others will adapt themselves better to the situation that environs
+them. The countryman takes a city daily and notes the weather
+indications and the state of the market, he installs a rural telephone
+and is able to make contracts for his crops by long-distance
+conversation, he buys an improved piece of machinery for cultivating
+the farm, a gasolene engine, or a motor-wagon for quick delivery of
+produce; presently his neighbors discover that he is adapting himself
+more effectually to his environment than they are, and one by one
+they imitate him in adopting the new methods. By and by the community
+becomes known for its progressiveness, and it is imitated by
+neighboring communities.
+
+This process of social adaptation is a mental process more or less
+definite. A particular family may not consciously follow a definite
+plan for improved adaptation, but little by little it alters its ways,
+until in the course of two or three generations it has changed the
+circumstances and habits that characterized the ancestral group. In
+that case the change is slow. Certain families may definitely
+determine to modify their habits, and within a few years accomplish a
+telic change. In either case there are constantly going on the
+processes of observation, discrimination, and decision, due to the
+impact of mind upon mind, both within and outside of the group, until
+mental reactions are moving through channels that are different from
+the old.
+
+370. =Genetic Progress.=--The modification of folk-ways in the
+interest of better adaptation to environment constitutes progress.
+Such modification is caused by the action of various mental stimuli.
+The people of a hill village for generations have been contented with
+poor roads and rough side-paths, along which they find an uneasy way
+by the glimmer of a lantern at night. They are unaccustomed to
+sanitary conveniences in their houses or to ample heating arrangements
+or ventilation in school or church. They have thought little about
+these things, and if they wished to make improvements they would be
+handicapped by small numbers and lack of wealth. But after a time
+there comes an influx of summer visitors; some of them purchase
+property and take up their permanent residence in the village. They
+have been accustomed to conveniences; in other words, to a more
+complete adaptation to environment; they demand local improvements and
+are willing to help pay for them. More money can be raised for
+taxation, and when public opinion has crystallized so that social
+action is possible, the progressive steps are taken.
+
+What takes place thus in a small way locally is typical of what is
+going on continually in all parts of the world. Accumulating wealth
+and increasing knowledge of the good things of the city make country
+people emigrate or provide themselves with a share of the good things
+at home. The influence of an enthusiastic individual or group who
+takes the lead in better schools, better housing, or better government
+is improving the cities. The growing cosmopolitanism of all peoples
+and their adoption of the best that each has achieved is being
+produced by commerce, migration, and "contact and cross-fertilization
+of cultures."
+
+371. =Telic Progress.=--Most social progress has come without the full
+realization of the significance of the gradual changes that were
+taking place. Few if any individuals saw the end from the beginning.
+They are for the most part silent forces that have been modifying the
+folk-ways in Europe and America. There has been little conception of
+social obligation or social ideals, little more than a blind obedience
+to the stimuli that pressed upon the individual and the group. But
+with the awakening of the social consciousness and a quickening of the
+social conscience has come telic progress. There is purpose now in the
+action of associations and method in the enactments of legislatures
+and the acts of administrative officers. There are plans and
+programmes for all sorts of improvements that await only the proper
+means and the sanction of public opinion for their realization. Like a
+runner poised for a dash of speed, society seems to be on the eve of
+new achievement in the direction of progress.
+
+372. =Means of Social Progress.=--There are three distinct means of
+telic progress. Society may be lifted to a higher level by compulsion,
+as a huge crane lifts a heavy girder to the place it is to occupy in
+the construction of a great building. A prohibitory law that forbids
+the erection of unhealthy tenements throughout the cities of a state
+or nation is a distinctly progressive step, compulsory in its nature.
+Or the group may be moved by persuasion. A board of conciliation may
+persuade conflicting industrial groups to adjust their differences by
+peaceful methods, and thus inaugurate an ethical movement in industry
+greatly to the advantage of all parties. Or progress may be achieved
+by the slow process of education. The average church has been
+accustomed to conceive of its functions as pertaining to the
+individual rather than to the whole social order. It cannot be
+compelled to change by governmental action, for the church is free and
+democratic in America. It cannot easily be persuaded to change its
+methods in favor of a social programme. By the slower process of
+training the young people it can and does gradually broaden its
+activities and make itself more efficiently useful to the community in
+which it finds its place.
+
+373. =Criticism as a Means of Social Education.=--Education is not
+confined to the training of the schools. It is a continuous process
+going on through the life of the individual or the group. It is the
+intellectual process by which the mind is focussed on one problem
+after another that rises above the horizon of experience and uses its
+powers to improve the adaptation now existing between the situation
+and the person or the group. The educational process is complex. There
+must be first the incitement to thought. Most effective in this
+direction is criticism. If the roads are such a handicap to the
+comfort and safety of travel that there is caustic criticism at the
+next town meeting, public opinion begins to set definitely in the
+direction of improvement. If city government is corrupt and the tax
+rate mounts steadily without corresponding benefits to the taxpayers,
+the newspapers call the attention of citizens to the fact, and they
+begin to consider a change of administration. Criticism is the knife
+that cuts to the roots of social disease, and through the infliction
+of temporary pain effects a cure. Criticism has started many a reform
+in church and state. The presence of the critic in any group is an
+irritant that provokes to progressive action.
+
+374. =Discussion.=--Criticism leads to discussion. There is sure to be
+a conflict of ideas in every group. Conservative and progressive
+contend with each other; sometimes it is a matter of belief, sometimes
+of practice. Knots of individuals talk matters over, leaders debate
+on the public platform, newspapers take part on one side or the other.
+In this way national policies are determined, first by Congress or
+Parliament, and then by the constituents of the legislators. Freedom
+of discussion is regarded as one of the safeguards of popular
+government. If social conduct should be analyzed on a large scale it
+would be found that discussion is a constant factor. In every business
+deal there is discussion of the pros and cons of the proposition, in
+every case that comes before the courts there are arguments made on
+both sides, in the maintenance of every social institution that costs
+money there is a consideration of its worth. Even if the discussion
+does not find voice, the human intellect debates the question in its
+silent halls. So universal is the practice of discussion and so prized
+is the privilege that this is sometimes called the Age of Discussion.
+
+375. =Decision.=--Determination of action follows criticism and
+discussion in the group, as volition follows thinking in the case of
+the individual. One hundred years ago college education was classical.
+In the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation a revival of
+interest in the classics produced a reaction against mediaevalism, and
+in time fastened a curriculum upon the universities that was composed
+mainly of the ancient languages, mathematics, and a deductive
+philosophy and theology. In the nineteenth century there began a
+criticism of the classical curriculum. It was declared that such a
+course of study was narrow and antiquated, that new subjects, such as
+history, the modern languages, and the sciences were better worth
+attention, and presently it was argued that a person could not be
+truly educated until he knew his own times by the study of sociology,
+politics, economics, and other social sciences. Of course, there was
+earnest resentment of such criticism, and discussion ensued. The
+argument for the plaintiff seemed to be well sustained, and one by one
+the governing boards of the colleges decided to admit new studies to
+the curriculum, at first grudgingly and then generously, until
+classical education has become relatively unpopular. Public opinion
+has accepted the verdict, and many schools have gone so far as to make
+vocational education supplant numerous academic courses. Similarly
+criticism, discussion, and change of front have occurred in political
+theories, in the attitude of theologians to science, in the practice
+of medicine, and even in methods of athletic training.
+
+Criticism and discussion, therefore, instead of being deprecated,
+ought to be welcome everywhere. Without them society stagnates, the
+intellect grows rusty, and prejudice takes the place of rational
+thought and volition. Feeling is bottled up and is likely to ferment
+until it bursts its confinement and spreads havoc around like a
+volcano. Free speech and a free press are safety-valves of democracy,
+the sure hope of progress throughout society.
+
+376. =Socialized Education.=--A second step in the educational process
+is incitement to action. As criticism and discussion are necessary to
+stimulate thought, so knowledge and conviction are essential to
+action. The educational system that is familiar is individualistic in
+type because it emphasizes individual achievement, and is based on the
+conviction that individual success is of greatest consequence in life.
+There is increasing demand for a socialized education which will have
+as its foundation a body of sociological information that will teach
+individuals their social relations, a fund of ideas that will be
+bequeathed from generation to generation as the finest heritage, and a
+system of social ethics that will produce a conviction of social
+obligation. The will to do good is the most effective factor that
+plays a part in social life. This socializing education has its place
+in the school grades, properly becomes a major subject of study in the
+higher schools, and ideally belongs to every scheme of continued
+education in later life. The social sciences seem likely to vie with
+the physical sciences, if not eventually to surpass them as the most
+important department of human knowledge, for while the physical
+sciences unlock the mysteries of the natural world the social sciences
+hold the key to the meaning of ideal human life.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 329-340.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 132-152, 376-399.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Descriptive and Historical Sociology_, pages 124-185.
+
+  COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 3-22.
+
+  WARD: _Psychic Factors of Civilization_, pages 291-312.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 329-348.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 67-68, 84-87, 243-257.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, revised edition,
+      pages 354-367.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVII
+
+SOCIAL THEORIES
+
+
+377. =Theories of Social Order and Efficiency.=--Out of social
+experience and social study have emerged certain theories of social
+order and efficiency which have received marked attention and which
+to-day are supported by cogent arguments. These theories fall under
+the three following heads: (1) Those theories that make social order
+and efficiency dependent upon the control of external authority; (2)
+those theories that trust to the force of public opinion trained by
+social education; (3) those theories that regard self-control coming
+through the development of personality as the one essential for a
+better social order.
+
+378. =External Authority in History.=--The first theory rests its case
+on the facts of history. Certain social institutions like the family,
+the state, and the church have thrown restraint about the individual,
+and when this restraint is removed he tends to run amuck. From the
+beginning the family was the unit of the social order, and the
+authority of its head was the source of wisdom. Self-control was not a
+substitute for paternal discipline, but was a fact only in presence of
+the dread of paternal discipline. The idea of absolute authority
+passed over into the state, and absolutism was the theory of
+efficiency in the ancient state, down to the fall of the Roman Empire
+in the West. It was a theory that made slavery possible. It
+strengthened the position of the high priest of every religious cult,
+created the thought of the kingdom of God and moulded the Christian
+creeds, and made possible the mediaeval papacy. It has been the
+fundamental principle of all monarchical government. It has remained a
+royal theory in eastern Europe and Asia until our own day, and
+survives in the political notion of the right of the strongest and in
+the business principle that capital must control the industrial system
+if prosperity and efficiency are to endure.
+
+Irresponsible absolutism has been giving way slowly to paternalism.
+This showed itself first in a growing conviction that kings owed it to
+their subjects to rule well. Certain enlightened monarchs consulted
+the interests of the people and, relying on their own wisdom,
+instituted measures of reform. This type of paternalism was not
+successful, but it has been imitated by modern states, even republics
+like the United States, in various paternalistic measures of economic
+and social regulation. Those who hold the theory that external
+authority is necessary have been urgent in calling for the regulation
+of railroads, of trusts, and of combinations of labor, until some have
+felt that the authority of representative democracy bore more heavily
+than the authority of monarchy. It is the principle of those who favor
+government regulation that only by governmental restraint can free
+competition continue, and everybody be assured of a square deal; their
+opponents argue that such restraint throttles ambition and is
+destructive of the highest efficiency that comes as a survival of the
+fittest in the economic struggle.
+
+379. =Socialism.=--Socialism is a third variety of the theory that
+social order and efficiency depend on external authority. Socialists
+aim at improving the social welfare by the collective control of
+industry. While the advocates of government regulation give their main
+attention to problems of production, the Socialists emphasize the
+importance of the proper distribution of products to the consumers,
+and would exercise authority in the partition of the rewards of labor.
+They propose that collective ownership of the means of production take
+the place of private ownership, that industry be managed by
+representatives of the people, that products be distributed on some
+just basis yet to be devised by the people. All that will be left to
+them as individuals will be the right to consume and the possession of
+material things not essential to the socialistic economy. Certain
+Socialist theories go farther than this, but this is the essence of
+Socialism. Socialists vary, also, as to the use of revolutionary or
+evolutionary means of obtaining their ends.
+
+The main objections that are made to the theory of Socialism are: (1)
+That it is contrary to nature, which develops character and progress
+through struggle; (2) that private property is a natural right, and
+that it would be unjust to deprive individuals of what they have
+secured through thrift and foresight, even in the interest of the
+whole of society; (3) that an equitable distribution of wealth would
+be impossible in any arbitrary division; (4) that no government can
+possibly conduct successfully such huge enterprises as would fall to
+it; (5) that Socialism would destroy private incentive and enterprise
+by taking away the individual rewards of effort; (6) that a
+socialistic regime would be as unendurable an interference with
+individual liberty as any absolutist or paternal government that the
+past has seen.
+
+380. =Educated Public Opinion.=--The second group of theorists is
+composed of those who would get rid of prohibitions and regulations as
+far as possible, and trust to the force of an educated public opinion
+to maintain a high level of social order and efficiency. It is a part
+of the theory that constraint exercised by a government established by
+law marks a stage of lower social development than restraint exercised
+by the force of public opinion. But it must be an educated public
+opinion, trained to appreciate the importance of society and its
+claims upon the individual, to function rationally instead of
+impulsively, and to seek the methods that will be most useful and
+least expensive for the social body. This training of public opinion
+is the task of the school first and then of the press, the pulpit, and
+the public forum. Public and private commissions, organized and
+maintained to furnish information and suggest better methods, make
+useful contributions; public reports, if presented intelligibly,
+impartially, and concisely, are among the helpful instruments of
+instruction; reform pamphlets will again perform valuable service, as
+they have in past days of moral and social intensity; but it is
+especially through the newspapers and the forums for public discussion
+that the social thinker can best reach his audience, and through these
+means that commission reports can best be brought to the attention of
+the people. It may very likely be necessary that press and platform be
+subsidized either by government or by private endowment to do this
+work of social training.
+
+381. =Individualism.=--The third group of theorists rejects all
+varieties of external control as of secondary value, and has no faith
+in the working of public opinion, however well educated, unless the
+character of the individuals that make up the group is what it should
+be. These theorists regard self-control coming through the development
+of personal worth as the one essential for a better social order. This
+individualist theory is held by those who are still in bondage to the
+individualism that has characterized social thinking in the last four
+hundred years. There is much in the history of that period that
+justifies faith in the worth of the individual. Along the lines of
+material progress, especially, the individualist has made good.
+Looking upon what has been achieved the modern democrat expects
+further improvement in society through individual betterment.
+
+The arguments in defense of the individualist theory are: (1) That
+natural science has proved that social development is achieved only
+through individual competition, and that the best man wins; (2) that
+experience has shown that progress has been most rapid where the
+individual has had largest scope; (3) that it is the teaching of
+Christian ethics that the individual must work out the salvation of
+his own character, must learn by experience how to gain self-reliance
+and strength of will, and so has the right to fashion his own course
+of conduct.
+
+382. =The Development of Personal Worth.=--It is evident, however,
+that the usefulness of the individual, both to himself and to others,
+depends on his personal worth. The self-controlled man is the man of
+personal worth, but self-control is not easy to secure. Defendants of
+the first two theories may admit that self-control is an ideal, but
+they claim that in the progress of society it must follow, not
+antedate, external authority and the cultivation of public opinion,
+and that time is not yet come. Only the few can be trusted yet to
+follow their best judgment on all occasions, to be on the alert to
+maintain in themselves and others highest efficiency. Human nature is
+slowly in the making. One by one men and women rise to higher levels;
+social regeneration must therefore wait on individual regeneration.
+Seeing the need of a dynamic that will create personal worth, the
+individualist has turned to religion and preached a doctrine of
+personal salvation. He has seen what religion has done to transform
+character, and he believes with confidence that it and it alone can
+create social salvation if we give it time.
+
+At the present time there is an increasing number of social thinkers
+who regard each of these three theories as containing elements of
+value, but believe that there is something beyond them that is
+necessary to the highest efficiency. They consider that external
+authority has been necessary, and look upon a strong centralized
+government with power to create social efficiency as essential, but
+they expect that an increasing social consciousness will make the
+exercise of authority gradually less necessary. They have great
+confidence in trained public opinion, but do not forget that opinion
+must be vitalized by a strong motive, and mere education does not
+readily supply the motive. They look for a time when individual worth
+will be greater than now, and they recognize religion as a powerful
+dynamic in the building of character, but they regard religion as
+turned inward too much upon the individual. They would develop
+individual character for the sake of society, and make a socialized
+religion the motive power to vitalize public opinion so that it shall
+function with increasing efficiency. A socialized religion supplies a
+principle, a method, and a power. The Hebrew prophets and Jesus laid
+down the principle that there is a solidarity of interests to which
+the claims of the individual must be subordinate and must be
+sacrificed on occasion. The prophets and Jesus taught a method of
+experimentation, calling upon the people whom they addressed to test
+the principle and see if it worked. The prophets and Jesus showed that
+power comes in the will to do and in actual obedience to the
+principle. They looked for an improved social system reared on this
+basis which would be a real "kingdom of God," not merely the economic
+commonwealth of the Socialist, but a commonwealth governed by the
+principle of consecration to the social welfare, spiritual as well as
+physical.
+
+383. =Social Ideals.=--At the basis of every theory lies the
+individual with social relations. To socialize him external authority
+is the primitive agent. This authority may give way in time to the
+restraint of public opinion made intelligent by a socialized
+education, but effective public opinion is dependent on the
+development of personal worth in the individual. The most powerful
+dynamic for such development and for social welfare in general is a
+socialized religion. If all this be true, what is it that comprises
+social welfare? In a word, it is the efficient functioning of every
+social group. The family, the community, the nation, and every minor
+group, will serve effectually the economic, cultural, social, and
+spiritual needs of the individuals of whom it is composed. Perfect
+functioning can follow only after a long period of progress. Such
+progress is the ideal that society sets for itself. In that process
+there must be full recognition of all the factors that enter into
+social life. There is the individual with his rights and obligations,
+who must be protected and encouraged to grow. There are the
+institutions like the family, the church, and the state that must
+receive recognition and maintenance. There must be liberty for each
+group to function freely without arbitrary interference, as long as
+its privileges and acts do not interfere with the public good. Ideal
+social control is to be exercised by an enlightened and
+self-restrained public opinion energized by a socialized religion. All
+improvements must not be looked for in a moment, but can come only
+slowly and by frequent testing if they are to be permanently
+accepted. The system that would result would be neither absolutist,
+socialistic, nor individualistic, but would contain the best elements
+of all. It would not be forced upon a people, but would be worked out
+slowly by education and experiment. Social institutions would not be
+tyrannous but helpful, and human happiness would be materially
+increased.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 352-381.
+
+  NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 443-493.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 373-392.
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 351-361.
+
+  SKELTON: _Socialism_, pages 16-61.
+
+  CARNEGIE: _Problems of To-day_, pages 121-139.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVIII
+
+THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
+
+
+384. =Sociology vs. Social Philosophy.=--Sociology is one of the
+recent sciences. It had to wait for the scientific method of exact
+investigation and the scientific principle of forming conclusions upon
+abundant data. Naturally, theories of society were held long before
+any science came into existence, but they were of value only as
+philosophizing. Some of these theories were published and attracted
+the attention of thoughtful persons, but they did not affect social
+life. Some of them developed into philosophies of history, based on
+the preconceived ideas of their authors. Now and then in the first
+part of the nineteenth century certain social experiments were made in
+the form of co-operative communities, which it was fondly hoped would
+become practical methods for a better social order, but they almost
+uniformly failed because they were artificial rather than of natural
+growth, and because they were based on principles that public opinion
+had not yet sanctioned. The story of the predecessors of modern
+sociology naturally is preliminary to the history of sociology itself.
+
+385. =Philosophers and Prophets.=--Two classes of men in ancient time
+worked on the problems of society, one from the practical standpoint,
+the other from the philosophic. One group of names includes the great
+statesmen and lawgivers, like Moses, who laid the foundations of the
+Hebrew nation and gave it the nucleus of a legal system; Solon and
+Lycurgus, traditional lawgivers of Athens and Sparta, and several of
+the earlier kings and later emperors of Rome. The other group is
+composed of men who thought much about human life and disseminated
+their opinions by writing and teaching. For the most part they were
+idealistic philosophers, but their influence was far-reaching in time.
+In the list belong Plato, who in his _Republic_ outlined an ideal
+society that was the prototype of later fanciful commonwealths;
+Aristotle, who made a real contribution to political science in his
+_Politics_; Cicero, who himself participated actively in government
+and wrote out his theories or spoke them in public, and Augustine, who
+gave his conception of a Christian state in the _City of God_.
+
+During the period when ancient ways were giving place to modern, and a
+transition was taking place in the realm of ideas, Thomas More, in his
+_Utopia_, and Campanella in his _City of the Sun_, published their
+conceptions of an ideal state, while Machiavelli took society as it
+was, and in his _Prince_ suggested how it might be governed better.
+These are all evidences that there was dissatisfaction with existing
+systems, but no unanimity of opinion as to possible improvements.
+Later theories were no more satisfactory. The French Revolutionary
+philosophers, especially Rousseau, with his theory of voluntary social
+contract, and the Utopian dreamers who followed, were longing for
+justice and political efficiency, but their theories seem crude and
+visionary from the point of view of the social science of the present
+day.
+
+386. =Experimenting with Society.=--Robert Owen in England and Fourier
+and Saint-Simon in France were prophets of an ideal order which they
+tried to establish. Believing that all men were intended to be happy,
+and that happiness depended on a reorganization of the social
+environment in which property should be socialized, at least in part,
+they organized volunteers into model communities, expecting that their
+success would attract men everywhere to imitate the new organization.
+The arrangement of industry was planned in detail, a co-operative
+system was organized that would keep every man busy at useful labor
+without working him too hard, would take away the profits of the
+middleman by a well-planned system of distribution, and would allow
+liberty in social relations as far as consistent with the general
+good, but would subordinate the individual to the community. Certain
+of the Utopians thought that it would be necessary for the state to
+determine the minutiae of daily life, and for a few directors to
+prescribe activities, and they introduced a uniformity in dress, food,
+and houses that savored of the old-fashioned orphan asylum. These
+features, together with the failure to understand that social
+institutions could not be made to order, and that human nature was not
+of such quality as to make an ideal commonwealth at once actual, soon
+wrecked these utopian schemes and brought to an end the first period
+of socialistic experiments.
+
+387. =Biological Sociologists.=--Not a few writers in the eighteenth
+and nineteenth centuries, before sociology was born, recognized the
+need and the possibility of a true science of society. Scholars were
+studying and writing upon other sciences that are related to
+sociology--biology, history, economics, and politics. Scientific
+information about the various races of mankind was accumulating. At
+length Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, found a place for sociology among
+the sciences and declared it to be the highest of them all. In 1842 he
+completed the publication of the _Positive Philosophy_, in which he
+maintained that human society is an organism similar to biological
+organisms, and that its activities can be systematized and
+generalizations be deduced therefrom for the formation of a true
+science. In his _Descriptive Sociology_ and later works Herbert
+Spencer in England amplified the theory of Comte and arranged a mass
+of facts as evidence of its truth. He put too much emphasis on
+biological resemblances in the opinion of present-day sociologists,
+but his emphasis on inductive study and his generalizations from
+biology were important contributions to the development of the new
+science.
+
+388. =Psychological Sociologists.=--Comte and Spencer were followed by
+other biological sociologists whose names are well known to students
+of the science. Interest was aroused in Great Britain, on the
+continent of Europe, and in America. Students were influenced by
+conclusions that were being reached in biology, in economics, and in
+other allied departments of thought, but the one science which became
+most prominent to the minds of sociologists was psychology. Ward's
+_Dynamic Sociology_, published in 1883, marked an epoch, because it
+called special attention to the psychic factors that enter into social
+life. After him it became increasingly clear that the true social
+forces were psychic, though physical conditions affected social
+progress. A younger school of sociologists has come into existence,
+and the science is being developed on that basis. More than one
+individual thinker has made his special contribution, and there is
+still a variety of opinion on details, but the general principles of
+the science are being worked out in substantial agreement. It is not
+to be expected that such a complex and comprehensive science could be
+completed in its short history of approximately half a century, or
+that it can ever be made exact, like mathematics or the natural
+sciences, but there is every reason to expect the development of a
+body of classified facts that will be of inestimable value in
+attacking social problems, and of principles that will serve as a
+guide through the labyrinth of social life. The value of any science
+is not in the perfection of its system, but in the practical
+application which can be made of it to human progress.
+
+389. =Relation of Sociology to the Natural Sciences.=--Sociology has
+relations to an outer circle of general sciences and to an inner
+circle of social sciences. It is itself but one of the social
+sciences, though it is regarded as chief among them. Man looks out
+upon the universe, of which he is but an atom, and asks questions.
+Astronomy brings to him the findings of its telescopes and spectrum
+analyses. Geology explains the transformations that have taken place
+in the earth on which he lives. Physics and chemistry analyze its
+substance and reveal the laws of nature. Biology opens up the field of
+life. Psychology investigates the structure and functions of the human
+mind, and shows that all activity is at base mental. At last the new
+sociology discloses human life in all its complex relationships, the
+function of the social mind, and the channels through which it works.
+Since social life is lived in a world where physical and mental
+factors are constantly in action, there is a close connection between
+all the sciences. Although social life is not so closely similar to
+animal life as was thought previously, the principles of biology are
+important to the sociologist because biology is the science of all
+life. Psychology is important because it is the science of all mind.
+
+390. =Relations of Sociology and Other Social Sciences.=--There are
+many phases of human experience and differences of relationship.
+Obviously the specific sciences that deal with them have a still
+closer relation to sociology. Economics, for example, has as its field
+the economic relations and activities that are connected with the
+business of making a living. The production, distribution, and use of
+material things is the subject that absorbs the economist. The
+sociologist makes use of the facts and principles of economics to
+throw light on the economic functions of society, but the economic
+field is only one sector of his concern. In a similar way political
+science is related to sociology. It deals with the organization and
+development of government and embraces the departments of national and
+international law, but the governmental function of the social group
+is but one of the divisions of the interests that absorb the
+sociologist. He uses the data and conclusions of the political
+scientists, but in a more general way. It is the same with the
+sociologist and history. History supplies much of the data of the
+sociologist from the records of the past. It deals with social life in
+the concrete, and historical interpretation is essential to an
+understanding of social phenomena, but sociology takes the past with
+the present, analyzes both, and generalizes from both as to the laws
+of the social process. Pedagogy deals with the history and principles
+of education. Sociology is interested in the educational function of
+the family, of the community, and of the nation, but again its
+interest is from the standpoint of abstraction and generalization.
+Ethics is a science that treats of the right and wrong conduct of
+human beings. It is very closely associated with sociology, because
+the valuation of conduct depends on social effects, but the moral
+functioning of the group is but one phase of social life, and,
+therefore, ethics is far narrower in its range than sociology.
+Theology, the science of religion, has sociological implications. As
+far as it is a science and not a philosophy, it rests upon human
+interest and human experience, and it is becoming increasingly
+recognized that these human interests depend on social relationships,
+but all the religious interests of men are but one part of the field
+of sociology.
+
+It is clear that each of the social sciences holds a relation to
+sociology of the particular to the general. Sociology seeks out the
+laws and principles that unify all the rest. It does not include them
+all, as does the term social science, but it correlates and interprets
+them all. It is not the same as philosophy, for that subject has for
+its field all knowledge, and especially tries to probe to the secrets
+of all being, and to learn the meaning of the universe as a whole,
+while sociology is restricted to social life. Each has its distinct
+place among the studies of the human mind, and each should be
+distinguished carefully from its rivals and associates.
+
+391. =Social Classification.=--When we enter into the field of
+sociology itself we find other distinctions to be necessary. The
+novice frequently confounds similar terms. Not infrequently sociology
+and socialism are used as synonymous terms by persons who know little
+of either, so that it is necessary to point out that socialism is a
+particular theory of social organization and functioning, while
+sociology is the general science that includes all varieties of social
+theory, along with social fact, and especially is it necessary to
+explain that any fallacies of socialistic theory do not invalidate
+well-established conclusions of social science. Another common error
+is to identify sociology with social reform. Social pathology is too
+important a branch of sociology to be omitted or minimized, but it is
+only one division of the subject, and all measures as well as theories
+of social reform are only a small part of the concern of sociology.
+Such terms as philanthropy, criminology, and penology all have
+connection with sociology, but they need to be carefully
+differentiated from the more general term.
+
+Sociology itself has been variously classified under the terms pure
+and applied, static and dynamic, descriptive and theoretical. Terms
+have changed somewhat, as the psychological emphasis has supplanted
+the biological. It is important that terms should be used correctly
+and should be sanctioned by custom, but it is not necessary to make
+sharp distinction between all the different divisions, old and new.
+Classification is a matter of convenience and technic; though it may
+have a scientific basis, it is entirely a matter of form. There is
+always danger that a particular classification may become a fetich. It
+is the life of society that we study, it is the improvement of social
+relations at which we aim. Whatever method best contributes to this
+end is valid in classification for all except those who delight in
+science for science's sake.
+
+392. =The Permanent Place of Sociology.=--The study of the science of
+social life is eminently worth while, for it deals with matters that
+are of vital importance to the human race and every one of its
+individual members. For that reason it is likely to receive growing
+recognition as among the most important subjects with which the human
+mind can deal. It is vast in its range, exacting in its demand of
+unremitting investigation and careful generalization, stimulating in
+its intense practicality. Its abstractions require the closest
+reasoning of the scholar, but its basis in the concrete facts of daily
+life tends to make it popular. Once understood and appreciated,
+sociology is likely to become the guide-book by which social effort
+will be directed, and the standard by which it will be measured. As
+progress becomes in this way more telic it will become more rapid.
+Social life will approach more nearly the norm that sociology
+describes, but until the day that society ceases to be pathological,
+sociology will teach a social ideal as a goal toward which society
+must bend its energies. As human life is the most precious gift that
+the world bestows, so the science of that life is worthy of being
+called the gem of the sciences.
+
+
+READING REFERENCES
+
+  DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 19-40.
+
+  BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 13-47,
+      541-564.
+
+  GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 3-51.
+
+  ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 29-65.
+
+  ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 15-28, 256-348.
+
+  SMALL: _General Sociology_, pages 40-97.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Achievement, 5, 115, 341.
+
+Activity, 2-6, 88, 111, 117, 164, 170, 188, 236, 237, 298, 346.
+
+Adaptation, 31, 234, 333-335, 342, 343, 349-351.
+
+Administration, 320, 321.
+
+Adultery, 75-78, 81.
+
+AEsthetics, 144.
+
+Aggregation, 348.
+
+Agricultural clubs, 107, 118.
+
+Agricultural colleges, 107, 164.
+
+Agricultural fairs, 107.
+
+Agriculture, 52, 99, 100, 104, 106, 118.
+
+Almshouses, 272.
+
+American Civic Federation, 148.
+
+American Federation of Labor, 192.
+
+American Vigilance Association, 85.
+
+Amusements, 86, 164, 238-240.
+
+Ancestor-worship, 32.
+
+Arbitration, 191, 194, 195, 335, 336.
+
+Art, 283.
+
+Assimilation, 327.
+
+Association, 6-9, 17-23, 53, 54, 88, 108, 109, 111, 118, 133, 152,
+  164, 170, 188, 233, 236, 240, 254, 294, 307, 308, 337, 338,
+  344-346, 348, 349.
+
+Athletics, 109, 111, 112, 196, 237, 240, 308, 309.
+
+Attention, 345, 351.
+
+
+Banks, 106, 307.
+
+Big Brother idea, 251.
+
+Biological analogies, 342, 343.
+
+Birth-rate, 42.
+
+Boards of Conciliation, 194, 195.
+
+Boy Scouts, 110, 251.
+
+Boys' Clubs, 110.
+
+
+Cabinet, 320, 321.
+
+Camp-Fire Girls, 112.
+
+Catholic Church, 76, 271, 276.
+
+Census of marriage and divorce, 35, 74, 77.
+
+Change, 10-13, 88, 129, 170, 173-176, 189, 236, 351.
+
+Charity, 242, 267, 271-277.
+
+Charity organization, 57, 267, 272-276.
+
+Charter, 257, 260, 261.
+
+Chautauqua Movement, 118, 133, 309.
+
+Child labor, 49-53, 190, 191, 235.
+
+Children, 42-59.
+  Dependency of, 56-58.
+  Relief of, 57, 58.
+  Rights of, 42, 48, 53-55.
+
+Children's aid societies, 58.
+
+Chinese Exclusion Act, 329.
+
+Christianity, 32, 76.
+
+Church, The, 156-161, 252, 287-293, 310, 311, 338, 353.
+  In the city, 287-293.
+  In the country. See Rural church.
+
+Church charity, 275, 276.
+
+Church organization, 290-293.
+
+City, The, 169 ff., 294-299.
+  Attraction of, 171, 172.
+  Characteristics of, 169.
+  Economic interests in, 180.
+  Government of, 256-262.
+  Growth of, 170.
+  History of, 177-179.
+  Importance of, 176.
+  Improvement of, 295-298.
+  In the making, 294-298.
+  Manager, 261, 262.
+  Neighborhood, 284, 285.
+  Opportunities in, 173, 175.
+
+Classes, 212-218.
+
+Classification, 370.
+
+Clubs, 107, 110-112, 116, 118, 133, 134, 148.
+
+Collective bargaining, 194.
+
+College life, 10, 12, 85, 131, 132.
+
+Commerce, 205, 206, 337.
+
+Commission government, 260, 261.
+
+Commissions, 195, 199, 233.
+
+Communication, 116, 118, 281, 288, 294, 307, 336, 337, 349.
+
+Community house, 163, 164.
+
+Community leadership, 164-168.
+
+Community obligation, 154.
+
+Competition, 107, 198, 227.
+
+Conference, 297, 298.
+
+Conflict, 31, 115, 186, 187, 194, 320, 328, 334, 353.
+
+Congregational churches, 77.
+
+Control, 9, 10, 88, 136, 142, 170, 188, 189, 197-199, 203, 208-210,
+  234, 246, 256, 258, 298, 303, 314, 352, 357, 358.
+
+Co-operation, 31, 53, 63, 89, 90, 105-107, 129, 130, 198-200, 205,
+  206, 297, 298, 365.
+
+Cost of living, 69, 76, 89.
+
+Country store, 116.
+
+Court of Domestic Relations, 79.
+
+Courts. See Judiciary.
+
+Craft guilds, 182.
+
+Crime, 75, 84, 90, 154, 228, 235, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248-255.
+  Causes of, 248-250.
+  Discharge, 253, 254.
+  Prevention of, 250-252.
+  Punishment, 252-254.
+  Reformation, 252, 254.
+
+Criticism, 353.
+
+Crowds, 22, 23.
+
+Cruelty, 48, 49, 75, 77, 78.
+
+Custom, 139, 152, 334, 349.
+
+
+Dance-halls, 82, 84, 238, 240.
+
+Decision, 351, 354.
+
+Defectives, 84, 86.
+
+Degeneracy, 43-46, 218, 219, 228.
+
+Delinquency, 154.
+  See Crime.
+
+Democracy, 141, 189, 190, 196, 298, 309, 316-319, 327.
+
+Democracy in industry, 189, 190.
+
+Department stores, 201, 203.
+
+Dependency, 56, 57, 271.
+  See Charity.
+
+Desertion, 70, 75, 77, 78, 267.
+
+Desires, 334, 345-347.
+
+Difficulties of working people, 263-270.
+
+Discrimination, 345, 351.
+
+Discussion, 284-286, 353, 354.
+
+Division of labor, 62, 125.
+
+Divorce, 74-80, 88.
+  Catholic attitude toward, 76
+  Causes of, 75, 76, 267.
+  Difficulty of, 77.
+  History of, 76.
+  In Europe, 74-78.
+  Laws of, 74-79.
+  Protestant attitude toward, 76, 77.
+  Remedies for, 78, 79.
+
+Divorce court, 79.
+
+Divorce proctor, 79.
+
+Drama, 283, 284.
+  See Theatre.
+
+Duelling, 194.
+
+Dynamic society, 2, 10.
+
+
+East, The, 100, 139, 140, 224.
+
+Economics, 180, 368.
+
+Education, 55, 120-131, 280, 327, 328, 331, 339, 346, 353-355.
+  Agricultural, 124, 127, 128.
+  Cultural, 122, 132.
+  Industrial, 251, 331.
+  Moral and religious, 160, 251, 287, 291.
+  Principles of, 120-124.
+  Rural, 120-131.
+  Vocational, 121, 123, 267, 268, 296.
+  Weaknesses of, 123, 124.
+
+Edwards family, 45, 46.
+
+Elberfeld system, 275.
+
+Election, 317, 318.
+
+Employers' liability, 191, 192.
+
+Environment, 25, 26, 40, 47, 48, 99, 100, 105, 121, 125, 169, 235,
+  248, 327, 334, 340-343, 345, 350, 351.
+
+Erdman Act, 195.
+
+Ethics, 202, 368.
+
+Eugenics, 43-47, 90.
+
+Euthenics, 47, 48.
+
+Evangelical Alliance, 311.
+
+Evangelism, 288, 289.
+
+Evolution, 342, 343.
+
+Exchange, 64, 201-203.
+
+Executive, 320, 321.
+
+Experimentation, 128, 187.
+
+
+Factory life, 188.
+
+Factory system, 51, 182-184.
+
+Family, 24 f., 88-90.
+  Changes in, 65, 67-69, 76.
+  Functions of, 26, 27, 88.
+  History of, 29-33.
+  Mediaeval, 33, 37-39.
+  On the farm, 25, 26, 64, 65, 350.
+  Reform, 88-90.
+  Roman, 32, 37.
+  Study of, 24.
+  Urban, 68.
+
+Farmers' Institute, 118.
+
+Farmers' Union, 117.
+
+Federal Council of churches, 77, 310,
+311.
+
+Federation, 334, 335.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, 44, 84.
+
+Feeling, 344, 345, 355.
+
+Feminism, 71, 72.
+
+Folk-ways. See Social habits.
+
+Forum, 284-286, 360.
+
+Friendly visiting, 274.
+
+
+Galveston plan, 260, 261.
+
+Gambling, 153, 235, 239.
+
+Gangs, 22, 109-111.
+
+Germans, 223, 259, 260, 269, 322, 335.
+
+Girls' clubs, in, 111, 112.
+
+Government, 136-143, 195, 208, 256-262, 313-327.
+  City, 256-262.
+  National, 313-323.
+  Rural, 136-143.
+
+Government ownership, 208, 209.
+
+Grange, 117, 284.
+
+Great Britain, 44, 259, 269, 316, 317, 322.
+
+Group consciousness, 18, 192.
+
+
+Habits, 334, 345.
+
+Hague Conferences, 335.
+
+Health, 85, 144-148, 196, 233, 242, 267, 307, 308.
+  Clubs, 148.
+  Nurses and physicians, 147, 148, 296.
+  Officials, 146, 147.
+
+Hebrew Charities, 276.
+
+Heredity, 26, 46, 249, 342.
+
+History, 368.
+
+Home, 37-42.
+  Children in the, 42, 90.
+  Education in the, 39, 55, 56.
+  History of the, 37-39.
+  Ideal, 40.
+  Man in the, 70.
+  Modern, 39, 40, 67-71.
+  Rural, 121, 122.
+  Values of the, 39, 40.
+  Women in the, 69.
+
+Home economics, 60-66.
+
+Hospitals, 272, 296.
+
+Hours of labor, 190, 207.
+
+Housing, 86, 89, 230-234, 252, 350.
+
+Hull House, 277, 278.
+
+
+Imitation, 349, 351.
+
+Immigrants and Immigration, 82, 86, 102, 170, 171, 221-229, 250, 327-329.
+  Asiatic, 328, 329.
+  Causes and effects of, 227, 228.
+  German, 223.
+  History of, 221-226.
+  Irish, 222.
+  Italian, 224, 225.
+  Jewish, 225, 226.
+  Lesser peoples, 226.
+  Problems of, 327.
+  Scandinavians, 223, 224.
+  Slavs, 225.
+
+Imprisonment, 78.
+  See Crime.
+
+Impulse, 345.
+
+Individual, The, 128, 144, 151, 152, 192, 203, 248, 343-347, 360.
+
+Individualism, 72, 73, 75, 78, 88, 89, 107, 144, 149, 360.
+
+Industrial control, 189, 190.
+
+Industrial problem, 183, 186-200.
+  Principles for solution of the, 197-200.
+
+Industrial reform, 190.
+
+Industrial revolution, 178, 184.
+
+Industrial schools, 58.
+
+Initiative, 261.
+
+Insanity, 44, 78, 244.
+
+Instincts, 27, 109, 111, 112, 344, 345, 348.
+
+Insurance, 106, 269.
+
+Intemperance, 75, 78, 84, 90, 153, 233, 240, 241.
+  Results of, 242-244.
+    See Temperance.
+
+Interests, 302-304, 311, 334, 345-347.
+
+International law, 320, 335.
+
+International Workers of the World, 193.
+
+Internationalism, 333-339.
+
+Invention, 184, 206, 341, 345.
+
+Irish, 222.
+
+Italians, 224, 225.
+
+
+Jews, 225, 226.
+
+Judiciary, 321, 322.
+
+Jukes, 44, 45.
+
+Juvenile courts, 154, 254.
+
+
+Kallikak family, 45.
+
+
+Labor, 61-63.
+  Division of, 62.
+  Hired, 63.
+  Organization of, 192, 193.
+
+Labor bureaus, 191, 193, 268.
+
+Labor conditions, 184.
+
+Labor exchanges, 269.
+
+Labor unions, 192, 193, 207.
+
+Lack of support, 75.
+
+Law, 136, 137, 142, 258, 321, 322, 349.
+
+Lawgivers, 364.
+
+Lawlessness, 54, 55, 235.
+
+Legislation, 319, 320.
+  See Social legislation.
+
+Liberty, 54, 55.
+
+Libraries, 132, 282, 283.
+
+License, 83, 246.
+
+Like-mindedness, 192, 308.
+
+Local Government Act, 259.
+
+Local option, 141, 246.
+
+
+Manufacturing, 180-185.
+  History of, 181-183.
+
+Marriage, 27, 20-36, 46, 76, 79, 84.
+  Ideals of, 35, 36, 79.
+  Laws of, 34, 35, 77, 78.
+  Reforms, 35.
+
+Mass meeting, 19.
+
+Massachusetts Society for Promoting Good Citizenship, 260.
+
+Maternity benefits, 44.
+
+Metronymic period, 30.
+
+Misery, 263.
+
+Missions, 338, 339.
+
+Mobs, 22, SS, 348.
+
+Monogamy, 29, 31, 33.
+
+Monopoly, 208-210, 242.
+
+Morals, 151-155, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237, 242, 349.
+  Definition of, 151.
+  In the city, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237.
+  Rural, 151-155.
+
+Morals commission, 86.
+
+Morals court, 86.
+
+Moving pictures, 82, 86, 112, 238, 240, 283.
+
+Municipal ownership, 260.
+
+Municipal reform, 260.
+
+Music, 133, 164, 165, 237, 241, 283, 284, 310.
+
+
+Nation, The, 300-332.
+  Economics in, 306, 307.
+  Education in, 309.
+  Functions of, 305-311, 314.
+  Government of, 313-323.
+  Health in, 307, 308.
+  History of, 301, 302.
+  Philanthropy in, 310.
+  Problems of, 324-332.
+  Sport in, 308.
+
+National Bureau of Education, 309.
+
+National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 273, 310.
+
+National Conference on Unemployment, 269.
+
+National Divorce Reform League, 77.
+
+National Education Association, 309.
+
+National Insurance Act, 44.
+
+National Municipal League, 260.
+
+National Reform League, 260.
+
+Nature study, 127.
+
+Neglect, 48, 75.
+
+Negro problem, 329-331.
+
+Newspapers, 252, 281, 284, 336, 353, 354, 360.
+
+
+Occupations, 104, 181, 235, 345.
+
+Offices, 204.
+
+Organization, 2, 8, 9, 22, 23, 109, 110, 111, 118, 133, 140, 149,
+  182-184, 188, 196, 210, 259, 260, 200-293, 317-323.
+
+Organization of labor, 192, 193.
+
+
+Parks, 238.
+
+Parole, 253.
+
+Paternalism, 358.
+
+Patriarchal household, 30, 32, 49, 61.
+
+Pauperism, 268.
+
+Personality, 1, 54, 344, 347, 349.
+
+Personal worth, 360, 361.
+
+Persuasion, 352.
+
+Philosophers, 364, 365.
+
+Placing-out system, 57, 58.
+
+Play, 53, 54, 109, 235, 236, 239.
+
+Playgrounds, 108, 235, 236.
+
+Police, 258, 259.
+
+Political science, 368.
+
+Politics, 137, 138, 141, 142, 194, 244, 252, 260.
+
+Polyandry, 31.
+
+Polygyny, 30, 31.
+
+Population, 100-103, 176, 177, 223, 232, 248.
+  Characteristics of, 100, 101.
+  Composition of, 101, 102, 223.
+  Congestion of, 207.
+  Growth of, 102.
+
+Poverty, 84, 90, 228, 242, 246, 266-270.
+  Causes of, 267-269.
+  Remedies for, 267, 268.
+
+Press, The, 280-282.
+
+Primaries, 141, 260, 261.
+
+Probation, 251, 253.
+
+Profanity, 153, 235.
+
+Profit-sharing, 196.
+
+Progress, 351-353.
+  Genetic, 351, 352.
+  Telic, 352, 353.
+
+Prophets, 365, 366.
+
+Prosperity, 324, 325.
+
+Prostitution, 81-88.
+
+Protestant-Episcopal Church, 77.
+
+Psychology, 344-346.
+
+Public opinion, 34, 35, 59, 78, 79, 81, 82, 123, 142, 210, 237, 246,
+  252, 282, 320, 359-361.
+
+Punishment. See Crime.
+
+
+Race problem, 327-332.
+
+Railways, 207, 208.
+
+Raines Law hotels, 84.
+
+Reading-circles, 133.
+
+Reason, 3, 4, 17.
+
+Recall, 261.
+
+Recreation, 53, 54, 108-114, 164, 196, 235, 238, 252, 254, 308, 309.
+
+Referendum, 141, 193, 198, 261.
+
+Reformatories, 84, 86.
+
+Relief, 57, 58, 267, 271-277.
+
+Religion, 34, 39, 230, 287-293, 349, 361.
+
+Religious education, 160, 287, 291.
+
+Remarriage, 77.
+
+Rescue homes, 86.
+
+Royal Commission on Divorce, 78.
+
+Rural church, 156-161.
+  Function of, 157, 160.
+  Minister of, 158.
+  Needs of, 159, 160.
+  New, 160.
+  Problems of, 158, 159.
+  Value of, 156, 157.
+
+Rural emigration, 67, 102, 172, 173.
+
+Rural Life Commission, 153, 154.
+
+Russell Sage Foundation, 268, 295.
+
+
+St. Vincent de Paul Society, 276.
+
+Saloon, The, 84, 173, 238, 240, 241, 243.
+
+Salvation Army, 293.
+
+Scandinavians, 223, 224.
+
+Schools, The, 120-131, 141, 236, 280.
+  Consolidated, 125, 129,
+  Continuation, 129, 165.
+  Curriculum of, 121, 122, 127, 128, 354.
+  District, 124, 125, 284.
+  Normal, 123, 130, 131.
+  State, 58.
+  Teaching in, 124, 129, 130.
+
+School districts, 140.
+
+Scientific management, 196.
+
+Segregation, 83, 85, 250, 272, 296.
+
+Self-control, 360, 361.
+
+Servant class, 62, 63, 69, 82, 89, 182.
+
+Settlements, 277-279.
+
+Sewing-circles, 116, 117.
+
+Sex hygiene, 55, 90.
+
+Sexual impurity, 81, 88, 90, 153, 154, 233.
+  See Prostitution.
+
+Slavery, 62, 182.
+
+Slavs, 225.
+
+Slums, 38, 231-233.
+
+Sociability, 108, 111, 164, 171.
+
+Social analysis, 340-371.
+
+Social centres, 117, 163, 164, 176-179, 241, 242, 284-286.
+
+Social characteristics, 2-14, 88, 129.
+
+Social contract, 315.
+
+Social degeneration, 103.
+
+Social development, 2, 334, 342, 360.
+
+Social education, 35, 39, 46, 56, 80, 86, 87, 90, 110, 121, 123, 237,
+  254, 330, 331.
+
+Social elements. See Social factors.
+
+Social factors, 4, 16, 17, 68, 187, 188, 333, 334, 340-356.
+  Physical, 343.
+  Psychic, 344-356.
+
+Social groups, 14-23, 53, 54, 349, 350.
+
+Social habits, 349, 351.
+
+Social ideals, 362, 363.
+
+Social institutions, 21, 24, 57, 58, 90, 115-120, 162, 168, 169, 237,
+  280, 337-339, 357.
+
+Social legislation, 44, 52, 53, 142, 190, 191, 194, 222, 250, 268.
+
+Social mind, 17-19, 54, 344, 348.
+
+Social organization. See Organization.
+
+Social pathology, 369.
+
+Social problems, 14, 210, 221, 228, 242, 298.
+
+Social reform, 369.
+
+Social relations, 1, 6-8, 24, 31, 47, 90, 108, 169, 187, 189, 195,
+  203, 237, 314, 332, 334, 365.
+
+Social science, 128, 129, 298, 355, 365.
+
+Social selection, 31, 342, 343.
+
+Social service, 89.
+
+Social sympathy, 89.
+
+Social theories, 315, 357-363, 365.
+
+Social utility, 4.
+
+Social values, 39, 40, 108, 337.
+
+Social weaknesses, 13, 14, 88, 123, 124, 170, 175, 189, 324.
+
+Social welfare, 73, 186, 191, 196, 202, 210, 212, 300, 343, 358.
+
+Socialism, 197, 314, 358, 359, 369.
+  Objections to, 359.
+
+Society, 1, 2.
+
+Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 57.
+
+Sociology, 2, 364-371.
+  Biological, 366.
+  Psychological, 366.
+  Relations of, 367-369.
+
+Source material, 2.
+
+South, The, 99, 100, 140, 261.
+
+South Carolina dispensary system, 242.
+
+Southern Sociological Conference, 310.
+
+Standard of living, 207, 222, 231, 327, 329.
+
+State, The, 57, 272, 313-323.
+  History of, 315, 316.
+  Theories of, 315.
+
+State schools, 58.
+
+Static society, 2, 10, 139, 169.
+
+Sterilization, 250.
+
+Stimulus, 18, 56, 238, 283, 341, 344, 345, 347, 351, 352.
+
+Stock exchange, 202.
+
+Street trades, 235.
+
+Strikes, 193, 194.
+
+Struggle for existence, 342, 343.
+
+Summer visitors, 148, 149, 351.
+
+Sweating, 52.
+
+Syndicalism, 197.
+
+
+Telephone, 106.
+
+Temperance, 244.
+  Anti-Saloon League, 245.
+  Education, 245.
+  Good Templars, 245.
+  No license, 245.
+  Prohibition, 245, 246.
+  Regulation, 246.
+  Total abstinence, 245.
+  Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
+
+Tenant farming, 101.
+
+Tenements, 69, 82, 84-86, 230-234, 239, 263.
+
+Theatre, 82, 238, 240, 283.
+
+Theology, 369.
+
+Theories. See Social theories.
+
+Town meetings, 140-142, 163, 284-286.
+
+Toynbee Hall, 278.
+
+Tradition, 349, 350.
+
+Transportation, 204-208, 336, 337.
+
+Trusts, 209, 210.
+
+
+Unemployment, 199, 269.
+
+United Mine Workers, 193.
+
+United States, 302-304, 335.
+
+United States Census, 67.
+
+United States Department of Agriculture, 306.
+
+United States Patent Office, 306.
+
+Universities, 131, 132, 308, 309, 354.
+
+University of Wisconsin, 131, 132.
+
+University Settlement, 278.
+
+Unorganized groups, 16-23.
+
+Utopians, 365.
+
+
+Venereal disease, 44, 85.
+
+Vice commissions, 83-85.
+
+Vice reform, 85, 86.
+
+Village, The, 115, 301.
+  Improvement Society, 148, 149.
+  Nurse, 147, 148.
+
+Vocational training, 35, 296.
+
+Volunteer Prison League, 254.
+
+
+Wages, 84, 86, 89, 203, 204, 207, 222, 228.
+
+War, 90, 194, 249, 334.
+
+West, The, 99, 102, 223, 224, 261.
+
+White-slave traffic, 83, 86, 244.
+  See Prostitution.
+
+Will of the individual, 264, 344, 355, 362.
+
+Will of the people, 138, 320.
+
+Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
+
+Woman's clubs, 134.
+
+Woman's work, 61, 62, 84, 190, 191.
+
+Working people, The, 183, 184, 212, 230-234, 238, 263-270.
+
+Worship, 288, 289.
+
+
+Young Men's Christian Association, 153, 163, 173, 241, 293, 298, 338.
+
+Young Women's Christian Association, 293, 298.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Society, by Henry Kalloch Rowe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY ***
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