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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics, 
+Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Best of the World's Classics,  Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Henry Cabot Lodge
+        Francis W. Halsey
+
+Release Date: May 28, 2007 [EBook #21629]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEST OF THE WORLD'S CLASSICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   [Illustration: MARCUS AURELIUS]
+
+                   [Illustration: CÆSAR]
+
+                   [Illustration: CICERO]
+
+                   [Illustration: SENECA]
+
+
+
+                               THE BEST
+
+                               _of the_
+
+                           WORLD'S CLASSICS
+
+                         RESTRICTED TO PROSE
+
+
+
+                          HENRY CABOT LODGE
+
+                          _Editor-in-Chief_
+
+
+                          FRANCIS W. HALSEY
+
+                          _Associate Editor_
+
+
+                With an Introduction, Biographical and
+                       Explanatory Notes, etc.
+
+
+                            IN TEN VOLUMES
+
+                               Vol. II
+
+
+                                 ROME
+
+
+
+
+
+                       FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
+
+                         NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY
+
+                       FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+The Best of the World's Classics
+
+VOL. II
+
+ROME
+
+234 B.C.--180 A.D.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+VOL. II--ROME
+
+
+CATO THE CENSOR--(Born in 234 B.C., died in 149.)
+
+Of Work on a Roman Farm. (From "De Re Rustica." Translated by Dr. E.
+Wilson)
+
+
+CICERO--(Born in 106 B.C., assassinated in 43.)
+
+I   The Blessings of Old Age.
+        (From the "Cato Major." Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+II  On the Death of His Daughter Tullia. (A letter to Sulpicius)
+
+III Of Brave and Elevated Spirits.
+        (From Book I of the "Offices." Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+IV  Of Scipio's Death and of Friendship.
+        From the "Dialog on Friendship." (Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+
+JULIUS CÆSAR--(Born in 100 B.C., assassinated in 44.)
+
+I   The Building of the Bridge Across the Rhine.
+        (From Book IV of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and W. S. Bohn)
+
+II  The Invasion of Britain.
+        (From Book V of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated by
+         McDivett and Bohn)
+
+III Overcoming the Nervii.
+        (From Book II of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and Bohn)
+
+IV  The Battle of Pharsalia and the Death of Pompey.
+        (From Book III of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and Bohn)
+
+
+SALLUST--(Born about 86 B.C., died about 34.)
+
+I   The Genesis of Catiline.
+        (From the "Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S. Watson)
+
+II  The Fate of the Conspirators.
+        (From the "Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S. Watson)
+
+
+Livy--(Born in 59 B.C., died in 17 A.D.)
+
+I   Horatius Cocles at the Bridge.
+        (From Book II of the "History of Rome." Translated by D. Spillan
+         and Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+II  Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps.
+        (From Book XXI of the "History of Rome." Translated by Spillan and
+         Edmonds)
+
+III Hannibal and Scipio at Zama.
+        (From Book XXX of the "History of Rome." Translated by Spillan and
+         Edmonds)
+
+SENECA--(Born about 4 B.C., died in 65 A.D.)
+
+I   Of the Wise Man.
+        (From Book II of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+II  Of Consolation for the Loss of Friends.
+        (From Book VI of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+III To Nero on Clemency.
+        (From the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+IV  The Pilot.
+        (From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge)
+
+V   Of a Happy Life.
+        (From Book VII of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER--(Born in 23 A.D., perished in the Eruption of Vesuvius.)
+
+I   The Qualities of the Dog.
+        (From the "Natural History." Translated by Bostock and Riley)
+
+II  Three Great Artists of Greece.
+        (From the "Natural History." Translated by Bostock and Riley)
+
+
+QUINTILIAN--(Born about 35 A.D., died about 95.)
+
+    The Orator Must Be a Good Man.
+        (From Book XII, Chapter I, of the "Institutes." Translated by J. S.
+         Watson)
+
+
+TACITUS--(Born about 55 A.D., died about 117.)
+
+I   From Republican to Imperial Rome.
+        (From Book I of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+II  The Funeral of Germanicus.
+        (From Book III of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+III The Death of Seneca.
+        (From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+IV The Burning of Rome by Order of Nero.
+        (From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+V   The Burning of the Capitol at Rome.
+        (From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+VI  The Siege of Cremona.
+        (From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+VII Agricola.
+        (The Oxford translation revised)
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER--(Born in 63 A.D., died in 113.)
+
+I   Of the Christians in His Province.
+        (From the "Letters." The Melmoth translation revised)
+
+II  To Tacitus on the Eruption of Vesuvius.
+        (From the "Letters." The Melmoth translation revised)
+
+
+SUETONIUS--(Lived in the first half of the second century A.D.)
+
+I   The Last Days of Augustus.
+        (From the "Lives of the Cæsars." Translated by Alexander Thomson,
+         revised by Forester)
+
+II  The Good Deeds of Nero.
+        (From the "Lives of the Cæsars." Translated by Thomson, revised by
+         Forester)
+
+III The Death of Nero.
+        (From the "Lives of the Cæsars." Translated by Thomson, revised by
+         Forester)
+
+
+MARCUS AURELIUS--(Born in 121 A.D., died in 180.)
+
+    His Debt to Others.
+        (From the "Meditations." Translated by George Long)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ROME
+
+234 B.C.--180 A.D.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CATO, THE CENSOR
+
+     Born in Tusculum, Italy, in 234 B.C., died in 149;
+     celebrated as statesman, general, and writer; questor under
+     Scipio in 204; Consul in 195; served in Spain in 194; censor
+     in 184; ambassador to Carthage in 150; one of the chief
+     instigators of the third Punic war; among his writings are
+     "De Re Rustica" and "Origines."[1]
+
+OF WORK ON A ROMAN FARM[2]
+
+
+When the owner of the farm and slaves visits his country villa, after
+saluting the household god, he should the same day, if possible, go
+round the farm; if not the same day, he should do so the day after. On
+seeing how the farm is being cultivated, and what work has been done
+or left undone, he should call for his steward and inquire for his
+account of what work has been done and what remains to be done. He
+should ask whether the work has been completed in good time and
+whether what is left uncompleted can be finished. He should find what
+wine has been made, and what wheat stored. When he has gone into these
+particulars, he should ask for an account of the days spent in
+accomplishing the work.
+
+If the work does not seem satisfactory and the steward should excuse
+himself by declaring that he has done his best, that the slaves were
+good for nothing, that the weather was bad, that some slaves had run
+away, that he himself had been called off on public service, and
+should allege other such excuses, he should still be strictly called
+to account. He should be asked if on rainy or tempestuous days he had
+seen that indoor operations had been carried on. Had the wine-casks
+been scoured and lined with pitch; had the house-cleaning been done;
+had the grain been taken from the thrashing-floor to the granary; had
+manure been thrown from the stables and cow-houses and piled into
+heaps; had the seed been winnowed; had any rope been made; had the old
+rope been repaired, and had he seen that the slaves mended their coats
+and caps. He should be reminded that on religious festivals old
+ditches might have been cleared out, the public road mended, briers
+cut down, the garden dug over, the meadow cleared, the trees trimmed,
+thorns pulled up by the roots, the grain ground and a general clearing
+up carried through. He should also be told that when slaves were sick
+their rations should be cut down.
+
+When the matters have been settled to the master's satisfaction, he
+should take measures to see that what has not been done be at once
+accomplished. He should then proceed to consider the account of the
+farm, and a consideration of the amount of grain which has been
+prepared for fodder. He should have returns made of wine and
+olive-oil, and learn how much has been consumed, how much sold, how
+much is left over and may be put on sale. If there is a deficit any
+year, he should order it to be made up from the outside, and whatever
+is above the needs of the farm sold. If there is anything to let out
+on contract, he should order this to be done, and concerning the work
+which he wishes to be thus accomplished he should give his order in
+writing. As regards the cattle he should order them to be sold by
+auction, and in the same way should sell the oil, if the price of oil
+has risen; likewise the superfluous wine and corn of the estate. He
+should also order to be sold worn-out bulls, blemished cattle,
+blemished sheep, wool, hides, any plow that is old, old tools, old
+slaves, slaves who are diseased, or anything else which is useless,
+for the owner of a farm must be a seller and not a purchaser.
+
+The owner of a farm and of slaves must begin to study in early manhood
+the cultivation and sowing of the land. He should, however, think a
+long time before building his villa, but not about farming his
+property, which he should set about at once. Let him wait until his
+thirty-sixth year and then build, provided his whole property is under
+cultivation. So build that neither the villa be disproportionately
+small in comparison with the farm nor the farm in comparison with the
+villa. It behooves a slave-owner to have a well-built country house,
+containing a wine-cellar, a place for storing olive-oil, and casks in
+such numbers that he may look forward with delight to a time of
+scarcity and high prices, and this will add not only to his wealth,
+but to his influence and reputation. He must have wine-presses of the
+first order, that his wine may be well made. When the olives have been
+picked, let oil be at once made or it will turn out rancid. Recollect
+that every year the olives are shaken from the trees in great number
+by violent storms. If you gather them up quickly and have vessels
+ready to receive them, the storm will have done them no harm and the
+oil will be all the greener and better. If the olives be on the ground
+or even on the barn floor too long, the oil made from them will be
+fetid. Olive-oil will be always good and sweet if it be promptly made.
+
+The following are the duties of a steward: He must maintain strict
+discipline, and see that the festivals are observed. While he keeps
+his hands off the property of a neighbor, let him look well to his
+own. The slaves are to be kept from quarreling. If any of them commits
+a fault, he should be punished in a kindly manner. The steward must
+see that the slaves are comfortable and suffer neither from cold nor
+hunger. By keeping them busy he will prevent them from running into
+mischief or stealing. If the steward sets his face against evil doing,
+evil will not be done by them. His master must call him to task if he
+let evil doing go unpunished. If one slave do him any service, he
+should show gratitude that the others may be encouraged to do right.
+The steward must not be a gadder or a diner-out, but must give all his
+attention to working the slaves, and considering how best to carry out
+his master's instructions....
+
+It is at times worth while to gain wealth by commerce, were it not so
+perilous; or by usury, were it equally honorable. Our ancestors,
+however, held, and fixt by law, that a thief should be condemned to
+restore double, a usurer quadruple. We thus see how much worse they
+thought it for a citizen to be a money-lender than a thief. Again,
+when they praised a good man, they praised him as a good farmer or a
+good husbandman. Men so praised were held to have received the highest
+praise. For myself, I think well of a merchant as a man of energy and
+studious of gain; but it is a career, as I have said, that leads to
+danger and ruin. However, farming makes the bravest men and the
+sturdiest soldiers, and of all sources of gain is the surest, the most
+natural, and the least invidious, and those who are busy with it have
+the fewest bad thoughts.[3]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Cato was Rome's first thoroughly national author. He is
+usually classed as the creator of Latin prose. Other Roman authors of
+his time wrote in Greek. Cato bitterly opposed Greek learning,
+declaring that, when Greece should give Rome her literature, she would
+"corrupt everything." On Cato's mind no outside literary influence
+ever prevailed. He has been called "the most original writer that Rome
+ever produced."]
+
+[Footnote 2: From "De Re Rustica." Translated for this work by Dr.
+Epiphanius Wilson.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The translation of this paragraph is taken from
+Cruttwell's "History of Roman Literature."]
+
+
+
+
+CICERO
+
+     Born in 106 B.C., assassinated in 43; celebrated as orator,
+     philosopher, statesman, and man of letters; served in the
+     social war in 89; traveled in Greece and Asia in 79-77;
+     questor in Sicily in 75; accused Verres in 70; prætor in 60;
+     as Consul supprest Catiline's conspiracy in 63; banished in
+     58; recalled in 57; proconsul in Cicilia in 51-50; joined
+     Pompey in 49; pronounced orations against Mark Antony in
+     44-43; proscribed by the Second Triumvirate in 43; of his
+     orations fifty-seven are extant, with fragments of twenty
+     others; other extant works include "De Oratore," "De
+     Republica," "Cato Major," "De Officiis," and four
+     collections of letters.
+
+
+I
+
+THE BLESSINGS OF OLD AGE[4]
+
+
+Nor even now do I feel the want of the strength of a young man, no
+more than when a young man I felt the want of the strength of the bull
+or of the elephant. What one has, that one ought to use; and whatever
+you do, you should do it with all your strength. For what expression
+can be more contemptible than that of Milo[5] of Crotona, who, when he
+was now an old man, and was looking at the prize-fighters exercising
+themselves on the course, is reported to have looked at his arms,
+and, weeping over them, to have said, "But these, indeed, are now
+dead." Nay, foolish man, not these arms so much as yourself; for you
+never derived your nobility from yourself, but from your chest and
+your arms. Nothing of the kind did Sextus Ælius ever say, nothing of
+the kind many years before did Titus Coruncanius, nothing lately did
+Publius Crassus; by whom instructions in jurisprudence were given to
+their fellow citizens, and whose wisdom was progressive even to their
+latest breath. For the orator, I fear lest he be enfeebled by old age;
+for eloquence is a gift not of mind only, but also of lungs and
+strength. On the whole, that melodiousness in the voice is graceful, I
+know not how, even in old age; which, indeed, I have not lost, and you
+see my years.
+
+Yet there is a graceful style of eloquence in an old man,
+unimpassioned and subdued, and very often the elegant and gentle
+discourse of an eloquent old man wins for itself a hearing; and if you
+have not yourself the power to produce this effect, yet you may be
+able to teach it to Scipio and Lælius. For what is more delightful
+than old age surrounded with the studious attention of youth? Shall we
+not leave even such a resource to old age, as to teach young men,
+instruct them, train them to every department of duty? an employment,
+indeed, than which what can be more noble? But, for my part, I thought
+the Cneius and Publius Scipios,[6] and your two grandfathers, L.
+Æmilius and P. Africanus, quite happy in the attendance of noble
+youths; nor are any preceptors of liberal accomplishments to be deemed
+otherwise than happy, tho their strength hath fallen into old age and
+failed; altho that very failure of strength is more frequently caused
+by the follies of youth than by those of old age; for a lustful and
+intemperate youth transmits to old age an exhausted body. Cyrus too,
+in Xenophon, in that discourse which he delivered on his deathbed when
+he was a very old man, said that he never felt that his old age had
+become feebler than his youth had been. I recollect, when a boy, that
+Lucius Metellus,[7] who, when four years after his second consulship
+he had been made "pontifex maximus," and for twenty-two years held
+that sacerdotal office, enjoyed such good strength at the latter
+period of his life, that he felt no want of youth. There is no need
+for me to speak about myself, and yet that is the privilege of old
+age, and conceded to my time of life.
+
+Do you see how, in Homer, Nestor very often proclaims his own virtues?
+for he was now living in the third generation of men; nor had he
+occasion to fear lest, when stating the truth about himself, he should
+appear either too arrogant or too talkative; for, as Homer says, from
+his tongue speech flowed sweeter than honey; for which charm he stood
+in need of no strength of body; and yet the famous chief of Greece
+nowhere wishes to have ten men like Ajax, but like Nestor; and he does
+not doubt if that should happen, Troy would in a short time perish.
+
+But I return to myself. I am in my eighty-fourth year. In truth I
+should like to be able to make the same boast that Cyrus did; but one
+thing I can say, that altho I have not, to be sure, that strength
+which I had either as a soldier in the Punic war or as questor in the
+same war, or as Consul in Spain, or, four years afterward, when as
+military tribune I fought a battle at Thermopylæ, in the consulship of
+Marcus Acilius Glabrio; yet, as you see, old age has not quite
+enfeebled me or broken me down: the senate-house does not miss my
+strength, nor the rostra, nor my friends, nor my clients, nor my
+guests; for I have never agreed to that old and much-praised proverb
+which advises you to become an old man early if you wish to be an old
+man long. I for my part would rather be an old man for a shorter
+length of time than be an old man before I was one. And, therefore, no
+one as yet has wished to have an interview with me to whom I have been
+denied as engaged.
+
+But I have less strength than either of you two. Neither even do you
+possess the strength of Titus Pontius the centurion; is he, therefore,
+the more excellent man? Only let there be a moderate degree of
+strength, and let every man exert himself as much as he can; and in
+truth that man will not be absorbed in regretting the want of
+strength. Milo, at Olympia, is said to have gone over the course while
+supporting on his shoulders a live ox. Whether, then, would you rather
+have this strength of body, or Pythagoras' strength of intellect,
+bestowed upon you? In a word, enjoy that blessing while you have it;
+when it is gone, do not lament it, unless, indeed, young men ought to
+lament the loss of boyhood, and those a little advanced in age the
+loss of adolescence. There is a definite career in life, and one way
+of nature, and that a simple one; and to every part of life its own
+peculiar period has been assigned; so that both the feebleness of
+boys, and the high spirit of young men, and the steadiness of now fixt
+manhood, and the maturity of old age, have something natural which
+ought to be enjoyed in their own time. I suppose that you hear,
+Scipio, what your grandfather's host, Masinissa,[8] is doing at this
+day, at the age of ninety. When he has commenced a journey on foot, he
+never mounts at all; when on horseback, he never dismounts; by no
+rain, by no cold, is he prevailed upon to have his head covered; that
+there is in him the greatest hardiness of frame; and therefore he
+performs all the duties and functions of a king. Exercise, therefore,
+and temperance, even in old age, can preserve some remnant of our
+pristine vigor.
+
+Is there no strength in old age? neither is strength exacted from old
+age. Therefore, by our laws and institutions, our time of life is
+relieved from those tasks which can not be supported without strength.
+Accordingly, so far are we from being compelled to do what we can not
+do that we are not even compelled to do as much as we can. But so
+feeble are many old men that they can not execute any task of duty or
+any function of life whatever; but that in truth is not the peculiar
+fault of old age, but belongs in common to bad health. How feeble was
+the son of Publius Africanus, he who adopted you. What feeble health,
+or rather no health at all, had he! and had that not been so, he would
+have been the second luminary of the state; for to his paternal
+greatness of soul a richer store of learning had been added. What
+wonder, therefore, in old men if they are sometimes weak when even
+young men can not escape that.
+
+We must make a stand, Scipio and Lælius, against old age, and its
+faults must be atoned for by activity; we must fight, as it were,
+against disease, and in like manner against old age. Regard must be
+paid to health; moderate exercises must be adopted; so much of meat
+and drink must be taken that the strength may be recruited, not
+opprest. Nor, indeed, must the body alone be supported, but the mind
+and the soul much more; for these also, unless you drop oil on them as
+on a lamp, are extinguished by old age. And our bodies, indeed, by
+weariness and exercise, become opprest; but our minds are rendered
+buoyant by exercise. For as to those of whom Cæcilius speaks, "foolish
+old men," fit characters for comedy, by these he denotes the
+credulous, the forgetful, the dissolute, which are the faults not of
+old age, but of inactive, indolent, drowsy old age. As petulance and
+lust belong to the young more than to the old, yet not to all young
+men, but to those who are not virtuous; so that senile folly, which is
+commonly called dotage, belongs to weak old men, and not to all. Four
+stout sons, five daughters, so great a family, and such numerous
+dependents, did Appius manage, altho both old and blind; for he kept
+his mind intent like a bow, nor did he languidly sink under the weight
+of old age. He retained not only authority, but also command, over
+his family; the slaves feared him; the children respected him; all
+held him dear; there prevailed in that house the manners and good
+discipline of our fathers. For on this condition is old age honored if
+it maintains itself, if it keeps up its own right, if it is
+subservient to no one, if even to its last breath it exercises control
+over its dependents. For, as I like a young man in whom there is
+something of the old, so I like an old man in whom there is something
+of the young; and he who follows this maxim, in body will possibly be
+an old man, but he will never be an old man in mind.
+
+I have in hand my seventh book of Antiquities; I am collecting all the
+materials of our early history; of all the famous causes which I have
+defended; I am now completing the pleadings;[9] I am employed on a law
+of augurs, of pontiffs, of citizens. I am much engaged also in Greek
+literature, and, after the manner of the Pythagoreans, for the purpose
+of exercising my memory, I call to mind in the evening what I have
+said, heard, and done on each day. These are the exercises of the
+understanding; these are the race-courses of the mind; while I am
+perspiring and toiling over these, I do not greatly miss my strength
+of body. I attend my friends, I come into the senate very often, and
+spontaneously bring forward things much and long thought of, and I
+maintain them by strength of mind, not of body; and if I were unable
+to perform these duties, yet my couch would afford me amusement, when
+reflecting on those matters which I was no longer able to do, but that
+I am able is owing to my past life; for, by a person who always lives
+in these pursuits and labors, it is not perceived when old age steals
+on. Thus gradually and unconsciously life declines into old age; nor
+is its thread suddenly broken, but the vital principle is consumed by
+length of time.
+
+Then follows the third topic of blame against old age, that they say
+it has no pleasures. Oh, noble privilege of age! if indeed it takes
+from us that which is in youth the greatest defect. For listen, most
+excellent young men, to the ancient speech of Archytas[10] of
+Tarentum, a man eminently great and illustrious, which was reported to
+me when I, a young man, was at Tarentum with Quintus Maximus. He said
+that no more deadly plague than the pleasure of the body was inflicted
+on men by nature; for the passions, greedy of that pleasure, were in a
+rash and unbridled manner incited to possess it; that hence arose
+treasons against one's country, hence the ruining of states, hence
+clandestine conferences with enemies--in short, that there was no
+crime, no wicked act, to the undertaking of which the lust of
+pleasure did not impel; but that fornications and adulteries and every
+such crime were provoked by no other allurements than those of
+pleasure. And whereas either nature or some god had given to man
+nothing more excellent than his mind, that to this divine function and
+gift, nothing was so hostile as pleasure; since where lust bore sway,
+there was no room for self-restraint; and in the realm of pleasure,
+virtue could by no possibility exist. And that this might be the
+better understood, he begged you to imagine in your mind any one
+actuated by the greatest pleasure of the body that could be enjoyed;
+he believed no one would doubt but that so long as the person was in
+that state of delight, he would be able to consider nothing in his
+mind, to attain nothing by reason, nothing by reflection; wherefore
+that there was nothing so detestable and so destructive as pleasure,
+inasmuch as that when it was excessive and very prolonged, it
+extinguished all the light of the soul.
+
+Nearchus of Tarentum, our host, who had remained throughout in
+friendship with the Roman people, said he had heard from older men
+that Archytas held this conversation with Caius Pontius the Samnite,
+the father of him by whom, in the Caudian[11] battle, Spurius
+Postumius and Titus Veturius, the consuls, were overcome, on which
+occasion Plato the Athenian had been present at that discourse; and I
+find that he came to Tarentum in the consulship of Lucius Camillus and
+Appius Claudius.[12] Wherefore do I adduce this? that we may
+understand that if we could not by reason and wisdom despise pleasure,
+great gratitude would be due to old age for bringing it to pass that
+that should not be a matter of pleasure which is not a matter of duty.
+For pleasure is hostile to reason, hinders deliberation, and, so to
+speak, closes the eyes of the mind, nor does it hold any intercourse
+with virtue. I indeed acted reluctantly in expelling from the senate
+Lucius Flaminius, brother of that very brave man Titus Flaminius,[13]
+seven years after he had been Consul; but I thought that his
+licentiousness should be stigmatized. For that man, when he was Consul
+in Gaul, was prevailed on at a banquet by a courtezan to behead one of
+those who were in chains, condemned on a capital charge. He escaped in
+the censorship of his brother Titus, who had immediately preceded me;
+but so profligate and abandoned an act of lust could by no means be
+allowed to pass by me and Flaccus, since with private infamy it
+combined the disgrace of the empire.
+
+I have often heard from my elders, who said that, in like manner,
+they, when boys, had heard from old men, that Caius Fabricius was wont
+to wonder that when he was ambassador to King Pyrrhus, he had heard
+from Cineas the Thessalian that there was a certain person at Athens
+who profest himself a wise man, and that he was accustomed to say that
+all things which we did were to be referred to pleasure; and that
+hearing him say so, Manius Curius and Titus Coruncanius were
+accustomed to wish that that might be the persuasion of the Samnites
+and Pyrrhus[14] himself, that they might the more easily be conquered
+when they had given themselves up to pleasure. Manius Curius had lived
+with Publius Decius, who, five years before the consulship of the
+former, had devoted himself for the commonwealth in his fourth
+consulship. Fabricius had been acquainted with him, and Coruncanius
+had also known him, who, as well from his own conduct in life, as from
+the great action of him whom I mention, Publius Decius, judged that
+there was doubtless something in its own nature excellent and
+glorious, which should be followed for its own sake, and which,
+scorning and despising pleasure, all the worthiest men pursued....
+
+But why do I refer to others? Let me now return to myself. First of
+all, I always had associates in clubs; and clubs were established when
+I was questor, on the Idæan worship of the great mother being adopted.
+Therefore I feasted with my associates altogether in a moderate way,
+but there was a kind of fervor peculiar to that time of life, and as
+that advances, all things will become every day more subdued. For I
+did not calculate the gratification of those banquets by the pleasures
+of the body so much as by the meetings of friends and conversations.
+For well did our ancestors style the reclining of friends at an
+entertainment, because it carried with it a union of life, by the name
+"convivium" better than the Greeks do, who call this same thing as
+well by the name of "compotatio" as "concoenatio"; so that what in
+that kind (of pleasures) is of the least value that they appear most
+to approve of.
+
+For my part, on account of the pleasure of conversation, I am
+delighted also with seasonable entertainments, not only with those of
+my own age, of whom very few survive, but with those of your age, and
+with you; and I give great thanks to old age, which has increased my
+desire for conversation, and taken away that of eating and drinking.
+But even if such things delight any person (that I may not appear
+altogether to have declared war against pleasure, of which perhaps a
+certain limited degree is even natural), I am not aware that even in
+these pleasures themselves old age is without enjoyment. For my part,
+the presidencies established by our ancestors delight me; and that
+conversation, which after the manner of our ancestors, is kept up over
+our cups from the top of the table; and the cups, as in the Symposium
+of Xenophon, small and dewy, and the cooling of the wine in summer,
+and in turn either the sun, or the fire in winter--practises which I
+am accustomed to follow among the Sabines also--and I daily join a
+party of neighbors, which we prolong with various conversation till
+late at night, as far as we can. But there is not, as it were, so
+ticklish a sensibility of pleasures in old men. I believe it; but then
+neither is there the desire. However, nothing is irksome unless you
+long for it. Well did Sophocles, when a certain man inquired of him
+advanced in age whether he enjoyed venereal pleasures, reply, "The
+gods give me something better; nay, I have run away from them with
+gladness, as from a wild and furious tyrant." For to men fond of such
+things, it is perhaps disagreeable and irksome to be without them; but
+to the contented and satisfied it is more delightful to want them than
+to enjoy them; and yet he does not want who feels no desire; therefore
+I say that this freedom from desire is more delightful than enjoyment.
+
+But if the prime of life has more cheerful enjoyment of those very
+pleasures, in the first place they are but petty objects which it
+enjoys, as I have said before; then they are those of which old age,
+if it does not abundantly possess them, is not altogether destitute.
+As he is more delighted with Turpio Ambivius, who is spectator on the
+foremost bench, yet he also is delighted who is in the hindmost; so
+youth having a close view of pleasures is perhaps more gratified; but
+old age is as much delighted as is necessary in viewing them at a
+distance. However, of what high value are the following circumstances,
+that the soul, after it has served out, as it were, its time under
+lust, ambition, contention, enmities, and all the passions, shall
+retire within itself, and, as the phrase is, live with itself? But if
+it has, as it were, food for study and learning, nothing is more
+delightful than an old age of leisure. I saw Caius Gallus, the
+intimate friend of your father, Scipio, almost expiring in the
+employment of calculating the sky and the earth. How often did
+daylight overtake him when he had begun to draw some figure by night,
+how often did night, when he had begun in the morning! How it did
+delight him to predict to us the eclipses of the sun and the moon,
+long before their occurrence! What shall we say in the case of
+pursuits less dignified, yet, notwithstanding, requiring acuteness!
+How Nævius did delight in his Punic war! how Plautus in his
+Truculentus! how in his Pseudolus! I saw also the old man Livy,[15]
+who, tho he had brought a play upon the stage six years before I was
+born, in the consulship of Cento and Tuditanus, yet advanced in age
+even to the time of my youth. Why should I speak of Publius Licinius
+Crassus' study both of pontifical and civil law? or of the present
+Publius Scipio, who within these few days was created chief pontiff?
+Yet we have seen all these persons whom I have mentioned, ardent in
+these pursuits when old men. But as to Marcus Cethegus, whom Ennius
+rightly called the "marrow of persuasion," with what great zeal did we
+see him engage in the practise of oratory, even when an old man! What
+pleasures, therefore, arising from banquets, or plays, or harlots, are
+to be compared with these pleasures? And these, indeed, are the
+pursuits of learning, which too, with the sensible and well educated,
+increase along with their age; so that is a noble saying of Solon,
+when he says in a certain verse, as I observed before, that he grew
+old learning many things every day--than which pleasure of the mind,
+certainly, none can be greater.
+
+I come now to the pleasures of husbandmen, with which I am excessively
+delighted, which are not checked by any old age, and appear in my
+mind to make the nearest approach to the life of a wise man. For they
+have relation to the earth, which never refuses command, and never
+returns without interest that which it hath received; but sometimes
+with less, generally with very great interest. And yet for my part it
+is not only the product, but the virtue and nature of the earth itself
+that delight me, which, when in its softened and subdued bosom it has
+received the scattered seed, first of all confines what is hidden
+within it, from which harrowing, which produces that effect, derives
+its name (_occatio_); then, when it is warmed by heat and its own
+compression, it spreads it out, and elicits from it the verdant blade,
+which, supported by the fibers of the roots, gradually grows up, and,
+rising on a jointed stalk, is now enclosed in a sheath, as if it were
+of tender age, out of which, when it hath shot up, it then pours forth
+the fruit of the ear, piled in due order, and is guarded by a rampart
+of beards against the pecking of the smaller birds. Why should I, in
+the case of vines, tell of the plantings, the risings, the stages of
+growth? That you may know the repose and amusement of my old age, I
+assure you that I can never have enough of that gratification. For I
+pass over the peculiar nature of all things which are produced from
+the earth; which generates such great trunks and branches from so
+small a grain of the fig or from the grape-stone, or from the minutest
+seeds of other fruits and roots; shoots, plants, twigs, quicksets,
+layers, do not these produce the effect of delighting any one even to
+admiration? The vine, indeed, which by nature is prone to fall, and is
+borne down to the ground, unless it be propt, in order to raise
+itself up, embraces with its tendrils, as it were with hands, whatever
+it meets with, which, as it creeps with manifold and wandering course,
+the skill of the husbandmen pruning with the knife, restrains from
+running into a forest of twigs, and spreading too far in all
+directions.
+
+Accordingly, in the beginning of spring, in those twigs which are
+left, there rises up as it were at the joints of the branches that
+which is called a bud, from which the nascent grape shows itself,
+which, increasing in size by the moisture of the earth and the heat of
+the sun, is at first very acid to the taste, and then as it ripens
+grows sweet, and being clothed with its large leaves does not want
+moderate warmth, and yet keeps off the excessive heat of the sun; than
+which what can be in fruit on the one hand more rich, or on the other
+hand more beautiful in appearance? Of which not only the advantage, as
+I said before, but also the cultivation and the nature itself delight
+me; the rows of props, the joining of the heads, the tying up and
+propagation of vines, and the pruning of some twigs, and the grafting
+of others, which I have mentioned. Why should I allude to irrigations,
+why to the diggings of the ground, why to the trenching by which the
+ground is made much more productive? Why should I speak of the
+advantage of manuring? I have treated of it in that book which I wrote
+respecting rural affairs, concerning which the learned Hesiod has not
+said a single word, tho he has written about the cultivation of the
+land. But Homer, who, as appears to me, lived many ages before,
+introduces Lærtes soothing the regret which he felt for his son by
+tilling the land and manuring it. Nor indeed is rural life delightful
+by reason of corn-fields only and meadows and vineyards and groves,
+but also for its gardens and orchards; also for the feeding of cattle,
+the swarms of bees, and the variety of all kinds of flowers. Nor do
+plantings only give me delight, but also graftings, than which
+agriculture has invented nothing more ingenious....
+
+Was then their old age to be pitied who amused themselves in the
+cultivation of land? In my opinion, indeed, I know not whether any
+other can be more happy; and not only in the discharge of duty,
+because to the whole race of mankind the cultivation of the land is
+beneficial; but also from the amusement, which I have mentioned, and
+that fulness and abundance of all things which are connected with the
+food of men, and also with the worship of the gods; so that, since
+some have a desire for these things, we may again put ourselves on
+good terms with pleasure. For the wine-cellar of a good and diligent
+master is always well stored; the oil-casks, the pantry also, the
+whole farmhouse is richly supplied; it abounds in pigs, kids, lambs,
+hens, milk, cheese, honey. Then, too, the countrymen themselves call
+the garden a second dessert. And then what gives a greater relish to
+these things is that kind of leisure labor, fowling and hunting. Why
+should I speak of the greenness of meadows, or the rows of trees, or
+the handsome appearance of vineyards and olive grounds? Let me cut the
+matter short. Nothing can be either more rich in use or more elegant
+in appearance than ground well tilled, to the enjoyment of which old
+age is so far from being an obstacle that it is even an invitation and
+allurement. For where can that age be better warmed either by basking
+in the sun or by the fire, or again be more healthfully refreshed by
+shades or waters? Let the young, therefore, keep to themselves their
+arms, horses, spears, clubs, tennis-ball, swimmings, and races; to us
+old men let them leave out of many amusements the _tali_ and
+_tesseræ_; and even in that matter it may be as they please, since old
+age can be happy without these amusements....
+
+What, therefore, should I fear if after death I am sure either not to
+be miserable or to be happy? Altho who is so foolish, even if young,
+as to be assured that he will live even till the evening? Nay, that
+period of life has many more probabilities of death that ours has;
+young men more readily fall into diseases, suffer more severely, are
+cured with more difficulty, and therefore few arrive at old age. Did
+not this happen so we should live better and more wisely, for
+intelligence, and reflection, and judgment reside in old men, and if
+there had been none of them, no states could exist at all. But I
+return to the imminence of death. What charge is that against old age,
+since you see it to be common to youth also? I experienced not only in
+the case of my own excellent son, but also in that of your brothers,
+Scipio, men plainly marked out for the highest distinction, that death
+was common to every period of life. Yet a young man hopes that he will
+live a long time, which expectation an old man can not entertain. His
+hope is but a foolish one; for what can be more foolish than to regard
+uncertainties as certainties, delusions as truths? An old man indeed
+has nothing to hope for; yet he is in so much the happier state than
+a young one; since he has already attained what the other is only
+hoping for. The one is wishing to live long, the other has lived long.
+
+And yet, good gods! what is there in man's life that can be called
+long? For allow the latest period; let us anticipate the age of the
+kings of Tartessii. For there dwelt, as I find it recorded, a man
+named Arganthonius at Gades;[16] who reigned for eighty years, and
+lived 120. But to my mind, nothing whatever seems of long duration to
+which there is any end. For when that arrives, then the time which has
+passed has flown away; that only remains which you have secured by
+virtue and right conduct. Hours indeed depart from us, and days and
+months and years; nor does past time ever return, nor can it be
+discovered what is to follow. Whatever time is assigned to each to
+live, with that he ought to be content; for neither need the drama be
+performed entire by the actor in order to give satisfaction, provided
+he be approved in whatever act he may be; nor need the wise man live
+till the _plaudite_. For the short period of life is long enough for
+living well and honorably, and if you should advance further, you need
+no more grieve than farmers do when the loveliness of spring-time hath
+passed, that summer and autumn have come. For spring represents the
+time of youth, and gives promise of the future fruits; the remaining
+seasons are intended for plucking and gathering in those fruits. Now
+the harvest of old age, as I have often said, is the recollection and
+abundance of blessings previously secured. In truth everything that
+happens agreeably to nature is to be reckoned among blessings. What,
+however, is so agreeable to nature as for an old man to die which even
+is the lot of the young, tho nature opposes and resists. And thus it
+is that young men seem to me to die just as when the violence of flame
+is extinguished by a flood of water; whereas old men die, as the
+exhausted fire goes out, spontaneously, without the exertion of any
+force; and as fruits when they are green are plucked by force from the
+trees, but when ripe and mellow drop off, so violence takes away their
+lives from youths, maturity from old men--a state which to me indeed
+is so delightful that the nearer I approach to death, I seem, as it
+were, to be getting sight of land, and at length, after a long voyage,
+to be just coming into harbor.
+
+Of all the periods of life there is a definite limit; but of old age
+there is no limit fixt; and life goes on very well in it, so long as
+you are able to follow up and attend to the duty of your situation,
+and, at the same time, to care nothing about death; whence it happens
+that old age is even of higher spirit and bolder than youth. Agreeable
+to this was the answer given to Pisistratus,[17] the tyrant, by Solon,
+when on the former inquiring, "in reliance on what hope he so boldly
+withstood him," the latter is said to have answered, "on old age." The
+happiest end of life is this--when the mind and the other senses
+being unimpaired, the same nature which put it together takes asunder
+her own work. As in the case of a ship or a house, he who built them
+takes them down most easily; so the same nature which has compacted
+man most easily breaks him up. Besides, every fastening of glue, when
+fresh, is with difficulty torn asunder, but easily when tried by time.
+Hence it is that that short remnant of life should be neither greedily
+coveted nor without reason given up; and Pythagoras forbids us to
+abandon the station or post of life without the orders of our
+commander, that is, of God.[18] There is indeed a saying of the wise
+Solon in which he declares that he does not wish his own death to be
+unattended by the grief and lamentation of friends. He wishes, I
+suppose, that he should be dear to his friends. But I know not whether
+Ennius does not say with more propriety,
+
+    "Let no one pay me honor with tears, nor
+        celebrate my funeral with mourning."
+
+He conceives that a death ought not to be lamented when immortality
+follows. Besides, a dying man may have some degree of consciousness,
+but that for a short time, especially in the case of an old man; after
+death, indeed, consciousness either does not exist or it is a thing to
+be desired. But this ought to be a subject of study from our youth to
+be indifferent about death, without which study no one can be of
+tranquil mind. For die we certainly must, and it is uncertain whether
+or not on this very day. He, therefore, who at all hours dreads
+impending death, how can he be at peace in his mind? concerning which
+there seems to be no need of such long discussion, when I call to mind
+not only Lucius Brutus, who was slain in liberating his country; nor
+the two Decii, who spurred on their steeds to a voluntary death; nor
+Marcus Atilius,[19] who set out to execution that he might keep a
+promise pledged to the enemy; nor the two Scipios, who even with their
+very bodies sought to obstruct the march of the Carthaginians; nor
+your grandfather Lucius Paulus,[20] who by his death atoned for the
+temerity of his colleague in the disgraceful defeat at Cannæ; nor
+Marcus Marcellus,[21] whose corpse not even the most merciless foe
+suffered to go without the honor of sepulture; but that our legions,
+as I have remarked in my Antiquities, have often gone with cheerful
+and undaunted mind to that place from which they believed that they
+should never return. Shall, then, well-instructed old men be afraid of
+that which young men, and they not only ignorant, but mere peasants,
+despise? On the whole, as it seems to me indeed, a satiety of all
+pursuits causes a satiety of life. There are pursuits peculiar to
+boyhood; do therefore young men regret the loss of them? There are
+also some of early youth; does settled age, which is called middle
+life, seek after these? There are also some of this period; neither
+are they looked for by old age. There are some final pursuits of old
+age; accordingly, as the pursuits of the earlier parts of life fall
+into disuse, so also do those of old age; and when this has taken
+place, satiety of life brings on the seasonable period of death.
+
+Indeed, I do not see why I should not venture to tell you what I
+myself think concerning death; because I fancy I see it so much the
+more clearly in proportion as I am less distant from it. I am
+persuaded that your fathers, Publius Scipio and Caius Lælius, men of
+the greatest eminence and very dear friends of mine, are living, and
+that life too which alone deserves the name of life. For while we are
+shut up in this prison of the body, we are fulfilling, as it were, the
+function and painful task of destiny; for the heaven-born soul has
+been degraded from its dwelling-place above, and, as it were, buried
+in the earth, a situation uncongenial to its divine and immortal
+nature. But I believe that the immortal gods have shed souls into
+human bodies, that beings might exist who might tend the earth, and by
+contemplating the order of the heavenly bodies might imitate it in the
+manner and regularity of their lives. Nor have reason and argument
+alone influenced me thus to believe, but likewise the high name and
+authority of the greatest philosophers. I used to hear that Pythagoras
+and the Pythagoreans, who were all but our neighbors, who were
+formerly called the Italian philosophers, had no doubt that we
+possess souls derived from the universal divine mind. Moreover, the
+arguments were conclusive to me which Socrates delivered on the last
+day of his life concerning the immortality of the soul--he who was
+pronounced by the oracle of Apollo the wisest of all men. But why say
+more? I have thus persuaded myself, such is my belief; that since such
+is the activity of our souls, so tenacious their memory of things past
+and their sagacity regarding things future, so many arts, so many
+sciences, so many discoveries, that the nature which comprizes these
+qualities can not be mortal; and since the mind is ever in action and
+has no source of motion, because it moves itself, I believe that it
+never will find any end of motion, because it never will part from
+itself; and that since the nature of the soul is uncompounded, and has
+not in itself any admixture heterogeneous and dissimilar to itself, I
+maintain that it can not undergo dissolution; and if this be not
+possible, it can not perish; and it is a strong argument that men know
+very many things before they are born, since when mere boys, while
+they are learning difficult subjects, they so quickly catch up
+numberless ideas, that they seem not to be learning them then for the
+first time, but to remember them, and to be calling them to
+recollection. Thus did our Plato argue....
+
+Let me, if you please, revert to my own views. No one will ever
+persuade me that either your father, Paulus, or two grandfathers,
+Paulus and Africanus, or the father of Africanus, or his uncle, or the
+many distinguished men whom it is unnecessary to recount, aimed at
+such great exploits as might reach to the recollection of posterity
+had they not perceived in their mind that posterity belonged to them.
+Do you suppose, to boast a little of myself, after the manner of old
+men, that I should have undergone such great toils, by day and night,
+at home and in service, had I thought to limit my glory by the same
+bounds as my life? Would it not have been far better to pass an easy
+and quiet life without any toil or struggle? But I know not how my
+soul, stretching upward, has ever looked forward to posterity, as if,
+when it had departed from life, then at last it would begin to live.
+And, indeed, unless this were the case, that souls were immortal, the
+souls of the noblest of men would not aspire above all things to an
+immortality of glory.
+
+Why need I adduce that the wisest man ever dies with the greatest
+equanimity, the most foolish with the least? Does it not seem to you
+that the soul, which sees more and further, sees that it is passing to
+a better state, while that body whose vision is duller, does not see
+it? I, indeed, am transported with eagerness to see your fathers, whom
+I have respected and loved; nor in truth is it those only I desire to
+meet whom I myself have known; but those also of whom I have heard or
+read, and have myself written. Whither, indeed, as I proceed, no one
+assuredly should easily force me back, nor, as they did with Pelias,
+cook me again to youth. For if any god should grant me that from this
+period of life I should become a child again and cry in the cradle, I
+should earnestly refuse it; nor in truth should I like, after having
+run, as it were, my course, to be called back to the starting-place
+from the goal. For what comfort has life? What trouble has it not,
+rather? But grant that it has; yet it assuredly has either satiety or
+limitation (of its pleasures). For I am not disposed to lament the
+loss of life, which many men, and those learned men too, have often
+done; neither do I regret that I have lived, since I have lived in
+such a way that I conceive I was not born in vain; and from this life
+I depart as from a temporary lodging, not as from a home.
+
+For nature has assigned it to us as an inn to sojourn in, not a place
+of habitation. Oh, glorious day! when I shall depart to that divine
+company and assemblage of spirits, and quit this troubled and polluted
+scene. For I shall go not only to those great men of whom I have
+spoken before, but also to my son Cato, than whom never was better man
+born, nor more distinguished for pious affection, whose body was
+burned by me, whereas, on the contrary, it was fitting that mine
+should be burned by him. But his soul not deserting me, but oft
+looking back, no doubt departed to those regions whither it saw that I
+myself was destined to come. This, tho a distress to me, I seemed
+patiently to endure; not that I bore it with indifference, but I
+comforted myself with the recollection that the separation and
+distance between us would not continue long. For these reasons, O
+Scipio (since you said that you with Lælius were accustomed to wonder
+at this), old age is tolerable to me, and not only not irksome, but
+even delightful. And if I am wrong in this, that I believe the souls
+of men to be immortal, I willingly delude myself; nor do I desire that
+this mistake, in which I take pleasure, should be wrested from me as
+long as I live; but if I, when dead, shall have no consciousness, as
+some narrow-minded philosophers imagine, I do not fear lest dead
+philosophers should ridicule this my delusion. But if we are not
+destined to be immortal, yet it is a desirable thing for a man to
+expire at his fit time. For, as nature prescribes a boundary to all
+other things, so does she also to life. Now old age is the
+consummation of life, just as of a play, from the fatigue of which we
+ought to escape, especially when satiety is super-added. This is what
+I had to say on the subject of old age, to which may you arrive! that,
+after having experienced the truth of those statements which you have
+heard from me, you may be enabled to give them your approbation.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ON THE DEATH OF HIS DAUGHTER TULLIA[22]
+
+
+Yes, my dear Servius, I could indeed wish you had been with me, as you
+say, at the time of my terrible trial. How much it was in your power
+to help me if you had been here, by sympathizing with, and I may
+almost say, sharing equally in my grief, I readily perceive from the
+fact that after reading your letter I now feel myself considerably
+more composed; for not only was all that you wrote just what is best
+calculated to soothe affliction, but you yourself in comforting me
+showed that you too had no little pain at heart. Your son Servius,
+however, has made it clear, by every kindly attention which such an
+occasion would permit of, both how great his respect was for myself
+and also how much pleasure his kind feeling for me was likely to give
+you; and you may be sure that, while such attentions from him have
+often been more pleasant to me, they have never made me more grateful.
+
+It is not, however, only your arguments and your equal share--I may
+almost call it--in this affliction which comforts me, but also your
+authority; because I hold it shame in me not to be bearing my trouble
+in a way that you, a man endowed with such wisdom, think it ought to
+be borne. But at times I feel broken down, and I scarcely make any
+struggle against my grief, because those consolations fail me which
+under similar calamities were never wanting to any of those other
+people whom I put before myself as models for imitation. Both Fabius
+Maximus, for example, when he lost a son who had held the consulship,
+the hero of many a famous exploit; and Lucius Paulus, from whom two
+were taken in one week; and your own kinsman Gallus; and Marcus Cato,
+who was deprived of a son of the rarest talents and the rarest
+virtue--all these lived in times when their individual affliction was
+capable of finding a solace in the distinctions they used to earn from
+their country.
+
+For me, however, after being stript of all those distinctions which
+you yourself recall to me, and which I had won for myself by
+unparalleled exertions, only that one solace remained which has been
+torn away. My thoughts were not diverted by work for my friends, or by
+the administration of affairs of state; there was no pleasure in
+pleading in the courts; I could not bear the very sight of the Senate
+House; I felt, as was indeed too true, that I had lost all the harvest
+of both my industry and my success. But whenever I wanted to recollect
+that all this was shared with you and other friends I could name, and
+whenever I was breaking myself in and forcing my spirit to bear these
+things with patience, I always had a refuge to go to where I might
+find peace, and in whose words of comfort and sweet society I could
+rid me of all my pains and griefs. Whereas now, under this terrible
+blow, even those old wounds which seemed to have healed up are
+bleeding afresh; for it is impossible for me now to find such a refuge
+from my sorrows at home in the business of the state as in those days
+I did in that consolation of home, which was always in store whenever
+I came away sad from thoughts of state to seek for peace in her
+happiness. And so I stay away both from home and from public life;
+because home now is no more able to make up for the sorrow I feel when
+I think of our country than our country is for my sorrow at home. I am
+therefore looking forward all the more eagerly to your coming, and
+long to see you as early as may possibly be; no greater alleviation
+can be offered me than a meeting between us for friendly intercourse
+and conversation. I hope, however, that your return is to take place,
+as I hear it is, very shortly. As for myself, while there are abundant
+reasons for wanting to see you as soon as possible, my principal one
+is in order that we may discuss together beforehand the best method of
+conduct for present circumstances, which must entirely be adapted to
+the wishes of one man only, a man nevertheless who is far-seeing and
+generous, and also, as I think I have thoroughly ascertained, to me
+not at all ill-disposed and to you extremely friendly. But admitting
+this, it is still a matter for much deliberation what is the line--I
+do not say of action, but of keeping quiet--that we ought by his good
+leave and favor to adopt. Farewell!
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OF BRAVE AND ELEVATED SPIRITS[23]
+
+
+A spirit altogether brave and elevated is chiefly discernible by two
+characters. The first consists in a low estimate of mere outward
+circumstances, since it is convinced that a man ought to admire,
+desire, or court nothing but what is virtuous and becoming; and that
+he ought to succumb to no man, nor to any perturbation either of
+spirit or fortune. The other thing is that, possest of such a spirit
+as I have just mentioned, you should perform actions which are great
+and of the greatest utility, but extremely arduous, full of
+difficulties and danger both to life and the many things which
+pertain to life.
+
+In the latter of those two characters consist all the glory, the
+majesty, and, I add, the utility; but the causes and the efficient
+means that form great men is in the former, which contains the
+principles that elevate the soul, and gives it a contempt for
+temporary considerations. Now, this very excellence consists in two
+particulars: you are to deem that only to be good is to be virtuous,
+and that you be free from all mental irregularity. For we are to look
+upon it as the character of a noble and an elevated soul, to slight
+all those considerations that the generality of mankind account great
+and glorious, and to despise them, upon firm and durable principles;
+while strength of mind and greatness of resolution are discerned in
+bearing those calamities which, in the course of man's life, are many
+and various, so as not to be driven from your natural disposition, nor
+from the dignity of a wise man; for it is not consistent that he who
+is not subdued by fear should be subjugated by passion, nor that he
+who has shown himself invincible by toil should be conquered by
+pleasure. Wherefore, we ought to watch and avoid the love of money;
+for nothing so truly characterizes a narrow, groveling disposition as
+to love riches; and nothing is more noble and more exalted than to
+despise riches if you have them not, and if you have them, to employ
+them in beneficence and liberality.
+
+An inordinate passion for glory, as I have already observed, is
+likewise to be guarded against; for it deprives us of liberty, the
+only prize for which men of elevated sentiments ought to contend.
+Power is so far from being desirable in itself that it sometimes ought
+to be refused, and sometimes to be resigned. We should likewise be
+free from all disorders of the mind, from all violent passion and
+fear, as well as languor, voluptuousness, and anger, that we may
+possess that tranquillity and security which confer alike consistency
+and dignity. Now, many there are, and have been, who, courting that
+tranquillity which I have mentioned here, have withdrawn themselves
+from public affairs and taken refuge in retirement. Among these, some
+of the noblest and most prominent of our philosophers; and some
+persons, of strict and grave dispositions, were unable to bear with
+the manners either of the people or their rulers; and some have lived
+in the country, amusing themselves with the management of their
+private affairs. Their aim was the same as that of the powerful, that
+they might enjoy their liberty, without wanting anything or obeying
+any person; for the essence of liberty is to live just as you
+please....
+
+But, since most persons are of opinion that the achievements of war
+are more glorious than civil affairs, this judgment needs to be
+restricted; for many, as generally is the case with high minds and
+enterprising spirits, especially if they are adapted to military life
+and are fond of warlike achievements, have often sought opportunities
+of war from their fondness for glory; but if we are willing to judge
+truly, many are the civil employments of greater importance, and of
+more renown, than the military.
+
+For tho Themistocles is justly praised--his name is now more
+illustrious than that of Solon, and his glorious victory at Salamis
+is mentioned preferably to the policy of Solon, by which he first
+confirmed the power of the Areopagus--the one should not be considered
+more illustrious than the other; for the one availed his country only
+for once--the other is lastingly advantageous; because by it the laws
+of the Athenians, and the institutions of their ancestors, are
+preserved. Now, Themistocles could not have stated any respect in
+which he benefited the Areopagus, but Solon might with truth declare
+that Themistocles had been advantaged by him; for the war was carried
+on by the counsels of that senate which was constituted by Solon.
+
+We may make the same observation with regard to Pausanias[24] and
+Lysander among the Lacedæmonians; for all the addition of empire which
+their conquests are supposed to have brought to their country is not
+to be compared to the laws and economy of Lycurgus; for indeed, owing
+to these very causes they had armies more subordinate and courageous.
+In my eyes, Marcus Scaurus (who flourished when I was but a boy) was
+not inferior to Caius Marius;[25] nor, after I came to have a concern
+in the government, Quintus Catulus[26] to Cneius Pompey. An army
+abroad is but of small service, unless there be a wise administration
+at home. Nor did that good man and great general Africanus perform a
+more important service to his country when he razed Numantia than did
+that private citizen P. Nasica[27] when at the same period he killed
+Tiberius Gracchus. An action which it is true was not merely of a
+civil nature; for it approaches to a military character, as being the
+result of force and courage; but it was an action performed without an
+army, and from political considerations....
+
+Now all that excellence which springs from a lofty and noble nature is
+altogether produced by the mental and not by the corporeal powers.
+Meanwhile, the body ought to be kept in such action and order as that
+it may be always ready to obey the dictates of reason and wisdom, in
+carrying them into execution, and in persevering under hardships. But
+with regard to that _honestas_ we are treating of, it consists wholly
+in the thoughtful application of the mind, by which the civilians who
+preside over public affairs are equally serviceable to their country
+as they who wage wars. For it often happens that by such counsels wars
+are either not entered into or they are brought to a termination;
+sometimes they are even undertaken, as the third Punic war was by the
+advice of Marcus Cato, whose authority was powerful, even after he was
+dead.
+
+Wisdom in determining is therefore preferable to courage in fighting;
+but in this we are to take care that we are not swayed by an aversion
+to fighting rather than by a consideration of expediency. Now in
+engaging in war we ought to make it appear that we have no other view
+than peace. But the character of a brave and resolute man is not to be
+ruffled with adversity, and not to be in such confusion as to quit his
+post, as we say, but to preserve a presence of mind, and the exercise
+of reason, without departing from his purpose. And while this is the
+characteristic of a lofty spirit, so this also is that of a powerful
+intellect; namely, to anticipate futurity in thought, and to conclude
+beforehand what may happen on either side, and, upon that, what
+measures to pursue, and never be surprized so as to say, "I had not
+thought of that." Such are the operations of a genius, capacious and
+elevated; of such a one as relies on its own prudence and counsel; but
+to rush precipitately into the field, and to encounter an enemy with
+mere physical force has somewhat in it that is barbarous and brutal.
+When the occasion, however, and its necessity compel it, we should
+resist with force, and prefer death to slavery or dishonor.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+OF SCIPIO'S DEATH AND OF FRIENDSHIP[28]
+
+
+Should I say that I am not distrest by the loss of Scipio,
+philosophers may determine with what propriety I should do so; but
+assuredly I should be guilty of falsehood. For I am distrest at being
+bereaved of such a friend, as no one, I consider, will ever be to me
+again, and, as I can confidently assert, no one ever was; but I am not
+destitute of a remedy. I comfort myself, and especially with this
+consolation, that I am free from that error by which most men, on the
+decease of friends, are wont to be tormented; for I feel that no evil
+has happened to Scipio; it has befallen myself, if indeed it has
+happened to any. Now to be above measure distrest at one's own
+troubles is characteristic of the man who loves not his friend, but
+himself. In truth, as far as he is concerned, who can deny that his
+end was glorious? for unless he had chosen to wish for immortality, of
+which he had not the slightest thought, what did he fail to obtain
+which it was lawful for a man to wish for? A man who, as soon as he
+grew up, by his transcendent merit far surpassed those sanguine hopes
+of his countrymen which they had conceived regarding him when a mere
+boy, who never stood for the consulship, yet was made Consul twice; on
+the first occasion, before his time; on the second, at the proper age
+as regarded himself, tho for the commonwealth almost too late; who, by
+overthrowing two cities,[29] most hostile to our empire, put an end
+not only to all present but all future wars. What shall I say of his
+most engaging manners; of his dutiful conduct to his mother; his
+generosity to his sisters; his kindness to his friends; his
+uprightness toward all? These are known to you; and how dear he was to
+the state was displayed by its mourning at his death....
+
+The authority of the ancients has more weight with me, either that of
+our own ancestors, who paid such sacred honors to the dead, which
+surely they would not have done if they thought those honors did in no
+way affect them, or that of those who once lived in this country, and
+enlightened, by their institutions and instructions, Magna Græcia[30]
+(which now indeed is entirely destroyed, but then was flourishing),
+or of him who was pronounced by the oracle of Apollo to be the wisest
+of men, who did not say first one thing and then another, as is
+generally done, but always the same; namely, that the souls of men are
+divine, and that when they have departed from the body, a return to
+heaven is opened to them, and the speediest to the most virtuous and
+just. This same opinion was also held by Scipio; for he indeed, a very
+few days before his death, as if he had a presentiment of it, when
+Philus and Manilius were present, and many others, and you also,
+Scævola, had gone with me, for three days descanted on the subject of
+government; of which discussion the last was almost entirely on the
+immortality of souls, which he said he had learned in sleep through a
+vision from Africanus. If this be the fact, that the spirit of the
+best man most easily flies away in death, as from the prison-house and
+chains of the body, whose passage to the gods can we conceive to have
+been readier than that of Scipio? Wherefore, to be afflicted at this
+his departure, I fear, would be the part rather of an envious person
+than of a friend....
+
+But yet I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to
+have lived happily because I lived with Scipio, with whom I had a
+common anxiety on public and private affairs, and with whom my life
+both at home and abroad was associated, and there existed that,
+wherein consists the entire strength of friendship, an entire
+agreement of inclinations, pursuits, and sentiments. That character
+for wisdom, therefore, which Fannius a little while ago mentioned does
+not so delight me, especially since it is undeserved, as the hope that
+the recollection of our friendship will last forever. And it is the
+more gratifying to me because scarcely in the history of the world are
+three or four pairs of friends mentioned by name; and I indulge in the
+hope that the friendship of Scipio and Lælius will be remembered....
+
+I can only urge you to prefer friendship to all human possessions; for
+there is nothing so suited to our nature, so well adapted to
+prosperity or adversity. But first of all, I am of opinion that except
+among the virtuous friendship can not exist; I do not analyze this
+principle too closely, as they do who inquire with too great nicety
+into those things, perhaps with truth on their side, but with little
+general advantage; for they maintain that there is no good man but the
+wise man. Be it so, yet they define wisdom to be such as no mortal has
+ever attained to; whereas we ought to contemplate those things which
+exist in practise and in common life, and not the subjects of fictions
+or of our own wishes. I would never pretend to say that Caius
+Fabricius, Marius Curius, and Titus Coruncanius, whom our ancestors
+esteemed wise, were wise according to the standard of these moralists.
+Wherefore let them keep to themselves the name of wisdom, both
+invidious and unintelligible, and let them allow that these were good
+men--nay, they will not even do that; they will declare that this can
+not be granted except to a wise man.
+
+Let us therefore proceed with our dull genius, as they say. Those who
+so conduct themselves and so live that their honor, their integrity,
+their justice, and liberality are approved; so that there is not in
+them any covetousness, or licentiousness, or boldness; and that they
+are of great consistency, as those men whom I have mentioned
+above--let us consider these worthy of the appellation of good men, as
+they have been accounted such, because they follow (as far as men are
+able) nature, which is the best guide of a good life. For I seem to
+myself to have this view, that we are so formed by nature that there
+should be a certain social tie among all; stronger, however, as each
+approaches nearer us. Accordingly, citizens are preferable to
+foreigners, and relatives to strangers; for with the last-named,
+Nature herself has created a friendly feeling, tho this has not
+sufficient strength. For in this respect friendship is superior to
+relationship, because from relationship benevolence can be withdrawn
+and from friendship it can not; for with the withdrawal of benevolence
+the very name of friendship is done away, while that of relationship
+remains. Now how great the power of friendship is may be best gathered
+from this consideration, that out of the boundless society of the
+human race, which Nature herself has joined together, friendship is a
+matter so contracted, and brought into so narrow a compass, that the
+whole of affection is confined to two, or at any rate to very few.
+
+Now friendship is nothing else than a complete union of feeling on all
+subjects, divine and human, accompanied by kindly feeling and
+attachment, than which, indeed, I am not aware whether, with the
+exception of wisdom, anything better has been bestowed on man by the
+immortal gods. Some men prefer riches, others good health, others
+influence, others again honors, many prefer even pleasures; the last,
+indeed, is the characteristic of beasts; while the former are fleeting
+and uncertain, depending not so much on our own purpose as on the
+fickleness of fortune. Whereas those who place the supreme good in
+virtue, therein do admirably; but this very virtue itself both begets
+and constitutes friendship; nor without this virtue can friendship
+exist at all. Now let us define this virtue according to the usage of
+life and of our common language; and let us not measure it, as certain
+learned persons do, by pomp of language; and let us include among the
+good those who are so accounted--the Paulli, the Catos, the Galli, the
+Scipios, and the Phili; with these men ordinary life is content; and
+let us pass over those who are nowhere found to exist. Among men of
+this kind, therefore, friendship finds facilities so great that I can
+scarcely describe them.
+
+In the first place--to whom can life be "worth living," as Ennius
+says, who does not repose on the mutual kind feeling of some friend?
+What can be more delightful than to have one to whom you can speak on
+all subjects just as to yourself? Where would be the great enjoyment
+in prosperity if you had not one to rejoice in it equally with
+yourself? And adversity would indeed be difficult to endure without
+some one who would bear it even with greater regret than yourself. In
+short, all other objects that are sought after are severally suited to
+some one single purpose--riches, that you may spend them; power that
+you may be courted; honors, that you may be extolled; pleasures, that
+you may enjoy them; good health, that you may be exempt from harm, and
+perform the functions of the body. Whereas friendship comprizes the
+greatest number of objects possible; wherever you turn yourself, it is
+at hand; shut out of no place, never out of season, never irksome; and
+therefore we do not use fire and water, as they say, on more occasions
+than we do friendship. And I am not now speaking of commonplace or
+ordinary friendship (tho even that brings delight and benefit), but of
+real and true friendship, such as belonged to those of whom very few
+are recorded; for prosperity, friendship renders more brilliant, and
+adversity more supportable, by dividing and communicating it.
+
+And while friendship embraces very many and great advantages, she
+undoubtedly surpasses all in this, that she shines with a brilliant
+hope over the future, and never suffers the spirit to be weakened or
+to sink. Besides, he who looks on a true friend looks, as it were,
+upon a kind of image of himself; wherefore friends, tho absent, are
+still present; tho in poverty, they are rich; tho weak, yet in the
+enjoyment of health; and, what is still more difficult to assert, tho
+dead they are alive; so entirely does the honor, the memory, the
+regret of friends attend them; from which circumstance the death of
+the one seems to be happy, and the life of the other praiseworthy;
+nay, should you remove from nature the cement of kind feelings,
+neither a house nor a city will be able to stand; even the cultivation
+of the land will not continue. If it be not clearly perceived how
+great is the power of friendship and concord, it can be distinctly
+inferred from quarrels and dissensions; for what house is there so
+established, or what state so firmly settled, that may not utterly be
+overthrown by hatred and dissension? From which it may be determined
+how much advantage there is in friendship. They relate, indeed, that a
+certain learned man of Agrigentum[31] promulgated in Greek verses the
+doctrine that all things which cohere throughout the whole world, and
+all things that are the subjects of motion, are brought together by
+friendship, and are dispelled by discord; and this principle all men
+understand, and illustrate by their conduct. Therefore, if at any time
+any act of a friend has been exhibited, either in undergoing or in
+sharing dangers, who is there that does not extol such an act with the
+highest praise?...
+
+Now if such be the influence of integrity, that we love it even in
+those whom we have never seen, and, what is much more, even in an
+enemy, what wonder if men's feelings are affected when they seem to
+discover the goodness and virtue of those with whom they may become
+connected by intercourse? altho love is confirmed by the reception of
+kindness, and by the discovery of an earnest sympathy, and by close
+familiarity, which things being added to the first emotion of the mind
+and the affections, there is kindled a large amount of kindly feeling.
+And if any imagine that this proceeds from a sense of weakness, so
+that there shall be secured a friend, by whom a man may obtain that
+which he wants, they leave to friendship a mean and, indeed, if I may
+so speak, anything but respectable origin, when they make her to be
+born of indigence and want; were this the case, then in proportion as
+a man judged that there were the least resources in himself, precisely
+in that degree would he be best qualified for friendship, whereas the
+fact is far otherwise. For just as a man has most confidence in
+himself, and as he is most completely fortified by worth and wisdom,
+so that he needs no one's assistance, and feels that all his resources
+reside in himself, in the same proportion he is most highly
+distinguished for seeking out and forming friendships. For what did
+Africanus want of me? Nothing whatever, nor indeed did I need aught
+from him; but I loved him from admiration of his excellence; he in
+turn perhaps was attached to me from some high opinion which he
+entertained of my character, and association fostered our affection.
+But altho many and great advantages ensued, yet it was not from any
+hope of these that the causes of our attachment sprang; for as we are
+beneficent and liberal not to exact favor in return (for we are not
+usurers in kind actions), but by nature are inclined to liberality,
+thus I think that friendship is to be desired, not attracted by the
+hope of reward, but because the whole of its profit consists in love
+only. From such opinions, they who, after the fashion of beasts, refer
+everything to pleasure, widely differ, and no great wonder, since they
+can not look up to anything lofty, magnificent, or divine who east
+all their thoughts on an object so mean and contemptible.
+
+Therefore let us exclude such persons altogether from our discourse;
+and let us ourselves hold this opinion, that the sentiment of loving
+and the attachment of kind feelings are produced by nature when the
+evidence of virtue has been established; and they who have eagerly
+sought the last-named draw nigh and attach themselves to it, that they
+may enjoy the friendship and character of the individual they have
+begun to love, and that they may be commensurate and equal in
+affection, and more inclined to confer a favor than to claim any
+return. And let this honorable struggle be maintained between them; so
+not only will the greatest advantages be derived from friendship, but
+its origin from nature rather than from a sense of weakness will be at
+once more impressive and more true. For if it were expediency that
+cemented friendships, the same when changed would dissolve them; but
+because nature can never change, therefore true friendships are
+eternal....
+
+Listen, then, my excellent friends, to the discussion which was very
+frequently held by me and Scipio on the subject of friendship; altho
+he indeed used to say that nothing was more difficult than that
+friendship should continue to the end of life; for it often happened
+either that the same course was not expedient to both parties or that
+they held different views of politics; he remarked also that the
+characters of men often changed, in some cases by adversity, in
+others by old age becoming oppressive; and he derived an authority
+for such notions from a comparison with early life, because the
+strongest attachments of boys are constantly laid aside with the
+prætexta; even if they should maintain it to manhood, yet sometimes it
+is broken off by rivalry, for a dowried wife, or some other advantage
+which they can not both attain. And even if men should be carried on
+still further in their friendship, yet that feeling is often
+undermined should they fall into rivalry for preferments; for there is
+no greater enemy to friendship than covetousness of money, in most
+men, and even in the best, an emulous desire of high offices and
+glory, in consequence of which the most bitter enmities have often
+arisen between the dearest friends. For great dissensions, and those
+in most instances justifiable, arise when some request is made of
+friends which is improper, as, for instance, that they should become
+either the ministers of their lust or their supporters in the
+perpetration of wrong; and they who refuse to do so, it matters not
+however virtuously, yet are accused of discarding the claims of
+friendship by those persons whom they are unwilling to oblige; but
+they who dare to ask anything of a friend, by their very request seem
+to imply that they would do anything for the sake of that friend; by
+the complaining of such persons, not only are long-established
+intimacies put an end to, but endless animosities are engendered. All
+these many causes, like so many fatalities, are ever threatening
+friendship, so that, he said, to escape them all seemed to him a proof
+not merely of wisdom, but even of good fortune....
+
+Let this, therefore, be established as a primary law concerning
+friendship, that we expect from our friends only what is honorable,
+and for our friends' sake do what is honorable; that we should not
+wait till we are asked; that zeal be ever ready, and reluctance far
+from us; but that we take pleasure in freely giving our advice; that
+in our friendship, the influence of our friends, when they give good
+advice, should have great weight; and that this be employed to
+admonish not only candidly, but even severely, if the case shall
+require, and that we give heed to it when so employed; for, as to
+certain persons whom I understand to have been esteemed wise men in
+Greece, I am of opinion that some strange notions were entertained by
+them; but there is nothing which they do not follow up with too great
+subtlety; among the rest, that excessive friendships should be
+avoided, lest it should be necessary for one to feel anxiety for many;
+that every one has enough, and more than enough, of his own affairs;
+that to be needlessly implicated in those of other people is
+vexatious; that it was most convenient to hold the reins of friendship
+as loose as possible, so as either to tighten or slacken them when you
+please; for they argue that the main point toward a happy life is
+freedom from care, which the mind can not enjoy if one man be, as it
+were, in travail for others.
+
+Nay, they tell us that some are accustomed to declare, still more
+unfeelingly (a topic which I have briefly touched upon just above),
+that friendships should be cultivated for the purpose of protection
+and assistance, and not for kind feeling or affection; and therefore
+the less a man possesses of independence and of strength, in the same
+degree he most earnestly desires friendships; that thence it arises
+that women seek the support of friendship more than men, and the poor
+more than the rich, and persons in distress rather than those who are
+considered prosperous. Admirable philosophy! for they seem to take
+away the sun from the world who withdraw friendship from life; for we
+receive nothing better from the immortal gods, nothing more
+delightful; for what is this freedom from care?--in appearances,
+indeed, flattering; but, in many eases, in reality to be disdained.
+Nor is it reasonable to undertake any honorable matter or action lest
+you should be anxious, or to lay it aside when undertaken; for if we
+fly from care, we must fly from virtue also; for it is impossible that
+she can, without some degree of distress, feel contempt and
+detestation for qualities opposed to herself; just as kind-heartedness
+for malice, temperance for profligacy, and bravery for cowardice.
+Accordingly, you see that upright men are most distrest by unjust
+actions; the brave with the cowardly; the virtuous with the
+profligate; and, therefore, this is the characteristic of a
+well-regulated mind, both to be well pleased with what is excellent
+and to be distrest with what is contrary. Wherefore, if trouble of
+mind befall a wise man (and assuredly it will, unless we suppose that
+all humanity is extirpated from his mind), what reason is there why we
+should altogether remove friendship from life, lest because of it we
+should take upon ourselves some troubles? for what difference is
+there (setting the emotions of the mind aside), I do not say between a
+man and a beast, but between a man and a stone, or log, or anything of
+that kind? For they do not deserve to be listened to who would have
+virtue to be callous and made of iron, as it were, which indeed is, as
+in other matters, so in friendship also, tender and susceptible; so
+that friends are loosened, as it were, by happy events, and drawn
+together by distresses.
+
+Wherefore the anxiety which has often to be felt for a friend is not
+of such force that it should remove friendship from the world, any
+more than that the virtues, because they bring with them certain cares
+and troubles, should therefore be discarded. For when it produces
+friendship (as I said above), should any indication of virtue shine
+forth, to which a congenial mind may attach and unite itself--when
+this happens, affection must necessarily arise. For what is so
+unmeaning as to take delight in many vain things, such as preferments,
+glory, magnificent buildings, clothing and adornment of the body, and
+not to take an extreme delight in a soul endued with virtue, in such a
+soul as can either love or (so to speak) love in return? for there is
+nothing more delightful than the repayment of kindness and the
+interchange of devotedness and good offices. Now if we add this, which
+may with propriety be added, that nothing so allures and draws any
+object to itself as congeniality does friendship, it will of course be
+admitted as true that the good must love the good, and unite them to
+them selves, just as if connected by relationship and nature; for
+nothing is more apt to seek and seize on its like than nature.
+Wherefore this certainly is clear, Fannius and Scævola (in my
+opinion), that among the good a liking for the good is, as it were,
+inevitable; and this indeed is appointed by Nature herself as the very
+fountain of friendship.
+
+But the same kind disposition belongs also to the multitude; for
+virtue is not inhuman, or cruel, or haughty, since she is accustomed
+to protect even whole nations, and to adopt the best measures for
+their welfare, which assuredly she would not do did she shrink from
+the affection of the vulgar. And to myself, indeed, those who form
+friendships with a view to advantage seem to do away with its most
+endearing bond; for it is not so much the advantage obtained through a
+friend as the mere love of that friend which delights; and then only
+what has proceeded from a friend becomes delightful if it has
+proceeded from zealous affection; and that friendship should be
+cultivated from a sense of necessity is so far from being the case
+that those who, being endowed with power and wealth, and especially
+with virtue (in which is the strongest support of friendship), have
+least need of another, are most liberal and generous. Yet I am not
+sure whether it is requisite that friends should never stand in any
+need; for wherein would any devotedness of mine to him have been
+exerted if Scipio had never stood in need of my advice or assistance
+at home or abroad? Wherefore friendship has not followed upon
+advantage, but advantage on friendship.
+
+Persons, therefore, who are wallowing in indulgence will not need to
+be listened to if ever they shall descant upon friendship, which they
+have known neither by experience nor by theory. For who is there, by
+the faith of gods and men, who would desire, on the condition of his
+loving no one, and himself being loved by none, to roll in affluence,
+and live in a superfluity of all things? For this is the life of
+tyrants, in which undoubtedly there can be no confidence, no
+affection, no steady dependence on attachment; all is perpetually
+mistrust and disquietude--there is no room for friendship. For who can
+love either him whom he fears or him by whom he thinks he himself is
+feared? Yet are they courted, solely in hypocrisy, for a time;
+because, if perchance (as it frequently happens) they have been
+brought low, then it is perceived how destitute they were of friends.
+And this, they say, Tarquin[32] exprest; that when going into exile,
+he found out whom he had as faithful friends, and whom unfaithful
+ones, since then he could no longer show gratitude to either party;
+altho I wonder that, with such haughtiness and impatience of temper,
+he could find one at all. And as the character of the individual whom
+I have mentioned could not obtain true friends, so the riches of many
+men of rank exclude all faithful friendship; for not only is Fortune
+blind herself, but she commonly renders blind those whom she
+embraces....
+
+He who, therefore, shall have shown himself in both cases, as regards
+friendship, worthy, consistent, and stedfast; such a one we ought to
+esteem of a class of persons extremely rare--nay, almost godlike. Now,
+the foundation of that stedfastness and constancy, which we seek in
+friendship, is sincerity. For nothing is stedfast which is insincere.
+Besides, it is right that one should be chosen who is frank and
+good-natured, and congenial in his sentiments; one, in fact, who is
+influenced by the same motives, all of which qualities have a tendency
+to create sincerity. For it is impossible for a wily and tortuous
+disposition to be sincere. Nor in truth can the man who has no
+sympathy from nature, and who is not moved by the same considerations,
+be either attached or steady. To the same requisites must be added
+that he shall neither take delight in bringing forward charges nor
+believe them when they arise, all of which causes belong to that
+consistent principle of which now for some time I have been treating.
+Thus the remark is true which I made at first that friendship can
+exist only among the good; for it is the part of a good man (whom at
+the same time we may call a wise man) to observe these two rules in
+friendship: first, that there shall be nothing pretended or simulated
+(for even to hate openly better becomes the ingenuous man than by his
+looks to conceal his sentiments); in the next place, that not only
+does he repel charges when brought (against his friends) by any one,
+but is not himself suspicious, ever fancying that some infidelity has
+been committed by his friend. To all this there should be added a
+certain suavity of conversation and manners, affording, as it does, no
+inconsiderable zest to friendship. Now solemnity and gravity on all
+occasions, certainly, carry with them dignity; but friendship ought to
+be easier and more free and more pleasant, and tending more to every
+kind of politeness and good nature....
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: From the "Cato Major, an Essay on Old Age." Translated by
+Cyrus R. Edmonds. This work is composed in the form of a dialog, in
+which, in the person of Cato the Censor as speaker, the benefits of
+old age are pointed out.]
+
+[Footnote 5: A famous athlete who was many times crowned at the
+Pythian and Olympian games.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Cneius Scipio was Consul in 222, and with Marcellus
+completed the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. He served with his brother
+Publius Cicero against the Carthaginians in Spain, where, after
+several victories, both were slain in 212 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Lucius Metellus, a Roman general who defeated the
+Carthaginians at Panormus, now Palermo, Sicily, in 250 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Masinissa, king of a small territory in northern Africa,
+was at first an ally of Carthage against Rome, but afterward became an
+ally of Rome against Carthage.]
+
+[Footnote 9: The translator explains that the speeches here referred
+to, as collected and published by Cato, numbered about 150. Cato was
+known to his contemporaries as "the Roman Demosthenes." Later writers
+often referred to him as "Cato the orator."]
+
+[Footnote 10: Archytas was a Greek philosopher, eminent also as
+statesman, mathematician, and general. He lived about 400 B.C., and is
+credited with having saved the life of Plato through his influence
+with Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse. He was seven times general of
+the army of Tarentum and successful in all his campaigns; eminent also
+for domestic virtues. He is pronounced by a writer in Smith's
+"Dictionary" to have been "among the very greatest men of antiquity."
+He was drowned while making a voyage in the Adriatic.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Caudium was a Samnite town near which the Romans were
+defeated by Pontius Herennius.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Not the Appius Claudius from whom the Appian Way and one
+of the great aqueducts were named. The older Appius Claudius, here
+referred to, lived in the century that followed Plato.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Titus Flaminius, general and statesman, was Consul in
+198 B.C. It was not Titus, but Caius Flaminius, who built the famous
+circus and road bearing his name. Caius lived at an earlier period.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the eminent military genius,
+who several times defeated the Romans before he was finally overthrown
+by them at Beneventum in 275 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Livius Andronicus, who lived in Rome about 240 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 16: A small island (now a peninsula), lying off the coast of
+Spain. It is to-day called Cadiz, but anciently was known as Erythia,
+Tartessus, and Gades. It was founded about 1100 B.C., by the
+Phenicians, of whose western commerce it was the center.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The tyrant of Athens who reigned thirty-three years and
+died about 527 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Melmoth has commented on this passage that, altho
+suicide too generally prevailed among the Greeks and Romans, the
+wisest philosophers condemned it. "Nothing," he says, "can be more
+clear and explicit" than the prohibition imposed by Pythagoras,
+Socrates, and Plato.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Better known as the famous Regulus, whose alleged speech
+to the "Conscript Fathers" has been declaimed by generations of
+schoolboys.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Lucius Paulus died at the battle of Cannæ, which was
+precipitated by his colleague Terentius Varro in 260 B.C., 40,000
+Romans being killed by the Carthaginians.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Marcellus, a Roman consul, who fought against Hannibal
+and was killed in an ambuscade.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Cicero's daughter was born about 79 B.C., and thrice
+married, the last time to Dolabella, who has been described as "one of
+the most profligate men of a profligate age." She was divorced from
+Dolabella in 44 B.C., gave birth to a son soon afterward, and died in
+the same year. Cicero's letter was written in reply to one which he
+had received from Servius Sulpicius, a celebrated Roman jurist. Cicero
+intended to erect a temple as a memorial to Tullia, but the death of
+Cæsar and the unsettled state of public affairs that ensued, and in
+which Cicero was concerned, prevented him from doing so.]
+
+[Footnote 23: From Book I of the "Offices." Translated by Cyrus R.
+Edmonds.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Pausanias, a Spartan general, was the son of
+Cloembrotus, the king of Sparta, killed at the battle of Leuctra.
+Pausanias commanded at Platæa; but having conducted a treasonable
+correspondence with Xerxes, was starved to death as a punishment.]
+
+[Footnote 25: The general who contended against Sulla in the Civil
+war.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Catulus was consul with Marius in 102 B.C. He acted with
+Sulla during the Civil war.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Nasica, "a fierce and stiff-necked aristocrat," was of
+the family of Scipios. When the consuls refused to resort to violence
+against Tiberius Gracchus, it was he who led the senators forth from
+their meeting-place against the popular assembly outside, with whom
+ensued a fight, in which Gracchus was killed by a blow from a club.
+Nasica left Rome soon after, seeking safety. After spending some time
+as a wandering exile, he died at Pergamus.]
+
+[Footnote 28: From the Dialogue on "Friendship." Translated by Cyrus
+E. Edmonds. Lælius, a Roman who was contemporary with the younger
+Scipio, is made the speaker in the passage here quoted. Lælius, was a
+son of Caius Lælius, the friend and companion of the elder Scipio,
+whose actions are so interwoven with those of Scipio that a writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says, "It is difficult to relate them
+separately." The younger Lælius was intimate with the younger Scipio
+in a degree almost as remarkable as his father had been with the
+elder. The younger, immortalized by Cicero's treatise on Friendship,
+was born about 186 B.C., and was a man of fine culture noted as an
+orator. His personal worth was so generally esteemed that it survived
+to Seneca's day. One of Seneca's injunctions to a friend was that he
+should "live like Lælius."]
+
+[Footnote 29: Scipio Africanus minor by whom Carthage was destroyed in
+146 B.C., and Numantia, a town of Spain, was destroyed in 133 B.C.
+From the letter he obtained the surname of Numantinus.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Magna Græcia was a name given by the ancients to that
+part of southern Italy which, before the rise of the Roman state, was
+colonized by Greeks. Its time of greatest splendor was the seventh and
+sixth centuries B.C.; that is, intermediate between the Homeric age
+and the Periclean. Among its leading cities were Cumæ, Sybaris, Locri,
+Regium, Tarentum, Heraclea, and Pæstum. At the last-named place
+imposing ruins still survive.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Empedocles, philosopher, poet, and historian, who lived
+et Agrigentum in Sicily, about 490-430 B.C., and wrote a poem on the
+doctrines of Pythagoras. A legend has survived that he jumped into the
+crater of Etna, in order that people might conclude, from his complete
+disappearance, that he was a god. Matthew Arnold's poem on this
+incident is among his better-known works.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last King of Rome,
+occupied the throne for twenty-five years, and as a consequence of the
+rape of Lucretia by his son Sextus was banished about 509 B.C.]
+
+
+
+
+JULIUS CÆSAR
+
+     Born in 100 B.C.; assassinated in 44; famous as general,
+     statesman, orator, and writer; served in Mitylene in 80;
+     captured by pirates in 76; questor in 68; pontifex maximus
+     in 63; propretor in Spain in 61; member of the First
+     Triumvirate in 60; Consul in 59; defeated the Helvetii in
+     58; invaded Britain in 55 and 54; crossed the Rhine in 55;
+     crossed the Rubicon and began the Civil war in 49; dictator
+     from 49 to 45; defeated Pompey in 48; reformed the calendar
+     in 46; refused the diadem in 44; assassinated in the senate
+     house in 44.[33]
+
+
+I
+
+THE BUILDING OF THE BRIDGE ACROSS THE RHINE[34]
+
+
+Cæsar, for those reasons which I have mentioned, had resolved to cross
+the Rhine; but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently
+safe nor considered consistent with his own dignity or that of the
+Roman people. Therefore, altho the greatest difficulty in forming a
+bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, rapidity, and
+depth of the river, he nevertheless considered that it ought to be
+attempted by him, or that his army ought not otherwise to be led over.
+He devised this plan of a bridge: he joined together, at the distance
+of two feet, two piles, each a foot and half thick, sharpened a little
+at the lower end, and proportioned in length to the depth of the
+river.
+
+After he had, by means of engines, sunk these into the river, and fixt
+them at the bottom, and then driven them in with rammers, not quite
+perpendicularly, like a stake, but bending forward and sloping, so as
+to incline in the direction of the current of the river; he also
+placed two [other piles] opposite to these, at the distance of forty
+feet lower down, fastened together in the same manner, but directed
+against the force and current of the river. Both these, moreover, were
+kept firmly apart by beams two feet thick (the space which the binding
+of the piles occupied), laid in at their extremities between two
+braces on each side; and in consequence of these being in different
+directions and fastened on sides the one opposite to the other, so
+great was the strength of the work, and such the arrangement of the
+materials, that in proportion as the greater body of water dashed
+against the bridge, so much the closer were its parts held fastened
+together. These beams were bound together by timber laid over them in
+the direction of the length of the bridge, and were [then] covered
+with laths and hurdles; and, in addition to this, piles were driven
+into the water obliquely, at the lower side of the bridge, and these
+serving as buttresses, and being connected with every portion of the
+work, sustained the force of the stream; and there were others also
+above the bridge, at a moderate distance, that if trunks of trees or
+vessels were floated down the river by the barbarians for the purpose
+of destroying the work, the violence of such things might be
+diminished by these defenses, and might not injure the bridge.
+
+Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the whole work
+was completed, and the whole army led over. Cæsar, leaving a strong
+guard at each end of the bridge, hastens into the territories of the
+Sigambri. In the mean time, ambassadors from several nations come to
+him, whom, on their suing for peace and alliance, he answers in a
+courteous manner, and orders hostages to be brought to him. But the
+Sigambri, at the very time the bridge was begun to be built, made
+preparations for a flight (by the advice of such of the Tenchtheri and
+Usipetes as they had among them), and quitted their territories and
+conveyed away all their possessions, and concealed themselves in
+deserts and woods.
+
+Cæsar, having remained in their territories a few days, and burned all
+their villages and houses, and cut down their corn, proceeded into the
+territories of the Ubii; and having promised them his assistance, if
+they were ever harassed by the Suevi,[35] he learned from them these
+particulars: that the Suevi, after they had by means of their scouts
+found that the bridge was being built, had called a council, according
+to their custom, and sent orders to all parts of their state to
+remove from the towns and convey their children, wives, and all their
+possessions into the woods, and that all who could bear arms should
+assemble in one place; that the place thus chosen was nearly the
+center of those regions which the Suevi possest; that in this spot
+they had resolved to await the arrival of the Romans, and give them
+battle there. When Cæsar discovered this, having already accomplished
+all these things on account of which he had resolved to lead his army
+over--namely, to strike fear into the Germans, take vengeance on the
+Sigambri, and free the Ubii from the invasion of the Suevi, having
+spent altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had
+advanced far enough to serve both honor and interest--he returned into
+Gaul, and cut down the bridge.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE INVASION OF BRITAIN[36]
+
+
+The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say
+that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island
+itself; the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the
+country of the Belgæ[37] for the purpose of plunder and making war;
+almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which
+being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there
+and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is
+countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part
+very like those of the Gauls; the number of cattle is great. They use
+either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their
+money. Tin is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron;
+but the quantity of it is small; they employ brass, which is imported.
+There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and
+fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare and the cock and the
+goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The
+climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the cold being less severe.
+
+The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is opposite
+to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither almost all
+ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower looks to
+the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies toward
+Spain,[38] and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is
+reckoned, than Britain, by one half; but the passage [from it] into
+Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of
+this voyage is an island which is called Mona;[39] many smaller
+islands besides are supposed to lie [there], of which islands some
+have written that at the time of the winter solstice it is night
+there for thirty consecutive days. We, in our inquiries about that
+matter, ascertained nothing, except that, by accurate measurements
+with water, we perceived the nights to be shorter there than on the
+continent. The length of this side, as their account states, is 700
+miles. The third side is toward the north, to which portion of the
+island no land is opposite; but an angle of that side looks
+principally toward Germany. This side is considered to be 800 miles in
+length. Thus the whole island is [about] 2,000 miles in circumference.
+
+The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent,
+which is entirely a maritime district, nor do their customs differ
+much from Gallic. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but
+live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains,
+indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish color, and
+thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair
+long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and
+upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and
+particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their
+children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed
+to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first
+espoused when a virgin.
+
+The horse and charioteers of the enemy contended vigorously in a
+skirmish with our cavalry on the march; yet so that our men were
+conquerors in all parts, and drove them to their woods and hills; but,
+having slain a great many, they pursued too eagerly, and lost some of
+their men. However, the enemy, after some time had elapsed, when our
+men were off their guard, and occupied in the fortification of the
+camp, rushed out of the woods, and making an attack upon those who
+were placed on duty before the camp, fought in a determined manner;
+and two cohorts being sent by Cæsar to their relief, and these
+severally the first of two legions, when these had taken up their
+position at a very small distance from each other, as our men were
+disconcerted by the unusual mode of battle, the enemy broke through
+the middle of them most courageously, and retreated thence in safety.
+That day, Q. Laberius Durus, a tribune of the soldiers, was slain. The
+enemy, since more cohorts were sent against them, were repulsed.
+
+In the whole of this method of fighting since the engagement took
+place under the eyes of all and before the camp, it was perceived that
+our men, on account of the weight of their arms, inasmuch as they
+could neither pursue [the enemy when] retreating, nor dare quit their
+standards, were little suited to this kind of enemy; that the horse
+also fought with great danger, because they [the Britons] generally
+retreated even designedly, and, when they had drawn off our men a
+short distance from the legions, leapt from their chariots and fought
+on foot in unequal [and to them advantageous] battle. But the system
+of cavalry engagement is wont to produce equal danger, and indeed the
+same, both to those who retreat and those who pursue. To this was
+added, that they never fought in close order, but in small parties and
+at great distances, and had detachments placed [in different parts],
+and then the one relieved the other, and the vigorous and fresh
+succeeded the wearied.
+
+The following day the enemy halted on the hills, a distance from our
+camp, and presented themselves in small parties, and began to
+challenge our horse to battle with less spirit than the day before.
+But at noon, when Cæsar had sent three legions, and all the cavalry
+with C. Trebonius, the lieutenant, for the purpose of foraging, they
+flew upon the foragers suddenly from all quarters, so that they did
+not keep off [even] from the standards and the legions. Our men,
+making an attack on them vigorously, repulsed them; nor did they cease
+to pursue them until the horse, relying on relief, as they saw the
+legions behind them, drove the enemy precipitately before them, and,
+slaying a great number of them, did not give them the opportunity
+either of rallying, or halting, or leaping from their chariots. After
+this retreat the auxiliaries departed; nor after that time did the
+enemy ever engage with us in very large numbers.
+
+Cæsar, discovering their design, leads his army into the territories
+of Cassivelaunus[40] to the river Thames, which river can be forded in
+one place only, and that with difficulty. When he had arrived there,
+he perceives that numerous forces of the enemy were marshaled on the
+other bank of the river; the bank also was defended by sharp
+stakes[41] fixt in front, and stakes of the same kind fixt under the
+water were covered by the river. These things being discovered from
+[some] prisoners and deserters, Cæsar, sending forward the cavalry,
+ordered the legions to follow them immediately. But the soldiers
+advanced with such speed and such ardor, tho they stood above the
+water by their heads only, that the enemy could not sustain the attack
+of the legions and of the horse, and quitted the banks, and committed
+themselves to flight.
+
+Cassivelaunus, as we have stated above, all hope [rising out] of
+battle being laid aside, the greater part of his forces being
+dismissed, and about 4,000 charioteers only being left, used to
+observe our marches and retire a little from the road, and conceal
+himself in intricate and woody places, and in those neighborhoods in
+which he had discovered we were about to march, he used to drive the
+cattle and the inhabitants from the fields into the woods; and, when
+our cavalry, for the sake of plundering and ravaging the more freely,
+scattered themselves among the fields, he used to send out charioteers
+from the woods by all the well-known roads and paths, and, to the
+great danger of our horse, engaged with them; and this source of fear
+hindered them from straggling very extensively. The result was that
+Cæsar did not allow excursions to be made to a great distance from the
+main body of the legions, and ordered that damage should be done to
+the enemy in ravaging their lands and kindling fires only so far as
+the legionary soldiers could, by their own exertion and marching,
+accomplish it.
+
+In the mean time the Trinobantes,[42] almost the most powerful state
+of those parts, from which the young man Mandubratius, embracing the
+protection of Cæsar, had come to the continent of Gaul to [meet] him
+(whose father, Imanuentius, had possest the sovereignty in that state,
+and had been killed by Cassivelaunus; he himself had escaped death by
+flight) send ambassadors to Cæsar, and promise that they will
+surrender themselves to him and perform his command: they entreat him
+to protect Mandubratius from the violence of Cassivelaunus, and send
+to their state some one to preside over it, and possess the
+government. Cæsar demands forty hostages from them, and corn for his
+army, and sends Mandubratius to them. They speedily performed the
+things demanded, and sent hostages to the number appointed, and the
+corn.
+
+The Trinobantes, being protected and secured from any violence of the
+soldiers, the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci, the Ancalites, the
+Bibroci, and the Cassi, sending embassies, surrender themselves to
+Cæsar.[43] From them he learns that the capital town of Cassivelaunus
+was not far from that place, and was defended by woods and morasses,
+and a very large number of men and of cattle had been collected in it.
+(Now the Britons, when they have fortified the intricate woods, in
+which they are wont to assemble for the purpose of avoiding the
+incursion of an enemy with an entrenchment and a rampart, call them a
+town.) Thither he proceeds with his legions; he finds the place
+admirably fortified by nature and art; he, however, undertakes to
+attack it in two directions. The enemy, having remained only a short
+time, did not sustain the attack of our soldiers, and hurried away on
+the other side of the town. A great amount of cattle was found there,
+and many of the enemy were taken and slain in their flight....
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OVERCOMING THE NERVII[44]
+
+
+Cæsar, having sent his cavalry on before, followed closely after them
+with all his forces; but the plan and order of the march were
+different from that which the Belgæ had reported to the Nervii.[45]
+For as he was approaching the enemy, Cæsar, according to his custom,
+led on [as the van] six legions unencumbered by baggage; behind them
+he had placed the baggage-trains of the whole army; then the two
+legions which had been last raised closed the rear, and were a guard
+for the baggage-train. Our horse, with the slingers and archers,
+having passed the river, commenced action with the cavalry of the
+enemy. While they from time to time betook themselves into the woods
+to their companions, and again made an assault out of the wood upon
+our men, who did not dare to follow them in their retreat further than
+the limit to which the plain and open parts extended; in the mean time
+the six legions which had arrived first, having measured out the work,
+began to fortify the camp. When the first part of the baggage-train of
+our army was seen by those who lay hidden in the woods, which had been
+agreed on among them as the time for commencing action, as soon as
+they had arranged their line of battle and formed their ranks within
+the woods, and had encouraged one another, they rushed out suddenly
+with all their forces and made an attack upon our horse. The latter
+being easily routed and thrown into confusion, the Nervii ran down to
+the river with such incredible speed that they seemed to be in the
+woods, the river, and close upon us almost at the same time. And with
+the same speed they hastened up the hill to our camp and to those who
+were employed in the works.
+
+Cæsar had everything to do at one time: the standard to be displayed,
+which was the sign when it was necessary to rim to arms; the signal to
+be given by the trumpet; the soldiers to be called off from the works;
+those who had proceeded some distance for the purpose of seeking
+materials for the rampart, to be summoned; the order of battle to be
+formed; the soldiers to be encouraged; the watchword to be given. A
+great part of these arrangements was prevented by the shortness of
+time and the sudden approach and charge of the enemy. Under these
+difficulties two things proved of advantage: [first] the skill and
+experience of the soldiers, because, having been trained by former
+engagements, they could suggest to themselves what ought to be done as
+conveniently as receive information from others; and [secondly] that
+Cæsar had forbidden his several lieutenants to depart from the works
+and their respective legions before the camp was fortified. These, on
+account of the near approach and the speed of the enemy, did not then
+wait for any command from Cæsar, but of themselves executed whatever
+appeared proper.
+
+Cæsar, having given the necessary orders, hastened to and fro into
+whatever quarter fortune carried him, to animate the troops, and came
+to the tenth legion. Having encouraged the soldiers with no further
+speech than that "they should keep up the remembrance of their wonted
+valor, and not be confused in mind, but valiantly sustain the assault
+of the enemy"; as the latter were not farther from them than the
+distance to which a dart could be cast, he gave the signal for
+commencing battle. And having gone to another quarter for the purpose
+of encouraging [the soldiers], he finds them fighting. Such was the
+shortness of the time, and so determined was the mind of the enemy on
+fighting, that time was wanting not only for affixing the military
+insignia, but even for putting on the helmets and drawing off the
+covers from the shields. To whatever part any one by chance came from
+the works (in which he had been employed), and whatever standards he
+saw first, at these he stood, lest in seeking his own company he
+should lose the time for fighting.
+
+The army having been marshaled, rather as the nature of the ground and
+the declivity of the hill and the exigency of the time than as the
+method and order of military matters required, while the legions in
+the different places were withstanding the enemy, some in one quarter,
+some in another, and the view was obstructed by the very thick hedges
+intervening, as we have before remarked, neither could proper reserves
+be posted, nor could the necessary measures be taken in each part, nor
+could all the commands be issued by one person. Therefore, in such an
+unfavorable state of affairs, various events of fortune followed....
+
+At the same time, our horsemen, and light-armed infantry, who had been
+with those who, as I have related, were routed by the first assault of
+the enemy, as they were betaking themselves into the camp, met the
+enemy face to face, and again sought flight into another quarter; and
+the camp-followers, who from the Decuman Gate, and from the highest
+ridge of the hill had seen our men pass the river as victors, when,
+after going out for the purposes of plundering, they looked back and
+saw the enemy parading in our camp, committed themselves precipitately
+to flight; at the same time there arose the cry and shout of those who
+came with the baggage-train; and they (affrighted) were carried some
+one way, some another. By all these circumstances the cavalry of the
+Treviri were much alarmed (whose reputation for courage is
+extraordinary among the Gauls, and who had come to Cæsar, being sent
+by their state as auxiliaries), and, when they saw our camp filled
+with a large number of the enemy, the legions hard prest and almost
+held surrounded, the camp-retainers, horsemen, slingers, and Numidians
+fleeing on all sides divided and scattered, they, despairing of our
+affairs, hastened home, and related to their state that the Romans
+were routed and conquered, [and] that the enemy were in possession of
+their camp and baggage-train.
+
+Cæsar proceeded, after encouraging the tenth legion, to the right
+wing, where he perceived that his men were hard prest, and that in
+consequence of the standards of the twelfth legion being collected
+together in one place, the crowded soldiers were a hindrance to
+themselves in the fight; that all the centurions of the fourth cohort
+were slain, and the standard-bearer killed, the standard itself lost,
+almost all the centurions of the other cohorts either wounded or
+slain, and among them the chief centurion of the legion, P. Sextius
+Baculus, a very valiant man, who was so exhausted by many and severe
+wounds that he was already unable to support himself; he likewise
+perceived that the rest were slackening their efforts, and that some,
+deserted by those in the rear, were retiring from the battle and
+avoiding the weapons; that the enemy [on the other hand], tho
+advancing from the lower ground, were not relaxing in front, and were
+[at the same time] pressing hard on both flanks; he perceived also
+that the affair was at a crisis; and that there was not any reserve
+which could be brought up; having therefore snatched a shield from one
+of the soldiers in the rear (for he himself had come without a
+shield), he advanced to the front of the line, and addressing the
+centurions by name, and encouraging the rest of the soldiers, he
+ordered them to carry forward the standards, and extend the companies,
+that they might the more easily use their swords. On his arrival, as
+hope was brought to the soldiers and their courage restored, while
+every one for his own part, in the sight of his general, desired to
+exert his utmost energy, the impetuosity of the enemy was a little
+checked.
+
+Cæsar, when he perceived that the seventh legion, which stood close by
+him, was also hard prest by the enemy, directed the tribunes of the
+soldiers to effect a junction of the legions gradually, and make their
+charge upon the enemy with a double front, which having been done
+since they brought assistance the one to the other, nor feared lest
+their rear should be surrounded by the enemy, they began to stand
+their ground more boldly, and to fight more courageously. In the mean
+time, the soldiers of the two legions which had been in the rear of
+the army, as a guard for the baggage-train, upon the battle being
+reported to them, quickened their pace, and were seen by the enemy on
+the top of the hill; and Titus Labienus, having gained possession of
+the camp of the enemy, and observed from the higher ground what was
+going on in our camp, sent the tenth legion as a relief to our men
+who, when they had learned from the flight of the horse and the
+sutlers in what position the affair was, and in how great danger the
+camp and the legion and the commander were involved, left undone
+nothing [which tended] to despatch.
+
+By their arrival, so great a change of matters was made that our men,
+even those who had fallen down exhausted with wounds, leaned on their
+shields, and renewed the fight; then the camp-retainers, tho unarmed,
+seeing the enemy completely dismayed, attacked [them tho] armed; the
+horsemen too, that they might by their valor blot out the disgrace of
+their flight, thrust themselves before the legionary soldiers in all
+parts of the battle. But the enemy, even in the last hope of safety,
+displayed such great courage that when the foremost of them had
+fallen, the next stood upon them prostrate, and fought from their
+bodies; when these were overthrown, and their corpses heaped up
+together, those who survived cast their weapons against our men
+[thence] as from a mound, and returned our darts which had fallen
+short between [the armies]; so that it ought not to be concluded that
+men of such great courage had injudiciously dared to pass a very broad
+river, ascend very high banks, and come up to a very disadvantageous
+place; since their greatness of spirit had rendered these actions
+easy, altho in themselves very difficult.
+
+This battle being ended, and the nation and name of the Nervii being
+almost reduced to annihilation, their old men, who together with the
+boys and women we have stated to have been collected together in the
+fenny places and marshes, on this battle having been reported to
+them, since they were convinced that nothing was an obstacle to the
+conquerors, and nothing safe to the conquered, sent ambassadors to
+Cæsar by the consent of all who remained, and surrendered themselves
+to him; and in recounting the calamity of their state said that their
+senators were reduced from 600 to three; that from 60,000 men they
+[were reduced] to scarcely 500 who could bear arms, whom Cæsar, that
+he might appear to use compassion toward the wretched and the
+suppliant, most carefully spared, and ordered them to enjoy their own
+territories and towns, and commanded their neighbors that they should
+restrain themselves and their dependents from offering injury or
+outrage [to them]....
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA AND THE DEATH OF POMPEY[46]
+
+(48 B.C.)
+
+
+Pompey, because he was encamped on a hill, drew up his army at the
+very foot of it, ever in expectation, as may be conjectured, that
+Cæsar would expose himself to this disadvantageous situation. Cæsar,
+seeing no likelihood of being able to bring Pompey to an action,
+judged it the most expedient method of conducting the war to decamp
+from that post, and to be always in motion; with this hope, that by
+shifting his camp and removing from place to place, he might be more
+conveniently supplied with corn, and also that by being in motion he
+might get some opportunity of forcing them to battle, and might by
+constant marches harass Pompey's army, which was not accustomed to
+fatigue.[47] These matters being settled, when the signal for marching
+was given, and the tents struck, it was observed that shortly before,
+contrary to his daily practise, Pompey's army had advanced farther
+than usual from his entrenchments, so that it appeared possible to
+come to an action on equal ground. Then Cæsar addrest himself to his
+soldiers, when they were at the gates of the camp, ready to march out.
+"We must defer," says he, "our march at present, and set our thoughts
+on battle, which has been our constant wish; let us then meet the foe
+with resolute souls. We shall not hereafter easily find such an
+opportunity." He immediately marched out at the head of his troops.
+
+Pompey also, as was afterward known, at the unanimous solicitation of
+his friends, had determined to try the fate of a battle. For he had
+even declared in council a few days before that, before the battalions
+came to battle, Cæsar's army would be put to the rout. When most
+people exprest their surprize at it, "I know," says he, "that I
+promise a thing almost incredible; but hear the plan on which I
+proceed, that you may march to battle with more confidence and
+resolution. I have persuaded our cavalry, and they have engaged to
+execute it, as soon as the two armies have met, to attack Cæsar's
+right wing on the flank, and enclosing their army on the rear throw
+them into disorder, and put them to the rout, before we shall throw a
+weapon against the enemy. By this means we shall put an end to the
+war, without endangering the legions, and almost without a blow. Nor
+is this a difficult matter, as we far outnumber them in cavalry." At
+the same time, he gave them notice to be ready for battle on the day
+following, and since the opportunity which they had so often wished
+for was now arrived, not to disappoint the opinion generally
+entertained of their experience and valor....
+
+Cæsar, observing his former custom, had placed the tenth legion on the
+right, the ninth on the left, altho it was very much weakened by the
+battles at Dyrrachium.[48] He placed the eighth legion so close to the
+ninth as almost to make one of the two, and ordered them to support
+each other. He drew up on the field eighty cohorts, making a total of
+twenty-two thousand men. He left two cohorts to guard the camp. He
+gave the command of the left wing to Antonius, of the right to P.
+Sulla, and of the center to Cn. Domitius; he himself took his post
+opposite Pompey. At the same time, fearing, from the disposition of
+the enemy which we have previously mentioned, lest his right wing
+might be surrounded by their numerous cavalry, he rapidly drafted a
+single cohort from each of the legions composing the third line,
+formed of them a fourth line, and opposed them to Pompey's cavalry,
+and, acquainting them with his wishes, admonished them that the
+success of that day depended on their courage. At the same time, he
+ordered the third line and the entire army not to charge without his
+command; that he would give the signal whenever he wished them to do
+so....
+
+But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with their
+javelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men did
+not run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom,
+and being practised in former battles, they of their own accord
+repressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might not
+come up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after a
+short respite they again renewed their course, and threw their
+javelins, and instantly drew their swords, as Cæsar had ordered them.
+Nor did Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received our
+javelins, stood our charge, and maintained their ranks; and, having
+launched their javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the same
+time, Pompey's horse, according to their orders, rushed out at once
+from his left wing, and his whole host of archers poured after them.
+Our cavalry did not withstand their charge; but gave ground a little,
+upon which Pompey's horse prest them more vigorously, and began to
+file off in troops, and flank our army. When Cæsar perceived this, he
+gave the signal to his fourth line, which he had formed of the six
+cohorts. They instantly rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse with
+such fury that not a man of them stood; but all wheeling about, not
+only quitted their post, but galloped forward to seek a refuge in the
+highest mountains. By their retreat the archers and slingers, being
+left destitute and defenseless, were all cut to pieces. The cohorts,
+pursuing their success, wheeled about upon Pompey's left wing, while
+his infantry still continued to make battle, and attacked them in the
+rear.
+
+At the same time, Cæsar ordered his third line to advance, which till
+then had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new and
+fresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and others
+having made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able to
+maintain their ground, but all fled,[49] nor was Cæsar deceived in his
+opinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to his
+soldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts, which he had
+placed as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalry
+were routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; by
+them the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to be
+the first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and that
+part of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown into
+confusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreated
+straightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions,
+whom he had placed to guard the prætorian gate, with a loud voice,
+that the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp," says he, "defend it
+with diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit the
+other gates, and encourage the guards of the camp." Having thus said,
+he retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting the
+issue.
+
+Cæsar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their entrenchment, and
+thinking that he ought not to allow them any respite to recover from
+their fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of fortune's
+kindness, and to attack the camp. Tho they were fatigued by the
+intense heat, for the battle had continued till midday, yet, being
+prepared to undergo any labor, they cheerfully obeyed his command. The
+camp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guard
+it, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreign
+auxiliaries. For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from the
+field of battle, affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrown
+away their arms and military standards, had their thoughts more
+engaged on their further escape than on the defense of the camp. Nor
+could the troops who were posted on the battlements long withstand the
+immense number of our darts, but fainting under their wounds quitted
+the place, and under the conduct of their centurions and tribunes
+fled, without stopping, to the high mountains which adjoined the camp.
+
+In Pompey's camp you might see arbors in which tables were laid, a
+large quantity of plate set out, the floors of the tents covered with
+fresh sods, the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy,
+and many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and a
+confidence of victory, so that it might readily be inferred that they
+had no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulged
+themselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxury
+Cæsar's army, distrest and suffering troops, who had always been in
+want of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced the
+trenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit,
+went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with all
+speed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same despatch,
+collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nor
+night, he arrived at the seaside, attended by only thirty horse, and
+went on board a victualing bark, often complaining, as we have been
+told, that he had been so deceived in his expectation that he was
+almost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he had
+expected victory, as they began the flight.
+
+Cæsar, having possest himself of Pompey's camp, urged his soldiers not
+to be too intent on plunder, and lose the opportunity of completing
+their conquest. Having obtained their consent, he began to draw lines
+round the mountain. The Pompeians distrusting the position, as there
+was no water on the mountain, abandoned it, and all began to retreat
+toward Larissa, which Cæsar perceiving divided his troops, and
+ordering part of his legions to remain in Pompey's camp, sent back a
+part to his own camp, and, taking four legions with him, went by a
+shorter road to intercept the enemy; and having marched six miles,
+drew up his army. But the Pompeians, observing this, took a post on a
+mountain, whose foot was washed by a river. Cæsar having encouraged
+his troops, tho they were greatly exhausted by incessant labor the
+whole day, and night was now approaching, by throwing up works cut off
+the communication between the river and the mountain, that the enemy
+might not get water in the night. As soon as the work was finished,
+they sent ambassadors to treat about a capitulation. A few senators
+who had espoused that party made their escape by night.
+
+At break of day, Cæsar ordered all those who had taken post on the
+mountain to come down from the higher grounds into the plain and pile
+their arms. When they did this without refusal, and, with,
+outstretched arms, prostrating themselves on the ground, with tears,
+implored his mercy, he comforted them and bade them rise, and having
+spoken a few words of his own clemency to alleviate their fears, he
+pardoned them all, and gave orders to his soldiers that no injury
+should be done to them, and nothing taken from them. Having used this
+diligence, he ordered the legions in his camp to come and meet him,
+and those which were with him to take their turn of rest, and go back
+to the camp, and the same day went to Larissa.
+
+In that battle, no more than two hundred privates were missing, but
+Cæsar lost about thirty centurions, valiant officers. Crastinus, also,
+of whom mention was made before, fighting most courageously, lost his
+life by the wound of a sword in the mouth, nor was that false which he
+declared when marching to battle; for Cæsar entertained the highest
+opinion of his behavior in that battle, and thought him highly
+deserving of his approbation. Of Pompey's army, there fell about
+fifteen thousand; but upward of twenty-four thousand were made
+prisoners; for even the cohorts which were stationed in the forts
+surrendered to Sulla. Several others took shelter in the neighboring
+states. One hundred and eighty stands of colors and nine eagles were
+brought to Cæsar. Lucius Domitius, fleeing from the camp to the
+mountains, his strength being exhausted by fatigue, was killed....
+
+Cæsar thought he ought to postpone all business and pursue Pompey,
+whithersoever he should retreat, that he might not be able to provide
+fresh forces, and renew the war; he therefore marched on every day, as
+far as his cavalry were able to advance, and ordered one legion to
+follow him by shorter journeys. A proclamation was issued by Pompey at
+Amphipolis[50] that all the young men of that province, Grecians and
+Roman citizens, should take the military oath; but whether he issued
+it with an intention of preventing suspicion, and to conceal as long
+as possible his design of fleeing farther, or to endeavor to keep
+possession of Macedonia by new levies, if nobody pursued him, it is
+impossible to judge. He lay at anchor one night, and calling together
+his friends in Amphipolis, and collecting a sum of money for his
+necessary expenses, upon advice of Cæsar's approach, set sail from
+that place, and arrived in a few days at Mitylene.[51] Here he was
+detained two days, and having added a few galleys to his fleet he went
+to Cilicia, and thence to Cyprus. There he is informed that, by the
+consent of all the inhabitants of Antioch[52] and Roman citizens who
+traded there, the castle had been seized to shut him out of the town;
+and that messengers had been dispatched to all those who were reported
+to have taken refuge in the neighboring states, that they should not
+come to Antioch; that if they did so, it would be attended with
+imminent danger to their lives. The same thing had happened to Lucius
+Lentulus, who had been Consul the year before, and to Publius
+Lentulus, a consular senator, and to several others at Rhodes,[53] who
+having followed Pompey in his flight, and arrived at the island, were
+not admitted into the town or port; and having received a message to
+leave that neighborhood, set sail much against their will; for the
+rumor of Cæsar's approach had now reached those states.
+
+Pompey, being informed of these proceedings, laid aside his design of
+going to Syria, and having taken the public money from the farmers of
+the revenue, and borrowed more from some private friends, and having
+put on board his ships a large quantity of brass for military
+purposes, and two thousand armed men, whom he partly selected from the
+slaves of the tax farmers, and partly collected from the merchants,
+and such persons as each of his friends thought fit on this occasion,
+he sailed for Pelusium.[54] It happened that King Ptolemy,[55] a
+minor, was there with a considerable army, engaged in war with his
+sister Cleopatra, whom a few months before, by the assistance of his
+relatives and friends, he had expelled from the kingdom; and her camp
+lay at a small distance from his. To him Pompey applied to be
+permitted to take refuge in Alexandria, and to be protected in his
+calamity by his powerful assistance, in consideration of the
+friendship and amity which had subsisted between his father and him.
+But Pompey's deputies, having executed their commission, began to
+converse with less restraint with the king's troops, and to advise
+them to act with friendship to Pompey, and not to think meanly of his
+bad fortune. In Ptolemy's army were several of Pompey's soldiers, of
+whom Gabinius[56] had received the command in Syria, and had brought
+them over to Alexandria, and at the conclusion of the war had left
+with Ptolemy the father of the young king.
+
+The king's friends, who were regents of the kingdom during the
+minority, being informed of these things, either induced by fear, as
+they afterward declared, lest Pompey should corrupt the king's army,
+and seize on Alexandria[57] and Egypt, or despising his bad fortune,
+as in adversity friends commonly change to enemies, in public gave a
+favorable answer to his deputies, and desired him to come to the king;
+but secretly laid a plot against him, and dispatched Achillas, captain
+of the king's guards, a man of singular boldness, and Lucius
+Septimius, a military tribune, to assassinate him. Being kindly
+addrest by them, and deluded by an acquaintance with Septimius,
+because in the war with the pirates the latter had commanded a company
+under him, he embarked in a small boat, with a few attendants, and was
+there murdered by Achillas and Septimius. In like manner, Lucius
+Lentulus was seized by the king's order, and put to death in
+prison....
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 33: Cicero, whose praise of Cæsar as a writer has been
+shared by many readers since his time, described Cæsar's works as
+"unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, their ornament being stript
+off as it were a garment." Cæsar did his work so well that "he has
+deterred all men of sound taste from touching him."]
+
+[Footnote 34: From Book IV of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."
+Translated by McDivett and W. S. Bohn. The site of this bridge is
+believed to be in the neighborhood of Cologne.]
+
+[Footnote 35: The Suevi were migratory Germans who, in Cæsar's time,
+occupied the eastern banks of the Rhine in and about the present
+country of Baden.]
+
+[Footnote 36: From Book V of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."]
+
+[Footnote 37: The Belgæ comprised various tribes that lived between
+the Seine and the Rhine and were the most warlike of the Gauls.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Cæsar's error here has often been commented on, Spain
+lying to the south, rather than to the west, of Britain.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Now known as the Isle of Man.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Cassivelaunus was a chieftain of the Britons who had
+been entrusted with the supreme command against Cæsar. His own
+territory lay north of the Thames.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Bede, the learned Benedictine, who lived in the eighth
+century, says that, in his time, remains of these stakes were still to
+be seen.]
+
+[Footnote 42: These people occupied what are now the counties of Essex
+and Middlesex.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The translator notes that Tacitus has remarked that
+Britain was surveyed, rather than conquered, by Cæsar. He gives the
+honor of its real conquest to his own father-in-law, Agricola. While
+the Roman armies "owe much to the military virtues of Agricola as
+displayed in England, Cæsar," adds the translator, "did what no one
+had done before him; he levied tribute upon the Britons and
+effectually paved the way for all that Rome subsequently accomplished
+in this island."]
+
+[Footnote 44: From Book II of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."]
+
+[Footnote 45: The Nervii were one of the Belgic tribes and are
+understood to have been the most warlike of them all.]
+
+[Footnote 46: From Book III of the "Commentaries on the Civil War."
+Pharsalia is a district of Thessaly in Greece. Cæsar's army numbered
+22,000 legionaries and 1,000 cavalry; Pompey's, 45,000 legionaries and
+7,000 cavalry.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Pompey's army having been recruited from aristocratic
+families and their dependents, was not so much accustomed to the
+severities of war as were the soldiers of Cæsar, recruited largely
+from the populace.]
+
+[Footnote 48: The modern Durazzo, a seaport on the Adriatic in
+Albania. It was founded by colonies from Corfu about 625 B.C. and
+became important afterward as a terminus of one of the great Roman
+roads. Pompey here defeated Cæsar a short time before he was himself
+defeated at Pharsalia.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Cæsar on this occasion is said to have advised his
+soldiers to aim at the faces of Pompey's cavalry, who, being composed
+principally of the young noblemen of Rome, dreaded a scar in the face
+more than death itself.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Amphipolis, a city of Macedonia, originally Thracian,
+but colonized from Athens. It was situated three miles inland from the
+Ægean Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Mitylene was the capital of the island of Lesbos, and an
+important maritime power in ancient times.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Arrowsmith describes Antioch as, not only the capital of
+Syria, but at one time of Western Asia. It was for years the third
+city of the world in beauty, size, and population. It was here that
+the followers of Christ first received the name of Christians (in A.D.
+39), having before been called Nazarenes and Galileans. In a
+neighboring grove stood a famous temple to Apollo and Diana.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Rhodes is the largest island in the Ægean Sea after
+Crete and Euboea. Its capital, having the same name and situated
+near the northern end of the island, was famous for a bronze statue of
+the sun called the Colossus, which was one of the "seven wonders of
+the world."]
+
+[Footnote 54: Pelusium was an ancient city of Egypt, situated in the
+delta of the Nile, strongly fortified and regarded as the gate to
+Egypt, on its eastern frontier. It lay in the midst of marshes formed
+by the overflow of the river, and continued its importance, in a
+military sense, until the waters of the river found their way into the
+Damietta branch.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Ptolemy XII, who came to the throne of Egypt co-jointly
+with his sister Cleopatra in 51 B.C. He expelled Cleopatra in 49, and
+in 48 Cæsar reinstated her. In the war which ensued, he was defeated
+and drowned in the Nile.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Gabinius was a Roman tribune who had proposed the
+statute bearing his name which gave to Pompey command of the
+Mediterranean coast for the suppression of pirates.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Alexandria was founded in 331 B.C. by Alexander the
+Great. Its principal street, 2,000 feet wide, was adorned with "some
+of the most costly edifices and structures of marble which perhaps the
+world ever saw." Many of these marbles were subsequently taken to Rome
+and Constantinople. Alexandria for a long period was the center of
+commerce for all merchandise passing between Europe and the East. As a
+city of learning, it possest a famous library, which at one period
+comprized 700,000 volumes.]
+
+
+
+
+SALLUST
+
+     Born in Italy about 86 B.C.; died about 34; elected tribune
+     in 52; expelled from the Senate by the censors in 50,
+     probably for being an active partizan of Cæsar; accompanied
+     Cæsar on his African campaign in 46; became governor of
+     Numidia, where he is said to have amassed a fortune
+     unjustly; author of histories of the Catiline conspiracy and
+     the war with Jugurtha.[58]
+
+
+I
+
+THE GENESIS OF CATILINE[59]
+
+
+Of the city of Rome, as I understand, the founders and earliest
+inhabitants were the Trojans, who, under the conduct of Æneas, were
+wandering about as exiles from their country, without any settled
+abode; and with these were joined the Aborigines, a savage race of
+men, without laws or government, free, and owning no control. How
+easily these two tribes, tho of different origin, dissimilar language,
+and opposite habits of life, formed a union when they met within the
+same walls is almost incredible. But when their state, from an
+accession of population and territory and an improved condition of
+morals, showed itself tolerably flourishing and powerful, envy, as is
+generally the case in human affairs, was the consequence of its
+prosperity. The neighboring kings and people, accordingly, began to
+assail them in war, while a few only of their friends came to their
+support; for the rest, struck with alarm, shrunk from sharing their
+dangers. But the Romans, active at home and in the field, prepared
+with alacrity for their defense. They encouraged one another, and
+hurried to meet the enemy. They protected, with their arms, their
+liberty, their country, and their homes. And when they had at length
+repelled danger by valor, they lent assistance to their allies and
+supporters, and procured friendships rather by bestowing favors than
+by receiving them.
+
+They had a government regulated by laws. The denomination of their
+government was monarchy. Chosen men, whose bodies might be enfeebled
+by years, but whose minds were vigorous in understanding, formed the
+council of the state; and these, whether from their age, or from the
+similarity of their duty, were called Fathers. But afterward, when the
+monarchical power, which had been originally established for the
+protection of liberty and for the promotion of the public interest,
+had degenerated into tyranny and oppression, they changed their plan,
+and appointed two magistrates, with power only annual; for they
+conceived that, by this method, the human mind would be least likely
+to grow overbearing through want of control.
+
+At this period every citizen began to seek distinction, and to display
+his talents with greater freedom; for, with princes, the meritorious
+are greater objects of suspicion than the undeserving, and to them the
+worth of others is a source of alarm. But when liberty was secured, it
+is almost incredible how much the state strengthened itself in a short
+space of time, so strong a passion for distinction had pervaded it.
+Now, for the first time, the youth, as soon as they were able to bear
+the toils of war, acquired military skill by actual service in the
+camp, and took pleasure rather in splendid arms and military steeds
+than in the society of mistresses and convivial indulgence. To such
+men no toil was unusual, no place was difficult or inaccessible, no
+armed enemy was formidable; their valor had overcome everything. But
+among themselves the grand rivalry was for glory; each sought to be
+first to wound an enemy, to scale a wall, and to be noticed while
+performing such an exploit. Distinction such as this they regarded as
+wealth, honor, and true nobility. They were covetous of praise, but
+liberal of money; they desired competent riches, but boundless glory.
+I could mention, but that the account would draw me too far from my
+subject, places in which the Roman people, with a small body of men,
+routed vast armies of the enemy; and cities which, tho fortified by
+nature, they carried by assault....
+
+By these two virtues, intrepidity in war and equity in peace, they
+maintained themselves and their state; of their exercise of which
+virtues, I consider these as the greatest proofs: that, in war,
+punishment was oftener inflicted on those who attacked an enemy
+contrary to orders, and who, when commanded to retreat, retired too
+slowly from the contest, than on those who had dared to desert their
+standards, or, when prest by the enemy, to abandon their posts; and
+that, in peace, they governed more by conferring benefits than by
+exciting terror, and, when they received an injury, chose rather to
+pardon than to revenge it.
+
+But when, by perseverance and integrity, the republic had increased
+its power; when mighty princes had been vanquished in war; when
+barbarous tribes and populous states had been reduced to subjection;
+when Carthage, the rival of Rome's dominion, had been utterly
+destroyed, and sea and land lay everywhere open to her sway, Fortune
+then began to exercise her tyranny, and to introduce universal
+innovation. To those who had easily endured toils, dangers, and
+doubtful and difficult circumstances, ease and wealth, the objects of
+desire to others, became a burden and a trouble. At first the love of
+money, and then that of power, began to prevail, and these became, as
+it were, the sources of every evil. For avarice subverted honesty,
+integrity, and other honorable principles, and in their stead,
+inculcated pride, inhumanity, contempt of religion, and general
+venality. Ambition prompted many to become deceitful; to keep one
+thing concealed in the breast, and another ready on the tongue; to
+estimate friendships and enmities, not by their worth, but according
+to interest; and to carry rather a specious countenance than an honest
+heart. These vices at first advanced but slowly, and were sometimes
+restrained by correction; but afterward, when their infection had
+spread like a pestilence, the state was entirely changed, and the
+government, from being the most equitable and praiseworthy, became
+rapacious and insupportable.
+
+At first, however, it was ambition, rather than avarice, that
+influenced the minds of men--a vice which approaches nearer to virtue
+than the other. For of glory, honor, and power, the worthy is as
+desirous as the worthless; but the one pursues them by just methods;
+the other, being destitute of honorable qualities, works with fraud
+and deceit. But avarice has merely money for its object, which no wise
+man has ever immoderately desired. It is a vice which, as if imbued
+with deadly poison, enervates whatever is manly in body or mind. It is
+always unbounded and insatiable, and is abated neither by abundance
+nor by want.
+
+But after Lucius Sulla, having recovered the government by force of
+arms, proceeded, after a fair commencement, to a pernicious
+termination, all became robbers and plunderers; some set their
+affections on houses, others on lands; his victorious troops knew
+neither restraint nor moderation, but inflicted on the citizens
+disgraceful and inhuman outrages. Their rapacity was increased by the
+circumstance that Sulla, in order to secure the attachment of the
+forces which he had commanded in Asia, had treated them, contrary to
+the practise of our ancestors, with extraordinary indulgence and
+exemption from discipline; and pleasant and luxurious quarters had
+easily, during seasons of idleness, enervated the minds of the
+soldiery. Then the armies of the Roman people first became habituated
+to licentiousness and intemperance, and began to admire statues,
+pictures, and sculptured vases; to seize such objects alike in public
+edifices and private dwellings; to spoil temples; and to cast off
+respect for everything, sacred and profane. Such troops, accordingly,
+when once they obtained the mastery, left nothing to the vanquished.
+Success unsettles the principles even of the wise, and scarcely would
+those of debauched habits use victory with moderation....
+
+In so populous and so corrupt a city, Catiline, as it was very easy to
+do, kept about him, like a body-guard, crowds of the unprincipled and
+desperate. For all those shameless, libertine, and profligate
+characters who had dissipated their patrimonies by gaming, luxury, and
+sensuality; all who had contracted heavy debts, to purchase immunity
+for their crimes or offenses; all assassins or sacrilegious persons
+from every quarter, convicted or dreading conviction for their evil
+deeds; all, besides, whom their tongue or their hand maintained by
+perjury or civil bloodshed; all, in fine, whom wickedness, poverty, or
+a guilty conscience disquieted, were the associates and intimate
+friends of Catiline. And if any one, as yet of unblemished character,
+fell into his society, he was presently rendered, by daily intercourse
+and temptation, similar and equal to the rest. But it was the young
+whose acquaintance he chiefly courted, as their minds, ductile and
+unsettled from their age, were easily ensnared by his stratagems. For
+as the passions of each, according to his years, appeared excited, he
+furnished mistresses to some, bought horses and dogs for others, and
+spared, in a word, neither his purse nor his character, if he could
+but make them his devoted and trustworthy supporters. There were some,
+I know, who thought that the youth who frequented the house of
+Catiline were guilty of crimes against nature; but this report arose
+rather from other causes than from any evidence of the fact....
+
+Depending on such accomplices and adherents, and knowing that the load
+of debt was everywhere great, and that the veterans of Sulla,[60]
+having spent their money too liberally, and remembering their spoils
+and former victory, were longing for a civil war, Catiline formed the
+design of overthrowing the government. There was no army in Italy;
+Pompey was fighting in a distant part of the world;[61] he himself had
+great hopes of obtaining the consulship; the Senate was wholly off its
+guard; everything was quiet and tranquil, and all these circumstances
+were exceedingly favorable for Catiline....
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FATE OF THE CONSPIRATORS[62]
+
+
+When the Senate, as I have stated, had gone over to the opinion of
+Cato, the Consul, thinking it best not to wait till night, which was
+coming on, lest any new attempts should be made during the interval,
+ordered the triumvirs to make such preparations as the execution of
+the conspirators required. He himself, having posted the necessary
+guards, conducted Lentulus[63] to the prison; and the same office was
+performed for the rest by the prætors.
+
+There is a place in the prison, which is called the Tullian
+dungeon,[64] and which, after a slight ascent to the left, is sunk
+about twelve feet under ground. Walls secure it on every side, and
+over it is a vaulted roof connected with stone arches; but its
+appearance is disgusting and horrible, by reason of the filth,
+darkness, and stench. When Lentulus had been let down into this place,
+certain men, to whom orders had been given, strangled him with a
+cord. Thus this patrician who was of the illustrious family of the
+Cornelii, and who had filled the office of Consul at Rome, met with an
+end suited to his character and conduct. On Cethegus, Statilius,
+Gabinius, and Coeparius, punishment was inflicted in a similar
+manner.
+
+During these proceedings at Rome, Catiline, out of the entire force
+which he himself had brought with him, and that which Manlius had
+previously collected, formed two legions, filling up the cohorts as
+far as his numbers would allow; and afterward, as any volunteers, or
+recruits from his confederates, arrived in his camp, he distributed
+them equally throughout the cohorts, and thus filled up his legions,
+in a short time, with their regular number of men, tho at first he had
+not had more than two thousand. But, of his whole army, only about a
+fourth part had the proper weapons of soldiers; the rest, as chance
+had equipped them, carried darts, spears, or sharpened stakes.
+
+As Antonius[65] approached with his army, Catiline directed his march
+over the hills, encamping, at one time, in the direction of Rome, at
+another in that of Gaul. He gave the enemy no opportunity of fighting,
+yet hoped himself shortly to find one, if his accomplices at Rome
+should succeed in their objects. Slaves, meanwhile, of whom vast
+numbers had at first flocked to him, he continued to reject, not only
+as depending on the strength of the conspiracy, but as thinking it
+impolitic to appear to share the cause of citizens with runagates.
+
+When it was reported in his camp, however, that the conspiracy had
+been discovered at Rome, and that Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest
+whom I have named had been put to death, most of those whom the hope
+of plunder or the love of change had led to join in the war fell away.
+The remainder Catiline conducted, over rugged mountains and by forced
+marches, into the neighborhood of Pistoria, with a view to escape
+covertly, by crossroads, into Gaul.
+
+But Quintus Metellus Celer, who, with a force of three legions, had,
+at that time, his station at Picenum, suspected that Catiline, from
+the difficulties of his position, would adopt precisely the course
+which we have just described. When, therefore, he had learned
+Catiline's route from some deserters, he immediately broke up his
+camp, and took his post at the very foot of the hills, at the point
+where Catiline's descent would be, in his hurried march into Gaul.[66]
+Nor was Antonius far distant, as he was pursuing, tho with a large
+army, yet through plainer ground, and with fewer hindrances, the enemy
+in retreat.
+
+Catiline, when he saw that he was surrounded by mountains and by
+hostile forces, that his schemes in the city had been unsuccessful,
+and that there was no hope either of escape or of succor, thinking it
+best, in such circumstances, to try the fortune of a battle, resolved
+upon engaging, as speedily as possible, with Antonius....
+
+When he had spoken, he ordered, after a short delay, the signal for
+battle to be sounded, and led down his troops, in regular order, to
+the level ground. Having then sent away the horses of all the cavalry,
+in order to increase the men's courage by making their danger equal,
+he himself, on foot, drew up his troops suitably to their numbers and
+the nature of the ground. As a plain stretched between the mountains
+on the left, with a rugged rock on the right, he placed eight cohorts
+in front, and stationed the rest of his force, in close order, in the
+rear. From among these he removed all the ablest centurions, the
+veterans, and the stoutest of the common soldiers that were regularly
+armed into the foremost ranks. He ordered Caius Manlius to take the
+command on the right, and a certain officer of Fæsulæ on the left;
+while he himself, with his freedmen and the colonists, took his
+station by the eagle, which Caius Marius was said to have had in his
+army in the Cimbrian war.
+
+On the other side, Caius Antonius, who, being lame, was unable to be
+present in the engagement, gave the command of the army to Marcus
+Petreius, his lieutenant-general. Petreius ranged the cohorts of
+veterans, which he had raised to meet the present insurrection, in
+front, and behind them the rest of his force in lines. Then, riding
+round among his troops, and addressing his men by name, he encouraged
+them, and bade them remember that they were to fight against unarmed
+marauders, in defense of their country, their children, their temples,
+and their homes. Being a military man, and having served with great
+reputation for more than thirty years, as tribune, prefect,
+lieutenant, or prætor, he knew most of the soldiers and their
+honorable actions, and, by calling these to their remembrance, roused
+the spirits of the men.
+
+When he had made a complete survey, he gave the signal with the
+trumpet, and ordered the cohorts to advance slowly. The army of the
+enemy followed his example; and when they had approached so near that
+the action could be commenced by the light-armed troops, both sides,
+with a loud shout, rushed together in a furious charge. They threw
+aside their missiles, and fought only with their swords. The veterans,
+calling to mind their deeds of old, engaged fiercely in the closest
+combat. The enemy made an obstinate resistance; and both sides
+contended with the utmost fury. Catiline, during this time, was
+exerting himself with his light troops in the front, sustaining such
+as were prest, substituting fresh men for the wounded, attending to
+every exigency, charging in person, wounding many an enemy, and
+performing at once the duties of a valiant soldier and a skilful
+general.
+
+When Petreius, contrary to his expectation, found Catiline attacking
+him with such impetuosity, he led his prætorian cohort against the
+center of the enemy, among whom, being thus thrown into confusion, and
+offering but partial resistance, he made great slaughter, and ordered,
+at the same time, an assault on both flanks. Manlius and the Fæsulan,
+sword in hand, were among the first that fell; and Catiline, when he
+saw his army routed, and himself left with but few supporters,
+remembering his birth and former dignity, rushed into the thickest of
+the enemy, where he was slain, fighting to the last.
+
+When the battle was over, it was plainly seen what boldness and what
+energy of spirit had prevailed throughout the army of Catiline; for,
+almost everywhere, every soldier, after yielding up his breath,
+covered with his corpse the spot which he had occupied when alive. A
+few, indeed, whom the prætorian cohort had dispersed, had fallen
+somewhat differently, but all with wounds in front. Catiline himself
+was found, far in advance of his men, among the dead bodies of the
+enemy; he still breathed, and exprest in his countenance the
+fierceness of spirit which he had shown during his life. Of his whole
+army, neither in the battle, nor in flight, was any free-born citizen
+made prisoner, for they had spared their own lives no more than those
+of the enemy.
+
+Nor did the army of the Roman people obtain a joyful or bloodless
+victory; for all their bravest men were either killed in the battle or
+left the field severely wounded.
+
+Of many who went from the camp to view the ground or plunder the
+slain, some, in turning over the bodies of the enemy, discovered a
+friend, others an acquaintance, others a relative; some, too,
+recognized their enemies. Thus, gladness and sorrow, grief and joy,
+were variously felt throughout the whole army.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 58: Quintilian thought Sallust had rivaled Thucydides, but
+it has generally been held that he rather imitated him. The
+resemblance lies in the main in the language he employs. Cruttwell
+remarks "that the deep insight of the Athenian into the connection of
+events is far removed from the popular rhetoric in which the Roman
+deplores the decline of virtue."]
+
+[Footnote 59: From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson. Catiline came of an old but impoverished patrician family. In
+the first Civil War, he had joined Sulla, and in the time of the
+proscription is said to have killed with his own hand his
+brother-in-law. In 67 B.C. he was governor of Africa; in 64 he joined
+P. Antronius in an attempt to murder the consuls-elect; in 64 he was
+himself defeated for the consulship.]
+
+[Footnote 60: These were men to whom Sulla had given land as rewards
+for services, but who from extravagance had fallen into debt. Cicero
+said nothing could help them but the resurrection of Sulla from the
+dead.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Pompey was then conducting his campaign against
+Mithridates.]
+
+[Footnote 62: From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Lentulus, who came of the ancient and noble Cornelian
+family, was one of the chiefs of the Catiline conspiracy. In 71 B.C.
+he was Consul, but in the next year was ejected from the Senate for
+"infamous life and manners."]
+
+[Footnote 64: The Tullian dungeon at Rome was built by King Ancus
+Martius and enlarged by Servius Tullius, from whom it derived its
+name. It still exists as a subterranean chapel beneath the small
+church of San Pietro in Carcere. The church tradition is that St.
+Peter was imprisoned in this dungeon.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Not the triumvir, but his uncle, Caius Antonius, a man
+who after the conspiracy made a scandalous record, and in consequence
+was surnamed "Hybrida." He was Consul with Cicero, and is believed to
+have been one of the original Catiline conspirators, but Cicero gained
+him over to his own side by promising him the rich province of
+Macedonia. As Consul, Antonius was under the necessity of leading the
+army against Catiline; but, owing to unwillingness to fight against
+his former friend (Sallust says owing to lameness) he gave the
+immediate command on the day of battle to his legate, Petreius. The
+father of this Antonius and the grandfather of Mark Antony, the
+triumvir, was Mark Antony, the orator, frequently referred to by
+Cicero as one of the greatest of Roman orators.]
+
+[Footnote 66: That is, northern Italy, which In ancient times had been
+occupied by Gallic people. Pistoria was an Etruscan town lying at the
+foot of the Apennines.]
+
+
+
+
+LIVY
+
+     Born In Padua in 59 B.C.; died there in 17 A.D.; one of the
+     most famous of the Roman historians; his work, embracing the
+     period from the founding of the city, comprized one hundred
+     and forty-two books, of which only thirty-five have come
+     down to us; he spent over forty years in writing the
+     history; he wrote also philosophical dialogs and a work on
+     rhetorical training.[67]
+
+
+I
+
+HORATIUS COCLES AT THE BRIDGE[68]
+
+(About 510 B.C.)
+
+
+The Sublician bridge[69] well-nigh afforded a passage to the enemy,
+had it not been for one man, Horatius Cocles, given by fortune on that
+day as a defense of Rome. He happened to be posted on guard at the
+bridge and when he saw the Janiculum taken by a sudden assault, and
+that the enemy were pouring down thence in full speed, and that his
+own party in terror and confusion were abandoning their arms and
+ranks--laying hold of them one by one, standing in their way, and
+appealing to the faith of gods and men, he declared "that their flight
+would avail them nothing if they deserted their post; if they passed
+the bridge and left it behind them, there would soon be more of the
+enemy in the Palatium and Capitol than in the Janiculum; for that
+reason he advised and charged them to demolish the bridge, by their
+sword, by fire, or by any means whatever; that he would stand the
+shock of the enemy as far as could be done by one man."
+
+He then advanced to the first entrance of the bridge, and being easily
+distinguished among those who showed their backs in retreating from
+the fight, facing about to engage the foe hand to hand, by his
+surprizing bravery he terrified the enemy. Two indeed a sense of shame
+kept with him--Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius--men eminent for
+their birth, and renowned for their gallant exploits.
+
+With them he for a short time stood the first storm of the danger, and
+the severest brunt of the battle. But as they who demolished the
+bridge called upon them to retire, he obliged them also to withdraw to
+a place of safety on a small portion of the bridge still left. Then
+casting his stern eyes round all the officers of the Etrurians in a
+threatening manner, he sometimes challenged them singly, sometimes
+reproached them all: "the slaves of haughty tyrants, who, regardless
+of their own freedom, came to oppress the liberty of others." They
+hesitated for a considerable time, looking round one at the other, to
+commence the fight; shame then put the army in motion, and a shout
+being raised, they hurled their weapons from all sides on their single
+adversary; and when they all stuck in the shield held before him, and
+he with no less obstinacy kept possession of the bridge with firm
+step, they now endeavored to thrust him down from it by one push, when
+at once the crash of the falling bridge, at the same time a shout of
+the Romans raised for joy at having completed their purpose, checked
+their ardor with sudden panic. Then Cocles says, "Holy father
+Tiberinus, I pray that thou wouldst receive these arms and this thy
+soldier in thy propitious stream." Armed as he was, he leapt into the
+Tiber, and, amid showers of darts hurled on him, swam across safe to
+his party, having dared an act which is likely to obtain more fame
+than belief with posterity. The state was grateful toward such valor;
+a statue was erected to him in the Comitium, and as much land was
+given to him as he plowed around in one day. The zeal of private
+individuals also was conspicuous among the public honors. For amid the
+great scarcity, each person contributed something to him according to
+his supply at home, depriving himself of his own support.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HANNIBAL'S CROSSING OF THE ALPS[70] (218 B.C.)
+
+
+From the Druentia, by a road that lay principally through plains,
+Hannibal arrived at the Alps without molestation from the Gauls who
+inhabit those regions. Then, tho the scene had been previously
+anticipated from report (by which uncertainties are wont to be
+exaggerated), yet the height of the mountains when viewed so near, and
+the snows almost mingling with the sky, the shapeless huts situated on
+the cliffs, the cattle and beasts of burden withered by the cold, the
+men unshorn and wildly drest, all things, animate and inanimate,
+stiffened with frost, and other objects more terrible to be seen than
+described, renewed their alarm.
+
+To them, marching up the first acclivities, the mountaineers appeared
+occupying the heights overhead, who, if they had occupied the more
+concealed valleys, might, by rushing out suddenly to the attack, have
+occasioned great flight and havoc. Hannibal orders them to halt, and
+having sent forward Gauls to view the ground, when he found there was
+no passage that way, he pitches his camp in the widest valley he could
+find, among places all rugged and precipitous. Then, having learned
+from the same Gauls, when they had mixed in conversation with the
+mountaineers, from whom they differed little in language and manners,
+that the pass was only beset during the day, and that at night each
+withdrew to his own dwelling, he advanced at the dawn to the heights,
+as if designing openly and by day to force his way through the defile.
+The day then being passed in feigning a different attempt from that
+which was in preparation, when they had fortified the camp in the same
+place where they had halted, as soon as he perceived that the
+mountaineers had descended from the heights, and that the guards were
+withdrawn, having lighted for show a greater number of fires than was
+proportioned to the number that remained, and having left the baggage
+in the camp, with the cavalry and the principal part of the infantry,
+he himself with a party of light-armed soldiers, consisting of all the
+most courageous of his troops, rapidly cleared the defile, and took
+posts on those very heights which the enemy had occupied.
+
+At dawn of light the next day the camp broke up, and the rest of the
+army began to move forward. The mountaineers, on a signal being given,
+were now assembling from their forts to their usual station, when
+they suddenly behold part of the enemy overhanging them from above, in
+possession of their former position, and the others passing along the
+road. Both these objects, presented at the same time to the eye and
+the mind, made them stand motionless for a little while; but when they
+afterward saw the confusion in the pass, and that the marching body
+was thrown into disorder by the tumult which itself created,
+principally from the horses being terrified, thinking that whatever
+terror they added would suffice for the destruction of the enemy, they
+scramble along the dangerous rocks, as being accustomed alike to
+pathless and circuitous ways. Then indeed the Carthaginians were
+opposed at once by the enemy and by the difficulties of the ground;
+and each striving to escape first from the danger, there was more
+fighting among themselves than with their opponents. The horses, in
+particular, created danger in the lines, which being terrified by the
+discordant clamors that the groves and reechoing valleys augmented,
+fell into confusion; and if by chance struck or wounded, they were so
+dismayed that they occasioned a great loss both of men and baggage of
+every description; and as the pass on both sides was broken and
+precipitous, this tumult threw many down to an immense depth, some
+even of the armed men; but the beasts of burden, with their loads,
+were rolled down like the fall of some vast fabric.
+
+Tho these disasters were shocking to view, Hannibal, however, held his
+place for a little, and kept his men together, lest he might augment
+the tumult and disorder: but afterward, when he saw the line broken,
+and that there was danger that he should bring over his army preserved
+to no purpose if deprived of their baggage, he hastened down from the
+higher ground; and tho he had routed the enemy by the first onset
+alone, he at the same time increased the disorder in his own army; but
+that tumult was composed in a moment, after the roads were cleared by
+the flight of the mountaineers, and presently the whole army was
+conducted through, not only without being disturbed, but almost in
+silence. He then took a fortified place, which was the capital of that
+district, and the little villages that lay around it, and fed his army
+for three days with the corn and cattle he had taken; and during these
+three days, as the soldiers were neither obstructed by the
+mountaineers, who had been daunted by the first engagement, nor yet
+much by the ground, he made considerable way.
+
+He then came to another state, abounding, for a mountainous country,
+with inhabitants, where he was nearly overcome, not by open war, but
+by his own arts of treachery and ambuscade. Some old men, governors of
+forts, came as deputies to the Carthaginian, professing, "that having
+been warned by the useful example of the calamities of others, they
+wished rather to experience the friendship than the hostilities of the
+Carthaginians; they would, therefore, obediently execute his commands,
+and begged that he would accept of a supply of provisions, guides of
+his march, and hostages for the sincerity of their promises."
+Hannibal, when he had answered them in a friendly manner, thinking
+that they should neither be rashly trusted nor yet rejected, lest if
+repulsed they might openly become enemies, having received the
+hostages whom they proffered, and made use of the provisions which
+they of their own accord brought down to the road, followed their
+guides, by no means as among a people with whom he was at peace, but
+with his line of march in close order. The elephants and cavalry
+formed the van of the marching body; he himself, examining everything
+around, and intent on every circumstance, followed with the choicest
+of his infantry. When they came into a narrower pass, lying on one
+side beneath an overhanging eminence, the barbarians, rising at once
+on all sides from their ambush, assail them in front and rear, both at
+close quarters and from a distance, and roll down huge stones on the
+army. The most numerous body of men prest on the rear; against whom
+the infantry facing about and directing their attack made it very
+obvious that, had not the rear of the army been well supported, a
+great loss must have been sustained in that pass. Even as it was, they
+came to the extremity of danger, and almost to destruction; for while
+Hannibal hesitated to lead down his division into the defile, because,
+tho he himself was a protection to the cavalry, he had not in the same
+way left any aid to the infantry in the rear; the mountaineers,
+charging obliquely, and on having broken through the middle of the
+army, took possession of the road; and one night was spent by Hannibal
+without his cavalry and baggage....
+
+On the standards being moved forward at daybreak, when the army
+proceeded slowly over all places entirely blocked up with snow, and
+languor and despair strongly appeared in the countenances of all,
+Hannibal, having advanced before the standards, and ordered the
+soldiers to halt on a certain eminence, whence there was a prospect
+far and wide, pointed out to them Italy and the plains of the Po,
+extending themselves beneath the Alpine mountains; and said "that they
+were now surmounting not only the ramparts of Italy, but also of the
+city of Rome; that the rest of the journey would be smooth and
+down-hill; that after one, or, at most, a second battle, they would
+have the citadel and capital of Italy in their power and possession."
+The army then began to advance, the enemy now making no attempts
+beyond petty thefts, as opportunity offered. But the journey proved
+much more difficult than it had been in the ascent, as the declivity
+of the Alps, being generally shorter on the side of Italy, is
+consequently steeper; for nearly all the road was precipitous, narrow,
+and slippery, so that neither those who made the least stumble could
+prevent themselves from falling, nor, when fallen, remain in the same
+place, but rolled, both men and beasts of burden, one upon another.
+
+They then came to a rock much more narrow, and formed of such
+perpendicular ledges that a light-armed soldier, carefully making the
+attempt, and clinging with his hands to the bushes and roots around,
+could with difficulty lower himself down. The ground, even before very
+steep by nature, had been broken by a recent falling away of the earth
+into a precipice of nearly a thousand feet in depth. Here when the
+cavalry halted, as if at the end of their journey, it was announced to
+Hannibal, wondering what obstructed the march, that the rock was
+impassable. Having then gone himself to view the place, it seemed
+clear to him that he must lead his army, by however great a circuit,
+through the pathless and untrodden regions around it. But this route
+also proved impracticable; for while the new snow of a moderate depth
+remained on the old, which had not been removed, their footsteps were
+planted with ease as they walked upon the new snow, which was soft and
+not too deep; but when it was dissolved by the trampling of so many
+men and beasts of burden, they then walked on the bare ice below, and
+through the dirty fluid formed by the melting snow. Here there was a
+wretched struggle, both on account of the slippery ice not affording
+any hold to the step, and giving way beneath the foot more readily by
+reason of the slope; and whether they assisted themselves in rising by
+their hands or their knees, their supports themselves giving way, they
+would tumble again; nor were there any stumps or roots near by
+pressing against which one might with hand or foot support oneself; so
+that they only floundered on the smooth ice and amidst the melted
+snow. The beasts of burden sometimes also cut into this lower ice by
+merely treading upon it, at others they broke it completely through,
+by the violence with which they struck in their hoofs in their
+struggling, so that most of them, as if taken in a trap, stuck in the
+hardened and deeply frozen ice.
+
+At length, after the men and beasts of burden had been fatigued to no
+purpose, the camp was pitched on the summit, the ground being cleared
+for that purpose with great difficulty, so much snow was there to be
+dug out and carried away. The soldiers being then set to make a way
+down the cliff, by which alone a passage could be effected, and it
+being necessary that they should cut through the rocks, having felled
+and lopped a number of large trees which grew around, they make a huge
+pile of timber; and as soon as a strong wind fit for exciting the
+flames arose, they set fire to it, and, pouring vinegar on the heated
+stones, they render them soft and crumbling. They then open a way with
+iron instruments through the rock thus heated by the fire, and soften
+its declivities by gentle windings, so that not only the beasts of
+burden, but also the elephants, could be led down it. Four days were
+spent about this rock, the beasts nearly perishing through hunger; for
+the summits of the mountains are for the most part bare, and if there
+is any pasture the snows bury it. The lower parts contain valleys, and
+some sunny hills, and rivulets flowing beside woods, and scenes more
+worthy of the abode of man. There the beasts of burden were sent out
+to pasture, and rest given for three days to the men, fatigued with
+forming the passage; they then descended into the plains, the country
+and the dispositions of the inhabitants being now less rugged.
+
+In this manner chiefly they came to Italy, in the fifth month (as some
+authors relate) after leaving New Carthage, having crossed the Alps
+in fifteen days. What number of forces Hannibal had when he had passed
+into Italy is by no means agreed upon by authors. Those who state them
+at the highest make mention of a hundred thousand foot and twenty
+thousand horse; those who state them at the lowest, of twenty thousand
+foot and six thousand horse. Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who relates
+that he was made prisoner by Hannibal, would influence me most as an
+authority did he not confound the number by adding the Gauls and
+Ligurians. Including these (who, it is more probable, flocked to him
+afterward, as some authors assert), he says that eighty thousand foot
+and ten thousand horse were brought into Italy; and that he had heard
+from Hannibal himself that, after crossing the Rhone, he had lost
+thirty-six thousand men, and an immense number of horses and other
+beasts of burden among the Taurini,[71] the next nation to the Gauls,
+as he descended into Italy.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+HANNIBAL AND SCIPIO AT ZAMA[72]
+
+(202 B.C.)
+
+
+Hannibal had by this time arrived at Adrumetum,[73] from which place,
+after employing a few days there in refreshing his soldiers, who had
+suffered from the motion by sea, he proceeded by forced marches to
+Zama, roused by the alarming statements of messengers, who brought
+word that all the country round Carthage was filled with armed troops.
+Zama is distant from Carthage a five days' journey. Some spies, whom
+he had sent out from this place, being intercepted by the Roman guard,
+and brought before Scipio, he directed that they should be handed over
+to the military tribunes, and, after having been desired fearlessly to
+survey everything, he conducted them through the camp wherever they
+chose; then, asking them whether they had examined everything to their
+satisfaction, he assigned them an escort, and sent them back to
+Hannibal. Hannibal received none of the circumstances which were
+reported to him with feelings of joy; for they brought word that, as
+it happened, Masinissa had joined the enemy that very day, with six
+thousand infantry and four thousand horse; but he was principally
+dispirited by the confidence of his enemy, which, doubtless, was not
+conceived without some ground. Accordingly, tho he himself was the
+originator of the war, and by his coming had upset the truce which had
+been entered into, and cut off all hopes of a treaty, yet, concluding
+that more favorable terms might be obtained if he solicited peace
+while his strength was unimpaired than when vanquished, he sent a
+message to Scipio requesting permission to confer with him.
+
+Their armed attendants having retired to an equal distance, they met,
+each attended by one interpreter, being the greatest generals not only
+of their own times, but of any to be found in the records of the times
+preceding them, and equal to any of the kings or generals of any
+nation whatever. When they came within sight of each other they
+remained silent for a short time, thunderstruck, as it were, with
+mutual admiration. At length Hannibal thus began:
+
+"Since fate hath so ordained it, that I, who was the first to wage war
+upon the Romans, and who have so often had victory almost within my
+reach, should voluntarily come to sue for peace, I rejoice that it is
+you, above all others, from whom it is my lot to solicit it. To you,
+also, amidst the many distinguished events of your life, it will not
+be esteemed one of the least glorious that Hannibal, to whom the gods
+had so often granted victory over the Roman generals, should have
+yielded to you; and that you should have put an end to this war, which
+has been rendered remarkable by your calamities before it was by
+ours. In this, also, fortune would seem to have exhibited a
+disposition to sport with events, for it was when your father was
+Consul that I first took up arms; he was the first Roman general with
+whom I engaged in a pitched battle; and it is to his son that I now
+come unarmed to solicit peace. It were, indeed, most to have been
+desired that the gods should have put such dispositions into the minds
+of our fathers, that you should have been content with the empire of
+Italy, and we with that of Africa; nor, indeed, even to you, are
+Sicily and Sardinia of sufficient value to compensate you for the loss
+of so many fleets, so many armies, so many and such distinguished
+generals.
+
+"But what is past may be more easily censured than retrieved. In our
+attempts to acquire the possessions of others, we have been compelled
+to fight for our own; and not only have you had a war in Italy, and we
+also in Africa, but you have beheld the standards and arms of your
+enemies almost in your gates and on your walls, and we now, from the
+walls of Carthage, distinctly hear the din of a Roman camp. What,
+therefore, we should most earnestly deprecate, and you should most
+devoutly wish for, is now the case: peace is proposed at a time when
+you have the advantage. We who negotiate it are the persons whom it
+most concerns to obtain it, and we are persons 'whose arrangements, be
+they what they will, our states will ratify. All we want is a
+disposition not averse from peaceful counsels. So far as relates to
+myself, time (for I am returning to that country an old man which I
+left a boy),[74] and prosperity, and adversity, have so schooled me
+that I am more inclined to follow reason than fortune. But I fear your
+youth and uninterrupted good fortune, both of which are apt to inspire
+a degree of confidence ill comporting with pacific counsels. Rarely
+does that man consider the uncertainty of events whom fortune hath
+never deceived. What I was at Trasimenus and at Cannæ that you are
+this day. Invested with command when you had scarcely yet attained the
+military age, tho all your enterprises were of the boldest
+description, in no instance has fortune deserted you. Avenging the
+death of your father and uncle, you have derived from the calamity of
+your house the high honor of distinguished valor and filial duty. You
+have recovered Spain, which had been lost, after driving thence four
+Carthaginian armies. When elected Consul, tho all others wanted
+courage to defend Italy, you crossed over into Africa, where, having
+cut to pieces two armies, having at once captured and burned two camps
+in the same hour, having made prisoner Syphax, a most powerful king,
+and seized so many towns of his dominions and so many of ours, you
+have dragged me from Italy, the possession of which I had firmly held
+for now sixteen years....
+
+"Formerly, in this same country, Marcus Atilius would have formed one
+among the few instances of good fortune and valor, if, when
+victorious, he had granted a peace to our fathers when they requested
+it; but by not setting any bounds to his success, and not checking
+good fortune, which was elating him, he fell with a degree of ignominy
+proportioned to his elevation. It is, indeed, the right of him who
+grants, and not of him who solicits it, to dictate the terms of peace;
+but perhaps we may not be unworthy to impose upon ourselves the fine.
+We do not refuse that all those possessions on account of which the
+war was begun should be yours--Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, with all the
+islands lying in any part of the sea, between Africa and Italy. Let us
+Carthaginians, confined within the shores of Africa, behold you, since
+such is the pleasure of the gods, extending your empire over foreign
+nations, both by sea and land. I can not deny that you have reason to
+suspect the Carthaginian faith, in consequence of their insincerity
+lately in soliciting a peace and while awaiting the decision. The
+sincerity with which a peace will be observed depends much, Scipio, on
+the person by whom it is sought. Your Senate, as I hear, refused to
+grant a peace, in some measure, because the deputies were deficient in
+respectability. It is I, Hannibal, who now solicit peace, who would
+neither ask for it unless I believed it expedient, nor will I fail to
+observe it for the same reason of expedience on account of which I
+have solicited it. And in the same manner as I, because the war was
+commenced by me, brought it to pass that no one regretted it till the
+gods began to regard me with displeasure, so will I also exert myself
+that no one may regret the peace procured by my means."
+
+In answer to these things the Roman general spoke nearly to the
+following effect: "I was aware that it was in consequence of the
+expectation of your arrival that the Carthaginians violated the
+existing faith of the truce and broke off all hope of a peace. Nor,
+indeed, do you conceal the fact; inasmuch as you artfully withdraw
+from the former conditions of peace every concession except what
+relates to those things which have for a long time been in our own
+power. But as it is your object that your countrymen should be
+sensible how great a burden they are relieved from by your means, so
+it is incumbent upon me to endeavor that they may not receive, as the
+reward of their perfidy, the concessions which they formerly
+stipulated, by expunging them now from the conditions of the peace.
+Tho you do not deserve to be allowed the same conditions as before,
+you now request even to be benefited by your treachery. Neither did
+our fathers first make war respecting Sicily, nor did we respecting
+Spain. In the former case, the danger which threatened our allies, the
+Mamertines, and in the present the destruction of Saguntum, girded us
+with just and pious arms. That you were the aggressors, both you
+yourselves confess and the gods are witnesses, who determined the
+issue of the former war, and who are now determining, and will
+determine, the issue of the present according to right and justice. As
+to myself, I am not forgetful of the instability of human affairs, but
+consider the influence of fortune, and am well aware that all our
+measures are liable to a thousand casualties. But as I should
+acknowledge that my conduct would savor of insolence and oppression
+if I rejected you on your coming in person to solicit peace, before I
+crossed over into Africa, you voluntarily retiring from Italy, and
+after you had embarked your troops, so now, when I have dragged you
+into Africa almost by manual force, notwithstanding your resistance
+and evasions, I am not bound to treat you with any respect. Wherefore,
+if in addition to those stipulations on which it was considered that a
+peace would at that time have been agreed upon, and what they are you
+are informed, a compensation is proposed for having seized our ships,
+together with their stores, during a truce, and for the violence
+offered to our ambassadors, I shall then have matter to lay before my
+council. But if these things also appear oppressive, prepare for war,
+since you could not brook the conditions of peace."
+
+Thus, without effecting an accommodation, when they had returned from
+the conference to their armies, they informed them that words had been
+bandied to no purpose, that the question must be decided by arms, and
+that they must accept that fortune which the gods assigned them.
+
+When they had arrived at their camps, they both issued orders that
+their soldiers should get their arms in readiness and prepare their
+minds for the final contest; in which, if fortune should favor them,
+they would continue victorious, not for a single day, but forever.
+"Before tomorrow night," they said, "they would know whether Rome or
+Carthage should give laws to the world; and that neither Africa nor
+Italy, but the whole world, would be the prize of victory; that the
+dangers which threatened those who had the misfortune to be defeated
+were proportioned to the rewards of the victors." For the Romans had
+not any place of refuge in an unknown and foreign land, and immediate
+destruction seemed to await Carthage if the troops which formed her
+last reliance were defeated. To this important contest, the day
+following, two generals, by far the most renowned of any, and
+belonging to two of the most powerful nations in the world, advanced
+either to crown or overthrow, on that day, the many honors they had
+previously acquired....
+
+While the general was busily employed among the Carthaginians, and the
+captains of the respective nations among their countrymen, most of
+them employing interpreters among troops intermixed with those of
+different nations, the trumpets and cornets of the Romans sounded; and
+such a clamor arose that the elephants, especially those in the left
+wing, turned round upon their own party, the Moors and Numidians.
+Masinissa had no difficulty in increasing the alarm of the terrified
+enemy, and deprived them of the aid of their cavalry in that wing. A
+few, however, of the beasts which were driven against the enemy, and
+were not turned back through fear, made great havoc among the ranks of
+the velites, tho not without receiving many wounds themselves; for
+when the velites, retiring to the companies, had made way for the
+elephants, that they might not be trampled down, they discharged their
+darts at the beasts, exposed as they were to wounds on both sides,
+those in the van also keeping up a continual discharge of javelins;
+until, driven out of the Roman line by the weapons which fell upon
+them from all quarters, these elephants also put to flight even the
+cavalry of the Carthaginians posted in their right wing. Lælius, when
+he saw the enemy in disorder, struck additional terror into them in
+their confusion.
+
+The Carthaginian line was deprived of the cavalry on both sides, when
+the infantry, who were now not a match for the Romans in confidence or
+strength, engaged. In addition to this there was one circumstance,
+trifling in itself, but at the same time producing important
+consequences in the action. On the part of the Romans the shout was
+uniform, and on that account louder and more terrific; while the
+voices of the enemy, consisting as they did of many nations of
+different languages, were dissonant. The Romans used the stationary
+kind of fight, pressing upon the enemy with their own weight and that
+of their arms; but on the other side there was more of skirmishing and
+rapid movement than force.
+
+Accordingly, on the first charge, the Romans immediately drove back
+the line of their opponents; then pushing them with their elbows and
+the bosses of their shields, and pressing forward into the places from
+which they had pushed them, they advanced a considerable space, as tho
+there had been no one to resist them, those who formed the rear urging
+forward those in front when they perceived the line of the enemy
+giving way, which circumstance itself gave great additional force in
+repelling them. On the side of the enemy, the second line, consisting
+of the Africans and Carthaginians, were so far from supporting the
+first line when giving ground, that, on the contrary, they even
+retired, lest their enemy, by slaying those who made a firm
+resistance, should penetrate to themselves also. Accordingly, the
+auxiliaries suddenly turned their backs, and facing about upon their
+own party, fled some of them into the second line, while others slew
+those who did not receive them into their ranks, since before they did
+not support them, and now refused to receive them.
+
+And now there were, in a manner, two contests going on together, the
+Carthaginians being compelled to fight at once with the enemy and with
+their own party. Not even then, however, did they receive into their
+line the terrified and exasperated troops; but, closing their ranks,
+drove them out of the scene of action to the wings and the surrounding
+plain, lest they should mingle these soldiers, terrified with defeat
+and wounds, with that part of their line which was firm and fresh. But
+such a heap of men and arms had filled the space in which the
+auxiliaries a little while ago had stood that it was almost more
+difficult to pass through it than through a close line of troops. The
+spearmen, therefore, who formed the front line, pursuing the enemy as
+each could find a way through the heap of firms and men, and streams
+of blood, threw into complete disorder the battalions and companies.
+The standards, also, of the principes had begun to waver when they saw
+the line before them driven from their ground. Scipio, perceiving
+this, promptly ordered the signal to be given for the spearmen to
+retreat, and, having taken his wounded into the rear, brought the
+principes and triarii to the wings, in order that the line of
+spearmen in the center might be more strong and secure. Thus a fresh
+and renewed battle commenced, inasmuch as they had penetrated to their
+real antagonists, men equal to them in the nature of their arms, in
+their experience in war, in the fame of their achievements, and the
+greatness of their hopes and fears. But the Romans were superior both
+in numbers and courage, for they had now routed both the cavalry and
+the elephants, and, having already defeated the front line, were
+fighting against the second....
+
+Hannibal, after performing this, as it were, his last work of valor,
+fled to Adrumetum, whence, having been summoned to Carthage, he
+returned thither in the six and thirtieth year after he had left it
+when a boy, and confest in the senate house that he was defeated, not
+only in the battle, but in the war, and that there was no hope o±
+safety in anything but obtaining peace.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 67: "The most eloquent of all historians," says Cruttwell.
+Livy understood the spirit of ancient times, making it real to modern
+minds because he possest "antiquity of soul." In his own day Livy's
+popularity was almost limitless. Pliny the Younger recalled that a man
+once traveled to Rome from Cadiz with the express purpose of seeing
+Livy. Having seen him he returned home at once, caring for nothing
+else in Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 68: From Book II of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. "Cocles" was a nick-name meaning the
+"one-eyed." With this story every school-boy has been made familiar
+through Macaulay's "Lay," beginning:
+
+    "Lars Porsena of Clusium
+       By the Nine Gods he swore
+    That the great house of Tarquin
+       Should suffer wrong no more."
+]
+
+[Footnote 69: Authorities differ as to the site of this bridge.
+"Larousse" has a map which identifies it as the site now occupied by
+the Æmilian bridge, at the base of the Palatine, near the mouth of the
+Cloaca Maxima; but the "Encyclopædia Britannica," in a map of ancient
+Rome, places it farther down the Tiber near the center of the base of
+the Aventine. Murray's "Handbook of Rome" agrees with the
+"Britannica." This bridge was the first one built at Rome, and is
+ascribed to King Ancus Martius.]
+
+[Footnote 70: From Book XXI of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. The identity of the pass through which
+Hannibal crossed has been the subject of much controversy. A writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says the account in Polybius "will be found, on
+the whole, to agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed by
+the Little St. Bernard." At the same time, "there are some
+difficulties" attending this inference.]
+
+[Footnote 71: A tribe living in the upper valley of the Po, near
+Turin.]
+
+[Footnote 72: From Book XXX of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Adrumetum lay in what is now Tunis and was originally a
+Phenician city. It was older than Carthage. For many centuries it was
+a chief seaport for northern Africa. It is now known as Susa.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Hannibal, who when a boy of nine had left Carthage for
+Spain with his father, Hamilcar Barca, at that time took an oath upon
+an altar declaring eternal hostility to Rome. In the year of Zama he
+was forty-five years old.]
+
+
+
+
+SENECA
+
+     Born in Spain about 4 B.C.; died near Rome in 65 A.D.;
+     celebrated as a Stoic and writer; taken to Rome when a
+     child; a senator in Caligula's reign; banished to Corsica by
+     Claudius in 41; recalled in 49, and entrusted with the
+     education of Nero; after Nero's accession in 54 virtually
+     controlled the imperial government, exercising power in
+     concert with the Prætorian prefect, Burrus; on the
+     assassination of Burrus in 62 petitioned for leave to retire
+     from court, and virtually did withdraw; on being charged
+     with complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he committed
+     suicide in obedience to Nero's order; his extant writings
+     are numerous, and include "Benefits," "Clemency," and "Minor
+     Essays."[75]
+
+
+I
+
+OF THE WISE MAN[76]
+
+
+I might truly say, Serenus, that there is as wide a difference between
+the Stoics and the other sects of philosophers as there is between men
+and women, since each class contributes an equal share to human
+society, but the one is born to command, the other to obey. The other
+philosophers deal with us gently and coaxingly, just as our
+accustomed family physicians usually do with our bodies, treating them
+not by the best and shortest method, but by that which we allow them
+to employ; whereas the Stoics adopt a manly course, and do not care
+about its appearing attractive to those who are entering upon it, but
+that it should as quickly as possible take us out of the world, and
+lead us to that lofty eminence which is so far beyond the scope of any
+missile weapon that it is above the reach of Fortune herself. "But the
+way by which we are asked to climb is steep and uneven." What then?
+Can heights be reached by a level path? Yet they are not so sheer and
+precipitous as some think. It is only the first part that has rocks
+and cliffs and no apparent outlet, just as many hills seen from a long
+way off appear abruptly steep and joined together, because the
+distance deceives our sight, and then, as we draw nearer, those very
+hills which our mistaken eyes had made into one gradually unfold
+themselves, those parts which seemed precipitous from afar assume a
+gently sloping outline. When just now mention was made of Marcus Cato,
+you whose mind revolts at injustice were indignant at Cato's own age
+having so little understood him, at its having allotted a place below
+Vatinius to one who towered above both Cæsar and Pompey; it seemed
+shameful to you, that when he spoke against some law in the Forum his
+toga was torn from him, and that he was hustled through the hands of a
+mutinous mob from the Rostra as far as the arch of Fabius,[77]
+enduring all the bad language, spitting, and other insults of the
+frantic rabble.
+
+I then answered, that you had good cause to be anxious on behalf of
+the commonwealth, which Publius Clodius on the one side, Vatinius and
+all the greatest scoundrels on the other, were putting up for sale,
+and, carried away by their blind covetousness, did not understand that
+when they sold it they themselves were sold with it; I bade you have
+no fears on behalf of Cato himself, because the wise man can neither
+receive injury nor-insult, and it is more certain that the immortal
+gods have given Cato as a pattern of a wise man to us, than that they
+gave Ulysses or Hercules to the earlier ages; for these our Stoics
+have declared were wise men, unconquered by labors, despisers of
+pleasure, and superior to all terrors. Cato did not slay wild beasts,
+whose pursuit belongs to huntsmen and countrymen, nor did he
+exterminate fabulous creatures with fire and sword, or live in times
+when it was possible to believe that the heavens could be supported on
+the shoulders of one man. In an age which had thrown off its belief in
+antiquated superstitions, and had carried material knowledge to its
+highest point, he had to struggle against that many-headed monster,
+ambition, against that boundless lust for power which the whole world
+divided among three men could not satisfy. He alone withstood the
+vices of a worn-out state sinking into ruin through its own bulk; he
+upheld the falling commonwealth as far as it could be upheld by one
+man's hand, until at last his support was withdrawn, and he shared the
+crash which he had so long averted, and perished together with that
+from which it was impious to separate him--for Cato did not outlive
+freedom, nor did freedom outlive Cato. Think you that the people could
+do any wrong to such a man when they tore away his prætorship or his
+toga? when they bespattered his sacred head with the rinsings of their
+mouths? The wise man is safe, and no injury or insult can touch
+him....
+
+Consider now, whether any thief, or false accuser, or headstrong
+neighbor, or rich man enjoying the power conferred by a childless old
+age, could do any injury to this man, from whom neither war nor an
+enemy whose profession was the noble art of battering city walls could
+take away anything. Amid the flash of swords on all sides, and the
+riot of the plundering soldiery, amid the flames and blood and ruin of
+the fallen city, amid the crash of temples falling upon their gods,
+one man was at peace. You need not therefore account that a reckless
+boast, for which I will give you a surety, if my word goes for
+nothing. Indeed, you would hardly believe so much constancy or such
+greatness of mind to belong to any man; but here a man comes forward
+to prove that you have no reason for doubting that one who is but of
+human birth can raise himself above human necessities, can tranquilly
+behold pains, losses, diseases, wounds, and great natural convulsions
+roaring around him, can bear adversity with calm and prosperity with
+moderation, neither yielding to the former nor trusting to the latter,
+that he can remain the same amid all varieties of fortune, and think
+nothing to be his own save himself, and himself too only as regards
+his better part....
+
+You have no cause for saying, as you are wont to do, that this wise
+man of ours is nowhere to be found; we do not invent him as an unreal
+glory of the human race, or conceive a mighty shadow of an untruth,
+but we have displayed and will display him just as we sketch him, tho
+he may perhaps be uncommon, and only one appears at long intervals;
+for what is great and transcends the common ordinary type is not often
+produced; but this very Marcus Cato himself, the mention of whom
+started this discussion, was a man who I fancy even surpassed our
+model. Moreover, that which hurts must be stronger than that which is
+hurt. Now wickedness is not stronger than virtue; therefore the wise
+man can not be hurt. Only the bad attempt to injure the good. Good men
+are at peace among themselves; bad ones are equally mischievous to the
+good and to one another. If a man can not be hurt by one weaker than
+himself, and a bad man be weaker than a good one, and the good have no
+injury to dread, except from one unlike themselves; then, no injury
+takes effect upon the wise man; for by this time I need not remind you
+that no one save the wise man is good....
+
+The nobler a man is by birth, by reputation, or by inheritance, the
+more bravely he should bear himself, remembering that the tallest men
+stand in the front rank in battle. As for insults, offensive language,
+marks of disgrace, and such like disfigurements, he ought to bear them
+as he would bear the shouts of the enemy, and darts or stones flung
+from a distance, which rattle upon his helmet without causing a wound;
+while he should look upon injuries as wounds, some received on his
+armor and others on his body, which he endures without falling or even
+leaving his place in the ranks. Even tho you be hard prest and
+violently attacked by the enemy, still it is base to give way; hold
+the post assigned to you by nature. You ask, what this post is? it is
+that of being a man. The wise man has another help, of the opposite
+kind to this; you are hard at work, while he has already won the
+victory. Do not quarrel with your own good advantage, and, until you
+shall have made your way to the truth, keep alive this hope in your
+minds, be willing to receive the news of a better life, and encourage
+it by your admiration and your prayers; it is to the interest of the
+commonwealth of mankind that there should be some one who is
+unconquered, some one against whom fortune has no power.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+OF CONSOLATION FOR THE LOSS OF FRIENDS[78]
+
+
+Why should I lead you on through the endless series of great men and
+pick out the unhappy ones, as tho it were not more difficult to find
+happy ones? for how few households have remained possest of all their
+members to the end? what one is there that has not suffered some loss?
+Take any one year you please and name the Consuls for it; if you like,
+that of Lucius Bibulus[79] and Julius Cæsar; you will see that, tho
+these colleagues were each other's bitterest enemies, yet their
+fortunes agreed. Lucius Bibulus, a man more remarkable for goodness
+than for strength of character, had both his sons murdered at the same
+time, and even insulted by the Egyptian soldiery, so that the agent of
+his bereavement was as much a subject for tears as the bereavement
+itself. Nevertheless Bibulus, who during the whole of his year of
+office had remained hidden in his house, to cast reproach upon his
+colleague Cæsar on the day following that upon which he heard of both
+his sons' deaths, came forth and went through the routine business of
+his magistracy. Who could devote less than one day to mourning for
+two sons? Thus soon did he end his mourning for his children, altho he
+had mourned a whole year for his consulship. Gaius Cæsar, after having
+traversed Britain, and not allowed even the ocean to set bounds to his
+successes, heard of the death of his daughter, which hurried on the
+crisis of affairs. Already Cnæus Pompey stood before his eyes, a man
+who would ill endure that any one besides himself should become a
+great power in the state, and one who was likely to place a check upon
+his advancement, which he had regarded, as onerous even when each
+gained by the other's rise: yet within three days' time he resumed his
+duties as general, and conquered his grief as quickly as he was wont
+to conquer everything else.
+
+Why need I remind you of the deaths of the other Cæsars, whom fortune
+appears to me sometimes to have outraged in order that even by their
+deaths they might be useful to mankind, by proving that not even they,
+altho they were styled "sons of gods," and "fathers of gods to come,"
+could exercise the same power over their own fortunes which they did
+over those of others? The Emperor Augustus lost his children and his
+grandchildren, and after all the family of Cæsar had perished was
+obliged to prop his empty house by adopting a son: yet he bore his
+losses as bravely as tho he were already personally concerned in the
+honor of the gods, and as tho it were especially to his interest that
+no one should complain of the injustice of Heaven. Tiberius Cæsar lost
+both the son whom he begot and the son whom he adopted, yet he
+himself pronounced a panegyric upon his son from the Rostra, and
+stood in full view of the corpse, which merely had a curtain on one
+side to prevent the eyes of the high priest resting upon the dead
+body, and did not change his countenance, tho all the Romans wept: he
+gave Sejanus, who stood by his side, a proof of how patiently he could
+endure the loss of his relatives. See you not what numbers of most
+eminent men there have been, none of whom have been spared by this
+blight which prostrates us all: men, too, adorned with every grace of
+character, and every distinction that public or private life can
+confer. It appears as tho this plague moved in a regular orbit, and
+spread ruin and desolation among us all without distinction of
+persons, all being alike its prey. Bid any number of individuals tell
+you the story of their lives: you will find that all have paid some
+penalty for being born.
+
+I know what you will say, "You quote men as examples: you forget that
+it is a woman that you are trying to console." Yet who would say that
+nature has dealt grudgingly with the minds of women and stunted their
+virtues? Believe me, they have the same intellectual power as men, and
+the same capacity for honorable and generous action. If trained to do
+so, they are just as able to endure sorrow or labor. Ye good gods, do
+I say this in that very city in which Lucretia and Brutus removed the
+yoke of kings from the necks of the Romans? We owe liberty to Brutus,
+but we owe Brutus to Lucretia--in which Cloelia,[80] for the
+sublime courage with which she scorned both the enemy and the river,
+has been almost reckoned as a man.
+
+The statue of Coelia, mounted on horseback, in the busiest of
+thoroughfares, the Sacred Way, continually reproaches the youth of the
+present day, who never mount anything but a cushioned seat in a
+carriage, with journeying in such a fashion through that very city in
+which we have enrolled even women among our knights. If you wish me to
+point out to you examples of women who have bravely endured the loss
+of their children, I shall not go far afield to search for them: in
+one family I can quote two Cornelias, one the daughter of Scipio, and
+the mother of Gracchi, who made acknowledgment of the birth of her
+twelve children by burying them all; nor was it so hard to do this in
+the case of the others, whose birth and death were alike unknown to
+the public, but she beheld the murdered and unburied corpses of both
+Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, whom even those who will not
+call them good must admit were great men. Yet to those who tried to
+console her and called her unfortunate, she answered, "I shall never
+cease to call myself happy, because I am the mother of the Gracchi."
+Cornelia, the wife of Livius Drusus,[81] lost by the hands of an
+unknown assassin a young son of great distinction, who was treading in
+the footsteps of the Gracchi, and was murdered in his own house just
+when he had so many bills half-way through the process of becoming
+law: nevertheless she bore the untimely and unavenged death of her son
+with as lofty a spirit as he had shown in carrying his laws.
+
+Will you not, Marcia, forgive Fortune because she has not refrained
+from striking you with the darts which she launched at the Scipios,
+and the mothers and daughters of the Scipios, and with which she has
+attacked the Cæsars themselves? Life is full of misfortunes; our path
+is beset with them: no one can make a long peace, nay, scarcely an
+armistice with fortune. You, Marcia, have borne four children; now
+they say that no dart which is hurled into a close column of soldiers
+can fail to hit one--ought you then to wonder at not having been able
+to lead along such a company without exciting the ill will of Fortune,
+or suffering loss at her hands?...
+
+Think how great a blessing is a timely death, how many have been
+injured by living longer than they ought. If sickness had carried off
+that glory and support of the empire, Cnæus Pompey, at Naples, he
+would have died undoubted head of the Roman people, but as it was, a
+short extension of time cast him down from his pinnacle of fame: he
+beheld his legions slaughtered before his eyes: and what a sad relic
+of that battle, in which the Senate formed the first line, was the
+survival of the general. He saw his Egyptian butcher, and offered his
+body, hallowed by so many victories, to a guardsman's sword, altho,
+even had he been unhurt, he would have regretted his safety: for what
+could have been more infamous than that a Pompey should owe his life
+to the clemency of a king? If Marcus Cicero had fallen at the time
+when he avoided those dangers which Catiline aimed equally at him and
+at his country, he might have died as the savior of the commonwealth
+which he had set free: if his death had even followed upon that of his
+daughter, he might have died happy. He would not then have seen swords
+drawn for the slaughter of Roman citizens, the goods of the murdered
+divided among the murderers, that men might pay from their own purse
+the price of their own blood, the public auction of the Consul's spoil
+in the civil war, the public letting out of murder to be done,
+brigandage, war, pillage, hosts of Catilines. Would it not have been a
+good thing for Marcus Cato if the sea had swallowed him up when he was
+returning from Cyprus after sequestrating the king's hereditary
+possessions, even if that very money which he was bringing to pay the
+soldiers in the civil war had been lost with him? He certainly would
+have been able to boast that no one would dare to do wrong in the
+presence of Cato: as it was, the extension of his life for a very few
+more years forced one who was born for personal and political freedom
+to flee from Cæsar and to become Pompey's follower. Premature death
+therefore did him no evil: indeed, it put an end to the power of any
+evil to hurt him....
+
+Born for a very brief space of time, we regard this life as an inn
+which we are soon to quit that it may be made ready for the coming
+guest, Do I speak of our lives, which we know roll away incredibly
+fast? Reckon up the centuries of cities: you will find that even those
+which boast of their antiquity have not existed for long. All human
+works are brief and fleeting: they take up no part whatever of
+infinite time. Tried by the standard of the universe, we regard this
+earth of ours, with all its cities, nations, rivers, and seaboard, as
+a mere point: our life occupies less than a point when compared with
+all time, the measure of which exceeds that of the world, for indeed
+the world is contained many times in it. Of what importance, then, can
+it be to lengthen that which, however much you add to it, will never
+be much more than nothing? We can only make our lives long by one
+expedient, that is, by being satisfied with their length: you may tell
+me of long-lived men, whose length of days has been celebrated by
+tradition, you may assign a hundred and ten years apiece to them: yet
+when you allow your mind to conceive the idea of eternity, there will
+be no difference between the shortest and the longest life, if you
+compare the time during which any one has been alive with that during
+which he has not been alive. In the next place, when he died his life
+was complete; he had lived as long as he needed to live: there was
+nothing left for him to accomplish.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+TO NERO ON CLEMENCY[82]
+
+
+You, Cæsar, can boldly say that everything which has come into your
+charge has been kept safe, and that the state has neither openly nor
+secretly suffered any loss at your hands. You have coveted a glory
+which is most rare, and which has been obtained by no emperor before
+you, that of innocence. Your remarkable goodness is not thrown away,
+nor is it ungratefully or spitefully undervalued. Men feel gratitude
+toward you: no one person ever was so dear to another as you are to
+the people of Rome, whose great and enduring benefit you are. You
+have, however, taken upon yourself a mighty burden: no one any longer
+speaks of the good times of the late Emperor Augustus, or the first
+years of the reign of Tiberius, or proposes for your imitation any
+model outside yourself: yours is a pattern reign. This would have been
+difficult had your goodness of heart not been innate, but merely
+adopted for a time; for no one can wear a mask for long, and
+fictitious qualities soon give place to true ones. Those which are
+founded upon truth, become greater and better as time goes on.
+
+The Roman people were in a state of great hazard as long as it was
+uncertain how your generous disposition would turn out: now, however,
+the prayers of the community are sure of an answer, for there is no
+fear that you should suddenly forget your own character. Indeed,
+excess of happiness makes men greedy, and our desires are never so
+moderate as to be bounded by what they have obtained: great successes
+become the stepping-stones to greater ones, and those who have
+obtained more than they hoped, entertain even more extravagant hopes
+than before; yet by all your countrymen we hear it admitted that they
+are now happy, and moreover, that nothing can be added to the
+blessings that they enjoy, except that they should be eternal. Many
+circumstances force this admission from them, altho it is the one
+which men are least willing to make: we enjoy a profound and
+prosperous peace, the power of the law has been openly asserted in the
+sight of all men, and raised beyond the reach of any violent
+interference: the form of our government is so happy, as to contain
+all the essentials of liberty except the power of destroying itself.
+It is nevertheless your clemency which is most especially admired by
+the high and low alike: every man enjoys or hopes to enjoy the other
+blessings of your rule according to the measure of his own personal
+good fortune, whereas from your clemency all hope alike: no one has so
+much confidence in his innocence, as not to feel glad that in your
+presence stands a clemency which is ready to make allowance for human
+errors....
+
+Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall state the best model
+on which a prince may mold his life to be, that he deal with his
+countrymen as he would that the gods may deal with himself. Is it then
+desirable that the gods should show no mercy upon sins and mistakes,
+and that they should harshly pursue us to our ruin? In that case what
+king will be safe? Whose limbs will not be torn asunder and collected
+by the sooth-sayers If, on the other hand, the gods are placable and
+kind, and do not at once avenge the crimes of the powerful with
+thunderbolts, is it not far more just that a man set in authority over
+other men should exercise his power in a spirit of clemency and should
+consider whether the conditions of the world is more beauteous and
+pleasant to the eyes on a fine calm day, or when everything is shaken
+with frequent thunder-claps and when lightning flashes on all sides!
+Yet the appearance of a peaceful and constitutional reign is the same
+as that of the calm and brilliant sky. A cruel reign is disordered and
+hidden in darkness, and while all shake with terror at the sudden
+explosions, not even he who caused all this disturbance escapes
+unharmed. It is easier to find excuses for private men who obstinately
+claim their rights; possibly they may have been injured and their rage
+may spring from their wrongs; besides this, they fear to be despised,
+and not to return the injuries which they have received looks like
+weakness rather than clemency; but one who can easily avenge himself,
+if he neglects to do so, is certain to gain praise for goodness of
+heart. Those who are born in a humble station may with greater freedom
+exercise violence, go to law, engage in quarrels, and indulge their
+angry passions; even blows count for little between two equals; but in
+case of a king, even loud clamor and unmeasured talk are
+unbecoming....
+
+Such was Augustus when an old man, or when growing old: in his youth
+he was hasty and passionate, and did many things upon which he looked
+back with regret. No one will venture to compare the rule of the blest
+Augustus to the mildness of your own, even if your youth be compared
+with his more than ripe old age: he was gentle and placable, but it
+was after he had dyed the sea at Actium with Roman blood; after he had
+wrecked both the enemy's fleet and his own at Sicily; after the
+holocaust of Perusia and the proscriptions. But I do not call it
+clemency to be wearied of cruelty; true clemency, Cæsar, is that which
+you display, which has not begun from remorse at its past ferocity, on
+which there is no stain, which has never shed the blood of your
+countrymen: this, when combined with unlimited power, shows the truest
+self-control and all-embracing love of the human race as of one's
+self, not corrupted by any low desires, any extravagant ideas, or any
+of the bad examples of former emperors into trying, by actual
+experiment, how great a tyranny you would be allowed to exercise over
+his countrymen, but inclining rather to blunting your sword of empire.
+
+You, Cæsar, have granted us the boon of keeping our state free from
+bloodshed, and that of which you boast, that you have not caused one
+single drop of blood to flow in any part of the world, is all the more
+magnanimous and marvelous because no one ever had the power of the
+sword placed in his hands at an earlier age. Clemency, then, makes
+empires besides being their most trustworthy means of preservation.
+Why have legitimate sovereigns grown old on the throne, and bequeathed
+their power to their children and grandchildren, while the sway of
+despotic usurpers is both hateful and short-lived? What is the
+difference between the tyrant and the king--for their outward symbols
+of authority and their powers are the same--except it be that tyrants
+take delight in cruelty, whereas kings are only cruel for good reasons
+and because they can not help it....
+
+Nothing can be imagined which is more becoming to a sovereign than
+clemency, by whatever title and right he may be set over his fellow
+citizens. The greater his power, the more beautiful and admirable he
+will confess his clemency to be: for there is no reason why power
+should do any harm, if only it be wielded in accordance with the laws
+of nature. Nature herself has conceived the idea of a king, as you may
+learn from various animals, and especially from bees, among whom the
+king's cell is the roomiest, and is placed in the most central and
+safest part of the hive; moreover, he does no work, but employs
+himself in keeping the others up to their work. If the king be lost,
+the entire swarm disperses: they never endure to have more than one
+king at a time, and find out which is the better by making them fight
+with one another: moreover the king is distinguished by his statelier
+appearance, being both larger and more brilliantly colored than the
+other bees.
+
+The most remarkable distinction, however, is the following: bees are
+very fierce, and for their size are the most pugnacious of creatures,
+and leave their stings in the wounds which they make, but the king
+himself has no sting: nature does not wish him to be savage or to seek
+revenge at so dear a rate, and so has deprived him of his weapon and
+disarmed his rage. She has offered him as a pattern to great
+sovereigns; for she is wont to practise herself in small matters, and
+to scatter abroad tiny models of the hugest structures. We ought to be
+ashamed of not learning a lesson in behavior from these small
+creatures, for a man, who has so much more power of doing harm than
+they, ought to show a correspondingly greater amount of self-control.
+Would that human beings were subject to the same law, and that their
+anger destroyed itself together with its instruments, so that they
+could only inflict a wound once, and would not make use of the
+strength of others to carry out their hatreds; for their fury would
+soon grow faint if it carried its own punishment with it, and could
+only give rein to its violence at the risk of death. Even as it is,
+however, no one can exercise it with safety, for he must needs feel as
+much fear as he hopes to cause, he must watch every one's movements,
+and even when his enemies are not laying violent hands upon him he
+must bear in mind that they are plotting to do so, and he can not have
+a single moment free from alarm. Would any one endure to live such a
+life as this, when he might enjoy all the privileges of his high
+station to the general joy of all men, without fear? for it is a
+mistake to suppose that the king can be safe in a state where nothing
+is safe from the king; he can only purchase a life without anxiety
+for himself by guaranteeing the same for his subjects. He need not
+pile up lofty citadels, escarp steep hills, cut away the sides of
+mountains, and fence himself about with many lines of walls and
+towers: clemency will render a king safe even upon an open plain. The
+one fortification which can not be stormed is the love of his
+countrymen....
+
+The reason why cruelty is the most hateful of all vices is that it
+goes first beyond ordinary limits, and then beyond those of humanity;
+that it devises new kinds of punishments, calls ingenuity to aid it in
+inventing devices for varying and lengthening men's torture, and takes
+delight in their sufferings: this accursed disease of the mind reaches
+its highest pitch of madness when cruelty itself turns into pleasure
+and the act of killing a man becomes enjoyment. Such a ruler is soon
+cast down from his throne; his life is attempted by poison one day and
+by the sword the next; he is exposed to as many dangers as there are
+men to whom he is dangerous, and he is sometimes destroyed by the
+plots of individuals, and at others by a general insurrection. Whole
+communities are not roused to action by unimportant outrages on
+private persons; but cruelty which takes a wider range, and from which
+no one is safe, becomes a mark for all men's weapons. Very small
+snakes escape our notice, and the whole country does not combine to
+destroy them; but when one of them exceeds the usual size and grows
+into a monster, when it poisons fountains with its spittle, scorches
+herbage with its breath, and spreads ruin wherever it crawls, we
+shoot at it with military engines. Trifling evils may cheat us and
+elude our observation, but we gird up our loins to attack great ones.
+One sick person does not so much as disquiet the house in which he
+lies; but when frequent deaths show that a plague is raging, there is
+a general outcry, men take to flight and shake their fists angrily at
+the very gods themselves. If a fire breaks out under one single roof,
+the family and the neighbors pour water upon it; but a wide
+conflagration which has consumed many houses must be smothered under
+the ruins of a whole quarter of a city....
+
+I have been especially led to write about clemency, Nero Cæsar, by a
+saying of yours, which I remember having heard with admiration and
+which I afterward told to others: a noble saying, showing a great mind
+and great gentleness, which suddenly burst from you without
+premeditation, and was not meant to reach any ears but your own, and
+which displayed the conflict which was raging between your natural
+goodness and your imperial duties. Your præfect Burrus[83], an
+excellent man who was born to be the servant of such an emperor as you
+are, was about to order two brigands to be executed, and was pressing
+you to write their names and the grounds on which they were to be put
+to death; this had often been put off, and he was insisting that it
+should then be done. When he reluctantly produced the document and
+put it in your equally reluctant hands, you exclaimed: "Would that I
+had never learned my letters!" O what a speech, how worthy to be heard
+by all nations, both those who dwell within the Roman Empire, those
+who enjoy a debatable independence upon its borders, and those who
+either in will or in deed fight against it! It is a speech which ought
+to be spoken before a meeting of all mankind, whose words all kings
+and princes ought to swear to and obey: a speech worthy of the days of
+human innocence, and worthy to bring back that golden age. Now in
+truth we ought all to agree to love righteousness and goodness,
+covetousness, which is the root of all evil, ought to be driven away,
+piety and virtue, good faith and modesty ought to resume their
+interrupted reign, and the vices which have so long and so shamefully
+ruled us ought at last to give way to an age of happiness and purity.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE PILOT[84]
+
+
+A tempest and storme hurt a Pilot, but notwithstanding they make him
+not worse. Certaine Stoicks do thus answer against this, that a Pilot
+is made worse by a tempest and by a storme, because that thing which
+he had purposed he cannot effect, nor keep on his course. Worse is he
+made, not in his skill, but in his work. To whom the Aristotelian:
+therefore, saith he, pouertie and dolour, and what soeuer such like
+thing there shall be, shall not take vertue from him, but shall hinder
+his working thereof.
+
+This were rightly said, except the condition of a Pilot and of a
+wise-man were unlike. For the purpose of him is in leading his life,
+not without faile to effect that which he assayeth to doe, but to doe
+all things aright. It is the purpose of the Pilot, without faile to
+bring a ship into a hauen. They be seruile arts, they ought to
+performe that which they promise. Wisedome is mistresse and
+gouernesse. The arts doe serve to, wisedome commandeth our life. I
+judge that we must answere after another sort, namely that neyther the
+skill of the gouernour is made worse by any tempest, nor yet the very
+administration of art. The gouernour hath not promised prosperous
+successe unto thee, but his profitable endeuour, and skill to gouerne
+the ship. This appeareth the more, by how much the more some force of
+fortune hath hindered him. He that hath beene able to say this, O
+Neptune, this ship was neuer but right, hath satisfied skill. A
+tempest hindereth not the work of a pilot, but the successe.
+
+What therefore sayeth thou? Doth not that thing hurt a Pilot, which
+hindereth him from entring the Port? Which causeth his endeuours to be
+vaine? Which eyther beareth him back, or detaineth and disarmeth him?
+It hurteth him not as Pilot, but as one that doth saile. Otherwise it
+doth not so much hinder, as shew the Pilot's skill. For euery one
+can, as they say, be a pilot in the calme. These things hinder the
+ship; not a pilot as he is a pilot. Two persons a pilot hath; the one
+common with all who haue gone aboard the same ship, wherein he
+himselfe also is a passenger; the other proper as he is gouernour. The
+tempest hurteth him as he is a passenger not as a Pilot. Furthermore
+the art of a Pilot is another good, it appertaineth to those whom he
+carrieth: as the art of a Physitian appertaineth to those whom he doth
+cure. Wisedome is a common good; and is proper to ownes selfe, for
+those with whom he doth liue. Therefore peraduenture a Pilot is hurt,
+whose promised seruice to others is let by a tempest.
+
+A wise man is not hurt by pouertie, nor by doulour, nor by other
+tempests of life. For not all workes of him be hindered, but only
+those that pertain to other men; alwayes is he himself indeed, the
+greatest of all, when fortune hath opposed herselfe unto him, then
+manageth he the businesse of wisdome itselfe: which wisdome we haue
+said to be both anothers and his owne good. Furthermore not then
+indeed is he hindered to profite other men, when some necessities do
+presse him. Through pouertie he is hindred to teach, how a
+Commonwealth may be managed: but he teacheth that thing, how pouertie
+is to be managed. His worke is extended all his life long. Thus no
+fortune, no thing excludeth the acts of a wise-man. For he doth not
+that verie thing, whereby he is forbidden to do other things. He is
+fit for both chances: a gouernour of the bad, an ouercommer of the
+good. So I say hath he exercised himselfe, that he sheweth vertue as
+well in prosperous as in aduerse affaires; neyther looketh he upon
+the matter thereof, but upon itselfe. Therefore neither pouerty nor
+doulour, nor any other thing which turneth back the unskilfull, and
+driuest them headlong, hindereth them. Hast thou rather he should be
+pressed? He maketh use of it. Not only of iuorie did Phidias know how
+to make images: he made them of brasse. If marble were unto him, if
+thou hadst offered baser matter, he would haue made such a one
+thereof, as could be made of that which was the best.
+
+So a wise-man will show uertue, if he may, in wealth, if not in
+pouertie: if he shall be able, in his countrie; if not in banishment;
+if he can, being a commander; if not, being a souldier: if he can
+being sound; if not, being weaker what fortune soeuer he shall
+entertaine, he will performe some memorable thing thereby. Certain
+tamers there be of wild beasts, who teach the fiercest creatures, and
+which terrifie a man when they meet him, to suffer the yoake: and not
+wanted to have shaken fiercenesse off, do tame them, euer to keep them
+companie. The master useth often to thrust out his hand to Lions; they
+kisse it. The keeper commandeth his tyger; the Ethiopian Player
+commandeth his elephants to fall upon their knees, and to walke upon a
+rope; so a wise-man is skilfull to subdue euil things. Dolour,
+pouertie, ignominie, prison, banishment, when they come unto him, are
+made tame.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+OF A HAPPY LIFE[85]
+
+
+All men, brother Gallio, wish to live happily, but are dull at
+perceiving exactly what it is that makes life happy: and so far is it
+from being easy to attain to happiness that the more eagerly a man
+struggles to reach it the further he departs from it, if he takes the
+wrong road; for, since this leads in the opposite direction, his very
+swiftness carries him all the further away. We must therefore first
+define clearly what it is at which we aim: next we must consider by
+what path we may most speedily reach it, for on our journey itself,
+provided it be made in the right direction, we shall learn how much
+progress we have made each day, and how much nearer we are to the goal
+toward which our natural desires urge us. But as long as we wander at
+random, not following any guide except the shouts and discordant
+clamors of those who invite us to proceed in different directions, our
+short life will be wasted in useless roamings, even if we labor both
+day and night to get a good understanding. Let us not therefore decide
+whither we must tend, and by what path, without the advice of some
+experienced person who has explored the region which we are about to
+enter, because this journey is not subject to the same conditions as
+others; for in them some distinctly understood track and inquiries
+made of the natives make it impossible for us to go wrong, but here
+the most beaten and frequented tracks are those which lead us astray.
+Nothing, therefore, is more important than that we should not, like
+sheep, follow the flock that has gone before us, and thus proceed not
+whither we ought, but whither the rest are going....
+
+True wisdom consists in not departing from nature and in molding our
+conduct according to her laws and model. A happy life, therefore, is
+one which is in accordance with its own nature, and can not be brought
+about unless in the first place the mind be sound and vigorous,
+enduring all things with most admirable courage suited to the times in
+which it lives, careful of the body and its appurtenances, yet not
+troublesomely careful. It must also set due value upon all the things
+which adorn our lives, without overestimating any one of them, and
+must be able to enjoy the bounty of Fortune without becoming her
+slave....
+
+A happy life consists in a mind which is free, upright, undaunted, and
+stedfast beyond the influence of fear or desire, which thinks nothing
+good except honor, and nothing bad except shame, and regards
+everything else as a mass of mean details which can neither add
+anything to nor take anything away from the happiness of life, but
+which come and go without either increasing or diminishing the highest
+good? A man of these principles, whether he will or no, must be
+accompanied by a continual cheerfulness, a high happiness, which
+comes indeed from on high because he delights in what he has, and
+desires no greater pleasures than those which his home affords. Is he
+not right in allowing these to turn the scale against petty,
+ridiculous, and short-lived movements of his wretched body? on the day
+on which he becomes proof against pleasure he also becomes proof
+against pain. See, on the other hand, how evil and guilty a slavery a
+man is forced to serve who is dominated in turn by pleasures and
+pains, those most untrustworthy and passionate of masters. We must,
+therefore, escape from them into freedom. This nothing will bestow
+upon us save contempt of Fortune; but if we attain to this, then there
+will dawn upon us those invaluable blessings, the repose of a mind
+that is at rest in a safe haven, its lofty imaginings, its great and
+steady delight at casting out errors and learning to know the truth,
+its courtesy and its cheerfulness, in all of which we shall take
+delight, not regarding them as good things, but as proceeding from the
+proper good of man....
+
+Why do you put together two things which are unlike and even
+incompatible one with another? virtue is a lofty quality, sublime,
+royal, unconquerable, untiring: pleasure is low, slavish, weakly,
+perishable; its haunts and homes are the brothel and the tavern. You
+will meet virtue in the temple, the market-place, the senate-house,
+manning the walls, covered with dust, sunburnt, horny-handed: you will
+find pleasure skulking out of sight, seeking for shady nooks at the
+public baths, hot chambers, and places which dread the visits of the
+ædile, soft, effeminate, reeking of wine and perfumes, pale or
+perhaps painted and made up with cosmetics. The highest good is
+immortal: it knows no ending, and does not admit of either satiety or
+regret: for a right-thinking mind never alters or becomes hateful to
+itself, nor do the best things ever undergo any change: but pleasure
+dies at the very moment when it charms us most: it has no great scope,
+and therefore it soon cloys and wearies us, and fades away as soon as
+its first impulse is over: indeed, we can not depend upon anything
+whose nature is to change. Consequently, it is not even possible that
+there should be any solid substance in that which comes and goes so
+swiftly and which perishes by the very exercise of its own functions,
+for it arrives at a point at which it ceases to be, and even while it
+is beginning always keeps its end in view....
+
+A man should be unbiassed and not to be conquered by external things:
+he ought to admire himself alone, to feel confidence in his own
+spirit, and so to order his life as to be ready alike for good or bad
+fortune. Let not his confidence be without knowledge, nor his
+knowledge without stedfastness: let him always abide by what he has
+once determined, and let there be no erasure in his doctrine. It will
+be understood, even tho I append it not, that such a man will be
+tranquil and composed in his demeanor, high-minded and courteous in
+his actions. Let reason be encouraged by the senses to seek for the
+truth, and draw its first principles from thence: indeed it has no
+other base of operations or place from which to start in pursuit of
+truth: it must fall back upon itself. Even the all-embracing universe
+and God who is its guide extends Himself forth into outward things,
+and yet altogether returns from all sides back to Himself. Let our
+mind do the same thing: when, following its bodily senses, it has by
+means of them sent itself forth into the things of the outward world,
+let it remain still their master and its own. By this means we shall
+obtain a strength and an ability which are united and allied together;
+we shall derive from it that reason which never halts between two
+opinions, nor is dull in forming its perceptions, beliefs, or
+convictions. Such a mind, when it has ranged itself in order, made its
+various parts agree together, and, if I may so express myself,
+harmonized them, has attained to the highest good: for it has nothing
+evil or hazardous remaining, nothing to shake it or make it stumble:
+it will do everything under the guidance of its own will, and nothing
+unexpected will befall it, but whatever may be done by it will turn
+out well, and that, too, readily and easily, without the doer having
+recourse to any underhand devices: for slow and hesitating purpose.
+You may, then, boldly declare that the highest good is singleness of
+mind: for where agreement and unity are, there must the virtues be: it
+is the vices that are at war with one another....
+
+It is the act of the generous spirit to proportion its efforts not to
+its own strength, but to that of human nature, to entertain lofty
+aims, and to conceive plans which are too vast to be carried into
+execution even by those who are endowed with gigantic intellects, who
+appoint for themselves the following rules: "I will look upon death or
+upon a comedy with the same expression of countenance: I will submit
+to labors, however great they may be, supporting the strength of my
+body by that of my mind: I will despise riches when I have them as
+much as when I have them not; if they be elsewhere I will not be more
+gloomy, if they sparkle around me I will not be more lively than I
+should otherwise be: whether Fortune comes or goes I will take no
+notice of her: I will view all lands as tho they belonged to me, and
+my own as tho they belonged to all mankind: I will so live as to
+remember that I was born for others, and will thank Nature on this
+account: for in what fashion could she have done better for me? she
+has given me alone to all, and all to me alone. Whatever I may
+possess, I will neither hoard it greedily nor squander it recklessly.
+I will think that I have no possessions so real as those which I have
+given away to deserving people: I will not reckon benefits by their
+magnitude or number, or by anything except the value set upon them by
+the receiver: I never will consider a gift to be a large one if it be
+bestowed upon a worthy object. I will do nothing because of public
+opinion, but everything because of conscience: whenever I do anything
+alone by myself I will believe that the eyes of the Roman people are
+upon me while I do it. In eating and drinking my object shall be to
+quench the desires of Nature, not to fill and empty my belly. I will
+be agreeable with my friends, gentle and mild to my foes: I will grant
+pardon before I am asked for it, and will meet the wishes of honorable
+men half-way. I will bear in mind that, the world is my native city,
+that its governors are the gods, and that they stand above and around
+me, criticizing whatever I do or say. Whenever either Nature demands
+my breath again, or reason bids me dismiss it, I will quit this life,
+calling all to witness that I have loved a good conscience, and good
+pursuits; that no one's freedom, my own least of all, has been
+impaired through me." He who sets up these as the rules of his life
+will soar aloft and strive to make his way to the gods: of a truth,
+even tho he fails, yet he
+
+     "Fails in a high emprise."
+
+But you, who hate both virtue and those who practise it, do nothing at
+which we need be surprized, for sickly lights can not bear the sun,
+nocturnal creatures avoid the brightness of day, and at its first
+dawning become bewildered and all betake themselves to their dens
+together: creatures that fear the light hide themselves in crevices.
+So croak away, and exercise your miserable tongues in reproaching good
+men: open wide your jaws, bite hard: you will break many teeth before
+you make any impression....
+
+Where, indeed, can fortune invest riches more securely than in a place
+from whence they can always be recovered without any squabble with
+their trustee? Marcus Cato, when he was praising Curius and
+Coruncanius and that century in which the possession of a few small
+silver coins were an offense which was punished by the Censor, himself
+owned four million sesterces; a less fortune, no doubt, than that of
+Crassus, but larger than of Cato the Censor. If the amounts be
+compared, he had outstript his great-grandfather further than he
+himself was outdone by Crassus, and if still greater riches had
+fallen to his lot, he would not have spurned them, for the wise man
+does not think himself unworthy of any chance presents: he does not
+love riches, but he prefers to have them; he does not receive them
+into his spirit, but only into his house: nor does he cast away from
+him what he already possesses, but keeps them, and is willing that his
+virtue should receive a larger subject-matter for its exercise....
+
+Cease, then, forbidding philosophers to possess money: no one has
+condemned wisdom to poverty. The philosopher may own ample wealth, but
+will not own wealth that which has been torn from another, or which is
+stained with another's blood: his must be obtained without wronging
+any man, and without its being won by base means; it must be alike
+honorably come by and honorably spent, and must be such as spite could
+alone shake its head at. Raise it to whatever figure you please, it
+will still be an honorable possession, if, while it includes much
+which every man would like to call his own, there be nothing which any
+one can say is his own. Such a man will not forfeit his right to the
+favor of Fortune, and will neither boast of his inheritance nor blush
+for it if it was honorably acquired; yet he will have something to
+boast of, if he throw his house open, let all his countrymen come
+among his property, and say, "If any one recognizes here anything
+belonging to him, let him take it." What a great man, how excellently
+rich will he be, if after this speech he possesses as much as he had
+before! I say, then, that if he can safely and confidently submit his
+accounts to the scrutiny of the people, and no one can find in them
+any item upon which he can lay hands, such a man may boldly and
+unconcealedly enjoy his riches. The wise man will not allow a single
+ill-won penny to cross his threshold; yet he will not refuse or close
+his door against great riches, if they are the gift of fortune and the
+product of virtue: what reason has he for grudging them good quarters:
+let them come and be his guests: he will neither brag of them nor hide
+them away: the one is the part of a silly, the other of a cowardly and
+paltry spirit, which, as it were, muffles up a good thing in its lap.
+As he is capable of performing a journey upon his own feet, but yet
+would prefer to mount a carriage, just so he will be capable of being
+poor, yet will wish to be rich; he will own wealth, but will view it
+as an uncertain possession which will some day fly away from him. He
+will not allow it to be a burden either to himself or to any one else:
+he will give it--why do you prick up your ears? why do you open your
+pockets?--he will give it either to good men or to those whom it may
+make into good men. He will give it after having taken the utmost
+pains to choose those who are fittest to receive it, as becomes one
+who bears in mind that he ought to give an account of what he spends
+as well as of what he receives. He will give for good and commendable
+reasons, for a gift ill bestowed counts as a shameful loss: he will
+have an easily opened pocket, but not one with a hole in it, so that
+much may be taken out of it, yet nothing may fall out of it.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 75: Seneca's influence on writers in his own day was
+notable. He seems almost to have superseded Cicero as a model. Critics
+of our day, while recognizing all this and the charm of his style,
+have found in his philosophy a lack of sincere qualities. An old
+question is that of his relations to Christianity. So much in his
+writings partakes of the spirit of the Apostles that he has been
+credited with having been influenced by them. It is known that his
+brother Gallio met St. Paul in Corinth and that Burrus, the colleague
+and intimate friend of Seneca, was the captain of the Prætorian guards
+before whom St. Paul was brought in Rome. Cruttwell dismisses the
+claim, believing that Seneca's philosophy was "the natural development
+of the thoughts of his predecessors in a mind at once capacious and
+smitten with the love of virtue." Philosophy to Seneca was "altogether
+a question of practise." Like other thinkers of his day, "he cared
+nothing for consistency of opinion, everything for impressiveness of
+application."]
+
+[Footnote 76: From Book II of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Quintilius Fabius, the general, who before the battle of
+Cannæ commanded in Italy against Hannibal. He was famous for avoiding
+pitched battles and hence the term "Fabian policy."]
+
+[Footnote 78: From Book VI of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart. Marcia, to whom this letter was addrest, was "a respectable
+and opulent lady," the daughter of Cremutius Cordus.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Made Consul with Julius Cæsar in 59 B.C. He represented
+the aristocratic party and bitterly opposed some of the measures of
+Cæsar. In the war with Pompey he joined his forces to those of
+Pompey.]
+
+[Footnote 80: A legendary maiden delivered as hostage to Lars Porsena
+of Clusium, but who escaped by swimming across the Tiber.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Marcus Livius Drusus was a politician, who in 91 B.C.
+became tribune of the plebs. He was about to bring forward a proposal
+giving citizenship to the Italians when he was assassinated, an event
+which precipitated the Social War.]
+
+[Footnote 82: From the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart.
+"This," says Alexander Thomson, the eighteenth-century translator of
+Suetonius, "appears to have been written in the beginning of the reign
+of Nero, on whom the author bestows some high encomiums which at that
+time seem not to have been destitute of foundation."]
+
+[Footnote 83: Burrus in 52 A.D. had been made sole Prætorian Præfect
+by Claudius and, conjointly with Seneca, was entrusted with the
+education of Nero. It was his influence with the Prætorian Guards that
+secured to Nero in 54 the independent succession. He was put to death
+by poison, under orders from Nero, who had been offended by the
+severity of his moral conduct.]
+
+[Footnote 84: From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge. Printed
+here with the spelling and punctuation of the first edition (1613).]
+
+[Footnote 85: From Book VII of the "Minor Essays." Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart. This essay addrest to Gallio, Seneca is thought to
+have intended "as a vindication of himself against those who
+calumniated him on account of his riches and manner of living."]
+
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER
+
+     Born in Como, in 23 A.D.; perished in the eruption of
+     Vesuvius in 79; celebrated as naturalist; commanded cavalry
+     in Germany at the age of twenty-three; procurator in Spain
+     under Nero; wrote voluminously on military tactics, history,
+     grammar and natural science; his death due to his efforts to
+     observe more closely the eruption; of all his writings only
+     his "Natural History" in thirty-seven books has survived.
+
+
+I
+
+THE QUALITIES OF THE DOG[86]
+
+
+Among the animals that are domesticated with mankind there are many
+circumstances that are deserving of being known: among these there are
+more particularly that most faithful friend of man, the dog, and the
+horse. We have an account of a dog that fought against a band of
+robbers in defending its master; and altho it was pierced with wounds,
+still it would not leave the body, from which it drove away all birds
+and beasts. Another dog, in Epirus, recognized the murderer of its
+master in the midst of an assemblage of people, and, by biting and
+barking at him, extorted from him a confession of his crime. A king of
+the Garamantes,[87] also, was brought back from exile by two hundred
+dogs, which maintained the combat against all his opponents. The
+people of Colophon[88] and Castabala[89] kept troops of dogs for the
+purposes of war; and these used to fight in the front rank and never
+retreat; they were the most faithful of auxiliaries, and yet required
+no pay. After the defeat of the Cimbri[90] their dogs defended their
+movable houses, which were carried upon wagons. Jason, the Lycian,
+having been slain, his dog refused to take food, and died of famine. A
+dog, to which Darius gives the name of Hyrcanus, upon the funeral pile
+of King Lysimachus being lighted, threw itself into the flames; and
+the dog of King Hiero[91] did the same. Philistus also gives a similar
+account of Pyrrhus, the dog of the tyrant Gelon; and it is said also,
+that the dog of Nicomedes, King of Bithynia[92], tore Consingis, the
+wife of that king, in consequence of her wanton behavior, when toying
+with her husband.
+
+Dogs are the only animals that are sure to know their masters, and if
+they suddenly meet him as a stranger, they will instantly recognize
+him. They are the only animals that will answer to their names, and
+recognize the voices of the family. They recollect a road along which
+they have passed, however long it may be. Next to man there is no
+living creature whose memory is so retentive. By sitting down on the
+ground we may arrest their most impetuous attack, even when prompted
+by the most violent rage.
+
+In daily life, we have discovered many other valuable qualities in
+this animal; but its intelligence and sagacity are more especially
+shown in the chase. It discovers and traces out the tracks of the
+animal, leading by the leash the sportsman who accompanies it straight
+up to the prey; and as soon as ever it has perceived it, how silent it
+is, and how secret but significant is the indication which it gives,
+first by the tail and afterward by the nose!
+
+When Alexander the Great was on his Indian expedition, he was
+presented by the King of Albania with a dog of unusual size; being
+greatly delighted with its noble appearance, he ordered bears, and
+after them wild boars, and then deer, to be let loose before it; but
+the dog lay down and regarded them with a kind of immovable contempt.
+The noble spirit of the general became irritated by the sluggishness
+thus manifested by an animal of such vast bulk, and he ordered it to
+be killed. The report of this reached the king, who accordingly sent
+another dog, and at the same time sent word that its powers were to be
+tried, not upon small animals, but upon the lion or the elephant;
+adding, that he had originally but two, and that if this one were put
+to death, the race would be extinct. Alexander, without delay,
+procured a lion, which in his presence was instantly torn to pieces.
+He then ordered an elephant to be brought, and never was he more
+delighted with any spectacle; for the dog, bristling up its hair all
+over the body, began by thundering forth a loud barking, and then
+attacked the animal, leaping at it first on the one side and then on
+the other, attacking it in the most skilful manner, and then again
+retreating at the opportune moment, until at last the elephant, being
+rendered quite giddy by turning round and round, fell to the earth,
+and made it quite reecho with its fall.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THREE GREAT ARTISTS OF GREECE[93]
+
+
+Apelles,[94] of Cos, surpassed all the other painters who either
+preceded or succeeded him. Single-handed, he contributed more to
+painting than all the others together, and even went so far as to
+publish some treatises on the principles of the art. The great point
+of artistic merit with him was his singular charm of gracefulness, and
+this too, tho the greatest of painters were his contemporaries. In
+admiring their works and bestowing high eulogiums upon them, he used
+to say that there was still wanting in them that equal of beauty so
+peculiar to himself, and known to the Greeks as "Charis"; others, he
+said, had acquired all the other requisites of perfection, but in
+this one point he himself had no equal. He also asserted his claim to
+another great point of merit; admiring a picture by Protogenes, which
+bore evident marks of unbounded laboriousness and the most minute
+finish, he remarked that in every respect Protogenes was fully his
+equal, or perhaps his superior, except in this, that he himself knew
+when to take his hand off a picture--a memorable lesson, which teaches
+us that over-carefulness may be productive of bad results. His candor,
+too, was equal to his talent; he acknowledged the superiority of
+Melanthius[95] in his grouping, and of Asclepiodorus in the niceness
+of his measurements, or in other words, the distances that ought to be
+left between the objects represented.
+
+A circumstance that happened to him in connection with Protogenes[96]
+is worthy of notice. The latter was living at Rhodes, when Apelles
+disembarked there, desirous of seeing the works of a man whom he had
+hitherto only known by reputation. Accordingly, he repaired at once to
+the studio; Protogenes was not at home, but there happened to be a
+large panel upon the easel ready for painting, with an old woman who
+was left in charge. To his inquiries she made answer that Protogenes
+was not at home; and then asked whom she should name as the visitor.
+"Here he is," was the reply of Apelles; and seizing a brush, he traced
+with color upon the panel an outline of a singularly minute fineness.
+Upon his return the old woman mentioned to Protogenes what had
+happened. The artist, it is said, upon remarking the delicacy of the
+touch, instantly exclaimed that Apelles must have been the visitor,
+for that no other person was capable of executing anything so
+exquisitely perfect. So saying, he traced within the same outline a
+still finer outline, but with another color; and then took his
+departure, with instructions to the woman to show it to the stranger
+if he returned, and to let him know that this was the person whom he
+had come to see.
+
+It happened as he anticipated--Apelles returned; and vexed at finding
+himself thus surpassed, he took up another color and split both of the
+outlines, leaving no possibility of anything finer being executed.
+Upon seeing this, Protogenes admitted that he was defeated, and at
+once flew to the harbor to look for his guest. He thought proper, too,
+to transmit the panel to posterity, just as it was; and it always
+continued to be held in the highest admiration by all--artists in
+particular. I am told that it was burned in the first fire which took
+place at Cæsar's palace on the Palatine Hill; but in former times I
+have often stopt to admire it. Upon its vast surface it contained
+nothing whatever except the three outlines, so remarkably fine as to
+escape the sight: among the most elaborate works of numerous other
+artists it had all the appearance of a blank space; and yet by that
+very fact it attracted the notice of every one, and was held in higher
+estimation than any other painting there.
+
+It was a custom with Apelles, to which he most tenaciously adhered,
+never to let any day pass, however busy he might be, without
+exercising himself by tracing some outline or other; a practise which
+has now passed into a proverb. It was also a practise with him, when
+he had completed a work, to exhibit it to the view of the passers-by
+in some exposed place; while he himself, concealed behind the picture,
+would listen to the criticisms that were passed upon it: it being his
+opinion that the judgment of the public was preferable to his own, as
+being the more discerning of the two. It was under these
+circumstances, they say, that he was censured by a shoemaker for
+having represented the shoes with one shoe-string too little. The next
+day, the shoemaker, quite proud at seeing the former error corrected,
+thanks to his advice, began to criticize the leg; upon which Apelles,
+full of indignation, popped his head out, and reminded him that a
+shoemaker should give no opinion beyond the shoes--a piece of advice
+which has equally passed into a proverbial saying. In fact, Apelles
+was a person of great amenity of manners--a circumstance which
+rendered him particularly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who would
+often come to his studio. He had forbidden himself by public edict, as
+already stated, to be represented by any other artist. On one
+occasion, however, when the prince was in his studio, talking a great
+deal about painting without knowing anything about it, Apelles quietly
+begged that he would quit the subject, telling him that he would get
+laughed at by the boys who were there grinding the colors; so great
+was the influence which he rightfully possest over a monarch who was
+otherwise of an irascible temperament. And yet, irascible as he was,
+Alexander conferred upon him a very signal mark of the high estimation
+in which he held him: for having, in his admiration of her
+extraordinary beauty, engaged Apelles to paint Pancaste undraped--the
+most beloved of all his concubines--the artist while so engaged fell
+in love with her; upon which, Alexander, perceiving this to be the
+ease, made him a present of her: thus showing himself, tho a great
+king in courage, a still greater one in self-command--this action
+redounding no less to his honor than any of his victories.
+
+Superior to all the statues not only of Praxiteles,[97] but of any
+other artist that ever existed, is his Cnidian Venus; for the
+inspection of which, many persons before now have purposely undertaken
+a voyage to Cnidos. The artist made two statues of the goddess, and
+offered them both for sale: one of them was represented with drapery,
+and for this reason was preferred by the people of Cos, who had the
+choice; the second was offered them at the same price, but on the
+grounds of propriety and modesty they thought fit to choose the other.
+Upon this, the Cnidians purchased the rejected statue, and immensely
+superior has it always been held in general estimation. At a later
+period, King Nicomedes wished to purchase this statue of the Cnidians,
+and made them an offer to pay off the whole of their public debt,
+which was very large. They preferred, however, to submit to any
+extremity rather than part with it; and with good reason, for by this
+statue Praxiteles has perpetuated the glory of Cnidos. The little
+temple in which it is placed is open on all sides, so that the
+beauties of the statue admit of being seen from every point of
+view--an arrangement which was favored by the goddess herself, it is
+generally believed.
+
+Among all nations which the fame of the Olympian Jupiter has reached,
+Phidias[98] is looked upon, beyond all doubt, as the most famous of
+artists; but to let those who have never seen his works know how
+deservedly he is esteemed, we will take this opportunity of adducing a
+few slight proofs of the genius which he displayed. In doing this we
+shall not appeal to the beauty of his Olympian Jupiter, nor yet to the
+vast proportions of his Athenian Minerva, six-and-twenty cubits in
+height, and composed of ivory and gold: but it is to the shield of
+this last statue that we shall draw attention; upon the convex face of
+which he has chased a combat of the Amazons, while upon the concave
+side of it he has represented the battle between the gods and the
+giants. Upon the sandals, again, we see the wars of the Lapithæ and
+Centaurs; so careful has he been to fill every smallest portion of his
+work with some proof or other of his artistic skill.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 86: From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.]
+
+[Footnote 87: A name applied to tribes living in Africa east of the
+desert of Sahara.]
+
+[Footnote 88: An Ionian city of Asia, distant seventy miles from
+Ephesus.]
+
+[Footnote 89: An interior town of Cilicia, in Asia Minor.]
+
+[Footnote 90: The home of this warlike people appears to have been
+Jutland.]
+
+[Footnote 91: The tyrant king of Syracuse, successor to Gelon.]
+
+[Footnote 92: A country of Asia Minor occupying a part of the Black
+Sea coast.]
+
+[Footnote 93: From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Apelles lived in the time of Philip and Alexander the
+Great. Cos is an island in the Ægean Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 95: A painter of the Sicyonian school who flourished in the
+third century B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Protogenes, a native of Caria, in Asia Minor, was
+celebrated as a painter at Rhodes in the second half of the fourth
+century B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Praxiteles was born in Athena about the end of the fifth
+century and continued active as an artist until the time at Alexander
+the Great. Nearly sixty of his works are mentioned in ancient
+writings, but only two have been identified in modern times.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Phidias was born in Athens about 500 B.C. and died about
+430.]
+
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN
+
+     Born in Spain about 35 A.D.; died about 95; celebrated as
+     rhetorian; educated in Rome, where he taught oratory for
+     twenty years; patronized by the emperors Vespasian and
+     Domitian; his most celebrated work the "Institutio
+     Oratoria."[99]
+
+
+THE ORATOR MUST BE A GOOD MAN[100]
+
+
+Let the orator, then, whom I propose to form, be such a one as is
+characterized by the definition of Marcus Cato, _a good man skilled in
+speaking_.
+
+But the requisite which Cato has placed first in this definition, that
+an orator should be _a good man_, is naturally of more estimation and
+importance than the other. It is of importance that an orator should
+be good, because, should the power of speaking be a support to evil,
+nothing would be more pernicious than eloquence alike to public
+concerns and private, and I myself, who, as far as is in my power,
+strive to contribute something to the faculty of the orator, should
+deserve very ill of the world, since I should furnish arms, not for
+soldiers, but for robbers. May I not draw an argument from the
+condition of mankind? Nature herself, in bestowing on man that which
+she seems to have granted him preeminently, and by which she appears
+to have distinguished us from all other animals, would have acted, not
+as a parent, but as a stepmother, if she had designed the faculty of
+speech to be the promoter of crime, the oppressor of innocence, and
+the enemy of truth; for it would have been better for us to have been
+born dumb, and to have been left destitute of reasoning powers, than
+to have received endowments from providence only to turn them to the
+destruction of one another.
+
+My judgment carries me still further; for I not only say that he who
+would answer my idea of an orator must be a good man, but that no man,
+unless he be good, can ever be an orator. To an orator discernment and
+prudence are necessary; but we can certainly not allow discernment to
+those, who when the ways of virtue and vice are set before them,
+prefer to follow that of vice; nor can we allow them prudence, since
+they subject themselves, by the unforeseen consequences of their
+actions, often to the heaviest penalty of the law, and always to that
+of an evil conscience. But if it be not only truly said by the wise,
+but always justly believed by the vulgar, that no man is vicious who
+is not also foolish, a fool, assuredly, will never become an orator.
+
+It is to be further considered that the mind can not be in a condition
+for pursuing the most noble of studies, unless it be entirely free
+from vice; not only because there can be no communion of good and evil
+in the same breast, and to meditate at once on the best things and the
+worst is no more in the power of the same mind than it is possible
+for the same man to be at once virtuous and vicious; but also because
+a mind intent on so arduous a study should be exempt from all other
+cares, even such as are unconnected with vice; for then, and then
+only, when it is free and master of itself, and when no other object
+harasses and distracts its attention, will it be able to keep in view
+the end to which it is devoted. But if an inordinate attention to an
+estate, a too anxious pursuit of wealth, indulgence in the pleasures
+of the chase, and the devotion of our days to public spectacles, rob
+our studies of much of our time (for whatever time is given to one
+thing is lost to another), what effect must we suppose that ambition,
+avarice, and envy will produce, whose excitements are so violent as
+even to disturb our sleep and our dreams? Nothing indeed is so
+preoccupied, so unsettled, so torn and lacerated with such numerous
+and various passions, as a bad mind; for when it intends evil, it is
+agitated with hope, care, and anxiety, and when it has attained the
+object of its wickedness, it is tormented with uneasiness, and the
+dread of every kind of punishment.
+
+No man, certainly, will doubt, that it is the object of all oratory,
+that what is stated to the judge may appear to him to be true and
+just; and which of the two, let me ask, will produce such a conviction
+with the greater ease, the good man or the bad? A good man, doubtless,
+will speak of what is true and honest with greater frequency; but even
+if, from being influenced by some call of duty, he endeavors to
+support what is fallacious (a case which, as I shall show, may
+sometimes occur), he must still be heard with greater credit than a
+bad man. But with bad men, on the other hand, dissimulation sometimes
+fails, as well through their contempt for the opinion of mankind, as
+through their ignorance of what is right; hence they assert without
+modesty, and maintain their assertions without shame; and, in
+attempting what evidently can not be accomplished, there appears in
+them a repulsive obstinacy and useless perseverance; for bad men, as
+well in their pleadings as in their lives, entertain dishonest
+expectations; and it often happens, that even when they speak the
+truth, belief is not accorded them, and the employment of advocates of
+such a character is regarded as a proof of the badness of a cause.
+
+I must, however, notice those objections to my opinion, which appear
+to be clamored forth, as it were, by the general consent of the
+multitude. Was not then Demosthenes, they ask, a great orator? yet we
+have heard that he was not a good man. Was not Cicero a great orator?
+yet many have thrown censure upon his character. To such questions how
+shall I answer? Great displeasure is likely to be shown at any reply
+whatever; and the ears of my audience require first to be propitiated.
+The character of Demosthenes, let me say, does not appear to me
+deserving of such severe reprehension, that I should believe all the
+calumnies that are heaped upon him by his enemies, especially when I
+read his excellent plans for the benefit of his country and the
+honorable termination of his life. Nor do I see that the feeling of an
+upright citizen was, in any respect, wanting to Cicero. As proofs of
+his integrity, may be mentioned his consulship, in which he conducted
+himself with so much honor, his honorable administration of his
+province; his refusal to be one of the twenty commissioners; and,
+during the civil wars, which fell with great severity on his times,
+his uprightness of mind, which was never swayed, either by hope or by
+fear, from adhering to the better party, or the supporters of the
+commonwealth. He is thought by some to have been deficient in courage,
+but he has given an excellent reply to this charge, when he says that
+he was timid, not in encountering dangers, but in taking precautions
+against them; an assertion of which he proved the truth at his death,
+to which he submitted with the noblest fortitude. But even should the
+height of virtue have been wanting to these eminent men, I shall reply
+to those who ask me whether they were orators as the Stoics reply when
+they are asked whether Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus were wise men;
+they say that they were great and deserving of veneration, but that
+they did not attain the highest excellence of which human nature is
+susceptible.
+
+Pythagoras desired to be called, not wise, like those who preceded
+him, but a lover of wisdom. I, however, in speaking of Cicero, have
+often said, according to the common mode of speech, and shall continue
+to say, that he was a perfect orator, as we term our friends, in
+ordinary discourse, good and prudent men, tho such epithets can be
+justly given only to the perfectly wise. But when I have to speak
+precisely, and in conformity with the exactness of truth, I shall
+express myself as longing to see such an orator as he himself also
+longed to see; for tho I acknowledge that Cicero stood at the head of
+eloquence, and that I can scarcely find a passage in his speeches to
+which anything can be added, however many I might find which I may
+imagine that he would have pruned (for the learned have in general
+been of opinion that he had numerous excellences and some faults, and
+he himself says that he had cut off most of his juvenile exuberance),
+yet, since he did not claim to himself, tho he had no mean opinion of
+his merits, the praise of perfection, and since he might certainly
+have spoken better if a longer life had been granted him, and a more
+tranquil season for composition, I may not unreasonably believe that
+the summit of excellence was not attained by him, to which,
+notwithstanding, no man made nearer approaches. If I had thought
+otherwise, I might have maintained my opinion with still greater
+determination and freedom. Did Marcus Antonius declare that he had
+seen no man truly eloquent, tho to be eloquent is much less than to be
+a perfect orator; does Cicero himself say that he is still seeking for
+an orator, and merely conceives and imagines one; and shall I fear to
+say that in that portion of eternity which is yet to come something
+may arise still more excellent than what has yet been seen? I take no
+advantage of the opinion of those who refuse to allow great merit to
+Cicero and Demosthenes even in eloquence; tho Demosthenes, indeed,
+does not appear sufficiently near perfection even to Cicero himself,
+who says that he sometimes nods; nor does Cicero appear so to Brutus
+and Calvus, who certainly find fault with his language.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 99: Quintilian is notable as a writer who was not influenced
+by his great contemporary Seneca, whom he disliked and harshly
+criticized for literary defects. Quintilian modeled his own style on
+that of Cicero, altho at times he dropt back unconsciously into that
+of Seneca.]
+
+[Footnote 100: From Book XII, Chapter I, of the "Institutes of
+Oratory." Translated by J. S. Watson.]
+
+
+
+
+TACITUS
+
+     Born about 55 A.D.; died about 117; celebrated as historian
+     and orator; prætor in 88; Consul in 97; a friend of the
+     younger Pliny; son-in-law of Agricola; his extant works
+     include a dialog of oratory, a biography of Agricola,
+     "Germania," a history of Rome from Galba to Domitian, and
+     his "Annals," which are a history of the Julian
+     dynasty.[101]
+
+
+I
+
+FROM REPUBLICAN TO IMPERIAL ROME[102]
+
+
+Kings held dominion in the city of Rome from its foundation: Lucius
+Brutus instituted liberty and the consulate. Dictatorships were
+resorted to in temporary emergencies: neither the power of the
+decemvirs continued in force beyond two years, nor the consular
+authority of the military tribunes for any length of time. The
+domination of Cinna did not continue long, nor that of Sulla: the
+influence of Pompey and Crassus quickly merged in Cæsar: the arms of
+Lepidus and Antony in Augustus, who, with the title of prince, took
+under his command the commonwealth, exhausted with civil dissensions.
+But the affairs of the ancient Roman people, whether prosperous or
+adverse, have been recorded by writers of renown. Nor were there
+wanting authors of distinguished genius to have composed the history
+of the times of Augustus, till by the spirit of flattery, which became
+prevalent, they were deterred. As to Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
+Nero, whilst they yet reigned the histories of their times were
+falsified through fear; and after they had fallen, they were written
+under the influence of recent detestation. Thence my own design of
+recounting a few incidents respecting Augustus, and those toward the
+latter part of his life; and, after that, of giving a history of the
+reign of Tiberius and the rest; uninfluenced by resentment and
+partiality, as I stand aloof from the causes of them.
+
+When, after the fall of Brutus and Cassius, there remained none to
+fight for the commonwealth; when Sextus Pompeius was utterly defeated
+at Sicily; and Lepidus being deprived of his command, and Mark Antony
+slain, there remained no leader even to the Julian party but Octavius;
+having put off the name of triumvir, styling himself Consul, and
+pretending that all he aimed at was the jurisdiction attached to the
+tribuneship for the protection of the commons; when he had cajoled the
+soldiery by donations, the people by distribution of corn, and men in
+general by the charms of peace, he (Octavius) began by gradations to
+exalt himself over them; to draw to himself the functions of the
+senate and of the magistrate, and the framing of the laws; in which
+he was thwarted by no man: the boldest spirits having fallen in some
+or other of the regular battles, or by proscription; and the surviving
+nobility being distinguished by wealth and public honors, according to
+the measure of their promptness to bondage; and as these innovations
+had been the cause of aggrandizement to them, preferring the present
+state of things with safety to the revival of ancient liberty with
+personal peril. Neither were the provinces averse to that condition of
+affairs; since they mistrusted the government of the senate and
+people, on account of the contentions among the great and the avarice
+of the magistrates: while the protection of the laws was enfeebled and
+borne down by violence, intrigue, and bribery.
+
+Moreover, Augustus, as supports to his domination, raised his sister's
+son, Claudius Marcellus,[103] a mere youth, to the dignity of pontiff
+and curule ædile; aggrandized by two successive consulships Marcus
+Agrippa,[104] a man meanly born, but an accomplished soldier, and the
+companion of his victories; and soon, on the death of Marcellus, chose
+him for his son-in-law. The sons of his wife, Tiberius Nero and
+Claudius Drusus, he dignified with the title of Imperator, tho there
+had been no diminution in the members of his house. For into the
+family of the Cæsars he had already adopted Lucius and Caius, the sons
+of Agrippa; and tho they had not yet laid aside the puerile garment,
+vehement had been his ambition to see them declared princes of the
+Roman youth, and even designed to the consulship; while he affected to
+decline the honors for them. Upon the decease of Agrippa, they were
+cut off, either by a death premature but natural, or by the arts of
+their stepmother Livia; Lucius on his journey to the armies in Spain,
+Caius on his return from Armenia, ill of a wound: and as Drusus had
+been long since dead, Tiberius Nero was the only survivor of his
+stepsons. On him every honor was accumulated (to that quarter all
+things inclined); he was by Augustus adopted for his son, assumed
+colleague in the empire, partner in the tribunitian authority, and
+presented to the several armies; not from the secret machinations of
+his mother, as heretofore, but at her open suit For over Augustus, now
+very aged, she had obtained such absolute sway, that he banished into
+the isle of Planasia his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Posthumus; a
+person destitute indeed of liberal accomplishments, and a man of
+clownish brutality with great bodily strength, but convicted of no
+heinous offense. The emperor, strange to say, set Germanicus, the son
+of Drusus, over eight legions quartered upon the Rhine, and ordered
+that he should be engrafted into his family by Tiberius by adoption,
+tho Tiberius had then a son of his own on the verge of manhood; but
+the object was that he might stand firm by having many to support and
+protect him. War at that time there remained none, except that in
+Germany, kept on foot rather to blot out the disgrace sustained by the
+loss of Quintilius Varus, with his army, than from any ambition to
+enlarge the empire, or for any advantage worth contending for. In
+profound tranquillity were affairs at Rome. The magistrates retained
+their wonted names; of the Romans, the younger sort had been born
+since the battle of Actium, and even most of the old during the civil
+wars: how few were then living who had seen the ancient free state!
+
+The character of the government thus totally changed; no traces were
+to be found of the spirit of ancient institutions. The system by which
+every citizen shared in the government being thrown aside, all men
+regarded the orders of the prince as the only rule of conduct and
+obedience; nor felt they any anxiety for the present, while Augustus,
+yet in the vigor of life, maintained the credit of himself and house,
+and the peace of the state. But when old age had crept over him, and
+he was sinking under bodily infirmities--when his end was at hand, and
+thence a new source of hopes and views was presented--some few there
+were who began to talk idly about the blessings of liberty: many
+dreaded a civil war--others longed for one; while far the greatest
+part were occupied in circulating various surmises reflecting upon
+those who seemed likely to be their masters: "That Agrippa was
+naturally stern and savage, and exasperated by contumely; and neither
+in age nor experience equal to a task of such magnitude. Tiberius,
+indeed, had arrived at fulness of years, and was a distinguished
+captain, but possest the inveterate and inherent pride of the
+Claudian family; and many indications of cruel nature escaped him, in
+spite of all his arts to disguise it; that even from his early infancy
+he had been trained up in an imperial house; that consulships and
+triumphs had been accumulated upon him while but a youth. Not even
+during the years of his abode at Rhodes, where under the plausible
+name of retirement, he was in fact an exile, did he employ himself
+otherwise than in meditating future vengeance, studying the arts of
+simulation, and practising secret and abominable sensualities. That to
+these considerations was added that of his mother, a woman with the
+ungovernable spirit peculiar to her sex; that the Romans must be under
+bondage to a woman, and moreover to two youths, who would meanwhile
+oppress the state, and, at one time or other, rend it piecemeal."
+
+While the public mind was agitated by these and similar discussions,
+the illness of Augustus grew daily more serious, and some suspected
+nefarious practises on the part of his wife. For some months before, a
+rumor had gone abroad that Augustus, having singled out a few to whom
+he communicated his purpose, had taken Fabius Maximus for his only
+companion, had sailed over to the island of Planasia, to visit
+Agrippa; that many tears were shed on both sides, many tokens of
+mutual tenderness shown, and hopes from thence conceived that the
+youth would be restored to the household gods of his grandfather. That
+Maximus had disclosed this to Martia, his wife--she to Livia; and that
+the emperor was informed of it: and that Maximus, not long after,
+dying (it is doubtful whether naturally or by means sought for the
+purpose), Martia was observed, in her lamentations at his funeral, to
+upbraid herself as the cause of her husband's destruction. Howsoever
+that matter might have been, Tiberius was scarce entered Illyrium when
+he was summoned by a letter from his mother, forwarded with speed, nor
+is it fully known whether, at his return to Nola,[105] he found
+Augustus yet breathing, or already lifeless. For Livia had carefully
+beset the palace, and all the avenues to it, with vigilant guards; and
+favorable bulletins were from time to time given out, until, the
+provisions which the conjuncture required being completed, in one and
+the same moment were published the departure of Augustus, and the
+accession of Tiberius.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FUNERAL OF GERMANICUS[106]
+
+(19 A.D.)
+
+
+Agrippina,[107] continuing her course without the least intermission
+through all the perils and rigors of a sea-voyage in the winter,
+arrived at the island Corcyra, situated over against the shores of
+Calabria. Unable to moderate her grief, and impatient from
+inexperience of affliction, she spent a few days there to tranquillize
+her troubled spirit; when, on hearing of her arrival, all the intimate
+friends of her family, and most of the officers who had served under
+Germanicus, with a number of strangers from the neighboring municipal
+towns, some thinking it due as a mark of respect to the prince, but
+the greater part carried along with the current, rushed to the city of
+Brundusium, the readiest port in her way, and the safest landing. As
+soon as the fleet appeared in the deep, instantly were filled, not the
+port alone and adjacent parts of the sea, but the walls and roofs, and
+wherever the most distant prospect could be obtained, with a sorrowing
+multitude, earnestly asking each other "whether they should receive
+her on landing in silence, or with some expression of feeling?" Nor
+was it clearly determined what course would be most suitable to the
+occasion, when the fleet came slowly in, not as usual in sprightly
+trim, but all wearing the impress of sadness. When she descended from
+the ship, accompanied by her two infants,[108] and bearing in her hand
+the funeral urn, her eyes fixt stedfastly upon the earth, one
+simultaneous groan burst from the whole assemblage; nor could you
+distinguish relations from strangers, nor the wailings of men from
+those of women; nor could any difference be discerned, except that
+those who came to meet her, in the vehemence of recent grief,
+surpassed the attendants of Agrippina, who were exhausted with
+continued mourning.
+
+Tiberius had dispatched two prætorian cohorts, with directions that
+the magistrates of Calabria, with Apulians and Campanians, should pay
+their last offices of respect to the memory of his son; upon the
+shoulders, therefore, of the tribunes and centurions his ashes were
+borne; before them were carried the ensigns unadorned, and the fasces
+reversed. As they passed through the colonies, the populace in black,
+the knights in their purple robes, burned precious raiment, perfumes,
+and whatever else is used in funeral solemnities, according to the
+ability of the place; even they whose cities lay remote from the
+route, came forth, offered victims, and erected altars to the gods of
+the departed, and with tears and ejaculations testified their sorrow.
+Drusus came as far as Terracina, with Claudius the brother of
+Germanicus, and those of his children who had been left at Rome.[109]
+The Consuls, Marcus Valerius and Marcus Aurelius[110] (for they had
+now entered upon their office), the senate, and great part of the
+people, filled the road--a scattered procession, each walking and
+expressing his grief as inclination led him; in sooth, flattery was an
+utter stranger here, for all knew how real was the joy, how hollow the
+grief, of Tiberius for the death of Germanicus.
+
+Tiberius and Livia[111] avoided appearing abroad--public lamentation
+they thought below their dignity--or perhaps they apprehended that if
+their countenances were examined by all eyes their hypocrisy would be
+detected. That Antonia, mother to the deceased, bore any part in the
+funeral, I do not find either in the historians or in the journals,
+tho, besides Agrippina and Drusus, and Claudius, his other relations
+are likewise there recorded by name; whether by sickness she was
+prevented, or whether her soul, vanquished by sorrow, could not bear
+to go through the representation of such an over-powering calamity. I
+would rather believe her constrained by Tiberius and Livia, who left
+not the palace, that they might seem to grieve alike and that the
+grandmother and uncle might appear to have followed her example in
+staying at home.
+
+The day on which his remains were deposited in the tomb of Augustus,
+at one time exhibited the silence of perfect desolation; at another,
+the uproar of vociferous lamentation; the streets of the city were
+crowded, one general blaze of torches glared throughout the Campus
+Martius; there the soldiers under arms, the magistrates without the
+insignia of office, and the people ranged according to their tribes,
+passionately exclaimed, "that the commonwealth was utterly lost, that
+henceforth there remained no hope," so openly and so boldly that you
+would have believed they had forgotten those who ruled over them. But
+nothing pierced Tiberius more deeply than the warm interest excited
+in favor of Agrippina, while they gave her such titles as "the
+ornament of her country, the only blood of Augustus, an unparalleled
+example of primitive virtue"; and, looking up to heaven and the gods,
+they implored "the preservation of her issue, and that they might
+outlive their oppressors."
+
+There were those who missed the pomp of a public funeral, and compared
+with this the superior honors and magnificence displayed by Augustus
+in that of Drusus, the father of Germanicus; observing, "that he
+himself had traveled, in the depth of winter, as far as Ticinus, and,
+continuing by the corpse, had with it entered the city; around his
+bier were crowded the images of the Claudii and Julii; he was mourned
+in the forum; his encomium pronounced on the rostra; all the honors
+invented by our ancestors, or added by their posterity, were heaped
+upon him. But to Germanicus were denied the ordinary solemnities, and
+such as were due to every distinguished Roman. Certainly his corpse
+was burned in a foreign country because of the long journey, in such a
+manner as it was, but afterward it was but just to have compensated
+the scantiness of the first ceremony by the increased solemnity of the
+last; his brother met him but one day's journey, his uncle not, even
+at the gate. Where were those observances of the ancients, the
+effigies of the dead laid in state on a bed, hymns composed in memory
+of departed virtue, with encomiums and tears? Where at least the
+ceremonial of sorrow?"
+
+All this was known to Tiberius, and to suppress the reflections of the
+populace, he admonished them in an edict, "that many illustrious
+Romans had died for the commonwealth, but none so universally and
+vehemently regretted; and that it was to the honor of himself and all
+others, if bounds were observed. The same things which became private
+families and small states, became not princes and an imperial people;
+that it was not unseemly to lament in the first transport of sorrow,
+nay, relief was afforded by weeping, but it was now time to recover
+and compose their minds. Thus the deified Julius, upon the loss of an
+only daughter;[112] thus the deified Augustus, upon the premature
+death of his grandsons, had both concealed their sorrow. More ancient
+examples were unnecessary; how often had the Roman people sustained
+with equanimity the slaughter of their armies, the death of their
+generals, and entire destruction of illustrious families--princes were
+mortal, the commonwealth was eternal--they should therefore resume
+their customary vocations." And because the spectacle of the
+Megalesian games was at hand, he added, "that they should even lay
+aside their grief for amusements."
+
+The vacation ended, public affairs were resumed; Drusus departed for
+the army in Illyricum, the minds of all men impatiently looking for
+vengeance upon Piso; and amidst many complaints, that while he was
+roaming at large through the delightful regions of Asia and Greece, he
+was undermining by contemptuous and artful delay the evidences of his
+crimes; for it was generally known that Martina, that notorious
+trafficker in sorceries, and sent, as I have above related, by Cneius
+Sentius to Rome, had died suddenly at Brundusium; that poison lay
+concealed in a knot of her hair.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE DEATH OF SENECA[113]
+
+(65 A.D.)
+
+
+The next death added by Nero was that of Plautius Lateranus, consul
+elect; and with such precipitation, that he would not allow him to
+embrace his children, nor the usual brief interval to choose his mode
+of death. He was dragged to the place allotted for the execution of
+slaves, and there, by the hand of Statius the tribune, slaughtered. In
+his death he maintained the most invincible silence, not charging his
+executioner with participation in the design for which he suffered.
+The destruction of Seneca followed, to the infinite joy of the prince;
+not because he had ascertained that he was a party to the conspiracy,
+but that he might assail him with the sword, since poison had failed:
+for Natalis only had named him; and his disclosure amounted but to
+this, "that he had been sent by Piso[114] to visit Seneca, then
+indisposed, to complain that he was refused admittance; and to
+represent, that it would be better if they maintained their friendship
+by intercourse: that to this Seneca replied, that talking to each
+other and frequent interviews were to the service of neither; but upon
+the safety of Piso his own security rested." Granius Silvanus, tribune
+of a pretorian cohort, was ordered to represent this to Seneca, and to
+demand of him, "whether he admitted the words of Natalis, and his own
+answers." Seneca had that very day, either from chance or design,
+returned from Campania, and rested at a villa of his, four miles from
+Rome: thither arrived the tribune toward evening, and beset the villa
+with his men; and then, as he sat at table with Pauline his wife, and
+two friends, delivered his orders from the emperor.
+
+Seneca replied, "that Natalis had in truth been sent to him, and in
+the name of Piso complained, that he was debarred from visiting him;
+and that he had excused himself on the score of illness and his love
+of retirement; but he had no motive to declare that he preferred the
+safety of a private man to his own security; nor was his disposition
+prone to flattery; as no man better knew than Nero, who had
+experienced more frequent proofs of the freedom than the servility of
+Seneca."
+
+When this answer was by the tribune reported to Nero, in presence of
+Poppæa[115] and Tigellinus, who composed the cabinet council, the
+raging tyrant asked, whether Seneca meditated a voluntary death? the
+tribune averred "that he had manifested no symptoms of fear; and
+neither in his words nor looks did he detect any indication of
+regret." He was therefore commanded to return, and tell him he was
+doomed to die. Fabius Rusticus writes, "that the tribune did not
+return by the road he went, but turning off went to Fenius, captain of
+the guards, and stating to him the emperor's orders, asked whether he
+should obey him; and was by him admonished to execute them"; thus
+displaying that want of spirit which by some fatality prevailed
+universally; for Silvanus too was one of the conspirators, and yet was
+contributing to multiply the atrocities he had conspired to avenge. He
+avoided, however, seeing and speaking to Seneca; but sent in a
+centurion to apprize him of his final doom.
+
+Seneca undismayed, called for tables to make his will; and, as this
+was prohibited by the centurion, turning to his friends, he told them,
+"that since he was debarred from requiting their services, he
+bequeathed them that which alone was now left him, but which yet was
+the fairest legacy he had to leave them--the example of his life: and
+if they kept it in view, they would reap the fame due to honorable
+acquirements and inviolable friendship." At the same time he
+endeavored to repress their tears and restore their fortitude, now by
+soothing language, and now in a more animated strain and in a tone of
+rebuke, asking them, "where were the precepts of philosophy? where the
+rules of conduct under impending evils, studied for so many years?
+For who was unapprized of the ferocious disposition of Nero? Nor could
+anything else be expected after he had murdered his mother and brother
+than that he should proceed to destroy his nursing father and
+preceptor."
+
+After these and similar reasonings addrest to the company in general,
+he embraced his wife; and after a brief but vigorous effort to get the
+better of the apprehensions that prest upon him at that moment, he
+besought and implored her "to refrain from surrendering herself to
+endless grief; but endeavor to mitigate her regret for her husband by
+means of those honorable consolations which she would experience in
+the contemplation of his virtuous life." Paulina, on the contrary,
+urged her purpose to die with him, and called for the hand of the
+executioner. When Seneca, unwilling to impede her glory, and also from
+affection, as he was anxious not to leave one who was dear to him
+above everything, exposed to the hard usage of the world, thus addrest
+her: "I had pointed out to you how to soften the ills of life; but you
+prefer the renown of dying: I will not envy you the honor of the
+example. Tho both display the same unflinching fortitude in
+encountering death; still the glory of your exit will be superior to
+mine." After this, both had the veins of their arms opened with the
+same stroke. As the blood flowed slowly from the aged body of Seneca,
+attenuated as it was too by scanty sustenance, he had the veins of his
+legs and hams also cut; and unable to bear up under the excessive
+torture, lest by his own sufferings he should overpower the
+resolution of his wife, and by witnessing her anguish be betrayed into
+impatience himself, he advised her to retire into another chamber. His
+eloquence continued to flow during the latest moments of his
+existence, and summoning his secretaries, he dictated many things,
+which, as they have been published in his own words, I forbear to
+exhibit in other language.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE BURNING OF ROME BY ORDER OF NERO[116]
+
+(64 A.D.)
+
+
+There followed a dreadful disaster; whether fortuitously, or by the
+wicked contrivance of the prince[117] is not determined, for both are
+asserted by historians: but of all the calamities which ever befell
+this city from the rage of fire, this was the most terrible and
+severe. It broke out in that part of the Circus which is contiguous to
+mounts Palatine and Coelius; where, by reason of shops in which were
+kept such goods as minister aliment to fire, the moment it commenced
+it acquired strength, and being accelerated by the wind, it spread at
+once through the whole extent of the Circus: for neither were the
+houses secured by enclosures, nor the temples environed with walls,
+nor was there any other obstacle to intercept its progress; but the
+flame, spreading every way impetuously, invaded first the lower
+regions of the city, then mounted to the higher; then again ravaging
+the lower, it baffled every effort to extinguish it, by the rapidity
+of its destructive course, and from the liability of the city to
+conflagration, in consequence of the narrow and intricate alleys, and
+the irregularity of the streets in ancient Rome.[118] Add to this, the
+wailings of terrified women, the infirm condition of the aged, and the
+helplessness of childhood: such as strove to provide for themselves,
+and those who labored to assist others; these dragging the feeble,
+those waiting for them; some hurrying, others lingering; altogether
+created a scene of universal confusion and embarrassment: and while
+they looked back upon the danger in their rear, they often found
+themselves beset before, and on their sides: or if they had escaped
+into the quarters adjoining, these too were already seized by the
+devouring flames; even the parts which they believed remote and
+exempt, were found to be in the same distress. At last, not knowing
+what to shun, or where to seek sanctuary, they crowded the streets,
+and lay along in the open fields. Some, from the loss of their whole
+substance, even the means of their daily sustenance, others, from
+affection for their relations, whom they had not been able to snatch
+from the flames, suffered themselves to perish in them, tho they had
+opportunity to escape. Neither dared any man offer to check the fire:
+so repeated were the menaces of many who forbade to extinguish it; and
+because others openly threw firebrands, with loud declarations "that
+they had one who authorized them"; whether they did it that they might
+plunder with the less restraint, or in consequence of orders given.
+
+Nero, who was at that juncture sojourning at Antium,[119] did not
+return to the city till the fire approached that quarter of his house
+which connected the palace with the gardens of Mæcenas;[120] nor could
+it, however, be prevented from devouring the house and palace, and
+everything around. But for the relief of the people, thus destitute,
+and driven from their dwellings, he opened the fields of Mars and the
+monumental edifices erected by Agrippa,[121] and even his own gardens.
+He likewise reared temporary houses for the reception of the forlorn
+multitude: and from Ostia and the neighboring cities were brought, up
+the river, household necessaries; and the price of grain was reduced
+to three sesterces the measure. All which proceedings, tho of a
+popular character, were thrown away, because a rumor had become
+universally current, "that the very time when the city was in flames,
+Nero, going on the stage of his private theater, sang 'The Destruction
+of Troy,' assimilating the present disaster to that catastrophe of
+ancient times."
+
+At length, on the sixth day, the conflagration was stayed at the foot
+of Esquilliæ, by pulling down an immense quantity of buildings, so
+that an open space, and, as it were, void air, might check the raging
+element by breaking the continuity. But ere the consternation had
+subsided the fire broke out afresh, with no little violence, but in
+regions more spacious, and therefore with less destruction of human
+life: but more extensive havoc was made of the temples, and the
+porticoes dedicated to amusement. This conflagration, too was the
+subject of more censorious remark, as it arose in the Æmilian
+possessions of Tigellinus: and Nero seemed to aim at the glory of
+building a new city, and calling it by his own name: for, of the
+fourteen sections into which Rome is divided, four were still standing
+entire, three were leveled with the ground, and in the seven others
+there remained only here and there a few remnants of houses, shattered
+and half-consumed.
+
+It were no easy task to recount the number of tenements and temples
+which were lost: but the following, most venerable for antiquity and
+sanctity, were consumed: that dedicated by Servius Tullius to the
+Moon; the temple and great altar consecrated by Evander the Arcadian
+to Hercules while present; the chapel vowed by Romulus to Jupiter
+Stator; the palace of Numa,[122] with the temple of Vesta, and in it
+the tutelar gods of Rome. Moreover, the treasures accumulated by so
+many victories, the beautiful productions of Greek artists, ancient
+writings of authors celebrated for genius, and till then preserved
+entire, were consumed: and tho great was the beauty of the city, in
+its renovated form, the older inhabitants remembered many decorations
+of the ancient which could not be replaced in the modern city. There
+were some who remarked that the commencement of this fire showed
+itself on the fourteenth before the calends of July, the day on which
+the Senones set fire to the captured city. Others carried their
+investigation so far as to determine that an equal number of years,
+months, and days intervened between the two fires.
+
+To proceed: Nero appropriated to his own purposes the ruins of his
+country, and founded upon them a palace; in which the old-fashioned,
+and, in those luxurious times, common ornaments of gold and precious
+stones, were not so much the objects of attraction as lands and lakes;
+in one part, woods like vast deserts: in another part, open spaces and
+expansive prospects. The projectors and superintendents of this plan
+were Severus and Celer, men of such ingenuity and daring enterprise as
+to attempt to conquer by art the obstacles of nature, and fool away
+the treasures of the prince: they had even undertaken to sink a
+navigable canal from the lake Avernus to the mouth of the Tiber, over
+an arid shore, or through opposing mountains: nor indeed does there
+occur anything of a humid nature for supplying water, except the
+Pomptine marshes; the rest is either craggy rock or a parched soil:
+and had it even been possible to break through these obstructions, the
+toil had been intolerable, and disproportioned to the object. Nero,
+however who longed to achieve things that exceeded credibility,
+exerted all his might to perforate the mountains adjoining to Avernus:
+and to this day there remain traces of his abortive project.
+
+But the rest of the old site not occupied by his palace, was laid out,
+not as after the Gallic fire, without discrimination and regularity,
+but with the lines of streets measured out, broad spaces left for
+transit, the height of the buildings limited, open areas left, and
+porticoes added to protect the front of the clustered dwellings: these
+porticoes Nero engaged to rear at his own expense, and then to deliver
+to each proprietor the areas about them cleared. He moreover proposed
+rewards proportioned to every man's rank and private substance, and
+fixt a day within which, if their houses, single or clustered, were
+finished, they should receive them: he appointed the marshes of Ostia
+for a receptacle of the rubbish, and that the vessels which had
+conveyed grain up the Tiber should return laden with rubbish; that the
+buildings themselves should be raised to a certain portion of their
+height without beams, and arched with stone from the quarries of Gabii
+or Alba, that stone being proof against fire: that over the water
+springs, which had been improperly intercepted by private individuals,
+overseers should be placed, to provide for their flowing in greater
+abundance, and in a greater number of places, for the supply of the
+public: that every housekeeper should have in his yard means for
+extinguishing fire; neither should there be party-walls, but every
+house should be enclosed by its own walls. These regulations, which
+were favorably received, in consideration of their utility, were also
+a source of beauty to the new city: yet some there were who believed
+that the ancient form was more conducive to health, as from the
+narrowness of the streets and the height of the buildings the rays of
+the sun were more excluded; whereas now, the spacious breadth of the
+streets, without any shade to protect it, was more intensely heated in
+warm weather.
+
+Such were the provisions made by human counsels. The gods were next
+addrest with expiations and recourse had to the Sibyl's books. By
+admonition from them to Vulcan, Ceres, and Proserpina, supplicatory
+sacrifices were made, and Juno propitiated by the matrons, first in
+the Capitol, then upon the nearest shore, where, by water drawn from
+the sea, the temple and image of the goddess were besprinkled; and the
+ceremony of placing the goddess in her sacred chair, and her vigil,
+were celebrated by ladies who had husbands. But not all the relief
+that could come from man, not all the bounties that the prince could
+bestow, nor all the atonements which could be presented to the gods,
+availed to relieve Nero from the infamy of being believed to have
+ordered the conflagration.
+
+Hence, to suppress the rumor, he falsely charged with the guilt, and
+punished with the most exquisite tortures, the persons commonly
+called Christians,[123] who were hated for their enormities. Christus,
+the founder of that name was put to death as a criminal by Pontius
+Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the
+pernicious superstition, represt for a time, broke out again, not only
+through Judea where the mischief originated, but through the city of
+Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow, from all
+quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged.
+Accordingly, first those were seized who confest they were Christians;
+next, on their information a vast multitude were convicted, not so
+much on the charge of burning the city, as of hating the human race.
+And in their deaths they were also made the subjects of sport, for
+they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death
+by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and when day declined,
+burned to serve for nocturnal lights. Nero offered his own gardens for
+that spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately
+mingling with the common people in the habit of a charioteer, or else
+standing in his chariot. Whence a feeling of compassion arose toward
+the sufferers, tho guilty and deserving to be made examples of by
+capital punishment, because they seemed not to be cut off for the
+public good, but victims to the ferocity of one man.[124]
+
+In the mean time, in order to supply money, all Italy was pillaged,
+the provinces ruined: both the people in alliance with us, and the
+states which are called free. Even the gods were not exempt from
+plunder on this occasion, their temples in the city being despoiled,
+and all their gold conveyed away, which the Roman people, in every
+age, either in gratitude for triumphs, or in fulfilment of vows, had
+consecrated, in times of prosperity, or in seasons of dismay. Through
+Greece and Asia, indeed, the gifts and oblations, and even the statues
+of the deities were carried off; Acratus and Secundus Carinas being
+sent into those provinces for the purpose: the former, Nero's
+freedman, a prompt instrument in any iniquity; the other, acquainted
+with Greek learning, as far as relates to lip-knowledge, but unadorned
+with virtuous accomplishments. Of Seneca it was reported, "that to
+avert from himself the odium of this sacrilege, he prayed to retire to
+a seat of his, remote from Rome, and being refused, feigned
+indisposition, as tho his nerves were affected, and confined himself
+to his chamber." Some authors have recorded, "that a freedman of his,
+named Cleonicus, had, by the command of Nero, prepared poison for his
+master, who escaped it, either from the discovery made by the
+freedman, or from the caution inspired by his own apprehensions, as he
+supported nature by a diet perfectly simple, satisfying the cravings
+of hunger by wild fruits, and the solicitations of thirst from the
+running brook."
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE BURNING OF THE CAPITOL AT ROME[125]
+
+(69 A.D.)
+
+
+Martialis had scarcely reentered the Capitol when the furious soldiers
+appeared before it, without a general, and each man acting on his own
+suggestions. Having rapidly passed the forum, and the temples that
+overlook it, they marched up the opposite hill, as far as the first
+gates of the citadel. On the right side of the ascent, a range of
+porticoes had been built in ancient times. Going out upon the roof of
+those, the besieged threw a shower of stones and tiles. The assailants
+had no weapons but their swords, and to fetch engines and missiles
+seemed a tedious delay. They threw brands into the portico that jutted
+near them. They followed up the fire, and would have forced their way
+through the gate of the Capitol, which the fire had laid hold of, if
+Sabinus had not placed as a barrier in the very approach, in lieu of a
+wall, the statues, those honorable monuments of our ancestors, which
+were pulled down wherever they could be found. They then assaulted the
+Capitol in two different quarters near the grove of the asylum, and
+where the Tarpeian rock is ascended by a hundred steps. Both attacks
+were unforeseen.
+
+That by the asylum was the nearer and most vigorous. Nor could they be
+stopt from climbing up the contiguous buildings, which being raised
+high under the idea of undisturbed peace, reach the basement of the
+Capitol. Here a doubt exists whether the fire was thrown upon the
+roofs by the storming party or the besieged, the latter being more
+generally supposed to have done it, to repulse those who were climbing
+up, and had advanced some way. The fire extended itself thence to the
+porticoes adjoining the temples; soon the eagles that supported the
+cupola caught fire, and as the timber was old they fed the flame. Thus
+the Capitol, with its gates shut, neither stormed, nor defended, was
+burned to the ground.
+
+From the foundation of the city to that hour, the Roman republic had
+felt no calamity so deplorable, so shocking, as that, unassailed by a
+foreign enemy, and, were it not for the vices of the age, with the
+deities propitious, the temple of Jupiter supremely good and great,
+built by our ancestors with solemn auspices, the pledge of empire,
+which neither Porsena,[126] when Rome surrendered to his arms, nor the
+Gauls,[127] when they captured the city, were permitted to violate,
+should be now demolished by the madness of the rulers of the state.
+The Capitol was once before destroyed by fire during a civil war; but
+it was from the guilty machinations of private individuals. Now it
+was besieged publicly, publicly set fire to; and what were the motives
+for the war? what was the object to be gained, that so severe a
+calamity was incurred? Warred we in our country's cause?--Tarquinius
+Priscus, during the war with the Sabines, built it in fulfillment of a
+vow, and laid the foundations more in conformity with his
+anticipations of the future grandeur of the empire, than the limited
+extent of the Roman means at that time. Servius Tullius, assisted by
+the zeal of the allies of Rome, and after him Tarquin the Proud, with
+the spoils of Suessa Pometia, added to the building. But the glory of
+completing the design was reserved for the era of liberty. When
+tyrants were swept away, Horatius Pulvilus, in his second consulship,
+dedicated the temple, finished with such magnificence that the wealth
+of after ages graced it with new embellishments, but added nothing to
+its dimensions. Four hundred and fifteen years afterward, in the
+consulship of Lucius Scipio and Caius Norbanus, it was burned to the
+ground, and again rebuilt on the old foundation. Sulla having now
+triumphed over his opponents, undertook to build it, but nevertheless
+did not dedicate it; the only thing wanting to crown his felicity.
+That honor was reserved for Lutatius Catulus, whose name, amidst so
+many works of the Cæsars, remained legible till the days of Vitellius.
+Such was the sacred building which was at this time reduced to ashes.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE SIEGE OF CREMONA[128]
+
+(69 A.D.)
+
+
+When they came to Cremona, they found a new and enormous difficulty.
+In the war with Otho, the German legions had formed a camp round the
+walls of the town, and fortified it with lines of circumvallation. New
+works were added afterward. The victors stood astonished at the sight,
+and even the generals were at a stand, undecided what orders to give.
+With troops harassed by exertions through the night and day, to carry
+the place by storm was difficult, and, without succors at hand, might
+be dangerous; but if they marched to Bedriacum, the fatigue would be
+insupportable, and the victory would end in nothing. To throw up
+intrenchments was dangerous, in the face of an enemy, who might
+suddenly sally forth and put them to the rout, while employed on the
+work in detached parties. A difficulty still greater than all arose
+from the temper of the men, more patient of danger than delay:
+inasmuch as a state of security afforded no excitement, while hope
+grew out of enterprise, however perilous; and carnage, wounds and
+blood, to whatever extent, were counterbalanced by the insatiable
+desire of plunder.
+
+Antonius[129] determined upon the latter course and ordered the
+rampart to be invested. The attack began at a distance with a volley
+of stones and darts, with the greater loss to the Flavians, on whom
+the enemy's weapons were thrown with advantage from above. Antonius
+presently assigned portions of the rampart and the gates to the
+legions that by this mode of attack in different quarters, valor and
+cowardice might be distinguished, and a spirit of emulation in honor
+animate the army. The third and seventh legions took their station
+nearest the road to Bedriacum; the seventh and eighth Claudian, a
+portion more to the right hand of the rampart; the thirteenth were
+carried by their own impetuosity to the gate that looked toward
+Brixia.[130] Some delay then took place while they supplied themselves
+from the neighboring villages with pickaxes, spades, and hooks, and
+scaling-ladders. They then formed a close military shell with their
+shields raised above their heads, and under that cover advanced to the
+ramparts. The Roman art of war was seen on both sides. The Vitellians
+rolled down massy stones, with which, having disjoined and shaken the
+shell, they inserted their long poles and spears; till at last, the
+whole frame and texture of the shields being dissolved, they strewed
+the ground with numbers of the crusht and mangled assailants....
+
+Severe in the extreme was the conflict maintained by the third and
+the seventh legions. Antonius in person led on a select body of
+auxiliaries to the same quarter. The Vitellians were no longer able to
+sustain the shock of men all bent on victory, and seeing their darts
+fall on the military shell, and glide off without effect, at last they
+rolled down their battering-engine on the heads of the besiegers. For
+the moment, it dispersed and overwhelmed the party among which, it
+fell; but it also drew after it, in its fall, the battlements and
+upper parts of the rampart. An adjoining tower, at the same time,
+yielded to the effect of stones which struck it, and left a breach, at
+which the seventh legion, in the form of a wedge, endeavored to force
+their way, while the third hewed down the gate with axes and swords.
+The first man that entered, according to all historians, was Caius
+Volusius, a common soldier of the third legion. He gained the summit
+of the rampart, and, bearing down all resistance, in the view of all
+beckoned with his hand, and cried aloud that the camp was captured.
+The rest of the legion followed him with resistless fury, the
+Vitellians being panic-struck, and throwing themselves headlong from
+the works. The whole space between the camp and the walls of Cremona
+was filled with slain.[131]
+
+And now a new form of difficulty was presented by the high walls of
+the city, and towers of stone, the gates secured by iron bars, and
+troops brandishing their arms; the inhabitants, a large and numerous
+body, all devoted to Vitellius; and a conflux of people from all parts
+of Italy at the stated fair which was then held. The latter was
+regarded by the garrison as an aid, from the increase of numbers; but
+inflamed the ardor of the besiegers on the score of booty. Antonius
+ordered his men to take combustibles, and set fire to the most elegant
+edifices without the city; if, peradventure, the inhabitants, seeing
+their mansions destroyed, would be induced to abandon the adverse
+cause. In the houses that stood near the walls, of a height to
+overlook the works, he placed the bravest of his troops; and from
+those stations beams, tiles and firebrands were thrown down to drive
+the defenders of the walls from their posts.
+
+The legions under Antonius now formed a military shell, while the rest
+poured in a volley of stones and darts; when the spirit of the
+besieged gradually gave way. The men highest in rank were willing to
+make terms for themselves, lest, if Cremona was taken by storm, they
+should receive no quarter, and the conquerors, disdaining vulgar
+lives, should fall on the tribunes and centurions, from whom the
+largest booty was to be expected. The common men, as usual, careless
+about future events, and safe in their obscurity, still held out.
+Roaming about the streets, or lurking in private houses, they did not
+sue for peace even when they had given up the contest. The principal
+officers took down the name and images of Vitellius. Cæcina, for he
+was still in confinement, they released from his fetters, and desired
+his aid in pleading their cause with the conqueror. He heard their
+petition with disdain, swelling with insolence, while they importuned
+him with tears; the last stage of human misery, when so many brave
+and gallant men were obliged to sue to a traitor for protection! They
+then hung out from the walls the fillets and badges of supplicants.
+When Antonius ordered a cessation of hostilities, the garrison brought
+out their eagles and standards; a mournful train of soldiers without
+their aims, their eyes riveted to the ground, followed them. The
+conquerors gathered round them, and first heaped reproaches upon them,
+and threatened violence to their persons; but afterward, when they saw
+the passiveness with which they received the insults, and that the
+vanquished, abandoning all their former pride, submitted to every
+indignity, the thought occurred that these very men lately conquered
+at Bedriacum, and used their victory with moderation. But when Cæcina
+came forth, decorated with his robes, and preceded by his lictors, who
+opened a way for him through the crowd, the indignation of the victors
+burst into a flame. They reproached him for his pride, his cruelty,
+and even for his treachery: so detested is villainy. Antonius opposed
+the fury of his men, and sent him under escort to Vespasian.
+
+Meanwhile, the common people of Cremona, in the midst of so many
+soldiers, were subjected to grievous oppressions, and were in danger
+of being all put to the sword, if the rage of the soldiery had not
+been assuaged by the entreaties of their leaders. Antonius called them
+to an assembly, when he spoke of the conquerors in lofty terms, and of
+the vanquished with humanity; of Cremona he said nothing either way.
+But the army, adding to their love of plunder an inveterate aversion
+to the people, were bent on the extirpation of the inhabitants. In
+the war against Otho they were deemed the abettors of Vitellius; and
+afterward, when the thirteenth legion was left among them to build an
+amphitheater, with the usual insolence of the lower orders in towns,
+they had assailed them with offensive ribaldry. The spectacle of
+gladiators exhibited there by Cæcina inflamed the animosity against
+the people. Their city, too, was now for the second time the seat of
+war; and, in the heat of the last engagement, the Vitellians were
+thence supplied with refreshments; and some of their women, led into
+the field of battle by their zeal for the cause, were slain. The
+period, too, of the fair had given to a colony otherwise affluent an
+imposing appearance of accumulated wealth. Antonius, by his fame and
+brilliant success, eclipsed all the other commanders: the attention of
+all was fixt on him alone. He hastened to the baths to wash off the
+blood; and on observing that the water was not hot enough, he said
+that they would soon grow hotter. The expression was caught up: a
+casual word among slaves had the effect of throwing upon him the whole
+odium of having given a signal for setting fire to Cremona, which was
+already in flames.
+
+Forty thousand armed men had poured into it. The number of drudges and
+camp-followers was still greater, and more abandoned to lust and
+cruelty. Neither age nor dignity served as a protection; deeds of lust
+were perpetrated amidst scenes of carnage, and murder was added to
+rape. Aged men and women that had passed their prime, and who were
+useless as booty, were made the objects of brutal sport. If a mature
+maiden, or any one of comely appearance, fell in their way, after
+being torn piecemeal by the rude hands of contending ruffians, they at
+last were the occasion of their turning their swords against each
+other. While eagerly carrying off money or massy gold from the
+temples, they were butchered by others stronger than themselves. Not
+content with the treasures that lay open to their view, some forced
+the owners to discover their hidden wealth, and dig up their buried
+riches. Numbers carried flaming torches, and, as soon as they had
+brought forth their booty, in their wanton sport set the gutted houses
+and plundered temples on fire. In an army differing in language and
+manners, composed of Roman citizens, allies, and foreign auxiliaries,
+all the diversities of passions were exhibited. Each had his separate
+notions of right and wrong; nor was anything unlawful. Four days did
+Cremona minister to their rapacity. When everything else, sacred and
+profane, was leveled in the conflagration, the temple of Memphitis
+alone remained standing, outside of the walls; saved either by its
+situation, or the influence of the deity.
+
+Such was the fate of Cremona, two hundred and eighty-six years from
+its foundation. It was built during the consulship of Tiberius
+Sempronius and Publius Cornelius, at the time when Hannibal threatened
+an irruption into Italy, as a bulwark against the Gauls inhabiting
+beyond the Po, or any other power that might break in over the Alps.
+The colony, as might be expected, grew and flourished in the number of
+its settlers, from the contiguity of rivers, the fertility of its
+soil, from alliances and intermarriages with the neighboring people;
+never having suffered from foreign wars, but a sad sufferer from civil
+dissensions. Antonius, shrinking from the infamy of this horrible
+transaction (for the detestation it excited was increasing), issued an
+edict forbidding all manner of persons to detain the citizens of
+Cremona as prisoners of war. At the same time the booty was rendered
+valueless by a resolution adopted throughout Italy, not to purchase
+the captives taken on that occasion. The soldiers then began to murder
+them. However, when this was known, the prisoners were eagerly
+ransomed by their friends and relations. The survivors in a short time
+returned to Cremona. The temples and public places were rebuilt, at
+the recommendation of Vespasian, by the munificence of the burgesses.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+AGRICOLA[132]
+
+
+Cnæus Julius Agricola was born at the ancient and illustrious colony
+of Forum Julii. Both his grandfathers were imperial procurators, an
+office which confers the rank of equestrian nobility. His father,
+Julius Græcinus, of the senatorian order, was famous for the study of
+eloquence and philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on
+himself the displeasure of Caius Cæsar,[133] for, being commanded to
+undertake the accusation of Marcus Silanus--on his refusal, he was
+put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of exemplary
+chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, he passed his
+childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. He was
+preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally good
+disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at
+Massilia;[134] a place where Grecian politeness and provincial
+frugality are happily united. I remember he was used to relate, that
+in his early youth he should have engaged with more ardor in
+philosophical speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a senator,
+had not the prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and vehemence
+of his disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed by the
+charms of glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with
+more eagerness than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his
+warmth; and from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most
+difficult to compass--moderation.
+
+He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus,
+an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent companion,
+in order to form an estimate of his merit. Nor did Agricola, like many
+young men, who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail
+himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or his
+inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty;
+but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of the country, making
+himself known to the army, learning from the experienced, and
+imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed through vainglory,
+nor declining it through timidity; and performing his duty with equal
+solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was Britain more
+agitated or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans
+slaughtered, our colonies burned, our armies cut off--we were then
+contending for safety, afterward for victory. During this period,
+altho all things were transacted under the conduct and direction of
+another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of
+recovering the province, fell to the general's share, yet they
+imparted to the young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and
+the passion for military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful
+to the times, in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great
+reputation was no less dangerous than a bad one.
+
+Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he
+married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which
+connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater
+things. They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection;
+each giving the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in
+both, except that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, in
+proportion as a bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of
+questorship gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul Salvius
+Titianus[135] for his superior; by neither of which circumstances was
+he corrupted, altho the province was wealthy and open to plunder, and
+the proconsul, from his rapacious disposition, would readily have
+agreed to a mutual concealment of guilt. His family was there
+increased by the birth of a daughter, who was both the support of his
+house, and his consolation; for he lost an elder-born son in
+infancy....
+
+On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian to
+the patrician order, and then invested with the government of
+Aquitania, a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office
+itself, and the hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is
+a common supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous
+and summary processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong
+hand, are deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in
+civil jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was
+enabled to act with facility and precision even among civilians. He
+distinguished the hours of business from those of relaxation. When the
+court or tribunal demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful,
+yet generally inclined to lenity. When the duties of his office were
+over, the man of power was instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness,
+arrogance, or rapaciousness appeared; and, what was a singular
+felicity, his affability did not impair his authority, nor his
+severity render him less beloved. To mention integrity and freedom
+from corruption in such a man, would be an affront to his virtues. He
+did not even court reputation, an object to which men of worth
+frequently sacrifice, by ostentation or artifice: equally avoiding
+competition with his colleagues, and contention with the procurators.
+To overcome in such a contest he thought inglorious; and to be put
+down, a disgrace. Somewhat less than three years were spent in this
+office, when he was recalled to the immediate prospect of the
+consulate; while at the same time a popular opinion prevailed that the
+government of Britain would be conferred upon him; an opinion not
+founded upon any suggestions of his own, but upon his being thought
+equal to the station. Common fame does not always err, sometimes it
+even directs a choice. When Consul,[136] he contracted his daughter, a
+lady already of the happiest promise, to myself, then a very young
+man; and after his office was expired I received her in marriage. He
+was immediately appointed governor of Britain, and the pontificate was
+added to his other dignities....
+
+His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his
+friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had
+no personal knowledge of him. The common people too, and the class who
+little interest themselves about public concerns, were frequent in
+their inquiries at his house during his sickness, and made him the
+subject of conversation at the forum and in private circles; nor did
+any person either rejoice at the news of his death, or speedily forget
+it. Their commiseration was aggravated by a prevailing report that he
+was taken off by poison. I can not venture to affirm anything certain
+of this matter; yet, during the whole course of his illness, the
+principal of the imperial freedmen and the most confidential of the
+physicians was sent much more frequently than was customary with a
+court whose visits were chiefly paid by messages; whether that was
+done out of real solicitude, or for the purposes of state inquisition.
+On the day of his decease, it is certain that accounts of his
+approaching dissolution were every instant transmitted to the emperor
+by couriers stationed for the purpose; and no one believed that the
+information, which so much pains was taken to accelerate, could be
+received with regret. He put on, however, in his countenance and
+demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he was now secured from an
+object of hatred, and could more easily conceal his joy than his fear.
+It was well known that on reading the will, in which he was nominated
+co-heir with the excellent wife and most dutiful daughter of Agricola,
+he exprest great satisfaction, as if it had been a voluntary testimony
+of honor and esteem: so blind and corrupt had his mind been rendered
+by continual adulation, that he was ignorant none but a bad prince
+could be nominated heir to a good father.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 101: "If by eloquence is meant the ability to persuade, then
+Tacitus," according to Cruttwell, "is the most eloquent historian that
+ever existed." His portraits, especially those of Tiberius and Nero,
+have been severely criticized by French and English writers, but while
+his verdicts have been shaken, they have not been reversed. The world
+still fails to doubt their substantial reality. Tacitus, adds
+Cruttwell, has probably exercised upon readers a greater power than
+any other writer of prose whom Rome produced.]
+
+[Footnote 102: From Book I of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Marcellus was the son of Octavia by her husband C.
+Claudius Marcellus. He married Julia, a daughter of Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Agrippa was the leading administrative mind under
+Augustus, with whom he had served in the Civil War and in the battle
+Actium. The Pantheon, the only complete building of Imperial Rome that
+still survives, was finished and dedicated by him. He married as his
+third wife Julia, the widow of Marcellus.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Nola lay sixteen miles northeast of Naples. The
+reference is to Drusus, son of Tiberius, and to Germanicus, at that
+time commanding on the Rhine.]
+
+[Footnote 106: From Book III of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 107: This Agrippina was the daughter of Agrippa and Julia.
+She married Germanicus, became the mother of Caligula, and was a woman
+of lofty character, who died by voluntary starvation after having been
+exiled by Tiberius.]
+
+[Footnote 108: It has been conjectured that the two children of
+Germanicus here referred to were Caligula, who had gone to the East
+with his father, and Julia, who was born in Lesbos.]
+
+[Footnote 109: These children were Nero, Drusus, Agrippina and
+Drusilla.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Not the Emperor of that name, who was not born until
+121 A.D.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Mother of Tiberius by a husband whom she had married
+before she married Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Julia, daughter of Julius Cæsar by his wife Cornelia.]
+
+[Footnote 113: From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Caius Piso, lender of an unsuccessful conspiracy
+against Nero in 65. Other famous Romans of the name of Piso are
+Lucius, censor, consul and author; another Lucius whose daughter was
+married to Julius Cæsar; and Cneius, governor of Syria, who was
+accused of murdering Germanicus.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Poppæa Sabina, who once was the wife of Otho and
+mistress of Nero. She was afterward divorced from Otho and married to
+Nero in 62 A.D. She died from the effects of a kick given by Nero.]
+
+[Footnote 116: From Book XV at the "Annals." The Oxford translator
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Nero.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Suetonius relates that, when some one repeated to Nero
+the line "When I am dead, let fire devour the world," he replied, "Let
+it be whilst I am living." That author asserts that Nero's purpose
+sprung in part from his dislike of old buildings and narrow streets.
+During the progress of the fire several men of consular rank met
+Nero's domestic servants with torches and combustibles which they were
+using to start fires, but did not dare to stay their hands. Livy
+asserts that, after it was destroyed by the Gauls, Rome had been
+rebuilt with narrow winding streets.]
+
+[Footnote 119: A city in the central Apennines, six miles from Lake
+Fucinus.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Near the Esquiline.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The house, gardens, baths and the Pantheon of Agrippa
+are here referred to. Nero's gardens were near the Vatican.]
+
+[Footnote 122: The palace of Numa, on the Palatine hill, had been the
+mansion of Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Carlyle, in his essay on Voltaire, refers to this
+passage as having been "inserted as a small, transitory, altogether
+trifling circumstance, in the history of such a potentate as Nero";
+but it has become "to us the most earnest, sad and sternly significant
+passage that we know to exist in writing."]
+
+[Footnote 124: Claudius already had expelled the Jews from Rome and
+included in their number the followers of Christ. But his edict was
+not specifically directed against the Christians. Nero was the first
+emperor who persecuted them as professors of a new faith.]
+
+[Footnote 125: From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Pliny, Josephus and Dio all agree that the Capitol was set on
+fire by the followers of Vitellius.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Porsena did not actually get into Rome, being induced
+to raise the siege when only at its gates.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The capture of Rome by the Gauls under Brennus took
+place in 390 B.C. The destruction of the Capitol in the first Civil
+War occurred in 83 B.C., during the consulship of Lucius Scipio and
+Caius Norbaius. The fire was not started as an act of open violence,
+however, but by clandestine incendiaries.]
+
+[Footnote 128: From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Near Cremona had been fought the first battle of Bedriacum by
+the armies of Vitellius and Otho, rivals for the imperial throne, Otho
+being defeated. A few months later on the same field the army of
+Vitellius was overthrown by Vespasian, who succeeded him as emperor.
+Vitellius retired to Cremona, which was then placed under siege by
+Vespasian, and altho strongly fortified, captured.]
+
+[Footnote 129: Antonius Primus, the chief commander of Vespasian's
+forces.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The modern Brescia.]
+
+[Footnote 131: According to Josephus 30,000 of the Vitellians perished
+and 4,500 of the followers of Vespasian.]
+
+[Footnote 132: From the Oxford translation revised.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Caligula, not Caius Julius Cæsar, is here referred to,
+he also having borne the name of Caius.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Now Marseilles, founded by Phoenicians, who
+introduced, there a degree of Greek culture which long made the city
+famous.]
+
+[Footnote 135: A brother of the Emperor Otho.]
+
+[Footnote 136: Agricola was Consul in 77 A.D., and had for colleague
+Domitian, afterward Emperor.]
+
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER
+
+     Born at Como, in 63 A.D.; died in 113; nephew of the elder
+     Pliny; Consul in 100; governor of Bithynia and Pontus in
+     111; friend of Trajan and Tacitus; his letters and a eulogy
+     of Trajan alone among his writings have survived.
+
+
+I
+
+OF THE CHRISTIANS IN HIS PROVINCE[137]
+
+
+It is my invariable rule, Sir, to refer to you in all matters where I
+feel doubtful; for who is more capable of removing my scruples, or
+informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials
+concerning those who profess Christianity, I am unacquainted not only
+with the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their punishment,
+but how far it is proper to enter into an examination concerning them.
+Whether, therefore, any difference is usually made with respect to
+ages, or no distinction is to be observed between the young and the
+adult; whether repentance entitles them to a pardon; or if a man has
+been once a Christian, it avails nothing to desist from his error;
+whether the very profession of Christianity, unattended with any
+criminal act, or only the crimes themselves inherent in the profession
+are punishable; on all these points I am in great doubt. In the
+meanwhile, the method I have observed toward those who have been
+brought before me as Christians is this: I asked them whether they
+were Christians; if they admitted it, I repeated the question twice,
+and threatened them with punishment; if they persisted, I ordered them
+to be at once punished: for I was persuaded whatever the nature of
+their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible obstinacy
+certainly deserved correction. There were others also brought before
+me possest with the same infatuation, but being Roman citizens I
+directed them to be sent to Rome.
+
+But this crime spreading (as is usually the case) while it was
+actually under prosecution, several instances of the same nature
+occurred. An anonymous information was laid before me, containing a
+charge against several persons, who upon examination denied they were
+Christians, or had ever been so. They repeated after me an invocation
+to the gods, and offered religious rites with wine and incense before
+your statue (which for that purpose I had ordered to be brought,
+together with those of the gods), and even reviled the name of Christ:
+whereas there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really
+Christians into any of these compliances: I thought it proper,
+therefore, to discharge them. Some among those who were accused by a
+witness in person at first confest themselves Christians but
+immediately after denied it; the rest owned indeed that they had been
+of that number formerly, but had now (some above three, others more,
+and a few above twenty years ago) renounced that error. They all
+worshiped your statue and the images of the gods, uttering
+imprecations at the same time against the name of Christ. They
+affirmed the whole of their guilt of their error, was, that they met
+on a stated day before it was light, and addrest a form of prayer to
+Christ, as to a divinity, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for
+the purposes of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud,
+theft, or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when
+they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their
+custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless
+meal. From this custom, however, they desisted after the publication
+of my edict, by which, according to your commands, I forbade the
+meeting of any assemblies.
+
+After receiving this account, I judged it so much the more necessary
+to endeavor to extort the real truth by putting two female slaves to
+the torture, who were said to officiate in their religious rites: but
+all I could discover was evidence of an absurd and extravagant
+superstition. I deemed it expedient, therefore, to adjourn all further
+proceedings, in order to consult you. For it appears to be a matter
+highly deserving your consideration, more especially as great numbers
+must be involved in the danger of these prosecutions, which have
+already extended, and are still likely to extend, to persons of all
+ranks and ages, and even of both sexes. In fact, this contagious
+superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its
+infection among the neighboring villages and country. Nevertheless, it
+still seems possible to restrain its progress. The temples, at least,
+which were once almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the
+sacred rites, after a long intermission, are again revived; while
+there is a general demand for the victims, which till lately found
+very few purchasers. From all this it is easy to conjecture what
+numbers might be reclaimed if a general pardon were granted to those
+who shall repent of their error.[138]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+TO TACITUS ON THE ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS[139]
+
+(79 A.D.)
+
+
+Your request that I would send you an account of my uncle's[140]
+death, in order to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity,
+deserves my acknowledgments; for, if this accident shall be celebrated
+by your pen, the glory of it, I am well assured, will be rendered
+forever illustrious. And notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune,
+which, as it involved at the same time a most beautiful country in
+ruins, and destroyed so many populous cities, seems to promise him an
+everlasting remembrance; notwithstanding he has himself composed many
+and lasting works; yet I am persuaded the mentioning of him in your
+immortal writings will greatly contribute to render his name immortal.
+
+He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum.[141]
+On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired
+him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and
+shape. He had just taken a turn in the sun, and, after bathing
+himself in cold water, and making a light luncheon, gone back to his
+books: he immediately arose and went out upon a rising ground from
+whence he might get a better sight of this very uncommon appearance. A
+cloud, from which mountain was uncertain, at this distance (but it was
+found afterward to come from Mount Vesuvius),[142] was ascending, the
+appearance of which I can not give you a more exact description of
+than by likening it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up to a great
+height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at
+the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, I imagine, either by a
+sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which decreased as
+it advanced upward, or the cloud itself being prest back again by its
+own weight, expanded in the manner I have mentioned; it appeared
+sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted according as it was
+either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. This
+phenomenon seemed to a man of such learning and research as my uncle
+extraordinary and worth further looking into. He ordered a light
+vessel to be got ready, and gave me leave, if I liked, to accompany
+him. I said I had rather go on with my work; and it so happened he had
+himself given me something to write out.
+
+As he was coming out of the house, he received a note from Rectina,
+the wife of Bassus, who was in the utmost alarm at the imminent danger
+which threatened her; for her villa lying at the foot of Mount
+Vesuvius, there was no way of escape but by sea; she earnestly
+entreated him therefore to come to her assistance. He accordingly
+changed his first intention and what he had begun from a
+philosophical, he now carries out in a noble and generous spirit. He
+ordered the galleys to put to sea and went himself on board with an
+intention of assisting not only Rectina but the several other towns
+which lay thickly strewn along that beautiful coast. Hastening then to
+the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered
+his course direct to the point of danger, and with so much calmness
+and presence of mind as to be able to make and dictate his
+observations upon the motion and all the phenomena of that dreadful
+scene. He was now so close to the mountain that the cinders, which
+grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships,
+together with pumice stones, and black pieces of burning rock: they
+were in danger too not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of
+the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the
+mountains, and obstructed all the shore. Here he stopt to consider
+whether he should turn back again; to which the pilot advising him,
+"Fortune," said he, "favors the brave; steer to where Pomponianus is."
+Pomponianus was then at Stabiæ,[143] separated by a bay, which the
+sea, after several insensible windings, forms with the shore. He had
+already sent his baggage on board; for tho he was not at that time in
+actual danger, yet being within sight of it, and indeed extremely
+near, if it should in the least increase, he was determined to put to
+sea as soon as the wind, which was blowing dead in-shore, should go
+down.
+
+It was favorable, however, for carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom
+he found in the greatest consternation: he embraced him tenderly,
+encouraging and urging him to keep up his spirits, and the more
+effectually to soothe his fears by seeming unconcerned himself,
+ordered a bath to be got ready, and then, after having bathed, sat
+down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at least (what is just as
+heroic) with every appearance of it. Meanwhile broad flames shone out
+in several places from Mount Vesuvius, which the darkness of the night
+contributed to render still brighter and clearer. But my uncle, in
+order to soothe the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was
+only the burning of the villages, which the country people had
+abandoned to the flames: after this he retired to rest, and it is most
+certain he was so little disquieted as to fall into a sound sleep: for
+his breathing, which, on account of his corpulence, was rather heavy
+and sonorous, was heard by the attendants outside. The court which led
+to his apartment being now almost filled with stones and ashes, if he
+had continued there any time longer, it would have been impossible for
+him to have made his way out. So he was awoke and got up, and went to
+Pomponianus and the rest of his company, who were feeling too anxious
+to think of going to bed. They consulted together whether it would be
+most prudent to trust to the houses, which now rocked from side to
+side with frequent and violent concussions as tho shaken from their
+very foundations; or fly to the open fields, where the calcined stones
+and cinders, tho light indeed yet fell in large showers, and
+threatened destruction. In this choice of dangers they resolved for
+the fields: a resolution which, while the rest of the company were
+hurried into by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and
+deliberate consideration. They went out then, having pillows tied upon
+their heads with napkins; and this was their whole defense against the
+storm of stones that fell round them.
+
+It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness prevailed
+than in the thickest night; which however was in some degree
+alleviated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They thought
+proper to go farther down upon the shore to see if they might safely
+put out to sea, but found the waves still running extremely high, and
+boisterous. There my uncle, laying himself down upon a sail-cloth,
+which was spread for him, called twice for some cold water, which he
+drank, when immediately the flames, preceded by a strong whiff of
+sulfur, dispersed the rest of the party, and obliged him to rise. He
+raised himself up with the assistance of two of his servants, and
+instantly fell down dead; suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross
+and noxious vapor, having always had a weak throat, which was often
+inflamed. As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third
+day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and
+without any marks of violence upon it, in the dress in which he fell,
+and looking more like a man asleep than dead....
+
+My uncle having left us,[144] I spent such time as was left on my
+studies (it was on their account indeed that I had stopt behind), till
+it was time for my bath. After which I went to supper, and then fell
+into a short and uneasy sleep. There had been noticed for many days
+before a trembling of the earth, which did not alarm us much, as this
+is quite an ordinary occurrence in Campania; but it was so
+particularly violent that night that it not only shook but actually
+overturned, as it would seem, everything about us. My mother rushed
+into my chamber, where she found me rising, in order to awaken her. We
+sat down in the open court of the house, which occupied a small space
+between the buildings and the sea. As I was at that time but eighteen
+years of age, I know not whether I should call my behavior, in this
+dangerous juncture, courage or folly; but I took up Livy, and amused
+myself with turning over that author, and even making extracts from
+him, as if I had been perfectly at my leisure. Just then, a friend of
+my uncle's, who had lately come to him from Spain, joined us, and
+observing me sitting by my mother with a book in my hand, reproved her
+for her calmness, and me at the same time for my careless security:
+nevertheless I went on with my author.
+
+Tho it was now morning, the light was still exceedingly faint and
+doubtful; the buildings all around us tottered, and tho we stood upon
+open ground, yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining without imminent danger: we therefore resolved to quit the
+town.
+
+A panic-stricken crowd followed us, and (as to a mind distracted with
+terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its own) prest on us
+in dense array to drive us forward as we came out. Being at a
+convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a
+most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we had ordered
+to be drawn out, were so agitated backward and forward, tho upon the
+most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by
+supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon
+itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain at least the shore was considerably enlarged,
+and several sea animals were left upon it. On the other side, a black
+and dreadful cloud, broken with rapid, zigzag flashes, revealed behind
+it variously shaped masses of flame: these last were like
+sheet-lightning, but much larger. Upon this our Spanish friend, whom I
+mentioned above, addressing himself to my mother and me with great
+energy and urgency: "If your brother," he said, "if your uncle be
+safe, he certainly wishes you may be so too; but if he perished, it
+was his desire, no doubt, that you might both survive him: why
+therefore do you delay your escape a moment?" We could never think of
+our own safety, we said, while we were uncertain of his. Upon this our
+friend left us, and withdrew from the danger with the utmost
+precipitation. Soon afterward, the cloud began to descend, and cover
+the sea. It had already surrounded and concealed the island of
+Capreæ.[145]
+
+My mother now besought, urged, even commanded me to make my escape at
+any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself,
+she said, her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sort
+impossible; however she would willingly meet death if she could have
+the satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But
+I absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand,
+compelled her to go with me. She complied with great reluctance, and
+not without many reproaches to herself for retarding my flight. The
+ashes now began to fall upon us, tho in no great quantity. I looked
+back; a dense dark mist seemed to be following us, spreading itself
+over the country like a cloud. "Let us turn out of the high-road," I
+said, "while we can still see, for fear that, should we fall in the
+road, we should be prest to death in the dark, by the crowds that are
+following us." We had scarcely sat down when night came upon us, not
+such as we have when the sky is cloudy, or when there is no moon, but
+that of a room when it is shut up, and all the lights put out. You
+might hear the shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the
+shouts of men; some calling for their children, others for their
+parents, others for their husbands, and seeking to recognize each
+other by the voices that replied; one lamenting his own fate, another
+that of his family; some wishing to die, from the very fear of dying;
+some lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part convinced
+that there were now no gods at all, and that the final endless night
+of which we have heard had come upon the world. Among these there
+were some who augmented the real terrors by others imaginary or
+wilfully invented. I remember some who declared that one part of
+Misenum had fallen, that another was on fire; it was false, but they
+found people to believe them. It now grew rather lighter, which we
+imagined to be rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames
+(as in truth it was) than the return of day: however, the fire fell at
+a distance from us: then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and
+a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every
+now and then to stand up to shake off, otherwise we should have been
+crusht and buried in the heap.
+
+I might boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh, or
+expression of fear, escaped me, had not my support been grounded in
+that miserable, tho mighty, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity and that I was perishing with the world
+itself. At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like
+a cloud or smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun shone out,
+tho with a lurid light, like when an eclipse is coming on. Every
+object that presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely
+weakened) seemed changed, being covered deep with ashes as if with
+snow. My mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we had passed, and
+that which still threatened us, had no thoughts of leaving the place,
+till we could receive some news of my uncle.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 137: Addrest to the Emperor Trajan while proconsul in Pontus
+and Bithynia. The Melmoth translation revised by Bosanquet. This
+letter and the passage in Tacitus printed elsewhere in this volume,
+are the only genuine contemporary references to the early Christians
+to be found in ancient writings. Pliny's letter was preserved by the
+Christians themselves as evidence of the purity of their faith and
+practises. Early writers of the Church frequently appeal to it against
+calumniators. It was written within forty years of the death of St.
+Paul.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Trajan's reply to this letter was as follows: "You have
+adopted the right course, my dearest Secundus, in investigating the
+charges against the Christians who were brought before you. It is not
+possible to lay down any general rule for all such cases. Do not go
+out of your way to look for them. If indeed they should be brought
+before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished; with the
+restriction, however, that where the party denies he is a Christian,
+and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let
+him (notwithstanding any former suspicion) be pardoned upon his
+repentance. Anonymous information ought not to be received in any sort
+of prosecution. It is introducing a very dangerous precedent and is
+quite foreign to the spirit of our age."]
+
+[Footnote 139: The translation of William Melmoth, revised by F. C. T.
+Bosanquet. Pliny wrote two letters to Tacitus on this subject, each at
+the request of the historian. Both are given here.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Pliny the elder was his uncle.]
+
+[Footnote 141: In the Bay of Naples.]
+
+[Footnote 142: About six miles distant from Naples. This eruption of
+Vesuvius, in which Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried, happened A.D.
+79, in the first year of the emperor Titus.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Now called Castellammare, in the Bay of Naples, about
+fifteen miles southeast of the city of Naples.]
+
+[Footnote 144: The paragraphs from this point to the end are from
+Pliny's second letter to Tacitus.]
+
+[Footnote 145: The island near Naples, now called Capri.]
+
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS
+
+     Lived in the first half of the second century A.D.;
+     biographer and historian; private secretary of the emperor
+     Hadrian about 119-121; a friend of the younger Pliny, whom
+     he accompanied to Bithynia in 112; wrote several works, of
+     which only His "Lives of the Twelve Cæsars" have survived.
+
+
+I
+
+THE LAST DAYS OF AUGUSTUS[146]
+
+(14 A.D.)
+
+
+His death, of which I shall now speak, and his subsequent deification,
+were intimated by divers manifest prodigies. As he was finishing the
+census amidst a great crowd of people in the Campus Martius, an eagle
+hovered round him several times, and then directed its course to a
+neighboring temple, where it settled upon the name of Agrippa, and at
+the first letter. Upon observing this, he ordered his colleague
+Tiberius to put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such
+occasions, for the succeeding Lustrum. For he declared he would not
+meddle with what it was probable he should never accomplish, tho the
+tables were ready drawn for it. About the same time, the first letter
+of his name, in an inscription upon one of his statues, was struck out
+by lightning; which was interpreted as a presage that he would live
+only a hundred days longer, the letter C denoting that number; and
+that he would be placed among the gods as Æsar, which in the remaining
+part of the word Cæsar, signifies, in the Tuscan language, a god.
+Being, therefore, about dispatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and
+designing to go with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained by
+several persons who applied to him respecting causes they had
+depending, he cried out (and it was afterward regarded as an omen of
+his death), "Not all the business in the world shall detain me at Rome
+one moment longer"; and setting out upon his journey, he went as far
+as Astura, whence, contrary to his custom, he put to sea in the
+night-time, as there was a favorable wind.
+
+His malady proceeded from diarrhea; notwithstanding which, he went
+round the coast of Campania, and the adjacent islands, and spent four
+days in that of Capri; where he gave himself up entirely to repose and
+relaxation. Happening to sail by the bay of Puteoli,[147] the
+passengers and mariners aboard a ship of Alexandria, just then
+arrived, clad all in white, with chaplets upon their heads, and
+offering incense, loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations,
+crying out, "By you we live, by you we sail securely, by you enjoy our
+liberty and our fortunes." At which being greatly pleased, he
+distributed to each of those who attended him, forty gold pieces,
+requiring from them an assurance on oath, not to employ the sum given
+them in any other way than the purchase of Alexandrian merchandise.
+And during several days afterward, he distributed Togæ and Pallia,
+among other gifts, on condition that the Romans should use the Greek
+and the Greeks the Roman dress and language. He likewise constantly
+attended to see the boys perform their exercises, according to an
+ancient custom still continued at Capri. He gave them likewise an
+entertainment in his presence, and not only permitted, but required
+from them the utmost freedom in jesting, and scrambling for fruit,
+victuals, and other things which he threw among them. In a word, he
+indulged himself in all the ways of amusement he could contrive....
+
+Upon the day of his death, he now and then inquired if there was any
+disturbance in the town on his account; and calling for a mirror, he
+ordered his hair to be combed, and his shrunk cheeks to be adjusted.
+Then asking his friends who were admitted into the room, "Do ye think
+that I have acted my part on the stage of life well?" he immediately
+subjoined,
+
+    "If all be right, with joy your voices raise,
+    In loud applauses to the actor's praise."
+
+After which, having dismissed them all, whilst he was inquiring of
+some persons who were just arrived from Rome, concerning Drusus's
+daughter, who was in a bad state of health, he expired suddenly,
+amidst the kisses of Livia, and with these words: "Livia! live mindful
+of our union; and now, farewell!" dying a very easy death, and such as
+he himself had always wished for. For as often as he heard that any
+person had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and
+his friends the like _euthanasia_ (an easy death), for that was the
+word he made use of. He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed
+his last, of being delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden
+much frightened, and complained that he was carried away by forty men.
+But this was rather a presage, than any delirium: for precisely that
+number of soldiers, belonging to the prætorian cohort, carried out his
+corpse.
+
+He expired in the same room in which his father Octavius had died,
+when the two Sextus's, Pompey and Apuleius, were Consuls, upon the
+fourteenth of the calends of September [the 19th August], at the ninth
+hour of the day, being seventy-six years of age, wanting only
+thirty-five days. His remains were carried by the magistrates of the
+municipal towns and colonies, from Nola to Bovillæ,[148] and in the
+night-time because of the season of the year. During the intervals,
+the body lay in some basilica, or great temple, of each town. At
+Bovillæ it was met by the Equestrian Order, who carried it to the
+city, and deposited it in the vestibule of his own house. The senate
+proceeded with so much zeal in the arrangement of his funeral, and
+paying honor to his memory, that, among several other proposals, some
+were for having the funeral procession made through the triumphal
+gate, preceded by the image of Victory which is in the senate-house,
+and the children of highest rank and of both sexes singing the funeral
+dirge. Others proposed, that on the day of the funeral, they should
+lay aside their gold rings, and wear rings of iron; and others, that
+his bones should be collected by the priests of the principal
+colleges. One likewise proposed to transfer the name of August to
+September, because he was born in the latter, but died in the former.
+Another moved, that the whole period of time, from his birth to his
+death, should be called the Augustan age, and be inserted in the
+calendar under that title. But at last it was judged proper to be
+moderate in the honors paid to his memory. Two funeral orations were
+pronounced in his praise, one before the temple of Julius, by
+Tiberius; and the other before the rostra, under the old shops, by
+Drusus, Tiberius's son. The body was then carried upon the shoulders
+of senators into the Campus Martius, and there burned. A man of
+prætorian rank affirmed upon oath, that he saw his spirit ascend from
+the funeral pile to heaven. The most distinguished persons of the
+equestrian order, barefooted, and with their tunics loose, gathered up
+his relics, and deposited them in the mausoleum[149] which had been
+built in his sixth consulship between the Flaminian Way and the bank
+of the Tiber; at which time likewise he gave the groves and walks
+about it for the use of the people.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE GOOD DEEDS OF NERO[150]
+
+
+He was seventeen years of age at the death of that prince,[151] and as
+soon as that event was made public, he went out to the cohort on guard
+between the hours of six and seven; for the omens were so disastrous,
+that no earlier time of the day was judged proper. On the steps before
+the palace gate, he was unanimously saluted by the soldiers as their
+emperor, and then carried in a litter to the camp; thence, after
+making a short speech to the troops, into the senate-house, where he
+continued until the evening; of all the immense honors which were
+heaped upon him, refusing none but the title of FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY,
+on account of his youth.
+
+He began his reign with an ostentation of dutiful regard to the memory
+of Claudius, whom he buried with the utmost pomp and magnificence,
+pronouncing the funeral oration himself, and then had him enrolled
+among the gods. He paid likewise the highest honors to the memory of
+his father Domitius. He left the management of affairs, both public
+and private, to his mother. The word which he gave the first day of
+his reign to the tribune on guard was, "The Best of Mothers," and
+afterward he frequently appeared with her in the streets of Rome in
+her litter. He settled a colony at Antium,[152] in which he placed
+the veteran soldiers belonging to the guards; and obliged several of
+the richest centurions of the first rank to transfer their residence
+to that place; where he likewise made a noble harbor at a prodigious
+expense.
+
+To establish still further his character, he declared, "that he
+designed to govern according to the model of Augustus"; and omitted no
+opportunity of showing his generosity, clemency, and complaisance. The
+more burdensome taxes he either entirely took off, or diminished. The
+rewards appointed for informers by the Papian law, he reduced to a
+fourth part, and distributed to the people four hundred sesterces a
+man. To the noblest of the senators who were much reduced in their
+circumstances, he granted annual allowances, in some cases as much as
+five hundred thousand sesterces; and to the prætorian cohorts a
+monthly allowance of corn gratis. When called upon to subscribe the
+sentence, according to custom, of a criminal condemned to die, "I
+wish," said he, "I had never learned to read and write." He
+continually saluted people of the several orders by name, without a
+prompter. When the senate returned him their thanks for his good
+government, he replied to them, "It will be time enough to do so when
+I shall have deserved it." He admitted the common people to see him
+perform his exercises in the Campus Martius. He frequently declaimed
+in public, and recited verses of his own composing, not only at home,
+but in the theater; so much to the joy of all the people, that public
+prayers were appointed to be put up to the gods upon that account; and
+the verses which had been publicly read, were, after being written in
+gold letters, consecrated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
+
+He presented the people with a great number and variety of spectacles,
+as the Juvenal and Circensian games, stage-plays, and an exhibition of
+gladiators. In the Juvenal, he even admitted senators and aged matrons
+to perform parts. In the Circensian games, he assigned the equestrian
+order seats apart from the rest of the people, and had races performed
+by chariots drawn each by four camels. In the games which he
+instituted for the eternal duration of the empire, and therefore
+ordered to be called _Maximi_, many of the senatorian and equestrian
+order, of both sexes, performed. A distinguished Roman knight
+descended on the stage by a rope, mounted on an elephant. A Roman
+play, likewise, composed by Afranius, was brought upon the stage. It
+was entitled, "The Fire"; and in it the performers were allowed to
+carry off, and to keep to themselves, the furniture of the house,
+which as the plot of the play required, was burned down in the
+theater. Every day during the solemnity, many thousand articles of all
+descriptions were thrown among the people to scramble for; such as
+fowls of different kinds, tickets for corn, clothes, gold, silver,
+gems, pearls, pictures, slaves, beasts of burden, wild beasts that had
+been tamed; at last, ships, lots of houses, and lands, Were offered as
+prizes in a lottery.
+
+These games he beheld from the front of the proscenium. In the show
+of gladiators, which he exhibited in a wooden amphitheater, built
+within a year in the district of the Campus Martius, he ordered that
+none should be slain, not even the condemned criminals employed in the
+combats. He secured four hundred senators, and six hundred Roman
+knights, among whom were some of unbroken fortunes and unblemished
+reputation, to act as gladiators. From the same orders, he engaged
+persons to encounter wild beasts, and for various other services in
+the theater. He presented the public with the representation of a
+naval fight, upon sea-water, with huge fishes swimming in it; as also
+with the Pyrrhic dance, performed by certain youths, to each of whom,
+after the performance was over, he granted the freedom of Rome. During
+this diversion, a bull covered Pasiphaë, concealed within a wooden
+statue of a cow, as many of the spectators believed. Icarus, upon his
+first attempt to fly, fell on the stage close to the emperor's
+pavilion, and bespattered him with blood. For he very seldom presided
+in the games, but used to view them reclining on a couch, at first
+through some narrow apertures, but afterward with the _Podium_ quite
+open. He was the first who instituted, in imitation of the Greeks, a
+trial of skill in the three several exercises of music, wrestling, and
+horse-racing, to be performed at Rome every five years, and which he
+called Neronia. Upon the dedication of his bath[153] and gymnasium, he
+furnished the senate and the equestrian order with oil. He appointed
+as judges of the trial men of consular rank, chosen by lot, who eat
+with the prætors. At this time he went down into the orchestra among
+the senators, and received the crown for the best performance in Latin
+prose and verse for which several persons of the greatest merit
+contended, but they unanimously yielded to him. The crown for the best
+performer on the harp; being likewise awarded to him by the judges, he
+devoutly saluted it, and ordered it to be carried to the statue of
+Augustus. In the gymnastic exercises, which he presented in the Septa,
+while they were preparing the great sacrifice of an ox, he shaved his
+beard for the first time, and putting it up in a casket of gold
+studded with pearls of great price, consecrated it to Jupiter
+Capitolinus. He invited the Vestal Virgins to see the wrestlers
+perform, because, at Olympia, the priestesses of Ceres are allowed the
+privilege of witnessing that exhibition....
+
+Twice only he undertook any foreign expeditions, one to Alexandria,
+and the other to Achaia; but he abandoned the prosecution of the
+former on the very day fixt for his departure, by being deterred both
+by ill omens, and the hazard of the voyage. For while he was making
+the circuit of the temples, having seated himself in that of Vesta,
+when he attempted to rise, the skirt of his robe stuck fast; and he
+was instantly seized with such a dimness in his eyes, that he could
+not see a yard before him. In Achaia, he attempted to make a cut
+through the Isthmus;[154] and, having made a speech encouraging his
+pretorians to set about the work, on a signal given by sound of
+trumpet, he first broke ground with a spade, and carried off a
+basketful of earth upon his shoulders. He made preparations for an
+expedition to the Pass of the Caspian mountains, forming a new legion
+out of his late levies in Italy, of men all six feet high, which he
+called the phalanx of Alexander the Great. These transactions, in part
+unexceptionable, and in part highly commendable, I have brought into
+one view, in order to separate them from the scandalous and criminal
+part of his conduct.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE DEATH OF NERO[155]
+
+(68 A.D.)
+
+
+He was terrified with manifest warnings, both old and new, arising
+from dreams, auspices, and omens. He had never been used to dream
+before the murder of his mother. After that event, he fancied in his
+sleep that he was steering a ship, and that the rudder was forced from
+him: that he was dragged by his wife Octavia into a prodigiously dark
+place; and was at one time covered over with a vast swarm of winged
+ants, and at another, surrounded by the national images which were set
+up near Pompey's theater, and hindered from advancing farther; that a
+Spanish jennet he was fond of, had his hinder parts so changed as to
+resemble those of an ape; and that having his head only left
+unaltered, he neighed very harmoniously. The doors of the mausoleum of
+Augustus flying open of themselves, there issued from it a voice,
+calling on him by name. The Lares being adorned with fresh garlands on
+the calends (the first) of January, fell down during the preparations
+for sacrificing to them. While he was taking the omens, Sporus
+presented him with a ring, the stone of which had carved upon it the
+Rape of Proserpine. When a great multitude of several orders was
+assembled, to attend at the solemnity of making vows to the gods, it
+was a long time before the keys of the Capitol could be found. And
+when, in a speech of his to the senate against Vindex, these words
+were read, "that the miscreants should be punished and soon make the
+end they merited," they all cried out, "You will do it, Augustus." It
+was likewise remarked, that the last tragic piece which he sung, was
+OEdipus in Exile, and that he fell as he was repeating this verse:
+
+    "Wife, mother, father, force me to my end."
+
+Meanwhile, on the arrival of the news that the rest of the armies had
+declared against him, he tore to piece the letters which were
+delivered to him at dinner, overthrew the table, and dashed with
+violence against the ground two favorite cups, which he called
+Homer's, because some of that poet's verses were cut upon them. Then
+taking from Locusta a dose of poison, which he put up in a golden box,
+he went into the Servilian gardens, and thence dispatching a trusty
+freedman to Ostia, with orders to make ready a fleet, he endeavored to
+prevail with some tribunes and centurions of the prætorian guards to
+attend him in his flight; but part of them showing no great
+inclination to comply, others absolutely refusing, and one of them
+crying out aloud,
+
+     "Say, is it then so sad a thing to die?"
+
+he was in great perplexity whether he should submit himself to
+Galba,[156] or apply to the Parthians for protection, or else appear
+before the people drest in mourning, and, upon the rostra, in the most
+piteous manner, beg pardon for his past misdemeanors, and, if he could
+not prevail, request of them to grant him at least the government of
+Egypt. A speech to this purpose was afterward found in his
+writing-case. But it is conjectured that he durst not venture upon
+this project, for fear of being torn to pieces, before he could get to
+the forum.
+
+Deferring, therefore, his resolution until the next day, he awoke
+about midnight, and finding the guards withdrawn, he leapt out of bed,
+and sent round for his friends. But none of them vouchsafing any
+message in reply, he went with a few attendants to their houses. The
+doors being everywhere shut, and no one giving him any answer, he
+returned to his bed-chamber; whence those who had the charge of it had
+all now eloped; some having gone one way, and some another, carrying
+off with them his bedding and box of poison. He then endeavored to
+find Spicillus, the gladiator, or some one to kill him; but not being
+able to procure any one, "What!" said he, "have I then neither friend
+nor foe?" and immediately ran out, as if he would throw himself into
+the Tiber.
+
+But this furious impulse subsiding, he wished for some place of
+privacy, where he might collect his thoughts; and his freedman Phaon
+offering him his country-house, between the Salarian and Nomentan
+roads, about four miles from the city, he mounted a horse, barefoot as
+he was, and in his tunic, only slipping over it an old soiled cloak;
+with his head muffled up, and a handkerchief before his face, and four
+persons only to attend him, of whom Sporus was one. He was suddenly
+struck with horror by an earthquake, and by a flash of lightning which
+darted full in his face, and heard from the neighboring camp the
+shouts of the soldiers, wishing his destruction, and prosperity to
+Galba. He also heard a traveler they met on the road, say, "They are
+in pursuit of Nero": and another ask, "Is there any news in the city
+about Nero?" Uncovering his face when his horse was started by the
+scent of a carcass which lay in the road, he was recognized and
+saluted by an old soldier who had been discharged from the guards.
+When they came to the lane which turned up to the house, they quitted
+their horses, and with much difficulty he wound among bushes and
+briars, and along a track through a bed of rushes, over which they
+spread their cloaks for him to walk on. Having reached a wall at the
+back of the villa, Phaon advised him to hide himself a while in a
+sand-pit; when he replied, "I will not go underground alive." Staying
+there some little time, while preparations were made for bringing him
+privately into the villa, he took up some water out of a neighboring
+tank in his hand, to drink, saying, "This is Nero's distilled water."
+Then his cloak having been torn by the brambles, he pulled out the
+thorns which stuck in it. At last, being admitted, creeping upon his
+hands and knees, through a hole made for him in the wall, he lay down
+in the first closet he came to, upon a miserable pallet, with an old
+coverlet thrown over it; and being both hungry and thirsty, tho he
+refused some coarse bread that was brought him, he drank a little warm
+water.
+
+All who surrounded him now pressing him to save himself from the
+indignities which were ready to befall him, he ordered a pit to be
+sunk before his eyes, of the size of his body, and the bottom to be
+covered with pieces of marble put together, if any could be found
+about the house; and water and wood to be got ready for immediate use
+about his corpse; weeping at everything that was done, and frequently
+saying, "What an artist is now about to perish!" Meanwhile, letters
+being brought in by a servant belonging to Phaon, he snatched them out
+of his hand, and there read, "That he had been declared an enemy by
+the senate, and that search was making for him, that he might be
+punished according to the ancient custom of the Romans." He then
+inquired what kind of punishment that was; and being told, that the
+practise was to strip the criminal naked, and scourge him to death
+while his neck was fastened within a forked stake, he was so
+terrified that he took up two daggers which he had brought with him,
+and after feeling the points of both, put them up again, saying, "The
+fatal hour is not yet come." One while, he begged of Sporus to begin
+to wail and lament; another while, he entreated that one of them would
+set him an example by killing himself; and then again, he condemned
+his own want of resolution in these words: "I yet live to my shame and
+disgrace: this is not becoming for Nero: it is not becoming. Thou
+oughtest in such circumstances to have a good heart: Come then:
+courage, man!" The horsemen who had received orders to bring him away
+alive, were now approaching the house. As soon as he heard them
+coming, he uttered with a trembling voice the following verse,
+
+    "The noise of swift-heel'd steeds assails my ears";
+
+he drove a dagger into his throat, being assisted in the act by
+Epaphroditus,[157] his secretary. A centurion bursting in just as he
+was half-dead, and applying his cloak to the wound, pretending that he
+was come to his assistance, he made no other reply but this, "'Tis too
+late"; and "Is this your loyalty?" Immediately after pronouncing these
+words, he expired, with his eyes fixt and starting out of his head, to
+the terror of all who beheld him....
+
+In stature he was a little below the common height; his skin was foul
+and spotted; his hair inclined to yellow; his features were agreeable,
+rather than handsome; his eyes gray and dull, his neck was thick, his
+belly prominent, his legs very slender, his constitution sound. For,
+tho excessively luxurious in his mode of living, he had, in the course
+of fourteen years, only three fits of sickness; which were so slight,
+that he neither forbore the use of wine, nor made any alteration in
+his usual diet. In his dress, and the care of his person, he was so
+careless, that he had his hair cut in rings, one above another; and
+when in Achaia, he let it grow long behind; and he generally appeared
+in public in the loose dress which he used at table, with a
+handkerchief about his neck and without either a girdle or shoes.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 146: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 147: Now Pozzuoli, which fronts on the bay, seven miles west
+of Naples. It still has ruins of an amphitheater, 482 feet by 384 in
+size. In Roman times it was as important commercial city.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Bovillæ is now known as Frattochio. It stands on the
+Appian Way, about nineteen miles from Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 149: This mausoleum was of white marble rising in terraces
+to a great height, and was crowned by a dome on which stood a statue
+of Augustus. Marcellus was the first person buried there. Its site was
+near the present Porta del Popolo.]
+
+[Footnote 150: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 151: The Emperor Claudius.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Nero was born in Antium, distant from Rome about
+thirty-eight miles. The Apollo Belvidere was found among its ruins.]
+
+[Footnote 153: These baths stood west of the Pantheon. Altho of great
+extent, no remains of them now exist.]
+
+[Footnote 154: This scheme, which was a favorite one of many Roman
+emperors and even of Julius Cæsar, was not realized until our time.
+The Corinth canal was completed in 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 155: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 156: The Roman general, then leader of the revolt against
+Nero, who was afterward proclaimed Emperor.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Epaphroditus was the master of Epictetus, the Stoic
+philosopher, before his freedom.]
+
+
+
+
+MARCUS AURELIUS
+
+     Born in Rome in 121 A.D.; died in 180; celebrated as emperor
+     and Stoic philosopher; a nephew of Antoninus Pius, whom he
+     succeeded as emperor, with Lucius Verus; after the death of
+     Verus in 169 became sole emperor; his reign notable for
+     wisdom and the happiness of the Roman people; wrote his
+     "Meditations" in Greek; a bronze equestrian statue of him in
+     Rome is the finest extant specimen of ancient bronze.
+
+
+HIS DEBT TO OTHERS[158]
+
+
+1. From my grandfather Verus[159] [I learned] good morals and the
+government of my temper.
+
+2. From the reputation and remembrance of my father,[160] modesty and
+a manly character.
+
+3. From my mother,[161] piety and beneficence, and abstinence, not
+only from evil deeds, but even from evil thoughts; and, further,
+simplicity in my way of living, far removed from the habits of the
+rich.
+
+4. From my great-grandfather,[162] not to have frequented public
+schools, and to have had good teachers at home, and to know that on
+such things a man should spend liberally.
+
+5. From my governor, to be neither of the green nor of the blue party
+at the games in the circus, nor a partizan either of the Parmularius
+or the Scutarius at the gladiators' fights; from him too I learned
+endurance of labor and to want little, and to work with my own hands,
+and not to meddle with other people's affairs, and not to be ready to
+listen to slander.
+
+6. From Diognetus,[163] not to busy myself about trifling things, and
+not to give credit to what was said by miracle-workers and jugglers
+about incantations and the driving away of demons and such things; and
+not to breed quails [for fighting], not to give myself up passionately
+to such things; and to endure freedom of speech; and to have become
+intimate with philosophy; and to have been a hearer, first of
+Bacchius, then of Tandasis and Marcianus; and to have written dialogs
+in my youth; and to have desired a plank bed and skin, and whatever
+else of the kind belongs to the Grecian discipline.
+
+7. From Rusticus[164] I received the impression that my character
+required improvement and discipline; and from him I learned not to be
+led astray to sophistic emulation, nor to writing on speculative
+matters, nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to showing
+myself off as a man who practises much discipline, or does benevolent
+acts in order to make a display; and to abstain from rhetoric, and
+poetry, and fine writing; and not to walk about in the house in my
+outdoor dress, nor to do other things of the kind; and to write my
+letters with simplicity, like the letter which Rusticus wrote from
+Sinuessa to my mother; and with respect to those who have offended me
+by words, or done me wrong, to be easily disposed to be pacified and
+reconciled, as soon as they have shown a readiness to be reconciled;
+and to read carefully, and not to be satisfied with a superficial
+understanding of a book; not hastily to give my assent to those who
+talk overmuch; and I am indebted to him for being acquainted with the
+discourses of Epictetus.
+
+8. From Apollonius[165] I learned freedom of will and undeviating
+steadiness of purpose; and to look to nothing else, not even for a
+moment, except to reason; and to be always the same, in sharp pains,
+on the occasion of the loss of a child, and in long illness; and to
+see clearly in a living example that the same man can be both most
+resolute and yielding, and not peevish in giving his instruction; and
+to have had before my eyes a man who clearly considered his experience
+and his skill in expounding philosophical principles as the smallest
+of his merits; and from him I learned how to receive from friends what
+are esteemed favors, without being either humbled by them or letting
+them pass unnoticed.
+
+9. From Sextus,[166] a benevolent disposition, and the example of a
+family governed in a fatherly manner, and the idea of living
+conformably to nature; and gravity without affectation, and to look
+carefully after the interests of friends, and to tolerate ignorant
+persons and those who form opinions without consideration: he had the
+power of readily accommodating himself to all, so that intercourse
+with him was more agreeable than any flattery; and at the same time he
+was most highly venerated by those who associated with him; and he had
+the faculty both of discovering and ordering, in an intelligent
+methodical way, the principles necessary for life; and he never showed
+anger or any other passion, but was entirely free from passion, and
+also most affectionate; and he could express approbation without noisy
+display, and he possessed much knowledge without ostentation.
+
+10. From Alexander[167] the grammarian, to refrain from fault-finding,
+and not in a reproachful way to chide those who uttered any barbarous
+or solecistic or strange-sounding expression; but dexterously to
+introduce the very expression which ought to have been used, and in
+the way of answer or giving confirmation, or joining in an inquiry
+about the thing itself, not about the word, or by some other fit
+suggestion.
+
+11. From Fronto[168] I learned to observe what envy, and duplicity,
+and hypocrisy are in a tyrant, and that generally those among us who
+are called Patricians are rather deficient in paternal affection.
+
+12. From Alexander the Platonic, not frequently nor without necessity
+to say to any one, or to write in a letter, that I have no leisure;
+nor continually to excuse the neglect of duties required by our
+relation to those with whom we live, by alleging urgent occupations.
+
+13. From Catulus,[169] not to be indifferent when a friend finds
+fault, even if he should find fault without reason, but to try to
+restore him to his usual disposition; and to be ready to speak well of
+teachers, as it is reported of Domitius and Athenodotus; and to love
+my children truly.
+
+14. From my brother Severus, to love my kin, and to love truth, and to
+love justice; and through him I learned to know Thrasea, Helvidius,
+Cato, Dion, Brutus; and from him I received the idea of a polity in
+which there is the same law for all, a polity administered with regard
+to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly
+government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed; I
+learned from him also consistency and undeviating steadiness in my
+regard for philosophy; and a disposition to do good, and to give to
+others readily, and to cherish good hopes, and to believe that I am
+loved by my friends; and in him I observed no concealment of his
+opinions with respect to those whom he condemned, and that his friends
+had no need to conjecture what he wished or did not wish, but it was
+quite plain.
+
+15. From Maximus[170] I learned self-government, and not to be led
+aside by anything; and cheerfulness in all circumstances as well as in
+illness; and a just admixture in the moral character of sweetness and
+dignity, and to do what was set before me without complaining. I
+observed that everybody believed that he thought as he spoke, and that
+in all that he did he never had any bad intention; and he never showed
+amazement and surprize, and was never in a hurry, and never put off
+doing a thing, nor was perplexed nor dejected, nor did he ever laugh
+to disguise his vexation, nor, on the other hand, was he ever
+passionate or suspicious. He was accustomed to do acts of beneficence,
+and was ready to forgive, and was free from all falsehood; and he
+presented the appearance of a man who could not be diverted from right
+rather than of a man who had been improved. I observed, too that no
+man could ever think that he was despised by Maximus, or ever venture
+to think himself a better man. He had also the art of being humorous
+in an agreeable way.
+
+16. In my father[171] I observed mildness of temper, and unchangeable
+resolution in the things which he had determined after due
+deliberation; and no vainglory in those things which men call honors;
+and a love of labor and perseverance; and a readiness to listen to
+those who had anything to propose for the common weal; and undeviating
+firmness in giving to every man according to his deserts; and a
+knowledge derived from experience of the occasions for vigorous action
+and for remission. And I observed that he had overcome all passion
+for boys; and he considered himself no more than any other citizen;
+and he released his friends from all obligation to sup with him or to
+attend him of necessity when he went abroad, and those who had failed
+to accompany him, by reason of any urgent circumstances, always found
+him the same. I observed too his habit of careful inquiry in all
+matters of deliberation, and his persistency, and that he never stopt
+his investigation through being satisfied with appearances which first
+present themselves; and that his disposition was to keep his friends,
+and not to be soon tired of them, nor yet to be extravagant in his
+affection; and to be satisfied on all occasions, and cheerful; and to
+foresee things a long way off, and to provide for the smallest without
+display; and to check immediately popular applause and all flattery;
+and to be ever watchful over the things which were necessary for the
+administration of the empire, and to be a good manager of the
+expenditure, and patiently to endure the blame which he got for such
+conduct; and he was neither superstitious with respect to the gods,
+nor did he court men by gifts or by trying to please them, or by
+flattering the populace; but he showed sobriety in all things and
+firmness, and never any mean thoughts or action, nor love of
+novelty....
+
+17. To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good
+parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, good kinsmen
+and friends, nearly everything good. Further, I owe it to the gods
+that I was not hurried into any offense against any of them, tho I had
+a disposition which, if opportunity had offered, might have led me to
+do something of this kind; but, through their favor, there never was
+such a concurrence of circumstances as put me to the trial. Further, I
+am thankful to the gods that I was not longer brought up with my
+grandfather's concubine, and that I preserved the flower of my youth,
+and that I did not make proof of my virility before the proper season,
+but even deferred the time; that I was subjected to a ruler and a
+father who was able to take away all pride from me, and to bring me to
+the knowledge that it is possible for a man to live in a palace
+without wanting either guards or embroidered dresses, or torches and
+statues, and such-like show; but that it is in such a man's power to
+bring himself very near to the fashion of a private person, without
+being for this reason either meaner in thought, or more remiss in
+action, with respect to the things which must be done for the public
+interest in a manner that befits a ruler. I thank the gods for giving
+me such a brother,[172] who was able by his moral character to rouse
+me to vigilance over myself, and who, at the same time, pleased me by
+his respect and affection; that my children have not been stupid nor
+deformed in body; that I did not make more proficiency in rhetoric,
+poetry, and the other studies, in which I should perhaps have been
+completely engaged, if I had seen that I was making progress in them;
+that I made haste to place those who brought me up in the station of
+honor, which they seemed to desire, without putting them off with
+hope of my doing it some time after, because they were then still
+young; that I knew Apollonius, Rusticus, Maximus; that I received
+clear and frequent impressions about living according to nature, and
+what kind of a life that is, so that, so far as depended on the gods,
+and their gifts, and help, and inspirations, nothing hindered me from
+forthwith living according to nature, tho I still fall short of it
+through my own fault, and through not observing the admonitions of the
+gods, and I may almost say, their direct instructions; that my body
+has held out so long in such a kind of life; that I never touched
+either Benedicta or Theodotus; and that, after having fallen into
+amatory passions, I was cured; and, tho I was often out of humor with
+Rusticus, I never did anything of which I had occasion to repent;
+that, tho it was my mother's fate to die young, she spent the last
+years of her life with me; that, whenever I wished to help any man in
+his need, or on any other occasion, I was never told that I had not
+the means of doing it; and that to myself the same necessity never
+happened, to receive anything from another; that I have such a wife,
+so obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple; that I had abundance
+of good masters for my children; and that remedies have been shown to
+me by dreams, both others, and against blood-spitting and giddiness;
+and that, when I had an inclination to philosophy, I did not fall into
+the hands of any sophist.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 158: From the "Meditations." Translated by George Long.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Annius Verus.]
+
+[Footnote 160: His father's name also was Annius Verus.]
+
+[Footnote 161: His mother was Domitia Calvilla, named also Lucilla.]
+
+[Footnote 162: His mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus, may be
+referred to here.]
+
+[Footnote 163: The translator notes that, in the works of Justinus, is
+printed a letter from one Diognetus, a Gentile, who wished very much
+to know what the religion of the Christians was, and how it had taught
+them to believe neither in the gods of the Greeks nor the
+superstitions of the Jews. It has been suggested that this Diognetus
+may have been the tutor of Marcus Aurelius.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Junius Rusticus, a Stoic philosopher, whom the author
+highly valued.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Apollonius of Chalcis, who came to Rome to be the
+author's preceptor. He was a rigid Stoic.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Sextus of Chæronea, a grandson, or nephew, of
+Plutarch.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Alexander, a native of Phrygia, wrote a commentary on
+Homer.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Cornelius Fronto, a rhetorician and friend of the
+author.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Cinna Catulus, a Stoic.]
+
+[Footnote 170: Claudius Maximus, a Stoic, whom the author's
+predecessor, Antoninus Pius, also valued highly.]
+
+[Footnote 171: The reference here made is to the Emperor Antoninus
+Pius, who adopted him.]
+
+[Footnote 172: His brother by adoption, L. Verus, is probably referred
+to here.]
+
+
+END OF VOLUME II.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics, 
+Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome, by Various
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics, 
+Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Best of the World's Classics,  Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Henry Cabot Lodge
+        Francis W. Halsey
+
+Release Date: May 28, 2007 [EBook #21629]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEST OF THE WORLD'S CLASSICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img class="img1" src="images/image_01.jpg" alt="C&AElig;SAR, MARCUS AURELIUS, CICERO, and SENECA" width="519" height="769" /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">C&AElig;SAR, MARCUS AURELIUS, CICERO, and SENECA</span></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image_02.jpg" alt="Title Page" width="500" height="797" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>THE BEST</h2>
+<h3><i>of the</i></h3>
+<h1><span class="smcap">World's Classics</span></h1>
+<h4>RESTRICTED TO PROSE</h4>
+<div class="center"><img src="images/image_03.jpg" alt="Decorative Image" width="400" height="102" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>HENRY CABOT LODGE</h2>
+<h4><i>Editor-in-Chief</i></h4>
+<h2>FRANCIS W. HALSEY</h2>
+<h4><i>Associate Editor</i></h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>With an Introduction, Biographical and<br />
+Explanatory Notes, etc.</h3>
+ <p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>IN TEN VOLUMES</h3>
+ <p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>Vol. II</h3>
+<h1>ROME</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>FUNK &amp; WAGNALLS COMPANY</h3>
+<h4>NEW YORK AND LONDON</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1909, <span class="smcap">by</span></h5>
+<h4>FUNK &amp; WAGNALLS COMPANY</h4>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>The Best of the World's Classics</h2>
+
+<h3>VOL. II</h3>
+
+<h2>ROME</h2>
+<h4>234 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>&mdash;180 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Vol. II&mdash;Rome</span></h2>
+<table summary="Contents">
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td><td><i>Page</i></td></tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#CATO_THE_CENSOR"><span class="smcap">Cato the Censor</span>&mdash;(Born in 234 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, died in 149.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#OF_WORK">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of Work on a Roman Farm. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From &quot;De Re Rustica.&quot; Translated by Dr. E.
+Wilson)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#CICERO"><span class="smcap">Cicero</span>&mdash;(Born in 106 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, assassinated in 43.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#I">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Blessings of Old Age</a>. </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Cato Major.&quot; Translated by
+Cyrus R. Edmonds)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#II">&nbsp;&nbsp;On the Death of His Daughter Tullia. (A letter to Sulpicius)</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#III">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of Brave and Elevated Spirits. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book I of the &quot;Offices.&quot;
+Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IV">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of Scipio's Death and of Friendship.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>From the "Dialog on Friendship." (Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#JULIUS_CAESAR"><span class="smcap">Julius C&aelig;sar</span>&mdash;(Born in 100 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, assassinated in 44.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Ia">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Building of the Bridge Across the Rhine. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book IV of the
+&quot;Commentaries on the Gallic War.&quot; Translated by McDivett and W. S.
+Bohn)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIa">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Invasion of Britain. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book V of the &quot;Commentaries on the
+Gallic War.&quot; Translated by McDivett and Bohn)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIIa">&nbsp;&nbsp;Overcoming the Nervii. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book II of the &quot;Commentaries on the
+Gallic War.&quot; Translated by McDivett and Bohn)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IVa">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Battle of Pharsalia and the Death of Pompey. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book III of
+the &quot;Commentaries on the Gallic War.&quot; Translated by McDivett and Bohn)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#SALLUST"><span class="smcap">Sallust</span>&mdash;(Born about 86 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, died about 34.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Ib">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Genesis of Catiline</a>. </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Conspiracy of Catiline.&quot;
+Translated by J. S. Watson)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIb">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Fate of the Conspirators.</a> </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Conspiracy of Catiline.&quot;
+Translated by J. S. Watson)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#LIVY"><span class="smcap">Livy</span>&mdash;(Born in 59 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, died in 17 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Ic">&nbsp;&nbsp;Horatius Cocles at the Bridge. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book II of the &quot;History of
+Rome.&quot; Translated by D. Spillan and Cyrus R. Edmonds)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIc">&nbsp;&nbsp;Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book XXI of the &quot;History of
+Rome.&quot; Translated by Spillan and Edmonds)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIIb">&nbsp;&nbsp;Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book XXX of the &quot;History of
+Rome.&quot; Translated by Spillan and Edmonds)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#SENECA"><span class="smcap">Seneca</span>&mdash;(Born about 4 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, died in 65 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></a>)</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Id">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of the Wise Man. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book II of the &quot;Minor Essays.&quot; Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IId">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of Consolation for the Loss of Friends. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book VI of the &quot;Minor
+Essays.&quot; Translated by Aubrey Stewart)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#IIIc">&nbsp;&nbsp;To Nero on Clemency.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> (From the &quot;Minor Essays.&quot; Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IVb">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Pilot. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">V</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#V">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of a Happy Life. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book VII of the &quot;Minor Essays.&quot; Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#PLINY_THE_ELDER"><span class="smcap">Pliny the Elder</span>&mdash;(Born in 23 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, perished in the Eruption of Vesuvius.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#Ie">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Qualities of the Dog. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Natural History.&quot; Translated by
+Bostock and Riley)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIe">&nbsp;&nbsp;Three Great Artists of Greece.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> (From the &quot;Natural History.&quot;
+Translated by Bostock and Riley)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#QUINTILIAN"><span class="smcap">Quintilian</span>&mdash;(Born about 35 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, died about 95.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#THE_ORATOR_MUST_BE_A_GOOD_MAN">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Orator Must Be a Good Man. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book XII, Chapter I, of the
+&quot;Institutes.&quot; Translated by J. S. Watson)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#TACITUS"><span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>&mdash;(Born about 55 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, died about 117.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#If">&nbsp;&nbsp;From Republican to Imperial Rome.</a> </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book I of the &quot;Annals.&quot; The
+Oxford translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIf">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Funeral of Germanicus. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book III of the &quot;Annals.&quot; The
+Oxford translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIId">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Death of Seneca.</a> </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book XV of the &quot;Annals.&quot; The Oxford
+translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">IV</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IVc">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Burning of Rome by Order of Nero.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> (From Book XV of the
+&quot;Annals.&quot; The Oxford translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">V</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#Va">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Burning of the Capitol at Rome.</a> </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From Book III of the &quot;History.&quot;
+The Oxford translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">VI</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#VI">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Siege of Cremona.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> (From Book III of the &quot;History.&quot; The Oxford
+translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">VII</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#VII">&nbsp;&nbsp;Agricola. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(The Oxford translation revised)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#PLINY_THE_YOUNGER"><span class="smcap">Pliny the Younger</span>&mdash;(Born in 63 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, died in 113.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Ig">&nbsp;&nbsp;Of the Christians in His Province. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Letters.&quot; The Melmoth
+translation revised)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIg">&nbsp;&nbsp;To Tacitus on the Eruption of Vesuvius. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Letters.&quot; The
+Melmoth translation revised)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#SUETONIUS"><span class="smcap">Suetonius</span>&mdash;(Lived in the first half of the second century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">I</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#Ih">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Last Days of Augustus.</a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> (From the &quot;Lives of the C&aelig;sars.&quot;
+Translated by Alexander Thomson, revised by Forester)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">II</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#IIh">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Good Deeds of Nero.</a> </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Lives of the C&aelig;sars.&quot; Translated
+by Thomson, revised by Forester)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tocch">III</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td> <a href="#IIIe">&nbsp;&nbsp;The Death of Nero. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Lives of the C&aelig;sars.&quot; Translated by
+Thomson, revised by Forester)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+  <td colspan="4"><a href="#MARCUS_AURELIUS"><span class="smcap">Marcus Aurelius</span>&mdash;(Born in 121 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, died in 180.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td><a href="#HIS_DEBT_TO_OTHERS">&nbsp;&nbsp;His Debt to Others. </a></td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>(From the &quot;Meditations.&quot; Translated by George
+Long)</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ROME" id="ROME"></a>ROME</h2>
+
+<h4>234 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>&mdash;180 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></h4>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CATO_THE_CENSOR" id="CATO_THE_CENSOR"></a>CATO, THE CENSOR</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Tusculum, Italy, in 234 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, died in 149;
+celebrated as statesman, general, and writer; questor under
+Scipio in 204; Consul in 195; served in Spain in 194; censor
+in 184; ambassador to Carthage in 150; one of the chief
+instigators of the third Punic war; among his writings are
+"De Re Rustica" and "Origines."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p></div>
+
+<h3><a name="OF_WORK" id="OF_WORK"></a>OF WORK ON A ROMAN FARM<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h3>
+<p>When the owner of the farm and slaves visits his country villa, after
+saluting the household god, he should the same day, if possible, go
+round the farm; if not the same day, he should do so the day after. On
+seeing how the farm is being cultivated, and what work has been done
+or left undone, he should call for his steward and inquire for his
+account of what work has been done and what remains to be done. He
+should ask whether the work has been completed in good time and
+whether what is left uncompleted can be finished. He should find what
+wine has been made, and what wheat stored. When he has gone into these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>particulars, he should ask for an account of the days spent in
+accomplishing the work.</p>
+
+<p>If the work does not seem satisfactory and the steward should excuse
+himself by declaring that he has done his best, that the slaves were
+good for nothing, that the weather was bad, that some slaves had run
+away, that he himself had been called off on public service, and
+should allege other such excuses, he should still be strictly called
+to account. He should be asked if on rainy or tempestuous days he had
+seen that indoor operations had been carried on. Had the wine-casks
+been scoured and lined with pitch; had the house-cleaning been done;
+had the grain been taken from the thrashing-floor to the granary; had
+manure been thrown from the stables and cow-houses and piled into
+heaps; had the seed been winnowed; had any rope been made; had the old
+rope been repaired, and had he seen that the slaves mended their coats
+and caps. He should be reminded that on religious festivals old
+ditches might have been cleared out, the public road mended, briers
+cut down, the garden dug over, the meadow cleared, the trees trimmed,
+thorns pulled up by the roots, the grain ground and a general clearing
+up carried through. He should also be told that when slaves were sick
+their rations should be cut down.</p>
+
+<p>When the matters have been settled to the master's satisfaction, he
+should take measures to see that what has not been done be at once
+accomplished. He should then proceed to consider the account of the
+farm, and a consideration of the amount of grain which has been
+prepared for fodder. He should have returns made of wine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> and
+olive-oil, and learn how much has been consumed, how much sold, how
+much is left over and may be put on sale. If there is a deficit any
+year, he should order it to be made up from the outside, and whatever
+is above the needs of the farm sold. If there is anything to let out
+on contract, he should order this to be done, and concerning the work
+which he wishes to be thus accomplished he should give his order in
+writing. As regards the cattle he should order them to be sold by
+auction, and in the same way should sell the oil, if the price of oil
+has risen; likewise the superfluous wine and corn of the estate. He
+should also order to be sold worn-out bulls, blemished cattle,
+blemished sheep, wool, hides, any plow that is old, old tools, old
+slaves, slaves who are diseased, or anything else which is useless,
+for the owner of a farm must be a seller and not a purchaser.</p>
+
+<p>The owner of a farm and of slaves must begin to study in early manhood
+the cultivation and sowing of the land. He should, however, think a
+long time before building his villa, but not about farming his
+property, which he should set about at once. Let him wait until his
+thirty-sixth year and then build, provided his whole property is under
+cultivation. So build that neither the villa be disproportionately
+small in comparison with the farm nor the farm in comparison with the
+villa. It behooves a slave-owner to have a well-built country house,
+containing a wine-cellar, a place for storing olive-oil, and casks in
+such numbers that he may look forward with delight to a time of
+scarcity and high prices, and this will add not only to his wealth,
+but to his influence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> and reputation. He must have wine-presses of the
+first order, that his wine may be well made. When the olives have been
+picked, let oil be at once made or it will turn out rancid. Recollect
+that every year the olives are shaken from the trees in great number
+by violent storms. If you gather them up quickly and have vessels
+ready to receive them, the storm will have done them no harm and the
+oil will be all the greener and better. If the olives be on the ground
+or even on the barn floor too long, the oil made from them will be
+fetid. Olive-oil will be always good and sweet if it be promptly made.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the duties of a steward: He must maintain strict
+discipline, and see that the festivals are observed. While he keeps
+his hands off the property of a neighbor, let him look well to his
+own. The slaves are to be kept from quarreling. If any of them commits
+a fault, he should be punished in a kindly manner. The steward must
+see that the slaves are comfortable and suffer neither from cold nor
+hunger. By keeping them busy he will prevent them from running into
+mischief or stealing. If the steward sets his face against evil doing,
+evil will not be done by them. His master must call him to task if he
+let evil doing go unpunished. If one slave do him any service, he
+should show gratitude that the others may be encouraged to do right.
+The steward must not be a gadder or a diner-out, but must give all his
+attention to working the slaves, and considering how best to carry out
+his master's instructions....</p>
+
+<p>It is at times worth while to gain wealth by commerce, were it not so
+perilous; or by usury,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> were it equally honorable. Our ancestors,
+however, held, and fixt by law, that a thief should be condemned to
+restore double, a usurer quadruple. We thus see how much worse they
+thought it for a citizen to be a money-lender than a thief. Again,
+when they praised a good man, they praised him as a good farmer or a
+good husbandman. Men so praised were held to have received the highest
+praise. For myself, I think well of a merchant as a man of energy and
+studious of gain; but it is a career, as I have said, that leads to
+danger and ruin. However, farming makes the bravest men and the
+sturdiest soldiers, and of all sources of gain is the surest, the most
+natural, and the least invidious, and those who are busy with it have
+the fewest bad thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Cato was Rome's first thoroughly national author. He is
+usually classed as the creator of Latin prose. Other Roman authors of
+his time wrote in Greek. Cato bitterly opposed Greek learning,
+declaring that, when Greece should give Rome her literature, she would
+"corrupt everything." On Cato's mind no outside literary influence
+ever prevailed. He has been called "the most original writer that Rome
+ever produced."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> From "De Re Rustica." Translated for this work by Dr.
+Epiphanius Wilson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The translation of this paragraph is taken from
+Cruttwell's "History of Roman Literature."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CICERO" id="CICERO"></a>CICERO</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in 106 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, assassinated in 43; celebrated as orator,
+philosopher, statesman, and man of letters; served in the
+social war in 89; traveled in Greece and Asia in 79-77;
+questor in Sicily in 75; accused Verres in 70; pr&aelig;tor in 60;
+as Consul supprest Catiline's conspiracy in 63; banished in
+58; recalled in 57; proconsul in Cicilia in 51-50; joined
+Pompey in 49; pronounced orations against Mark Antony in
+44-43; proscribed by the Second Triumvirate in 43; of his
+orations fifty-seven are extant, with fragments of twenty
+others; other extant works include "De Oratore," "De
+Republica," "Cato Major," "De Officiis," and four
+collections of letters.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BLESSINGS OF OLD AGE<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></h3>
+<p>Nor even now do I feel the want of the strength of a young man, no
+more than when a young man I felt the want of the strength of the bull
+or of the elephant. What one has, that one ought to use; and whatever
+you do, you should do it with all your strength. For what expression
+can be more contemptible than that of Milo<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of Crotona, who, when he
+was now an old man, and was looking at the prize-fighters exercising
+themselves on the course, is reported to have looked at his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>arms,
+and, weeping over them, to have said, "But these, indeed, are now
+dead." Nay, foolish man, not these arms so much as yourself; for you
+never derived your nobility from yourself, but from your chest and
+your arms. Nothing of the kind did Sextus &AElig;lius ever say, nothing of
+the kind many years before did Titus Coruncanius, nothing lately did
+Publius Crassus; by whom instructions in jurisprudence were given to
+their fellow citizens, and whose wisdom was progressive even to their
+latest breath. For the orator, I fear lest he be enfeebled by old age;
+for eloquence is a gift not of mind only, but also of lungs and
+strength. On the whole, that melodiousness in the voice is graceful, I
+know not how, even in old age; which, indeed, I have not lost, and you
+see my years.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there is a graceful style of eloquence in an old man,
+unimpassioned and subdued, and very often the elegant and gentle
+discourse of an eloquent old man wins for itself a hearing; and if you
+have not yourself the power to produce this effect, yet you may be
+able to teach it to Scipio and L&aelig;lius. For what is more delightful
+than old age surrounded with the studious attention of youth? Shall we
+not leave even such a resource to old age, as to teach young men,
+instruct them, train them to every department of duty? an employment,
+indeed, than which what can be more noble? But, for my part, I thought
+the Cneius and Publius Scipios,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and your two grandfathers, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>L.
+&AElig;milius and P. Africanus, quite happy in the attendance of noble
+youths; nor are any preceptors of liberal accomplishments to be deemed
+otherwise than happy, tho their strength hath fallen into old age and
+failed; altho that very failure of strength is more frequently caused
+by the follies of youth than by those of old age; for a lustful and
+intemperate youth transmits to old age an exhausted body. Cyrus too,
+in Xenophon, in that discourse which he delivered on his deathbed when
+he was a very old man, said that he never felt that his old age had
+become feebler than his youth had been. I recollect, when a boy, that
+Lucius Metellus,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> who, when four years after his second consulship
+he had been made "pontifex maximus," and for twenty-two years held
+that sacerdotal office, enjoyed such good strength at the latter
+period of his life, that he felt no want of youth. There is no need
+for me to speak about myself, and yet that is the privilege of old
+age, and conceded to my time of life.</p>
+
+<p>Do you see how, in Homer, Nestor very often proclaims his own virtues?
+for he was now living in the third generation of men; nor had he
+occasion to fear lest, when stating the truth about himself, he should
+appear either too arrogant or too talkative; for, as Homer says, from
+his tongue speech flowed sweeter than honey; for which charm he stood
+in need of no strength of body; and yet the famous chief of Greece
+nowhere wishes to have ten men like Ajax, but like Nestor; and he does
+not doubt if that should happen, Troy would in a short time perish.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But I return to myself. I am in my eighty-fourth year. In truth I
+should like to be able to make the same boast that Cyrus did; but one
+thing I can say, that altho I have not, to be sure, that strength
+which I had either as a soldier in the Punic war or as questor in the
+same war, or as Consul in Spain, or, four years afterward, when as
+military tribune I fought a battle at Thermopyl&aelig;, in the consulship of
+Marcus Acilius Glabrio; yet, as you see, old age has not quite
+enfeebled me or broken me down: the senate-house does not miss my
+strength, nor the rostra, nor my friends, nor my clients, nor my
+guests; for I have never agreed to that old and much-praised proverb
+which advises you to become an old man early if you wish to be an old
+man long. I for my part would rather be an old man for a shorter
+length of time than be an old man before I was one. And, therefore, no
+one as yet has wished to have an interview with me to whom I have been
+denied as engaged.</p>
+
+<p>But I have less strength than either of you two. Neither even do you
+possess the strength of Titus Pontius the centurion; is he, therefore,
+the more excellent man? Only let there be a moderate degree of
+strength, and let every man exert himself as much as he can; and in
+truth that man will not be absorbed in regretting the want of
+strength. Milo, at Olympia, is said to have gone over the course while
+supporting on his shoulders a live ox. Whether, then, would you rather
+have this strength of body, or Pythagoras' strength of intellect,
+bestowed upon you? In a word, enjoy that blessing while you have it;
+when it is gone, do not lament it, unless, indeed, young men ought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> to
+lament the loss of boyhood, and those a little advanced in age the
+loss of adolescence. There is a definite career in life, and one way
+of nature, and that a simple one; and to every part of life its own
+peculiar period has been assigned; so that both the feebleness of
+boys, and the high spirit of young men, and the steadiness of now fixt
+manhood, and the maturity of old age, have something natural which
+ought to be enjoyed in their own time. I suppose that you hear,
+Scipio, what your grandfather's host, Masinissa,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is doing at this
+day, at the age of ninety. When he has commenced a journey on foot, he
+never mounts at all; when on horseback, he never dismounts; by no
+rain, by no cold, is he prevailed upon to have his head covered; that
+there is in him the greatest hardiness of frame; and therefore he
+performs all the duties and functions of a king. Exercise, therefore,
+and temperance, even in old age, can preserve some remnant of our
+pristine vigor.</p>
+
+<p>Is there no strength in old age? neither is strength exacted from old
+age. Therefore, by our laws and institutions, our time of life is
+relieved from those tasks which can not be supported without strength.
+Accordingly, so far are we from being compelled to do what we can not
+do that we are not even compelled to do as much as we can. But so
+feeble are many old men that they can not execute any task of duty or
+any function of life whatever; but that in truth is not the peculiar
+fault of old age, but belongs in common to bad health. How feeble was
+the son <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>of Publius Africanus, he who adopted you. What feeble health,
+or rather no health at all, had he! and had that not been so, he would
+have been the second luminary of the state; for to his paternal
+greatness of soul a richer store of learning had been added. What
+wonder, therefore, in old men if they are sometimes weak when even
+young men can not escape that.</p>
+
+<p>We must make a stand, Scipio and L&aelig;lius, against old age, and its
+faults must be atoned for by activity; we must fight, as it were,
+against disease, and in like manner against old age. Regard must be
+paid to health; moderate exercises must be adopted; so much of meat
+and drink must be taken that the strength may be recruited, not
+opprest. Nor, indeed, must the body alone be supported, but the mind
+and the soul much more; for these also, unless you drop oil on them as
+on a lamp, are extinguished by old age. And our bodies, indeed, by
+weariness and exercise, become opprest; but our minds are rendered
+buoyant by exercise. For as to those of whom C&aelig;cilius speaks, "foolish
+old men," fit characters for comedy, by these he denotes the
+credulous, the forgetful, the dissolute, which are the faults not of
+old age, but of inactive, indolent, drowsy old age. As petulance and
+lust belong to the young more than to the old, yet not to all young
+men, but to those who are not virtuous; so that senile folly, which is
+commonly called dotage, belongs to weak old men, and not to all. Four
+stout sons, five daughters, so great a family, and such numerous
+dependents, did Appius manage, altho both old and blind; for he kept
+his mind intent like a bow, nor did he languidly sink under the weight
+of old age. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> retained not only authority, but also command, over
+his family; the slaves feared him; the children respected him; all
+held him dear; there prevailed in that house the manners and good
+discipline of our fathers. For on this condition is old age honored if
+it maintains itself, if it keeps up its own right, if it is
+subservient to no one, if even to its last breath it exercises control
+over its dependents. For, as I like a young man in whom there is
+something of the old, so I like an old man in whom there is something
+of the young; and he who follows this maxim, in body will possibly be
+an old man, but he will never be an old man in mind.</p>
+
+<p>I have in hand my seventh book of Antiquities; I am collecting all the
+materials of our early history; of all the famous causes which I have
+defended; I am now completing the pleadings;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> I am employed on a law
+of augurs, of pontiffs, of citizens. I am much engaged also in Greek
+literature, and, after the manner of the Pythagoreans, for the purpose
+of exercising my memory, I call to mind in the evening what I have
+said, heard, and done on each day. These are the exercises of the
+understanding; these are the race-courses of the mind; while I am
+perspiring and toiling over these, I do not greatly miss my strength
+of body. I attend my friends, I come into the senate very often, and
+spontaneously bring forward things much and long thought of, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>and I
+maintain them by strength of mind, not of body; and if I were unable
+to perform these duties, yet my couch would afford me amusement, when
+reflecting on those matters which I was no longer able to do, but that
+I am able is owing to my past life; for, by a person who always lives
+in these pursuits and labors, it is not perceived when old age steals
+on. Thus gradually and unconsciously life declines into old age; nor
+is its thread suddenly broken, but the vital principle is consumed by
+length of time.</p>
+
+<p>Then follows the third topic of blame against old age, that they say
+it has no pleasures. Oh, noble privilege of age! if indeed it takes
+from us that which is in youth the greatest defect. For listen, most
+excellent young men, to the ancient speech of Archytas<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> of
+Tarentum, a man eminently great and illustrious, which was reported to
+me when I, a young man, was at Tarentum with Quintus Maximus. He said
+that no more deadly plague than the pleasure of the body was inflicted
+on men by nature; for the passions, greedy of that pleasure, were in a
+rash and unbridled manner incited to possess it; that hence arose
+treasons against one's country, hence the ruining of states, hence
+clandestine conferences with enemies&mdash;in short, that there was no
+crime, no wicked act, to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>the undertaking of which the lust of
+pleasure did not impel; but that fornications and adulteries and every
+such crime were provoked by no other allurements than those of
+pleasure. And whereas either nature or some god had given to man
+nothing more excellent than his mind, that to this divine function and
+gift, nothing was so hostile as pleasure; since where lust bore sway,
+there was no room for self-restraint; and in the realm of pleasure,
+virtue could by no possibility exist. And that this might be the
+better understood, he begged you to imagine in your mind any one
+actuated by the greatest pleasure of the body that could be enjoyed;
+he believed no one would doubt but that so long as the person was in
+that state of delight, he would be able to consider nothing in his
+mind, to attain nothing by reason, nothing by reflection; wherefore
+that there was nothing so detestable and so destructive as pleasure,
+inasmuch as that when it was excessive and very prolonged, it
+extinguished all the light of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>Nearchus of Tarentum, our host, who had remained throughout in
+friendship with the Roman people, said he had heard from older men
+that Archytas held this conversation with Caius Pontius the Samnite,
+the father of him by whom, in the Caudian<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> battle, Spurius
+Postumius and Titus Veturius, the consuls, were overcome, on which
+occasion Plato the Athenian had been present at that discourse; and I
+find that he came to Tarentum in the consulship of Lucius Camillus and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>Appius Claudius.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Wherefore do I adduce this? that we may
+understand that if we could not by reason and wisdom despise pleasure,
+great gratitude would be due to old age for bringing it to pass that
+that should not be a matter of pleasure which is not a matter of duty.
+For pleasure is hostile to reason, hinders deliberation, and, so to
+speak, closes the eyes of the mind, nor does it hold any intercourse
+with virtue. I indeed acted reluctantly in expelling from the senate
+Lucius Flaminius, brother of that very brave man Titus Flaminius,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+seven years after he had been Consul; but I thought that his
+licentiousness should be stigmatized. For that man, when he was Consul
+in Gaul, was prevailed on at a banquet by a courtezan to behead one of
+those who were in chains, condemned on a capital charge. He escaped in
+the censorship of his brother Titus, who had immediately preceded me;
+but so profligate and abandoned an act of lust could by no means be
+allowed to pass by me and Flaccus, since with private infamy it
+combined the disgrace of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>I have often heard from my elders, who said that, in like manner,
+they, when boys, had heard from old men, that Caius Fabricius was wont
+to wonder that when he was ambassador to King Pyrrhus, he had heard
+from Cineas the Thessalian <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>that there was a certain person at Athens
+who profest himself a wise man, and that he was accustomed to say that
+all things which we did were to be referred to pleasure; and that
+hearing him say so, Manius Curius and Titus Coruncanius were
+accustomed to wish that that might be the persuasion of the Samnites
+and Pyrrhus<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> himself, that they might the more easily be conquered
+when they had given themselves up to pleasure. Manius Curius had lived
+with Publius Decius, who, five years before the consulship of the
+former, had devoted himself for the commonwealth in his fourth
+consulship. Fabricius had been acquainted with him, and Coruncanius
+had also known him, who, as well from his own conduct in life, as from
+the great action of him whom I mention, Publius Decius, judged that
+there was doubtless something in its own nature excellent and
+glorious, which should be followed for its own sake, and which,
+scorning and despising pleasure, all the worthiest men pursued....</p>
+
+<p>But why do I refer to others? Let me now return to myself. First of
+all, I always had associates in clubs; and clubs were established when
+I was questor, on the Id&aelig;an worship of the great mother being adopted.
+Therefore I feasted with my associates altogether in a moderate way,
+but there was a kind of fervor peculiar to that time of life, and as
+that advances, all things will become every day more subdued. For I
+did not calculate the gratification of those banquets by the pleasures
+of the body so much as by the meetings <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>of friends and conversations.
+For well did our ancestors style the reclining of friends at an
+entertainment, because it carried with it a union of life, by the name
+"convivium" better than the Greeks do, who call this same thing as
+well by the name of "compotatio" as "conc&oelig;natio"; so that what in
+that kind (of pleasures) is of the least value that they appear most
+to approve of.</p>
+
+<p>For my part, on account of the pleasure of conversation, I am
+delighted also with seasonable entertainments, not only with those of
+my own age, of whom very few survive, but with those of your age, and
+with you; and I give great thanks to old age, which has increased my
+desire for conversation, and taken away that of eating and drinking.
+But even if such things delight any person (that I may not appear
+altogether to have declared war against pleasure, of which perhaps a
+certain limited degree is even natural), I am not aware that even in
+these pleasures themselves old age is without enjoyment. For my part,
+the presidencies established by our ancestors delight me; and that
+conversation, which after the manner of our ancestors, is kept up over
+our cups from the top of the table; and the cups, as in the Symposium
+of Xenophon, small and dewy, and the cooling of the wine in summer,
+and in turn either the sun, or the fire in winter&mdash;practises which I
+am accustomed to follow among the Sabines also&mdash;and I daily join a
+party of neighbors, which we prolong with various conversation till
+late at night, as far as we can. But there is not, as it were, so
+ticklish a sensibility of pleasures in old men. I believe it; but then
+neither is there the desire. However, nothing is irksome unless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> you
+long for it. Well did Sophocles, when a certain man inquired of him
+advanced in age whether he enjoyed venereal pleasures, reply, "The
+gods give me something better; nay, I have run away from them with
+gladness, as from a wild and furious tyrant." For to men fond of such
+things, it is perhaps disagreeable and irksome to be without them; but
+to the contented and satisfied it is more delightful to want them than
+to enjoy them; and yet he does not want who feels no desire; therefore
+I say that this freedom from desire is more delightful than enjoyment.</p>
+
+<p>But if the prime of life has more cheerful enjoyment of those very
+pleasures, in the first place they are but petty objects which it
+enjoys, as I have said before; then they are those of which old age,
+if it does not abundantly possess them, is not altogether destitute.
+As he is more delighted with Turpio Ambivius, who is spectator on the
+foremost bench, yet he also is delighted who is in the hindmost; so
+youth having a close view of pleasures is perhaps more gratified; but
+old age is as much delighted as is necessary in viewing them at a
+distance. However, of what high value are the following circumstances,
+that the soul, after it has served out, as it were, its time under
+lust, ambition, contention, enmities, and all the passions, shall
+retire within itself, and, as the phrase is, live with itself? But if
+it has, as it were, food for study and learning, nothing is more
+delightful than an old age of leisure. I saw Caius Gallus, the
+intimate friend of your father, Scipio, almost expiring in the
+employment of calculating the sky and the earth. How often did
+daylight overtake him when he had begun to draw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> some figure by night,
+how often did night, when he had begun in the morning! How it did
+delight him to predict to us the eclipses of the sun and the moon,
+long before their occurrence! What shall we say in the case of
+pursuits less dignified, yet, notwithstanding, requiring acuteness!
+How N&aelig;vius did delight in his Punic war! how Plautus in his
+Truculentus! how in his Pseudolus! I saw also the old man Livy,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+who, tho he had brought a play upon the stage six years before I was
+born, in the consulship of Cento and Tuditanus, yet advanced in age
+even to the time of my youth. Why should I speak of Publius Licinius
+Crassus' study both of pontifical and civil law? or of the present
+Publius Scipio, who within these few days was created chief pontiff?
+Yet we have seen all these persons whom I have mentioned, ardent in
+these pursuits when old men. But as to Marcus Cethegus, whom Ennius
+rightly called the "marrow of persuasion," with what great zeal did we
+see him engage in the practise of oratory, even when an old man! What
+pleasures, therefore, arising from banquets, or plays, or harlots, are
+to be compared with these pleasures? And these, indeed, are the
+pursuits of learning, which too, with the sensible and well educated,
+increase along with their age; so that is a noble saying of Solon,
+when he says in a certain verse, as I observed before, that he grew
+old learning many things every day&mdash;than which pleasure of the mind,
+certainly, none can be greater.</p>
+
+<p>I come now to the pleasures of husbandmen, with which I am excessively
+delighted, which are not checked by any old age, and appear in my
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>mind to make the nearest approach to the life of a wise man. For they
+have relation to the earth, which never refuses command, and never
+returns without interest that which it hath received; but sometimes
+with less, generally with very great interest. And yet for my part it
+is not only the product, but the virtue and nature of the earth itself
+that delight me, which, when in its softened and subdued bosom it has
+received the scattered seed, first of all confines what is hidden
+within it, from which harrowing, which produces that effect, derives
+its name (<i>occatio</i>); then, when it is warmed by heat and its own
+compression, it spreads it out, and elicits from it the verdant blade,
+which, supported by the fibers of the roots, gradually grows up, and,
+rising on a jointed stalk, is now enclosed in a sheath, as if it were
+of tender age, out of which, when it hath shot up, it then pours forth
+the fruit of the ear, piled in due order, and is guarded by a rampart
+of beards against the pecking of the smaller birds. Why should I, in
+the case of vines, tell of the plantings, the risings, the stages of
+growth? That you may know the repose and amusement of my old age, I
+assure you that I can never have enough of that gratification. For I
+pass over the peculiar nature of all things which are produced from
+the earth; which generates such great trunks and branches from so
+small a grain of the fig or from the grape-stone, or from the minutest
+seeds of other fruits and roots; shoots, plants, twigs, quicksets,
+layers, do not these produce the effect of delighting any one even to
+admiration? The vine, indeed, which by nature is prone to fall, and is
+borne down to the ground, unless it be propt, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> order to raise
+itself up, embraces with its tendrils, as it were with hands, whatever
+it meets with, which, as it creeps with manifold and wandering course,
+the skill of the husbandmen pruning with the knife, restrains from
+running into a forest of twigs, and spreading too far in all
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, in the beginning of spring, in those twigs which are
+left, there rises up as it were at the joints of the branches that
+which is called a bud, from which the nascent grape shows itself,
+which, increasing in size by the moisture of the earth and the heat of
+the sun, is at first very acid to the taste, and then as it ripens
+grows sweet, and being clothed with its large leaves does not want
+moderate warmth, and yet keeps off the excessive heat of the sun; than
+which what can be in fruit on the one hand more rich, or on the other
+hand more beautiful in appearance? Of which not only the advantage, as
+I said before, but also the cultivation and the nature itself delight
+me; the rows of props, the joining of the heads, the tying up and
+propagation of vines, and the pruning of some twigs, and the grafting
+of others, which I have mentioned. Why should I allude to irrigations,
+why to the diggings of the ground, why to the trenching by which the
+ground is made much more productive? Why should I speak of the
+advantage of manuring? I have treated of it in that book which I wrote
+respecting rural affairs, concerning which the learned Hesiod has not
+said a single word, tho he has written about the cultivation of the
+land. But Homer, who, as appears to me, lived many ages before,
+introduces L&aelig;rtes soothing the regret which he felt for his son by
+tilling the land and manuring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> it. Nor indeed is rural life delightful
+by reason of corn-fields only and meadows and vineyards and groves,
+but also for its gardens and orchards; also for the feeding of cattle,
+the swarms of bees, and the variety of all kinds of flowers. Nor do
+plantings only give me delight, but also graftings, than which
+agriculture has invented nothing more ingenious....</p>
+
+<p>Was then their old age to be pitied who amused themselves in the
+cultivation of land? In my opinion, indeed, I know not whether any
+other can be more happy; and not only in the discharge of duty,
+because to the whole race of mankind the cultivation of the land is
+beneficial; but also from the amusement, which I have mentioned, and
+that fulness and abundance of all things which are connected with the
+food of men, and also with the worship of the gods; so that, since
+some have a desire for these things, we may again put ourselves on
+good terms with pleasure. For the wine-cellar of a good and diligent
+master is always well stored; the oil-casks, the pantry also, the
+whole farmhouse is richly supplied; it abounds in pigs, kids, lambs,
+hens, milk, cheese, honey. Then, too, the countrymen themselves call
+the garden a second dessert. And then what gives a greater relish to
+these things is that kind of leisure labor, fowling and hunting. Why
+should I speak of the greenness of meadows, or the rows of trees, or
+the handsome appearance of vineyards and olive grounds? Let me cut the
+matter short. Nothing can be either more rich in use or more elegant
+in appearance than ground well tilled, to the enjoyment of which old
+age is so far from being an obstacle that it is even an invitation and
+allurement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> For where can that age be better warmed either by basking
+in the sun or by the fire, or again be more healthfully refreshed by
+shades or waters? Let the young, therefore, keep to themselves their
+arms, horses, spears, clubs, tennis-ball, swimmings, and races; to us
+old men let them leave out of many amusements the <i>tali</i> and
+<i>tesser&aelig;</i>; and even in that matter it may be as they please, since old
+age can be happy without these amusements....</p>
+
+<p>What, therefore, should I fear if after death I am sure either not to
+be miserable or to be happy? Altho who is so foolish, even if young,
+as to be assured that he will live even till the evening? Nay, that
+period of life has many more probabilities of death that ours has;
+young men more readily fall into diseases, suffer more severely, are
+cured with more difficulty, and therefore few arrive at old age. Did
+not this happen so we should live better and more wisely, for
+intelligence, and reflection, and judgment reside in old men, and if
+there had been none of them, no states could exist at all. But I
+return to the imminence of death. What charge is that against old age,
+since you see it to be common to youth also? I experienced not only in
+the case of my own excellent son, but also in that of your brothers,
+Scipio, men plainly marked out for the highest distinction, that death
+was common to every period of life. Yet a young man hopes that he will
+live a long time, which expectation an old man can not entertain. His
+hope is but a foolish one; for what can be more foolish than to regard
+uncertainties as certainties, delusions as truths? An old man indeed
+has nothing to hope for; yet he is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> in so much the happier state than
+a young one; since he has already attained what the other is only
+hoping for. The one is wishing to live long, the other has lived long.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, good gods! what is there in man's life that can be called
+long? For allow the latest period; let us anticipate the age of the
+kings of Tartessii. For there dwelt, as I find it recorded, a man
+named Arganthonius at Gades;<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> who reigned for eighty years, and
+lived 120. But to my mind, nothing whatever seems of long duration to
+which there is any end. For when that arrives, then the time which has
+passed has flown away; that only remains which you have secured by
+virtue and right conduct. Hours indeed depart from us, and days and
+months and years; nor does past time ever return, nor can it be
+discovered what is to follow. Whatever time is assigned to each to
+live, with that he ought to be content; for neither need the drama be
+performed entire by the actor in order to give satisfaction, provided
+he be approved in whatever act he may be; nor need the wise man live
+till the <i>plaudite</i>. For the short period of life is long enough for
+living well and honorably, and if you should advance further, you need
+no more grieve than farmers do when the loveliness of spring-time hath
+passed, that summer and autumn have come. For spring represents the
+time of youth, and gives promise of the future fruits; the remaining
+seasons are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>intended for plucking and gathering in those fruits. Now
+the harvest of old age, as I have often said, is the recollection and
+abundance of blessings previously secured. In truth everything that
+happens agreeably to nature is to be reckoned among blessings. What,
+however, is so agreeable to nature as for an old man to die which even
+is the lot of the young, tho nature opposes and resists. And thus it
+is that young men seem to me to die just as when the violence of flame
+is extinguished by a flood of water; whereas old men die, as the
+exhausted fire goes out, spontaneously, without the exertion of any
+force; and as fruits when they are green are plucked by force from the
+trees, but when ripe and mellow drop off, so violence takes away their
+lives from youths, maturity from old men&mdash;a state which to me indeed
+is so delightful that the nearer I approach to death, I seem, as it
+were, to be getting sight of land, and at length, after a long voyage,
+to be just coming into harbor.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the periods of life there is a definite limit; but of old age
+there is no limit fixt; and life goes on very well in it, so long as
+you are able to follow up and attend to the duty of your situation,
+and, at the same time, to care nothing about death; whence it happens
+that old age is even of higher spirit and bolder than youth. Agreeable
+to this was the answer given to Pisistratus,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> the tyrant, by Solon,
+when on the former inquiring, "in reliance on what hope he so boldly
+withstood him," the latter is said to have answered, "on old age." The
+happiest end of life is this&mdash;when the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>mind and the other senses
+being unimpaired, the same nature which put it together takes asunder
+her own work. As in the case of a ship or a house, he who built them
+takes them down most easily; so the same nature which has compacted
+man most easily breaks him up. Besides, every fastening of glue, when
+fresh, is with difficulty torn asunder, but easily when tried by time.
+Hence it is that that short remnant of life should be neither greedily
+coveted nor without reason given up; and Pythagoras forbids us to
+abandon the station or post of life without the orders of our
+commander, that is, of God.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> There is indeed a saying of the wise
+Solon in which he declares that he does not wish his own death to be
+unattended by the grief and lamentation of friends. He wishes, I
+suppose, that he should be dear to his friends. But I know not whether
+Ennius does not say with more propriety,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Let no one pay me honor with tears, nor<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">celebrate my funeral with mourning."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He conceives that a death ought not to be lamented when immortality
+follows. Besides, a dying man may have some degree of consciousness,
+but that for a short time, especially in the case of an old man; after
+death, indeed, consciousness either does not exist or it is a thing to
+be desired. But this ought to be a subject of study from our youth to
+be indifferent about death, without which study <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>no one can be of
+tranquil mind. For die we certainly must, and it is uncertain whether
+or not on this very day. He, therefore, who at all hours dreads
+impending death, how can he be at peace in his mind? concerning which
+there seems to be no need of such long discussion, when I call to mind
+not only Lucius Brutus, who was slain in liberating his country; nor
+the two Decii, who spurred on their steeds to a voluntary death; nor
+Marcus Atilius,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> who set out to execution that he might keep a
+promise pledged to the enemy; nor the two Scipios, who even with their
+very bodies sought to obstruct the march of the Carthaginians; nor
+your grandfather Lucius Paulus,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> who by his death atoned for the
+temerity of his colleague in the disgraceful defeat at Cann&aelig;; nor
+Marcus Marcellus,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> whose corpse not even the most merciless foe
+suffered to go without the honor of sepulture; but that our legions,
+as I have remarked in my Antiquities, have often gone with cheerful
+and undaunted mind to that place from which they believed that they
+should never return. Shall, then, well-instructed old men be afraid of
+that which young men, and they not only ignorant, but mere peasants,
+despise? On the whole, as it seems to me indeed, a satiety of all
+pursuits causes a satiety of life. There are pursuits peculiar <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>to
+boyhood; do therefore young men regret the loss of them? There are
+also some of early youth; does settled age, which is called middle
+life, seek after these? There are also some of this period; neither
+are they looked for by old age. There are some final pursuits of old
+age; accordingly, as the pursuits of the earlier parts of life fall
+into disuse, so also do those of old age; and when this has taken
+place, satiety of life brings on the seasonable period of death.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, I do not see why I should not venture to tell you what I
+myself think concerning death; because I fancy I see it so much the
+more clearly in proportion as I am less distant from it. I am
+persuaded that your fathers, Publius Scipio and Caius L&aelig;lius, men of
+the greatest eminence and very dear friends of mine, are living, and
+that life too which alone deserves the name of life. For while we are
+shut up in this prison of the body, we are fulfilling, as it were, the
+function and painful task of destiny; for the heaven-born soul has
+been degraded from its dwelling-place above, and, as it were, buried
+in the earth, a situation uncongenial to its divine and immortal
+nature. But I believe that the immortal gods have shed souls into
+human bodies, that beings might exist who might tend the earth, and by
+contemplating the order of the heavenly bodies might imitate it in the
+manner and regularity of their lives. Nor have reason and argument
+alone influenced me thus to believe, but likewise the high name and
+authority of the greatest philosophers. I used to hear that Pythagoras
+and the Pythagoreans, who were all but our neighbors, who were
+formerly called the Italian philosophers, had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> no doubt that we
+possess souls derived from the universal divine mind. Moreover, the
+arguments were conclusive to me which Socrates delivered on the last
+day of his life concerning the immortality of the soul&mdash;he who was
+pronounced by the oracle of Apollo the wisest of all men. But why say
+more? I have thus persuaded myself, such is my belief; that since such
+is the activity of our souls, so tenacious their memory of things past
+and their sagacity regarding things future, so many arts, so many
+sciences, so many discoveries, that the nature which comprizes these
+qualities can not be mortal; and since the mind is ever in action and
+has no source of motion, because it moves itself, I believe that it
+never will find any end of motion, because it never will part from
+itself; and that since the nature of the soul is uncompounded, and has
+not in itself any admixture heterogeneous and dissimilar to itself, I
+maintain that it can not undergo dissolution; and if this be not
+possible, it can not perish; and it is a strong argument that men know
+very many things before they are born, since when mere boys, while
+they are learning difficult subjects, they so quickly catch up
+numberless ideas, that they seem not to be learning them then for the
+first time, but to remember them, and to be calling them to
+recollection. Thus did our Plato argue....</p>
+
+<p>Let me, if you please, revert to my own views. No one will ever
+persuade me that either your father, Paulus, or two grandfathers,
+Paulus and Africanus, or the father of Africanus, or his uncle, or the
+many distinguished men whom it is unnecessary to recount, aimed at
+such great exploits as might reach to the recollection of posterity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+had they not perceived in their mind that posterity belonged to them.
+Do you suppose, to boast a little of myself, after the manner of old
+men, that I should have undergone such great toils, by day and night,
+at home and in service, had I thought to limit my glory by the same
+bounds as my life? Would it not have been far better to pass an easy
+and quiet life without any toil or struggle? But I know not how my
+soul, stretching upward, has ever looked forward to posterity, as if,
+when it had departed from life, then at last it would begin to live.
+And, indeed, unless this were the case, that souls were immortal, the
+souls of the noblest of men would not aspire above all things to an
+immortality of glory.</p>
+
+<p>Why need I adduce that the wisest man ever dies with the greatest
+equanimity, the most foolish with the least? Does it not seem to you
+that the soul, which sees more and further, sees that it is passing to
+a better state, while that body whose vision is duller, does not see
+it? I, indeed, am transported with eagerness to see your fathers, whom
+I have respected and loved; nor in truth is it those only I desire to
+meet whom I myself have known; but those also of whom I have heard or
+read, and have myself written. Whither, indeed, as I proceed, no one
+assuredly should easily force me back, nor, as they did with Pelias,
+cook me again to youth. For if any god should grant me that from this
+period of life I should become a child again and cry in the cradle, I
+should earnestly refuse it; nor in truth should I like, after having
+run, as it were, my course, to be called back to the starting-place
+from the goal. For what comfort has life? What trouble has it not,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+rather? But grant that it has; yet it assuredly has either satiety or
+limitation (of its pleasures). For I am not disposed to lament the
+loss of life, which many men, and those learned men too, have often
+done; neither do I regret that I have lived, since I have lived in
+such a way that I conceive I was not born in vain; and from this life
+I depart as from a temporary lodging, not as from a home.</p>
+
+<p>For nature has assigned it to us as an inn to sojourn in, not a place
+of habitation. Oh, glorious day! when I shall depart to that divine
+company and assemblage of spirits, and quit this troubled and polluted
+scene. For I shall go not only to those great men of whom I have
+spoken before, but also to my son Cato, than whom never was better man
+born, nor more distinguished for pious affection, whose body was
+burned by me, whereas, on the contrary, it was fitting that mine
+should be burned by him. But his soul not deserting me, but oft
+looking back, no doubt departed to those regions whither it saw that I
+myself was destined to come. This, tho a distress to me, I seemed
+patiently to endure; not that I bore it with indifference, but I
+comforted myself with the recollection that the separation and
+distance between us would not continue long. For these reasons, O
+Scipio (since you said that you with L&aelig;lius were accustomed to wonder
+at this), old age is tolerable to me, and not only not irksome, but
+even delightful. And if I am wrong in this, that I believe the souls
+of men to be immortal, I willingly delude myself; nor do I desire that
+this mistake, in which I take pleasure, should be wrested from me as
+long as I live; but if I, when dead, shall have no consciousness, as
+some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> narrow-minded philosophers imagine, I do not fear lest dead
+philosophers should ridicule this my delusion. But if we are not
+destined to be immortal, yet it is a desirable thing for a man to
+expire at his fit time. For, as nature prescribes a boundary to all
+other things, so does she also to life. Now old age is the
+consummation of life, just as of a play, from the fatigue of which we
+ought to escape, especially when satiety is super-added. This is what
+I had to say on the subject of old age, to which may you arrive! that,
+after having experienced the truth of those statements which you have
+heard from me, you may be enabled to give them your approbation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE DEATH OF HIS DAUGHTER TULLIA<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></h3>
+<p>Yes, my dear Servius, I could indeed wish you had been with me, as you
+say, at the time of my terrible trial. How much it was in your power
+to help me if you had been here, by sympathizing with, and I may
+almost say, sharing equally in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>my grief, I readily perceive from the
+fact that after reading your letter I now feel myself considerably
+more composed; for not only was all that you wrote just what is best
+calculated to soothe affliction, but you yourself in comforting me
+showed that you too had no little pain at heart. Your son Servius,
+however, has made it clear, by every kindly attention which such an
+occasion would permit of, both how great his respect was for myself
+and also how much pleasure his kind feeling for me was likely to give
+you; and you may be sure that, while such attentions from him have
+often been more pleasant to me, they have never made me more grateful.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, only your arguments and your equal share&mdash;I may
+almost call it&mdash;in this affliction which comforts me, but also your
+authority; because I hold it shame in me not to be bearing my trouble
+in a way that you, a man endowed with such wisdom, think it ought to
+be borne. But at times I feel broken down, and I scarcely make any
+struggle against my grief, because those consolations fail me which
+under similar calamities were never wanting to any of those other
+people whom I put before myself as models for imitation. Both Fabius
+Maximus, for example, when he lost a son who had held the consulship,
+the hero of many a famous exploit; and Lucius Paulus, from whom two
+were taken in one week; and your own kinsman Gallus; and Marcus Cato,
+who was deprived of a son of the rarest talents and the rarest
+virtue&mdash;all these lived in times when their individual affliction was
+capable of finding a solace in the distinctions they used to earn from
+their country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For me, however, after being stript of all those distinctions which
+you yourself recall to me, and which I had won for myself by
+unparalleled exertions, only that one solace remained which has been
+torn away. My thoughts were not diverted by work for my friends, or by
+the administration of affairs of state; there was no pleasure in
+pleading in the courts; I could not bear the very sight of the Senate
+House; I felt, as was indeed too true, that I had lost all the harvest
+of both my industry and my success. But whenever I wanted to recollect
+that all this was shared with you and other friends I could name, and
+whenever I was breaking myself in and forcing my spirit to bear these
+things with patience, I always had a refuge to go to where I might
+find peace, and in whose words of comfort and sweet society I could
+rid me of all my pains and griefs. Whereas now, under this terrible
+blow, even those old wounds which seemed to have healed up are
+bleeding afresh; for it is impossible for me now to find such a refuge
+from my sorrows at home in the business of the state as in those days
+I did in that consolation of home, which was always in store whenever
+I came away sad from thoughts of state to seek for peace in her
+happiness. And so I stay away both from home and from public life;
+because home now is no more able to make up for the sorrow I feel when
+I think of our country than our country is for my sorrow at home. I am
+therefore looking forward all the more eagerly to your coming, and
+long to see you as early as may possibly be; no greater alleviation
+can be offered me than a meeting between us for friendly intercourse
+and conversation. I hope, however, that your return is to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> take place,
+as I hear it is, very shortly. As for myself, while there are abundant
+reasons for wanting to see you as soon as possible, my principal one
+is in order that we may discuss together beforehand the best method of
+conduct for present circumstances, which must entirely be adapted to
+the wishes of one man only, a man nevertheless who is far-seeing and
+generous, and also, as I think I have thoroughly ascertained, to me
+not at all ill-disposed and to you extremely friendly. But admitting
+this, it is still a matter for much deliberation what is the line&mdash;I
+do not say of action, but of keeping quiet&mdash;that we ought by his good
+leave and favor to adopt. Farewell!</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>OF BRAVE AND ELEVATED SPIRITS<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></h3>
+<p>A spirit altogether brave and elevated is chiefly discernible by two
+characters. The first consists in a low estimate of mere outward
+circumstances, since it is convinced that a man ought to admire,
+desire, or court nothing but what is virtuous and becoming; and that
+he ought to succumb to no man, nor to any perturbation either of
+spirit or fortune. The other thing is that, possest of such a spirit
+as I have just mentioned, you should perform actions which are great
+and of the greatest utility, but extremely arduous, full of
+difficulties <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>and danger both to life and the many things which
+pertain to life.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter of those two characters consist all the glory, the
+majesty, and, I add, the utility; but the causes and the efficient
+means that form great men is in the former, which contains the
+principles that elevate the soul, and gives it a contempt for
+temporary considerations. Now, this very excellence consists in two
+particulars: you are to deem that only to be good is to be virtuous,
+and that you be free from all mental irregularity. For we are to look
+upon it as the character of a noble and an elevated soul, to slight
+all those considerations that the generality of mankind account great
+and glorious, and to despise them, upon firm and durable principles;
+while strength of mind and greatness of resolution are discerned in
+bearing those calamities which, in the course of man's life, are many
+and various, so as not to be driven from your natural disposition, nor
+from the dignity of a wise man; for it is not consistent that he who
+is not subdued by fear should be subjugated by passion, nor that he
+who has shown himself invincible by toil should be conquered by
+pleasure. Wherefore, we ought to watch and avoid the love of money;
+for nothing so truly characterizes a narrow, groveling disposition as
+to love riches; and nothing is more noble and more exalted than to
+despise riches if you have them not, and if you have them, to employ
+them in beneficence and liberality.</p>
+
+<p>An inordinate passion for glory, as I have already observed, is
+likewise to be guarded against; for it deprives us of liberty, the
+only prize for which men of elevated sentiments ought to contend.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+Power is so far from being desirable in itself that it sometimes ought
+to be refused, and sometimes to be resigned. We should likewise be
+free from all disorders of the mind, from all violent passion and
+fear, as well as languor, voluptuousness, and anger, that we may
+possess that tranquillity and security which confer alike consistency
+and dignity. Now, many there are, and have been, who, courting that
+tranquillity which I have mentioned here, have withdrawn themselves
+from public affairs and taken refuge in retirement. Among these, some
+of the noblest and most prominent of our philosophers; and some
+persons, of strict and grave dispositions, were unable to bear with
+the manners either of the people or their rulers; and some have lived
+in the country, amusing themselves with the management of their
+private affairs. Their aim was the same as that of the powerful, that
+they might enjoy their liberty, without wanting anything or obeying
+any person; for the essence of liberty is to live just as you
+please....</p>
+
+<p>But, since most persons are of opinion that the achievements of war
+are more glorious than civil affairs, this judgment needs to be
+restricted; for many, as generally is the case with high minds and
+enterprising spirits, especially if they are adapted to military life
+and are fond of warlike achievements, have often sought opportunities
+of war from their fondness for glory; but if we are willing to judge
+truly, many are the civil employments of greater importance, and of
+more renown, than the military.</p>
+
+<p>For tho Themistocles is justly praised&mdash;his name is now more
+illustrious than that of Solon,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> and his glorious victory at Salamis
+is mentioned preferably to the policy of Solon, by which he first
+confirmed the power of the Areopagus&mdash;the one should not be considered
+more illustrious than the other; for the one availed his country only
+for once&mdash;the other is lastingly advantageous; because by it the laws
+of the Athenians, and the institutions of their ancestors, are
+preserved. Now, Themistocles could not have stated any respect in
+which he benefited the Areopagus, but Solon might with truth declare
+that Themistocles had been advantaged by him; for the war was carried
+on by the counsels of that senate which was constituted by Solon.</p>
+
+<p>We may make the same observation with regard to Pausanias<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and
+Lysander among the Laced&aelig;monians; for all the addition of empire which
+their conquests are supposed to have brought to their country is not
+to be compared to the laws and economy of Lycurgus; for indeed, owing
+to these very causes they had armies more subordinate and courageous.
+In my eyes, Marcus Scaurus (who flourished when I was but a boy) was
+not inferior to Caius Marius;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> nor, after I came to have a concern
+in the government, Quintus Catulus<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> to Cneius Pompey. An army
+abroad is but of small service, unless there be a wise administration
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>at home. Nor did that good man and great general Africanus perform a
+more important service to his country when he razed Numantia than did
+that private citizen P. Nasica<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> when at the same period he killed
+Tiberius Gracchus. An action which it is true was not merely of a
+civil nature; for it approaches to a military character, as being the
+result of force and courage; but it was an action performed without an
+army, and from political considerations....</p>
+
+<p>Now all that excellence which springs from a lofty and noble nature is
+altogether produced by the mental and not by the corporeal powers.
+Meanwhile, the body ought to be kept in such action and order as that
+it may be always ready to obey the dictates of reason and wisdom, in
+carrying them into execution, and in persevering under hardships. But
+with regard to that <i>honestas</i> we are treating of, it consists wholly
+in the thoughtful application of the mind, by which the civilians who
+preside over public affairs are equally serviceable to their country
+as they who wage wars. For it often happens that by such counsels wars
+are either not entered into or they are brought to a termination;
+sometimes they are even undertaken, as the third Punic war was by the
+advice of Marcus Cato, whose authority was powerful, even after he was
+dead.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Wisdom in determining is therefore preferable to courage in fighting;
+but in this we are to take care that we are not swayed by an aversion
+to fighting rather than by a consideration of expediency. Now in
+engaging in war we ought to make it appear that we have no other view
+than peace. But the character of a brave and resolute man is not to be
+ruffled with adversity, and not to be in such confusion as to quit his
+post, as we say, but to preserve a presence of mind, and the exercise
+of reason, without departing from his purpose. And while this is the
+characteristic of a lofty spirit, so this also is that of a powerful
+intellect; namely, to anticipate futurity in thought, and to conclude
+beforehand what may happen on either side, and, upon that, what
+measures to pursue, and never be surprized so as to say, "I had not
+thought of that." Such are the operations of a genius, capacious and
+elevated; of such a one as relies on its own prudence and counsel; but
+to rush precipitately into the field, and to encounter an enemy with
+mere physical force has somewhat in it that is barbarous and brutal.
+When the occasion, however, and its necessity compel it, we should
+resist with force, and prefer death to slavery or dishonor.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>OF SCIPIO'S DEATH AND OF FRIENDSHIP<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></h3>
+<p>Should I say that I am not distrest by the loss of Scipio,
+philosophers may determine with what propriety I should do so; but
+assuredly I should be guilty of falsehood. For I am distrest at being
+bereaved of such a friend, as no one, I consider, will ever be to me
+again, and, as I can confidently assert, no one ever was; but I am not
+destitute of a remedy. I comfort myself, and especially with this
+consolation, that I am free from that error by which most men, on the
+decease of friends, are wont to be tormented; for I feel that no evil
+has happened to Scipio; it has befallen myself, if indeed it has
+happened to any. Now to be above measure distrest at one's own
+troubles is characteristic of the man who loves not his friend, but
+himself. In truth, as far as he is concerned, who <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>can deny that his
+end was glorious? for unless he had chosen to wish for immortality, of
+which he had not the slightest thought, what did he fail to obtain
+which it was lawful for a man to wish for? A man who, as soon as he
+grew up, by his transcendent merit far surpassed those sanguine hopes
+of his countrymen which they had conceived regarding him when a mere
+boy, who never stood for the consulship, yet was made Consul twice; on
+the first occasion, before his time; on the second, at the proper age
+as regarded himself, tho for the commonwealth almost too late; who, by
+overthrowing two cities,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> most hostile to our empire, put an end
+not only to all present but all future wars. What shall I say of his
+most engaging manners; of his dutiful conduct to his mother; his
+generosity to his sisters; his kindness to his friends; his
+uprightness toward all? These are known to you; and how dear he was to
+the state was displayed by its mourning at his death....</p>
+
+<p>The authority of the ancients has more weight with me, either that of
+our own ancestors, who paid such sacred honors to the dead, which
+surely they would not have done if they thought those honors did in no
+way affect them, or that of those who once lived in this country, and
+enlightened, by their institutions and instructions, Magna Gr&aelig;cia<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+(which now indeed is entirely destroyed, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>then was flourishing),
+or of him who was pronounced by the oracle of Apollo to be the wisest
+of men, who did not say first one thing and then another, as is
+generally done, but always the same; namely, that the souls of men are
+divine, and that when they have departed from the body, a return to
+heaven is opened to them, and the speediest to the most virtuous and
+just. This same opinion was also held by Scipio; for he indeed, a very
+few days before his death, as if he had a presentiment of it, when
+Philus and Manilius were present, and many others, and you also,
+Sc&aelig;vola, had gone with me, for three days descanted on the subject of
+government; of which discussion the last was almost entirely on the
+immortality of souls, which he said he had learned in sleep through a
+vision from Africanus. If this be the fact, that the spirit of the
+best man most easily flies away in death, as from the prison-house and
+chains of the body, whose passage to the gods can we conceive to have
+been readier than that of Scipio? Wherefore, to be afflicted at this
+his departure, I fear, would be the part rather of an envious person
+than of a friend....</p>
+
+<p>But yet I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to
+have lived happily because I lived with Scipio, with whom I had a
+common anxiety on public and private affairs, and with whom my life
+both at home and abroad was associated, and there existed that,
+wherein <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>consists the entire strength of friendship, an entire
+agreement of inclinations, pursuits, and sentiments. That character
+for wisdom, therefore, which Fannius a little while ago mentioned does
+not so delight me, especially since it is undeserved, as the hope that
+the recollection of our friendship will last forever. And it is the
+more gratifying to me because scarcely in the history of the world are
+three or four pairs of friends mentioned by name; and I indulge in the
+hope that the friendship of Scipio and L&aelig;lius will be remembered....</p>
+
+<p>I can only urge you to prefer friendship to all human possessions; for
+there is nothing so suited to our nature, so well adapted to
+prosperity or adversity. But first of all, I am of opinion that except
+among the virtuous friendship can not exist; I do not analyze this
+principle too closely, as they do who inquire with too great nicety
+into those things, perhaps with truth on their side, but with little
+general advantage; for they maintain that there is no good man but the
+wise man. Be it so, yet they define wisdom to be such as no mortal has
+ever attained to; whereas we ought to contemplate those things which
+exist in practise and in common life, and not the subjects of fictions
+or of our own wishes. I would never pretend to say that Caius
+Fabricius, Marius Curius, and Titus Coruncanius, whom our ancestors
+esteemed wise, were wise according to the standard of these moralists.
+Wherefore let them keep to themselves the name of wisdom, both
+invidious and unintelligible, and let them allow that these were good
+men&mdash;nay, they will not even do that; they will declare that this can
+not be granted except to a wise man.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Let us therefore proceed with our dull genius, as they say. Those who
+so conduct themselves and so live that their honor, their integrity,
+their justice, and liberality are approved; so that there is not in
+them any covetousness, or licentiousness, or boldness; and that they
+are of great consistency, as those men whom I have mentioned
+above&mdash;let us consider these worthy of the appellation of good men, as
+they have been accounted such, because they follow (as far as men are
+able) nature, which is the best guide of a good life. For I seem to
+myself to have this view, that we are so formed by nature that there
+should be a certain social tie among all; stronger, however, as each
+approaches nearer us. Accordingly, citizens are preferable to
+foreigners, and relatives to strangers; for with the last-named,
+Nature herself has created a friendly feeling, tho this has not
+sufficient strength. For in this respect friendship is superior to
+relationship, because from relationship benevolence can be withdrawn
+and from friendship it can not; for with the withdrawal of benevolence
+the very name of friendship is done away, while that of relationship
+remains. Now how great the power of friendship is may be best gathered
+from this consideration, that out of the boundless society of the
+human race, which Nature herself has joined together, friendship is a
+matter so contracted, and brought into so narrow a compass, that the
+whole of affection is confined to two, or at any rate to very few.</p>
+
+<p>Now friendship is nothing else than a complete union of feeling on all
+subjects, divine and human, accompanied by kindly feeling and
+attachment, than which, indeed, I am not aware whether,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> with the
+exception of wisdom, anything better has been bestowed on man by the
+immortal gods. Some men prefer riches, others good health, others
+influence, others again honors, many prefer even pleasures; the last,
+indeed, is the characteristic of beasts; while the former are fleeting
+and uncertain, depending not so much on our own purpose as on the
+fickleness of fortune. Whereas those who place the supreme good in
+virtue, therein do admirably; but this very virtue itself both begets
+and constitutes friendship; nor without this virtue can friendship
+exist at all. Now let us define this virtue according to the usage of
+life and of our common language; and let us not measure it, as certain
+learned persons do, by pomp of language; and let us include among the
+good those who are so accounted&mdash;the Paulli, the Catos, the Galli, the
+Scipios, and the Phili; with these men ordinary life is content; and
+let us pass over those who are nowhere found to exist. Among men of
+this kind, therefore, friendship finds facilities so great that I can
+scarcely describe them.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place&mdash;to whom can life be "worth living," as Ennius
+says, who does not repose on the mutual kind feeling of some friend?
+What can be more delightful than to have one to whom you can speak on
+all subjects just as to yourself? Where would be the great enjoyment
+in prosperity if you had not one to rejoice in it equally with
+yourself? And adversity would indeed be difficult to endure without
+some one who would bear it even with greater regret than yourself. In
+short, all other objects that are sought after are severally suited to
+some one single purpose&mdash;riches, that you may spend them; power that
+you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> may be courted; honors, that you may be extolled; pleasures, that
+you may enjoy them; good health, that you may be exempt from harm, and
+perform the functions of the body. Whereas friendship comprizes the
+greatest number of objects possible; wherever you turn yourself, it is
+at hand; shut out of no place, never out of season, never irksome; and
+therefore we do not use fire and water, as they say, on more occasions
+than we do friendship. And I am not now speaking of commonplace or
+ordinary friendship (tho even that brings delight and benefit), but of
+real and true friendship, such as belonged to those of whom very few
+are recorded; for prosperity, friendship renders more brilliant, and
+adversity more supportable, by dividing and communicating it.</p>
+
+<p>And while friendship embraces very many and great advantages, she
+undoubtedly surpasses all in this, that she shines with a brilliant
+hope over the future, and never suffers the spirit to be weakened or
+to sink. Besides, he who looks on a true friend looks, as it were,
+upon a kind of image of himself; wherefore friends, tho absent, are
+still present; tho in poverty, they are rich; tho weak, yet in the
+enjoyment of health; and, what is still more difficult to assert, tho
+dead they are alive; so entirely does the honor, the memory, the
+regret of friends attend them; from which circumstance the death of
+the one seems to be happy, and the life of the other praiseworthy;
+nay, should you remove from nature the cement of kind feelings,
+neither a house nor a city will be able to stand; even the cultivation
+of the land will not continue. If it be not clearly perceived how
+great is the power of friendship and concord, it can be distinctly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+inferred from quarrels and dissensions; for what house is there so
+established, or what state so firmly settled, that may not utterly be
+overthrown by hatred and dissension? From which it may be determined
+how much advantage there is in friendship. They relate, indeed, that a
+certain learned man of Agrigentum<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> promulgated in Greek verses the
+doctrine that all things which cohere throughout the whole world, and
+all things that are the subjects of motion, are brought together by
+friendship, and are dispelled by discord; and this principle all men
+understand, and illustrate by their conduct. Therefore, if at any time
+any act of a friend has been exhibited, either in undergoing or in
+sharing dangers, who is there that does not extol such an act with the
+highest praise?...</p>
+
+<p>Now if such be the influence of integrity, that we love it even in
+those whom we have never seen, and, what is much more, even in an
+enemy, what wonder if men's feelings are affected when they seem to
+discover the goodness and virtue of those with whom they may become
+connected by intercourse? altho love is confirmed by the reception of
+kindness, and by the discovery of an earnest sympathy, and by close
+familiarity, which things being added to the first emotion of the mind
+and the affections, there is kindled a large amount of kindly feeling.
+And if any <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>imagine that this proceeds from a sense of weakness, so
+that there shall be secured a friend, by whom a man may obtain that
+which he wants, they leave to friendship a mean and, indeed, if I may
+so speak, anything but respectable origin, when they make her to be
+born of indigence and want; were this the case, then in proportion as
+a man judged that there were the least resources in himself, precisely
+in that degree would he be best qualified for friendship, whereas the
+fact is far otherwise. For just as a man has most confidence in
+himself, and as he is most completely fortified by worth and wisdom,
+so that he needs no one's assistance, and feels that all his resources
+reside in himself, in the same proportion he is most highly
+distinguished for seeking out and forming friendships. For what did
+Africanus want of me? Nothing whatever, nor indeed did I need aught
+from him; but I loved him from admiration of his excellence; he in
+turn perhaps was attached to me from some high opinion which he
+entertained of my character, and association fostered our affection.
+But altho many and great advantages ensued, yet it was not from any
+hope of these that the causes of our attachment sprang; for as we are
+beneficent and liberal not to exact favor in return (for we are not
+usurers in kind actions), but by nature are inclined to liberality,
+thus I think that friendship is to be desired, not attracted by the
+hope of reward, but because the whole of its profit consists in love
+only. From such opinions, they who, after the fashion of beasts, refer
+everything to pleasure, widely differ, and no great wonder, since they
+can not look up to anything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> lofty, magnificent, or divine who east
+all their thoughts on an object so mean and contemptible.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore let us exclude such persons altogether from our discourse;
+and let us ourselves hold this opinion, that the sentiment of loving
+and the attachment of kind feelings are produced by nature when the
+evidence of virtue has been established; and they who have eagerly
+sought the last-named draw nigh and attach themselves to it, that they
+may enjoy the friendship and character of the individual they have
+begun to love, and that they may be commensurate and equal in
+affection, and more inclined to confer a favor than to claim any
+return. And let this honorable struggle be maintained between them; so
+not only will the greatest advantages be derived from friendship, but
+its origin from nature rather than from a sense of weakness will be at
+once more impressive and more true. For if it were expediency that
+cemented friendships, the same when changed would dissolve them; but
+because nature can never change, therefore true friendships are
+eternal....</p>
+
+<p>Listen, then, my excellent friends, to the discussion which was very
+frequently held by me and Scipio on the subject of friendship; altho
+he indeed used to say that nothing was more difficult than that
+friendship should continue to the end of life; for it often happened
+either that the same course was not expedient to both parties or that
+they held different views of politics; he remarked also that the
+characters of men often changed, in some cases by adversity, in
+others<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> by old age becoming oppressive; and he derived an authority
+for such notions from a comparison with early life, because the
+strongest attachments of boys are constantly laid aside with the
+pr&aelig;texta; even if they should maintain it to manhood, yet sometimes it
+is broken off by rivalry, for a dowried wife, or some other advantage
+which they can not both attain. And even if men should be carried on
+still further in their friendship, yet that feeling is often
+undermined should they fall into rivalry for preferments; for there is
+no greater enemy to friendship than covetousness of money, in most
+men, and even in the best, an emulous desire of high offices and
+glory, in consequence of which the most bitter enmities have often
+arisen between the dearest friends. For great dissensions, and those
+in most instances justifiable, arise when some request is made of
+friends which is improper, as, for instance, that they should become
+either the ministers of their lust or their supporters in the
+perpetration of wrong; and they who refuse to do so, it matters not
+however virtuously, yet are accused of discarding the claims of
+friendship by those persons whom they are unwilling to oblige; but
+they who dare to ask anything of a friend, by their very request seem
+to imply that they would do anything for the sake of that friend; by
+the complaining of such persons, not only are long-established
+intimacies put an end to, but endless animosities are engendered. All
+these many causes, like so many fatalities, are ever threatening
+friendship, so that, he said, to escape them all seemed to him a proof
+not merely of wisdom, but even of good fortune....<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Let this, therefore, be established as a primary law concerning
+friendship, that we expect from our friends only what is honorable,
+and for our friends' sake do what is honorable; that we should not
+wait till we are asked; that zeal be ever ready, and reluctance far
+from us; but that we take pleasure in freely giving our advice; that
+in our friendship, the influence of our friends, when they give good
+advice, should have great weight; and that this be employed to
+admonish not only candidly, but even severely, if the case shall
+require, and that we give heed to it when so employed; for, as to
+certain persons whom I understand to have been esteemed wise men in
+Greece, I am of opinion that some strange notions were entertained by
+them; but there is nothing which they do not follow up with too great
+subtlety; among the rest, that excessive friendships should be
+avoided, lest it should be necessary for one to feel anxiety for many;
+that every one has enough, and more than enough, of his own affairs;
+that to be needlessly implicated in those of other people is
+vexatious; that it was most convenient to hold the reins of friendship
+as loose as possible, so as either to tighten or slacken them when you
+please; for they argue that the main point toward a happy life is
+freedom from care, which the mind can not enjoy if one man be, as it
+were, in travail for others.</p>
+
+<p>Nay, they tell us that some are accustomed to declare, still more
+unfeelingly (a topic which I have briefly touched upon just above),
+that friendships should be cultivated for the purpose of protection
+and assistance, and not for kind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> feeling or affection; and therefore
+the less a man possesses of independence and of strength, in the same
+degree he most earnestly desires friendships; that thence it arises
+that women seek the support of friendship more than men, and the poor
+more than the rich, and persons in distress rather than those who are
+considered prosperous. Admirable philosophy! for they seem to take
+away the sun from the world who withdraw friendship from life; for we
+receive nothing better from the immortal gods, nothing more
+delightful; for what is this freedom from care?&mdash;in appearances,
+indeed, flattering; but, in many eases, in reality to be disdained.
+Nor is it reasonable to undertake any honorable matter or action lest
+you should be anxious, or to lay it aside when undertaken; for if we
+fly from care, we must fly from virtue also; for it is impossible that
+she can, without some degree of distress, feel contempt and
+detestation for qualities opposed to herself; just as kind-heartedness
+for malice, temperance for profligacy, and bravery for cowardice.
+Accordingly, you see that upright men are most distrest by unjust
+actions; the brave with the cowardly; the virtuous with the
+profligate; and, therefore, this is the characteristic of a
+well-regulated mind, both to be well pleased with what is excellent
+and to be distrest with what is contrary. Wherefore, if trouble of
+mind befall a wise man (and assuredly it will, unless we suppose that
+all humanity is extirpated from his mind), what reason is there why we
+should altogether remove friendship from life, lest because of it we
+should take upon ourselves some troubles? for what difference is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+there (setting the emotions of the mind aside), I do not say between a
+man and a beast, but between a man and a stone, or log, or anything of
+that kind? For they do not deserve to be listened to who would have
+virtue to be callous and made of iron, as it were, which indeed is, as
+in other matters, so in friendship also, tender and susceptible; so
+that friends are loosened, as it were, by happy events, and drawn
+together by distresses.</p>
+
+<p>Wherefore the anxiety which has often to be felt for a friend is not
+of such force that it should remove friendship from the world, any
+more than that the virtues, because they bring with them certain cares
+and troubles, should therefore be discarded. For when it produces
+friendship (as I said above), should any indication of virtue shine
+forth, to which a congenial mind may attach and unite itself&mdash;when
+this happens, affection must necessarily arise. For what is so
+unmeaning as to take delight in many vain things, such as preferments,
+glory, magnificent buildings, clothing and adornment of the body, and
+not to take an extreme delight in a soul endued with virtue, in such a
+soul as can either love or (so to speak) love in return? for there is
+nothing more delightful than the repayment of kindness and the
+interchange of devotedness and good offices. Now if we add this, which
+may with propriety be added, that nothing so allures and draws any
+object to itself as congeniality does friendship, it will of course be
+admitted as true that the good must love the good, and unite them to
+them selves, just as if connected by relationship and nature; for
+nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> is more apt to seek and seize on its like than nature.
+Wherefore this certainly is clear, Fannius and Sc&aelig;vola (in my
+opinion), that among the good a liking for the good is, as it were,
+inevitable; and this indeed is appointed by Nature herself as the very
+fountain of friendship.</p>
+
+<p>But the same kind disposition belongs also to the multitude; for
+virtue is not inhuman, or cruel, or haughty, since she is accustomed
+to protect even whole nations, and to adopt the best measures for
+their welfare, which assuredly she would not do did she shrink from
+the affection of the vulgar. And to myself, indeed, those who form
+friendships with a view to advantage seem to do away with its most
+endearing bond; for it is not so much the advantage obtained through a
+friend as the mere love of that friend which delights; and then only
+what has proceeded from a friend becomes delightful if it has
+proceeded from zealous affection; and that friendship should be
+cultivated from a sense of necessity is so far from being the case
+that those who, being endowed with power and wealth, and especially
+with virtue (in which is the strongest support of friendship), have
+least need of another, are most liberal and generous. Yet I am not
+sure whether it is requisite that friends should never stand in any
+need; for wherein would any devotedness of mine to him have been
+exerted if Scipio had never stood in need of my advice or assistance
+at home or abroad? Wherefore friendship has not followed upon
+advantage, but advantage on friendship.</p>
+
+<p>Persons, therefore, who are wallowing in indulgence will not need to
+be listened to if ever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> they shall descant upon friendship, which they
+have known neither by experience nor by theory. For who is there, by
+the faith of gods and men, who would desire, on the condition of his
+loving no one, and himself being loved by none, to roll in affluence,
+and live in a superfluity of all things? For this is the life of
+tyrants, in which undoubtedly there can be no confidence, no
+affection, no steady dependence on attachment; all is perpetually
+mistrust and disquietude&mdash;there is no room for friendship. For who can
+love either him whom he fears or him by whom he thinks he himself is
+feared? Yet are they courted, solely in hypocrisy, for a time;
+because, if perchance (as it frequently happens) they have been
+brought low, then it is perceived how destitute they were of friends.
+And this, they say, Tarquin<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> exprest; that when going into exile,
+he found out whom he had as faithful friends, and whom unfaithful
+ones, since then he could no longer show gratitude to either party;
+altho I wonder that, with such haughtiness and impatience of temper,
+he could find one at all. And as the character of the individual whom
+I have mentioned could not obtain true friends, so the riches of many
+men of rank exclude all faithful friendship; for not only is Fortune
+blind herself, but she commonly renders blind those whom she
+embraces....</p>
+
+<p>He who, therefore, shall have shown himself in both cases, as regards
+friendship, worthy, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>consistent, and stedfast; such a one we ought to
+esteem of a class of persons extremely rare&mdash;nay, almost godlike. Now,
+the foundation of that stedfastness and constancy, which we seek in
+friendship, is sincerity. For nothing is stedfast which is insincere.
+Besides, it is right that one should be chosen who is frank and
+good-natured, and congenial in his sentiments; one, in fact, who is
+influenced by the same motives, all of which qualities have a tendency
+to create sincerity. For it is impossible for a wily and tortuous
+disposition to be sincere. Nor in truth can the man who has no
+sympathy from nature, and who is not moved by the same considerations,
+be either attached or steady. To the same requisites must be added
+that he shall neither take delight in bringing forward charges nor
+believe them when they arise, all of which causes belong to that
+consistent principle of which now for some time I have been treating.
+Thus the remark is true which I made at first that friendship can
+exist only among the good; for it is the part of a good man (whom at
+the same time we may call a wise man) to observe these two rules in
+friendship: first, that there shall be nothing pretended or simulated
+(for even to hate openly better becomes the ingenuous man than by his
+looks to conceal his sentiments); in the next place, that not only
+does he repel charges when brought (against his friends) by any one,
+but is not himself suspicious, ever fancying that some infidelity has
+been committed by his friend. To all this there should be added a
+certain suavity of conversation and manners, affording, as it does, no
+inconsiderable zest to friendship. Now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> solemnity and gravity on all
+occasions, certainly, carry with them dignity; but friendship ought to
+be easier and more free and more pleasant, and tending more to every
+kind of politeness and good nature....</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> From the "Cato Major, an Essay on Old Age." Translated by
+Cyrus R. Edmonds. This work is composed in the form of a dialog, in
+which, in the person of Cato the Censor as speaker, the benefits of
+old age are pointed out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> A famous athlete who was many times crowned at the
+Pythian and Olympian games.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Cneius Scipio was Consul in 222, and with Marcellus
+completed the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. He served with his brother
+Publius Cicero against the Carthaginians in Spain, where, after
+several victories, both were slain in 212 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Lucius Metellus, a Roman general who defeated the
+Carthaginians at Panormus, now Palermo, Sicily, in 250 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Masinissa, king of a small territory in northern Africa,
+was at first an ally of Carthage against Rome, but afterward became an
+ally of Rome against Carthage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The translator explains that the speeches here referred
+to, as collected and published by Cato, numbered about 150. Cato was
+known to his contemporaries as "the Roman Demosthenes." Later writers
+often referred to him as "Cato the orator."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Archytas was a Greek philosopher, eminent also as
+statesman, mathematician, and general. He lived about 400 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, and is
+credited with having saved the life of Plato through his influence
+with Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse. He was seven times general of
+the army of Tarentum and successful in all his campaigns; eminent also
+for domestic virtues. He is pronounced by a writer in Smith's
+"Dictionary" to have been "among the very greatest men of antiquity."
+He was drowned while making a voyage in the Adriatic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Caudium was a Samnite town near which the Romans were
+defeated by Pontius Herennius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Not the Appius Claudius from whom the Appian Way and one
+of the great aqueducts were named. The older Appius Claudius, here
+referred to, lived in the century that followed Plato.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Titus Flaminius, general and statesman, was Consul in
+198 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> It was not Titus, but Caius Flaminius, who built the famous
+circus and road bearing his name. Caius lived at an earlier period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the eminent military genius,
+who several times defeated the Romans before he was finally overthrown
+by them at Beneventum in 275 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Livius Andronicus, who lived in Rome about 240 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> A small island (now a peninsula), lying off the coast of
+Spain. It is to-day called Cadiz, but anciently was known as Erythia,
+Tartessus, and Gades. It was founded about 1100 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, by the
+Phenicians, of whose western commerce it was the center.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The tyrant of Athens who reigned thirty-three years and
+died about 527 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Melmoth has commented on this passage that, altho
+suicide too generally prevailed among the Greeks and Romans, the
+wisest philosophers condemned it. "Nothing," he says, "can be more
+clear and explicit" than the prohibition imposed by Pythagoras,
+Socrates, and Plato.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Better known as the famous Regulus, whose alleged speech
+to the "Conscript Fathers" has been declaimed by generations of
+schoolboys.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Lucius Paulus died at the battle of Cann&aelig;, which was
+precipitated by his colleague Terentius Varro in 260 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, 40,000
+Romans being killed by the Carthaginians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Marcellus, a Roman consul, who fought against Hannibal
+and was killed in an ambuscade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Cicero's daughter was born about 79 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, and thrice
+married, the last time to Dolabella, who has been described as "one of
+the most profligate men of a profligate age." She was divorced from
+Dolabella in 44 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, gave birth to a son soon afterward, and died in
+the same year. Cicero's letter was written in reply to one which he
+had received from Servius Sulpicius, a celebrated Roman jurist. Cicero
+intended to erect a temple as a memorial to Tullia, but the death of
+C&aelig;sar and the unsettled state of public affairs that ensued, and in
+which Cicero was concerned, prevented him from doing so.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> From Book I of the "Offices." Translated by Cyrus R.
+Edmonds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Pausanias, a Spartan general, was the son of
+Cl&oelig;mbrotus, the king of Sparta, killed at the battle of Leuctra.
+Pausanias commanded at Plat&aelig;a; but having conducted a treasonable
+correspondence with Xerxes, was starved to death as a punishment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The general who contended against Sulla in the Civil
+war.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Catulus was consul with Marius in 102 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> He acted with
+Sulla during the Civil war.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Nasica, "a fierce and stiff-necked aristocrat," was of
+the family of Scipios. When the consuls refused to resort to violence
+against Tiberius Gracchus, it was he who led the senators forth from
+their meeting-place against the popular assembly outside, with whom
+ensued a fight, in which Gracchus was killed by a blow from a club.
+Nasica left Rome soon after, seeking safety. After spending some time
+as a wandering exile, he died at Pergamus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> From the Dialogue on "Friendship." Translated by Cyrus
+E. Edmonds. L&aelig;lius, a Roman who was contemporary with the younger
+Scipio, is made the speaker in the passage here quoted. L&aelig;lius, was a
+son of Caius L&aelig;lius, the friend and companion of the elder Scipio,
+whose actions are so interwoven with those of Scipio that a writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says, "It is difficult to relate them
+separately." The younger L&aelig;lius was intimate with the younger Scipio
+in a degree almost as remarkable as his father had been with the
+elder. The younger, immortalized by Cicero's treatise on Friendship,
+was born about 186 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, and was a man of fine culture noted as an
+orator. His personal worth was so generally esteemed that it survived
+to Seneca's day. One of Seneca's injunctions to a friend was that he
+should "live like L&aelig;lius."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Scipio Africanus minor by whom Carthage was destroyed in
+146 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, and Numantia, a town of Spain, was destroyed in 133 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>
+From the letter he obtained the surname of Numantinus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Magna Gr&aelig;cia was a name given by the ancients to that
+part of southern Italy which, before the rise of the Roman state, was
+colonized by Greeks. Its time of greatest splendor was the seventh and
+sixth centuries <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; that is, intermediate between the Homeric age
+and the Periclean. Among its leading cities were Cum&aelig;, Sybaris, Locri,
+Regium, Tarentum, Heraclea, and P&aelig;stum. At the last-named place
+imposing ruins still survive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Empedocles, philosopher, poet, and historian, who lived
+et Agrigentum in Sicily, about 490-430 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, and wrote a poem on the
+doctrines of Pythagoras. A legend has survived that he jumped into the
+crater of Etna, in order that people might conclude, from his complete
+disappearance, that he was a god. Matthew Arnold's poem on this
+incident is among his better-known works.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last King of Rome,
+occupied the throne for twenty-five years, and as a consequence of the
+rape of Lucretia by his son Sextus was banished about 509 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="JULIUS_CAESAR" id="JULIUS_CAESAR"></a>JULIUS C&AElig;SAR</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in 100 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; assassinated in 44; famous as general,
+statesman, orator, and writer; served in Mitylene in 80;
+captured by pirates in 76; questor in 68; pontifex maximus
+in 63; propretor in Spain in 61; member of the First
+Triumvirate in 60; Consul in 59; defeated the Helvetii in
+58; invaded Britain in 55 and 54; crossed the Rhine in 55;
+crossed the Rubicon and began the Civil war in 49; dictator
+from 49 to 45; defeated Pompey in 48; reformed the calendar
+in 46; refused the diadem in 44; assassinated in the senate
+house in 44.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ia" id="Ia"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BUILDING OF THE BRIDGE ACROSS THE RHINE<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></h3>
+<p>C&aelig;sar, for those reasons which I have mentioned, had resolved to cross
+the Rhine; but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently
+safe nor considered consistent with his own dignity or that of the
+Roman people. Therefore, altho the greatest difficulty in forming a
+bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, rapidity, and
+depth of the river, he nevertheless <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>considered that it ought to be
+attempted by him, or that his army ought not otherwise to be led over.
+He devised this plan of a bridge: he joined together, at the distance
+of two feet, two piles, each a foot and half thick, sharpened a little
+at the lower end, and proportioned in length to the depth of the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>After he had, by means of engines, sunk these into the river, and fixt
+them at the bottom, and then driven them in with rammers, not quite
+perpendicularly, like a stake, but bending forward and sloping, so as
+to incline in the direction of the current of the river; he also
+placed two [other piles] opposite to these, at the distance of forty
+feet lower down, fastened together in the same manner, but directed
+against the force and current of the river. Both these, moreover, were
+kept firmly apart by beams two feet thick (the space which the binding
+of the piles occupied), laid in at their extremities between two
+braces on each side; and in consequence of these being in different
+directions and fastened on sides the one opposite to the other, so
+great was the strength of the work, and such the arrangement of the
+materials, that in proportion as the greater body of water dashed
+against the bridge, so much the closer were its parts held fastened
+together. These beams were bound together by timber laid over them in
+the direction of the length of the bridge, and were [then] covered
+with laths and hurdles; and, in addition to this, piles were driven
+into the water obliquely, at the lower side of the bridge, and these
+serving as buttresses, and being connected with every portion of the
+work, sustained the force of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> the stream; and there were others also
+above the bridge, at a moderate distance, that if trunks of trees or
+vessels were floated down the river by the barbarians for the purpose
+of destroying the work, the violence of such things might be
+diminished by these defenses, and might not injure the bridge.</p>
+
+<p>Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the whole work
+was completed, and the whole army led over. C&aelig;sar, leaving a strong
+guard at each end of the bridge, hastens into the territories of the
+Sigambri. In the mean time, ambassadors from several nations come to
+him, whom, on their suing for peace and alliance, he answers in a
+courteous manner, and orders hostages to be brought to him. But the
+Sigambri, at the very time the bridge was begun to be built, made
+preparations for a flight (by the advice of such of the Tenchtheri and
+Usip&#277;tes as they had among them), and quitted their territories and
+conveyed away all their possessions, and concealed themselves in
+deserts and woods.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, having remained in their territories a few days, and burned all
+their villages and houses, and cut down their corn, proceeded into the
+territories of the Ubii; and having promised them his assistance, if
+they were ever harassed by the Suevi,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> he learned from them these
+particulars: that the Suevi, after they had by means of their scouts
+found that the bridge was being built, had called a council, according
+to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>their custom, and sent orders to all parts of their state to
+remove from the towns and convey their children, wives, and all their
+possessions into the woods, and that all who could bear arms should
+assemble in one place; that the place thus chosen was nearly the
+center of those regions which the Suevi possest; that in this spot
+they had resolved to await the arrival of the Romans, and give them
+battle there. When C&aelig;sar discovered this, having already accomplished
+all these things on account of which he had resolved to lead his army
+over&mdash;namely, to strike fear into the Germans, take vengeance on the
+Sigambri, and free the Ubii from the invasion of the Suevi, having
+spent altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had
+advanced far enough to serve both honor and interest&mdash;he returned into
+Gaul, and cut down the bridge.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIa" id="IIa"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE INVASION OF BRITAIN<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></h3>
+<p>The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say
+that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island
+itself; the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the
+country of the Belg&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> for the purpose of plunder and making war;
+almost <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>all of whom are called by the names of those states from which
+being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there
+and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is
+countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part
+very like those of the Gauls; the number of cattle is great. They use
+either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their
+money. Tin is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron;
+but the quantity of it is small; they employ brass, which is imported.
+There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and
+fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare and the cock and the
+goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The
+climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the cold being less severe.</p>
+
+<p>The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is opposite
+to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither almost all
+ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower looks to
+the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies toward
+Spain,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is
+reckoned, than Britain, by one half; but the passage [from it] into
+Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of
+this voyage is an island which is called Mona;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> many smaller
+islands besides are supposed to lie [there], of which islands some
+have written that at the time of the winter solstice it is night
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>there for thirty consecutive days. We, in our inquiries about that
+matter, ascertained nothing, except that, by accurate measurements
+with water, we perceived the nights to be shorter there than on the
+continent. The length of this side, as their account states, is 700
+miles. The third side is toward the north, to which portion of the
+island no land is opposite; but an angle of that side looks
+principally toward Germany. This side is considered to be 800 miles in
+length. Thus the whole island is [about] 2,000 miles in circumference.</p>
+
+<p>The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent,
+which is entirely a maritime district, nor do their customs differ
+much from Gallic. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but
+live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains,
+indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish color, and
+thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair
+long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and
+upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and
+particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their
+children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed
+to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first
+espoused when a virgin.</p>
+
+<p>The horse and charioteers of the enemy contended vigorously in a
+skirmish with our cavalry on the march; yet so that our men were
+conquerors in all parts, and drove them to their woods and hills; but,
+having slain a great many, they pursued too eagerly, and lost some of
+their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> men. However, the enemy, after some time had elapsed, when our
+men were off their guard, and occupied in the fortification of the
+camp, rushed out of the woods, and making an attack upon those who
+were placed on duty before the camp, fought in a determined manner;
+and two cohorts being sent by C&aelig;sar to their relief, and these
+severally the first of two legions, when these had taken up their
+position at a very small distance from each other, as our men were
+disconcerted by the unusual mode of battle, the enemy broke through
+the middle of them most courageously, and retreated thence in safety.
+That day, Q. Laberius Durus, a tribune of the soldiers, was slain. The
+enemy, since more cohorts were sent against them, were repulsed.</p>
+
+<p>In the whole of this method of fighting since the engagement took
+place under the eyes of all and before the camp, it was perceived that
+our men, on account of the weight of their arms, inasmuch as they
+could neither pursue [the enemy when] retreating, nor dare quit their
+standards, were little suited to this kind of enemy; that the horse
+also fought with great danger, because they [the Britons] generally
+retreated even designedly, and, when they had drawn off our men a
+short distance from the legions, leapt from their chariots and fought
+on foot in unequal [and to them advantageous] battle. But the system
+of cavalry engagement is wont to produce equal danger, and indeed the
+same, both to those who retreat and those who pursue. To this was
+added, that they never fought in close order, but in small parties and
+at great distances, and had detachments placed [in different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> parts],
+and then the one relieved the other, and the vigorous and fresh
+succeeded the wearied.</p>
+
+<p>The following day the enemy halted on the hills, a distance from our
+camp, and presented themselves in small parties, and began to
+challenge our horse to battle with less spirit than the day before.
+But at noon, when C&aelig;sar had sent three legions, and all the cavalry
+with C. Trebonius, the lieutenant, for the purpose of foraging, they
+flew upon the foragers suddenly from all quarters, so that they did
+not keep off [even] from the standards and the legions. Our men,
+making an attack on them vigorously, repulsed them; nor did they cease
+to pursue them until the horse, relying on relief, as they saw the
+legions behind them, drove the enemy precipitately before them, and,
+slaying a great number of them, did not give them the opportunity
+either of rallying, or halting, or leaping from their chariots. After
+this retreat the auxiliaries departed; nor after that time did the
+enemy ever engage with us in very large numbers.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, discovering their design, leads his army into the territories
+of Cassivelaunus<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> to the river Thames, which river can be forded in
+one place only, and that with difficulty. When he had arrived there,
+he perceives that numerous forces of the enemy were marshaled on the
+other bank of the river; the bank also was defended by sharp
+stakes<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> fixt in front, and stakes of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>same kind fixt under the
+water were covered by the river. These things being discovered from
+[some] prisoners and deserters, C&aelig;sar, sending forward the cavalry,
+ordered the legions to follow them immediately. But the soldiers
+advanced with such speed and such ardor, tho they stood above the
+water by their heads only, that the enemy could not sustain the attack
+of the legions and of the horse, and quitted the banks, and committed
+themselves to flight.</p>
+
+<p>Cassivelaunus, as we have stated above, all hope [rising out] of
+battle being laid aside, the greater part of his forces being
+dismissed, and about 4,000 charioteers only being left, used to
+observe our marches and retire a little from the road, and conceal
+himself in intricate and woody places, and in those neighborhoods in
+which he had discovered we were about to march, he used to drive the
+cattle and the inhabitants from the fields into the woods; and, when
+our cavalry, for the sake of plundering and ravaging the more freely,
+scattered themselves among the fields, he used to send out charioteers
+from the woods by all the well-known roads and paths, and, to the
+great danger of our horse, engaged with them; and this source of fear
+hindered them from straggling very extensively. The result was that
+C&aelig;sar did not allow excursions to be made to a great distance from the
+main body of the legions, and ordered that damage should be done to
+the enemy in ravaging their lands and kindling fires only so far as
+the legionary soldiers could, by their own exertion and marching,
+accomplish it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the mean time the Trinobantes,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> almost the most powerful state
+of those parts, from which the young man Mandubratius, embracing the
+protection of C&aelig;sar, had come to the continent of Gaul to [meet] him
+(whose father, Imanuentius, had possest the sovereignty in that state,
+and had been killed by Cassivelaunus; he himself had escaped death by
+flight) send ambassadors to C&aelig;sar, and promise that they will
+surrender themselves to him and perform his command: they entreat him
+to protect Mandubratius from the violence of Cassivelaunus, and send
+to their state some one to preside over it, and possess the
+government. C&aelig;sar demands forty hostages from them, and corn for his
+army, and sends Mandubratius to them. They speedily performed the
+things demanded, and sent hostages to the number appointed, and the
+corn.</p>
+
+<p>The Trinobantes, being protected and secured from any violence of the
+soldiers, the Cenimagni, the Segonti&#259;ci, the Ancalites, the
+Bibr&#335;ci, and the Cassi, sending embassies, surrender themselves to
+C&aelig;sar.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> From them he learns that the capital town of Cassivelaunus
+was not far from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>that place, and was defended by woods and morasses,
+and a very large number of men and of cattle had been collected in it.
+(Now the Britons, when they have fortified the intricate woods, in
+which they are wont to assemble for the purpose of avoiding the
+incursion of an enemy with an entrenchment and a rampart, call them a
+town.) Thither he proceeds with his legions; he finds the place
+admirably fortified by nature and art; he, however, undertakes to
+attack it in two directions. The enemy, having remained only a short
+time, did not sustain the attack of our soldiers, and hurried away on
+the other side of the town. A great amount of cattle was found there,
+and many of the enemy were taken and slain in their flight....</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIIa" id="IIIa"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>OVERCOMING THE NERVII<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></h3>
+<p>C&aelig;sar, having sent his cavalry on before, followed closely after them
+with all his forces; but the plan and order of the march were
+different from that which the Belg&aelig; had reported to the Nervii.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
+For as he was approaching the enemy, C&aelig;sar, according to his custom,
+led on [as the van] six legions unencumbered by baggage; behind them
+he had placed the baggage-trains of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>the whole army; then the two
+legions which had been last raised closed the rear, and were a guard
+for the baggage-train. Our horse, with the slingers and archers,
+having passed the river, commenced action with the cavalry of the
+enemy. While they from time to time betook themselves into the woods
+to their companions, and again made an assault out of the wood upon
+our men, who did not dare to follow them in their retreat further than
+the limit to which the plain and open parts extended; in the mean time
+the six legions which had arrived first, having measured out the work,
+began to fortify the camp. When the first part of the baggage-train of
+our army was seen by those who lay hidden in the woods, which had been
+agreed on among them as the time for commencing action, as soon as
+they had arranged their line of battle and formed their ranks within
+the woods, and had encouraged one another, they rushed out suddenly
+with all their forces and made an attack upon our horse. The latter
+being easily routed and thrown into confusion, the Nervii ran down to
+the river with such incredible speed that they seemed to be in the
+woods, the river, and close upon us almost at the same time. And with
+the same speed they hastened up the hill to our camp and to those who
+were employed in the works.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar had everything to do at one time: the standard to be displayed,
+which was the sign when it was necessary to rim to arms; the signal to
+be given by the trumpet; the soldiers to be called off from the works;
+those who had proceeded some distance for the purpose of seeking
+materials for the rampart, to be summoned; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> order of battle to be
+formed; the soldiers to be encouraged; the watchword to be given. A
+great part of these arrangements was prevented by the shortness of
+time and the sudden approach and charge of the enemy. Under these
+difficulties two things proved of advantage: [first] the skill and
+experience of the soldiers, because, having been trained by former
+engagements, they could suggest to themselves what ought to be done as
+conveniently as receive information from others; and [secondly] that
+C&aelig;sar had forbidden his several lieutenants to depart from the works
+and their respective legions before the camp was fortified. These, on
+account of the near approach and the speed of the enemy, did not then
+wait for any command from C&aelig;sar, but of themselves executed whatever
+appeared proper.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, having given the necessary orders, hastened to and fro into
+whatever quarter fortune carried him, to animate the troops, and came
+to the tenth legion. Having encouraged the soldiers with no further
+speech than that "they should keep up the remembrance of their wonted
+valor, and not be confused in mind, but valiantly sustain the assault
+of the enemy"; as the latter were not farther from them than the
+distance to which a dart could be cast, he gave the signal for
+commencing battle. And having gone to another quarter for the purpose
+of encouraging [the soldiers], he finds them fighting. Such was the
+shortness of the time, and so determined was the mind of the enemy on
+fighting, that time was wanting not only for affixing the military
+insignia, but even for putting on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> helmets and drawing off the
+covers from the shields. To whatever part any one by chance came from
+the works (in which he had been employed), and whatever standards he
+saw first, at these he stood, lest in seeking his own company he
+should lose the time for fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The army having been marshaled, rather as the nature of the ground and
+the declivity of the hill and the exigency of the time than as the
+method and order of military matters required, while the legions in
+the different places were withstanding the enemy, some in one quarter,
+some in another, and the view was obstructed by the very thick hedges
+intervening, as we have before remarked, neither could proper reserves
+be posted, nor could the necessary measures be taken in each part, nor
+could all the commands be issued by one person. Therefore, in such an
+unfavorable state of affairs, various events of fortune followed....</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, our horsemen, and light-armed infantry, who had been
+with those who, as I have related, were routed by the first assault of
+the enemy, as they were betaking themselves into the camp, met the
+enemy face to face, and again sought flight into another quarter; and
+the camp-followers, who from the Decuman Gate, and from the highest
+ridge of the hill had seen our men pass the river as victors, when,
+after going out for the purposes of plundering, they looked back and
+saw the enemy parading in our camp, committed themselves precipitately
+to flight; at the same time there arose the cry and shout of those who
+came with the baggage-train; and they (affrighted) were carried some
+one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> way, some another. By all these circumstances the cavalry of the
+Treviri were much alarmed (whose reputation for courage is
+extraordinary among the Gauls, and who had come to C&aelig;sar, being sent
+by their state as auxiliaries), and, when they saw our camp filled
+with a large number of the enemy, the legions hard prest and almost
+held surrounded, the camp-retainers, horsemen, slingers, and Numidians
+fleeing on all sides divided and scattered, they, despairing of our
+affairs, hastened home, and related to their state that the Romans
+were routed and conquered, [and] that the enemy were in possession of
+their camp and baggage-train.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar proceeded, after encouraging the tenth legion, to the right
+wing, where he perceived that his men were hard prest, and that in
+consequence of the standards of the twelfth legion being collected
+together in one place, the crowded soldiers were a hindrance to
+themselves in the fight; that all the centurions of the fourth cohort
+were slain, and the standard-bearer killed, the standard itself lost,
+almost all the centurions of the other cohorts either wounded or
+slain, and among them the chief centurion of the legion, P. Sextius
+Baculus, a very valiant man, who was so exhausted by many and severe
+wounds that he was already unable to support himself; he likewise
+perceived that the rest were slackening their efforts, and that some,
+deserted by those in the rear, were retiring from the battle and
+avoiding the weapons; that the enemy [on the other hand], tho
+advancing from the lower ground, were not relaxing in front, and were
+[at the same time] pressing hard on both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> flanks; he perceived also
+that the affair was at a crisis; and that there was not any reserve
+which could be brought up; having therefore snatched a shield from one
+of the soldiers in the rear (for he himself had come without a
+shield), he advanced to the front of the line, and addressing the
+centurions by name, and encouraging the rest of the soldiers, he
+ordered them to carry forward the standards, and extend the companies,
+that they might the more easily use their swords. On his arrival, as
+hope was brought to the soldiers and their courage restored, while
+every one for his own part, in the sight of his general, desired to
+exert his utmost energy, the impetuosity of the enemy was a little
+checked.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, when he perceived that the seventh legion, which stood close by
+him, was also hard prest by the enemy, directed the tribunes of the
+soldiers to effect a junction of the legions gradually, and make their
+charge upon the enemy with a double front, which having been done
+since they brought assistance the one to the other, nor feared lest
+their rear should be surrounded by the enemy, they began to stand
+their ground more boldly, and to fight more courageously. In the mean
+time, the soldiers of the two legions which had been in the rear of
+the army, as a guard for the baggage-train, upon the battle being
+reported to them, quickened their pace, and were seen by the enemy on
+the top of the hill; and Titus Labienus, having gained possession of
+the camp of the enemy, and observed from the higher ground what was
+going on in our camp, sent the tenth legion as a relief to our men
+who, when they had learned from the flight of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> the horse and the
+sutlers in what position the affair was, and in how great danger the
+camp and the legion and the commander were involved, left undone
+nothing [which tended] to despatch.</p>
+
+<p>By their arrival, so great a change of matters was made that our men,
+even those who had fallen down exhausted with wounds, leaned on their
+shields, and renewed the fight; then the camp-retainers, tho unarmed,
+seeing the enemy completely dismayed, attacked [them tho] armed; the
+horsemen too, that they might by their valor blot out the disgrace of
+their flight, thrust themselves before the legionary soldiers in all
+parts of the battle. But the enemy, even in the last hope of safety,
+displayed such great courage that when the foremost of them had
+fallen, the next stood upon them prostrate, and fought from their
+bodies; when these were overthrown, and their corpses heaped up
+together, those who survived cast their weapons against our men
+[thence] as from a mound, and returned our darts which had fallen
+short between [the armies]; so that it ought not to be concluded that
+men of such great courage had injudiciously dared to pass a very broad
+river, ascend very high banks, and come up to a very disadvantageous
+place; since their greatness of spirit had rendered these actions
+easy, altho in themselves very difficult.</p>
+
+<p>This battle being ended, and the nation and name of the Nervii being
+almost reduced to annihilation, their old men, who together with the
+boys and women we have stated to have been collected together in the
+fenny places and marshes, on this battle having been reported to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+them, since they were convinced that nothing was an obstacle to the
+conquerors, and nothing safe to the conquered, sent ambassadors to
+C&aelig;sar by the consent of all who remained, and surrendered themselves
+to him; and in recounting the calamity of their state said that their
+senators were reduced from 600 to three; that from 60,000 men they
+[were reduced] to scarcely 500 who could bear arms, whom C&aelig;sar, that
+he might appear to use compassion toward the wretched and the
+suppliant, most carefully spared, and ordered them to enjoy their own
+territories and towns, and commanded their neighbors that they should
+restrain themselves and their dependents from offering injury or
+outrage [to them]....</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IVa" id="IVa"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA AND THE DEATH OF POMPEY<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></h3>
+<h3>(48 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>)</h3>
+<p>Pompey, because he was encamped on a hill, drew up his army at the
+very foot of it, ever in expectation, as may be conjectured, that
+C&aelig;sar would expose himself to this disadvantageous situation. C&aelig;sar,
+seeing no likelihood of being able to bring Pompey to an action,
+judged it the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>most expedient method of conducting the war to decamp
+from that post, and to be always in motion; with this hope, that by
+shifting his camp and removing from place to place, he might be more
+conveniently supplied with corn, and also that by being in motion he
+might get some opportunity of forcing them to battle, and might by
+constant marches harass Pompey's army, which was not accustomed to
+fatigue.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> These matters being settled, when the signal for marching
+was given, and the tents struck, it was observed that shortly before,
+contrary to his daily practise, Pompey's army had advanced farther
+than usual from his entrenchments, so that it appeared possible to
+come to an action on equal ground. Then C&aelig;sar addrest himself to his
+soldiers, when they were at the gates of the camp, ready to march out.
+"We must defer," says he, "our march at present, and set our thoughts
+on battle, which has been our constant wish; let us then meet the foe
+with resolute souls. We shall not hereafter easily find such an
+opportunity." He immediately marched out at the head of his troops.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey also, as was afterward known, at the unanimous solicitation of
+his friends, had determined to try the fate of a battle. For he had
+even declared in council a few days before that, before the battalions
+came to battle, C&aelig;sar's army would be put to the rout. When most
+people exprest their surprize at it, "I know," <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>says he, "that I
+promise a thing almost incredible; but hear the plan on which I
+proceed, that you may march to battle with more confidence and
+resolution. I have persuaded our cavalry, and they have engaged to
+execute it, as soon as the two armies have met, to attack C&aelig;sar's
+right wing on the flank, and enclosing their army on the rear throw
+them into disorder, and put them to the rout, before we shall throw a
+weapon against the enemy. By this means we shall put an end to the
+war, without endangering the legions, and almost without a blow. Nor
+is this a difficult matter, as we far outnumber them in cavalry." At
+the same time, he gave them notice to be ready for battle on the day
+following, and since the opportunity which they had so often wished
+for was now arrived, not to disappoint the opinion generally
+entertained of their experience and valor....</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, observing his former custom, had placed the tenth legion on the
+right, the ninth on the left, altho it was very much weakened by the
+battles at Dyrrachium.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> He placed the eighth legion so close to the
+ninth as almost to make one of the two, and ordered them to support
+each other. He drew up on the field eighty cohorts, making a total of
+twenty-two thousand men. He left two cohorts to guard the camp. He
+gave the command of the left wing to Antonius, of the right to P.
+Sulla, and of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>center to Cn. Domitius; he himself took his post
+opposite Pompey. At the same time, fearing, from the disposition of
+the enemy which we have previously mentioned, lest his right wing
+might be surrounded by their numerous cavalry, he rapidly drafted a
+single cohort from each of the legions composing the third line,
+formed of them a fourth line, and opposed them to Pompey's cavalry,
+and, acquainting them with his wishes, admonished them that the
+success of that day depended on their courage. At the same time, he
+ordered the third line and the entire army not to charge without his
+command; that he would give the signal whenever he wished them to do
+so....</p>
+
+<p>But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with their
+javelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men did
+not run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom,
+and being practised in former battles, they of their own accord
+repressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might not
+come up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after a
+short respite they again renewed their course, and threw their
+javelins, and instantly drew their swords, as C&aelig;sar had ordered them.
+Nor did Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received our
+javelins, stood our charge, and maintained their ranks; and, having
+launched their javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the same
+time, Pompey's horse, according to their orders, rushed out at once
+from his left wing, and his whole host of archers poured after them.
+Our cavalry did not withstand their charge; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> gave ground a little,
+upon which Pompey's horse prest them more vigorously, and began to
+file off in troops, and flank our army. When C&aelig;sar perceived this, he
+gave the signal to his fourth line, which he had formed of the six
+cohorts. They instantly rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse with
+such fury that not a man of them stood; but all wheeling about, not
+only quitted their post, but galloped forward to seek a refuge in the
+highest mountains. By their retreat the archers and slingers, being
+left destitute and defenseless, were all cut to pieces. The cohorts,
+pursuing their success, wheeled about upon Pompey's left wing, while
+his infantry still continued to make battle, and attacked them in the
+rear.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, C&aelig;sar ordered his third line to advance, which till
+then had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new and
+fresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and others
+having made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able to
+maintain their ground, but all fled,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> nor was C&aelig;sar deceived in his
+opinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to his
+soldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts, which he had
+placed as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalry
+were routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; by
+them the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to be
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and that
+part of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown into
+confusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreated
+straightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions,
+whom he had placed to guard the pr&aelig;torian gate, with a loud voice,
+that the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp," says he, "defend it
+with diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit the
+other gates, and encourage the guards of the camp." Having thus said,
+he retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting the
+issue.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their entrenchment, and
+thinking that he ought not to allow them any respite to recover from
+their fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of fortune's
+kindness, and to attack the camp. Tho they were fatigued by the
+intense heat, for the battle had continued till midday, yet, being
+prepared to undergo any labor, they cheerfully obeyed his command. The
+camp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guard
+it, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreign
+auxiliaries. For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from the
+field of battle, affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrown
+away their arms and military standards, had their thoughts more
+engaged on their further escape than on the defense of the camp. Nor
+could the troops who were posted on the battlements long withstand the
+immense number of our darts, but fainting under their wounds quitted
+the place, and under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> the conduct of their centurions and tribunes
+fled, without stopping, to the high mountains which adjoined the camp.</p>
+
+<p>In Pompey's camp you might see arbors in which tables were laid, a
+large quantity of plate set out, the floors of the tents covered with
+fresh sods, the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy,
+and many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and a
+confidence of victory, so that it might readily be inferred that they
+had no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulged
+themselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxury
+C&aelig;sar's army, distrest and suffering troops, who had always been in
+want of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced the
+trenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit,
+went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with all
+speed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same despatch,
+collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nor
+night, he arrived at the seaside, attended by only thirty horse, and
+went on board a victualing bark, often complaining, as we have been
+told, that he had been so deceived in his expectation that he was
+almost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he had
+expected victory, as they began the flight.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar, having possest himself of Pompey's camp, urged his soldiers not
+to be too intent on plunder, and lose the opportunity of completing
+their conquest. Having obtained their consent, he began to draw lines
+round the mountain. The Pompeians distrusting the position, as there
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> no water on the mountain, abandoned it, and all began to retreat
+toward Larissa, which C&aelig;sar perceiving divided his troops, and
+ordering part of his legions to remain in Pompey's camp, sent back a
+part to his own camp, and, taking four legions with him, went by a
+shorter road to intercept the enemy; and having marched six miles,
+drew up his army. But the Pompeians, observing this, took a post on a
+mountain, whose foot was washed by a river. C&aelig;sar having encouraged
+his troops, tho they were greatly exhausted by incessant labor the
+whole day, and night was now approaching, by throwing up works cut off
+the communication between the river and the mountain, that the enemy
+might not get water in the night. As soon as the work was finished,
+they sent ambassadors to treat about a capitulation. A few senators
+who had espoused that party made their escape by night.</p>
+
+<p>At break of day, C&aelig;sar ordered all those who had taken post on the
+mountain to come down from the higher grounds into the plain and pile
+their arms. When they did this without refusal, and, with,
+outstretched arms, prostrating themselves on the ground, with tears,
+implored his mercy, he comforted them and bade them rise, and having
+spoken a few words of his own clemency to alleviate their fears, he
+pardoned them all, and gave orders to his soldiers that no injury
+should be done to them, and nothing taken from them. Having used this
+diligence, he ordered the legions in his camp to come and meet him,
+and those which were with him to take their turn of rest, and go back
+to the camp, and the same day went to Larissa.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In that battle, no more than two hundred privates were missing, but
+C&aelig;sar lost about thirty centurions, valiant officers. Crastinus, also,
+of whom mention was made before, fighting most courageously, lost his
+life by the wound of a sword in the mouth, nor was that false which he
+declared when marching to battle; for C&aelig;sar entertained the highest
+opinion of his behavior in that battle, and thought him highly
+deserving of his approbation. Of Pompey's army, there fell about
+fifteen thousand; but upward of twenty-four thousand were made
+prisoners; for even the cohorts which were stationed in the forts
+surrendered to Sulla. Several others took shelter in the neighboring
+states. One hundred and eighty stands of colors and nine eagles were
+brought to C&aelig;sar. Lucius Domitius, fleeing from the camp to the
+mountains, his strength being exhausted by fatigue, was killed....</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar thought he ought to postpone all business and pursue Pompey,
+whithersoever he should retreat, that he might not be able to provide
+fresh forces, and renew the war; he therefore marched on every day, as
+far as his cavalry were able to advance, and ordered one legion to
+follow him by shorter journeys. A proclamation was issued by Pompey at
+Amphipolis<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> that all the young men of that province, Grecians and
+Roman citizens, should take the military oath; but whether he issued
+it with an intention of preventing suspicion, and to conceal as long
+as possible his design of fleeing farther, or to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>endeavor to keep
+possession of Macedonia by new levies, if nobody pursued him, it is
+impossible to judge. He lay at anchor one night, and calling together
+his friends in Amphipolis, and collecting a sum of money for his
+necessary expenses, upon advice of C&aelig;sar's approach, set sail from
+that place, and arrived in a few days at Mitylene.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> Here he was
+detained two days, and having added a few galleys to his fleet he went
+to Cilicia, and thence to Cyprus. There he is informed that, by the
+consent of all the inhabitants of Antioch<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and Roman citizens who
+traded there, the castle had been seized to shut him out of the town;
+and that messengers had been dispatched to all those who were reported
+to have taken refuge in the neighboring states, that they should not
+come to Antioch; that if they did so, it would be attended with
+imminent danger to their lives. The same thing had happened to Lucius
+Lentulus, who had been Consul the year before, and to Publius
+Lentulus, a consular senator, and to several others at Rhodes,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> who
+having followed Pompey in his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>flight, and arrived at the island, were
+not admitted into the town or port; and having received a message to
+leave that neighborhood, set sail much against their will; for the
+rumor of C&aelig;sar's approach had now reached those states.</p>
+
+<p>Pompey, being informed of these proceedings, laid aside his design of
+going to Syria, and having taken the public money from the farmers of
+the revenue, and borrowed more from some private friends, and having
+put on board his ships a large quantity of brass for military
+purposes, and two thousand armed men, whom he partly selected from the
+slaves of the tax farmers, and partly collected from the merchants,
+and such persons as each of his friends thought fit on this occasion,
+he sailed for Pelusium.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> It happened that King Ptolemy,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> a
+minor, was there with a considerable army, engaged in war with his
+sister Cleopatra, whom a few months before, by the assistance of his
+relatives and friends, he had expelled from the kingdom; and her camp
+lay at a small distance from his. To him Pompey applied to be
+permitted to take refuge in Alexandria, and to be protected in his
+calamity by his powerful assistance, in consideration of the
+friendship and amity which had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>subsisted between his father and him.
+But Pompey's deputies, having executed their commission, began to
+converse with less restraint with the king's troops, and to advise
+them to act with friendship to Pompey, and not to think meanly of his
+bad fortune. In Ptolemy's army were several of Pompey's soldiers, of
+whom Gabinius<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> had received the command in Syria, and had brought
+them over to Alexandria, and at the conclusion of the war had left
+with Ptolemy the father of the young king.</p>
+
+<p>The king's friends, who were regents of the kingdom during the
+minority, being informed of these things, either induced by fear, as
+they afterward declared, lest Pompey should corrupt the king's army,
+and seize on Alexandria<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> and Egypt, or despising his bad fortune,
+as in adversity friends commonly change to enemies, in public gave a
+favorable answer to his deputies, and desired him to come to the king;
+but secretly laid a plot against him, and dispatched Achillas, captain
+of the king's guards, a man of singular boldness, and Lucius
+Septimius, a military tribune, to assassinate him. Being kindly
+addrest by them, and deluded by an acquaintance with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>Septimius,
+because in the war with the pirates the latter had commanded a company
+under him, he embarked in a small boat, with a few attendants, and was
+there murdered by Achillas and Septimius. In like manner, Lucius
+Lentulus was seized by the king's order, and put to death in
+prison....</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Cicero, whose praise of C&aelig;sar as a writer has been
+shared by many readers since his time, described C&aelig;sar's works as
+"unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, their ornament being stript
+off as it were a garment." C&aelig;sar did his work so well that "he has
+deterred all men of sound taste from touching him."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> From Book IV of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."
+Translated by McDivett and W. S. Bohn. The site of this bridge is
+believed to be in the neighborhood of Cologne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The Suevi were migratory Germans who, in C&aelig;sar's time,
+occupied the eastern banks of the Rhine in and about the present
+country of Baden.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> From Book V of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The Belg&aelig; comprised various tribes that lived between
+the Seine and the Rhine and were the most warlike of the Gauls.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> C&aelig;sar's error here has often been commented on, Spain
+lying to the south, rather than to the west, of Britain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Now known as the Isle of Man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Cassivelaunus was a chieftain of the Britons who had
+been entrusted with the supreme command against C&aelig;sar. His own
+territory lay north of the Thames.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Bede, the learned Benedictine, who lived in the eighth
+century, says that, in his time, remains of these stakes were still to
+be seen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> These people occupied what are now the counties of Essex
+and Middlesex.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The translator notes that Tacitus has remarked that
+Britain was surveyed, rather than conquered, by C&aelig;sar. He gives the
+honor of its real conquest to his own father-in-law, Agricola. While
+the Roman armies "owe much to the military virtues of Agricola as
+displayed in England, C&aelig;sar," adds the translator, "did what no one
+had done before him; he levied tribute upon the Britons and
+effectually paved the way for all that Rome subsequently accomplished
+in this island."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> From Book II of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The Nervii were one of the Belgic tribes and are
+understood to have been the most warlike of them all.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> From Book III of the "Commentaries on the Civil War."
+Pharsalia is a district of Thessaly in Greece. C&aelig;sar's army numbered
+22,000 legionaries and 1,000 cavalry; Pompey's, 45,000 legionaries and
+7,000 cavalry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Pompey's army having been recruited from aristocratic
+families and their dependents, was not so much accustomed to the
+severities of war as were the soldiers of C&aelig;sar, recruited largely
+from the populace.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> The modern Durazzo, a seaport on the Adriatic in
+Albania. It was founded by colonies from Corfu about 625 B.C. and
+became important afterward as a terminus of one of the great Roman
+roads. Pompey here defeated C&aelig;sar a short time before he was himself
+defeated at Pharsalia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> C&aelig;sar on this occasion is said to have advised his
+soldiers to aim at the faces of Pompey's cavalry, who, being composed
+principally of the young noblemen of Rome, dreaded a scar in the face
+more than death itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Amphipolis, a city of Macedonia, originally Thracian,
+but colonized from Athens. It was situated three miles inland from the
+&AElig;gean Sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Mitylene was the capital of the island of Lesbos, and an
+important maritime power in ancient times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Arrowsmith describes Antioch as, not only the capital of
+Syria, but at one time of Western Asia. It was for years the third
+city of the world in beauty, size, and population. It was here that
+the followers of Christ first received the name of Christians (in A.D.
+39), having before been called Nazarenes and Galileans. In a
+neighboring grove stood a famous temple to Apollo and Diana.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Rhodes is the largest island in the &AElig;gean Sea after
+Crete and Eub&oelig;a. Its capital, having the same name and situated
+near the northern end of the island, was famous for a bronze statue of
+the sun called the Colossus, which was one of the "seven wonders of
+the world."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Pelusium was an ancient city of Egypt, situated in the
+delta of the Nile, strongly fortified and regarded as the gate to
+Egypt, on its eastern frontier. It lay in the midst of marshes formed
+by the overflow of the river, and continued its importance, in a
+military sense, until the waters of the river found their way into the
+Damietta branch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Ptolemy XII, who came to the throne of Egypt co-jointly
+with his sister Cleopatra in 51 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> He expelled Cleopatra in 49, and
+in 48 C&aelig;sar reinstated her. In the war which ensued, he was defeated
+and drowned in the Nile.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Gabinius was a Roman tribune who had proposed the
+statute bearing his name which gave to Pompey command of the
+Mediterranean coast for the suppression of pirates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Alexandria was founded in 331 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> by Alexander the
+Great. Its principal street, 2,000 feet wide, was adorned with "some
+of the most costly edifices and structures of marble which perhaps the
+world ever saw." Many of these marbles were subsequently taken to Rome
+and Constantinople. Alexandria for a long period was the center of
+commerce for all merchandise passing between Europe and the East. As a
+city of learning, it possest a famous library, which at one period
+comprized 700,000 volumes.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SALLUST" id="SALLUST"></a>SALLUST</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Italy about 86 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; died about 34; elected tribune
+in 52; expelled from the Senate by the censors in 50,
+probably for being an active partizan of C&aelig;sar; accompanied
+C&aelig;sar on his African campaign in 46; became governor of
+Numidia, where he is said to have amassed a fortune
+unjustly; author of histories of the Catiline conspiracy and
+the war with Jugurtha.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ib" id="Ib"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GENESIS OF CATILINE<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></h3>
+<p>Of the city of Rome, as I understand, the founders and earliest
+inhabitants were the Trojans, who, under the conduct of &AElig;neas, were
+wandering about as exiles from their country, without any settled
+abode; and with these were joined the Aborigines, a savage race of
+men, without laws or government, free, and owning <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>no control. How
+easily these two tribes, tho of different origin, dissimilar language,
+and opposite habits of life, formed a union when they met within the
+same walls is almost incredible. But when their state, from an
+accession of population and territory and an improved condition of
+morals, showed itself tolerably flourishing and powerful, envy, as is
+generally the case in human affairs, was the consequence of its
+prosperity. The neighboring kings and people, accordingly, began to
+assail them in war, while a few only of their friends came to their
+support; for the rest, struck with alarm, shrunk from sharing their
+dangers. But the Romans, active at home and in the field, prepared
+with alacrity for their defense. They encouraged one another, and
+hurried to meet the enemy. They protected, with their arms, their
+liberty, their country, and their homes. And when they had at length
+repelled danger by valor, they lent assistance to their allies and
+supporters, and procured friendships rather by bestowing favors than
+by receiving them.</p>
+
+<p>They had a government regulated by laws. The denomination of their
+government was monarchy. Chosen men, whose bodies might be enfeebled
+by years, but whose minds were vigorous in understanding, formed the
+council of the state; and these, whether from their age, or from the
+similarity of their duty, were called Fathers. But afterward, when the
+monarchical power, which had been originally established for the
+protection of liberty and for the promotion of the public interest,
+had degenerated into tyranny and oppression, they changed their plan,
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> appointed two magistrates, with power only annual; for they
+conceived that, by this method, the human mind would be least likely
+to grow overbearing through want of control.</p>
+
+<p>At this period every citizen began to seek distinction, and to display
+his talents with greater freedom; for, with princes, the meritorious
+are greater objects of suspicion than the undeserving, and to them the
+worth of others is a source of alarm. But when liberty was secured, it
+is almost incredible how much the state strengthened itself in a short
+space of time, so strong a passion for distinction had pervaded it.
+Now, for the first time, the youth, as soon as they were able to bear
+the toils of war, acquired military skill by actual service in the
+camp, and took pleasure rather in splendid arms and military steeds
+than in the society of mistresses and convivial indulgence. To such
+men no toil was unusual, no place was difficult or inaccessible, no
+armed enemy was formidable; their valor had overcome everything. But
+among themselves the grand rivalry was for glory; each sought to be
+first to wound an enemy, to scale a wall, and to be noticed while
+performing such an exploit. Distinction such as this they regarded as
+wealth, honor, and true nobility. They were covetous of praise, but
+liberal of money; they desired competent riches, but boundless glory.
+I could mention, but that the account would draw me too far from my
+subject, places in which the Roman people, with a small body of men,
+routed vast armies of the enemy; and cities which, tho fortified by
+nature, they carried by assault....<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By these two virtues, intrepidity in war and equity in peace, they
+maintained themselves and their state; of their exercise of which
+virtues, I consider these as the greatest proofs: that, in war,
+punishment was oftener inflicted on those who attacked an enemy
+contrary to orders, and who, when commanded to retreat, retired too
+slowly from the contest, than on those who had dared to desert their
+standards, or, when prest by the enemy, to abandon their posts; and
+that, in peace, they governed more by conferring benefits than by
+exciting terror, and, when they received an injury, chose rather to
+pardon than to revenge it.</p>
+
+<p>But when, by perseverance and integrity, the republic had increased
+its power; when mighty princes had been vanquished in war; when
+barbarous tribes and populous states had been reduced to subjection;
+when Carthage, the rival of Rome's dominion, had been utterly
+destroyed, and sea and land lay everywhere open to her sway, Fortune
+then began to exercise her tyranny, and to introduce universal
+innovation. To those who had easily endured toils, dangers, and
+doubtful and difficult circumstances, ease and wealth, the objects of
+desire to others, became a burden and a trouble. At first the love of
+money, and then that of power, began to prevail, and these became, as
+it were, the sources of every evil. For avarice subverted honesty,
+integrity, and other honorable principles, and in their stead,
+inculcated pride, inhumanity, contempt of religion, and general
+venality. Ambition prompted many to become deceitful; to keep one
+thing concealed in the breast, and another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> ready on the tongue; to
+estimate friendships and enmities, not by their worth, but according
+to interest; and to carry rather a specious countenance than an honest
+heart. These vices at first advanced but slowly, and were sometimes
+restrained by correction; but afterward, when their infection had
+spread like a pestilence, the state was entirely changed, and the
+government, from being the most equitable and praiseworthy, became
+rapacious and insupportable.</p>
+
+<p>At first, however, it was ambition, rather than avarice, that
+influenced the minds of men&mdash;a vice which approaches nearer to virtue
+than the other. For of glory, honor, and power, the worthy is as
+desirous as the worthless; but the one pursues them by just methods;
+the other, being destitute of honorable qualities, works with fraud
+and deceit. But avarice has merely money for its object, which no wise
+man has ever immoderately desired. It is a vice which, as if imbued
+with deadly poison, enervates whatever is manly in body or mind. It is
+always unbounded and insatiable, and is abated neither by abundance
+nor by want.</p>
+
+<p>But after Lucius Sulla, having recovered the government by force of
+arms, proceeded, after a fair commencement, to a pernicious
+termination, all became robbers and plunderers; some set their
+affections on houses, others on lands; his victorious troops knew
+neither restraint nor moderation, but inflicted on the citizens
+disgraceful and inhuman outrages. Their rapacity was increased by the
+circumstance that Sulla, in order to secure the attachment of the
+forces which he had commanded in Asia, had treated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> them, contrary to
+the practise of our ancestors, with extraordinary indulgence and
+exemption from discipline; and pleasant and luxurious quarters had
+easily, during seasons of idleness, enervated the minds of the
+soldiery. Then the armies of the Roman people first became habituated
+to licentiousness and intemperance, and began to admire statues,
+pictures, and sculptured vases; to seize such objects alike in public
+edifices and private dwellings; to spoil temples; and to cast off
+respect for everything, sacred and profane. Such troops, accordingly,
+when once they obtained the mastery, left nothing to the vanquished.
+Success unsettles the principles even of the wise, and scarcely would
+those of debauched habits use victory with moderation....</p>
+
+<p>In so populous and so corrupt a city, Catiline, as it was very easy to
+do, kept about him, like a body-guard, crowds of the unprincipled and
+desperate. For all those shameless, libertine, and profligate
+characters who had dissipated their patrimonies by gaming, luxury, and
+sensuality; all who had contracted heavy debts, to purchase immunity
+for their crimes or offenses; all assassins or sacrilegious persons
+from every quarter, convicted or dreading conviction for their evil
+deeds; all, besides, whom their tongue or their hand maintained by
+perjury or civil bloodshed; all, in fine, whom wickedness, poverty, or
+a guilty conscience disquieted, were the associates and intimate
+friends of Catiline. And if any one, as yet of unblemished character,
+fell into his society, he was presently rendered, by daily intercourse
+and temptation, similar and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> equal to the rest. But it was the young
+whose acquaintance he chiefly courted, as their minds, ductile and
+unsettled from their age, were easily ensnared by his stratagems. For
+as the passions of each, according to his years, appeared excited, he
+furnished mistresses to some, bought horses and dogs for others, and
+spared, in a word, neither his purse nor his character, if he could
+but make them his devoted and trustworthy supporters. There were some,
+I know, who thought that the youth who frequented the house of
+Catiline were guilty of crimes against nature; but this report arose
+rather from other causes than from any evidence of the fact....</p>
+
+<p>Depending on such accomplices and adherents, and knowing that the load
+of debt was everywhere great, and that the veterans of Sulla,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
+having spent their money too liberally, and remembering their spoils
+and former victory, were longing for a civil war, Catiline formed the
+design of overthrowing the government. There was no army in Italy;
+Pompey was fighting in a distant part of the world;<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> he himself had
+great hopes of obtaining the consulship; the Senate was wholly off its
+guard; everything was quiet and tranquil, and all these circumstances
+were exceedingly favorable for Catiline....</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IIb" id="IIb"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FATE OF THE CONSPIRATORS<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></h3>
+<p>When the Senate, as I have stated, had gone over to the opinion of
+Cato, the Consul, thinking it best not to wait till night, which was
+coming on, lest any new attempts should be made during the interval,
+ordered the triumvirs to make such preparations as the execution of
+the conspirators required. He himself, having posted the necessary
+guards, conducted Lentulus<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> to the prison; and the same office was
+performed for the rest by the pr&aelig;tors.</p>
+
+<p>There is a place in the prison, which is called the Tullian
+dungeon,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> and which, after a slight ascent to the left, is sunk
+about twelve feet under ground. Walls secure it on every side, and
+over it is a vaulted roof connected with stone arches; but its
+appearance is disgusting and horrible, by reason of the filth,
+darkness, and stench. When Lentulus had been let down into this place,
+certain men, to whom orders had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>been given, strangled him with a
+cord. Thus this patrician who was of the illustrious family of the
+Cornelii, and who had filled the office of Consul at Rome, met with an
+end suited to his character and conduct. On Cethegus, Statilius,
+Gabinius, and C&oelig;parius, punishment was inflicted in a similar
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>During these proceedings at Rome, Catiline, out of the entire force
+which he himself had brought with him, and that which Manlius had
+previously collected, formed two legions, filling up the cohorts as
+far as his numbers would allow; and afterward, as any volunteers, or
+recruits from his confederates, arrived in his camp, he distributed
+them equally throughout the cohorts, and thus filled up his legions,
+in a short time, with their regular number of men, tho at first he had
+not had more than two thousand. But, of his whole army, only about a
+fourth part had the proper weapons of soldiers; the rest, as chance
+had equipped them, carried darts, spears, or sharpened stakes.</p>
+
+<p>As Antonius<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> approached with his army, Catiline <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>directed his march
+over the hills, encamping, at one time, in the direction of Rome, at
+another in that of Gaul. He gave the enemy no opportunity of fighting,
+yet hoped himself shortly to find one, if his accomplices at Rome
+should succeed in their objects. Slaves, meanwhile, of whom vast
+numbers had at first flocked to him, he continued to reject, not only
+as depending on the strength of the conspiracy, but as thinking it
+impolitic to appear to share the cause of citizens with runagates.</p>
+
+<p>When it was reported in his camp, however, that the conspiracy had
+been discovered at Rome, and that Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest
+whom I have named had been put to death, most of those whom the hope
+of plunder or the love of change had led to join in the war fell away.
+The remainder Catiline conducted, over rugged mountains and by forced
+marches, into the neighborhood of Pistoria, with a view to escape
+covertly, by crossroads, into Gaul.</p>
+
+<p>But Quintus Metellus Celer, who, with a force of three legions, had,
+at that time, his station at Picenum, suspected that Catiline, from
+the difficulties of his position, would adopt precisely the course
+which we have just described. When, therefore, he had learned
+Catiline's route from some deserters, he immediately broke up his
+camp, and took his post at the very foot of the hills, at the point
+where Catiline's descent would be, in his hurried march into Gaul.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+Nor was Antonius far distant, as he was pursuing, tho <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>with a large
+army, yet through plainer ground, and with fewer hindrances, the enemy
+in retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Catiline, when he saw that he was surrounded by mountains and by
+hostile forces, that his schemes in the city had been unsuccessful,
+and that there was no hope either of escape or of succor, thinking it
+best, in such circumstances, to try the fortune of a battle, resolved
+upon engaging, as speedily as possible, with Antonius....</p>
+
+<p>When he had spoken, he ordered, after a short delay, the signal for
+battle to be sounded, and led down his troops, in regular order, to
+the level ground. Having then sent away the horses of all the cavalry,
+in order to increase the men's courage by making their danger equal,
+he himself, on foot, drew up his troops suitably to their numbers and
+the nature of the ground. As a plain stretched between the mountains
+on the left, with a rugged rock on the right, he placed eight cohorts
+in front, and stationed the rest of his force, in close order, in the
+rear. From among these he removed all the ablest centurions, the
+veterans, and the stoutest of the common soldiers that were regularly
+armed into the foremost ranks. He ordered Caius Manlius to take the
+command on the right, and a certain officer of F&aelig;sul&aelig; on the left;
+while he himself, with his freedmen and the colonists, took his
+station by the eagle, which Caius Marius was said to have had in his
+army in the Cimbrian war.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side, Caius Antonius, who, being lame, was unable to be
+present in the engagement, gave the command of the army to Marcus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+Petreius, his lieutenant-general. Petreius ranged the cohorts of
+veterans, which he had raised to meet the present insurrection, in
+front, and behind them the rest of his force in lines. Then, riding
+round among his troops, and addressing his men by name, he encouraged
+them, and bade them remember that they were to fight against unarmed
+marauders, in defense of their country, their children, their temples,
+and their homes. Being a military man, and having served with great
+reputation for more than thirty years, as tribune, prefect,
+lieutenant, or pr&aelig;tor, he knew most of the soldiers and their
+honorable actions, and, by calling these to their remembrance, roused
+the spirits of the men.</p>
+
+<p>When he had made a complete survey, he gave the signal with the
+trumpet, and ordered the cohorts to advance slowly. The army of the
+enemy followed his example; and when they had approached so near that
+the action could be commenced by the light-armed troops, both sides,
+with a loud shout, rushed together in a furious charge. They threw
+aside their missiles, and fought only with their swords. The veterans,
+calling to mind their deeds of old, engaged fiercely in the closest
+combat. The enemy made an obstinate resistance; and both sides
+contended with the utmost fury. Catiline, during this time, was
+exerting himself with his light troops in the front, sustaining such
+as were prest, substituting fresh men for the wounded, attending to
+every exigency, charging in person, wounding many an enemy, and
+performing at once the duties of a valiant soldier and a skilful
+general.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When Petreius, contrary to his expectation, found Catiline attacking
+him with such impetuosity, he led his pr&aelig;torian cohort against the
+center of the enemy, among whom, being thus thrown into confusion, and
+offering but partial resistance, he made great slaughter, and ordered,
+at the same time, an assault on both flanks. Manlius and the F&aelig;sulan,
+sword in hand, were among the first that fell; and Catiline, when he
+saw his army routed, and himself left with but few supporters,
+remembering his birth and former dignity, rushed into the thickest of
+the enemy, where he was slain, fighting to the last.</p>
+
+<p>When the battle was over, it was plainly seen what boldness and what
+energy of spirit had prevailed throughout the army of Catiline; for,
+almost everywhere, every soldier, after yielding up his breath,
+covered with his corpse the spot which he had occupied when alive. A
+few, indeed, whom the pr&aelig;torian cohort had dispersed, had fallen
+somewhat differently, but all with wounds in front. Catiline himself
+was found, far in advance of his men, among the dead bodies of the
+enemy; he still breathed, and exprest in his countenance the
+fierceness of spirit which he had shown during his life. Of his whole
+army, neither in the battle, nor in flight, was any free-born citizen
+made prisoner, for they had spared their own lives no more than those
+of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Nor did the army of the Roman people obtain a joyful or bloodless
+victory; for all their bravest men were either killed in the battle or
+left the field severely wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Of many who went from the camp to view<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> the ground or plunder the
+slain, some, in turning over the bodies of the enemy, discovered a
+friend, others an acquaintance, others a relative; some, too,
+recognized their enemies. Thus, gladness and sorrow, grief and joy,
+were variously felt throughout the whole army.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Quintilian thought Sallust had rivaled Thucydides, but
+it has generally been held that he rather imitated him. The
+resemblance lies in the main in the language he employs. Cruttwell
+remarks "that the deep insight of the Athenian into the connection of
+events is far removed from the popular rhetoric in which the Roman
+deplores the decline of virtue."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson. Catiline came of an old but impoverished patrician family. In
+the first Civil War, he had joined Sulla, and in the time of the
+proscription is said to have killed with his own hand his
+brother-in-law. In 67 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> he was governor of Africa; in 64 he joined
+P. Antronius in an attempt to murder the consuls-elect; in 64 he was
+himself defeated for the consulship.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> These were men to whom Sulla had given land as rewards
+for services, but who from extravagance had fallen into debt. Cicero
+said nothing could help them but the resurrection of Sulla from the
+dead.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Pompey was then conducting his campaign against
+Mithridates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Lentulus, who came of the ancient and noble Cornelian
+family, was one of the chiefs of the Catiline conspiracy. In 71 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>
+he was Consul, but in the next year was ejected from the Senate for
+"infamous life and manners."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> The Tullian dungeon at Rome was built by King Ancus
+Martius and enlarged by Servius Tullius, from whom it derived its
+name. It still exists as a subterranean chapel beneath the small
+church of San Pietro in Carcere. The church tradition is that St.
+Peter was imprisoned in this dungeon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Not the triumvir, but his uncle, Caius Antonius, a man
+who after the conspiracy made a scandalous record, and in consequence
+was surnamed "Hybrida." He was Consul with Cicero, and is believed to
+have been one of the original Catiline conspirators, but Cicero gained
+him over to his own side by promising him the rich province of
+Macedonia. As Consul, Antonius was under the necessity of leading the
+army against Catiline; but, owing to unwillingness to fight against
+his former friend (Sallust says owing to lameness) he gave the
+immediate command on the day of battle to his legate, Petreius. The
+father of this Antonius and the grandfather of Mark Antony, the
+triumvir, was Mark Antony, the orator, frequently referred to by
+Cicero as one of the greatest of Roman orators.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> That is, northern Italy, which In ancient times had been
+occupied by Gallic people. Pistoria was an Etruscan town lying at the
+foot of the Apennines.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="LIVY" id="LIVY"></a>LIVY</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born In Padua in 59 <span class="smcap">b.c</span>.; died there in 17 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; one of the
+most famous of the Roman historians; his work, embracing the
+period from the founding of the city, comprized one hundred
+and forty-two books, of which only thirty-five have come
+down to us; he spent over forty years in writing the
+history; he wrote also philosophical dialogs and a work on
+rhetorical training.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ic" id="Ic"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>HORATIUS COCLES AT THE BRIDGE<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></h3>
+<h3>(About 510 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>)</h3>
+<p>The Sublician bridge<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> well-nigh afforded a passage to the enemy,
+had it not been for one man, Horatius Cocles, given by fortune on that
+day as a defense of Rome. He happened to be posted on guard at the
+bridge and when he saw the Janiculum taken by a sudden assault, and
+that the enemy were pouring down thence in full speed, and that his
+own party in terror and confusion were abandoning their arms and
+ranks&mdash;laying <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>hold of them one by one, standing in their way, and
+appealing to the faith of gods and men, he declared "that their flight
+would avail them nothing if they deserted their post; if they passed
+the bridge and left it behind them, there would soon be more of the
+enemy in the Palatium and Capitol than in the Janiculum; for that
+reason he advised and charged them to demolish the bridge, by their
+sword, by fire, or by any means whatever; that he would stand the
+shock of the enemy as far as could be done by one man."</p>
+
+<p>He then advanced to the first entrance of the bridge, and being easily
+distinguished among those who showed their backs in retreating from
+the fight, facing about to engage the foe hand to hand, by his
+surprizing bravery he terrified the enemy. Two indeed a sense of shame
+kept with him&mdash;Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius&mdash;men eminent for
+their birth, and renowned for their gallant exploits.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With them he for a short time stood the first storm of the danger, and
+the severest brunt of the battle. But as they who demolished the
+bridge called upon them to retire, he obliged them also to withdraw to
+a place of safety on a small portion of the bridge still left. Then
+casting his stern eyes round all the officers of the Etrurians in a
+threatening manner, he sometimes challenged them singly, sometimes
+reproached them all: "the slaves of haughty tyrants, who, regardless
+of their own freedom, came to oppress the liberty of others." They
+hesitated for a considerable time, looking round one at the other, to
+commence the fight; shame then put the army in motion, and a shout
+being raised, they hurled their weapons from all sides on their single
+adversary; and when they all stuck in the shield held before him, and
+he with no less obstinacy kept possession of the bridge with firm
+step, they now endeavored to thrust him down from it by one push, when
+at once the crash of the falling bridge, at the same time a shout of
+the Romans raised for joy at having completed their purpose, checked
+their ardor with sudden panic. Then Cocles says, "Holy father
+Tiberinus, I pray that thou wouldst receive these arms and this thy
+soldier in thy propitious stream." Armed as he was, he leapt into the
+Tiber, and, amid showers of darts hurled on him, swam across safe to
+his party, having dared an act which is likely to obtain more fame
+than belief with posterity. The state was grateful toward such valor;
+a statue was erected to him in the Comitium, and as much land was
+given to him as he plowed around in one day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> The zeal of private
+individuals also was conspicuous among the public honors. For amid the
+great scarcity, each person contributed something to him according to
+his supply at home, depriving himself of his own support.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIc" id="IIc"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>HANNIBAL'S CROSSING OF THE ALPS<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></h3>
+
+<h3>(218 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>)</h3>
+<p>From the Druentia, by a road that lay principally through plains,
+Hannibal arrived at the Alps without molestation from the Gauls who
+inhabit those regions. Then, tho the scene had been previously
+anticipated from report (by which uncertainties are wont to be
+exaggerated), yet the height of the mountains when viewed so near, and
+the snows almost mingling with the sky, the shapeless huts situated on
+the cliffs, the cattle and beasts of burden withered by the cold, the
+men unshorn and wildly drest, all things, animate and inanimate,
+stiffened with frost, and other objects more terrible to be seen than
+described, renewed their alarm.</p>
+
+<p>To them, marching up the first acclivities, the mountaineers appeared
+occupying the heights <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>overhead, who, if they had occupied the more
+concealed valleys, might, by rushing out suddenly to the attack, have
+occasioned great flight and havoc. Hannibal orders them to halt, and
+having sent forward Gauls to view the ground, when he found there was
+no passage that way, he pitches his camp in the widest valley he could
+find, among places all rugged and precipitous. Then, having learned
+from the same Gauls, when they had mixed in conversation with the
+mountaineers, from whom they differed little in language and manners,
+that the pass was only beset during the day, and that at night each
+withdrew to his own dwelling, he advanced at the dawn to the heights,
+as if designing openly and by day to force his way through the defile.
+The day then being passed in feigning a different attempt from that
+which was in preparation, when they had fortified the camp in the same
+place where they had halted, as soon as he perceived that the
+mountaineers had descended from the heights, and that the guards were
+withdrawn, having lighted for show a greater number of fires than was
+proportioned to the number that remained, and having left the baggage
+in the camp, with the cavalry and the principal part of the infantry,
+he himself with a party of light-armed soldiers, consisting of all the
+most courageous of his troops, rapidly cleared the defile, and took
+posts on those very heights which the enemy had occupied.</p>
+
+<p>At dawn of light the next day the camp broke up, and the rest of the
+army began to move forward. The mountaineers, on a signal being given,
+were now assembling from their forts to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> their usual station, when
+they suddenly behold part of the enemy overhanging them from above, in
+possession of their former position, and the others passing along the
+road. Both these objects, presented at the same time to the eye and
+the mind, made them stand motionless for a little while; but when they
+afterward saw the confusion in the pass, and that the marching body
+was thrown into disorder by the tumult which itself created,
+principally from the horses being terrified, thinking that whatever
+terror they added would suffice for the destruction of the enemy, they
+scramble along the dangerous rocks, as being accustomed alike to
+pathless and circuitous ways. Then indeed the Carthaginians were
+opposed at once by the enemy and by the difficulties of the ground;
+and each striving to escape first from the danger, there was more
+fighting among themselves than with their opponents. The horses, in
+particular, created danger in the lines, which being terrified by the
+discordant clamors that the groves and reechoing valleys augmented,
+fell into confusion; and if by chance struck or wounded, they were so
+dismayed that they occasioned a great loss both of men and baggage of
+every description; and as the pass on both sides was broken and
+precipitous, this tumult threw many down to an immense depth, some
+even of the armed men; but the beasts of burden, with their loads,
+were rolled down like the fall of some vast fabric.</p>
+
+<p>Tho these disasters were shocking to view, Hannibal, however, held his
+place for a little, and kept his men together, lest he might augment
+the tumult and disorder: but afterward,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> when he saw the line broken,
+and that there was danger that he should bring over his army preserved
+to no purpose if deprived of their baggage, he hastened down from the
+higher ground; and tho he had routed the enemy by the first onset
+alone, he at the same time increased the disorder in his own army; but
+that tumult was composed in a moment, after the roads were cleared by
+the flight of the mountaineers, and presently the whole army was
+conducted through, not only without being disturbed, but almost in
+silence. He then took a fortified place, which was the capital of that
+district, and the little villages that lay around it, and fed his army
+for three days with the corn and cattle he had taken; and during these
+three days, as the soldiers were neither obstructed by the
+mountaineers, who had been daunted by the first engagement, nor yet
+much by the ground, he made considerable way.</p>
+
+<p>He then came to another state, abounding, for a mountainous country,
+with inhabitants, where he was nearly overcome, not by open war, but
+by his own arts of treachery and ambuscade. Some old men, governors of
+forts, came as deputies to the Carthaginian, professing, "that having
+been warned by the useful example of the calamities of others, they
+wished rather to experience the friendship than the hostilities of the
+Carthaginians; they would, therefore, obediently execute his commands,
+and begged that he would accept of a supply of provisions, guides of
+his march, and hostages for the sincerity of their promises."
+Hannibal, when he had answered them in a friendly manner, thinking
+that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> should neither be rashly trusted nor yet rejected, lest if
+repulsed they might openly become enemies, having received the
+hostages whom they proffered, and made use of the provisions which
+they of their own accord brought down to the road, followed their
+guides, by no means as among a people with whom he was at peace, but
+with his line of march in close order. The elephants and cavalry
+formed the van of the marching body; he himself, examining everything
+around, and intent on every circumstance, followed with the choicest
+of his infantry. When they came into a narrower pass, lying on one
+side beneath an overhanging eminence, the barbarians, rising at once
+on all sides from their ambush, assail them in front and rear, both at
+close quarters and from a distance, and roll down huge stones on the
+army. The most numerous body of men prest on the rear; against whom
+the infantry facing about and directing their attack made it very
+obvious that, had not the rear of the army been well supported, a
+great loss must have been sustained in that pass. Even as it was, they
+came to the extremity of danger, and almost to destruction; for while
+Hannibal hesitated to lead down his division into the defile, because,
+tho he himself was a protection to the cavalry, he had not in the same
+way left any aid to the infantry in the rear; the mountaineers,
+charging obliquely, and on having broken through the middle of the
+army, took possession of the road; and one night was spent by Hannibal
+without his cavalry and baggage....</p>
+
+<p>On the standards being moved forward at daybreak,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> when the army
+proceeded slowly over all places entirely blocked up with snow, and
+languor and despair strongly appeared in the countenances of all,
+Hannibal, having advanced before the standards, and ordered the
+soldiers to halt on a certain eminence, whence there was a prospect
+far and wide, pointed out to them Italy and the plains of the Po,
+extending themselves beneath the Alpine mountains; and said "that they
+were now surmounting not only the ramparts of Italy, but also of the
+city of Rome; that the rest of the journey would be smooth and
+down-hill; that after one, or, at most, a second battle, they would
+have the citadel and capital of Italy in their power and possession."
+The army then began to advance, the enemy now making no attempts
+beyond petty thefts, as opportunity offered. But the journey proved
+much more difficult than it had been in the ascent, as the declivity
+of the Alps, being generally shorter on the side of Italy, is
+consequently steeper; for nearly all the road was precipitous, narrow,
+and slippery, so that neither those who made the least stumble could
+prevent themselves from falling, nor, when fallen, remain in the same
+place, but rolled, both men and beasts of burden, one upon another.</p>
+
+<p>They then came to a rock much more narrow, and formed of such
+perpendicular ledges that a light-armed soldier, carefully making the
+attempt, and clinging with his hands to the bushes and roots around,
+could with difficulty lower himself down. The ground, even before very
+steep by nature, had been broken by a recent falling away of the earth
+into a precipice of nearly a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> thousand feet in depth. Here when the
+cavalry halted, as if at the end of their journey, it was announced to
+Hannibal, wondering what obstructed the march, that the rock was
+impassable. Having then gone himself to view the place, it seemed
+clear to him that he must lead his army, by however great a circuit,
+through the pathless and untrodden regions around it. But this route
+also proved impracticable; for while the new snow of a moderate depth
+remained on the old, which had not been removed, their footsteps were
+planted with ease as they walked upon the new snow, which was soft and
+not too deep; but when it was dissolved by the trampling of so many
+men and beasts of burden, they then walked on the bare ice below, and
+through the dirty fluid formed by the melting snow. Here there was a
+wretched struggle, both on account of the slippery ice not affording
+any hold to the step, and giving way beneath the foot more readily by
+reason of the slope; and whether they assisted themselves in rising by
+their hands or their knees, their supports themselves giving way, they
+would tumble again; nor were there any stumps or roots near by
+pressing against which one might with hand or foot support oneself; so
+that they only floundered on the smooth ice and amidst the melted
+snow. The beasts of burden sometimes also cut into this lower ice by
+merely treading upon it, at others they broke it completely through,
+by the violence with which they struck in their hoofs in their
+struggling, so that most of them, as if taken in a trap, stuck in the
+hardened and deeply frozen ice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At length, after the men and beasts of burden had been fatigued to no
+purpose, the camp was pitched on the summit, the ground being cleared
+for that purpose with great difficulty, so much snow was there to be
+dug out and carried away. The soldiers being then set to make a way
+down the cliff, by which alone a passage could be effected, and it
+being necessary that they should cut through the rocks, having felled
+and lopped a number of large trees which grew around, they make a huge
+pile of timber; and as soon as a strong wind fit for exciting the
+flames arose, they set fire to it, and, pouring vinegar on the heated
+stones, they render them soft and crumbling. They then open a way with
+iron instruments through the rock thus heated by the fire, and soften
+its declivities by gentle windings, so that not only the beasts of
+burden, but also the elephants, could be led down it. Four days were
+spent about this rock, the beasts nearly perishing through hunger; for
+the summits of the mountains are for the most part bare, and if there
+is any pasture the snows bury it. The lower parts contain valleys, and
+some sunny hills, and rivulets flowing beside woods, and scenes more
+worthy of the abode of man. There the beasts of burden were sent out
+to pasture, and rest given for three days to the men, fatigued with
+forming the passage; they then descended into the plains, the country
+and the dispositions of the inhabitants being now less rugged.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner chiefly they came to Italy, in the fifth month (as some
+authors relate) after leaving New Carthage, having crossed the Alps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+in fifteen days. What number of forces Hannibal had when he had passed
+into Italy is by no means agreed upon by authors. Those who state them
+at the highest make mention of a hundred thousand foot and twenty
+thousand horse; those who state them at the lowest, of twenty thousand
+foot and six thousand horse. Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who relates
+that he was made prisoner by Hannibal, would influence me most as an
+authority did he not confound the number by adding the Gauls and
+Ligurians. Including these (who, it is more probable, flocked to him
+afterward, as some authors assert), he says that eighty thousand foot
+and ten thousand horse were brought into Italy; and that he had heard
+from Hannibal himself that, after crossing the Rhone, he had lost
+thirty-six thousand men, and an immense number of horses and other
+beasts of burden among the Taurini,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> the next nation to the Gauls,
+as he descended into Italy.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IIIb" id="IIIb"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>HANNIBAL AND SCIPIO AT ZAMA<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></h3>
+<h3>(202 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>)</h3>
+<p>Hannibal had by this time arrived at Adrumetum,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> from which place,
+after employing a few days there in refreshing his soldiers, who had
+suffered from the motion by sea, he proceeded by forced marches to
+Zama, roused by the alarming statements of messengers, who brought
+word that all the country round Carthage was filled with armed troops.
+Zama is distant from Carthage a five days' journey. Some spies, whom
+he had sent out from this place, being intercepted by the Roman guard,
+and brought before Scipio, he directed that they should be handed over
+to the military tribunes, and, after having been desired fearlessly to
+survey everything, he conducted them through the camp wherever they
+chose; then, asking them whether they had examined everything to their
+satisfaction, he assigned them an escort, and sent them back to
+Hannibal. Hannibal received none of the circumstances which were
+reported to him with feelings of joy; for they brought word that, as
+it happened, Masinissa had joined the enemy that very day, with six
+thousand infantry and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>four thousand horse; but he was principally
+dispirited by the confidence of his enemy, which, doubtless, was not
+conceived without some ground. Accordingly, tho he himself was the
+originator of the war, and by his coming had upset the truce which had
+been entered into, and cut off all hopes of a treaty, yet, concluding
+that more favorable terms might be obtained if he solicited peace
+while his strength was unimpaired than when vanquished, he sent a
+message to Scipio requesting permission to confer with him.</p>
+
+<p>Their armed attendants having retired to an equal distance, they met,
+each attended by one interpreter, being the greatest generals not only
+of their own times, but of any to be found in the records of the times
+preceding them, and equal to any of the kings or generals of any
+nation whatever. When they came within sight of each other they
+remained silent for a short time, thunderstruck, as it were, with
+mutual admiration. At length Hannibal thus began:</p>
+
+<p>"Since fate hath so ordained it, that I, who was the first to wage war
+upon the Romans, and who have so often had victory almost within my
+reach, should voluntarily come to sue for peace, I rejoice that it is
+you, above all others, from whom it is my lot to solicit it. To you,
+also, amidst the many distinguished events of your life, it will not
+be esteemed one of the least glorious that Hannibal, to whom the gods
+had so often granted victory over the Roman generals, should have
+yielded to you; and that you should have put an end to this war, which
+has been rendered remarkable by your calamities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> before it was by
+ours. In this, also, fortune would seem to have exhibited a
+disposition to sport with events, for it was when your father was
+Consul that I first took up arms; he was the first Roman general with
+whom I engaged in a pitched battle; and it is to his son that I now
+come unarmed to solicit peace. It were, indeed, most to have been
+desired that the gods should have put such dispositions into the minds
+of our fathers, that you should have been content with the empire of
+Italy, and we with that of Africa; nor, indeed, even to you, are
+Sicily and Sardinia of sufficient value to compensate you for the loss
+of so many fleets, so many armies, so many and such distinguished
+generals.</p>
+
+<p>"But what is past may be more easily censured than retrieved. In our
+attempts to acquire the possessions of others, we have been compelled
+to fight for our own; and not only have you had a war in Italy, and we
+also in Africa, but you have beheld the standards and arms of your
+enemies almost in your gates and on your walls, and we now, from the
+walls of Carthage, distinctly hear the din of a Roman camp. What,
+therefore, we should most earnestly deprecate, and you should most
+devoutly wish for, is now the case: peace is proposed at a time when
+you have the advantage. We who negotiate it are the persons whom it
+most concerns to obtain it, and we are persons 'whose arrangements, be
+they what they will, our states will ratify. All we want is a
+disposition not averse from peaceful counsels. So far as relates to
+myself, time (for I am returning to that country an old man which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> I
+left a boy),<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and prosperity, and adversity, have so schooled me
+that I am more inclined to follow reason than fortune. But I fear your
+youth and uninterrupted good fortune, both of which are apt to inspire
+a degree of confidence ill comporting with pacific counsels. Rarely
+does that man consider the uncertainty of events whom fortune hath
+never deceived. What I was at Trasimenus and at Cann&aelig; that you are
+this day. Invested with command when you had scarcely yet attained the
+military age, tho all your enterprises were of the boldest
+description, in no instance has fortune deserted you. Avenging the
+death of your father and uncle, you have derived from the calamity of
+your house the high honor of distinguished valor and filial duty. You
+have recovered Spain, which had been lost, after driving thence four
+Carthaginian armies. When elected Consul, tho all others wanted
+courage to defend Italy, you crossed over into Africa, where, having
+cut to pieces two armies, having at once captured and burned two camps
+in the same hour, having made prisoner Syphax, a most powerful king,
+and seized so many towns of his dominions and so many of ours, you
+have dragged me from Italy, the possession of which I had firmly held
+for now sixteen years....</p>
+
+<p>"Formerly, in this same country, Marcus Atilius would have formed one
+among the few instances of good fortune and valor, if, when
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>victorious, he had granted a peace to our fathers when they requested
+it; but by not setting any bounds to his success, and not checking
+good fortune, which was elating him, he fell with a degree of ignominy
+proportioned to his elevation. It is, indeed, the right of him who
+grants, and not of him who solicits it, to dictate the terms of peace;
+but perhaps we may not be unworthy to impose upon ourselves the fine.
+We do not refuse that all those possessions on account of which the
+war was begun should be yours&mdash;Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, with all the
+islands lying in any part of the sea, between Africa and Italy. Let us
+Carthaginians, confined within the shores of Africa, behold you, since
+such is the pleasure of the gods, extending your empire over foreign
+nations, both by sea and land. I can not deny that you have reason to
+suspect the Carthaginian faith, in consequence of their insincerity
+lately in soliciting a peace and while awaiting the decision. The
+sincerity with which a peace will be observed depends much, Scipio, on
+the person by whom it is sought. Your Senate, as I hear, refused to
+grant a peace, in some measure, because the deputies were deficient in
+respectability. It is I, Hannibal, who now solicit peace, who would
+neither ask for it unless I believed it expedient, nor will I fail to
+observe it for the same reason of expedience on account of which I
+have solicited it. And in the same manner as I, because the war was
+commenced by me, brought it to pass that no one regretted it till the
+gods began to regard me with displeasure, so will I also exert myself
+that no one may regret the peace procured by my means."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In answer to these things the Roman general spoke nearly to the
+following effect: "I was aware that it was in consequence of the
+expectation of your arrival that the Carthaginians violated the
+existing faith of the truce and broke off all hope of a peace. Nor,
+indeed, do you conceal the fact; inasmuch as you artfully withdraw
+from the former conditions of peace every concession except what
+relates to those things which have for a long time been in our own
+power. But as it is your object that your countrymen should be
+sensible how great a burden they are relieved from by your means, so
+it is incumbent upon me to endeavor that they may not receive, as the
+reward of their perfidy, the concessions which they formerly
+stipulated, by expunging them now from the conditions of the peace.
+Tho you do not deserve to be allowed the same conditions as before,
+you now request even to be benefited by your treachery. Neither did
+our fathers first make war respecting Sicily, nor did we respecting
+Spain. In the former case, the danger which threatened our allies, the
+Mamertines, and in the present the destruction of Saguntum, girded us
+with just and pious arms. That you were the aggressors, both you
+yourselves confess and the gods are witnesses, who determined the
+issue of the former war, and who are now determining, and will
+determine, the issue of the present according to right and justice. As
+to myself, I am not forgetful of the instability of human affairs, but
+consider the influence of fortune, and am well aware that all our
+measures are liable to a thousand casualties. But as I should
+acknowledge that my conduct would savor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> of insolence and oppression
+if I rejected you on your coming in person to solicit peace, before I
+crossed over into Africa, you voluntarily retiring from Italy, and
+after you had embarked your troops, so now, when I have dragged you
+into Africa almost by manual force, notwithstanding your resistance
+and evasions, I am not bound to treat you with any respect. Wherefore,
+if in addition to those stipulations on which it was considered that a
+peace would at that time have been agreed upon, and what they are you
+are informed, a compensation is proposed for having seized our ships,
+together with their stores, during a truce, and for the violence
+offered to our ambassadors, I shall then have matter to lay before my
+council. But if these things also appear oppressive, prepare for war,
+since you could not brook the conditions of peace."</p>
+
+<p>Thus, without effecting an accommodation, when they had returned from
+the conference to their armies, they informed them that words had been
+bandied to no purpose, that the question must be decided by arms, and
+that they must accept that fortune which the gods assigned them.</p>
+
+<p>When they had arrived at their camps, they both issued orders that
+their soldiers should get their arms in readiness and prepare their
+minds for the final contest; in which, if fortune should favor them,
+they would continue victorious, not for a single day, but forever.
+"Before tomorrow night," they said, "they would know whether Rome or
+Carthage should give laws to the world; and that neither Africa nor
+Italy, but the whole world, would be the prize of victory; that the
+dangers which threatened those who had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> the misfortune to be defeated
+were proportioned to the rewards of the victors." For the Romans had
+not any place of refuge in an unknown and foreign land, and immediate
+destruction seemed to await Carthage if the troops which formed her
+last reliance were defeated. To this important contest, the day
+following, two generals, by far the most renowned of any, and
+belonging to two of the most powerful nations in the world, advanced
+either to crown or overthrow, on that day, the many honors they had
+previously acquired....</p>
+
+<p>While the general was busily employed among the Carthaginians, and the
+captains of the respective nations among their countrymen, most of
+them employing interpreters among troops intermixed with those of
+different nations, the trumpets and cornets of the Romans sounded; and
+such a clamor arose that the elephants, especially those in the left
+wing, turned round upon their own party, the Moors and Numidians.
+Masinissa had no difficulty in increasing the alarm of the terrified
+enemy, and deprived them of the aid of their cavalry in that wing. A
+few, however, of the beasts which were driven against the enemy, and
+were not turned back through fear, made great havoc among the ranks of
+the velites, tho not without receiving many wounds themselves; for
+when the velites, retiring to the companies, had made way for the
+elephants, that they might not be trampled down, they discharged their
+darts at the beasts, exposed as they were to wounds on both sides,
+those in the van also keeping up a continual discharge of javelins;
+until, driven out of the Roman line by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> weapons which fell upon
+them from all quarters, these elephants also put to flight even the
+cavalry of the Carthaginians posted in their right wing. L&aelig;lius, when
+he saw the enemy in disorder, struck additional terror into them in
+their confusion.</p>
+
+<p>The Carthaginian line was deprived of the cavalry on both sides, when
+the infantry, who were now not a match for the Romans in confidence or
+strength, engaged. In addition to this there was one circumstance,
+trifling in itself, but at the same time producing important
+consequences in the action. On the part of the Romans the shout was
+uniform, and on that account louder and more terrific; while the
+voices of the enemy, consisting as they did of many nations of
+different languages, were dissonant. The Romans used the stationary
+kind of fight, pressing upon the enemy with their own weight and that
+of their arms; but on the other side there was more of skirmishing and
+rapid movement than force.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, on the first charge, the Romans immediately drove back
+the line of their opponents; then pushing them with their elbows and
+the bosses of their shields, and pressing forward into the places from
+which they had pushed them, they advanced a considerable space, as tho
+there had been no one to resist them, those who formed the rear urging
+forward those in front when they perceived the line of the enemy
+giving way, which circumstance itself gave great additional force in
+repelling them. On the side of the enemy, the second line, consisting
+of the Africans and Carthaginians, were so far from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> supporting the
+first line when giving ground, that, on the contrary, they even
+retired, lest their enemy, by slaying those who made a firm
+resistance, should penetrate to themselves also. Accordingly, the
+auxiliaries suddenly turned their backs, and facing about upon their
+own party, fled some of them into the second line, while others slew
+those who did not receive them into their ranks, since before they did
+not support them, and now refused to receive them.</p>
+
+<p>And now there were, in a manner, two contests going on together, the
+Carthaginians being compelled to fight at once with the enemy and with
+their own party. Not even then, however, did they receive into their
+line the terrified and exasperated troops; but, closing their ranks,
+drove them out of the scene of action to the wings and the surrounding
+plain, lest they should mingle these soldiers, terrified with defeat
+and wounds, with that part of their line which was firm and fresh. But
+such a heap of men and arms had filled the space in which the
+auxiliaries a little while ago had stood that it was almost more
+difficult to pass through it than through a close line of troops. The
+spearmen, therefore, who formed the front line, pursuing the enemy as
+each could find a way through the heap of firms and men, and streams
+of blood, threw into complete disorder the battalions and companies.
+The standards, also, of the principes had begun to waver when they saw
+the line before them driven from their ground. Scipio, perceiving
+this, promptly ordered the signal to be given for the spearmen to
+retreat, and, having taken his wounded into the rear, brought the
+principes and triarii to the wings, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> order that the line of
+spearmen in the center might be more strong and secure. Thus a fresh
+and renewed battle commenced, inasmuch as they had penetrated to their
+real antagonists, men equal to them in the nature of their arms, in
+their experience in war, in the fame of their achievements, and the
+greatness of their hopes and fears. But the Romans were superior both
+in numbers and courage, for they had now routed both the cavalry and
+the elephants, and, having already defeated the front line, were
+fighting against the second....</p>
+
+<p>Hannibal, after performing this, as it were, his last work of valor,
+fled to Adrumetum, whence, having been summoned to Carthage, he
+returned thither in the six and thirtieth year after he had left it
+when a boy, and confest in the senate house that he was defeated, not
+only in the battle, but in the war, and that there was no hope o&plusmn;
+safety in anything but obtaining peace.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> "The most eloquent of all historians," says Cruttwell.
+Livy understood the spirit of ancient times, making it real to modern
+minds because he possest "antiquity of soul." In his own day Livy's
+popularity was almost limitless. Pliny the Younger recalled that a man
+once traveled to Rome from Cadiz with the express purpose of seeing
+Livy. Having seen him he returned home at once, caring for nothing
+else in Rome.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> From Book II of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. "Cocles" was a nick-name meaning the
+"one-eyed." With this story every school-boy has been made familiar
+through Macaulay's "Lay," beginning:
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Lars Porsena of Clusium<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">By the Nine Gods he swore<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That the great house of Tarquin<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Should suffer wrong no more."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Authorities differ as to the site of this bridge.
+"Larousse" has a map which identifies it as the site now occupied by
+the &AElig;milian bridge, at the base of the Palatine, near the mouth of the
+Cloaca Maxima; but the "Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica," in a map of ancient
+Rome, places it farther down the Tiber near the center of the base of
+the Aventine. Murray's "Handbook of Rome" agrees with the
+"Britannica." This bridge was the first one built at Rome, and is
+ascribed to King Ancus Martius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> From Book XXI of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. The identity of the pass through which
+Hannibal crossed has been the subject of much controversy. A writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says the account in Polybius "will be found, on
+the whole, to agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed by
+the Little St. Bernard." At the same time, "there are some
+difficulties" attending this inference.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A tribe living in the upper valley of the Po, near
+Turin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> From Book XXX of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Adrumetum lay in what is now Tunis and was originally a
+Phenician city. It was older than Carthage. For many centuries it was
+a chief seaport for northern Africa. It is now known as Susa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Hannibal, who when a boy of nine had left Carthage for
+Spain with his father, Hamilcar Barca, at that time took an oath upon
+an altar declaring eternal hostility to Rome. In the year of Zama he
+was forty-five years old.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SENECA" id="SENECA"></a>SENECA</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Spain about 4 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>; died near Rome in 65 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>;
+celebrated as a Stoic and writer; taken to Rome when a
+child; a senator in Caligula's reign; banished to Corsica by
+Claudius in 41; recalled in 49, and entrusted with the
+education of Nero; after Nero's accession in 54 virtually
+controlled the imperial government, exercising power in
+concert with the Pr&aelig;torian prefect, Burrus; on the
+assassination of Burrus in 62 petitioned for leave to retire
+from court, and virtually did withdraw; on being charged
+with complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he committed
+suicide in obedience to Nero's order; his extant writings
+are numerous, and include "Benefits," "Clemency," and "Minor
+Essays."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Id" id="Id"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>OF THE WISE MAN<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></h3>
+<p>I might truly say, Serenus, that there is as wide a difference between
+the Stoics and the other sects of philosophers as there is between men
+and women, since each class contributes an equal share to human
+society, but the one is born to command, the other to obey. The other
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>philosophers deal with us gently and coaxingly, just as our
+accustomed family physicians usually do with our bodies, treating them
+not by the best and shortest method, but by that which we allow them
+to employ; whereas the Stoics adopt a manly course, and do not care
+about its appearing attractive to those who are entering upon it, but
+that it should as quickly as possible take us out of the world, and
+lead us to that lofty eminence which is so far beyond the scope of any
+missile weapon that it is above the reach of Fortune herself. "But the
+way by which we are asked to climb is steep and uneven." What then?
+Can heights be reached by a level path? Yet they are not so sheer and
+precipitous as some think. It is only the first part that has rocks
+and cliffs and no apparent outlet, just as many hills seen from a long
+way off appear abruptly steep and joined together, because the
+distance deceives our sight, and then, as we draw nearer, those very
+hills which our mistaken eyes had made into one gradually unfold
+themselves, those parts which seemed precipitous from afar assume a
+gently sloping outline. When just now mention was made of Marcus Cato,
+you whose mind revolts at injustice were indignant at Cato's own age
+having so little understood him, at its having allotted a place below
+Vatinius to one who towered <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>above both C&aelig;sar and Pompey; it seemed
+shameful to you, that when he spoke against some law in the Forum his
+toga was torn from him, and that he was hustled through the hands of a
+mutinous mob from the Rostra as far as the arch of Fabius,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
+enduring all the bad language, spitting, and other insults of the
+frantic rabble.</p>
+
+<p>I then answered, that you had good cause to be anxious on behalf of
+the commonwealth, which Publius Clodius on the one side, Vatinius and
+all the greatest scoundrels on the other, were putting up for sale,
+and, carried away by their blind covetousness, did not understand that
+when they sold it they themselves were sold with it; I bade you have
+no fears on behalf of Cato himself, because the wise man can neither
+receive injury nor-insult, and it is more certain that the immortal
+gods have given Cato as a pattern of a wise man to us, than that they
+gave Ulysses or Hercules to the earlier ages; for these our Stoics
+have declared were wise men, unconquered by labors, despisers of
+pleasure, and superior to all terrors. Cato did not slay wild beasts,
+whose pursuit belongs to huntsmen and countrymen, nor did he
+exterminate fabulous creatures with fire and sword, or live in times
+when it was possible to believe that the heavens could be supported on
+the shoulders of one man. In an age which had thrown off its belief in
+antiquated superstitions, and had carried material knowledge to its
+highest point, he had to struggle against <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>that many-headed monster,
+ambition, against that boundless lust for power which the whole world
+divided among three men could not satisfy. He alone withstood the
+vices of a worn-out state sinking into ruin through its own bulk; he
+upheld the falling commonwealth as far as it could be upheld by one
+man's hand, until at last his support was withdrawn, and he shared the
+crash which he had so long averted, and perished together with that
+from which it was impious to separate him&mdash;for Cato did not outlive
+freedom, nor did freedom outlive Cato. Think you that the people could
+do any wrong to such a man when they tore away his pr&aelig;torship or his
+toga? when they bespattered his sacred head with the rinsings of their
+mouths? The wise man is safe, and no injury or insult can touch
+him....</p>
+
+<p>Consider now, whether any thief, or false accuser, or headstrong
+neighbor, or rich man enjoying the power conferred by a childless old
+age, could do any injury to this man, from whom neither war nor an
+enemy whose profession was the noble art of battering city walls could
+take away anything. Amid the flash of swords on all sides, and the
+riot of the plundering soldiery, amid the flames and blood and ruin of
+the fallen city, amid the crash of temples falling upon their gods,
+one man was at peace. You need not therefore account that a reckless
+boast, for which I will give you a surety, if my word goes for
+nothing. Indeed, you would hardly believe so much constancy or such
+greatness of mind to belong to any man; but here a man comes forward
+to prove that you have no reason for doubting that one who is but of
+human birth can raise himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> above human necessities, can tranquilly
+behold pains, losses, diseases, wounds, and great natural convulsions
+roaring around him, can bear adversity with calm and prosperity with
+moderation, neither yielding to the former nor trusting to the latter,
+that he can remain the same amid all varieties of fortune, and think
+nothing to be his own save himself, and himself too only as regards
+his better part....</p>
+
+<p>You have no cause for saying, as you are wont to do, that this wise
+man of ours is nowhere to be found; we do not invent him as an unreal
+glory of the human race, or conceive a mighty shadow of an untruth,
+but we have displayed and will display him just as we sketch him, tho
+he may perhaps be uncommon, and only one appears at long intervals;
+for what is great and transcends the common ordinary type is not often
+produced; but this very Marcus Cato himself, the mention of whom
+started this discussion, was a man who I fancy even surpassed our
+model. Moreover, that which hurts must be stronger than that which is
+hurt. Now wickedness is not stronger than virtue; therefore the wise
+man can not be hurt. Only the bad attempt to injure the good. Good men
+are at peace among themselves; bad ones are equally mischievous to the
+good and to one another. If a man can not be hurt by one weaker than
+himself, and a bad man be weaker than a good one, and the good have no
+injury to dread, except from one unlike themselves; then, no injury
+takes effect upon the wise man; for by this time I need not remind you
+that no one save the wise man is good....</p>
+
+<p>The nobler a man is by birth, by reputation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> or by inheritance, the
+more bravely he should bear himself, remembering that the tallest men
+stand in the front rank in battle. As for insults, offensive language,
+marks of disgrace, and such like disfigurements, he ought to bear them
+as he would bear the shouts of the enemy, and darts or stones flung
+from a distance, which rattle upon his helmet without causing a wound;
+while he should look upon injuries as wounds, some received on his
+armor and others on his body, which he endures without falling or even
+leaving his place in the ranks. Even tho you be hard prest and
+violently attacked by the enemy, still it is base to give way; hold
+the post assigned to you by nature. You ask, what this post is? it is
+that of being a man. The wise man has another help, of the opposite
+kind to this; you are hard at work, while he has already won the
+victory. Do not quarrel with your own good advantage, and, until you
+shall have made your way to the truth, keep alive this hope in your
+minds, be willing to receive the news of a better life, and encourage
+it by your admiration and your prayers; it is to the interest of the
+commonwealth of mankind that there should be some one who is
+unconquered, some one against whom fortune has no power.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IId" id="IId"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>OF CONSOLATION FOR THE LOSS OF FRIENDS<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></h3>
+<p>Why should I lead you on through the endless series of great men and
+pick out the unhappy ones, as tho it were not more difficult to find
+happy ones? for how few households have remained possest of all their
+members to the end? what one is there that has not suffered some loss?
+Take any one year you please and name the Consuls for it; if you like,
+that of Lucius Bibulus<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> and Julius C&aelig;sar; you will see that, tho
+these colleagues were each other's bitterest enemies, yet their
+fortunes agreed. Lucius Bibulus, a man more remarkable for goodness
+than for strength of character, had both his sons murdered at the same
+time, and even insulted by the Egyptian soldiery, so that the agent of
+his bereavement was as much a subject for tears as the bereavement
+itself. Nevertheless Bibulus, who during the whole of his year of
+office had remained hidden in his house, to cast reproach upon his
+colleague C&aelig;sar on the day following that upon which he heard of both
+his sons' deaths, came forth and went through the routine business of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>his magistracy. Who could devote less than one day to mourning for
+two sons? Thus soon did he end his mourning for his children, altho he
+had mourned a whole year for his consulship. Gaius C&aelig;sar, after having
+traversed Britain, and not allowed even the ocean to set bounds to his
+successes, heard of the death of his daughter, which hurried on the
+crisis of affairs. Already Cn&aelig;us Pompey stood before his eyes, a man
+who would ill endure that any one besides himself should become a
+great power in the state, and one who was likely to place a check upon
+his advancement, which he had regarded, as onerous even when each
+gained by the other's rise: yet within three days' time he resumed his
+duties as general, and conquered his grief as quickly as he was wont
+to conquer everything else.</p>
+
+<p>Why need I remind you of the deaths of the other C&aelig;sars, whom fortune
+appears to me sometimes to have outraged in order that even by their
+deaths they might be useful to mankind, by proving that not even they,
+altho they were styled "sons of gods," and "fathers of gods to come,"
+could exercise the same power over their own fortunes which they did
+over those of others? The Emperor Augustus lost his children and his
+grandchildren, and after all the family of C&aelig;sar had perished was
+obliged to prop his empty house by adopting a son: yet he bore his
+losses as bravely as tho he were already personally concerned in the
+honor of the gods, and as tho it were especially to his interest that
+no one should complain of the injustice of Heaven. Tiberius C&aelig;sar lost
+both the son whom he begot and the son whom he adopted, yet he
+himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> pronounced a panegyric upon his son from the Rostra, and
+stood in full view of the corpse, which merely had a curtain on one
+side to prevent the eyes of the high priest resting upon the dead
+body, and did not change his countenance, tho all the Romans wept: he
+gave Sejanus, who stood by his side, a proof of how patiently he could
+endure the loss of his relatives. See you not what numbers of most
+eminent men there have been, none of whom have been spared by this
+blight which prostrates us all: men, too, adorned with every grace of
+character, and every distinction that public or private life can
+confer. It appears as tho this plague moved in a regular orbit, and
+spread ruin and desolation among us all without distinction of
+persons, all being alike its prey. Bid any number of individuals tell
+you the story of their lives: you will find that all have paid some
+penalty for being born.</p>
+
+<p>I know what you will say, "You quote men as examples: you forget that
+it is a woman that you are trying to console." Yet who would say that
+nature has dealt grudgingly with the minds of women and stunted their
+virtues? Believe me, they have the same intellectual power as men, and
+the same capacity for honorable and generous action. If trained to do
+so, they are just as able to endure sorrow or labor. Ye good gods, do
+I say this in that very city in which Lucretia and Brutus removed the
+yoke of kings from the necks of the Romans? We owe liberty to Brutus,
+but we owe Brutus to Lucretia&mdash;in which Cl&oelig;lia,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>for the
+sublime courage with which she scorned both the enemy and the river,
+has been almost reckoned as a man.</p>
+
+<p>The statue of C&oelig;lia, mounted on horseback, in the busiest of
+thoroughfares, the Sacred Way, continually reproaches the youth of the
+present day, who never mount anything but a cushioned seat in a
+carriage, with journeying in such a fashion through that very city in
+which we have enrolled even women among our knights. If you wish me to
+point out to you examples of women who have bravely endured the loss
+of their children, I shall not go far afield to search for them: in
+one family I can quote two Cornelias, one the daughter of Scipio, and
+the mother of Gracchi, who made acknowledgment of the birth of her
+twelve children by burying them all; nor was it so hard to do this in
+the case of the others, whose birth and death were alike unknown to
+the public, but she beheld the murdered and unburied corpses of both
+Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, whom even those who will not
+call them good must admit were great men. Yet to those who tried to
+console her and called her unfortunate, she answered, "I shall never
+cease to call myself happy, because I am the mother of the Gracchi."
+Cornelia, the wife of Livius Drusus,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> lost by the hands of an
+unknown assassin a young son of great distinction, who was treading in
+the footsteps of the Gracchi, and was murdered in his own house just
+when he had <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>so many bills half-way through the process of becoming
+law: nevertheless she bore the untimely and unavenged death of her son
+with as lofty a spirit as he had shown in carrying his laws.</p>
+
+<p>Will you not, Marcia, forgive Fortune because she has not refrained
+from striking you with the darts which she launched at the Scipios,
+and the mothers and daughters of the Scipios, and with which she has
+attacked the C&aelig;sars themselves? Life is full of misfortunes; our path
+is beset with them: no one can make a long peace, nay, scarcely an
+armistice with fortune. You, Marcia, have borne four children; now
+they say that no dart which is hurled into a close column of soldiers
+can fail to hit one&mdash;ought you then to wonder at not having been able
+to lead along such a company without exciting the ill will of Fortune,
+or suffering loss at her hands?...</p>
+
+<p>Think how great a blessing is a timely death, how many have been
+injured by living longer than they ought. If sickness had carried off
+that glory and support of the empire, Cn&aelig;us Pompey, at Naples, he
+would have died undoubted head of the Roman people, but as it was, a
+short extension of time cast him down from his pinnacle of fame: he
+beheld his legions slaughtered before his eyes: and what a sad relic
+of that battle, in which the Senate formed the first line, was the
+survival of the general. He saw his Egyptian butcher, and offered his
+body, hallowed by so many victories, to a guardsman's sword, altho,
+even had he been unhurt, he would have regretted his safety: for what
+could have been more infamous than that a Pompey should owe his life<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+to the clemency of a king? If Marcus Cicero had fallen at the time
+when he avoided those dangers which Catiline aimed equally at him and
+at his country, he might have died as the savior of the commonwealth
+which he had set free: if his death had even followed upon that of his
+daughter, he might have died happy. He would not then have seen swords
+drawn for the slaughter of Roman citizens, the goods of the murdered
+divided among the murderers, that men might pay from their own purse
+the price of their own blood, the public auction of the Consul's spoil
+in the civil war, the public letting out of murder to be done,
+brigandage, war, pillage, hosts of Catilines. Would it not have been a
+good thing for Marcus Cato if the sea had swallowed him up when he was
+returning from Cyprus after sequestrating the king's hereditary
+possessions, even if that very money which he was bringing to pay the
+soldiers in the civil war had been lost with him? He certainly would
+have been able to boast that no one would dare to do wrong in the
+presence of Cato: as it was, the extension of his life for a very few
+more years forced one who was born for personal and political freedom
+to flee from C&aelig;sar and to become Pompey's follower. Premature death
+therefore did him no evil: indeed, it put an end to the power of any
+evil to hurt him....</p>
+
+<p>Born for a very brief space of time, we regard this life as an inn
+which we are soon to quit that it may be made ready for the coming
+guest, Do I speak of our lives, which we know roll away incredibly
+fast? Reckon up the centuries of cities: you will find that even those
+which boast<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> of their antiquity have not existed for long. All human
+works are brief and fleeting: they take up no part whatever of
+infinite time. Tried by the standard of the universe, we regard this
+earth of ours, with all its cities, nations, rivers, and seaboard, as
+a mere point: our life occupies less than a point when compared with
+all time, the measure of which exceeds that of the world, for indeed
+the world is contained many times in it. Of what importance, then, can
+it be to lengthen that which, however much you add to it, will never
+be much more than nothing? We can only make our lives long by one
+expedient, that is, by being satisfied with their length: you may tell
+me of long-lived men, whose length of days has been celebrated by
+tradition, you may assign a hundred and ten years apiece to them: yet
+when you allow your mind to conceive the idea of eternity, there will
+be no difference between the shortest and the longest life, if you
+compare the time during which any one has been alive with that during
+which he has not been alive. In the next place, when he died his life
+was complete; he had lived as long as he needed to live: there was
+nothing left for him to accomplish.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IIIc" id="IIIc"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>TO NERO ON CLEMENCY<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></h3>
+<p>You, C&aelig;sar, can boldly say that everything which has come into your
+charge has been kept safe, and that the state has neither openly nor
+secretly suffered any loss at your hands. You have coveted a glory
+which is most rare, and which has been obtained by no emperor before
+you, that of innocence. Your remarkable goodness is not thrown away,
+nor is it ungratefully or spitefully undervalued. Men feel gratitude
+toward you: no one person ever was so dear to another as you are to
+the people of Rome, whose great and enduring benefit you are. You
+have, however, taken upon yourself a mighty burden: no one any longer
+speaks of the good times of the late Emperor Augustus, or the first
+years of the reign of Tiberius, or proposes for your imitation any
+model outside yourself: yours is a pattern reign. This would have been
+difficult had your goodness of heart not been innate, but merely
+adopted for a time; for no one can wear a mask for long, and
+fictitious qualities soon give place to true ones. Those which are
+founded upon truth, become greater and better as time goes on.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Roman people were in a state of great hazard as long as it was
+uncertain how your generous disposition would turn out: now, however,
+the prayers of the community are sure of an answer, for there is no
+fear that you should suddenly forget your own character. Indeed,
+excess of happiness makes men greedy, and our desires are never so
+moderate as to be bounded by what they have obtained: great successes
+become the stepping-stones to greater ones, and those who have
+obtained more than they hoped, entertain even more extravagant hopes
+than before; yet by all your countrymen we hear it admitted that they
+are now happy, and moreover, that nothing can be added to the
+blessings that they enjoy, except that they should be eternal. Many
+circumstances force this admission from them, altho it is the one
+which men are least willing to make: we enjoy a profound and
+prosperous peace, the power of the law has been openly asserted in the
+sight of all men, and raised beyond the reach of any violent
+interference: the form of our government is so happy, as to contain
+all the essentials of liberty except the power of destroying itself.
+It is nevertheless your clemency which is most especially admired by
+the high and low alike: every man enjoys or hopes to enjoy the other
+blessings of your rule according to the measure of his own personal
+good fortune, whereas from your clemency all hope alike: no one has so
+much confidence in his innocence, as not to feel glad that in your
+presence stands a clemency which is ready to make allowance for human
+errors....</p>
+
+<p>Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> state the best model
+on which a prince may mold his life to be, that he deal with his
+countrymen as he would that the gods may deal with himself. Is it then
+desirable that the gods should show no mercy upon sins and mistakes,
+and that they should harshly pursue us to our ruin? In that case what
+king will be safe? Whose limbs will not be torn asunder and collected
+by the sooth-sayers If, on the other hand, the gods are placable and
+kind, and do not at once avenge the crimes of the powerful with
+thunderbolts, is it not far more just that a man set in authority over
+other men should exercise his power in a spirit of clemency and should
+consider whether the conditions of the world is more beauteous and
+pleasant to the eyes on a fine calm day, or when everything is shaken
+with frequent thunder-claps and when lightning flashes on all sides!
+Yet the appearance of a peaceful and constitutional reign is the same
+as that of the calm and brilliant sky. A cruel reign is disordered and
+hidden in darkness, and while all shake with terror at the sudden
+explosions, not even he who caused all this disturbance escapes
+unharmed. It is easier to find excuses for private men who obstinately
+claim their rights; possibly they may have been injured and their rage
+may spring from their wrongs; besides this, they fear to be despised,
+and not to return the injuries which they have received looks like
+weakness rather than clemency; but one who can easily avenge himself,
+if he neglects to do so, is certain to gain praise for goodness of
+heart. Those who are born in a humble station may with greater freedom
+exercise violence, go to law, engage in quarrels, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> indulge their
+angry passions; even blows count for little between two equals; but in
+case of a king, even loud clamor and unmeasured talk are
+unbecoming....</p>
+
+<p>Such was Augustus when an old man, or when growing old: in his youth
+he was hasty and passionate, and did many things upon which he looked
+back with regret. No one will venture to compare the rule of the blest
+Augustus to the mildness of your own, even if your youth be compared
+with his more than ripe old age: he was gentle and placable, but it
+was after he had dyed the sea at Actium with Roman blood; after he had
+wrecked both the enemy's fleet and his own at Sicily; after the
+holocaust of Perusia and the proscriptions. But I do not call it
+clemency to be wearied of cruelty; true clemency, C&aelig;sar, is that which
+you display, which has not begun from remorse at its past ferocity, on
+which there is no stain, which has never shed the blood of your
+countrymen: this, when combined with unlimited power, shows the truest
+self-control and all-embracing love of the human race as of one's
+self, not corrupted by any low desires, any extravagant ideas, or any
+of the bad examples of former emperors into trying, by actual
+experiment, how great a tyranny you would be allowed to exercise over
+his countrymen, but inclining rather to blunting your sword of empire.</p>
+
+<p>You, C&aelig;sar, have granted us the boon of keeping our state free from
+bloodshed, and that of which you boast, that you have not caused one
+single drop of blood to flow in any part of the world, is all the more
+magnanimous and marvelous because no one ever had the power of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+sword placed in his hands at an earlier age. Clemency, then, makes
+empires besides being their most trustworthy means of preservation.
+Why have legitimate sovereigns grown old on the throne, and bequeathed
+their power to their children and grandchildren, while the sway of
+despotic usurpers is both hateful and short-lived? What is the
+difference between the tyrant and the king&mdash;for their outward symbols
+of authority and their powers are the same&mdash;except it be that tyrants
+take delight in cruelty, whereas kings are only cruel for good reasons
+and because they can not help it....</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be imagined which is more becoming to a sovereign than
+clemency, by whatever title and right he may be set over his fellow
+citizens. The greater his power, the more beautiful and admirable he
+will confess his clemency to be: for there is no reason why power
+should do any harm, if only it be wielded in accordance with the laws
+of nature. Nature herself has conceived the idea of a king, as you may
+learn from various animals, and especially from bees, among whom the
+king's cell is the roomiest, and is placed in the most central and
+safest part of the hive; moreover, he does no work, but employs
+himself in keeping the others up to their work. If the king be lost,
+the entire swarm disperses: they never endure to have more than one
+king at a time, and find out which is the better by making them fight
+with one another: moreover the king is distinguished by his statelier
+appearance, being both larger and more brilliantly colored than the
+other bees.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable distinction, however, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> the following: bees are
+very fierce, and for their size are the most pugnacious of creatures,
+and leave their stings in the wounds which they make, but the king
+himself has no sting: nature does not wish him to be savage or to seek
+revenge at so dear a rate, and so has deprived him of his weapon and
+disarmed his rage. She has offered him as a pattern to great
+sovereigns; for she is wont to practise herself in small matters, and
+to scatter abroad tiny models of the hugest structures. We ought to be
+ashamed of not learning a lesson in behavior from these small
+creatures, for a man, who has so much more power of doing harm than
+they, ought to show a correspondingly greater amount of self-control.
+Would that human beings were subject to the same law, and that their
+anger destroyed itself together with its instruments, so that they
+could only inflict a wound once, and would not make use of the
+strength of others to carry out their hatreds; for their fury would
+soon grow faint if it carried its own punishment with it, and could
+only give rein to its violence at the risk of death. Even as it is,
+however, no one can exercise it with safety, for he must needs feel as
+much fear as he hopes to cause, he must watch every one's movements,
+and even when his enemies are not laying violent hands upon him he
+must bear in mind that they are plotting to do so, and he can not have
+a single moment free from alarm. Would any one endure to live such a
+life as this, when he might enjoy all the privileges of his high
+station to the general joy of all men, without fear? for it is a
+mistake to suppose that the king can be safe in a state where nothing
+is safe from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> king; he can only purchase a life without anxiety
+for himself by guaranteeing the same for his subjects. He need not
+pile up lofty citadels, escarp steep hills, cut away the sides of
+mountains, and fence himself about with many lines of walls and
+towers: clemency will render a king safe even upon an open plain. The
+one fortification which can not be stormed is the love of his
+countrymen....</p>
+
+<p>The reason why cruelty is the most hateful of all vices is that it
+goes first beyond ordinary limits, and then beyond those of humanity;
+that it devises new kinds of punishments, calls ingenuity to aid it in
+inventing devices for varying and lengthening men's torture, and takes
+delight in their sufferings: this accursed disease of the mind reaches
+its highest pitch of madness when cruelty itself turns into pleasure
+and the act of killing a man becomes enjoyment. Such a ruler is soon
+cast down from his throne; his life is attempted by poison one day and
+by the sword the next; he is exposed to as many dangers as there are
+men to whom he is dangerous, and he is sometimes destroyed by the
+plots of individuals, and at others by a general insurrection. Whole
+communities are not roused to action by unimportant outrages on
+private persons; but cruelty which takes a wider range, and from which
+no one is safe, becomes a mark for all men's weapons. Very small
+snakes escape our notice, and the whole country does not combine to
+destroy them; but when one of them exceeds the usual size and grows
+into a monster, when it poisons fountains with its spittle, scorches
+herbage with its breath, and spreads ruin wherever it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> crawls, we
+shoot at it with military engines. Trifling evils may cheat us and
+elude our observation, but we gird up our loins to attack great ones.
+One sick person does not so much as disquiet the house in which he
+lies; but when frequent deaths show that a plague is raging, there is
+a general outcry, men take to flight and shake their fists angrily at
+the very gods themselves. If a fire breaks out under one single roof,
+the family and the neighbors pour water upon it; but a wide
+conflagration which has consumed many houses must be smothered under
+the ruins of a whole quarter of a city....</p>
+
+<p>I have been especially led to write about clemency, Nero C&aelig;sar, by a
+saying of yours, which I remember having heard with admiration and
+which I afterward told to others: a noble saying, showing a great mind
+and great gentleness, which suddenly burst from you without
+premeditation, and was not meant to reach any ears but your own, and
+which displayed the conflict which was raging between your natural
+goodness and your imperial duties. Your pr&aelig;fect Burrus<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>, an
+excellent man who was born to be the servant of such an emperor as you
+are, was about to order two brigands to be executed, and was pressing
+you to write their names and the grounds on which they were to be put
+to death; this had often been put off, and he was insisting that it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>should then be done. When he reluctantly produced the document and
+put it in your equally reluctant hands, you exclaimed: "Would that I
+had never learned my letters!" O what a speech, how worthy to be heard
+by all nations, both those who dwell within the Roman Empire, those
+who enjoy a debatable independence upon its borders, and those who
+either in will or in deed fight against it! It is a speech which ought
+to be spoken before a meeting of all mankind, whose words all kings
+and princes ought to swear to and obey: a speech worthy of the days of
+human innocence, and worthy to bring back that golden age. Now in
+truth we ought all to agree to love righteousness and goodness,
+covetousness, which is the root of all evil, ought to be driven away,
+piety and virtue, good faith and modesty ought to resume their
+interrupted reign, and the vices which have so long and so shamefully
+ruled us ought at last to give way to an age of happiness and purity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IVb" id="IVb"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PILOT<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></h3>
+<p>A tempest and storme hurt a Pilot, but notwithstanding they make him
+not worse. Certaine Stoicks do thus answer against this, that a Pilot
+is made worse by a tempest and by a storme, because that thing which
+he had purposed he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>cannot effect, nor keep on his course. Worse is he
+made, not in his skill, but in his work. To whom the Aristotelian:
+therefore, saith he, pouertie and dolour, and what soeuer such like
+thing there shall be, shall not take vertue from him, but shall hinder
+his working thereof.</p>
+
+<p>This were rightly said, except the condition of a Pilot and of a
+wise-man were unlike. For the purpose of him is in leading his life,
+not without faile to effect that which he assayeth to doe, but to doe
+all things aright. It is the purpose of the Pilot, without faile to
+bring a ship into a hauen. They be seruile arts, they ought to
+performe that which they promise. Wisedome is mistresse and
+gouernesse. The arts doe serve to, wisedome commandeth our life. I
+judge that we must answere after another sort, namely that neyther the
+skill of the gouernour is made worse by any tempest, nor yet the very
+administration of art. The gouernour hath not promised prosperous
+successe unto thee, but his profitable endeuour, and skill to gouerne
+the ship. This appeareth the more, by how much the more some force of
+fortune hath hindered him. He that hath beene able to say this, O
+Neptune, this ship was neuer but right, hath satisfied skill. A
+tempest hindereth not the work of a pilot, but the successe.</p>
+
+<p>What therefore sayeth thou? Doth not that thing hurt a Pilot, which
+hindereth him from entring the Port? Which causeth his endeuours to be
+vaine? Which eyther beareth him back, or detaineth and disarmeth him?
+It hurteth him not as Pilot, but as one that doth saile. Otherwise it
+doth not so much hinder, as shew the Pilot's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> skill. For euery one
+can, as they say, be a pilot in the calme. These things hinder the
+ship; not a pilot as he is a pilot. Two persons a pilot hath; the one
+common with all who haue gone aboard the same ship, wherein he
+himselfe also is a passenger; the other proper as he is gouernour. The
+tempest hurteth him as he is a passenger not as a Pilot. Furthermore
+the art of a Pilot is another good, it appertaineth to those whom he
+carrieth: as the art of a Physitian appertaineth to those whom he doth
+cure. Wisedome is a common good; and is proper to ownes selfe, for
+those with whom he doth liue. Therefore peraduenture a Pilot is hurt,
+whose promised seruice to others is let by a tempest.</p>
+
+<p>A wise man is not hurt by pouertie, nor by doulour, nor by other
+tempests of life. For not all workes of him be hindered, but only
+those that pertain to other men; alwayes is he himself indeed, the
+greatest of all, when fortune hath opposed herselfe unto him, then
+manageth he the businesse of wisdome itselfe: which wisdome we haue
+said to be both anothers and his owne good. Furthermore not then
+indeed is he hindered to profite other men, when some necessities do
+presse him. Through pouertie he is hindred to teach, how a
+Commonwealth may be managed: but he teacheth that thing, how pouertie
+is to be managed. His worke is extended all his life long. Thus no
+fortune, no thing excludeth the acts of a wise-man. For he doth not
+that verie thing, whereby he is forbidden to do other things. He is
+fit for both chances: a gouernour of the bad, an ouercommer of the
+good. So I say hath he exercised himselfe, that he sheweth vertue as
+well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> in prosperous as in aduerse affaires; neyther looketh he upon
+the matter thereof, but upon itselfe. Therefore neither pouerty nor
+doulour, nor any other thing which turneth back the unskilfull, and
+driuest them headlong, hindereth them. Hast thou rather he should be
+pressed? He maketh use of it. Not only of iuorie did Phidias know how
+to make images: he made them of brasse. If marble were unto him, if
+thou hadst offered baser matter, he would haue made such a one
+thereof, as could be made of that which was the best.</p>
+
+<p>So a wise-man will show uertue, if he may, in wealth, if not in
+pouertie: if he shall be able, in his countrie; if not in banishment;
+if he can, being a commander; if not, being a souldier: if he can
+being sound; if not, being weaker what fortune soeuer he shall
+entertaine, he will performe some memorable thing thereby. Certain
+tamers there be of wild beasts, who teach the fiercest creatures, and
+which terrifie a man when they meet him, to suffer the yoake: and not
+wanted to have shaken fiercenesse off, do tame them, euer to keep them
+companie. The master useth often to thrust out his hand to Lions; they
+kisse it. The keeper commandeth his tyger; the Ethiopian Player
+commandeth his elephants to fall upon their knees, and to walke upon a
+rope; so a wise-man is skilfull to subdue euil things. Dolour,
+pouertie, ignominie, prison, banishment, when they come unto him, are
+made tame.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>OF A HAPPY LIFE<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></h3>
+<p>All men, brother Gallio, wish to live happily, but are dull at
+perceiving exactly what it is that makes life happy: and so far is it
+from being easy to attain to happiness that the more eagerly a man
+struggles to reach it the further he departs from it, if he takes the
+wrong road; for, since this leads in the opposite direction, his very
+swiftness carries him all the further away. We must therefore first
+define clearly what it is at which we aim: next we must consider by
+what path we may most speedily reach it, for on our journey itself,
+provided it be made in the right direction, we shall learn how much
+progress we have made each day, and how much nearer we are to the goal
+toward which our natural desires urge us. But as long as we wander at
+random, not following any guide except the shouts and discordant
+clamors of those who invite us to proceed in different directions, our
+short life will be wasted in useless roamings, even if we labor both
+day and night to get a good understanding. Let us not therefore decide
+whither we must tend, and by what path, without the advice of some
+experienced person who has explored the region which we are about to
+enter, because this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>journey is not subject to the same conditions as
+others; for in them some distinctly understood track and inquiries
+made of the natives make it impossible for us to go wrong, but here
+the most beaten and frequented tracks are those which lead us astray.
+Nothing, therefore, is more important than that we should not, like
+sheep, follow the flock that has gone before us, and thus proceed not
+whither we ought, but whither the rest are going....</p>
+
+<p>True wisdom consists in not departing from nature and in molding our
+conduct according to her laws and model. A happy life, therefore, is
+one which is in accordance with its own nature, and can not be brought
+about unless in the first place the mind be sound and vigorous,
+enduring all things with most admirable courage suited to the times in
+which it lives, careful of the body and its appurtenances, yet not
+troublesomely careful. It must also set due value upon all the things
+which adorn our lives, without overestimating any one of them, and
+must be able to enjoy the bounty of Fortune without becoming her
+slave....</p>
+
+<p>A happy life consists in a mind which is free, upright, undaunted, and
+stedfast beyond the influence of fear or desire, which thinks nothing
+good except honor, and nothing bad except shame, and regards
+everything else as a mass of mean details which can neither add
+anything to nor take anything away from the happiness of life, but
+which come and go without either increasing or diminishing the highest
+good? A man of these principles, whether he will or no, must be
+accompanied by a continual cheerfulness, a high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> happiness, which
+comes indeed from on high because he delights in what he has, and
+desires no greater pleasures than those which his home affords. Is he
+not right in allowing these to turn the scale against petty,
+ridiculous, and short-lived movements of his wretched body? on the day
+on which he becomes proof against pleasure he also becomes proof
+against pain. See, on the other hand, how evil and guilty a slavery a
+man is forced to serve who is dominated in turn by pleasures and
+pains, those most untrustworthy and passionate of masters. We must,
+therefore, escape from them into freedom. This nothing will bestow
+upon us save contempt of Fortune; but if we attain to this, then there
+will dawn upon us those invaluable blessings, the repose of a mind
+that is at rest in a safe haven, its lofty imaginings, its great and
+steady delight at casting out errors and learning to know the truth,
+its courtesy and its cheerfulness, in all of which we shall take
+delight, not regarding them as good things, but as proceeding from the
+proper good of man....</p>
+
+<p>Why do you put together two things which are unlike and even
+incompatible one with another? virtue is a lofty quality, sublime,
+royal, unconquerable, untiring: pleasure is low, slavish, weakly,
+perishable; its haunts and homes are the brothel and the tavern. You
+will meet virtue in the temple, the market-place, the senate-house,
+manning the walls, covered with dust, sunburnt, horny-handed: you will
+find pleasure skulking out of sight, seeking for shady nooks at the
+public baths, hot chambers, and places which dread the visits of the
+&aelig;dile, soft, effeminate, reeking of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> wine and perfumes, pale or
+perhaps painted and made up with cosmetics. The highest good is
+immortal: it knows no ending, and does not admit of either satiety or
+regret: for a right-thinking mind never alters or becomes hateful to
+itself, nor do the best things ever undergo any change: but pleasure
+dies at the very moment when it charms us most: it has no great scope,
+and therefore it soon cloys and wearies us, and fades away as soon as
+its first impulse is over: indeed, we can not depend upon anything
+whose nature is to change. Consequently, it is not even possible that
+there should be any solid substance in that which comes and goes so
+swiftly and which perishes by the very exercise of its own functions,
+for it arrives at a point at which it ceases to be, and even while it
+is beginning always keeps its end in view....</p>
+
+<p>A man should be unbiassed and not to be conquered by external things:
+he ought to admire himself alone, to feel confidence in his own
+spirit, and so to order his life as to be ready alike for good or bad
+fortune. Let not his confidence be without knowledge, nor his
+knowledge without stedfastness: let him always abide by what he has
+once determined, and let there be no erasure in his doctrine. It will
+be understood, even tho I append it not, that such a man will be
+tranquil and composed in his demeanor, high-minded and courteous in
+his actions. Let reason be encouraged by the senses to seek for the
+truth, and draw its first principles from thence: indeed it has no
+other base of operations or place from which to start in pursuit of
+truth: it must fall back upon itself. Even the all-embracing universe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+and God who is its guide extends Himself forth into outward things,
+and yet altogether returns from all sides back to Himself. Let our
+mind do the same thing: when, following its bodily senses, it has by
+means of them sent itself forth into the things of the outward world,
+let it remain still their master and its own. By this means we shall
+obtain a strength and an ability which are united and allied together;
+we shall derive from it that reason which never halts between two
+opinions, nor is dull in forming its perceptions, beliefs, or
+convictions. Such a mind, when it has ranged itself in order, made its
+various parts agree together, and, if I may so express myself,
+harmonized them, has attained to the highest good: for it has nothing
+evil or hazardous remaining, nothing to shake it or make it stumble:
+it will do everything under the guidance of its own will, and nothing
+unexpected will befall it, but whatever may be done by it will turn
+out well, and that, too, readily and easily, without the doer having
+recourse to any underhand devices: for slow and hesitating purpose.
+You may, then, boldly declare that the highest good is singleness of
+mind: for where agreement and unity are, there must the virtues be: it
+is the vices that are at war with one another....</p>
+
+<p>It is the act of the generous spirit to proportion its efforts not to
+its own strength, but to that of human nature, to entertain lofty
+aims, and to conceive plans which are too vast to be carried into
+execution even by those who are endowed with gigantic intellects, who
+appoint for themselves the following rules: "I will look upon death or
+upon a comedy with the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> expression of countenance: I will submit
+to labors, however great they may be, supporting the strength of my
+body by that of my mind: I will despise riches when I have them as
+much as when I have them not; if they be elsewhere I will not be more
+gloomy, if they sparkle around me I will not be more lively than I
+should otherwise be: whether Fortune comes or goes I will take no
+notice of her: I will view all lands as tho they belonged to me, and
+my own as tho they belonged to all mankind: I will so live as to
+remember that I was born for others, and will thank Nature on this
+account: for in what fashion could she have done better for me? she
+has given me alone to all, and all to me alone. Whatever I may
+possess, I will neither hoard it greedily nor squander it recklessly.
+I will think that I have no possessions so real as those which I have
+given away to deserving people: I will not reckon benefits by their
+magnitude or number, or by anything except the value set upon them by
+the receiver: I never will consider a gift to be a large one if it be
+bestowed upon a worthy object. I will do nothing because of public
+opinion, but everything because of conscience: whenever I do anything
+alone by myself I will believe that the eyes of the Roman people are
+upon me while I do it. In eating and drinking my object shall be to
+quench the desires of Nature, not to fill and empty my belly. I will
+be agreeable with my friends, gentle and mild to my foes: I will grant
+pardon before I am asked for it, and will meet the wishes of honorable
+men half-way. I will bear in mind that, the world is my native city,
+that its governors are the gods,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> and that they stand above and around
+me, criticizing whatever I do or say. Whenever either Nature demands
+my breath again, or reason bids me dismiss it, I will quit this life,
+calling all to witness that I have loved a good conscience, and good
+pursuits; that no one's freedom, my own least of all, has been
+impaired through me." He who sets up these as the rules of his life
+will soar aloft and strive to make his way to the gods: of a truth,
+even tho he fails, yet he</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fails in a high emprise."</p></div>
+
+<p>But you, who hate both virtue and those who practise it, do nothing at
+which we need be surprized, for sickly lights can not bear the sun,
+nocturnal creatures avoid the brightness of day, and at its first
+dawning become bewildered and all betake themselves to their dens
+together: creatures that fear the light hide themselves in crevices.
+So croak away, and exercise your miserable tongues in reproaching good
+men: open wide your jaws, bite hard: you will break many teeth before
+you make any impression....</p>
+
+<p>Where, indeed, can fortune invest riches more securely than in a place
+from whence they can always be recovered without any squabble with
+their trustee? Marcus Cato, when he was praising Curius and
+Coruncanius and that century in which the possession of a few small
+silver coins were an offense which was punished by the Censor, himself
+owned four million sesterces; a less fortune, no doubt, than that of
+Crassus, but larger than of Cato the Censor. If the amounts be
+compared, he had outstript his great-grandfather further than he
+himself was outdone by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> Crassus, and if still greater riches had
+fallen to his lot, he would not have spurned them, for the wise man
+does not think himself unworthy of any chance presents: he does not
+love riches, but he prefers to have them; he does not receive them
+into his spirit, but only into his house: nor does he cast away from
+him what he already possesses, but keeps them, and is willing that his
+virtue should receive a larger subject-matter for its exercise....</p>
+
+<p>Cease, then, forbidding philosophers to possess money: no one has
+condemned wisdom to poverty. The philosopher may own ample wealth, but
+will not own wealth that which has been torn from another, or which is
+stained with another's blood: his must be obtained without wronging
+any man, and without its being won by base means; it must be alike
+honorably come by and honorably spent, and must be such as spite could
+alone shake its head at. Raise it to whatever figure you please, it
+will still be an honorable possession, if, while it includes much
+which every man would like to call his own, there be nothing which any
+one can say is his own. Such a man will not forfeit his right to the
+favor of Fortune, and will neither boast of his inheritance nor blush
+for it if it was honorably acquired; yet he will have something to
+boast of, if he throw his house open, let all his countrymen come
+among his property, and say, "If any one recognizes here anything
+belonging to him, let him take it." What a great man, how excellently
+rich will he be, if after this speech he possesses as much as he had
+before! I say, then, that if he can safely and confidently submit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> his
+accounts to the scrutiny of the people, and no one can find in them
+any item upon which he can lay hands, such a man may boldly and
+unconcealedly enjoy his riches. The wise man will not allow a single
+ill-won penny to cross his threshold; yet he will not refuse or close
+his door against great riches, if they are the gift of fortune and the
+product of virtue: what reason has he for grudging them good quarters:
+let them come and be his guests: he will neither brag of them nor hide
+them away: the one is the part of a silly, the other of a cowardly and
+paltry spirit, which, as it were, muffles up a good thing in its lap.
+As he is capable of performing a journey upon his own feet, but yet
+would prefer to mount a carriage, just so he will be capable of being
+poor, yet will wish to be rich; he will own wealth, but will view it
+as an uncertain possession which will some day fly away from him. He
+will not allow it to be a burden either to himself or to any one else:
+he will give it&mdash;why do you prick up your ears? why do you open your
+pockets?&mdash;he will give it either to good men or to those whom it may
+make into good men. He will give it after having taken the utmost
+pains to choose those who are fittest to receive it, as becomes one
+who bears in mind that he ought to give an account of what he spends
+as well as of what he receives. He will give for good and commendable
+reasons, for a gift ill bestowed counts as a shameful loss: he will
+have an easily opened pocket, but not one with a hole in it, so that
+much may be taken out of it, yet nothing may fall out of it.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Seneca's influence on writers in his own day was
+notable. He seems almost to have superseded Cicero as a model. Critics
+of our day, while recognizing all this and the charm of his style,
+have found in his philosophy a lack of sincere qualities. An old
+question is that of his relations to Christianity. So much in his
+writings partakes of the spirit of the Apostles that he has been
+credited with having been influenced by them. It is known that his
+brother Gallio met St. Paul in Corinth and that Burrus, the colleague
+and intimate friend of Seneca, was the captain of the Pr&aelig;torian guards
+before whom St. Paul was brought in Rome. Cruttwell dismisses the
+claim, believing that Seneca's philosophy was "the natural development
+of the thoughts of his predecessors in a mind at once capacious and
+smitten with the love of virtue." Philosophy to Seneca was "altogether
+a question of practise." Like other thinkers of his day, "he cared
+nothing for consistency of opinion, everything for impressiveness of
+application."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> From Book II of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Quintilius Fabius, the general, who before the battle of
+Cann&aelig; commanded in Italy against Hannibal. He was famous for avoiding
+pitched battles and hence the term "Fabian policy."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> From Book VI of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart. Marcia, to whom this letter was addrest, was "a respectable
+and opulent lady," the daughter of Cremutius Cordus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Made Consul with Julius C&aelig;sar in 59 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> He represented
+the aristocratic party and bitterly opposed some of the measures of
+C&aelig;sar. In the war with Pompey he joined his forces to those of
+Pompey.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> A legendary maiden delivered as hostage to Lars Porsena
+of Clusium, but who escaped by swimming across the Tiber.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Marcus Livius Drusus was a politician, who in 91 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>
+became tribune of the plebs. He was about to bring forward a proposal
+giving citizenship to the Italians when he was assassinated, an event
+which precipitated the Social War.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> From the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart.
+"This," says Alexander Thomson, the eighteenth-century translator of
+Suetonius, "appears to have been written in the beginning of the reign
+of Nero, on whom the author bestows some high encomiums which at that
+time seem not to have been destitute of foundation."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Burrus in 52 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> had been made sole Pr&aelig;torian Pr&aelig;fect
+by Claudius and, conjointly with Seneca, was entrusted with the
+education of Nero. It was his influence with the Pr&aelig;torian Guards that
+secured to Nero in 54 the independent succession. He was put to death
+by poison, under orders from Nero, who had been offended by the
+severity of his moral conduct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge. Printed
+here with the spelling and punctuation of the first edition (1613).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> From Book VII of the "Minor Essays." Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart. This essay addrest to Gallio, Seneca is thought to
+have intended "as a vindication of himself against those who
+calumniated him on account of his riches and manner of living."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PLINY_THE_ELDER" id="PLINY_THE_ELDER"></a>PLINY THE ELDER</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Como, in 23 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; perished in the eruption of
+Vesuvius in 79; celebrated as naturalist; commanded cavalry
+in Germany at the age of twenty-three; procurator in Spain
+under Nero; wrote voluminously on military tactics, history,
+grammar and natural science; his death due to his efforts to
+observe more closely the eruption; of all his writings only
+his "Natural History" in thirty-seven books has survived.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ie" id="Ie"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE QUALITIES OF THE DOG<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></h3>
+<p>Among the animals that are domesticated with mankind there are many
+circumstances that are deserving of being known: among these there are
+more particularly that most faithful friend of man, the dog, and the
+horse. We have an account of a dog that fought against a band of
+robbers in defending its master; and altho it was pierced with wounds,
+still it would not leave the body, from which it drove away all birds
+and beasts. Another dog, in Epirus, recognized the murderer of its
+master in the midst of an assemblage of people, and, by biting and
+barking at him, extorted from him a confession of his crime. A king of
+the Garamantes,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> also, was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>brought back from exile by two hundred
+dogs, which maintained the combat against all his opponents. The
+people of Colophon<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> and Castabala<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> kept troops of dogs for the
+purposes of war; and these used to fight in the front rank and never
+retreat; they were the most faithful of auxiliaries, and yet required
+no pay. After the defeat of the Cimbri<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> their dogs defended their
+movable houses, which were carried upon wagons. Jason, the Lycian,
+having been slain, his dog refused to take food, and died of famine. A
+dog, to which Darius gives the name of Hyrcanus, upon the funeral pile
+of King Lysimachus being lighted, threw itself into the flames; and
+the dog of King Hiero<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> did the same. Philistus also gives a similar
+account of Pyrrhus, the dog of the tyrant Gelon; and it is said also,
+that the dog of Nicomedes, King of Bithynia<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>, tore Consingis, the
+wife of that king, in consequence of her wanton behavior, when toying
+with her husband.</p>
+
+<p>Dogs are the only animals that are sure to know their masters, and if
+they suddenly meet him as a stranger, they will instantly recognize
+him. They are the only animals that will answer to their names, and
+recognize the voices of the family. They recollect a road along which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>they have passed, however long it may be. Next to man there is no
+living creature whose memory is so retentive. By sitting down on the
+ground we may arrest their most impetuous attack, even when prompted
+by the most violent rage.</p>
+
+<p>In daily life, we have discovered many other valuable qualities in
+this animal; but its intelligence and sagacity are more especially
+shown in the chase. It discovers and traces out the tracks of the
+animal, leading by the leash the sportsman who accompanies it straight
+up to the prey; and as soon as ever it has perceived it, how silent it
+is, and how secret but significant is the indication which it gives,
+first by the tail and afterward by the nose!</p>
+
+<p>When Alexander the Great was on his Indian expedition, he was
+presented by the King of Albania with a dog of unusual size; being
+greatly delighted with its noble appearance, he ordered bears, and
+after them wild boars, and then deer, to be let loose before it; but
+the dog lay down and regarded them with a kind of immovable contempt.
+The noble spirit of the general became irritated by the sluggishness
+thus manifested by an animal of such vast bulk, and he ordered it to
+be killed. The report of this reached the king, who accordingly sent
+another dog, and at the same time sent word that its powers were to be
+tried, not upon small animals, but upon the lion or the elephant;
+adding, that he had originally but two, and that if this one were put
+to death, the race would be extinct. Alexander, without delay,
+procured a lion, which in his presence was instantly torn to pieces.
+He then ordered an elephant to be brought, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> never was he more
+delighted with any spectacle; for the dog, bristling up its hair all
+over the body, began by thundering forth a loud barking, and then
+attacked the animal, leaping at it first on the one side and then on
+the other, attacking it in the most skilful manner, and then again
+retreating at the opportune moment, until at last the elephant, being
+rendered quite giddy by turning round and round, fell to the earth,
+and made it quite reecho with its fall.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIe" id="IIe"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THREE GREAT ARTISTS OF GREECE<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></h3>
+<p>Apelles,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> of Cos, surpassed all the other painters who either
+preceded or succeeded him. Single-handed, he contributed more to
+painting than all the others together, and even went so far as to
+publish some treatises on the principles of the art. The great point
+of artistic merit with him was his singular charm of gracefulness, and
+this too, tho the greatest of painters were his contemporaries. In
+admiring their works and bestowing high eulogiums upon them, he used
+to say that there was still wanting in them that equal of beauty so
+peculiar to himself, and known to the Greeks as "Charis"; others, he
+said, had acquired all the other requisites of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>perfection, but in
+this one point he himself had no equal. He also asserted his claim to
+another great point of merit; admiring a picture by Protogenes, which
+bore evident marks of unbounded laboriousness and the most minute
+finish, he remarked that in every respect Protogenes was fully his
+equal, or perhaps his superior, except in this, that he himself knew
+when to take his hand off a picture&mdash;a memorable lesson, which teaches
+us that over-carefulness may be productive of bad results. His candor,
+too, was equal to his talent; he acknowledged the superiority of
+Melanthius<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> in his grouping, and of Asclepiodorus in the niceness
+of his measurements, or in other words, the distances that ought to be
+left between the objects represented.</p>
+
+<p>A circumstance that happened to him in connection with Protogenes<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+is worthy of notice. The latter was living at Rhodes, when Apelles
+disembarked there, desirous of seeing the works of a man whom he had
+hitherto only known by reputation. Accordingly, he repaired at once to
+the studio; Protogenes was not at home, but there happened to be a
+large panel upon the easel ready for painting, with an old woman who
+was left in charge. To his inquiries she made answer that Protogenes
+was not at home; and then asked whom she should name as the visitor.
+"Here he is," was the reply of Apelles; and seizing a brush, he traced
+with color upon the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>panel an outline of a singularly minute fineness.
+Upon his return the old woman mentioned to Protogenes what had
+happened. The artist, it is said, upon remarking the delicacy of the
+touch, instantly exclaimed that Apelles must have been the visitor,
+for that no other person was capable of executing anything so
+exquisitely perfect. So saying, he traced within the same outline a
+still finer outline, but with another color; and then took his
+departure, with instructions to the woman to show it to the stranger
+if he returned, and to let him know that this was the person whom he
+had come to see.</p>
+
+<p>It happened as he anticipated&mdash;Apelles returned; and vexed at finding
+himself thus surpassed, he took up another color and split both of the
+outlines, leaving no possibility of anything finer being executed.
+Upon seeing this, Protogenes admitted that he was defeated, and at
+once flew to the harbor to look for his guest. He thought proper, too,
+to transmit the panel to posterity, just as it was; and it always
+continued to be held in the highest admiration by all&mdash;artists in
+particular. I am told that it was burned in the first fire which took
+place at C&aelig;sar's palace on the Palatine Hill; but in former times I
+have often stopt to admire it. Upon its vast surface it contained
+nothing whatever except the three outlines, so remarkably fine as to
+escape the sight: among the most elaborate works of numerous other
+artists it had all the appearance of a blank space; and yet by that
+very fact it attracted the notice of every one, and was held in higher
+estimation than any other painting there.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was a custom with Apelles, to which he most tenaciously adhered,
+never to let any day pass, however busy he might be, without
+exercising himself by tracing some outline or other; a practise which
+has now passed into a proverb. It was also a practise with him, when
+he had completed a work, to exhibit it to the view of the passers-by
+in some exposed place; while he himself, concealed behind the picture,
+would listen to the criticisms that were passed upon it: it being his
+opinion that the judgment of the public was preferable to his own, as
+being the more discerning of the two. It was under these
+circumstances, they say, that he was censured by a shoemaker for
+having represented the shoes with one shoe-string too little. The next
+day, the shoemaker, quite proud at seeing the former error corrected,
+thanks to his advice, began to criticize the leg; upon which Apelles,
+full of indignation, popped his head out, and reminded him that a
+shoemaker should give no opinion beyond the shoes&mdash;a piece of advice
+which has equally passed into a proverbial saying. In fact, Apelles
+was a person of great amenity of manners&mdash;a circumstance which
+rendered him particularly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who would
+often come to his studio. He had forbidden himself by public edict, as
+already stated, to be represented by any other artist. On one
+occasion, however, when the prince was in his studio, talking a great
+deal about painting without knowing anything about it, Apelles quietly
+begged that he would quit the subject, telling him that he would get
+laughed at by the boys who were there grinding the colors; so great
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> the influence which he rightfully possest over a monarch who was
+otherwise of an irascible temperament. And yet, irascible as he was,
+Alexander conferred upon him a very signal mark of the high estimation
+in which he held him: for having, in his admiration of her
+extraordinary beauty, engaged Apelles to paint Pancaste undraped&mdash;the
+most beloved of all his concubines&mdash;the artist while so engaged fell
+in love with her; upon which, Alexander, perceiving this to be the
+ease, made him a present of her: thus showing himself, tho a great
+king in courage, a still greater one in self-command&mdash;this action
+redounding no less to his honor than any of his victories.</p>
+
+<p>Superior to all the statues not only of Praxiteles,<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> but of any
+other artist that ever existed, is his Cnidian Venus; for the
+inspection of which, many persons before now have purposely undertaken
+a voyage to Cnidos. The artist made two statues of the goddess, and
+offered them both for sale: one of them was represented with drapery,
+and for this reason was preferred by the people of Cos, who had the
+choice; the second was offered them at the same price, but on the
+grounds of propriety and modesty they thought fit to choose the other.
+Upon this, the Cnidians purchased the rejected statue, and immensely
+superior has it always been held in general estimation. At a later
+period, King Nicomedes wished to purchase this statue of the Cnidians,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>and made them an offer to pay off the whole of their public debt,
+which was very large. They preferred, however, to submit to any
+extremity rather than part with it; and with good reason, for by this
+statue Praxiteles has perpetuated the glory of Cnidos. The little
+temple in which it is placed is open on all sides, so that the
+beauties of the statue admit of being seen from every point of
+view&mdash;an arrangement which was favored by the goddess herself, it is
+generally believed.</p>
+
+<p>Among all nations which the fame of the Olympian Jupiter has reached,
+Phidias<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> is looked upon, beyond all doubt, as the most famous of
+artists; but to let those who have never seen his works know how
+deservedly he is esteemed, we will take this opportunity of adducing a
+few slight proofs of the genius which he displayed. In doing this we
+shall not appeal to the beauty of his Olympian Jupiter, nor yet to the
+vast proportions of his Athenian Minerva, six-and-twenty cubits in
+height, and composed of ivory and gold: but it is to the shield of
+this last statue that we shall draw attention; upon the convex face of
+which he has chased a combat of the Amazons, while upon the concave
+side of it he has represented the battle between the gods and the
+giants. Upon the sandals, again, we see the wars of the Lapith&aelig; and
+Centaurs; so careful has he been to fill every smallest portion of his
+work with some proof or other of his artistic skill.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> A name applied to tribes living in Africa east of the
+desert of Sahara.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> An Ionian city of Asia, distant seventy miles from
+Ephesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> An interior town of Cilicia, in Asia Minor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> The home of this warlike people appears to have been
+Jutland.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The tyrant king of Syracuse, successor to Gelon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> A country of Asia Minor occupying a part of the Black
+Sea coast.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Apelles lived in the time of Philip and Alexander the
+Great. Cos is an island in the &AElig;gean Sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> A painter of the Sicyonian school who flourished in the
+third century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Protogenes, a native of Caria, in Asia Minor, was
+celebrated as a painter at Rhodes in the second half of the fourth
+century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Praxiteles was born in Athena about the end of the fifth
+century and continued active as an artist until the time at Alexander
+the Great. Nearly sixty of his works are mentioned in ancient
+writings, but only two have been identified in modern times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Phidias was born in Athens about 500 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> and died about
+430.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="QUINTILIAN" id="QUINTILIAN"></a>QUINTILIAN</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Spain about 35 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; died about 95; celebrated as
+rhetorian; educated in Rome, where he taught oratory for
+twenty years; patronized by the emperors Vespasian and
+Domitian; his most celebrated work the "Institutio
+Oratoria."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="THE_ORATOR_MUST_BE_A_GOOD_MAN" id="THE_ORATOR_MUST_BE_A_GOOD_MAN"></a>THE ORATOR MUST BE A GOOD MAN<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>Let the orator, then, whom I propose to form, be such a one as is
+characterized by the definition of Marcus Cato, <i>a good man skilled in
+speaking</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But the requisite which Cato has placed first in this definition, that
+an orator should be <i>a good man</i>, is naturally of more estimation and
+importance than the other. It is of importance that an orator should
+be good, because, should the power of speaking be a support to evil,
+nothing would be more pernicious than eloquence alike to public
+concerns and private, and I myself, who, as far as is in my power,
+strive to contribute something to the faculty of the orator, should
+deserve very ill of the world, since I should furnish arms, not for
+soldiers, but for robbers. May I not draw an argument from the
+condition of mankind? Nature herself, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>bestowing on man that which
+she seems to have granted him preeminently, and by which she appears
+to have distinguished us from all other animals, would have acted, not
+as a parent, but as a stepmother, if she had designed the faculty of
+speech to be the promoter of crime, the oppressor of innocence, and
+the enemy of truth; for it would have been better for us to have been
+born dumb, and to have been left destitute of reasoning powers, than
+to have received endowments from providence only to turn them to the
+destruction of one another.</p>
+
+<p>My judgment carries me still further; for I not only say that he who
+would answer my idea of an orator must be a good man, but that no man,
+unless he be good, can ever be an orator. To an orator discernment and
+prudence are necessary; but we can certainly not allow discernment to
+those, who when the ways of virtue and vice are set before them,
+prefer to follow that of vice; nor can we allow them prudence, since
+they subject themselves, by the unforeseen consequences of their
+actions, often to the heaviest penalty of the law, and always to that
+of an evil conscience. But if it be not only truly said by the wise,
+but always justly believed by the vulgar, that no man is vicious who
+is not also foolish, a fool, assuredly, will never become an orator.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be further considered that the mind can not be in a condition
+for pursuing the most noble of studies, unless it be entirely free
+from vice; not only because there can be no communion of good and evil
+in the same breast, and to meditate at once on the best things and the
+worst<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> is no more in the power of the same mind than it is possible
+for the same man to be at once virtuous and vicious; but also because
+a mind intent on so arduous a study should be exempt from all other
+cares, even such as are unconnected with vice; for then, and then
+only, when it is free and master of itself, and when no other object
+harasses and distracts its attention, will it be able to keep in view
+the end to which it is devoted. But if an inordinate attention to an
+estate, a too anxious pursuit of wealth, indulgence in the pleasures
+of the chase, and the devotion of our days to public spectacles, rob
+our studies of much of our time (for whatever time is given to one
+thing is lost to another), what effect must we suppose that ambition,
+avarice, and envy will produce, whose excitements are so violent as
+even to disturb our sleep and our dreams? Nothing indeed is so
+preoccupied, so unsettled, so torn and lacerated with such numerous
+and various passions, as a bad mind; for when it intends evil, it is
+agitated with hope, care, and anxiety, and when it has attained the
+object of its wickedness, it is tormented with uneasiness, and the
+dread of every kind of punishment.</p>
+
+<p>No man, certainly, will doubt, that it is the object of all oratory,
+that what is stated to the judge may appear to him to be true and
+just; and which of the two, let me ask, will produce such a conviction
+with the greater ease, the good man or the bad? A good man, doubtless,
+will speak of what is true and honest with greater frequency; but even
+if, from being influenced by some call of duty, he endeavors to
+support what is fallacious (a case which, as I shall show,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> may
+sometimes occur), he must still be heard with greater credit than a
+bad man. But with bad men, on the other hand, dissimulation sometimes
+fails, as well through their contempt for the opinion of mankind, as
+through their ignorance of what is right; hence they assert without
+modesty, and maintain their assertions without shame; and, in
+attempting what evidently can not be accomplished, there appears in
+them a repulsive obstinacy and useless perseverance; for bad men, as
+well in their pleadings as in their lives, entertain dishonest
+expectations; and it often happens, that even when they speak the
+truth, belief is not accorded them, and the employment of advocates of
+such a character is regarded as a proof of the badness of a cause.</p>
+
+<p>I must, however, notice those objections to my opinion, which appear
+to be clamored forth, as it were, by the general consent of the
+multitude. Was not then Demosthenes, they ask, a great orator? yet we
+have heard that he was not a good man. Was not Cicero a great orator?
+yet many have thrown censure upon his character. To such questions how
+shall I answer? Great displeasure is likely to be shown at any reply
+whatever; and the ears of my audience require first to be propitiated.
+The character of Demosthenes, let me say, does not appear to me
+deserving of such severe reprehension, that I should believe all the
+calumnies that are heaped upon him by his enemies, especially when I
+read his excellent plans for the benefit of his country and the
+honorable termination of his life. Nor do I see that the feeling of an
+upright citizen was, in any respect, wanting to Cicero. As proofs of
+his integrity,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> may be mentioned his consulship, in which he conducted
+himself with so much honor, his honorable administration of his
+province; his refusal to be one of the twenty commissioners; and,
+during the civil wars, which fell with great severity on his times,
+his uprightness of mind, which was never swayed, either by hope or by
+fear, from adhering to the better party, or the supporters of the
+commonwealth. He is thought by some to have been deficient in courage,
+but he has given an excellent reply to this charge, when he says that
+he was timid, not in encountering dangers, but in taking precautions
+against them; an assertion of which he proved the truth at his death,
+to which he submitted with the noblest fortitude. But even should the
+height of virtue have been wanting to these eminent men, I shall reply
+to those who ask me whether they were orators as the Stoics reply when
+they are asked whether Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus were wise men;
+they say that they were great and deserving of veneration, but that
+they did not attain the highest excellence of which human nature is
+susceptible.</p>
+
+<p>Pythagoras desired to be called, not wise, like those who preceded
+him, but a lover of wisdom. I, however, in speaking of Cicero, have
+often said, according to the common mode of speech, and shall continue
+to say, that he was a perfect orator, as we term our friends, in
+ordinary discourse, good and prudent men, tho such epithets can be
+justly given only to the perfectly wise. But when I have to speak
+precisely, and in conformity with the exactness of truth, I shall
+express myself as longing to see such an orator<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> as he himself also
+longed to see; for tho I acknowledge that Cicero stood at the head of
+eloquence, and that I can scarcely find a passage in his speeches to
+which anything can be added, however many I might find which I may
+imagine that he would have pruned (for the learned have in general
+been of opinion that he had numerous excellences and some faults, and
+he himself says that he had cut off most of his juvenile exuberance),
+yet, since he did not claim to himself, tho he had no mean opinion of
+his merits, the praise of perfection, and since he might certainly
+have spoken better if a longer life had been granted him, and a more
+tranquil season for composition, I may not unreasonably believe that
+the summit of excellence was not attained by him, to which,
+notwithstanding, no man made nearer approaches. If I had thought
+otherwise, I might have maintained my opinion with still greater
+determination and freedom. Did Marcus Antonius declare that he had
+seen no man truly eloquent, tho to be eloquent is much less than to be
+a perfect orator; does Cicero himself say that he is still seeking for
+an orator, and merely conceives and imagines one; and shall I fear to
+say that in that portion of eternity which is yet to come something
+may arise still more excellent than what has yet been seen? I take no
+advantage of the opinion of those who refuse to allow great merit to
+Cicero and Demosthenes even in eloquence; tho Demosthenes, indeed,
+does not appear sufficiently near perfection even to Cicero himself,
+who says that he sometimes nods; nor does Cicero appear so to Brutus
+and Calvus, who certainly find fault with his language.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Quintilian is notable as a writer who was not influenced
+by his great contemporary Seneca, whom he disliked and harshly
+criticized for literary defects. Quintilian modeled his own style on
+that of Cicero, altho at times he dropt back unconsciously into that
+of Seneca.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> From Book XII, Chapter I, of the "Institutes of
+Oratory." Translated by J. S. Watson.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="TACITUS" id="TACITUS"></a>TACITUS</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born about 55 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; died about 117; celebrated as historian
+and orator; pr&aelig;tor in 88; Consul in 97; a friend of the
+younger Pliny; son-in-law of Agricola; his extant works
+include a dialog of oratory, a biography of Agricola,
+"Germania," a history of Rome from Galba to Domitian, and
+his "Annals," which are a history of the Julian
+dynasty.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="If" id="If"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM REPUBLICAN TO IMPERIAL ROME<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></h3>
+<p>Kings held dominion in the city of Rome from its foundation: Lucius
+Brutus instituted liberty and the consulate. Dictatorships were
+resorted to in temporary emergencies: neither the power of the
+decemvirs continued in force beyond two years, nor the consular
+authority of the military tribunes for any length of time. The
+domination of Cinna did not continue long, nor that of Sulla: the
+influence of Pompey and Crassus quickly merged in C&aelig;sar: the arms of
+Lepidus and Antony in Augustus, who, with the title of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>prince, took
+under his command the commonwealth, exhausted with civil dissensions.
+But the affairs of the ancient Roman people, whether prosperous or
+adverse, have been recorded by writers of renown. Nor were there
+wanting authors of distinguished genius to have composed the history
+of the times of Augustus, till by the spirit of flattery, which became
+prevalent, they were deterred. As to Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
+Nero, whilst they yet reigned the histories of their times were
+falsified through fear; and after they had fallen, they were written
+under the influence of recent detestation. Thence my own design of
+recounting a few incidents respecting Augustus, and those toward the
+latter part of his life; and, after that, of giving a history of the
+reign of Tiberius and the rest; uninfluenced by resentment and
+partiality, as I stand aloof from the causes of them.</p>
+
+<p>When, after the fall of Brutus and Cassius, there remained none to
+fight for the commonwealth; when Sextus Pompeius was utterly defeated
+at Sicily; and Lepidus being deprived of his command, and Mark Antony
+slain, there remained no leader even to the Julian party but Octavius;
+having put off the name of triumvir, styling himself Consul, and
+pretending that all he aimed at was the jurisdiction attached to the
+tribuneship for the protection of the commons; when he had cajoled the
+soldiery by donations, the people by distribution of corn, and men in
+general by the charms of peace, he (Octavius) began by gradations to
+exalt himself over them; to draw to himself the functions of the
+senate and of the magistrate, and the framing of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> laws; in which
+he was thwarted by no man: the boldest spirits having fallen in some
+or other of the regular battles, or by proscription; and the surviving
+nobility being distinguished by wealth and public honors, according to
+the measure of their promptness to bondage; and as these innovations
+had been the cause of aggrandizement to them, preferring the present
+state of things with safety to the revival of ancient liberty with
+personal peril. Neither were the provinces averse to that condition of
+affairs; since they mistrusted the government of the senate and
+people, on account of the contentions among the great and the avarice
+of the magistrates: while the protection of the laws was enfeebled and
+borne down by violence, intrigue, and bribery.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, Augustus, as supports to his domination, raised his sister's
+son, Claudius Marcellus,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> a mere youth, to the dignity of pontiff
+and curule &aelig;dile; aggrandized by two successive consulships Marcus
+Agrippa,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> a man meanly born, but an accomplished soldier, and the
+companion of his victories; and soon, on the death of Marcellus, chose
+him for his son-in-law. The sons of his wife, Tiberius Nero and
+Claudius Drusus, he dignified with the title of Imperator, tho there
+had been no diminution in the members of his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>house. For into the
+family of the C&aelig;sars he had already adopted Lucius and Caius, the sons
+of Agrippa; and tho they had not yet laid aside the puerile garment,
+vehement had been his ambition to see them declared princes of the
+Roman youth, and even designed to the consulship; while he affected to
+decline the honors for them. Upon the decease of Agrippa, they were
+cut off, either by a death premature but natural, or by the arts of
+their stepmother Livia; Lucius on his journey to the armies in Spain,
+Caius on his return from Armenia, ill of a wound: and as Drusus had
+been long since dead, Tiberius Nero was the only survivor of his
+stepsons. On him every honor was accumulated (to that quarter all
+things inclined); he was by Augustus adopted for his son, assumed
+colleague in the empire, partner in the tribunitian authority, and
+presented to the several armies; not from the secret machinations of
+his mother, as heretofore, but at her open suit For over Augustus, now
+very aged, she had obtained such absolute sway, that he banished into
+the isle of Planasia his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Posthumus; a
+person destitute indeed of liberal accomplishments, and a man of
+clownish brutality with great bodily strength, but convicted of no
+heinous offense. The emperor, strange to say, set Germanicus, the son
+of Drusus, over eight legions quartered upon the Rhine, and ordered
+that he should be engrafted into his family by Tiberius by adoption,
+tho Tiberius had then a son of his own on the verge of manhood; but
+the object was that he might stand firm by having many to support and
+protect him. War at that time there remained none,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> except that in
+Germany, kept on foot rather to blot out the disgrace sustained by the
+loss of Quintilius Varus, with his army, than from any ambition to
+enlarge the empire, or for any advantage worth contending for. In
+profound tranquillity were affairs at Rome. The magistrates retained
+their wonted names; of the Romans, the younger sort had been born
+since the battle of Actium, and even most of the old during the civil
+wars: how few were then living who had seen the ancient free state!</p>
+
+<p>The character of the government thus totally changed; no traces were
+to be found of the spirit of ancient institutions. The system by which
+every citizen shared in the government being thrown aside, all men
+regarded the orders of the prince as the only rule of conduct and
+obedience; nor felt they any anxiety for the present, while Augustus,
+yet in the vigor of life, maintained the credit of himself and house,
+and the peace of the state. But when old age had crept over him, and
+he was sinking under bodily infirmities&mdash;when his end was at hand, and
+thence a new source of hopes and views was presented&mdash;some few there
+were who began to talk idly about the blessings of liberty: many
+dreaded a civil war&mdash;others longed for one; while far the greatest
+part were occupied in circulating various surmises reflecting upon
+those who seemed likely to be their masters: "That Agrippa was
+naturally stern and savage, and exasperated by contumely; and neither
+in age nor experience equal to a task of such magnitude. Tiberius,
+indeed, had arrived at fulness of years, and was a distinguished
+captain, but possest the inveterate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> and inherent pride of the
+Claudian family; and many indications of cruel nature escaped him, in
+spite of all his arts to disguise it; that even from his early infancy
+he had been trained up in an imperial house; that consulships and
+triumphs had been accumulated upon him while but a youth. Not even
+during the years of his abode at Rhodes, where under the plausible
+name of retirement, he was in fact an exile, did he employ himself
+otherwise than in meditating future vengeance, studying the arts of
+simulation, and practising secret and abominable sensualities. That to
+these considerations was added that of his mother, a woman with the
+ungovernable spirit peculiar to her sex; that the Romans must be under
+bondage to a woman, and moreover to two youths, who would meanwhile
+oppress the state, and, at one time or other, rend it piecemeal."</p>
+
+<p>While the public mind was agitated by these and similar discussions,
+the illness of Augustus grew daily more serious, and some suspected
+nefarious practises on the part of his wife. For some months before, a
+rumor had gone abroad that Augustus, having singled out a few to whom
+he communicated his purpose, had taken Fabius Maximus for his only
+companion, had sailed over to the island of Planasia, to visit
+Agrippa; that many tears were shed on both sides, many tokens of
+mutual tenderness shown, and hopes from thence conceived that the
+youth would be restored to the household gods of his grandfather. That
+Maximus had disclosed this to Martia, his wife&mdash;she to Livia; and that
+the emperor was informed of it: and that Maximus, not long after,
+dying (it is doubtful whether naturally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> or by means sought for the
+purpose), Martia was observed, in her lamentations at his funeral, to
+upbraid herself as the cause of her husband's destruction. Howsoever
+that matter might have been, Tiberius was scarce entered Illyrium when
+he was summoned by a letter from his mother, forwarded with speed, nor
+is it fully known whether, at his return to Nola,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> he found
+Augustus yet breathing, or already lifeless. For Livia had carefully
+beset the palace, and all the avenues to it, with vigilant guards; and
+favorable bulletins were from time to time given out, until, the
+provisions which the conjuncture required being completed, in one and
+the same moment were published the departure of Augustus, and the
+accession of Tiberius.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIf" id="IIf"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FUNERAL OF GERMANICUS<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></h3>
+<h3>(19 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>Agrippina,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> continuing her course without the least intermission
+through all the perils and rigors of a sea-voyage in the winter,
+arrived at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>the island Corcyra, situated over against the shores of
+Calabria. Unable to moderate her grief, and impatient from
+inexperience of affliction, she spent a few days there to tranquillize
+her troubled spirit; when, on hearing of her arrival, all the intimate
+friends of her family, and most of the officers who had served under
+Germanicus, with a number of strangers from the neighboring municipal
+towns, some thinking it due as a mark of respect to the prince, but
+the greater part carried along with the current, rushed to the city of
+Brundusium, the readiest port in her way, and the safest landing. As
+soon as the fleet appeared in the deep, instantly were filled, not the
+port alone and adjacent parts of the sea, but the walls and roofs, and
+wherever the most distant prospect could be obtained, with a sorrowing
+multitude, earnestly asking each other "whether they should receive
+her on landing in silence, or with some expression of feeling?" Nor
+was it clearly determined what course would be most suitable to the
+occasion, when the fleet came slowly in, not as usual in sprightly
+trim, but all wearing the impress of sadness. When she descended from
+the ship, accompanied by her two infants,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> and bearing in her hand
+the funeral urn, her eyes fixt stedfastly upon the earth, one
+simultaneous groan burst from the whole assemblage; nor could you
+distinguish relations from strangers, nor the wailings of men from
+those of women; nor could any difference be discerned, except that
+those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>who came to meet her, in the vehemence of recent grief,
+surpassed the attendants of Agrippina, who were exhausted with
+continued mourning.</p>
+
+<p>Tiberius had dispatched two pr&aelig;torian cohorts, with directions that
+the magistrates of Calabria, with Apulians and Campanians, should pay
+their last offices of respect to the memory of his son; upon the
+shoulders, therefore, of the tribunes and centurions his ashes were
+borne; before them were carried the ensigns unadorned, and the fasces
+reversed. As they passed through the colonies, the populace in black,
+the knights in their purple robes, burned precious raiment, perfumes,
+and whatever else is used in funeral solemnities, according to the
+ability of the place; even they whose cities lay remote from the
+route, came forth, offered victims, and erected altars to the gods of
+the departed, and with tears and ejaculations testified their sorrow.
+Drusus came as far as Terracina, with Claudius the brother of
+Germanicus, and those of his children who had been left at Rome.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>
+The Consuls, Marcus Valerius and Marcus Aurelius<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> (for they had
+now entered upon their office), the senate, and great part of the
+people, filled the road&mdash;a scattered procession, each walking and
+expressing his grief as inclination led him; in sooth, flattery was an
+utter stranger here, for all knew how real was the joy, how hollow the
+grief, of Tiberius for the death of Germanicus.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p><p>Tiberius and Livia<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> avoided appearing abroad&mdash;public lamentation
+they thought below their dignity&mdash;or perhaps they apprehended that if
+their countenances were examined by all eyes their hypocrisy would be
+detected. That Antonia, mother to the deceased, bore any part in the
+funeral, I do not find either in the historians or in the journals,
+tho, besides Agrippina and Drusus, and Claudius, his other relations
+are likewise there recorded by name; whether by sickness she was
+prevented, or whether her soul, vanquished by sorrow, could not bear
+to go through the representation of such an over-powering calamity. I
+would rather believe her constrained by Tiberius and Livia, who left
+not the palace, that they might seem to grieve alike and that the
+grandmother and uncle might appear to have followed her example in
+staying at home.</p>
+
+<p>The day on which his remains were deposited in the tomb of Augustus,
+at one time exhibited the silence of perfect desolation; at another,
+the uproar of vociferous lamentation; the streets of the city were
+crowded, one general blaze of torches glared throughout the Campus
+Martius; there the soldiers under arms, the magistrates without the
+insignia of office, and the people ranged according to their tribes,
+passionately exclaimed, "that the commonwealth was utterly lost, that
+henceforth there remained no hope," so openly and so boldly that you
+would have believed they had forgotten those who ruled over them. But
+nothing pierced Tiberius more deeply <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>than the warm interest excited
+in favor of Agrippina, while they gave her such titles as "the
+ornament of her country, the only blood of Augustus, an unparalleled
+example of primitive virtue"; and, looking up to heaven and the gods,
+they implored "the preservation of her issue, and that they might
+outlive their oppressors."</p>
+
+<p>There were those who missed the pomp of a public funeral, and compared
+with this the superior honors and magnificence displayed by Augustus
+in that of Drusus, the father of Germanicus; observing, "that he
+himself had traveled, in the depth of winter, as far as Ticinus, and,
+continuing by the corpse, had with it entered the city; around his
+bier were crowded the images of the Claudii and Julii; he was mourned
+in the forum; his encomium pronounced on the rostra; all the honors
+invented by our ancestors, or added by their posterity, were heaped
+upon him. But to Germanicus were denied the ordinary solemnities, and
+such as were due to every distinguished Roman. Certainly his corpse
+was burned in a foreign country because of the long journey, in such a
+manner as it was, but afterward it was but just to have compensated
+the scantiness of the first ceremony by the increased solemnity of the
+last; his brother met him but one day's journey, his uncle not, even
+at the gate. Where were those observances of the ancients, the
+effigies of the dead laid in state on a bed, hymns composed in memory
+of departed virtue, with encomiums and tears? Where at least the
+ceremonial of sorrow?"</p>
+
+<p>All this was known to Tiberius, and to suppress the reflections of the
+populace, he admonished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> them in an edict, "that many illustrious
+Romans had died for the commonwealth, but none so universally and
+vehemently regretted; and that it was to the honor of himself and all
+others, if bounds were observed. The same things which became private
+families and small states, became not princes and an imperial people;
+that it was not unseemly to lament in the first transport of sorrow,
+nay, relief was afforded by weeping, but it was now time to recover
+and compose their minds. Thus the deified Julius, upon the loss of an
+only daughter;<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> thus the deified Augustus, upon the premature
+death of his grandsons, had both concealed their sorrow. More ancient
+examples were unnecessary; how often had the Roman people sustained
+with equanimity the slaughter of their armies, the death of their
+generals, and entire destruction of illustrious families&mdash;princes were
+mortal, the commonwealth was eternal&mdash;they should therefore resume
+their customary vocations." And because the spectacle of the
+Megalesian games was at hand, he added, "that they should even lay
+aside their grief for amusements."</p>
+
+<p>The vacation ended, public affairs were resumed; Drusus departed for
+the army in Illyricum, the minds of all men impatiently looking for
+vengeance upon Piso; and amidst many complaints, that while he was
+roaming at large through the delightful regions of Asia and Greece, he
+was undermining by contemptuous and artful delay the evidences of his
+crimes; for it was generally known that Martina, that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>notorious
+trafficker in sorceries, and sent, as I have above related, by Cneius
+Sentius to Rome, had died suddenly at Brundusium; that poison lay
+concealed in a knot of her hair.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIId" id="IIId"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEATH OF SENECA<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></h3>
+<h3>(65 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>The next death added by Nero was that of Plautius Lateranus, consul
+elect; and with such precipitation, that he would not allow him to
+embrace his children, nor the usual brief interval to choose his mode
+of death. He was dragged to the place allotted for the execution of
+slaves, and there, by the hand of Statius the tribune, slaughtered. In
+his death he maintained the most invincible silence, not charging his
+executioner with participation in the design for which he suffered.
+The destruction of Seneca followed, to the infinite joy of the prince;
+not because he had ascertained that he was a party to the conspiracy,
+but that he might assail him with the sword, since poison had failed:
+for Natalis only had named him; and his disclosure amounted but to
+this, "that he had been sent by Piso<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> to visit <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>Seneca, then
+indisposed, to complain that he was refused admittance; and to
+represent, that it would be better if they maintained their friendship
+by intercourse: that to this Seneca replied, that talking to each
+other and frequent interviews were to the service of neither; but upon
+the safety of Piso his own security rested." Granius Silvanus, tribune
+of a pretorian cohort, was ordered to represent this to Seneca, and to
+demand of him, "whether he admitted the words of Natalis, and his own
+answers." Seneca had that very day, either from chance or design,
+returned from Campania, and rested at a villa of his, four miles from
+Rome: thither arrived the tribune toward evening, and beset the villa
+with his men; and then, as he sat at table with Pauline his wife, and
+two friends, delivered his orders from the emperor.</p>
+
+<p>Seneca replied, "that Natalis had in truth been sent to him, and in
+the name of Piso complained, that he was debarred from visiting him;
+and that he had excused himself on the score of illness and his love
+of retirement; but he had no motive to declare that he preferred the
+safety of a private man to his own security; nor was his disposition
+prone to flattery; as no man better knew than Nero, who had
+experienced more frequent proofs of the freedom than the servility of
+Seneca."</p>
+
+<p>When this answer was by the tribune reported to Nero, in presence of
+Popp&aelig;a<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and Tigellinus, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>who composed the cabinet council, the
+raging tyrant asked, whether Seneca meditated a voluntary death? the
+tribune averred "that he had manifested no symptoms of fear; and
+neither in his words nor looks did he detect any indication of
+regret." He was therefore commanded to return, and tell him he was
+doomed to die. Fabius Rusticus writes, "that the tribune did not
+return by the road he went, but turning off went to Fenius, captain of
+the guards, and stating to him the emperor's orders, asked whether he
+should obey him; and was by him admonished to execute them"; thus
+displaying that want of spirit which by some fatality prevailed
+universally; for Silvanus too was one of the conspirators, and yet was
+contributing to multiply the atrocities he had conspired to avenge. He
+avoided, however, seeing and speaking to Seneca; but sent in a
+centurion to apprize him of his final doom.</p>
+
+<p>Seneca undismayed, called for tables to make his will; and, as this
+was prohibited by the centurion, turning to his friends, he told them,
+"that since he was debarred from requiting their services, he
+bequeathed them that which alone was now left him, but which yet was
+the fairest legacy he had to leave them&mdash;the example of his life: and
+if they kept it in view, they would reap the fame due to honorable
+acquirements and inviolable friendship." At the same time he
+endeavored to repress their tears and restore their fortitude, now by
+soothing language, and now in a more animated strain and in a tone of
+rebuke, asking them, "where were the precepts of philosophy? where the
+rules of conduct under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> impending evils, studied for so many years?
+For who was unapprized of the ferocious disposition of Nero? Nor could
+anything else be expected after he had murdered his mother and brother
+than that he should proceed to destroy his nursing father and
+preceptor."</p>
+
+<p>After these and similar reasonings addrest to the company in general,
+he embraced his wife; and after a brief but vigorous effort to get the
+better of the apprehensions that prest upon him at that moment, he
+besought and implored her "to refrain from surrendering herself to
+endless grief; but endeavor to mitigate her regret for her husband by
+means of those honorable consolations which she would experience in
+the contemplation of his virtuous life." Paulina, on the contrary,
+urged her purpose to die with him, and called for the hand of the
+executioner. When Seneca, unwilling to impede her glory, and also from
+affection, as he was anxious not to leave one who was dear to him
+above everything, exposed to the hard usage of the world, thus addrest
+her: "I had pointed out to you how to soften the ills of life; but you
+prefer the renown of dying: I will not envy you the honor of the
+example. Tho both display the same unflinching fortitude in
+encountering death; still the glory of your exit will be superior to
+mine." After this, both had the veins of their arms opened with the
+same stroke. As the blood flowed slowly from the aged body of Seneca,
+attenuated as it was too by scanty sustenance, he had the veins of his
+legs and hams also cut; and unable to bear up under the excessive
+torture, lest by his own sufferings he should overpower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> the
+resolution of his wife, and by witnessing her anguish be betrayed into
+impatience himself, he advised her to retire into another chamber. His
+eloquence continued to flow during the latest moments of his
+existence, and summoning his secretaries, he dictated many things,
+which, as they have been published in his own words, I forbear to
+exhibit in other language.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IVc" id="IVc"></a>IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BURNING OF ROME BY ORDER OF NERO<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></h3>
+<h3>(64 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>There followed a dreadful disaster; whether fortuitously, or by the
+wicked contrivance of the prince<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> is not determined, for both are
+asserted by historians: but of all the calamities which ever befell
+this city from the rage of fire, this was the most terrible and
+severe. It broke out in that part of the Circus which is contiguous to
+mounts Palatine and C&oelig;lius; where, by reason of shops in which were
+kept such goods as minister aliment to fire, the moment it commenced
+it acquired strength, and being accelerated by the wind, it spread at
+once through the whole extent of the Circus: for neither were the
+houses <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>secured by enclosures, nor the temples environed with walls,
+nor was there any other obstacle to intercept its progress; but the
+flame, spreading every way impetuously, invaded first the lower
+regions of the city, then mounted to the higher; then again ravaging
+the lower, it baffled every effort to extinguish it, by the rapidity
+of its destructive course, and from the liability of the city to
+conflagration, in consequence of the narrow and intricate alleys, and
+the irregularity of the streets in ancient Rome.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> Add to this, the
+wailings of terrified women, the infirm condition of the aged, and the
+helplessness of childhood: such as strove to provide for themselves,
+and those who labored to assist others; these dragging the feeble,
+those waiting for them; some hurrying, others lingering; altogether
+created a scene of universal confusion and embarrassment: and while
+they looked back upon the danger in their rear, they often found
+themselves beset before, and on their sides: or if they had escaped
+into the quarters adjoining, these too were already seized by the
+devouring flames; even the parts which they believed remote and
+exempt, were found to be in the same distress. At last, not knowing
+what to shun, or where to seek sanctuary, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>they crowded the streets,
+and lay along in the open fields. Some, from the loss of their whole
+substance, even the means of their daily sustenance, others, from
+affection for their relations, whom they had not been able to snatch
+from the flames, suffered themselves to perish in them, tho they had
+opportunity to escape. Neither dared any man offer to check the fire:
+so repeated were the menaces of many who forbade to extinguish it; and
+because others openly threw firebrands, with loud declarations "that
+they had one who authorized them"; whether they did it that they might
+plunder with the less restraint, or in consequence of orders given.</p>
+
+<p>Nero, who was at that juncture sojourning at Antium,<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> did not
+return to the city till the fire approached that quarter of his house
+which connected the palace with the gardens of M&aelig;cenas;<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> nor could
+it, however, be prevented from devouring the house and palace, and
+everything around. But for the relief of the people, thus destitute,
+and driven from their dwellings, he opened the fields of Mars and the
+monumental edifices erected by Agrippa,<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and even his own gardens.
+He likewise reared temporary houses for the reception of the forlorn
+multitude: and from Ostia and the neighboring cities were brought, up
+the river, household necessaries; and the price of grain was reduced
+to three sesterces the measure. All which proceedings, tho of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>popular character, were thrown away, because a rumor had become
+universally current, "that the very time when the city was in flames,
+Nero, going on the stage of his private theater, sang 'The Destruction
+of Troy,' assimilating the present disaster to that catastrophe of
+ancient times."</p>
+
+<p>At length, on the sixth day, the conflagration was stayed at the foot
+of Esquilli&aelig;, by pulling down an immense quantity of buildings, so
+that an open space, and, as it were, void air, might check the raging
+element by breaking the continuity. But ere the consternation had
+subsided the fire broke out afresh, with no little violence, but in
+regions more spacious, and therefore with less destruction of human
+life: but more extensive havoc was made of the temples, and the
+porticoes dedicated to amusement. This conflagration, too was the
+subject of more censorious remark, as it arose in the &AElig;milian
+possessions of Tigellinus: and Nero seemed to aim at the glory of
+building a new city, and calling it by his own name: for, of the
+fourteen sections into which Rome is divided, four were still standing
+entire, three were leveled with the ground, and in the seven others
+there remained only here and there a few remnants of houses, shattered
+and half-consumed.</p>
+
+<p>It were no easy task to recount the number of tenements and temples
+which were lost: but the following, most venerable for antiquity and
+sanctity, were consumed: that dedicated by Servius Tullius to the
+Moon; the temple and great altar consecrated by Evander the Arcadian
+to Hercules while present; the chapel vowed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> Romulus to Jupiter
+Stator; the palace of Numa,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> with the temple of Vesta, and in it
+the tutelar gods of Rome. Moreover, the treasures accumulated by so
+many victories, the beautiful productions of Greek artists, ancient
+writings of authors celebrated for genius, and till then preserved
+entire, were consumed: and tho great was the beauty of the city, in
+its renovated form, the older inhabitants remembered many decorations
+of the ancient which could not be replaced in the modern city. There
+were some who remarked that the commencement of this fire showed
+itself on the fourteenth before the calends of July, the day on which
+the Senones set fire to the captured city. Others carried their
+investigation so far as to determine that an equal number of years,
+months, and days intervened between the two fires.</p>
+
+<p>To proceed: Nero appropriated to his own purposes the ruins of his
+country, and founded upon them a palace; in which the old-fashioned,
+and, in those luxurious times, common ornaments of gold and precious
+stones, were not so much the objects of attraction as lands and lakes;
+in one part, woods like vast deserts: in another part, open spaces and
+expansive prospects. The projectors and superintendents of this plan
+were Severus and Celer, men of such ingenuity and daring enterprise as
+to attempt to conquer by art the obstacles of nature, and fool away
+the treasures of the prince: they had even undertaken to sink a
+navigable canal from the lake Avernus to the mouth of the Tiber, over
+an arid shore, or through opposing mountains: nor indeed does <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>there
+occur anything of a humid nature for supplying water, except the
+Pomptine marshes; the rest is either craggy rock or a parched soil:
+and had it even been possible to break through these obstructions, the
+toil had been intolerable, and disproportioned to the object. Nero,
+however who longed to achieve things that exceeded credibility,
+exerted all his might to perforate the mountains adjoining to Avernus:
+and to this day there remain traces of his abortive project.</p>
+
+<p>But the rest of the old site not occupied by his palace, was laid out,
+not as after the Gallic fire, without discrimination and regularity,
+but with the lines of streets measured out, broad spaces left for
+transit, the height of the buildings limited, open areas left, and
+porticoes added to protect the front of the clustered dwellings: these
+porticoes Nero engaged to rear at his own expense, and then to deliver
+to each proprietor the areas about them cleared. He moreover proposed
+rewards proportioned to every man's rank and private substance, and
+fixt a day within which, if their houses, single or clustered, were
+finished, they should receive them: he appointed the marshes of Ostia
+for a receptacle of the rubbish, and that the vessels which had
+conveyed grain up the Tiber should return laden with rubbish; that the
+buildings themselves should be raised to a certain portion of their
+height without beams, and arched with stone from the quarries of Gabii
+or Alba, that stone being proof against fire: that over the water
+springs, which had been improperly intercepted by private individuals,
+overseers should be placed, to provide for their flowing in greater
+abundance, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> a greater number of places, for the supply of the
+public: that every housekeeper should have in his yard means for
+extinguishing fire; neither should there be party-walls, but every
+house should be enclosed by its own walls. These regulations, which
+were favorably received, in consideration of their utility, were also
+a source of beauty to the new city: yet some there were who believed
+that the ancient form was more conducive to health, as from the
+narrowness of the streets and the height of the buildings the rays of
+the sun were more excluded; whereas now, the spacious breadth of the
+streets, without any shade to protect it, was more intensely heated in
+warm weather.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the provisions made by human counsels. The gods were next
+addrest with expiations and recourse had to the Sibyl's books. By
+admonition from them to Vulcan, Ceres, and Proserpina, supplicatory
+sacrifices were made, and Juno propitiated by the matrons, first in
+the Capitol, then upon the nearest shore, where, by water drawn from
+the sea, the temple and image of the goddess were besprinkled; and the
+ceremony of placing the goddess in her sacred chair, and her vigil,
+were celebrated by ladies who had husbands. But not all the relief
+that could come from man, not all the bounties that the prince could
+bestow, nor all the atonements which could be presented to the gods,
+availed to relieve Nero from the infamy of being believed to have
+ordered the conflagration.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, to suppress the rumor, he falsely charged with the guilt, and
+punished with the most exquisite tortures, the persons commonly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+called Christians,<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> who were hated for their enormities. Christus,
+the founder of that name was put to death as a criminal by Pontius
+Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the
+pernicious superstition, represt for a time, broke out again, not only
+through Judea where the mischief originated, but through the city of
+Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow, from all
+quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged.
+Accordingly, first those were seized who confest they were Christians;
+next, on their information a vast multitude were convicted, not so
+much on the charge of burning the city, as of hating the human race.
+And in their deaths they were also made the subjects of sport, for
+they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death
+by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and when day declined,
+burned to serve for nocturnal lights. Nero offered his own gardens for
+that spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately
+mingling with the common people in the habit of a charioteer, or else
+standing in his chariot. Whence a feeling of compassion arose toward
+the sufferers, tho guilty and deserving to be made examples of by
+capital punishment, because they seemed not to be cut off for the
+public good, but victims to the ferocity of one man.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p><p>In the mean time, in order to supply money, all Italy was pillaged,
+the provinces ruined: both the people in alliance with us, and the
+states which are called free. Even the gods were not exempt from
+plunder on this occasion, their temples in the city being despoiled,
+and all their gold conveyed away, which the Roman people, in every
+age, either in gratitude for triumphs, or in fulfilment of vows, had
+consecrated, in times of prosperity, or in seasons of dismay. Through
+Greece and Asia, indeed, the gifts and oblations, and even the statues
+of the deities were carried off; Acratus and Secundus Carinas being
+sent into those provinces for the purpose: the former, Nero's
+freedman, a prompt instrument in any iniquity; the other, acquainted
+with Greek learning, as far as relates to lip-knowledge, but unadorned
+with virtuous accomplishments. Of Seneca it was reported, "that to
+avert from himself the odium of this sacrilege, he prayed to retire to
+a seat of his, remote from Rome, and being refused, feigned
+indisposition, as tho his nerves were affected, and confined himself
+to his chamber." Some authors have recorded, "that a freedman of his,
+named Cleonicus, had, by the command of Nero, prepared poison for his
+master, who escaped it, either from the discovery made by the
+freedman, or from the caution inspired by his own apprehensions, as he
+supported nature by a diet perfectly simple, satisfying the cravings
+of hunger by wild fruits, and the solicitations of thirst from the
+running brook."</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Va" id="Va"></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BURNING OF THE CAPITOL AT ROME<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></h3>
+<h3>(69 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>Martialis had scarcely reentered the Capitol when the furious soldiers
+appeared before it, without a general, and each man acting on his own
+suggestions. Having rapidly passed the forum, and the temples that
+overlook it, they marched up the opposite hill, as far as the first
+gates of the citadel. On the right side of the ascent, a range of
+porticoes had been built in ancient times. Going out upon the roof of
+those, the besieged threw a shower of stones and tiles. The assailants
+had no weapons but their swords, and to fetch engines and missiles
+seemed a tedious delay. They threw brands into the portico that jutted
+near them. They followed up the fire, and would have forced their way
+through the gate of the Capitol, which the fire had laid hold of, if
+Sabinus had not placed as a barrier in the very approach, in lieu of a
+wall, the statues, those honorable monuments of our ancestors, which
+were pulled down wherever they could be found. They then assaulted the
+Capitol in two different quarters near the grove of the asylum, and
+where the Tarpeian rock is ascended by a hundred steps. Both attacks
+were unforeseen.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That by the asylum was the nearer and most vigorous. Nor could they be
+stopt from climbing up the contiguous buildings, which being raised
+high under the idea of undisturbed peace, reach the basement of the
+Capitol. Here a doubt exists whether the fire was thrown upon the
+roofs by the storming party or the besieged, the latter being more
+generally supposed to have done it, to repulse those who were climbing
+up, and had advanced some way. The fire extended itself thence to the
+porticoes adjoining the temples; soon the eagles that supported the
+cupola caught fire, and as the timber was old they fed the flame. Thus
+the Capitol, with its gates shut, neither stormed, nor defended, was
+burned to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>From the foundation of the city to that hour, the Roman republic had
+felt no calamity so deplorable, so shocking, as that, unassailed by a
+foreign enemy, and, were it not for the vices of the age, with the
+deities propitious, the temple of Jupiter supremely good and great,
+built by our ancestors with solemn auspices, the pledge of empire,
+which neither Porsena,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> when Rome surrendered to his arms, nor the
+Gauls,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> when they captured the city, were permitted to violate,
+should be now demolished by the madness of the rulers of the state.
+The Capitol was once before destroyed by fire during a civil war; but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>it was from the guilty machinations of private individuals. Now it
+was besieged publicly, publicly set fire to; and what were the motives
+for the war? what was the object to be gained, that so severe a
+calamity was incurred? Warred we in our country's cause?&mdash;Tarquinius
+Priscus, during the war with the Sabines, built it in fulfillment of a
+vow, and laid the foundations more in conformity with his
+anticipations of the future grandeur of the empire, than the limited
+extent of the Roman means at that time. Servius Tullius, assisted by
+the zeal of the allies of Rome, and after him Tarquin the Proud, with
+the spoils of Suessa Pometia, added to the building. But the glory of
+completing the design was reserved for the era of liberty. When
+tyrants were swept away, Horatius Pulvilus, in his second consulship,
+dedicated the temple, finished with such magnificence that the wealth
+of after ages graced it with new embellishments, but added nothing to
+its dimensions. Four hundred and fifteen years afterward, in the
+consulship of Lucius Scipio and Caius Norbanus, it was burned to the
+ground, and again rebuilt on the old foundation. Sulla having now
+triumphed over his opponents, undertook to build it, but nevertheless
+did not dedicate it; the only thing wanting to crown his felicity.
+That honor was reserved for Lutatius Catulus, whose name, amidst so
+many works of the C&aelig;sars, remained legible till the days of Vitellius.
+Such was the sacred building which was at this time reduced to ashes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SIEGE OF CREMONA<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></h3>
+<h3>(69 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>When they came to Cremona, they found a new and enormous difficulty.
+In the war with Otho, the German legions had formed a camp round the
+walls of the town, and fortified it with lines of circumvallation. New
+works were added afterward. The victors stood astonished at the sight,
+and even the generals were at a stand, undecided what orders to give.
+With troops harassed by exertions through the night and day, to carry
+the place by storm was difficult, and, without succors at hand, might
+be dangerous; but if they marched to Bedriacum, the fatigue would be
+insupportable, and the victory would end in nothing. To throw up
+intrenchments was dangerous, in the face of an enemy, who might
+suddenly sally forth and put them to the rout, while employed on the
+work in detached parties. A difficulty still greater than all arose
+from the temper of the men, more patient of danger than delay:
+inasmuch as a state of security afforded no excitement, while hope
+grew out of enterprise, however perilous; and carnage, wounds and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>blood, to whatever extent, were counterbalanced by the insatiable
+desire of plunder.</p>
+
+<p>Antonius<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> determined upon the latter course and ordered the
+rampart to be invested. The attack began at a distance with a volley
+of stones and darts, with the greater loss to the Flavians, on whom
+the enemy's weapons were thrown with advantage from above. Antonius
+presently assigned portions of the rampart and the gates to the
+legions that by this mode of attack in different quarters, valor and
+cowardice might be distinguished, and a spirit of emulation in honor
+animate the army. The third and seventh legions took their station
+nearest the road to Bedriacum; the seventh and eighth Claudian, a
+portion more to the right hand of the rampart; the thirteenth were
+carried by their own impetuosity to the gate that looked toward
+Brixia.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> Some delay then took place while they supplied themselves
+from the neighboring villages with pickaxes, spades, and hooks, and
+scaling-ladders. They then formed a close military shell with their
+shields raised above their heads, and under that cover advanced to the
+ramparts. The Roman art of war was seen on both sides. The Vitellians
+rolled down massy stones, with which, having disjoined and shaken the
+shell, they inserted their long poles and spears; till at last, the
+whole frame and texture of the shields being dissolved, they strewed
+the ground with numbers of the crusht and mangled assailants....</p>
+
+<p>Severe in the extreme was the conflict maintained <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>by the third and
+the seventh legions. Antonius in person led on a select body of
+auxiliaries to the same quarter. The Vitellians were no longer able to
+sustain the shock of men all bent on victory, and seeing their darts
+fall on the military shell, and glide off without effect, at last they
+rolled down their battering-engine on the heads of the besiegers. For
+the moment, it dispersed and overwhelmed the party among which, it
+fell; but it also drew after it, in its fall, the battlements and
+upper parts of the rampart. An adjoining tower, at the same time,
+yielded to the effect of stones which struck it, and left a breach, at
+which the seventh legion, in the form of a wedge, endeavored to force
+their way, while the third hewed down the gate with axes and swords.
+The first man that entered, according to all historians, was Caius
+Volusius, a common soldier of the third legion. He gained the summit
+of the rampart, and, bearing down all resistance, in the view of all
+beckoned with his hand, and cried aloud that the camp was captured.
+The rest of the legion followed him with resistless fury, the
+Vitellians being panic-struck, and throwing themselves headlong from
+the works. The whole space between the camp and the walls of Cremona
+was filled with slain.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>And now a new form of difficulty was presented by the high walls of
+the city, and towers of stone, the gates secured by iron bars, and
+troops brandishing their arms; the inhabitants, a large and numerous
+body, all devoted to Vitellius; and a conflux of people from all parts
+of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>Italy at the stated fair which was then held. The latter was
+regarded by the garrison as an aid, from the increase of numbers; but
+inflamed the ardor of the besiegers on the score of booty. Antonius
+ordered his men to take combustibles, and set fire to the most elegant
+edifices without the city; if, peradventure, the inhabitants, seeing
+their mansions destroyed, would be induced to abandon the adverse
+cause. In the houses that stood near the walls, of a height to
+overlook the works, he placed the bravest of his troops; and from
+those stations beams, tiles and firebrands were thrown down to drive
+the defenders of the walls from their posts.</p>
+
+<p>The legions under Antonius now formed a military shell, while the rest
+poured in a volley of stones and darts; when the spirit of the
+besieged gradually gave way. The men highest in rank were willing to
+make terms for themselves, lest, if Cremona was taken by storm, they
+should receive no quarter, and the conquerors, disdaining vulgar
+lives, should fall on the tribunes and centurions, from whom the
+largest booty was to be expected. The common men, as usual, careless
+about future events, and safe in their obscurity, still held out.
+Roaming about the streets, or lurking in private houses, they did not
+sue for peace even when they had given up the contest. The principal
+officers took down the name and images of Vitellius. C&aelig;cina, for he
+was still in confinement, they released from his fetters, and desired
+his aid in pleading their cause with the conqueror. He heard their
+petition with disdain, swelling with insolence, while they importuned
+him with tears; the last stage of human misery,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> when so many brave
+and gallant men were obliged to sue to a traitor for protection! They
+then hung out from the walls the fillets and badges of supplicants.
+When Antonius ordered a cessation of hostilities, the garrison brought
+out their eagles and standards; a mournful train of soldiers without
+their aims, their eyes riveted to the ground, followed them. The
+conquerors gathered round them, and first heaped reproaches upon them,
+and threatened violence to their persons; but afterward, when they saw
+the passiveness with which they received the insults, and that the
+vanquished, abandoning all their former pride, submitted to every
+indignity, the thought occurred that these very men lately conquered
+at Bedriacum, and used their victory with moderation. But when C&aelig;cina
+came forth, decorated with his robes, and preceded by his lictors, who
+opened a way for him through the crowd, the indignation of the victors
+burst into a flame. They reproached him for his pride, his cruelty,
+and even for his treachery: so detested is villainy. Antonius opposed
+the fury of his men, and sent him under escort to Vespasian.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the common people of Cremona, in the midst of so many
+soldiers, were subjected to grievous oppressions, and were in danger
+of being all put to the sword, if the rage of the soldiery had not
+been assuaged by the entreaties of their leaders. Antonius called them
+to an assembly, when he spoke of the conquerors in lofty terms, and of
+the vanquished with humanity; of Cremona he said nothing either way.
+But the army, adding to their love of plunder an inveterate aversion
+to the people, were bent on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> the extirpation of the inhabitants. In
+the war against Otho they were deemed the abettors of Vitellius; and
+afterward, when the thirteenth legion was left among them to build an
+amphitheater, with the usual insolence of the lower orders in towns,
+they had assailed them with offensive ribaldry. The spectacle of
+gladiators exhibited there by C&aelig;cina inflamed the animosity against
+the people. Their city, too, was now for the second time the seat of
+war; and, in the heat of the last engagement, the Vitellians were
+thence supplied with refreshments; and some of their women, led into
+the field of battle by their zeal for the cause, were slain. The
+period, too, of the fair had given to a colony otherwise affluent an
+imposing appearance of accumulated wealth. Antonius, by his fame and
+brilliant success, eclipsed all the other commanders: the attention of
+all was fixt on him alone. He hastened to the baths to wash off the
+blood; and on observing that the water was not hot enough, he said
+that they would soon grow hotter. The expression was caught up: a
+casual word among slaves had the effect of throwing upon him the whole
+odium of having given a signal for setting fire to Cremona, which was
+already in flames.</p>
+
+<p>Forty thousand armed men had poured into it. The number of drudges and
+camp-followers was still greater, and more abandoned to lust and
+cruelty. Neither age nor dignity served as a protection; deeds of lust
+were perpetrated amidst scenes of carnage, and murder was added to
+rape. Aged men and women that had passed their prime, and who were
+useless as booty, were made the objects of brutal sport. If a mature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+maiden, or any one of comely appearance, fell in their way, after
+being torn piecemeal by the rude hands of contending ruffians, they at
+last were the occasion of their turning their swords against each
+other. While eagerly carrying off money or massy gold from the
+temples, they were butchered by others stronger than themselves. Not
+content with the treasures that lay open to their view, some forced
+the owners to discover their hidden wealth, and dig up their buried
+riches. Numbers carried flaming torches, and, as soon as they had
+brought forth their booty, in their wanton sport set the gutted houses
+and plundered temples on fire. In an army differing in language and
+manners, composed of Roman citizens, allies, and foreign auxiliaries,
+all the diversities of passions were exhibited. Each had his separate
+notions of right and wrong; nor was anything unlawful. Four days did
+Cremona minister to their rapacity. When everything else, sacred and
+profane, was leveled in the conflagration, the temple of Memphitis
+alone remained standing, outside of the walls; saved either by its
+situation, or the influence of the deity.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the fate of Cremona, two hundred and eighty-six years from
+its foundation. It was built during the consulship of Tiberius
+Sempronius and Publius Cornelius, at the time when Hannibal threatened
+an irruption into Italy, as a bulwark against the Gauls inhabiting
+beyond the Po, or any other power that might break in over the Alps.
+The colony, as might be expected, grew and flourished in the number of
+its settlers, from the contiguity of rivers, the fertility of its
+soil, from alliances and intermarriages with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> neighboring people;
+never having suffered from foreign wars, but a sad sufferer from civil
+dissensions. Antonius, shrinking from the infamy of this horrible
+transaction (for the detestation it excited was increasing), issued an
+edict forbidding all manner of persons to detain the citizens of
+Cremona as prisoners of war. At the same time the booty was rendered
+valueless by a resolution adopted throughout Italy, not to purchase
+the captives taken on that occasion. The soldiers then began to murder
+them. However, when this was known, the prisoners were eagerly
+ransomed by their friends and relations. The survivors in a short time
+returned to Cremona. The temples and public places were rebuilt, at
+the recommendation of Vespasian, by the munificence of the burgesses.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>AGRICOLA<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></h3>
+<p>Cn&aelig;us Julius Agricola was born at the ancient and illustrious colony
+of Forum Julii. Both his grandfathers were imperial procurators, an
+office which confers the rank of equestrian nobility. His father,
+Julius Gr&aelig;cinus, of the senatorian order, was famous for the study of
+eloquence and philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on
+himself the displeasure of Caius C&aelig;sar,<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> for, being commanded to
+undertake the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>accusation of Marcus Silanus&mdash;on his refusal, he was
+put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of exemplary
+chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, he passed his
+childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. He was
+preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally good
+disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at
+Massilia;<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> a place where Grecian politeness and provincial
+frugality are happily united. I remember he was used to relate, that
+in his early youth he should have engaged with more ardor in
+philosophical speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a senator,
+had not the prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and vehemence
+of his disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed by the
+charms of glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with
+more eagerness than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his
+warmth; and from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most
+difficult to compass&mdash;moderation.</p>
+
+<p>He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus,
+an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent companion,
+in order to form an estimate of his merit. Nor did Agricola, like many
+young men, who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail
+himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or his
+inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty;
+but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>country, making
+himself known to the army, learning from the experienced, and
+imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed through vainglory,
+nor declining it through timidity; and performing his duty with equal
+solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was Britain more
+agitated or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans
+slaughtered, our colonies burned, our armies cut off&mdash;we were then
+contending for safety, afterward for victory. During this period,
+altho all things were transacted under the conduct and direction of
+another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of
+recovering the province, fell to the general's share, yet they
+imparted to the young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and
+the passion for military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful
+to the times, in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great
+reputation was no less dangerous than a bad one.</p>
+
+<p>Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he
+married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which
+connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater
+things. They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection;
+each giving the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in
+both, except that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, in
+proportion as a bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of
+questorship gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul Salvius
+Titianus<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> for his superior; by neither of which circumstances was
+he corrupted, altho the province was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>wealthy and open to plunder, and
+the proconsul, from his rapacious disposition, would readily have
+agreed to a mutual concealment of guilt. His family was there
+increased by the birth of a daughter, who was both the support of his
+house, and his consolation; for he lost an elder-born son in
+infancy....</p>
+
+<p>On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian to
+the patrician order, and then invested with the government of
+Aquitania, a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office
+itself, and the hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is
+a common supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous
+and summary processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong
+hand, are deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in
+civil jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was
+enabled to act with facility and precision even among civilians. He
+distinguished the hours of business from those of relaxation. When the
+court or tribunal demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful,
+yet generally inclined to lenity. When the duties of his office were
+over, the man of power was instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness,
+arrogance, or rapaciousness appeared; and, what was a singular
+felicity, his affability did not impair his authority, nor his
+severity render him less beloved. To mention integrity and freedom
+from corruption in such a man, would be an affront to his virtues. He
+did not even court reputation, an object to which men of worth
+frequently sacrifice, by ostentation or artifice: equally avoiding
+competition with his colleagues,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> and contention with the procurators.
+To overcome in such a contest he thought inglorious; and to be put
+down, a disgrace. Somewhat less than three years were spent in this
+office, when he was recalled to the immediate prospect of the
+consulate; while at the same time a popular opinion prevailed that the
+government of Britain would be conferred upon him; an opinion not
+founded upon any suggestions of his own, but upon his being thought
+equal to the station. Common fame does not always err, sometimes it
+even directs a choice. When Consul,<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> he contracted his daughter, a
+lady already of the happiest promise, to myself, then a very young
+man; and after his office was expired I received her in marriage. He
+was immediately appointed governor of Britain, and the pontificate was
+added to his other dignities....</p>
+
+<p>His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his
+friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had
+no personal knowledge of him. The common people too, and the class who
+little interest themselves about public concerns, were frequent in
+their inquiries at his house during his sickness, and made him the
+subject of conversation at the forum and in private circles; nor did
+any person either rejoice at the news of his death, or speedily forget
+it. Their commiseration was aggravated by a prevailing report that he
+was taken off by poison. I can not venture to affirm anything certain
+of this matter; yet, during the whole course of his illness, the
+principal of the imperial <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>freedmen and the most confidential of the
+physicians was sent much more frequently than was customary with a
+court whose visits were chiefly paid by messages; whether that was
+done out of real solicitude, or for the purposes of state inquisition.
+On the day of his decease, it is certain that accounts of his
+approaching dissolution were every instant transmitted to the emperor
+by couriers stationed for the purpose; and no one believed that the
+information, which so much pains was taken to accelerate, could be
+received with regret. He put on, however, in his countenance and
+demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he was now secured from an
+object of hatred, and could more easily conceal his joy than his fear.
+It was well known that on reading the will, in which he was nominated
+co-heir with the excellent wife and most dutiful daughter of Agricola,
+he exprest great satisfaction, as if it had been a voluntary testimony
+of honor and esteem: so blind and corrupt had his mind been rendered
+by continual adulation, that he was ignorant none but a bad prince
+could be nominated heir to a good father.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> "If by eloquence is meant the ability to persuade, then
+Tacitus," according to Cruttwell, "is the most eloquent historian that
+ever existed." His portraits, especially those of Tiberius and Nero,
+have been severely criticized by French and English writers, but while
+his verdicts have been shaken, they have not been reversed. The world
+still fails to doubt their substantial reality. Tacitus, adds
+Cruttwell, has probably exercised upon readers a greater power than
+any other writer of prose whom Rome produced.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> From Book I of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Marcellus was the son of Octavia by her husband C.
+Claudius Marcellus. He married Julia, a daughter of Augustus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Agrippa was the leading administrative mind under
+Augustus, with whom he had served in the Civil War and in the battle
+Actium. The Pantheon, the only complete building of Imperial Rome that
+still survives, was finished and dedicated by him. He married as his
+third wife Julia, the widow of Marcellus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Nola lay sixteen miles northeast of Naples. The
+reference is to Drusus, son of Tiberius, and to Germanicus, at that
+time commanding on the Rhine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> From Book III of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> This Agrippina was the daughter of Agrippa and Julia.
+She married Germanicus, became the mother of Caligula, and was a woman
+of lofty character, who died by voluntary starvation after having been
+exiled by Tiberius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> It has been conjectured that the two children of
+Germanicus here referred to were Caligula, who had gone to the East
+with his father, and Julia, who was born in Lesbos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> These children were Nero, Drusus, Agrippina and
+Drusilla.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Not the Emperor of that name, who was not born until
+121 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Mother of Tiberius by a husband whom she had married
+before she married Augustus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Julia, daughter of Julius C&aelig;sar by his wife Cornelia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Caius Piso, lender of an unsuccessful conspiracy
+against Nero in 65. Other famous Romans of the name of Piso are
+Lucius, censor, consul and author; another Lucius whose daughter was
+married to Julius C&aelig;sar; and Cneius, governor of Syria, who was
+accused of murdering Germanicus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Popp&aelig;a Sabina, who once was the wife of Otho and
+mistress of Nero. She was afterward divorced from Otho and married to
+Nero in 62 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> She died from the effects of a kick given by Nero.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> From Book XV at the "Annals." The Oxford translator
+revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Nero.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Suetonius relates that, when some one repeated to Nero
+the line "When I am dead, let fire devour the world," he replied, "Let
+it be whilst I am living." That author asserts that Nero's purpose
+sprung in part from his dislike of old buildings and narrow streets.
+During the progress of the fire several men of consular rank met
+Nero's domestic servants with torches and combustibles which they were
+using to start fires, but did not dare to stay their hands. Livy
+asserts that, after it was destroyed by the Gauls, Rome had been
+rebuilt with narrow winding streets.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> A city in the central Apennines, six miles from Lake
+Fucinus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Near the Esquiline.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The house, gardens, baths and the Pantheon of Agrippa
+are here referred to. Nero's gardens were near the Vatican.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> The palace of Numa, on the Palatine hill, had been the
+mansion of Augustus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Carlyle, in his essay on Voltaire, refers to this
+passage as having been "inserted as a small, transitory, altogether
+trifling circumstance, in the history of such a potentate as Nero";
+but it has become "to us the most earnest, sad and sternly significant
+passage that we know to exist in writing."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Claudius already had expelled the Jews from Rome and
+included in their number the followers of Christ. But his edict was
+not specifically directed against the Christians. Nero was the first
+emperor who persecuted them as professors of a new faith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Pliny, Josephus and Dio all agree that the Capitol was set on
+fire by the followers of Vitellius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Porsena did not actually get into Rome, being induced
+to raise the siege when only at its gates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The capture of Rome by the Gauls under Brennus took
+place in 390 B.C. The destruction of the Capitol in the first Civil
+War occurred in 83 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, during the consulship of Lucius Scipio and
+Caius Norbaius. The fire was not started as an act of open violence,
+however, but by clandestine incendiaries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Near Cremona had been fought the first battle of Bedriacum by
+the armies of Vitellius and Otho, rivals for the imperial throne, Otho
+being defeated. A few months later on the same field the army of
+Vitellius was overthrown by Vespasian, who succeeded him as emperor.
+Vitellius retired to Cremona, which was then placed under siege by
+Vespasian, and altho strongly fortified, captured.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Antonius Primus, the chief commander of Vespasian's
+forces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> The modern Brescia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> According to Josephus 30,000 of the Vitellians perished
+and 4,500 of the followers of Vespasian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> From the Oxford translation revised.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Caligula, not Caius Julius C&aelig;sar, is here referred to,
+he also having borne the name of Caius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Now Marseilles, founded by Ph&oelig;nicians, who
+introduced, there a degree of Greek culture which long made the city
+famous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> A brother of the Emperor Otho.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Agricola was Consul in 77 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, and had for colleague
+Domitian, afterward Emperor.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PLINY_THE_YOUNGER" id="PLINY_THE_YOUNGER"></a>PLINY THE YOUNGER</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born at Como, in 63 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; died in 113; nephew of the elder
+Pliny; Consul in 100; governor of Bithynia and Pontus in
+111; friend of Trajan and Tacitus; his letters and a eulogy
+of Trajan alone among his writings have survived.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ig" id="Ig"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>OF THE CHRISTIANS IN HIS PROVINCE<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></h3>
+<p>It is my invariable rule, Sir, to refer to you in all matters where I
+feel doubtful; for who is more capable of removing my scruples, or
+informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials
+concerning those who profess Christianity, I am unacquainted not only
+with the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their punishment,
+but how far it is proper to enter into an examination concerning them.
+Whether, therefore, any difference is usually made with respect to
+ages, or no distinction is to be observed between the young and the
+adult; whether repentance entitles them to a pardon; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>or if a man has
+been once a Christian, it avails nothing to desist from his error;
+whether the very profession of Christianity, unattended with any
+criminal act, or only the crimes themselves inherent in the profession
+are punishable; on all these points I am in great doubt. In the
+meanwhile, the method I have observed toward those who have been
+brought before me as Christians is this: I asked them whether they
+were Christians; if they admitted it, I repeated the question twice,
+and threatened them with punishment; if they persisted, I ordered them
+to be at once punished: for I was persuaded whatever the nature of
+their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible obstinacy
+certainly deserved correction. There were others also brought before
+me possest with the same infatuation, but being Roman citizens I
+directed them to be sent to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>But this crime spreading (as is usually the case) while it was
+actually under prosecution, several instances of the same nature
+occurred. An anonymous information was laid before me, containing a
+charge against several persons, who upon examination denied they were
+Christians, or had ever been so. They repeated after me an invocation
+to the gods, and offered religious rites with wine and incense before
+your statue (which for that purpose I had ordered to be brought,
+together with those of the gods), and even reviled the name of Christ:
+whereas there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really
+Christians into any of these compliances: I thought it proper,
+therefore, to discharge them. Some among those who were accused by a
+witness in person at first confest themselves Christians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> but
+immediately after denied it; the rest owned indeed that they had been
+of that number formerly, but had now (some above three, others more,
+and a few above twenty years ago) renounced that error. They all
+worshiped your statue and the images of the gods, uttering
+imprecations at the same time against the name of Christ. They
+affirmed the whole of their guilt of their error, was, that they met
+on a stated day before it was light, and addrest a form of prayer to
+Christ, as to a divinity, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for
+the purposes of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud,
+theft, or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when
+they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their
+custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless
+meal. From this custom, however, they desisted after the publication
+of my edict, by which, according to your commands, I forbade the
+meeting of any assemblies.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving this account, I judged it so much the more necessary
+to endeavor to extort the real truth by putting two female slaves to
+the torture, who were said to officiate in their religious rites: but
+all I could discover was evidence of an absurd and extravagant
+superstition. I deemed it expedient, therefore, to adjourn all further
+proceedings, in order to consult you. For it appears to be a matter
+highly deserving your consideration, more especially as great numbers
+must be involved in the danger of these prosecutions, which have
+already extended, and are still likely to extend, to persons of all
+ranks and ages, and even of both sexes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> In fact, this contagious
+superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its
+infection among the neighboring villages and country. Nevertheless, it
+still seems possible to restrain its progress. The temples, at least,
+which were once almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the
+sacred rites, after a long intermission, are again revived; while
+there is a general demand for the victims, which till lately found
+very few purchasers. From all this it is easy to conjecture what
+numbers might be reclaimed if a general pardon were granted to those
+who shall repent of their error.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IIg" id="IIg"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>TO TACITUS ON THE ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></h3>
+<h3>(79 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>Your request that I would send you an account of my uncle's<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>
+death, in order to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity,
+deserves my acknowledgments; for, if this accident shall be celebrated
+by your pen, the glory of it, I am well assured, will be rendered
+forever illustrious. And notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune,
+which, as it involved at the same time a most beautiful country in
+ruins, and destroyed so many populous cities, seems to promise him an
+everlasting remembrance; notwithstanding he has himself composed many
+and lasting works; yet I am persuaded the mentioning of him in your
+immortal writings will greatly contribute to render his name immortal.</p>
+
+<p>He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>
+On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired
+him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and
+shape. He had just taken a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>turn in the sun, and, after bathing
+himself in cold water, and making a light luncheon, gone back to his
+books: he immediately arose and went out upon a rising ground from
+whence he might get a better sight of this very uncommon appearance. A
+cloud, from which mountain was uncertain, at this distance (but it was
+found afterward to come from Mount Vesuvius),<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> was ascending, the
+appearance of which I can not give you a more exact description of
+than by likening it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up to a great
+height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at
+the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, I imagine, either by a
+sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which decreased as
+it advanced upward, or the cloud itself being prest back again by its
+own weight, expanded in the manner I have mentioned; it appeared
+sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted according as it was
+either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. This
+phenomenon seemed to a man of such learning and research as my uncle
+extraordinary and worth further looking into. He ordered a light
+vessel to be got ready, and gave me leave, if I liked, to accompany
+him. I said I had rather go on with my work; and it so happened he had
+himself given me something to write out.</p>
+
+<p>As he was coming out of the house, he received a note from Rectina,
+the wife of Bassus, who was in the utmost alarm at the imminent danger
+which threatened her; for her villa lying at the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>foot of Mount
+Vesuvius, there was no way of escape but by sea; she earnestly
+entreated him therefore to come to her assistance. He accordingly
+changed his first intention and what he had begun from a
+philosophical, he now carries out in a noble and generous spirit. He
+ordered the galleys to put to sea and went himself on board with an
+intention of assisting not only Rectina but the several other towns
+which lay thickly strewn along that beautiful coast. Hastening then to
+the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered
+his course direct to the point of danger, and with so much calmness
+and presence of mind as to be able to make and dictate his
+observations upon the motion and all the phenomena of that dreadful
+scene. He was now so close to the mountain that the cinders, which
+grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships,
+together with pumice stones, and black pieces of burning rock: they
+were in danger too not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of
+the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the
+mountains, and obstructed all the shore. Here he stopt to consider
+whether he should turn back again; to which the pilot advising him,
+"Fortune," said he, "favors the brave; steer to where Pomponianus is."
+Pomponianus was then at Stabi&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> separated by a bay, which the
+sea, after several insensible windings, forms with the shore. He had
+already sent his baggage on board; for tho he was not at that time in
+actual danger, yet being within sight of it, and indeed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>extremely
+near, if it should in the least increase, he was determined to put to
+sea as soon as the wind, which was blowing dead in-shore, should go
+down.</p>
+
+<p>It was favorable, however, for carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom
+he found in the greatest consternation: he embraced him tenderly,
+encouraging and urging him to keep up his spirits, and the more
+effectually to soothe his fears by seeming unconcerned himself,
+ordered a bath to be got ready, and then, after having bathed, sat
+down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at least (what is just as
+heroic) with every appearance of it. Meanwhile broad flames shone out
+in several places from Mount Vesuvius, which the darkness of the night
+contributed to render still brighter and clearer. But my uncle, in
+order to soothe the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was
+only the burning of the villages, which the country people had
+abandoned to the flames: after this he retired to rest, and it is most
+certain he was so little disquieted as to fall into a sound sleep: for
+his breathing, which, on account of his corpulence, was rather heavy
+and sonorous, was heard by the attendants outside. The court which led
+to his apartment being now almost filled with stones and ashes, if he
+had continued there any time longer, it would have been impossible for
+him to have made his way out. So he was awoke and got up, and went to
+Pomponianus and the rest of his company, who were feeling too anxious
+to think of going to bed. They consulted together whether it would be
+most prudent to trust to the houses, which now rocked from side to
+side with frequent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> and violent concussions as tho shaken from their
+very foundations; or fly to the open fields, where the calcined stones
+and cinders, tho light indeed yet fell in large showers, and
+threatened destruction. In this choice of dangers they resolved for
+the fields: a resolution which, while the rest of the company were
+hurried into by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and
+deliberate consideration. They went out then, having pillows tied upon
+their heads with napkins; and this was their whole defense against the
+storm of stones that fell round them.</p>
+
+<p>It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness prevailed
+than in the thickest night; which however was in some degree
+alleviated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They thought
+proper to go farther down upon the shore to see if they might safely
+put out to sea, but found the waves still running extremely high, and
+boisterous. There my uncle, laying himself down upon a sail-cloth,
+which was spread for him, called twice for some cold water, which he
+drank, when immediately the flames, preceded by a strong whiff of
+sulfur, dispersed the rest of the party, and obliged him to rise. He
+raised himself up with the assistance of two of his servants, and
+instantly fell down dead; suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross
+and noxious vapor, having always had a weak throat, which was often
+inflamed. As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third
+day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and
+without any marks of violence upon it, in the dress in which he fell,
+and looking more like a man asleep than dead....<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>My uncle having left us,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> I spent such time as was left on my
+studies (it was on their account indeed that I had stopt behind), till
+it was time for my bath. After which I went to supper, and then fell
+into a short and uneasy sleep. There had been noticed for many days
+before a trembling of the earth, which did not alarm us much, as this
+is quite an ordinary occurrence in Campania; but it was so
+particularly violent that night that it not only shook but actually
+overturned, as it would seem, everything about us. My mother rushed
+into my chamber, where she found me rising, in order to awaken her. We
+sat down in the open court of the house, which occupied a small space
+between the buildings and the sea. As I was at that time but eighteen
+years of age, I know not whether I should call my behavior, in this
+dangerous juncture, courage or folly; but I took up Livy, and amused
+myself with turning over that author, and even making extracts from
+him, as if I had been perfectly at my leisure. Just then, a friend of
+my uncle's, who had lately come to him from Spain, joined us, and
+observing me sitting by my mother with a book in my hand, reproved her
+for her calmness, and me at the same time for my careless security:
+nevertheless I went on with my author.</p>
+
+<p>Tho it was now morning, the light was still exceedingly faint and
+doubtful; the buildings all around us tottered, and tho we stood upon
+open ground, yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining without imminent danger: we therefore resolved to quit the
+town.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A panic-stricken crowd followed us, and (as to a mind distracted with
+terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its own) prest on us
+in dense array to drive us forward as we came out. Being at a
+convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a
+most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we had ordered
+to be drawn out, were so agitated backward and forward, tho upon the
+most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by
+supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon
+itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain at least the shore was considerably enlarged,
+and several sea animals were left upon it. On the other side, a black
+and dreadful cloud, broken with rapid, zigzag flashes, revealed behind
+it variously shaped masses of flame: these last were like
+sheet-lightning, but much larger. Upon this our Spanish friend, whom I
+mentioned above, addressing himself to my mother and me with great
+energy and urgency: "If your brother," he said, "if your uncle be
+safe, he certainly wishes you may be so too; but if he perished, it
+was his desire, no doubt, that you might both survive him: why
+therefore do you delay your escape a moment?" We could never think of
+our own safety, we said, while we were uncertain of his. Upon this our
+friend left us, and withdrew from the danger with the utmost
+precipitation. Soon afterward, the cloud began to descend, and cover
+the sea. It had already surrounded and concealed the island of
+Capre&aelig;.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>My mother now besought, urged, even commanded me to make my escape at
+any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself,
+she said, her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sort
+impossible; however she would willingly meet death if she could have
+the satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But
+I absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand,
+compelled her to go with me. She complied with great reluctance, and
+not without many reproaches to herself for retarding my flight. The
+ashes now began to fall upon us, tho in no great quantity. I looked
+back; a dense dark mist seemed to be following us, spreading itself
+over the country like a cloud. "Let us turn out of the high-road," I
+said, "while we can still see, for fear that, should we fall in the
+road, we should be prest to death in the dark, by the crowds that are
+following us." We had scarcely sat down when night came upon us, not
+such as we have when the sky is cloudy, or when there is no moon, but
+that of a room when it is shut up, and all the lights put out. You
+might hear the shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the
+shouts of men; some calling for their children, others for their
+parents, others for their husbands, and seeking to recognize each
+other by the voices that replied; one lamenting his own fate, another
+that of his family; some wishing to die, from the very fear of dying;
+some lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part convinced
+that there were now no gods at all, and that the final endless night
+of which we have heard had come upon the world. Among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> these there
+were some who augmented the real terrors by others imaginary or
+wilfully invented. I remember some who declared that one part of
+Misenum had fallen, that another was on fire; it was false, but they
+found people to believe them. It now grew rather lighter, which we
+imagined to be rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames
+(as in truth it was) than the return of day: however, the fire fell at
+a distance from us: then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and
+a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every
+now and then to stand up to shake off, otherwise we should have been
+crusht and buried in the heap.</p>
+
+<p>I might boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh, or
+expression of fear, escaped me, had not my support been grounded in
+that miserable, tho mighty, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity and that I was perishing with the world
+itself. At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like
+a cloud or smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun shone out,
+tho with a lurid light, like when an eclipse is coming on. Every
+object that presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely
+weakened) seemed changed, being covered deep with ashes as if with
+snow. My mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we had passed, and
+that which still threatened us, had no thoughts of leaving the place,
+till we could receive some news of my uncle.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Addrest to the Emperor Trajan while proconsul in Pontus
+and Bithynia. The Melmoth translation revised by Bosanquet. This
+letter and the passage in Tacitus printed elsewhere in this volume,
+are the only genuine contemporary references to the early Christians
+to be found in ancient writings. Pliny's letter was preserved by the
+Christians themselves as evidence of the purity of their faith and
+practises. Early writers of the Church frequently appeal to it against
+calumniators. It was written within forty years of the death of St.
+Paul.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Trajan's reply to this letter was as follows: "You have
+adopted the right course, my dearest Secundus, in investigating the
+charges against the Christians who were brought before you. It is not
+possible to lay down any general rule for all such cases. Do not go
+out of your way to look for them. If indeed they should be brought
+before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished; with the
+restriction, however, that where the party denies he is a Christian,
+and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let
+him (notwithstanding any former suspicion) be pardoned upon his
+repentance. Anonymous information ought not to be received in any sort
+of prosecution. It is introducing a very dangerous precedent and is
+quite foreign to the spirit of our age."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> The translation of William Melmoth, revised by F. C. T.
+Bosanquet. Pliny wrote two letters to Tacitus on this subject, each at
+the request of the historian. Both are given here.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Pliny the elder was his uncle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> In the Bay of Naples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> About six miles distant from Naples. This eruption of
+Vesuvius, in which Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried, happened <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+79, in the first year of the emperor Titus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Now called Castellammare, in the Bay of Naples, about
+fifteen miles southeast of the city of Naples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> The paragraphs from this point to the end are from
+Pliny's second letter to Tacitus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> The island near Naples, now called Capri.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SUETONIUS" id="SUETONIUS"></a>SUETONIUS</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Lived in the first half of the second century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>;
+biographer and historian; private secretary of the emperor
+Hadrian about 119-121; a friend of the younger Pliny, whom
+he accompanied to Bithynia in 112; wrote several works, of
+which only His "Lives of the Twelve C&aelig;sars" have survived.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Ih" id="Ih"></a>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE LAST DAYS OF AUGUSTUS<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></h3>
+<h3>(14 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>His death, of which I shall now speak, and his subsequent deification,
+were intimated by divers manifest prodigies. As he was finishing the
+census amidst a great crowd of people in the Campus Martius, an eagle
+hovered round him several times, and then directed its course to a
+neighboring temple, where it settled upon the name of Agrippa, and at
+the first letter. Upon observing this, he ordered his colleague
+Tiberius to put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such
+occasions, for the succeeding Lustrum. For he declared he would not
+meddle with what it was probable he should never accomplish, tho the
+tables were ready drawn for it. About the same time, the first letter
+of his name, in an inscription upon one of his statues, was struck out
+by lightning; which was interpreted as a presage that he would live
+only a hundred days <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>longer, the letter C denoting that number; and
+that he would be placed among the gods as &AElig;sar, which in the remaining
+part of the word C&aelig;sar, signifies, in the Tuscan language, a god.
+Being, therefore, about dispatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and
+designing to go with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained by
+several persons who applied to him respecting causes they had
+depending, he cried out (and it was afterward regarded as an omen of
+his death), "Not all the business in the world shall detain me at Rome
+one moment longer"; and setting out upon his journey, he went as far
+as Astura, whence, contrary to his custom, he put to sea in the
+night-time, as there was a favorable wind.</p>
+
+<p>His malady proceeded from diarrhea; notwithstanding which, he went
+round the coast of Campania, and the adjacent islands, and spent four
+days in that of Capri; where he gave himself up entirely to repose and
+relaxation. Happening to sail by the bay of Puteoli,<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> the
+passengers and mariners aboard a ship of Alexandria, just then
+arrived, clad all in white, with chaplets upon their heads, and
+offering incense, loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations,
+crying out, "By you we live, by you we sail securely, by you enjoy our
+liberty and our fortunes." At which being greatly pleased, he
+distributed to each of those who attended him, forty gold pieces,
+requiring from them an assurance on oath, not to employ the sum given
+them in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>any other way than the purchase of Alexandrian merchandise.
+And during several days afterward, he distributed Tog&aelig; and Pallia,
+among other gifts, on condition that the Romans should use the Greek
+and the Greeks the Roman dress and language. He likewise constantly
+attended to see the boys perform their exercises, according to an
+ancient custom still continued at Capri. He gave them likewise an
+entertainment in his presence, and not only permitted, but required
+from them the utmost freedom in jesting, and scrambling for fruit,
+victuals, and other things which he threw among them. In a word, he
+indulged himself in all the ways of amusement he could contrive....</p>
+
+<p>Upon the day of his death, he now and then inquired if there was any
+disturbance in the town on his account; and calling for a mirror, he
+ordered his hair to be combed, and his shrunk cheeks to be adjusted.
+Then asking his friends who were admitted into the room, "Do ye think
+that I have acted my part on the stage of life well?" he immediately
+subjoined,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"If all be right, with joy your voices raise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In loud applauses to the actor's praise."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>After which, having dismissed them all, whilst he was inquiring of
+some persons who were just arrived from Rome, concerning Drusus's
+daughter, who was in a bad state of health, he expired suddenly,
+amidst the kisses of Livia, and with these words: "Livia! live mindful
+of our union; and now, farewell!" dying a very easy death, and such as
+he himself had always wished for. For as often as he heard that any
+person<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and
+his friends the like <i>euthanasia</i> (an easy death), for that was the
+word he made use of. He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed
+his last, of being delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden
+much frightened, and complained that he was carried away by forty men.
+But this was rather a presage, than any delirium: for precisely that
+number of soldiers, belonging to the pr&aelig;torian cohort, carried out his
+corpse.</p>
+
+<p>He expired in the same room in which his father Octavius had died,
+when the two Sextus's, Pompey and Apuleius, were Consuls, upon the
+fourteenth of the calends of September [the 19th August], at the ninth
+hour of the day, being seventy-six years of age, wanting only
+thirty-five days. His remains were carried by the magistrates of the
+municipal towns and colonies, from Nola to Bovill&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> and in the
+night-time because of the season of the year. During the intervals,
+the body lay in some basilica, or great temple, of each town. At
+Bovill&aelig; it was met by the Equestrian Order, who carried it to the
+city, and deposited it in the vestibule of his own house. The senate
+proceeded with so much zeal in the arrangement of his funeral, and
+paying honor to his memory, that, among several other proposals, some
+were for having the funeral procession made through the triumphal
+gate, preceded by the image of Victory which is in the senate-house,
+and the children of highest rank and of both sexes singing the funeral
+dirge. Others <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>proposed, that on the day of the funeral, they should
+lay aside their gold rings, and wear rings of iron; and others, that
+his bones should be collected by the priests of the principal
+colleges. One likewise proposed to transfer the name of August to
+September, because he was born in the latter, but died in the former.
+Another moved, that the whole period of time, from his birth to his
+death, should be called the Augustan age, and be inserted in the
+calendar under that title. But at last it was judged proper to be
+moderate in the honors paid to his memory. Two funeral orations were
+pronounced in his praise, one before the temple of Julius, by
+Tiberius; and the other before the rostra, under the old shops, by
+Drusus, Tiberius's son. The body was then carried upon the shoulders
+of senators into the Campus Martius, and there burned. A man of
+pr&aelig;torian rank affirmed upon oath, that he saw his spirit ascend from
+the funeral pile to heaven. The most distinguished persons of the
+equestrian order, barefooted, and with their tunics loose, gathered up
+his relics, and deposited them in the mausoleum<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> which had been
+built in his sixth consulship between the Flaminian Way and the bank
+of the Tiber; at which time likewise he gave the groves and walks
+about it for the use of the people.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IIh" id="IIh"></a>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GOOD DEEDS OF NERO<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></h3>
+<p>He was seventeen years of age at the death of that prince,<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> and as
+soon as that event was made public, he went out to the cohort on guard
+between the hours of six and seven; for the omens were so disastrous,
+that no earlier time of the day was judged proper. On the steps before
+the palace gate, he was unanimously saluted by the soldiers as their
+emperor, and then carried in a litter to the camp; thence, after
+making a short speech to the troops, into the senate-house, where he
+continued until the evening; of all the immense honors which were
+heaped upon him, refusing none but the title of <span class="smcap">Father of his Country</span>,
+on account of his youth.</p>
+
+<p>He began his reign with an ostentation of dutiful regard to the memory
+of Claudius, whom he buried with the utmost pomp and magnificence,
+pronouncing the funeral oration himself, and then had him enrolled
+among the gods. He paid likewise the highest honors to the memory of
+his father Domitius. He left the management of affairs, both public
+and private, to his mother. The word which he gave the first day of
+his reign to the tribune on guard was, "The Best of Mothers," and
+afterward he frequently appeared with her in the streets of Rome in
+her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>litter. He settled a colony at Antium,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> in which he placed
+the veteran soldiers belonging to the guards; and obliged several of
+the richest centurions of the first rank to transfer their residence
+to that place; where he likewise made a noble harbor at a prodigious
+expense.</p>
+
+<p>To establish still further his character, he declared, "that he
+designed to govern according to the model of Augustus"; and omitted no
+opportunity of showing his generosity, clemency, and complaisance. The
+more burdensome taxes he either entirely took off, or diminished. The
+rewards appointed for informers by the Papian law, he reduced to a
+fourth part, and distributed to the people four hundred sesterces a
+man. To the noblest of the senators who were much reduced in their
+circumstances, he granted annual allowances, in some cases as much as
+five hundred thousand sesterces; and to the pr&aelig;torian cohorts a
+monthly allowance of corn gratis. When called upon to subscribe the
+sentence, according to custom, of a criminal condemned to die, "I
+wish," said he, "I had never learned to read and write." He
+continually saluted people of the several orders by name, without a
+prompter. When the senate returned him their thanks for his good
+government, he replied to them, "It will be time enough to do so when
+I shall have deserved it." He admitted the common people to see him
+perform his exercises in the Campus Martius. He frequently declaimed
+in public, and recited verses of his own <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>composing, not only at home,
+but in the theater; so much to the joy of all the people, that public
+prayers were appointed to be put up to the gods upon that account; and
+the verses which had been publicly read, were, after being written in
+gold letters, consecrated to Jupiter Capitolinus.</p>
+
+<p>He presented the people with a great number and variety of spectacles,
+as the Juvenal and Circensian games, stage-plays, and an exhibition of
+gladiators. In the Juvenal, he even admitted senators and aged matrons
+to perform parts. In the Circensian games, he assigned the equestrian
+order seats apart from the rest of the people, and had races performed
+by chariots drawn each by four camels. In the games which he
+instituted for the eternal duration of the empire, and therefore
+ordered to be called <i>Maximi</i>, many of the senatorian and equestrian
+order, of both sexes, performed. A distinguished Roman knight
+descended on the stage by a rope, mounted on an elephant. A Roman
+play, likewise, composed by Afranius, was brought upon the stage. It
+was entitled, "The Fire"; and in it the performers were allowed to
+carry off, and to keep to themselves, the furniture of the house,
+which as the plot of the play required, was burned down in the
+theater. Every day during the solemnity, many thousand articles of all
+descriptions were thrown among the people to scramble for; such as
+fowls of different kinds, tickets for corn, clothes, gold, silver,
+gems, pearls, pictures, slaves, beasts of burden, wild beasts that had
+been tamed; at last, ships, lots of houses, and lands, Were offered as
+prizes in a lottery.</p>
+
+<p>These games he beheld from the front of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> proscenium. In the show
+of gladiators, which he exhibited in a wooden amphitheater, built
+within a year in the district of the Campus Martius, he ordered that
+none should be slain, not even the condemned criminals employed in the
+combats. He secured four hundred senators, and six hundred Roman
+knights, among whom were some of unbroken fortunes and unblemished
+reputation, to act as gladiators. From the same orders, he engaged
+persons to encounter wild beasts, and for various other services in
+the theater. He presented the public with the representation of a
+naval fight, upon sea-water, with huge fishes swimming in it; as also
+with the Pyrrhic dance, performed by certain youths, to each of whom,
+after the performance was over, he granted the freedom of Rome. During
+this diversion, a bull covered Pasipha&euml;, concealed within a wooden
+statue of a cow, as many of the spectators believed. Icarus, upon his
+first attempt to fly, fell on the stage close to the emperor's
+pavilion, and bespattered him with blood. For he very seldom presided
+in the games, but used to view them reclining on a couch, at first
+through some narrow apertures, but afterward with the <i>Podium</i> quite
+open. He was the first who instituted, in imitation of the Greeks, a
+trial of skill in the three several exercises of music, wrestling, and
+horse-racing, to be performed at Rome every five years, and which he
+called Neronia. Upon the dedication of his bath<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> and gymnasium, he
+furnished the senate and the equestrian order with oil. He appointed
+as judges of the trial men of consular <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>rank, chosen by lot, who eat
+with the pr&aelig;tors. At this time he went down into the orchestra among
+the senators, and received the crown for the best performance in Latin
+prose and verse for which several persons of the greatest merit
+contended, but they unanimously yielded to him. The crown for the best
+performer on the harp; being likewise awarded to him by the judges, he
+devoutly saluted it, and ordered it to be carried to the statue of
+Augustus. In the gymnastic exercises, which he presented in the Septa,
+while they were preparing the great sacrifice of an ox, he shaved his
+beard for the first time, and putting it up in a casket of gold
+studded with pearls of great price, consecrated it to Jupiter
+Capitolinus. He invited the Vestal Virgins to see the wrestlers
+perform, because, at Olympia, the priestesses of Ceres are allowed the
+privilege of witnessing that exhibition....</p>
+
+<p>Twice only he undertook any foreign expeditions, one to Alexandria,
+and the other to Achaia; but he abandoned the prosecution of the
+former on the very day fixt for his departure, by being deterred both
+by ill omens, and the hazard of the voyage. For while he was making
+the circuit of the temples, having seated himself in that of Vesta,
+when he attempted to rise, the skirt of his robe stuck fast; and he
+was instantly seized with such a dimness in his eyes, that he could
+not see a yard before him. In Achaia, he attempted to make a cut
+through the Isthmus;<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> and, having made a speech encouraging his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>pretorians to set about the work, on a signal given by sound of
+trumpet, he first broke ground with a spade, and carried off a
+basketful of earth upon his shoulders. He made preparations for an
+expedition to the Pass of the Caspian mountains, forming a new legion
+out of his late levies in Italy, of men all six feet high, which he
+called the phalanx of Alexander the Great. These transactions, in part
+unexceptionable, and in part highly commendable, I have brought into
+one view, in order to separate them from the scandalous and criminal
+part of his conduct.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IIIe" id="IIIe"></a>III</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEATH OF NERO<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></h3>
+<h3>(68 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>)</h3>
+<p>He was terrified with manifest warnings, both old and new, arising
+from dreams, auspices, and omens. He had never been used to dream
+before the murder of his mother. After that event, he fancied in his
+sleep that he was steering a ship, and that the rudder was forced from
+him: that he was dragged by his wife Octavia into a prodigiously dark
+place; and was at one time covered over with a vast swarm of winged
+ants, and at another, surrounded by the national images which were set
+up near Pompey's theater, and hindered from advancing farther; that a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>Spanish jennet he was fond of, had his hinder parts so changed as to
+resemble those of an ape; and that having his head only left
+unaltered, he neighed very harmoniously. The doors of the mausoleum of
+Augustus flying open of themselves, there issued from it a voice,
+calling on him by name. The Lares being adorned with fresh garlands on
+the calends (the first) of January, fell down during the preparations
+for sacrificing to them. While he was taking the omens, Sporus
+presented him with a ring, the stone of which had carved upon it the
+Rape of Proserpine. When a great multitude of several orders was
+assembled, to attend at the solemnity of making vows to the gods, it
+was a long time before the keys of the Capitol could be found. And
+when, in a speech of his to the senate against Vindex, these words
+were read, "that the miscreants should be punished and soon make the
+end they merited," they all cried out, "You will do it, Augustus." It
+was likewise remarked, that the last tragic piece which he sung, was
+&OElig;dipus in Exile, and that he fell as he was repeating this verse:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Wife, mother, father, force me to my end."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on the arrival of the news that the rest of the armies had
+declared against him, he tore to piece the letters which were
+delivered to him at dinner, overthrew the table, and dashed with
+violence against the ground two favorite cups, which he called
+Homer's, because some of that poet's verses were cut upon them. Then
+taking from Locusta a dose of poison, which he put up in a golden box,
+he went into the Servilian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> gardens, and thence dispatching a trusty
+freedman to Ostia, with orders to make ready a fleet, he endeavored to
+prevail with some tribunes and centurions of the pr&aelig;torian guards to
+attend him in his flight; but part of them showing no great
+inclination to comply, others absolutely refusing, and one of them
+crying out aloud,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Say, is it then so sad a thing to die?"</p></div>
+
+<p>he was in great perplexity whether he should submit himself to
+Galba,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> or apply to the Parthians for protection, or else appear
+before the people drest in mourning, and, upon the rostra, in the most
+piteous manner, beg pardon for his past misdemeanors, and, if he could
+not prevail, request of them to grant him at least the government of
+Egypt. A speech to this purpose was afterward found in his
+writing-case. But it is conjectured that he durst not venture upon
+this project, for fear of being torn to pieces, before he could get to
+the forum.</p>
+
+<p>Deferring, therefore, his resolution until the next day, he awoke
+about midnight, and finding the guards withdrawn, he leapt out of bed,
+and sent round for his friends. But none of them vouchsafing any
+message in reply, he went with a few attendants to their houses. The
+doors being everywhere shut, and no one giving him any answer, he
+returned to his bed-chamber; whence those who had the charge of it had
+all now eloped; some having gone one way, and some another, carrying
+off with them his bedding <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>and box of poison. He then endeavored to
+find Spicillus, the gladiator, or some one to kill him; but not being
+able to procure any one, "What!" said he, "have I then neither friend
+nor foe?" and immediately ran out, as if he would throw himself into
+the Tiber.</p>
+
+<p>But this furious impulse subsiding, he wished for some place of
+privacy, where he might collect his thoughts; and his freedman Phaon
+offering him his country-house, between the Salarian and Nomentan
+roads, about four miles from the city, he mounted a horse, barefoot as
+he was, and in his tunic, only slipping over it an old soiled cloak;
+with his head muffled up, and a handkerchief before his face, and four
+persons only to attend him, of whom Sporus was one. He was suddenly
+struck with horror by an earthquake, and by a flash of lightning which
+darted full in his face, and heard from the neighboring camp the
+shouts of the soldiers, wishing his destruction, and prosperity to
+Galba. He also heard a traveler they met on the road, say, "They are
+in pursuit of Nero": and another ask, "Is there any news in the city
+about Nero?" Uncovering his face when his horse was started by the
+scent of a carcass which lay in the road, he was recognized and
+saluted by an old soldier who had been discharged from the guards.
+When they came to the lane which turned up to the house, they quitted
+their horses, and with much difficulty he wound among bushes and
+briars, and along a track through a bed of rushes, over which they
+spread their cloaks for him to walk on. Having reached a wall at the
+back of the villa, Phaon advised him to hide himself a while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> in a
+sand-pit; when he replied, "I will not go underground alive." Staying
+there some little time, while preparations were made for bringing him
+privately into the villa, he took up some water out of a neighboring
+tank in his hand, to drink, saying, "This is Nero's distilled water."
+Then his cloak having been torn by the brambles, he pulled out the
+thorns which stuck in it. At last, being admitted, creeping upon his
+hands and knees, through a hole made for him in the wall, he lay down
+in the first closet he came to, upon a miserable pallet, with an old
+coverlet thrown over it; and being both hungry and thirsty, tho he
+refused some coarse bread that was brought him, he drank a little warm
+water.</p>
+
+<p>All who surrounded him now pressing him to save himself from the
+indignities which were ready to befall him, he ordered a pit to be
+sunk before his eyes, of the size of his body, and the bottom to be
+covered with pieces of marble put together, if any could be found
+about the house; and water and wood to be got ready for immediate use
+about his corpse; weeping at everything that was done, and frequently
+saying, "What an artist is now about to perish!" Meanwhile, letters
+being brought in by a servant belonging to Phaon, he snatched them out
+of his hand, and there read, "That he had been declared an enemy by
+the senate, and that search was making for him, that he might be
+punished according to the ancient custom of the Romans." He then
+inquired what kind of punishment that was; and being told, that the
+practise was to strip the criminal naked, and scourge him to death
+while his neck was fastened within a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> forked stake, he was so
+terrified that he took up two daggers which he had brought with him,
+and after feeling the points of both, put them up again, saying, "The
+fatal hour is not yet come." One while, he begged of Sporus to begin
+to wail and lament; another while, he entreated that one of them would
+set him an example by killing himself; and then again, he condemned
+his own want of resolution in these words: "I yet live to my shame and
+disgrace: this is not becoming for Nero: it is not becoming. Thou
+oughtest in such circumstances to have a good heart: Come then:
+courage, man!" The horsemen who had received orders to bring him away
+alive, were now approaching the house. As soon as he heard them
+coming, he uttered with a trembling voice the following verse,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The noise of swift-heel'd steeds assails my ears";<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>he drove a dagger into his throat, being assisted in the act by
+Epaphroditus,<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> his secretary. A centurion bursting in just as he
+was half-dead, and applying his cloak to the wound, pretending that he
+was come to his assistance, he made no other reply but this, "'Tis too
+late"; and "Is this your loyalty?" Immediately after pronouncing these
+words, he expired, with his eyes fixt and starting out of his head, to
+the terror of all who beheld him....</p>
+
+<p>In stature he was a little below the common height; his skin was foul
+and spotted; his hair inclined to yellow; his features were agreeable,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>rather than handsome; his eyes gray and dull, his neck was thick, his
+belly prominent, his legs very slender, his constitution sound. For,
+tho excessively luxurious in his mode of living, he had, in the course
+of fourteen years, only three fits of sickness; which were so slight,
+that he neither forbore the use of wine, nor made any alteration in
+his usual diet. In his dress, and the care of his person, he was so
+careless, that he had his hair cut in rings, one above another; and
+when in Achaia, he let it grow long behind; and he generally appeared
+in public in the loose dress which he used at table, with a
+handkerchief about his neck and without either a girdle or shoes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Now Pozzuoli, which fronts on the bay, seven miles west
+of Naples. It still has ruins of an amphitheater, 482 feet by 384 in
+size. In Roman times it was as important commercial city.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Bovill&aelig; is now known as Frattochio. It stands on the
+Appian Way, about nineteen miles from Rome.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> This mausoleum was of white marble rising in terraces
+to a great height, and was crowned by a dome on which stood a statue
+of Augustus. Marcellus was the first person buried there. Its site was
+near the present Porta del Popolo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> The Emperor Claudius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Nero was born in Antium, distant from Rome about
+thirty-eight miles. The Apollo Belvidere was found among its ruins.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> These baths stood west of the Pantheon. Altho of great
+extent, no remains of them now exist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> This scheme, which was a favorite one of many Roman
+emperors and even of Julius C&aelig;sar, was not realized until our time.
+The Corinth canal was completed in 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> The Roman general, then leader of the revolt against
+Nero, who was afterward proclaimed Emperor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Epaphroditus was the master of Epictetus, the Stoic
+philosopher, before his freedom.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="MARCUS_AURELIUS" id="MARCUS_AURELIUS"></a>MARCUS AURELIUS</h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Born in Rome in 121 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>; died in 180; celebrated as emperor
+and Stoic philosopher; a nephew of Antoninus Pius, whom he
+succeeded as emperor, with Lucius Verus; after the death of
+Verus in 169 became sole emperor; his reign notable for
+wisdom and the happiness of the Roman people; wrote his
+"Meditations" in Greek; a bronze equestrian statue of him in
+Rome is the finest extant specimen of ancient bronze.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="HIS_DEBT_TO_OTHERS" id="HIS_DEBT_TO_OTHERS"></a>HIS DEBT TO OTHERS<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>1. From my grandfather Verus<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> [I learned] good morals and the
+government of my temper.</p>
+
+<p>2. From the reputation and remembrance of my father,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> modesty and
+a manly character.</p>
+
+<p>3. From my mother,<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> piety and beneficence, and abstinence, not
+only from evil deeds, but even from evil thoughts; and, further,
+simplicity in my way of living, far removed from the habits of the
+rich.</p>
+
+<p>4. From my great-grandfather,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> not to have frequented public
+schools, and to have had good teachers at home, and to know that on
+such things a man should spend liberally.</p>
+
+<p>5. From my governor, to be neither of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>green nor of the blue party
+at the games in the circus, nor a partizan either of the Parmularius
+or the Scutarius at the gladiators' fights; from him too I learned
+endurance of labor and to want little, and to work with my own hands,
+and not to meddle with other people's affairs, and not to be ready to
+listen to slander.</p>
+
+<p>6. From Diognetus,<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> not to busy myself about trifling things, and
+not to give credit to what was said by miracle-workers and jugglers
+about incantations and the driving away of demons and such things; and
+not to breed quails [for fighting], not to give myself up passionately
+to such things; and to endure freedom of speech; and to have become
+intimate with philosophy; and to have been a hearer, first of
+Bacchius, then of Tandasis and Marcianus; and to have written dialogs
+in my youth; and to have desired a plank bed and skin, and whatever
+else of the kind belongs to the Grecian discipline.</p>
+
+<p>7. From Rusticus<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> I received the impression that my character
+required improvement and discipline; and from him I learned not to be
+led astray to sophistic emulation, nor to writing on speculative
+matters, nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to showing
+myself off as a man who practises much discipline, or does benevolent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>acts in order to make a display; and to abstain from rhetoric, and
+poetry, and fine writing; and not to walk about in the house in my
+outdoor dress, nor to do other things of the kind; and to write my
+letters with simplicity, like the letter which Rusticus wrote from
+Sinuessa to my mother; and with respect to those who have offended me
+by words, or done me wrong, to be easily disposed to be pacified and
+reconciled, as soon as they have shown a readiness to be reconciled;
+and to read carefully, and not to be satisfied with a superficial
+understanding of a book; not hastily to give my assent to those who
+talk overmuch; and I am indebted to him for being acquainted with the
+discourses of Epictetus.</p>
+
+<p>8. From Apollonius<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> I learned freedom of will and undeviating
+steadiness of purpose; and to look to nothing else, not even for a
+moment, except to reason; and to be always the same, in sharp pains,
+on the occasion of the loss of a child, and in long illness; and to
+see clearly in a living example that the same man can be both most
+resolute and yielding, and not peevish in giving his instruction; and
+to have had before my eyes a man who clearly considered his experience
+and his skill in expounding philosophical principles as the smallest
+of his merits; and from him I learned how to receive from friends what
+are esteemed favors, without being either humbled by them or letting
+them pass unnoticed.</p>
+
+<p>9. From Sextus,<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> a benevolent disposition, and the example of a
+family governed in a fatherly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>manner, and the idea of living
+conformably to nature; and gravity without affectation, and to look
+carefully after the interests of friends, and to tolerate ignorant
+persons and those who form opinions without consideration: he had the
+power of readily accommodating himself to all, so that intercourse
+with him was more agreeable than any flattery; and at the same time he
+was most highly venerated by those who associated with him; and he had
+the faculty both of discovering and ordering, in an intelligent
+methodical way, the principles necessary for life; and he never showed
+anger or any other passion, but was entirely free from passion, and
+also most affectionate; and he could express approbation without noisy
+display, and he possessed much knowledge without ostentation.</p>
+
+<p>10. From Alexander<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> the grammarian, to refrain from fault-finding,
+and not in a reproachful way to chide those who uttered any barbarous
+or solecistic or strange-sounding expression; but dexterously to
+introduce the very expression which ought to have been used, and in
+the way of answer or giving confirmation, or joining in an inquiry
+about the thing itself, not about the word, or by some other fit
+suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>11. From Fronto<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> I learned to observe what envy, and duplicity,
+and hypocrisy are in a tyrant, and that generally those among us who
+are called Patricians are rather deficient in paternal affection.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p><p>12. From Alexander the Platonic, not frequently nor without necessity
+to say to any one, or to write in a letter, that I have no leisure;
+nor continually to excuse the neglect of duties required by our
+relation to those with whom we live, by alleging urgent occupations.</p>
+
+<p>13. From Catulus,<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> not to be indifferent when a friend finds
+fault, even if he should find fault without reason, but to try to
+restore him to his usual disposition; and to be ready to speak well of
+teachers, as it is reported of Domitius and Athenodotus; and to love
+my children truly.</p>
+
+<p>14. From my brother Severus, to love my kin, and to love truth, and to
+love justice; and through him I learned to know Thrasea, Helvidius,
+Cato, Dion, Brutus; and from him I received the idea of a polity in
+which there is the same law for all, a polity administered with regard
+to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly
+government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed; I
+learned from him also consistency and undeviating steadiness in my
+regard for philosophy; and a disposition to do good, and to give to
+others readily, and to cherish good hopes, and to believe that I am
+loved by my friends; and in him I observed no concealment of his
+opinions with respect to those whom he condemned, and that his friends
+had no need to conjecture what he wished or did not wish, but it was
+quite plain.</p>
+
+<p>15. From Maximus<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> I learned self-government, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>and not to be led
+aside by anything; and cheerfulness in all circumstances as well as in
+illness; and a just admixture in the moral character of sweetness and
+dignity, and to do what was set before me without complaining. I
+observed that everybody believed that he thought as he spoke, and that
+in all that he did he never had any bad intention; and he never showed
+amazement and surprize, and was never in a hurry, and never put off
+doing a thing, nor was perplexed nor dejected, nor did he ever laugh
+to disguise his vexation, nor, on the other hand, was he ever
+passionate or suspicious. He was accustomed to do acts of beneficence,
+and was ready to forgive, and was free from all falsehood; and he
+presented the appearance of a man who could not be diverted from right
+rather than of a man who had been improved. I observed, too that no
+man could ever think that he was despised by Maximus, or ever venture
+to think himself a better man. He had also the art of being humorous
+in an agreeable way.</p>
+
+<p>16. In my father<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> I observed mildness of temper, and unchangeable
+resolution in the things which he had determined after due
+deliberation; and no vainglory in those things which men call honors;
+and a love of labor and perseverance; and a readiness to listen to
+those who had anything to propose for the common weal; and undeviating
+firmness in giving to every man according to his deserts; and a
+knowledge derived from experience of the occasions for vigorous action
+and for remission. And I observed that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>he had overcome all passion
+for boys; and he considered himself no more than any other citizen;
+and he released his friends from all obligation to sup with him or to
+attend him of necessity when he went abroad, and those who had failed
+to accompany him, by reason of any urgent circumstances, always found
+him the same. I observed too his habit of careful inquiry in all
+matters of deliberation, and his persistency, and that he never stopt
+his investigation through being satisfied with appearances which first
+present themselves; and that his disposition was to keep his friends,
+and not to be soon tired of them, nor yet to be extravagant in his
+affection; and to be satisfied on all occasions, and cheerful; and to
+foresee things a long way off, and to provide for the smallest without
+display; and to check immediately popular applause and all flattery;
+and to be ever watchful over the things which were necessary for the
+administration of the empire, and to be a good manager of the
+expenditure, and patiently to endure the blame which he got for such
+conduct; and he was neither superstitious with respect to the gods,
+nor did he court men by gifts or by trying to please them, or by
+flattering the populace; but he showed sobriety in all things and
+firmness, and never any mean thoughts or action, nor love of
+novelty....</p>
+
+<p>17. To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good
+parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, good kinsmen
+and friends, nearly everything good. Further, I owe it to the gods
+that I was not hurried into any offense against any of them, tho I had
+a disposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> which, if opportunity had offered, might have led me to
+do something of this kind; but, through their favor, there never was
+such a concurrence of circumstances as put me to the trial. Further, I
+am thankful to the gods that I was not longer brought up with my
+grandfather's concubine, and that I preserved the flower of my youth,
+and that I did not make proof of my virility before the proper season,
+but even deferred the time; that I was subjected to a ruler and a
+father who was able to take away all pride from me, and to bring me to
+the knowledge that it is possible for a man to live in a palace
+without wanting either guards or embroidered dresses, or torches and
+statues, and such-like show; but that it is in such a man's power to
+bring himself very near to the fashion of a private person, without
+being for this reason either meaner in thought, or more remiss in
+action, with respect to the things which must be done for the public
+interest in a manner that befits a ruler. I thank the gods for giving
+me such a brother,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> who was able by his moral character to rouse
+me to vigilance over myself, and who, at the same time, pleased me by
+his respect and affection; that my children have not been stupid nor
+deformed in body; that I did not make more proficiency in rhetoric,
+poetry, and the other studies, in which I should perhaps have been
+completely engaged, if I had seen that I was making progress in them;
+that I made haste to place those who brought me up in the station of
+honor, which they seemed to desire, without <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>putting them off with
+hope of my doing it some time after, because they were then still
+young; that I knew Apollonius, Rusticus, Maximus; that I received
+clear and frequent impressions about living according to nature, and
+what kind of a life that is, so that, so far as depended on the gods,
+and their gifts, and help, and inspirations, nothing hindered me from
+forthwith living according to nature, tho I still fall short of it
+through my own fault, and through not observing the admonitions of the
+gods, and I may almost say, their direct instructions; that my body
+has held out so long in such a kind of life; that I never touched
+either Benedicta or Theodotus; and that, after having fallen into
+amatory passions, I was cured; and, tho I was often out of humor with
+Rusticus, I never did anything of which I had occasion to repent;
+that, tho it was my mother's fate to die young, she spent the last
+years of her life with me; that, whenever I wished to help any man in
+his need, or on any other occasion, I was never told that I had not
+the means of doing it; and that to myself the same necessity never
+happened, to receive anything from another; that I have such a wife,
+so obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple; that I had abundance
+of good masters for my children; and that remedies have been shown to
+me by dreams, both others, and against blood-spitting and giddiness;
+and that, when I had an inclination to philosophy, I did not fall into
+the hands of any sophist.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> From the "Meditations." Translated by George Long.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Annius Verus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> His father's name also was Annius Verus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> His mother was Domitia Calvilla, named also Lucilla.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> His mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus, may be
+referred to here.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> The translator notes that, in the works of Justinus, is
+printed a letter from one Diognetus, a Gentile, who wished very much
+to know what the religion of the Christians was, and how it had taught
+them to believe neither in the gods of the Greeks nor the
+superstitions of the Jews. It has been suggested that this Diognetus
+may have been the tutor of Marcus Aurelius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Junius Rusticus, a Stoic philosopher, whom the author
+highly valued.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Apollonius of Chalcis, who came to Rome to be the
+author's preceptor. He was a rigid Stoic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> Sextus of Ch&aelig;ronea, a grandson, or nephew, of
+Plutarch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Alexander, a native of Phrygia, wrote a commentary on
+Homer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Cornelius Fronto, a rhetorician and friend of the
+author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Cinna Catulus, a Stoic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Claudius Maximus, a Stoic, whom the author's
+predecessor, Antoninus Pius, also valued highly.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> The reference here made is to the Emperor Antoninus
+Pius, who adopted him.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> His brother by adoption, L. Verus, is probably referred
+to here.</p></div></div>
+
+
+<h3>END OF VOLUME II.</h3>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics, 
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics,
+Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Best of the World's Classics,  Restricted to prose. Volume II (of X) - Rome
+
+Author: Various
+
+Editor: Henry Cabot Lodge
+        Francis W. Halsey
+
+Release Date: May 28, 2007 [EBook #21629]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEST OF THE WORLD'S CLASSICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Joseph R. Hauser, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   [Illustration: MARCUS AURELIUS]
+
+                   [Illustration: CAESAR]
+
+                   [Illustration: CICERO]
+
+                   [Illustration: SENECA]
+
+
+
+                               THE BEST
+
+                               _of the_
+
+                           WORLD'S CLASSICS
+
+                         RESTRICTED TO PROSE
+
+
+
+                          HENRY CABOT LODGE
+
+                          _Editor-in-Chief_
+
+
+                          FRANCIS W. HALSEY
+
+                          _Associate Editor_
+
+
+                With an Introduction, Biographical and
+                       Explanatory Notes, etc.
+
+
+                            IN TEN VOLUMES
+
+                               Vol. II
+
+
+                                 ROME
+
+
+
+
+
+                       FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
+
+                         NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY
+
+                       FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+The Best of the World's Classics
+
+VOL. II
+
+ROME
+
+234 B.C.--180 A.D.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+VOL. II--ROME
+
+
+CATO THE CENSOR--(Born in 234 B.C., died in 149.)
+
+Of Work on a Roman Farm. (From "De Re Rustica." Translated by Dr. E.
+Wilson)
+
+
+CICERO--(Born in 106 B.C., assassinated in 43.)
+
+I   The Blessings of Old Age.
+        (From the "Cato Major." Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+II  On the Death of His Daughter Tullia. (A letter to Sulpicius)
+
+III Of Brave and Elevated Spirits.
+        (From Book I of the "Offices." Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+IV  Of Scipio's Death and of Friendship.
+        From the "Dialog on Friendship." (Translated by Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+
+JULIUS CAESAR--(Born in 100 B.C., assassinated in 44.)
+
+I   The Building of the Bridge Across the Rhine.
+        (From Book IV of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and W. S. Bohn)
+
+II  The Invasion of Britain.
+        (From Book V of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated by
+         McDivett and Bohn)
+
+III Overcoming the Nervii.
+        (From Book II of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and Bohn)
+
+IV  The Battle of Pharsalia and the Death of Pompey.
+        (From Book III of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Translated
+         by McDivett and Bohn)
+
+
+SALLUST--(Born about 86 B.C., died about 34.)
+
+I   The Genesis of Catiline.
+        (From the "Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S. Watson)
+
+II  The Fate of the Conspirators.
+        (From the "Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S. Watson)
+
+
+Livy--(Born in 59 B.C., died in 17 A.D.)
+
+I   Horatius Cocles at the Bridge.
+        (From Book II of the "History of Rome." Translated by D. Spillan
+         and Cyrus R. Edmonds)
+
+II  Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps.
+        (From Book XXI of the "History of Rome." Translated by Spillan and
+         Edmonds)
+
+III Hannibal and Scipio at Zama.
+        (From Book XXX of the "History of Rome." Translated by Spillan and
+         Edmonds)
+
+SENECA--(Born about 4 B.C., died in 65 A.D.)
+
+I   Of the Wise Man.
+        (From Book II of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+II  Of Consolation for the Loss of Friends.
+        (From Book VI of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+III To Nero on Clemency.
+        (From the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+IV  The Pilot.
+        (From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge)
+
+V   Of a Happy Life.
+        (From Book VII of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart)
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER--(Born in 23 A.D., perished in the Eruption of Vesuvius.)
+
+I   The Qualities of the Dog.
+        (From the "Natural History." Translated by Bostock and Riley)
+
+II  Three Great Artists of Greece.
+        (From the "Natural History." Translated by Bostock and Riley)
+
+
+QUINTILIAN--(Born about 35 A.D., died about 95.)
+
+    The Orator Must Be a Good Man.
+        (From Book XII, Chapter I, of the "Institutes." Translated by J. S.
+         Watson)
+
+
+TACITUS--(Born about 55 A.D., died about 117.)
+
+I   From Republican to Imperial Rome.
+        (From Book I of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+II  The Funeral of Germanicus.
+        (From Book III of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+III The Death of Seneca.
+        (From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+IV The Burning of Rome by Order of Nero.
+        (From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+V   The Burning of the Capitol at Rome.
+        (From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+VI  The Siege of Cremona.
+        (From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation revised)
+
+VII Agricola.
+        (The Oxford translation revised)
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER--(Born in 63 A.D., died in 113.)
+
+I   Of the Christians in His Province.
+        (From the "Letters." The Melmoth translation revised)
+
+II  To Tacitus on the Eruption of Vesuvius.
+        (From the "Letters." The Melmoth translation revised)
+
+
+SUETONIUS--(Lived in the first half of the second century A.D.)
+
+I   The Last Days of Augustus.
+        (From the "Lives of the Caesars." Translated by Alexander Thomson,
+         revised by Forester)
+
+II  The Good Deeds of Nero.
+        (From the "Lives of the Caesars." Translated by Thomson, revised by
+         Forester)
+
+III The Death of Nero.
+        (From the "Lives of the Caesars." Translated by Thomson, revised by
+         Forester)
+
+
+MARCUS AURELIUS--(Born in 121 A.D., died in 180.)
+
+    His Debt to Others.
+        (From the "Meditations." Translated by George Long)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ROME
+
+234 B.C.--180 A.D.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CATO, THE CENSOR
+
+     Born in Tusculum, Italy, in 234 B.C., died in 149;
+     celebrated as statesman, general, and writer; questor under
+     Scipio in 204; Consul in 195; served in Spain in 194; censor
+     in 184; ambassador to Carthage in 150; one of the chief
+     instigators of the third Punic war; among his writings are
+     "De Re Rustica" and "Origines."[1]
+
+OF WORK ON A ROMAN FARM[2]
+
+
+When the owner of the farm and slaves visits his country villa, after
+saluting the household god, he should the same day, if possible, go
+round the farm; if not the same day, he should do so the day after. On
+seeing how the farm is being cultivated, and what work has been done
+or left undone, he should call for his steward and inquire for his
+account of what work has been done and what remains to be done. He
+should ask whether the work has been completed in good time and
+whether what is left uncompleted can be finished. He should find what
+wine has been made, and what wheat stored. When he has gone into these
+particulars, he should ask for an account of the days spent in
+accomplishing the work.
+
+If the work does not seem satisfactory and the steward should excuse
+himself by declaring that he has done his best, that the slaves were
+good for nothing, that the weather was bad, that some slaves had run
+away, that he himself had been called off on public service, and
+should allege other such excuses, he should still be strictly called
+to account. He should be asked if on rainy or tempestuous days he had
+seen that indoor operations had been carried on. Had the wine-casks
+been scoured and lined with pitch; had the house-cleaning been done;
+had the grain been taken from the thrashing-floor to the granary; had
+manure been thrown from the stables and cow-houses and piled into
+heaps; had the seed been winnowed; had any rope been made; had the old
+rope been repaired, and had he seen that the slaves mended their coats
+and caps. He should be reminded that on religious festivals old
+ditches might have been cleared out, the public road mended, briers
+cut down, the garden dug over, the meadow cleared, the trees trimmed,
+thorns pulled up by the roots, the grain ground and a general clearing
+up carried through. He should also be told that when slaves were sick
+their rations should be cut down.
+
+When the matters have been settled to the master's satisfaction, he
+should take measures to see that what has not been done be at once
+accomplished. He should then proceed to consider the account of the
+farm, and a consideration of the amount of grain which has been
+prepared for fodder. He should have returns made of wine and
+olive-oil, and learn how much has been consumed, how much sold, how
+much is left over and may be put on sale. If there is a deficit any
+year, he should order it to be made up from the outside, and whatever
+is above the needs of the farm sold. If there is anything to let out
+on contract, he should order this to be done, and concerning the work
+which he wishes to be thus accomplished he should give his order in
+writing. As regards the cattle he should order them to be sold by
+auction, and in the same way should sell the oil, if the price of oil
+has risen; likewise the superfluous wine and corn of the estate. He
+should also order to be sold worn-out bulls, blemished cattle,
+blemished sheep, wool, hides, any plow that is old, old tools, old
+slaves, slaves who are diseased, or anything else which is useless,
+for the owner of a farm must be a seller and not a purchaser.
+
+The owner of a farm and of slaves must begin to study in early manhood
+the cultivation and sowing of the land. He should, however, think a
+long time before building his villa, but not about farming his
+property, which he should set about at once. Let him wait until his
+thirty-sixth year and then build, provided his whole property is under
+cultivation. So build that neither the villa be disproportionately
+small in comparison with the farm nor the farm in comparison with the
+villa. It behooves a slave-owner to have a well-built country house,
+containing a wine-cellar, a place for storing olive-oil, and casks in
+such numbers that he may look forward with delight to a time of
+scarcity and high prices, and this will add not only to his wealth,
+but to his influence and reputation. He must have wine-presses of the
+first order, that his wine may be well made. When the olives have been
+picked, let oil be at once made or it will turn out rancid. Recollect
+that every year the olives are shaken from the trees in great number
+by violent storms. If you gather them up quickly and have vessels
+ready to receive them, the storm will have done them no harm and the
+oil will be all the greener and better. If the olives be on the ground
+or even on the barn floor too long, the oil made from them will be
+fetid. Olive-oil will be always good and sweet if it be promptly made.
+
+The following are the duties of a steward: He must maintain strict
+discipline, and see that the festivals are observed. While he keeps
+his hands off the property of a neighbor, let him look well to his
+own. The slaves are to be kept from quarreling. If any of them commits
+a fault, he should be punished in a kindly manner. The steward must
+see that the slaves are comfortable and suffer neither from cold nor
+hunger. By keeping them busy he will prevent them from running into
+mischief or stealing. If the steward sets his face against evil doing,
+evil will not be done by them. His master must call him to task if he
+let evil doing go unpunished. If one slave do him any service, he
+should show gratitude that the others may be encouraged to do right.
+The steward must not be a gadder or a diner-out, but must give all his
+attention to working the slaves, and considering how best to carry out
+his master's instructions....
+
+It is at times worth while to gain wealth by commerce, were it not so
+perilous; or by usury, were it equally honorable. Our ancestors,
+however, held, and fixt by law, that a thief should be condemned to
+restore double, a usurer quadruple. We thus see how much worse they
+thought it for a citizen to be a money-lender than a thief. Again,
+when they praised a good man, they praised him as a good farmer or a
+good husbandman. Men so praised were held to have received the highest
+praise. For myself, I think well of a merchant as a man of energy and
+studious of gain; but it is a career, as I have said, that leads to
+danger and ruin. However, farming makes the bravest men and the
+sturdiest soldiers, and of all sources of gain is the surest, the most
+natural, and the least invidious, and those who are busy with it have
+the fewest bad thoughts.[3]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Cato was Rome's first thoroughly national author. He is
+usually classed as the creator of Latin prose. Other Roman authors of
+his time wrote in Greek. Cato bitterly opposed Greek learning,
+declaring that, when Greece should give Rome her literature, she would
+"corrupt everything." On Cato's mind no outside literary influence
+ever prevailed. He has been called "the most original writer that Rome
+ever produced."]
+
+[Footnote 2: From "De Re Rustica." Translated for this work by Dr.
+Epiphanius Wilson.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The translation of this paragraph is taken from
+Cruttwell's "History of Roman Literature."]
+
+
+
+
+CICERO
+
+     Born in 106 B.C., assassinated in 43; celebrated as orator,
+     philosopher, statesman, and man of letters; served in the
+     social war in 89; traveled in Greece and Asia in 79-77;
+     questor in Sicily in 75; accused Verres in 70; praetor in 60;
+     as Consul supprest Catiline's conspiracy in 63; banished in
+     58; recalled in 57; proconsul in Cicilia in 51-50; joined
+     Pompey in 49; pronounced orations against Mark Antony in
+     44-43; proscribed by the Second Triumvirate in 43; of his
+     orations fifty-seven are extant, with fragments of twenty
+     others; other extant works include "De Oratore," "De
+     Republica," "Cato Major," "De Officiis," and four
+     collections of letters.
+
+
+I
+
+THE BLESSINGS OF OLD AGE[4]
+
+
+Nor even now do I feel the want of the strength of a young man, no
+more than when a young man I felt the want of the strength of the bull
+or of the elephant. What one has, that one ought to use; and whatever
+you do, you should do it with all your strength. For what expression
+can be more contemptible than that of Milo[5] of Crotona, who, when he
+was now an old man, and was looking at the prize-fighters exercising
+themselves on the course, is reported to have looked at his arms,
+and, weeping over them, to have said, "But these, indeed, are now
+dead." Nay, foolish man, not these arms so much as yourself; for you
+never derived your nobility from yourself, but from your chest and
+your arms. Nothing of the kind did Sextus AElius ever say, nothing of
+the kind many years before did Titus Coruncanius, nothing lately did
+Publius Crassus; by whom instructions in jurisprudence were given to
+their fellow citizens, and whose wisdom was progressive even to their
+latest breath. For the orator, I fear lest he be enfeebled by old age;
+for eloquence is a gift not of mind only, but also of lungs and
+strength. On the whole, that melodiousness in the voice is graceful, I
+know not how, even in old age; which, indeed, I have not lost, and you
+see my years.
+
+Yet there is a graceful style of eloquence in an old man,
+unimpassioned and subdued, and very often the elegant and gentle
+discourse of an eloquent old man wins for itself a hearing; and if you
+have not yourself the power to produce this effect, yet you may be
+able to teach it to Scipio and Laelius. For what is more delightful
+than old age surrounded with the studious attention of youth? Shall we
+not leave even such a resource to old age, as to teach young men,
+instruct them, train them to every department of duty? an employment,
+indeed, than which what can be more noble? But, for my part, I thought
+the Cneius and Publius Scipios,[6] and your two grandfathers, L.
+AEmilius and P. Africanus, quite happy in the attendance of noble
+youths; nor are any preceptors of liberal accomplishments to be deemed
+otherwise than happy, tho their strength hath fallen into old age and
+failed; altho that very failure of strength is more frequently caused
+by the follies of youth than by those of old age; for a lustful and
+intemperate youth transmits to old age an exhausted body. Cyrus too,
+in Xenophon, in that discourse which he delivered on his deathbed when
+he was a very old man, said that he never felt that his old age had
+become feebler than his youth had been. I recollect, when a boy, that
+Lucius Metellus,[7] who, when four years after his second consulship
+he had been made "pontifex maximus," and for twenty-two years held
+that sacerdotal office, enjoyed such good strength at the latter
+period of his life, that he felt no want of youth. There is no need
+for me to speak about myself, and yet that is the privilege of old
+age, and conceded to my time of life.
+
+Do you see how, in Homer, Nestor very often proclaims his own virtues?
+for he was now living in the third generation of men; nor had he
+occasion to fear lest, when stating the truth about himself, he should
+appear either too arrogant or too talkative; for, as Homer says, from
+his tongue speech flowed sweeter than honey; for which charm he stood
+in need of no strength of body; and yet the famous chief of Greece
+nowhere wishes to have ten men like Ajax, but like Nestor; and he does
+not doubt if that should happen, Troy would in a short time perish.
+
+But I return to myself. I am in my eighty-fourth year. In truth I
+should like to be able to make the same boast that Cyrus did; but one
+thing I can say, that altho I have not, to be sure, that strength
+which I had either as a soldier in the Punic war or as questor in the
+same war, or as Consul in Spain, or, four years afterward, when as
+military tribune I fought a battle at Thermopylae, in the consulship of
+Marcus Acilius Glabrio; yet, as you see, old age has not quite
+enfeebled me or broken me down: the senate-house does not miss my
+strength, nor the rostra, nor my friends, nor my clients, nor my
+guests; for I have never agreed to that old and much-praised proverb
+which advises you to become an old man early if you wish to be an old
+man long. I for my part would rather be an old man for a shorter
+length of time than be an old man before I was one. And, therefore, no
+one as yet has wished to have an interview with me to whom I have been
+denied as engaged.
+
+But I have less strength than either of you two. Neither even do you
+possess the strength of Titus Pontius the centurion; is he, therefore,
+the more excellent man? Only let there be a moderate degree of
+strength, and let every man exert himself as much as he can; and in
+truth that man will not be absorbed in regretting the want of
+strength. Milo, at Olympia, is said to have gone over the course while
+supporting on his shoulders a live ox. Whether, then, would you rather
+have this strength of body, or Pythagoras' strength of intellect,
+bestowed upon you? In a word, enjoy that blessing while you have it;
+when it is gone, do not lament it, unless, indeed, young men ought to
+lament the loss of boyhood, and those a little advanced in age the
+loss of adolescence. There is a definite career in life, and one way
+of nature, and that a simple one; and to every part of life its own
+peculiar period has been assigned; so that both the feebleness of
+boys, and the high spirit of young men, and the steadiness of now fixt
+manhood, and the maturity of old age, have something natural which
+ought to be enjoyed in their own time. I suppose that you hear,
+Scipio, what your grandfather's host, Masinissa,[8] is doing at this
+day, at the age of ninety. When he has commenced a journey on foot, he
+never mounts at all; when on horseback, he never dismounts; by no
+rain, by no cold, is he prevailed upon to have his head covered; that
+there is in him the greatest hardiness of frame; and therefore he
+performs all the duties and functions of a king. Exercise, therefore,
+and temperance, even in old age, can preserve some remnant of our
+pristine vigor.
+
+Is there no strength in old age? neither is strength exacted from old
+age. Therefore, by our laws and institutions, our time of life is
+relieved from those tasks which can not be supported without strength.
+Accordingly, so far are we from being compelled to do what we can not
+do that we are not even compelled to do as much as we can. But so
+feeble are many old men that they can not execute any task of duty or
+any function of life whatever; but that in truth is not the peculiar
+fault of old age, but belongs in common to bad health. How feeble was
+the son of Publius Africanus, he who adopted you. What feeble health,
+or rather no health at all, had he! and had that not been so, he would
+have been the second luminary of the state; for to his paternal
+greatness of soul a richer store of learning had been added. What
+wonder, therefore, in old men if they are sometimes weak when even
+young men can not escape that.
+
+We must make a stand, Scipio and Laelius, against old age, and its
+faults must be atoned for by activity; we must fight, as it were,
+against disease, and in like manner against old age. Regard must be
+paid to health; moderate exercises must be adopted; so much of meat
+and drink must be taken that the strength may be recruited, not
+opprest. Nor, indeed, must the body alone be supported, but the mind
+and the soul much more; for these also, unless you drop oil on them as
+on a lamp, are extinguished by old age. And our bodies, indeed, by
+weariness and exercise, become opprest; but our minds are rendered
+buoyant by exercise. For as to those of whom Caecilius speaks, "foolish
+old men," fit characters for comedy, by these he denotes the
+credulous, the forgetful, the dissolute, which are the faults not of
+old age, but of inactive, indolent, drowsy old age. As petulance and
+lust belong to the young more than to the old, yet not to all young
+men, but to those who are not virtuous; so that senile folly, which is
+commonly called dotage, belongs to weak old men, and not to all. Four
+stout sons, five daughters, so great a family, and such numerous
+dependents, did Appius manage, altho both old and blind; for he kept
+his mind intent like a bow, nor did he languidly sink under the weight
+of old age. He retained not only authority, but also command, over
+his family; the slaves feared him; the children respected him; all
+held him dear; there prevailed in that house the manners and good
+discipline of our fathers. For on this condition is old age honored if
+it maintains itself, if it keeps up its own right, if it is
+subservient to no one, if even to its last breath it exercises control
+over its dependents. For, as I like a young man in whom there is
+something of the old, so I like an old man in whom there is something
+of the young; and he who follows this maxim, in body will possibly be
+an old man, but he will never be an old man in mind.
+
+I have in hand my seventh book of Antiquities; I am collecting all the
+materials of our early history; of all the famous causes which I have
+defended; I am now completing the pleadings;[9] I am employed on a law
+of augurs, of pontiffs, of citizens. I am much engaged also in Greek
+literature, and, after the manner of the Pythagoreans, for the purpose
+of exercising my memory, I call to mind in the evening what I have
+said, heard, and done on each day. These are the exercises of the
+understanding; these are the race-courses of the mind; while I am
+perspiring and toiling over these, I do not greatly miss my strength
+of body. I attend my friends, I come into the senate very often, and
+spontaneously bring forward things much and long thought of, and I
+maintain them by strength of mind, not of body; and if I were unable
+to perform these duties, yet my couch would afford me amusement, when
+reflecting on those matters which I was no longer able to do, but that
+I am able is owing to my past life; for, by a person who always lives
+in these pursuits and labors, it is not perceived when old age steals
+on. Thus gradually and unconsciously life declines into old age; nor
+is its thread suddenly broken, but the vital principle is consumed by
+length of time.
+
+Then follows the third topic of blame against old age, that they say
+it has no pleasures. Oh, noble privilege of age! if indeed it takes
+from us that which is in youth the greatest defect. For listen, most
+excellent young men, to the ancient speech of Archytas[10] of
+Tarentum, a man eminently great and illustrious, which was reported to
+me when I, a young man, was at Tarentum with Quintus Maximus. He said
+that no more deadly plague than the pleasure of the body was inflicted
+on men by nature; for the passions, greedy of that pleasure, were in a
+rash and unbridled manner incited to possess it; that hence arose
+treasons against one's country, hence the ruining of states, hence
+clandestine conferences with enemies--in short, that there was no
+crime, no wicked act, to the undertaking of which the lust of
+pleasure did not impel; but that fornications and adulteries and every
+such crime were provoked by no other allurements than those of
+pleasure. And whereas either nature or some god had given to man
+nothing more excellent than his mind, that to this divine function and
+gift, nothing was so hostile as pleasure; since where lust bore sway,
+there was no room for self-restraint; and in the realm of pleasure,
+virtue could by no possibility exist. And that this might be the
+better understood, he begged you to imagine in your mind any one
+actuated by the greatest pleasure of the body that could be enjoyed;
+he believed no one would doubt but that so long as the person was in
+that state of delight, he would be able to consider nothing in his
+mind, to attain nothing by reason, nothing by reflection; wherefore
+that there was nothing so detestable and so destructive as pleasure,
+inasmuch as that when it was excessive and very prolonged, it
+extinguished all the light of the soul.
+
+Nearchus of Tarentum, our host, who had remained throughout in
+friendship with the Roman people, said he had heard from older men
+that Archytas held this conversation with Caius Pontius the Samnite,
+the father of him by whom, in the Caudian[11] battle, Spurius
+Postumius and Titus Veturius, the consuls, were overcome, on which
+occasion Plato the Athenian had been present at that discourse; and I
+find that he came to Tarentum in the consulship of Lucius Camillus and
+Appius Claudius.[12] Wherefore do I adduce this? that we may
+understand that if we could not by reason and wisdom despise pleasure,
+great gratitude would be due to old age for bringing it to pass that
+that should not be a matter of pleasure which is not a matter of duty.
+For pleasure is hostile to reason, hinders deliberation, and, so to
+speak, closes the eyes of the mind, nor does it hold any intercourse
+with virtue. I indeed acted reluctantly in expelling from the senate
+Lucius Flaminius, brother of that very brave man Titus Flaminius,[13]
+seven years after he had been Consul; but I thought that his
+licentiousness should be stigmatized. For that man, when he was Consul
+in Gaul, was prevailed on at a banquet by a courtezan to behead one of
+those who were in chains, condemned on a capital charge. He escaped in
+the censorship of his brother Titus, who had immediately preceded me;
+but so profligate and abandoned an act of lust could by no means be
+allowed to pass by me and Flaccus, since with private infamy it
+combined the disgrace of the empire.
+
+I have often heard from my elders, who said that, in like manner,
+they, when boys, had heard from old men, that Caius Fabricius was wont
+to wonder that when he was ambassador to King Pyrrhus, he had heard
+from Cineas the Thessalian that there was a certain person at Athens
+who profest himself a wise man, and that he was accustomed to say that
+all things which we did were to be referred to pleasure; and that
+hearing him say so, Manius Curius and Titus Coruncanius were
+accustomed to wish that that might be the persuasion of the Samnites
+and Pyrrhus[14] himself, that they might the more easily be conquered
+when they had given themselves up to pleasure. Manius Curius had lived
+with Publius Decius, who, five years before the consulship of the
+former, had devoted himself for the commonwealth in his fourth
+consulship. Fabricius had been acquainted with him, and Coruncanius
+had also known him, who, as well from his own conduct in life, as from
+the great action of him whom I mention, Publius Decius, judged that
+there was doubtless something in its own nature excellent and
+glorious, which should be followed for its own sake, and which,
+scorning and despising pleasure, all the worthiest men pursued....
+
+But why do I refer to others? Let me now return to myself. First of
+all, I always had associates in clubs; and clubs were established when
+I was questor, on the Idaean worship of the great mother being adopted.
+Therefore I feasted with my associates altogether in a moderate way,
+but there was a kind of fervor peculiar to that time of life, and as
+that advances, all things will become every day more subdued. For I
+did not calculate the gratification of those banquets by the pleasures
+of the body so much as by the meetings of friends and conversations.
+For well did our ancestors style the reclining of friends at an
+entertainment, because it carried with it a union of life, by the name
+"convivium" better than the Greeks do, who call this same thing as
+well by the name of "compotatio" as "concoenatio"; so that what in
+that kind (of pleasures) is of the least value that they appear most
+to approve of.
+
+For my part, on account of the pleasure of conversation, I am
+delighted also with seasonable entertainments, not only with those of
+my own age, of whom very few survive, but with those of your age, and
+with you; and I give great thanks to old age, which has increased my
+desire for conversation, and taken away that of eating and drinking.
+But even if such things delight any person (that I may not appear
+altogether to have declared war against pleasure, of which perhaps a
+certain limited degree is even natural), I am not aware that even in
+these pleasures themselves old age is without enjoyment. For my part,
+the presidencies established by our ancestors delight me; and that
+conversation, which after the manner of our ancestors, is kept up over
+our cups from the top of the table; and the cups, as in the Symposium
+of Xenophon, small and dewy, and the cooling of the wine in summer,
+and in turn either the sun, or the fire in winter--practises which I
+am accustomed to follow among the Sabines also--and I daily join a
+party of neighbors, which we prolong with various conversation till
+late at night, as far as we can. But there is not, as it were, so
+ticklish a sensibility of pleasures in old men. I believe it; but then
+neither is there the desire. However, nothing is irksome unless you
+long for it. Well did Sophocles, when a certain man inquired of him
+advanced in age whether he enjoyed venereal pleasures, reply, "The
+gods give me something better; nay, I have run away from them with
+gladness, as from a wild and furious tyrant." For to men fond of such
+things, it is perhaps disagreeable and irksome to be without them; but
+to the contented and satisfied it is more delightful to want them than
+to enjoy them; and yet he does not want who feels no desire; therefore
+I say that this freedom from desire is more delightful than enjoyment.
+
+But if the prime of life has more cheerful enjoyment of those very
+pleasures, in the first place they are but petty objects which it
+enjoys, as I have said before; then they are those of which old age,
+if it does not abundantly possess them, is not altogether destitute.
+As he is more delighted with Turpio Ambivius, who is spectator on the
+foremost bench, yet he also is delighted who is in the hindmost; so
+youth having a close view of pleasures is perhaps more gratified; but
+old age is as much delighted as is necessary in viewing them at a
+distance. However, of what high value are the following circumstances,
+that the soul, after it has served out, as it were, its time under
+lust, ambition, contention, enmities, and all the passions, shall
+retire within itself, and, as the phrase is, live with itself? But if
+it has, as it were, food for study and learning, nothing is more
+delightful than an old age of leisure. I saw Caius Gallus, the
+intimate friend of your father, Scipio, almost expiring in the
+employment of calculating the sky and the earth. How often did
+daylight overtake him when he had begun to draw some figure by night,
+how often did night, when he had begun in the morning! How it did
+delight him to predict to us the eclipses of the sun and the moon,
+long before their occurrence! What shall we say in the case of
+pursuits less dignified, yet, notwithstanding, requiring acuteness!
+How Naevius did delight in his Punic war! how Plautus in his
+Truculentus! how in his Pseudolus! I saw also the old man Livy,[15]
+who, tho he had brought a play upon the stage six years before I was
+born, in the consulship of Cento and Tuditanus, yet advanced in age
+even to the time of my youth. Why should I speak of Publius Licinius
+Crassus' study both of pontifical and civil law? or of the present
+Publius Scipio, who within these few days was created chief pontiff?
+Yet we have seen all these persons whom I have mentioned, ardent in
+these pursuits when old men. But as to Marcus Cethegus, whom Ennius
+rightly called the "marrow of persuasion," with what great zeal did we
+see him engage in the practise of oratory, even when an old man! What
+pleasures, therefore, arising from banquets, or plays, or harlots, are
+to be compared with these pleasures? And these, indeed, are the
+pursuits of learning, which too, with the sensible and well educated,
+increase along with their age; so that is a noble saying of Solon,
+when he says in a certain verse, as I observed before, that he grew
+old learning many things every day--than which pleasure of the mind,
+certainly, none can be greater.
+
+I come now to the pleasures of husbandmen, with which I am excessively
+delighted, which are not checked by any old age, and appear in my
+mind to make the nearest approach to the life of a wise man. For they
+have relation to the earth, which never refuses command, and never
+returns without interest that which it hath received; but sometimes
+with less, generally with very great interest. And yet for my part it
+is not only the product, but the virtue and nature of the earth itself
+that delight me, which, when in its softened and subdued bosom it has
+received the scattered seed, first of all confines what is hidden
+within it, from which harrowing, which produces that effect, derives
+its name (_occatio_); then, when it is warmed by heat and its own
+compression, it spreads it out, and elicits from it the verdant blade,
+which, supported by the fibers of the roots, gradually grows up, and,
+rising on a jointed stalk, is now enclosed in a sheath, as if it were
+of tender age, out of which, when it hath shot up, it then pours forth
+the fruit of the ear, piled in due order, and is guarded by a rampart
+of beards against the pecking of the smaller birds. Why should I, in
+the case of vines, tell of the plantings, the risings, the stages of
+growth? That you may know the repose and amusement of my old age, I
+assure you that I can never have enough of that gratification. For I
+pass over the peculiar nature of all things which are produced from
+the earth; which generates such great trunks and branches from so
+small a grain of the fig or from the grape-stone, or from the minutest
+seeds of other fruits and roots; shoots, plants, twigs, quicksets,
+layers, do not these produce the effect of delighting any one even to
+admiration? The vine, indeed, which by nature is prone to fall, and is
+borne down to the ground, unless it be propt, in order to raise
+itself up, embraces with its tendrils, as it were with hands, whatever
+it meets with, which, as it creeps with manifold and wandering course,
+the skill of the husbandmen pruning with the knife, restrains from
+running into a forest of twigs, and spreading too far in all
+directions.
+
+Accordingly, in the beginning of spring, in those twigs which are
+left, there rises up as it were at the joints of the branches that
+which is called a bud, from which the nascent grape shows itself,
+which, increasing in size by the moisture of the earth and the heat of
+the sun, is at first very acid to the taste, and then as it ripens
+grows sweet, and being clothed with its large leaves does not want
+moderate warmth, and yet keeps off the excessive heat of the sun; than
+which what can be in fruit on the one hand more rich, or on the other
+hand more beautiful in appearance? Of which not only the advantage, as
+I said before, but also the cultivation and the nature itself delight
+me; the rows of props, the joining of the heads, the tying up and
+propagation of vines, and the pruning of some twigs, and the grafting
+of others, which I have mentioned. Why should I allude to irrigations,
+why to the diggings of the ground, why to the trenching by which the
+ground is made much more productive? Why should I speak of the
+advantage of manuring? I have treated of it in that book which I wrote
+respecting rural affairs, concerning which the learned Hesiod has not
+said a single word, tho he has written about the cultivation of the
+land. But Homer, who, as appears to me, lived many ages before,
+introduces Laertes soothing the regret which he felt for his son by
+tilling the land and manuring it. Nor indeed is rural life delightful
+by reason of corn-fields only and meadows and vineyards and groves,
+but also for its gardens and orchards; also for the feeding of cattle,
+the swarms of bees, and the variety of all kinds of flowers. Nor do
+plantings only give me delight, but also graftings, than which
+agriculture has invented nothing more ingenious....
+
+Was then their old age to be pitied who amused themselves in the
+cultivation of land? In my opinion, indeed, I know not whether any
+other can be more happy; and not only in the discharge of duty,
+because to the whole race of mankind the cultivation of the land is
+beneficial; but also from the amusement, which I have mentioned, and
+that fulness and abundance of all things which are connected with the
+food of men, and also with the worship of the gods; so that, since
+some have a desire for these things, we may again put ourselves on
+good terms with pleasure. For the wine-cellar of a good and diligent
+master is always well stored; the oil-casks, the pantry also, the
+whole farmhouse is richly supplied; it abounds in pigs, kids, lambs,
+hens, milk, cheese, honey. Then, too, the countrymen themselves call
+the garden a second dessert. And then what gives a greater relish to
+these things is that kind of leisure labor, fowling and hunting. Why
+should I speak of the greenness of meadows, or the rows of trees, or
+the handsome appearance of vineyards and olive grounds? Let me cut the
+matter short. Nothing can be either more rich in use or more elegant
+in appearance than ground well tilled, to the enjoyment of which old
+age is so far from being an obstacle that it is even an invitation and
+allurement. For where can that age be better warmed either by basking
+in the sun or by the fire, or again be more healthfully refreshed by
+shades or waters? Let the young, therefore, keep to themselves their
+arms, horses, spears, clubs, tennis-ball, swimmings, and races; to us
+old men let them leave out of many amusements the _tali_ and
+_tesserae_; and even in that matter it may be as they please, since old
+age can be happy without these amusements....
+
+What, therefore, should I fear if after death I am sure either not to
+be miserable or to be happy? Altho who is so foolish, even if young,
+as to be assured that he will live even till the evening? Nay, that
+period of life has many more probabilities of death that ours has;
+young men more readily fall into diseases, suffer more severely, are
+cured with more difficulty, and therefore few arrive at old age. Did
+not this happen so we should live better and more wisely, for
+intelligence, and reflection, and judgment reside in old men, and if
+there had been none of them, no states could exist at all. But I
+return to the imminence of death. What charge is that against old age,
+since you see it to be common to youth also? I experienced not only in
+the case of my own excellent son, but also in that of your brothers,
+Scipio, men plainly marked out for the highest distinction, that death
+was common to every period of life. Yet a young man hopes that he will
+live a long time, which expectation an old man can not entertain. His
+hope is but a foolish one; for what can be more foolish than to regard
+uncertainties as certainties, delusions as truths? An old man indeed
+has nothing to hope for; yet he is in so much the happier state than
+a young one; since he has already attained what the other is only
+hoping for. The one is wishing to live long, the other has lived long.
+
+And yet, good gods! what is there in man's life that can be called
+long? For allow the latest period; let us anticipate the age of the
+kings of Tartessii. For there dwelt, as I find it recorded, a man
+named Arganthonius at Gades;[16] who reigned for eighty years, and
+lived 120. But to my mind, nothing whatever seems of long duration to
+which there is any end. For when that arrives, then the time which has
+passed has flown away; that only remains which you have secured by
+virtue and right conduct. Hours indeed depart from us, and days and
+months and years; nor does past time ever return, nor can it be
+discovered what is to follow. Whatever time is assigned to each to
+live, with that he ought to be content; for neither need the drama be
+performed entire by the actor in order to give satisfaction, provided
+he be approved in whatever act he may be; nor need the wise man live
+till the _plaudite_. For the short period of life is long enough for
+living well and honorably, and if you should advance further, you need
+no more grieve than farmers do when the loveliness of spring-time hath
+passed, that summer and autumn have come. For spring represents the
+time of youth, and gives promise of the future fruits; the remaining
+seasons are intended for plucking and gathering in those fruits. Now
+the harvest of old age, as I have often said, is the recollection and
+abundance of blessings previously secured. In truth everything that
+happens agreeably to nature is to be reckoned among blessings. What,
+however, is so agreeable to nature as for an old man to die which even
+is the lot of the young, tho nature opposes and resists. And thus it
+is that young men seem to me to die just as when the violence of flame
+is extinguished by a flood of water; whereas old men die, as the
+exhausted fire goes out, spontaneously, without the exertion of any
+force; and as fruits when they are green are plucked by force from the
+trees, but when ripe and mellow drop off, so violence takes away their
+lives from youths, maturity from old men--a state which to me indeed
+is so delightful that the nearer I approach to death, I seem, as it
+were, to be getting sight of land, and at length, after a long voyage,
+to be just coming into harbor.
+
+Of all the periods of life there is a definite limit; but of old age
+there is no limit fixt; and life goes on very well in it, so long as
+you are able to follow up and attend to the duty of your situation,
+and, at the same time, to care nothing about death; whence it happens
+that old age is even of higher spirit and bolder than youth. Agreeable
+to this was the answer given to Pisistratus,[17] the tyrant, by Solon,
+when on the former inquiring, "in reliance on what hope he so boldly
+withstood him," the latter is said to have answered, "on old age." The
+happiest end of life is this--when the mind and the other senses
+being unimpaired, the same nature which put it together takes asunder
+her own work. As in the case of a ship or a house, he who built them
+takes them down most easily; so the same nature which has compacted
+man most easily breaks him up. Besides, every fastening of glue, when
+fresh, is with difficulty torn asunder, but easily when tried by time.
+Hence it is that that short remnant of life should be neither greedily
+coveted nor without reason given up; and Pythagoras forbids us to
+abandon the station or post of life without the orders of our
+commander, that is, of God.[18] There is indeed a saying of the wise
+Solon in which he declares that he does not wish his own death to be
+unattended by the grief and lamentation of friends. He wishes, I
+suppose, that he should be dear to his friends. But I know not whether
+Ennius does not say with more propriety,
+
+    "Let no one pay me honor with tears, nor
+        celebrate my funeral with mourning."
+
+He conceives that a death ought not to be lamented when immortality
+follows. Besides, a dying man may have some degree of consciousness,
+but that for a short time, especially in the case of an old man; after
+death, indeed, consciousness either does not exist or it is a thing to
+be desired. But this ought to be a subject of study from our youth to
+be indifferent about death, without which study no one can be of
+tranquil mind. For die we certainly must, and it is uncertain whether
+or not on this very day. He, therefore, who at all hours dreads
+impending death, how can he be at peace in his mind? concerning which
+there seems to be no need of such long discussion, when I call to mind
+not only Lucius Brutus, who was slain in liberating his country; nor
+the two Decii, who spurred on their steeds to a voluntary death; nor
+Marcus Atilius,[19] who set out to execution that he might keep a
+promise pledged to the enemy; nor the two Scipios, who even with their
+very bodies sought to obstruct the march of the Carthaginians; nor
+your grandfather Lucius Paulus,[20] who by his death atoned for the
+temerity of his colleague in the disgraceful defeat at Cannae; nor
+Marcus Marcellus,[21] whose corpse not even the most merciless foe
+suffered to go without the honor of sepulture; but that our legions,
+as I have remarked in my Antiquities, have often gone with cheerful
+and undaunted mind to that place from which they believed that they
+should never return. Shall, then, well-instructed old men be afraid of
+that which young men, and they not only ignorant, but mere peasants,
+despise? On the whole, as it seems to me indeed, a satiety of all
+pursuits causes a satiety of life. There are pursuits peculiar to
+boyhood; do therefore young men regret the loss of them? There are
+also some of early youth; does settled age, which is called middle
+life, seek after these? There are also some of this period; neither
+are they looked for by old age. There are some final pursuits of old
+age; accordingly, as the pursuits of the earlier parts of life fall
+into disuse, so also do those of old age; and when this has taken
+place, satiety of life brings on the seasonable period of death.
+
+Indeed, I do not see why I should not venture to tell you what I
+myself think concerning death; because I fancy I see it so much the
+more clearly in proportion as I am less distant from it. I am
+persuaded that your fathers, Publius Scipio and Caius Laelius, men of
+the greatest eminence and very dear friends of mine, are living, and
+that life too which alone deserves the name of life. For while we are
+shut up in this prison of the body, we are fulfilling, as it were, the
+function and painful task of destiny; for the heaven-born soul has
+been degraded from its dwelling-place above, and, as it were, buried
+in the earth, a situation uncongenial to its divine and immortal
+nature. But I believe that the immortal gods have shed souls into
+human bodies, that beings might exist who might tend the earth, and by
+contemplating the order of the heavenly bodies might imitate it in the
+manner and regularity of their lives. Nor have reason and argument
+alone influenced me thus to believe, but likewise the high name and
+authority of the greatest philosophers. I used to hear that Pythagoras
+and the Pythagoreans, who were all but our neighbors, who were
+formerly called the Italian philosophers, had no doubt that we
+possess souls derived from the universal divine mind. Moreover, the
+arguments were conclusive to me which Socrates delivered on the last
+day of his life concerning the immortality of the soul--he who was
+pronounced by the oracle of Apollo the wisest of all men. But why say
+more? I have thus persuaded myself, such is my belief; that since such
+is the activity of our souls, so tenacious their memory of things past
+and their sagacity regarding things future, so many arts, so many
+sciences, so many discoveries, that the nature which comprizes these
+qualities can not be mortal; and since the mind is ever in action and
+has no source of motion, because it moves itself, I believe that it
+never will find any end of motion, because it never will part from
+itself; and that since the nature of the soul is uncompounded, and has
+not in itself any admixture heterogeneous and dissimilar to itself, I
+maintain that it can not undergo dissolution; and if this be not
+possible, it can not perish; and it is a strong argument that men know
+very many things before they are born, since when mere boys, while
+they are learning difficult subjects, they so quickly catch up
+numberless ideas, that they seem not to be learning them then for the
+first time, but to remember them, and to be calling them to
+recollection. Thus did our Plato argue....
+
+Let me, if you please, revert to my own views. No one will ever
+persuade me that either your father, Paulus, or two grandfathers,
+Paulus and Africanus, or the father of Africanus, or his uncle, or the
+many distinguished men whom it is unnecessary to recount, aimed at
+such great exploits as might reach to the recollection of posterity
+had they not perceived in their mind that posterity belonged to them.
+Do you suppose, to boast a little of myself, after the manner of old
+men, that I should have undergone such great toils, by day and night,
+at home and in service, had I thought to limit my glory by the same
+bounds as my life? Would it not have been far better to pass an easy
+and quiet life without any toil or struggle? But I know not how my
+soul, stretching upward, has ever looked forward to posterity, as if,
+when it had departed from life, then at last it would begin to live.
+And, indeed, unless this were the case, that souls were immortal, the
+souls of the noblest of men would not aspire above all things to an
+immortality of glory.
+
+Why need I adduce that the wisest man ever dies with the greatest
+equanimity, the most foolish with the least? Does it not seem to you
+that the soul, which sees more and further, sees that it is passing to
+a better state, while that body whose vision is duller, does not see
+it? I, indeed, am transported with eagerness to see your fathers, whom
+I have respected and loved; nor in truth is it those only I desire to
+meet whom I myself have known; but those also of whom I have heard or
+read, and have myself written. Whither, indeed, as I proceed, no one
+assuredly should easily force me back, nor, as they did with Pelias,
+cook me again to youth. For if any god should grant me that from this
+period of life I should become a child again and cry in the cradle, I
+should earnestly refuse it; nor in truth should I like, after having
+run, as it were, my course, to be called back to the starting-place
+from the goal. For what comfort has life? What trouble has it not,
+rather? But grant that it has; yet it assuredly has either satiety or
+limitation (of its pleasures). For I am not disposed to lament the
+loss of life, which many men, and those learned men too, have often
+done; neither do I regret that I have lived, since I have lived in
+such a way that I conceive I was not born in vain; and from this life
+I depart as from a temporary lodging, not as from a home.
+
+For nature has assigned it to us as an inn to sojourn in, not a place
+of habitation. Oh, glorious day! when I shall depart to that divine
+company and assemblage of spirits, and quit this troubled and polluted
+scene. For I shall go not only to those great men of whom I have
+spoken before, but also to my son Cato, than whom never was better man
+born, nor more distinguished for pious affection, whose body was
+burned by me, whereas, on the contrary, it was fitting that mine
+should be burned by him. But his soul not deserting me, but oft
+looking back, no doubt departed to those regions whither it saw that I
+myself was destined to come. This, tho a distress to me, I seemed
+patiently to endure; not that I bore it with indifference, but I
+comforted myself with the recollection that the separation and
+distance between us would not continue long. For these reasons, O
+Scipio (since you said that you with Laelius were accustomed to wonder
+at this), old age is tolerable to me, and not only not irksome, but
+even delightful. And if I am wrong in this, that I believe the souls
+of men to be immortal, I willingly delude myself; nor do I desire that
+this mistake, in which I take pleasure, should be wrested from me as
+long as I live; but if I, when dead, shall have no consciousness, as
+some narrow-minded philosophers imagine, I do not fear lest dead
+philosophers should ridicule this my delusion. But if we are not
+destined to be immortal, yet it is a desirable thing for a man to
+expire at his fit time. For, as nature prescribes a boundary to all
+other things, so does she also to life. Now old age is the
+consummation of life, just as of a play, from the fatigue of which we
+ought to escape, especially when satiety is super-added. This is what
+I had to say on the subject of old age, to which may you arrive! that,
+after having experienced the truth of those statements which you have
+heard from me, you may be enabled to give them your approbation.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ON THE DEATH OF HIS DAUGHTER TULLIA[22]
+
+
+Yes, my dear Servius, I could indeed wish you had been with me, as you
+say, at the time of my terrible trial. How much it was in your power
+to help me if you had been here, by sympathizing with, and I may
+almost say, sharing equally in my grief, I readily perceive from the
+fact that after reading your letter I now feel myself considerably
+more composed; for not only was all that you wrote just what is best
+calculated to soothe affliction, but you yourself in comforting me
+showed that you too had no little pain at heart. Your son Servius,
+however, has made it clear, by every kindly attention which such an
+occasion would permit of, both how great his respect was for myself
+and also how much pleasure his kind feeling for me was likely to give
+you; and you may be sure that, while such attentions from him have
+often been more pleasant to me, they have never made me more grateful.
+
+It is not, however, only your arguments and your equal share--I may
+almost call it--in this affliction which comforts me, but also your
+authority; because I hold it shame in me not to be bearing my trouble
+in a way that you, a man endowed with such wisdom, think it ought to
+be borne. But at times I feel broken down, and I scarcely make any
+struggle against my grief, because those consolations fail me which
+under similar calamities were never wanting to any of those other
+people whom I put before myself as models for imitation. Both Fabius
+Maximus, for example, when he lost a son who had held the consulship,
+the hero of many a famous exploit; and Lucius Paulus, from whom two
+were taken in one week; and your own kinsman Gallus; and Marcus Cato,
+who was deprived of a son of the rarest talents and the rarest
+virtue--all these lived in times when their individual affliction was
+capable of finding a solace in the distinctions they used to earn from
+their country.
+
+For me, however, after being stript of all those distinctions which
+you yourself recall to me, and which I had won for myself by
+unparalleled exertions, only that one solace remained which has been
+torn away. My thoughts were not diverted by work for my friends, or by
+the administration of affairs of state; there was no pleasure in
+pleading in the courts; I could not bear the very sight of the Senate
+House; I felt, as was indeed too true, that I had lost all the harvest
+of both my industry and my success. But whenever I wanted to recollect
+that all this was shared with you and other friends I could name, and
+whenever I was breaking myself in and forcing my spirit to bear these
+things with patience, I always had a refuge to go to where I might
+find peace, and in whose words of comfort and sweet society I could
+rid me of all my pains and griefs. Whereas now, under this terrible
+blow, even those old wounds which seemed to have healed up are
+bleeding afresh; for it is impossible for me now to find such a refuge
+from my sorrows at home in the business of the state as in those days
+I did in that consolation of home, which was always in store whenever
+I came away sad from thoughts of state to seek for peace in her
+happiness. And so I stay away both from home and from public life;
+because home now is no more able to make up for the sorrow I feel when
+I think of our country than our country is for my sorrow at home. I am
+therefore looking forward all the more eagerly to your coming, and
+long to see you as early as may possibly be; no greater alleviation
+can be offered me than a meeting between us for friendly intercourse
+and conversation. I hope, however, that your return is to take place,
+as I hear it is, very shortly. As for myself, while there are abundant
+reasons for wanting to see you as soon as possible, my principal one
+is in order that we may discuss together beforehand the best method of
+conduct for present circumstances, which must entirely be adapted to
+the wishes of one man only, a man nevertheless who is far-seeing and
+generous, and also, as I think I have thoroughly ascertained, to me
+not at all ill-disposed and to you extremely friendly. But admitting
+this, it is still a matter for much deliberation what is the line--I
+do not say of action, but of keeping quiet--that we ought by his good
+leave and favor to adopt. Farewell!
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OF BRAVE AND ELEVATED SPIRITS[23]
+
+
+A spirit altogether brave and elevated is chiefly discernible by two
+characters. The first consists in a low estimate of mere outward
+circumstances, since it is convinced that a man ought to admire,
+desire, or court nothing but what is virtuous and becoming; and that
+he ought to succumb to no man, nor to any perturbation either of
+spirit or fortune. The other thing is that, possest of such a spirit
+as I have just mentioned, you should perform actions which are great
+and of the greatest utility, but extremely arduous, full of
+difficulties and danger both to life and the many things which
+pertain to life.
+
+In the latter of those two characters consist all the glory, the
+majesty, and, I add, the utility; but the causes and the efficient
+means that form great men is in the former, which contains the
+principles that elevate the soul, and gives it a contempt for
+temporary considerations. Now, this very excellence consists in two
+particulars: you are to deem that only to be good is to be virtuous,
+and that you be free from all mental irregularity. For we are to look
+upon it as the character of a noble and an elevated soul, to slight
+all those considerations that the generality of mankind account great
+and glorious, and to despise them, upon firm and durable principles;
+while strength of mind and greatness of resolution are discerned in
+bearing those calamities which, in the course of man's life, are many
+and various, so as not to be driven from your natural disposition, nor
+from the dignity of a wise man; for it is not consistent that he who
+is not subdued by fear should be subjugated by passion, nor that he
+who has shown himself invincible by toil should be conquered by
+pleasure. Wherefore, we ought to watch and avoid the love of money;
+for nothing so truly characterizes a narrow, groveling disposition as
+to love riches; and nothing is more noble and more exalted than to
+despise riches if you have them not, and if you have them, to employ
+them in beneficence and liberality.
+
+An inordinate passion for glory, as I have already observed, is
+likewise to be guarded against; for it deprives us of liberty, the
+only prize for which men of elevated sentiments ought to contend.
+Power is so far from being desirable in itself that it sometimes ought
+to be refused, and sometimes to be resigned. We should likewise be
+free from all disorders of the mind, from all violent passion and
+fear, as well as languor, voluptuousness, and anger, that we may
+possess that tranquillity and security which confer alike consistency
+and dignity. Now, many there are, and have been, who, courting that
+tranquillity which I have mentioned here, have withdrawn themselves
+from public affairs and taken refuge in retirement. Among these, some
+of the noblest and most prominent of our philosophers; and some
+persons, of strict and grave dispositions, were unable to bear with
+the manners either of the people or their rulers; and some have lived
+in the country, amusing themselves with the management of their
+private affairs. Their aim was the same as that of the powerful, that
+they might enjoy their liberty, without wanting anything or obeying
+any person; for the essence of liberty is to live just as you
+please....
+
+But, since most persons are of opinion that the achievements of war
+are more glorious than civil affairs, this judgment needs to be
+restricted; for many, as generally is the case with high minds and
+enterprising spirits, especially if they are adapted to military life
+and are fond of warlike achievements, have often sought opportunities
+of war from their fondness for glory; but if we are willing to judge
+truly, many are the civil employments of greater importance, and of
+more renown, than the military.
+
+For tho Themistocles is justly praised--his name is now more
+illustrious than that of Solon, and his glorious victory at Salamis
+is mentioned preferably to the policy of Solon, by which he first
+confirmed the power of the Areopagus--the one should not be considered
+more illustrious than the other; for the one availed his country only
+for once--the other is lastingly advantageous; because by it the laws
+of the Athenians, and the institutions of their ancestors, are
+preserved. Now, Themistocles could not have stated any respect in
+which he benefited the Areopagus, but Solon might with truth declare
+that Themistocles had been advantaged by him; for the war was carried
+on by the counsels of that senate which was constituted by Solon.
+
+We may make the same observation with regard to Pausanias[24] and
+Lysander among the Lacedaemonians; for all the addition of empire which
+their conquests are supposed to have brought to their country is not
+to be compared to the laws and economy of Lycurgus; for indeed, owing
+to these very causes they had armies more subordinate and courageous.
+In my eyes, Marcus Scaurus (who flourished when I was but a boy) was
+not inferior to Caius Marius;[25] nor, after I came to have a concern
+in the government, Quintus Catulus[26] to Cneius Pompey. An army
+abroad is but of small service, unless there be a wise administration
+at home. Nor did that good man and great general Africanus perform a
+more important service to his country when he razed Numantia than did
+that private citizen P. Nasica[27] when at the same period he killed
+Tiberius Gracchus. An action which it is true was not merely of a
+civil nature; for it approaches to a military character, as being the
+result of force and courage; but it was an action performed without an
+army, and from political considerations....
+
+Now all that excellence which springs from a lofty and noble nature is
+altogether produced by the mental and not by the corporeal powers.
+Meanwhile, the body ought to be kept in such action and order as that
+it may be always ready to obey the dictates of reason and wisdom, in
+carrying them into execution, and in persevering under hardships. But
+with regard to that _honestas_ we are treating of, it consists wholly
+in the thoughtful application of the mind, by which the civilians who
+preside over public affairs are equally serviceable to their country
+as they who wage wars. For it often happens that by such counsels wars
+are either not entered into or they are brought to a termination;
+sometimes they are even undertaken, as the third Punic war was by the
+advice of Marcus Cato, whose authority was powerful, even after he was
+dead.
+
+Wisdom in determining is therefore preferable to courage in fighting;
+but in this we are to take care that we are not swayed by an aversion
+to fighting rather than by a consideration of expediency. Now in
+engaging in war we ought to make it appear that we have no other view
+than peace. But the character of a brave and resolute man is not to be
+ruffled with adversity, and not to be in such confusion as to quit his
+post, as we say, but to preserve a presence of mind, and the exercise
+of reason, without departing from his purpose. And while this is the
+characteristic of a lofty spirit, so this also is that of a powerful
+intellect; namely, to anticipate futurity in thought, and to conclude
+beforehand what may happen on either side, and, upon that, what
+measures to pursue, and never be surprized so as to say, "I had not
+thought of that." Such are the operations of a genius, capacious and
+elevated; of such a one as relies on its own prudence and counsel; but
+to rush precipitately into the field, and to encounter an enemy with
+mere physical force has somewhat in it that is barbarous and brutal.
+When the occasion, however, and its necessity compel it, we should
+resist with force, and prefer death to slavery or dishonor.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+OF SCIPIO'S DEATH AND OF FRIENDSHIP[28]
+
+
+Should I say that I am not distrest by the loss of Scipio,
+philosophers may determine with what propriety I should do so; but
+assuredly I should be guilty of falsehood. For I am distrest at being
+bereaved of such a friend, as no one, I consider, will ever be to me
+again, and, as I can confidently assert, no one ever was; but I am not
+destitute of a remedy. I comfort myself, and especially with this
+consolation, that I am free from that error by which most men, on the
+decease of friends, are wont to be tormented; for I feel that no evil
+has happened to Scipio; it has befallen myself, if indeed it has
+happened to any. Now to be above measure distrest at one's own
+troubles is characteristic of the man who loves not his friend, but
+himself. In truth, as far as he is concerned, who can deny that his
+end was glorious? for unless he had chosen to wish for immortality, of
+which he had not the slightest thought, what did he fail to obtain
+which it was lawful for a man to wish for? A man who, as soon as he
+grew up, by his transcendent merit far surpassed those sanguine hopes
+of his countrymen which they had conceived regarding him when a mere
+boy, who never stood for the consulship, yet was made Consul twice; on
+the first occasion, before his time; on the second, at the proper age
+as regarded himself, tho for the commonwealth almost too late; who, by
+overthrowing two cities,[29] most hostile to our empire, put an end
+not only to all present but all future wars. What shall I say of his
+most engaging manners; of his dutiful conduct to his mother; his
+generosity to his sisters; his kindness to his friends; his
+uprightness toward all? These are known to you; and how dear he was to
+the state was displayed by its mourning at his death....
+
+The authority of the ancients has more weight with me, either that of
+our own ancestors, who paid such sacred honors to the dead, which
+surely they would not have done if they thought those honors did in no
+way affect them, or that of those who once lived in this country, and
+enlightened, by their institutions and instructions, Magna Graecia[30]
+(which now indeed is entirely destroyed, but then was flourishing),
+or of him who was pronounced by the oracle of Apollo to be the wisest
+of men, who did not say first one thing and then another, as is
+generally done, but always the same; namely, that the souls of men are
+divine, and that when they have departed from the body, a return to
+heaven is opened to them, and the speediest to the most virtuous and
+just. This same opinion was also held by Scipio; for he indeed, a very
+few days before his death, as if he had a presentiment of it, when
+Philus and Manilius were present, and many others, and you also,
+Scaevola, had gone with me, for three days descanted on the subject of
+government; of which discussion the last was almost entirely on the
+immortality of souls, which he said he had learned in sleep through a
+vision from Africanus. If this be the fact, that the spirit of the
+best man most easily flies away in death, as from the prison-house and
+chains of the body, whose passage to the gods can we conceive to have
+been readier than that of Scipio? Wherefore, to be afflicted at this
+his departure, I fear, would be the part rather of an envious person
+than of a friend....
+
+But yet I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to
+have lived happily because I lived with Scipio, with whom I had a
+common anxiety on public and private affairs, and with whom my life
+both at home and abroad was associated, and there existed that,
+wherein consists the entire strength of friendship, an entire
+agreement of inclinations, pursuits, and sentiments. That character
+for wisdom, therefore, which Fannius a little while ago mentioned does
+not so delight me, especially since it is undeserved, as the hope that
+the recollection of our friendship will last forever. And it is the
+more gratifying to me because scarcely in the history of the world are
+three or four pairs of friends mentioned by name; and I indulge in the
+hope that the friendship of Scipio and Laelius will be remembered....
+
+I can only urge you to prefer friendship to all human possessions; for
+there is nothing so suited to our nature, so well adapted to
+prosperity or adversity. But first of all, I am of opinion that except
+among the virtuous friendship can not exist; I do not analyze this
+principle too closely, as they do who inquire with too great nicety
+into those things, perhaps with truth on their side, but with little
+general advantage; for they maintain that there is no good man but the
+wise man. Be it so, yet they define wisdom to be such as no mortal has
+ever attained to; whereas we ought to contemplate those things which
+exist in practise and in common life, and not the subjects of fictions
+or of our own wishes. I would never pretend to say that Caius
+Fabricius, Marius Curius, and Titus Coruncanius, whom our ancestors
+esteemed wise, were wise according to the standard of these moralists.
+Wherefore let them keep to themselves the name of wisdom, both
+invidious and unintelligible, and let them allow that these were good
+men--nay, they will not even do that; they will declare that this can
+not be granted except to a wise man.
+
+Let us therefore proceed with our dull genius, as they say. Those who
+so conduct themselves and so live that their honor, their integrity,
+their justice, and liberality are approved; so that there is not in
+them any covetousness, or licentiousness, or boldness; and that they
+are of great consistency, as those men whom I have mentioned
+above--let us consider these worthy of the appellation of good men, as
+they have been accounted such, because they follow (as far as men are
+able) nature, which is the best guide of a good life. For I seem to
+myself to have this view, that we are so formed by nature that there
+should be a certain social tie among all; stronger, however, as each
+approaches nearer us. Accordingly, citizens are preferable to
+foreigners, and relatives to strangers; for with the last-named,
+Nature herself has created a friendly feeling, tho this has not
+sufficient strength. For in this respect friendship is superior to
+relationship, because from relationship benevolence can be withdrawn
+and from friendship it can not; for with the withdrawal of benevolence
+the very name of friendship is done away, while that of relationship
+remains. Now how great the power of friendship is may be best gathered
+from this consideration, that out of the boundless society of the
+human race, which Nature herself has joined together, friendship is a
+matter so contracted, and brought into so narrow a compass, that the
+whole of affection is confined to two, or at any rate to very few.
+
+Now friendship is nothing else than a complete union of feeling on all
+subjects, divine and human, accompanied by kindly feeling and
+attachment, than which, indeed, I am not aware whether, with the
+exception of wisdom, anything better has been bestowed on man by the
+immortal gods. Some men prefer riches, others good health, others
+influence, others again honors, many prefer even pleasures; the last,
+indeed, is the characteristic of beasts; while the former are fleeting
+and uncertain, depending not so much on our own purpose as on the
+fickleness of fortune. Whereas those who place the supreme good in
+virtue, therein do admirably; but this very virtue itself both begets
+and constitutes friendship; nor without this virtue can friendship
+exist at all. Now let us define this virtue according to the usage of
+life and of our common language; and let us not measure it, as certain
+learned persons do, by pomp of language; and let us include among the
+good those who are so accounted--the Paulli, the Catos, the Galli, the
+Scipios, and the Phili; with these men ordinary life is content; and
+let us pass over those who are nowhere found to exist. Among men of
+this kind, therefore, friendship finds facilities so great that I can
+scarcely describe them.
+
+In the first place--to whom can life be "worth living," as Ennius
+says, who does not repose on the mutual kind feeling of some friend?
+What can be more delightful than to have one to whom you can speak on
+all subjects just as to yourself? Where would be the great enjoyment
+in prosperity if you had not one to rejoice in it equally with
+yourself? And adversity would indeed be difficult to endure without
+some one who would bear it even with greater regret than yourself. In
+short, all other objects that are sought after are severally suited to
+some one single purpose--riches, that you may spend them; power that
+you may be courted; honors, that you may be extolled; pleasures, that
+you may enjoy them; good health, that you may be exempt from harm, and
+perform the functions of the body. Whereas friendship comprizes the
+greatest number of objects possible; wherever you turn yourself, it is
+at hand; shut out of no place, never out of season, never irksome; and
+therefore we do not use fire and water, as they say, on more occasions
+than we do friendship. And I am not now speaking of commonplace or
+ordinary friendship (tho even that brings delight and benefit), but of
+real and true friendship, such as belonged to those of whom very few
+are recorded; for prosperity, friendship renders more brilliant, and
+adversity more supportable, by dividing and communicating it.
+
+And while friendship embraces very many and great advantages, she
+undoubtedly surpasses all in this, that she shines with a brilliant
+hope over the future, and never suffers the spirit to be weakened or
+to sink. Besides, he who looks on a true friend looks, as it were,
+upon a kind of image of himself; wherefore friends, tho absent, are
+still present; tho in poverty, they are rich; tho weak, yet in the
+enjoyment of health; and, what is still more difficult to assert, tho
+dead they are alive; so entirely does the honor, the memory, the
+regret of friends attend them; from which circumstance the death of
+the one seems to be happy, and the life of the other praiseworthy;
+nay, should you remove from nature the cement of kind feelings,
+neither a house nor a city will be able to stand; even the cultivation
+of the land will not continue. If it be not clearly perceived how
+great is the power of friendship and concord, it can be distinctly
+inferred from quarrels and dissensions; for what house is there so
+established, or what state so firmly settled, that may not utterly be
+overthrown by hatred and dissension? From which it may be determined
+how much advantage there is in friendship. They relate, indeed, that a
+certain learned man of Agrigentum[31] promulgated in Greek verses the
+doctrine that all things which cohere throughout the whole world, and
+all things that are the subjects of motion, are brought together by
+friendship, and are dispelled by discord; and this principle all men
+understand, and illustrate by their conduct. Therefore, if at any time
+any act of a friend has been exhibited, either in undergoing or in
+sharing dangers, who is there that does not extol such an act with the
+highest praise?...
+
+Now if such be the influence of integrity, that we love it even in
+those whom we have never seen, and, what is much more, even in an
+enemy, what wonder if men's feelings are affected when they seem to
+discover the goodness and virtue of those with whom they may become
+connected by intercourse? altho love is confirmed by the reception of
+kindness, and by the discovery of an earnest sympathy, and by close
+familiarity, which things being added to the first emotion of the mind
+and the affections, there is kindled a large amount of kindly feeling.
+And if any imagine that this proceeds from a sense of weakness, so
+that there shall be secured a friend, by whom a man may obtain that
+which he wants, they leave to friendship a mean and, indeed, if I may
+so speak, anything but respectable origin, when they make her to be
+born of indigence and want; were this the case, then in proportion as
+a man judged that there were the least resources in himself, precisely
+in that degree would he be best qualified for friendship, whereas the
+fact is far otherwise. For just as a man has most confidence in
+himself, and as he is most completely fortified by worth and wisdom,
+so that he needs no one's assistance, and feels that all his resources
+reside in himself, in the same proportion he is most highly
+distinguished for seeking out and forming friendships. For what did
+Africanus want of me? Nothing whatever, nor indeed did I need aught
+from him; but I loved him from admiration of his excellence; he in
+turn perhaps was attached to me from some high opinion which he
+entertained of my character, and association fostered our affection.
+But altho many and great advantages ensued, yet it was not from any
+hope of these that the causes of our attachment sprang; for as we are
+beneficent and liberal not to exact favor in return (for we are not
+usurers in kind actions), but by nature are inclined to liberality,
+thus I think that friendship is to be desired, not attracted by the
+hope of reward, but because the whole of its profit consists in love
+only. From such opinions, they who, after the fashion of beasts, refer
+everything to pleasure, widely differ, and no great wonder, since they
+can not look up to anything lofty, magnificent, or divine who east
+all their thoughts on an object so mean and contemptible.
+
+Therefore let us exclude such persons altogether from our discourse;
+and let us ourselves hold this opinion, that the sentiment of loving
+and the attachment of kind feelings are produced by nature when the
+evidence of virtue has been established; and they who have eagerly
+sought the last-named draw nigh and attach themselves to it, that they
+may enjoy the friendship and character of the individual they have
+begun to love, and that they may be commensurate and equal in
+affection, and more inclined to confer a favor than to claim any
+return. And let this honorable struggle be maintained between them; so
+not only will the greatest advantages be derived from friendship, but
+its origin from nature rather than from a sense of weakness will be at
+once more impressive and more true. For if it were expediency that
+cemented friendships, the same when changed would dissolve them; but
+because nature can never change, therefore true friendships are
+eternal....
+
+Listen, then, my excellent friends, to the discussion which was very
+frequently held by me and Scipio on the subject of friendship; altho
+he indeed used to say that nothing was more difficult than that
+friendship should continue to the end of life; for it often happened
+either that the same course was not expedient to both parties or that
+they held different views of politics; he remarked also that the
+characters of men often changed, in some cases by adversity, in
+others by old age becoming oppressive; and he derived an authority
+for such notions from a comparison with early life, because the
+strongest attachments of boys are constantly laid aside with the
+praetexta; even if they should maintain it to manhood, yet sometimes it
+is broken off by rivalry, for a dowried wife, or some other advantage
+which they can not both attain. And even if men should be carried on
+still further in their friendship, yet that feeling is often
+undermined should they fall into rivalry for preferments; for there is
+no greater enemy to friendship than covetousness of money, in most
+men, and even in the best, an emulous desire of high offices and
+glory, in consequence of which the most bitter enmities have often
+arisen between the dearest friends. For great dissensions, and those
+in most instances justifiable, arise when some request is made of
+friends which is improper, as, for instance, that they should become
+either the ministers of their lust or their supporters in the
+perpetration of wrong; and they who refuse to do so, it matters not
+however virtuously, yet are accused of discarding the claims of
+friendship by those persons whom they are unwilling to oblige; but
+they who dare to ask anything of a friend, by their very request seem
+to imply that they would do anything for the sake of that friend; by
+the complaining of such persons, not only are long-established
+intimacies put an end to, but endless animosities are engendered. All
+these many causes, like so many fatalities, are ever threatening
+friendship, so that, he said, to escape them all seemed to him a proof
+not merely of wisdom, but even of good fortune....
+
+Let this, therefore, be established as a primary law concerning
+friendship, that we expect from our friends only what is honorable,
+and for our friends' sake do what is honorable; that we should not
+wait till we are asked; that zeal be ever ready, and reluctance far
+from us; but that we take pleasure in freely giving our advice; that
+in our friendship, the influence of our friends, when they give good
+advice, should have great weight; and that this be employed to
+admonish not only candidly, but even severely, if the case shall
+require, and that we give heed to it when so employed; for, as to
+certain persons whom I understand to have been esteemed wise men in
+Greece, I am of opinion that some strange notions were entertained by
+them; but there is nothing which they do not follow up with too great
+subtlety; among the rest, that excessive friendships should be
+avoided, lest it should be necessary for one to feel anxiety for many;
+that every one has enough, and more than enough, of his own affairs;
+that to be needlessly implicated in those of other people is
+vexatious; that it was most convenient to hold the reins of friendship
+as loose as possible, so as either to tighten or slacken them when you
+please; for they argue that the main point toward a happy life is
+freedom from care, which the mind can not enjoy if one man be, as it
+were, in travail for others.
+
+Nay, they tell us that some are accustomed to declare, still more
+unfeelingly (a topic which I have briefly touched upon just above),
+that friendships should be cultivated for the purpose of protection
+and assistance, and not for kind feeling or affection; and therefore
+the less a man possesses of independence and of strength, in the same
+degree he most earnestly desires friendships; that thence it arises
+that women seek the support of friendship more than men, and the poor
+more than the rich, and persons in distress rather than those who are
+considered prosperous. Admirable philosophy! for they seem to take
+away the sun from the world who withdraw friendship from life; for we
+receive nothing better from the immortal gods, nothing more
+delightful; for what is this freedom from care?--in appearances,
+indeed, flattering; but, in many eases, in reality to be disdained.
+Nor is it reasonable to undertake any honorable matter or action lest
+you should be anxious, or to lay it aside when undertaken; for if we
+fly from care, we must fly from virtue also; for it is impossible that
+she can, without some degree of distress, feel contempt and
+detestation for qualities opposed to herself; just as kind-heartedness
+for malice, temperance for profligacy, and bravery for cowardice.
+Accordingly, you see that upright men are most distrest by unjust
+actions; the brave with the cowardly; the virtuous with the
+profligate; and, therefore, this is the characteristic of a
+well-regulated mind, both to be well pleased with what is excellent
+and to be distrest with what is contrary. Wherefore, if trouble of
+mind befall a wise man (and assuredly it will, unless we suppose that
+all humanity is extirpated from his mind), what reason is there why we
+should altogether remove friendship from life, lest because of it we
+should take upon ourselves some troubles? for what difference is
+there (setting the emotions of the mind aside), I do not say between a
+man and a beast, but between a man and a stone, or log, or anything of
+that kind? For they do not deserve to be listened to who would have
+virtue to be callous and made of iron, as it were, which indeed is, as
+in other matters, so in friendship also, tender and susceptible; so
+that friends are loosened, as it were, by happy events, and drawn
+together by distresses.
+
+Wherefore the anxiety which has often to be felt for a friend is not
+of such force that it should remove friendship from the world, any
+more than that the virtues, because they bring with them certain cares
+and troubles, should therefore be discarded. For when it produces
+friendship (as I said above), should any indication of virtue shine
+forth, to which a congenial mind may attach and unite itself--when
+this happens, affection must necessarily arise. For what is so
+unmeaning as to take delight in many vain things, such as preferments,
+glory, magnificent buildings, clothing and adornment of the body, and
+not to take an extreme delight in a soul endued with virtue, in such a
+soul as can either love or (so to speak) love in return? for there is
+nothing more delightful than the repayment of kindness and the
+interchange of devotedness and good offices. Now if we add this, which
+may with propriety be added, that nothing so allures and draws any
+object to itself as congeniality does friendship, it will of course be
+admitted as true that the good must love the good, and unite them to
+them selves, just as if connected by relationship and nature; for
+nothing is more apt to seek and seize on its like than nature.
+Wherefore this certainly is clear, Fannius and Scaevola (in my
+opinion), that among the good a liking for the good is, as it were,
+inevitable; and this indeed is appointed by Nature herself as the very
+fountain of friendship.
+
+But the same kind disposition belongs also to the multitude; for
+virtue is not inhuman, or cruel, or haughty, since she is accustomed
+to protect even whole nations, and to adopt the best measures for
+their welfare, which assuredly she would not do did she shrink from
+the affection of the vulgar. And to myself, indeed, those who form
+friendships with a view to advantage seem to do away with its most
+endearing bond; for it is not so much the advantage obtained through a
+friend as the mere love of that friend which delights; and then only
+what has proceeded from a friend becomes delightful if it has
+proceeded from zealous affection; and that friendship should be
+cultivated from a sense of necessity is so far from being the case
+that those who, being endowed with power and wealth, and especially
+with virtue (in which is the strongest support of friendship), have
+least need of another, are most liberal and generous. Yet I am not
+sure whether it is requisite that friends should never stand in any
+need; for wherein would any devotedness of mine to him have been
+exerted if Scipio had never stood in need of my advice or assistance
+at home or abroad? Wherefore friendship has not followed upon
+advantage, but advantage on friendship.
+
+Persons, therefore, who are wallowing in indulgence will not need to
+be listened to if ever they shall descant upon friendship, which they
+have known neither by experience nor by theory. For who is there, by
+the faith of gods and men, who would desire, on the condition of his
+loving no one, and himself being loved by none, to roll in affluence,
+and live in a superfluity of all things? For this is the life of
+tyrants, in which undoubtedly there can be no confidence, no
+affection, no steady dependence on attachment; all is perpetually
+mistrust and disquietude--there is no room for friendship. For who can
+love either him whom he fears or him by whom he thinks he himself is
+feared? Yet are they courted, solely in hypocrisy, for a time;
+because, if perchance (as it frequently happens) they have been
+brought low, then it is perceived how destitute they were of friends.
+And this, they say, Tarquin[32] exprest; that when going into exile,
+he found out whom he had as faithful friends, and whom unfaithful
+ones, since then he could no longer show gratitude to either party;
+altho I wonder that, with such haughtiness and impatience of temper,
+he could find one at all. And as the character of the individual whom
+I have mentioned could not obtain true friends, so the riches of many
+men of rank exclude all faithful friendship; for not only is Fortune
+blind herself, but she commonly renders blind those whom she
+embraces....
+
+He who, therefore, shall have shown himself in both cases, as regards
+friendship, worthy, consistent, and stedfast; such a one we ought to
+esteem of a class of persons extremely rare--nay, almost godlike. Now,
+the foundation of that stedfastness and constancy, which we seek in
+friendship, is sincerity. For nothing is stedfast which is insincere.
+Besides, it is right that one should be chosen who is frank and
+good-natured, and congenial in his sentiments; one, in fact, who is
+influenced by the same motives, all of which qualities have a tendency
+to create sincerity. For it is impossible for a wily and tortuous
+disposition to be sincere. Nor in truth can the man who has no
+sympathy from nature, and who is not moved by the same considerations,
+be either attached or steady. To the same requisites must be added
+that he shall neither take delight in bringing forward charges nor
+believe them when they arise, all of which causes belong to that
+consistent principle of which now for some time I have been treating.
+Thus the remark is true which I made at first that friendship can
+exist only among the good; for it is the part of a good man (whom at
+the same time we may call a wise man) to observe these two rules in
+friendship: first, that there shall be nothing pretended or simulated
+(for even to hate openly better becomes the ingenuous man than by his
+looks to conceal his sentiments); in the next place, that not only
+does he repel charges when brought (against his friends) by any one,
+but is not himself suspicious, ever fancying that some infidelity has
+been committed by his friend. To all this there should be added a
+certain suavity of conversation and manners, affording, as it does, no
+inconsiderable zest to friendship. Now solemnity and gravity on all
+occasions, certainly, carry with them dignity; but friendship ought to
+be easier and more free and more pleasant, and tending more to every
+kind of politeness and good nature....
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: From the "Cato Major, an Essay on Old Age." Translated by
+Cyrus R. Edmonds. This work is composed in the form of a dialog, in
+which, in the person of Cato the Censor as speaker, the benefits of
+old age are pointed out.]
+
+[Footnote 5: A famous athlete who was many times crowned at the
+Pythian and Olympian games.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Cneius Scipio was Consul in 222, and with Marcellus
+completed the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. He served with his brother
+Publius Cicero against the Carthaginians in Spain, where, after
+several victories, both were slain in 212 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Lucius Metellus, a Roman general who defeated the
+Carthaginians at Panormus, now Palermo, Sicily, in 250 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Masinissa, king of a small territory in northern Africa,
+was at first an ally of Carthage against Rome, but afterward became an
+ally of Rome against Carthage.]
+
+[Footnote 9: The translator explains that the speeches here referred
+to, as collected and published by Cato, numbered about 150. Cato was
+known to his contemporaries as "the Roman Demosthenes." Later writers
+often referred to him as "Cato the orator."]
+
+[Footnote 10: Archytas was a Greek philosopher, eminent also as
+statesman, mathematician, and general. He lived about 400 B.C., and is
+credited with having saved the life of Plato through his influence
+with Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse. He was seven times general of
+the army of Tarentum and successful in all his campaigns; eminent also
+for domestic virtues. He is pronounced by a writer in Smith's
+"Dictionary" to have been "among the very greatest men of antiquity."
+He was drowned while making a voyage in the Adriatic.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Caudium was a Samnite town near which the Romans were
+defeated by Pontius Herennius.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Not the Appius Claudius from whom the Appian Way and one
+of the great aqueducts were named. The older Appius Claudius, here
+referred to, lived in the century that followed Plato.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Titus Flaminius, general and statesman, was Consul in
+198 B.C. It was not Titus, but Caius Flaminius, who built the famous
+circus and road bearing his name. Caius lived at an earlier period.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the eminent military genius,
+who several times defeated the Romans before he was finally overthrown
+by them at Beneventum in 275 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Livius Andronicus, who lived in Rome about 240 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 16: A small island (now a peninsula), lying off the coast of
+Spain. It is to-day called Cadiz, but anciently was known as Erythia,
+Tartessus, and Gades. It was founded about 1100 B.C., by the
+Phenicians, of whose western commerce it was the center.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The tyrant of Athens who reigned thirty-three years and
+died about 527 B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Melmoth has commented on this passage that, altho
+suicide too generally prevailed among the Greeks and Romans, the
+wisest philosophers condemned it. "Nothing," he says, "can be more
+clear and explicit" than the prohibition imposed by Pythagoras,
+Socrates, and Plato.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Better known as the famous Regulus, whose alleged speech
+to the "Conscript Fathers" has been declaimed by generations of
+schoolboys.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Lucius Paulus died at the battle of Cannae, which was
+precipitated by his colleague Terentius Varro in 260 B.C., 40,000
+Romans being killed by the Carthaginians.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Marcellus, a Roman consul, who fought against Hannibal
+and was killed in an ambuscade.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Cicero's daughter was born about 79 B.C., and thrice
+married, the last time to Dolabella, who has been described as "one of
+the most profligate men of a profligate age." She was divorced from
+Dolabella in 44 B.C., gave birth to a son soon afterward, and died in
+the same year. Cicero's letter was written in reply to one which he
+had received from Servius Sulpicius, a celebrated Roman jurist. Cicero
+intended to erect a temple as a memorial to Tullia, but the death of
+Caesar and the unsettled state of public affairs that ensued, and in
+which Cicero was concerned, prevented him from doing so.]
+
+[Footnote 23: From Book I of the "Offices." Translated by Cyrus R.
+Edmonds.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Pausanias, a Spartan general, was the son of
+Cloembrotus, the king of Sparta, killed at the battle of Leuctra.
+Pausanias commanded at Plataea; but having conducted a treasonable
+correspondence with Xerxes, was starved to death as a punishment.]
+
+[Footnote 25: The general who contended against Sulla in the Civil
+war.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Catulus was consul with Marius in 102 B.C. He acted with
+Sulla during the Civil war.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Nasica, "a fierce and stiff-necked aristocrat," was of
+the family of Scipios. When the consuls refused to resort to violence
+against Tiberius Gracchus, it was he who led the senators forth from
+their meeting-place against the popular assembly outside, with whom
+ensued a fight, in which Gracchus was killed by a blow from a club.
+Nasica left Rome soon after, seeking safety. After spending some time
+as a wandering exile, he died at Pergamus.]
+
+[Footnote 28: From the Dialogue on "Friendship." Translated by Cyrus
+E. Edmonds. Laelius, a Roman who was contemporary with the younger
+Scipio, is made the speaker in the passage here quoted. Laelius, was a
+son of Caius Laelius, the friend and companion of the elder Scipio,
+whose actions are so interwoven with those of Scipio that a writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says, "It is difficult to relate them
+separately." The younger Laelius was intimate with the younger Scipio
+in a degree almost as remarkable as his father had been with the
+elder. The younger, immortalized by Cicero's treatise on Friendship,
+was born about 186 B.C., and was a man of fine culture noted as an
+orator. His personal worth was so generally esteemed that it survived
+to Seneca's day. One of Seneca's injunctions to a friend was that he
+should "live like Laelius."]
+
+[Footnote 29: Scipio Africanus minor by whom Carthage was destroyed in
+146 B.C., and Numantia, a town of Spain, was destroyed in 133 B.C.
+From the letter he obtained the surname of Numantinus.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Magna Graecia was a name given by the ancients to that
+part of southern Italy which, before the rise of the Roman state, was
+colonized by Greeks. Its time of greatest splendor was the seventh and
+sixth centuries B.C.; that is, intermediate between the Homeric age
+and the Periclean. Among its leading cities were Cumae, Sybaris, Locri,
+Regium, Tarentum, Heraclea, and Paestum. At the last-named place
+imposing ruins still survive.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Empedocles, philosopher, poet, and historian, who lived
+et Agrigentum in Sicily, about 490-430 B.C., and wrote a poem on the
+doctrines of Pythagoras. A legend has survived that he jumped into the
+crater of Etna, in order that people might conclude, from his complete
+disappearance, that he was a god. Matthew Arnold's poem on this
+incident is among his better-known works.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last King of Rome,
+occupied the throne for twenty-five years, and as a consequence of the
+rape of Lucretia by his son Sextus was banished about 509 B.C.]
+
+
+
+
+JULIUS CAESAR
+
+     Born in 100 B.C.; assassinated in 44; famous as general,
+     statesman, orator, and writer; served in Mitylene in 80;
+     captured by pirates in 76; questor in 68; pontifex maximus
+     in 63; propretor in Spain in 61; member of the First
+     Triumvirate in 60; Consul in 59; defeated the Helvetii in
+     58; invaded Britain in 55 and 54; crossed the Rhine in 55;
+     crossed the Rubicon and began the Civil war in 49; dictator
+     from 49 to 45; defeated Pompey in 48; reformed the calendar
+     in 46; refused the diadem in 44; assassinated in the senate
+     house in 44.[33]
+
+
+I
+
+THE BUILDING OF THE BRIDGE ACROSS THE RHINE[34]
+
+
+Caesar, for those reasons which I have mentioned, had resolved to cross
+the Rhine; but to cross by ships he neither deemed to be sufficiently
+safe nor considered consistent with his own dignity or that of the
+Roman people. Therefore, altho the greatest difficulty in forming a
+bridge was presented to him, on account of the breadth, rapidity, and
+depth of the river, he nevertheless considered that it ought to be
+attempted by him, or that his army ought not otherwise to be led over.
+He devised this plan of a bridge: he joined together, at the distance
+of two feet, two piles, each a foot and half thick, sharpened a little
+at the lower end, and proportioned in length to the depth of the
+river.
+
+After he had, by means of engines, sunk these into the river, and fixt
+them at the bottom, and then driven them in with rammers, not quite
+perpendicularly, like a stake, but bending forward and sloping, so as
+to incline in the direction of the current of the river; he also
+placed two [other piles] opposite to these, at the distance of forty
+feet lower down, fastened together in the same manner, but directed
+against the force and current of the river. Both these, moreover, were
+kept firmly apart by beams two feet thick (the space which the binding
+of the piles occupied), laid in at their extremities between two
+braces on each side; and in consequence of these being in different
+directions and fastened on sides the one opposite to the other, so
+great was the strength of the work, and such the arrangement of the
+materials, that in proportion as the greater body of water dashed
+against the bridge, so much the closer were its parts held fastened
+together. These beams were bound together by timber laid over them in
+the direction of the length of the bridge, and were [then] covered
+with laths and hurdles; and, in addition to this, piles were driven
+into the water obliquely, at the lower side of the bridge, and these
+serving as buttresses, and being connected with every portion of the
+work, sustained the force of the stream; and there were others also
+above the bridge, at a moderate distance, that if trunks of trees or
+vessels were floated down the river by the barbarians for the purpose
+of destroying the work, the violence of such things might be
+diminished by these defenses, and might not injure the bridge.
+
+Within ten days after the timber began to be collected, the whole work
+was completed, and the whole army led over. Caesar, leaving a strong
+guard at each end of the bridge, hastens into the territories of the
+Sigambri. In the mean time, ambassadors from several nations come to
+him, whom, on their suing for peace and alliance, he answers in a
+courteous manner, and orders hostages to be brought to him. But the
+Sigambri, at the very time the bridge was begun to be built, made
+preparations for a flight (by the advice of such of the Tenchtheri and
+Usipetes as they had among them), and quitted their territories and
+conveyed away all their possessions, and concealed themselves in
+deserts and woods.
+
+Caesar, having remained in their territories a few days, and burned all
+their villages and houses, and cut down their corn, proceeded into the
+territories of the Ubii; and having promised them his assistance, if
+they were ever harassed by the Suevi,[35] he learned from them these
+particulars: that the Suevi, after they had by means of their scouts
+found that the bridge was being built, had called a council, according
+to their custom, and sent orders to all parts of their state to
+remove from the towns and convey their children, wives, and all their
+possessions into the woods, and that all who could bear arms should
+assemble in one place; that the place thus chosen was nearly the
+center of those regions which the Suevi possest; that in this spot
+they had resolved to await the arrival of the Romans, and give them
+battle there. When Caesar discovered this, having already accomplished
+all these things on account of which he had resolved to lead his army
+over--namely, to strike fear into the Germans, take vengeance on the
+Sigambri, and free the Ubii from the invasion of the Suevi, having
+spent altogether eighteen days beyond the Rhine, and thinking he had
+advanced far enough to serve both honor and interest--he returned into
+Gaul, and cut down the bridge.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE INVASION OF BRITAIN[36]
+
+
+The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say
+that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island
+itself; the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the
+country of the Belgae[37] for the purpose of plunder and making war;
+almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which
+being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there
+and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is
+countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part
+very like those of the Gauls; the number of cattle is great. They use
+either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their
+money. Tin is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron;
+but the quantity of it is small; they employ brass, which is imported.
+There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and
+fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare and the cock and the
+goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The
+climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the cold being less severe.
+
+The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is opposite
+to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither almost all
+ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower looks to
+the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies toward
+Spain,[38] and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is
+reckoned, than Britain, by one half; but the passage [from it] into
+Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of
+this voyage is an island which is called Mona;[39] many smaller
+islands besides are supposed to lie [there], of which islands some
+have written that at the time of the winter solstice it is night
+there for thirty consecutive days. We, in our inquiries about that
+matter, ascertained nothing, except that, by accurate measurements
+with water, we perceived the nights to be shorter there than on the
+continent. The length of this side, as their account states, is 700
+miles. The third side is toward the north, to which portion of the
+island no land is opposite; but an angle of that side looks
+principally toward Germany. This side is considered to be 800 miles in
+length. Thus the whole island is [about] 2,000 miles in circumference.
+
+The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent,
+which is entirely a maritime district, nor do their customs differ
+much from Gallic. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but
+live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains,
+indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish color, and
+thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair
+long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and
+upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and
+particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their
+children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed
+to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first
+espoused when a virgin.
+
+The horse and charioteers of the enemy contended vigorously in a
+skirmish with our cavalry on the march; yet so that our men were
+conquerors in all parts, and drove them to their woods and hills; but,
+having slain a great many, they pursued too eagerly, and lost some of
+their men. However, the enemy, after some time had elapsed, when our
+men were off their guard, and occupied in the fortification of the
+camp, rushed out of the woods, and making an attack upon those who
+were placed on duty before the camp, fought in a determined manner;
+and two cohorts being sent by Caesar to their relief, and these
+severally the first of two legions, when these had taken up their
+position at a very small distance from each other, as our men were
+disconcerted by the unusual mode of battle, the enemy broke through
+the middle of them most courageously, and retreated thence in safety.
+That day, Q. Laberius Durus, a tribune of the soldiers, was slain. The
+enemy, since more cohorts were sent against them, were repulsed.
+
+In the whole of this method of fighting since the engagement took
+place under the eyes of all and before the camp, it was perceived that
+our men, on account of the weight of their arms, inasmuch as they
+could neither pursue [the enemy when] retreating, nor dare quit their
+standards, were little suited to this kind of enemy; that the horse
+also fought with great danger, because they [the Britons] generally
+retreated even designedly, and, when they had drawn off our men a
+short distance from the legions, leapt from their chariots and fought
+on foot in unequal [and to them advantageous] battle. But the system
+of cavalry engagement is wont to produce equal danger, and indeed the
+same, both to those who retreat and those who pursue. To this was
+added, that they never fought in close order, but in small parties and
+at great distances, and had detachments placed [in different parts],
+and then the one relieved the other, and the vigorous and fresh
+succeeded the wearied.
+
+The following day the enemy halted on the hills, a distance from our
+camp, and presented themselves in small parties, and began to
+challenge our horse to battle with less spirit than the day before.
+But at noon, when Caesar had sent three legions, and all the cavalry
+with C. Trebonius, the lieutenant, for the purpose of foraging, they
+flew upon the foragers suddenly from all quarters, so that they did
+not keep off [even] from the standards and the legions. Our men,
+making an attack on them vigorously, repulsed them; nor did they cease
+to pursue them until the horse, relying on relief, as they saw the
+legions behind them, drove the enemy precipitately before them, and,
+slaying a great number of them, did not give them the opportunity
+either of rallying, or halting, or leaping from their chariots. After
+this retreat the auxiliaries departed; nor after that time did the
+enemy ever engage with us in very large numbers.
+
+Caesar, discovering their design, leads his army into the territories
+of Cassivelaunus[40] to the river Thames, which river can be forded in
+one place only, and that with difficulty. When he had arrived there,
+he perceives that numerous forces of the enemy were marshaled on the
+other bank of the river; the bank also was defended by sharp
+stakes[41] fixt in front, and stakes of the same kind fixt under the
+water were covered by the river. These things being discovered from
+[some] prisoners and deserters, Caesar, sending forward the cavalry,
+ordered the legions to follow them immediately. But the soldiers
+advanced with such speed and such ardor, tho they stood above the
+water by their heads only, that the enemy could not sustain the attack
+of the legions and of the horse, and quitted the banks, and committed
+themselves to flight.
+
+Cassivelaunus, as we have stated above, all hope [rising out] of
+battle being laid aside, the greater part of his forces being
+dismissed, and about 4,000 charioteers only being left, used to
+observe our marches and retire a little from the road, and conceal
+himself in intricate and woody places, and in those neighborhoods in
+which he had discovered we were about to march, he used to drive the
+cattle and the inhabitants from the fields into the woods; and, when
+our cavalry, for the sake of plundering and ravaging the more freely,
+scattered themselves among the fields, he used to send out charioteers
+from the woods by all the well-known roads and paths, and, to the
+great danger of our horse, engaged with them; and this source of fear
+hindered them from straggling very extensively. The result was that
+Caesar did not allow excursions to be made to a great distance from the
+main body of the legions, and ordered that damage should be done to
+the enemy in ravaging their lands and kindling fires only so far as
+the legionary soldiers could, by their own exertion and marching,
+accomplish it.
+
+In the mean time the Trinobantes,[42] almost the most powerful state
+of those parts, from which the young man Mandubratius, embracing the
+protection of Caesar, had come to the continent of Gaul to [meet] him
+(whose father, Imanuentius, had possest the sovereignty in that state,
+and had been killed by Cassivelaunus; he himself had escaped death by
+flight) send ambassadors to Caesar, and promise that they will
+surrender themselves to him and perform his command: they entreat him
+to protect Mandubratius from the violence of Cassivelaunus, and send
+to their state some one to preside over it, and possess the
+government. Caesar demands forty hostages from them, and corn for his
+army, and sends Mandubratius to them. They speedily performed the
+things demanded, and sent hostages to the number appointed, and the
+corn.
+
+The Trinobantes, being protected and secured from any violence of the
+soldiers, the Cenimagni, the Segontiaci, the Ancalites, the
+Bibroci, and the Cassi, sending embassies, surrender themselves to
+Caesar.[43] From them he learns that the capital town of Cassivelaunus
+was not far from that place, and was defended by woods and morasses,
+and a very large number of men and of cattle had been collected in it.
+(Now the Britons, when they have fortified the intricate woods, in
+which they are wont to assemble for the purpose of avoiding the
+incursion of an enemy with an entrenchment and a rampart, call them a
+town.) Thither he proceeds with his legions; he finds the place
+admirably fortified by nature and art; he, however, undertakes to
+attack it in two directions. The enemy, having remained only a short
+time, did not sustain the attack of our soldiers, and hurried away on
+the other side of the town. A great amount of cattle was found there,
+and many of the enemy were taken and slain in their flight....
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OVERCOMING THE NERVII[44]
+
+
+Caesar, having sent his cavalry on before, followed closely after them
+with all his forces; but the plan and order of the march were
+different from that which the Belgae had reported to the Nervii.[45]
+For as he was approaching the enemy, Caesar, according to his custom,
+led on [as the van] six legions unencumbered by baggage; behind them
+he had placed the baggage-trains of the whole army; then the two
+legions which had been last raised closed the rear, and were a guard
+for the baggage-train. Our horse, with the slingers and archers,
+having passed the river, commenced action with the cavalry of the
+enemy. While they from time to time betook themselves into the woods
+to their companions, and again made an assault out of the wood upon
+our men, who did not dare to follow them in their retreat further than
+the limit to which the plain and open parts extended; in the mean time
+the six legions which had arrived first, having measured out the work,
+began to fortify the camp. When the first part of the baggage-train of
+our army was seen by those who lay hidden in the woods, which had been
+agreed on among them as the time for commencing action, as soon as
+they had arranged their line of battle and formed their ranks within
+the woods, and had encouraged one another, they rushed out suddenly
+with all their forces and made an attack upon our horse. The latter
+being easily routed and thrown into confusion, the Nervii ran down to
+the river with such incredible speed that they seemed to be in the
+woods, the river, and close upon us almost at the same time. And with
+the same speed they hastened up the hill to our camp and to those who
+were employed in the works.
+
+Caesar had everything to do at one time: the standard to be displayed,
+which was the sign when it was necessary to rim to arms; the signal to
+be given by the trumpet; the soldiers to be called off from the works;
+those who had proceeded some distance for the purpose of seeking
+materials for the rampart, to be summoned; the order of battle to be
+formed; the soldiers to be encouraged; the watchword to be given. A
+great part of these arrangements was prevented by the shortness of
+time and the sudden approach and charge of the enemy. Under these
+difficulties two things proved of advantage: [first] the skill and
+experience of the soldiers, because, having been trained by former
+engagements, they could suggest to themselves what ought to be done as
+conveniently as receive information from others; and [secondly] that
+Caesar had forbidden his several lieutenants to depart from the works
+and their respective legions before the camp was fortified. These, on
+account of the near approach and the speed of the enemy, did not then
+wait for any command from Caesar, but of themselves executed whatever
+appeared proper.
+
+Caesar, having given the necessary orders, hastened to and fro into
+whatever quarter fortune carried him, to animate the troops, and came
+to the tenth legion. Having encouraged the soldiers with no further
+speech than that "they should keep up the remembrance of their wonted
+valor, and not be confused in mind, but valiantly sustain the assault
+of the enemy"; as the latter were not farther from them than the
+distance to which a dart could be cast, he gave the signal for
+commencing battle. And having gone to another quarter for the purpose
+of encouraging [the soldiers], he finds them fighting. Such was the
+shortness of the time, and so determined was the mind of the enemy on
+fighting, that time was wanting not only for affixing the military
+insignia, but even for putting on the helmets and drawing off the
+covers from the shields. To whatever part any one by chance came from
+the works (in which he had been employed), and whatever standards he
+saw first, at these he stood, lest in seeking his own company he
+should lose the time for fighting.
+
+The army having been marshaled, rather as the nature of the ground and
+the declivity of the hill and the exigency of the time than as the
+method and order of military matters required, while the legions in
+the different places were withstanding the enemy, some in one quarter,
+some in another, and the view was obstructed by the very thick hedges
+intervening, as we have before remarked, neither could proper reserves
+be posted, nor could the necessary measures be taken in each part, nor
+could all the commands be issued by one person. Therefore, in such an
+unfavorable state of affairs, various events of fortune followed....
+
+At the same time, our horsemen, and light-armed infantry, who had been
+with those who, as I have related, were routed by the first assault of
+the enemy, as they were betaking themselves into the camp, met the
+enemy face to face, and again sought flight into another quarter; and
+the camp-followers, who from the Decuman Gate, and from the highest
+ridge of the hill had seen our men pass the river as victors, when,
+after going out for the purposes of plundering, they looked back and
+saw the enemy parading in our camp, committed themselves precipitately
+to flight; at the same time there arose the cry and shout of those who
+came with the baggage-train; and they (affrighted) were carried some
+one way, some another. By all these circumstances the cavalry of the
+Treviri were much alarmed (whose reputation for courage is
+extraordinary among the Gauls, and who had come to Caesar, being sent
+by their state as auxiliaries), and, when they saw our camp filled
+with a large number of the enemy, the legions hard prest and almost
+held surrounded, the camp-retainers, horsemen, slingers, and Numidians
+fleeing on all sides divided and scattered, they, despairing of our
+affairs, hastened home, and related to their state that the Romans
+were routed and conquered, [and] that the enemy were in possession of
+their camp and baggage-train.
+
+Caesar proceeded, after encouraging the tenth legion, to the right
+wing, where he perceived that his men were hard prest, and that in
+consequence of the standards of the twelfth legion being collected
+together in one place, the crowded soldiers were a hindrance to
+themselves in the fight; that all the centurions of the fourth cohort
+were slain, and the standard-bearer killed, the standard itself lost,
+almost all the centurions of the other cohorts either wounded or
+slain, and among them the chief centurion of the legion, P. Sextius
+Baculus, a very valiant man, who was so exhausted by many and severe
+wounds that he was already unable to support himself; he likewise
+perceived that the rest were slackening their efforts, and that some,
+deserted by those in the rear, were retiring from the battle and
+avoiding the weapons; that the enemy [on the other hand], tho
+advancing from the lower ground, were not relaxing in front, and were
+[at the same time] pressing hard on both flanks; he perceived also
+that the affair was at a crisis; and that there was not any reserve
+which could be brought up; having therefore snatched a shield from one
+of the soldiers in the rear (for he himself had come without a
+shield), he advanced to the front of the line, and addressing the
+centurions by name, and encouraging the rest of the soldiers, he
+ordered them to carry forward the standards, and extend the companies,
+that they might the more easily use their swords. On his arrival, as
+hope was brought to the soldiers and their courage restored, while
+every one for his own part, in the sight of his general, desired to
+exert his utmost energy, the impetuosity of the enemy was a little
+checked.
+
+Caesar, when he perceived that the seventh legion, which stood close by
+him, was also hard prest by the enemy, directed the tribunes of the
+soldiers to effect a junction of the legions gradually, and make their
+charge upon the enemy with a double front, which having been done
+since they brought assistance the one to the other, nor feared lest
+their rear should be surrounded by the enemy, they began to stand
+their ground more boldly, and to fight more courageously. In the mean
+time, the soldiers of the two legions which had been in the rear of
+the army, as a guard for the baggage-train, upon the battle being
+reported to them, quickened their pace, and were seen by the enemy on
+the top of the hill; and Titus Labienus, having gained possession of
+the camp of the enemy, and observed from the higher ground what was
+going on in our camp, sent the tenth legion as a relief to our men
+who, when they had learned from the flight of the horse and the
+sutlers in what position the affair was, and in how great danger the
+camp and the legion and the commander were involved, left undone
+nothing [which tended] to despatch.
+
+By their arrival, so great a change of matters was made that our men,
+even those who had fallen down exhausted with wounds, leaned on their
+shields, and renewed the fight; then the camp-retainers, tho unarmed,
+seeing the enemy completely dismayed, attacked [them tho] armed; the
+horsemen too, that they might by their valor blot out the disgrace of
+their flight, thrust themselves before the legionary soldiers in all
+parts of the battle. But the enemy, even in the last hope of safety,
+displayed such great courage that when the foremost of them had
+fallen, the next stood upon them prostrate, and fought from their
+bodies; when these were overthrown, and their corpses heaped up
+together, those who survived cast their weapons against our men
+[thence] as from a mound, and returned our darts which had fallen
+short between [the armies]; so that it ought not to be concluded that
+men of such great courage had injudiciously dared to pass a very broad
+river, ascend very high banks, and come up to a very disadvantageous
+place; since their greatness of spirit had rendered these actions
+easy, altho in themselves very difficult.
+
+This battle being ended, and the nation and name of the Nervii being
+almost reduced to annihilation, their old men, who together with the
+boys and women we have stated to have been collected together in the
+fenny places and marshes, on this battle having been reported to
+them, since they were convinced that nothing was an obstacle to the
+conquerors, and nothing safe to the conquered, sent ambassadors to
+Caesar by the consent of all who remained, and surrendered themselves
+to him; and in recounting the calamity of their state said that their
+senators were reduced from 600 to three; that from 60,000 men they
+[were reduced] to scarcely 500 who could bear arms, whom Caesar, that
+he might appear to use compassion toward the wretched and the
+suppliant, most carefully spared, and ordered them to enjoy their own
+territories and towns, and commanded their neighbors that they should
+restrain themselves and their dependents from offering injury or
+outrage [to them]....
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA AND THE DEATH OF POMPEY[46]
+
+(48 B.C.)
+
+
+Pompey, because he was encamped on a hill, drew up his army at the
+very foot of it, ever in expectation, as may be conjectured, that
+Caesar would expose himself to this disadvantageous situation. Caesar,
+seeing no likelihood of being able to bring Pompey to an action,
+judged it the most expedient method of conducting the war to decamp
+from that post, and to be always in motion; with this hope, that by
+shifting his camp and removing from place to place, he might be more
+conveniently supplied with corn, and also that by being in motion he
+might get some opportunity of forcing them to battle, and might by
+constant marches harass Pompey's army, which was not accustomed to
+fatigue.[47] These matters being settled, when the signal for marching
+was given, and the tents struck, it was observed that shortly before,
+contrary to his daily practise, Pompey's army had advanced farther
+than usual from his entrenchments, so that it appeared possible to
+come to an action on equal ground. Then Caesar addrest himself to his
+soldiers, when they were at the gates of the camp, ready to march out.
+"We must defer," says he, "our march at present, and set our thoughts
+on battle, which has been our constant wish; let us then meet the foe
+with resolute souls. We shall not hereafter easily find such an
+opportunity." He immediately marched out at the head of his troops.
+
+Pompey also, as was afterward known, at the unanimous solicitation of
+his friends, had determined to try the fate of a battle. For he had
+even declared in council a few days before that, before the battalions
+came to battle, Caesar's army would be put to the rout. When most
+people exprest their surprize at it, "I know," says he, "that I
+promise a thing almost incredible; but hear the plan on which I
+proceed, that you may march to battle with more confidence and
+resolution. I have persuaded our cavalry, and they have engaged to
+execute it, as soon as the two armies have met, to attack Caesar's
+right wing on the flank, and enclosing their army on the rear throw
+them into disorder, and put them to the rout, before we shall throw a
+weapon against the enemy. By this means we shall put an end to the
+war, without endangering the legions, and almost without a blow. Nor
+is this a difficult matter, as we far outnumber them in cavalry." At
+the same time, he gave them notice to be ready for battle on the day
+following, and since the opportunity which they had so often wished
+for was now arrived, not to disappoint the opinion generally
+entertained of their experience and valor....
+
+Caesar, observing his former custom, had placed the tenth legion on the
+right, the ninth on the left, altho it was very much weakened by the
+battles at Dyrrachium.[48] He placed the eighth legion so close to the
+ninth as almost to make one of the two, and ordered them to support
+each other. He drew up on the field eighty cohorts, making a total of
+twenty-two thousand men. He left two cohorts to guard the camp. He
+gave the command of the left wing to Antonius, of the right to P.
+Sulla, and of the center to Cn. Domitius; he himself took his post
+opposite Pompey. At the same time, fearing, from the disposition of
+the enemy which we have previously mentioned, lest his right wing
+might be surrounded by their numerous cavalry, he rapidly drafted a
+single cohort from each of the legions composing the third line,
+formed of them a fourth line, and opposed them to Pompey's cavalry,
+and, acquainting them with his wishes, admonished them that the
+success of that day depended on their courage. At the same time, he
+ordered the third line and the entire army not to charge without his
+command; that he would give the signal whenever he wished them to do
+so....
+
+But our men, when the signal was given, rushed forward with their
+javelins ready to be launched, but perceiving that Pompey's men did
+not run to meet their charge, having acquired experience by custom,
+and being practised in former battles, they of their own accord
+repressed their speed, and halted almost midway, that they might not
+come up with the enemy when their strength was exhausted, and after a
+short respite they again renewed their course, and threw their
+javelins, and instantly drew their swords, as Caesar had ordered them.
+Nor did Pompey's men fail in this crisis, for they received our
+javelins, stood our charge, and maintained their ranks; and, having
+launched their javelins, had recourse to their swords. At the same
+time, Pompey's horse, according to their orders, rushed out at once
+from his left wing, and his whole host of archers poured after them.
+Our cavalry did not withstand their charge; but gave ground a little,
+upon which Pompey's horse prest them more vigorously, and began to
+file off in troops, and flank our army. When Caesar perceived this, he
+gave the signal to his fourth line, which he had formed of the six
+cohorts. They instantly rushed forward and charged Pompey's horse with
+such fury that not a man of them stood; but all wheeling about, not
+only quitted their post, but galloped forward to seek a refuge in the
+highest mountains. By their retreat the archers and slingers, being
+left destitute and defenseless, were all cut to pieces. The cohorts,
+pursuing their success, wheeled about upon Pompey's left wing, while
+his infantry still continued to make battle, and attacked them in the
+rear.
+
+At the same time, Caesar ordered his third line to advance, which till
+then had not been engaged, but had kept their post. Thus, new and
+fresh troops having come to the assistance of the fatigued, and others
+having made an attack on their rear, Pompey's men were not able to
+maintain their ground, but all fled,[49] nor was Caesar deceived in his
+opinion that the victory, as he had declared in his speech to his
+soldiers, must have its beginning from those six cohorts, which he had
+placed as a fourth line to oppose the horse. For by them the cavalry
+were routed; by them the archers and slingers were cut to pieces; by
+them the left wing of Pompey's army was surrounded, and obliged to be
+the first to flee. But when Pompey saw his cavalry routed, and that
+part of his army on which he reposed his greatest hopes thrown into
+confusion, despairing of the rest, he quitted the field, and retreated
+straightway on horseback to his camp, and calling to the centurions,
+whom he had placed to guard the praetorian gate, with a loud voice,
+that the soldiers might hear: "Secure the camp," says he, "defend it
+with diligence, if any danger should threaten it; I will visit the
+other gates, and encourage the guards of the camp." Having thus said,
+he retired into his tent in utter despair, yet anxiously waiting the
+issue.
+
+Caesar having forced the Pompeians to flee into their entrenchment, and
+thinking that he ought not to allow them any respite to recover from
+their fright, exhorted his soldiers to take advantage of fortune's
+kindness, and to attack the camp. Tho they were fatigued by the
+intense heat, for the battle had continued till midday, yet, being
+prepared to undergo any labor, they cheerfully obeyed his command. The
+camp was bravely defended by the cohorts which had been left to guard
+it, but with much more spirit by the Thracians and foreign
+auxiliaries. For the soldiers who had fled for refuge to it from the
+field of battle, affrighted and exhausted by fatigue, having thrown
+away their arms and military standards, had their thoughts more
+engaged on their further escape than on the defense of the camp. Nor
+could the troops who were posted on the battlements long withstand the
+immense number of our darts, but fainting under their wounds quitted
+the place, and under the conduct of their centurions and tribunes
+fled, without stopping, to the high mountains which adjoined the camp.
+
+In Pompey's camp you might see arbors in which tables were laid, a
+large quantity of plate set out, the floors of the tents covered with
+fresh sods, the tents of Lucius Lentulus and others shaded with ivy,
+and many other things which were proofs of excessive luxury, and a
+confidence of victory, so that it might readily be inferred that they
+had no apprehensions of the issue of the day, as they indulged
+themselves in unnecessary pleasures, and yet upbraided with luxury
+Caesar's army, distrest and suffering troops, who had always been in
+want of common necessaries. Pompey, as soon as our men had forced the
+trenches, mounting his horse, and stripping off his general's habit,
+went hastily out of the back gate of the camp, and galloped with all
+speed to Larissa. Nor did he stop there, but with the same despatch,
+collecting a few of his flying troops, and halting neither day nor
+night, he arrived at the seaside, attended by only thirty horse, and
+went on board a victualing bark, often complaining, as we have been
+told, that he had been so deceived in his expectation that he was
+almost persuaded that he had been betrayed by those from whom he had
+expected victory, as they began the flight.
+
+Caesar, having possest himself of Pompey's camp, urged his soldiers not
+to be too intent on plunder, and lose the opportunity of completing
+their conquest. Having obtained their consent, he began to draw lines
+round the mountain. The Pompeians distrusting the position, as there
+was no water on the mountain, abandoned it, and all began to retreat
+toward Larissa, which Caesar perceiving divided his troops, and
+ordering part of his legions to remain in Pompey's camp, sent back a
+part to his own camp, and, taking four legions with him, went by a
+shorter road to intercept the enemy; and having marched six miles,
+drew up his army. But the Pompeians, observing this, took a post on a
+mountain, whose foot was washed by a river. Caesar having encouraged
+his troops, tho they were greatly exhausted by incessant labor the
+whole day, and night was now approaching, by throwing up works cut off
+the communication between the river and the mountain, that the enemy
+might not get water in the night. As soon as the work was finished,
+they sent ambassadors to treat about a capitulation. A few senators
+who had espoused that party made their escape by night.
+
+At break of day, Caesar ordered all those who had taken post on the
+mountain to come down from the higher grounds into the plain and pile
+their arms. When they did this without refusal, and, with,
+outstretched arms, prostrating themselves on the ground, with tears,
+implored his mercy, he comforted them and bade them rise, and having
+spoken a few words of his own clemency to alleviate their fears, he
+pardoned them all, and gave orders to his soldiers that no injury
+should be done to them, and nothing taken from them. Having used this
+diligence, he ordered the legions in his camp to come and meet him,
+and those which were with him to take their turn of rest, and go back
+to the camp, and the same day went to Larissa.
+
+In that battle, no more than two hundred privates were missing, but
+Caesar lost about thirty centurions, valiant officers. Crastinus, also,
+of whom mention was made before, fighting most courageously, lost his
+life by the wound of a sword in the mouth, nor was that false which he
+declared when marching to battle; for Caesar entertained the highest
+opinion of his behavior in that battle, and thought him highly
+deserving of his approbation. Of Pompey's army, there fell about
+fifteen thousand; but upward of twenty-four thousand were made
+prisoners; for even the cohorts which were stationed in the forts
+surrendered to Sulla. Several others took shelter in the neighboring
+states. One hundred and eighty stands of colors and nine eagles were
+brought to Caesar. Lucius Domitius, fleeing from the camp to the
+mountains, his strength being exhausted by fatigue, was killed....
+
+Caesar thought he ought to postpone all business and pursue Pompey,
+whithersoever he should retreat, that he might not be able to provide
+fresh forces, and renew the war; he therefore marched on every day, as
+far as his cavalry were able to advance, and ordered one legion to
+follow him by shorter journeys. A proclamation was issued by Pompey at
+Amphipolis[50] that all the young men of that province, Grecians and
+Roman citizens, should take the military oath; but whether he issued
+it with an intention of preventing suspicion, and to conceal as long
+as possible his design of fleeing farther, or to endeavor to keep
+possession of Macedonia by new levies, if nobody pursued him, it is
+impossible to judge. He lay at anchor one night, and calling together
+his friends in Amphipolis, and collecting a sum of money for his
+necessary expenses, upon advice of Caesar's approach, set sail from
+that place, and arrived in a few days at Mitylene.[51] Here he was
+detained two days, and having added a few galleys to his fleet he went
+to Cilicia, and thence to Cyprus. There he is informed that, by the
+consent of all the inhabitants of Antioch[52] and Roman citizens who
+traded there, the castle had been seized to shut him out of the town;
+and that messengers had been dispatched to all those who were reported
+to have taken refuge in the neighboring states, that they should not
+come to Antioch; that if they did so, it would be attended with
+imminent danger to their lives. The same thing had happened to Lucius
+Lentulus, who had been Consul the year before, and to Publius
+Lentulus, a consular senator, and to several others at Rhodes,[53] who
+having followed Pompey in his flight, and arrived at the island, were
+not admitted into the town or port; and having received a message to
+leave that neighborhood, set sail much against their will; for the
+rumor of Caesar's approach had now reached those states.
+
+Pompey, being informed of these proceedings, laid aside his design of
+going to Syria, and having taken the public money from the farmers of
+the revenue, and borrowed more from some private friends, and having
+put on board his ships a large quantity of brass for military
+purposes, and two thousand armed men, whom he partly selected from the
+slaves of the tax farmers, and partly collected from the merchants,
+and such persons as each of his friends thought fit on this occasion,
+he sailed for Pelusium.[54] It happened that King Ptolemy,[55] a
+minor, was there with a considerable army, engaged in war with his
+sister Cleopatra, whom a few months before, by the assistance of his
+relatives and friends, he had expelled from the kingdom; and her camp
+lay at a small distance from his. To him Pompey applied to be
+permitted to take refuge in Alexandria, and to be protected in his
+calamity by his powerful assistance, in consideration of the
+friendship and amity which had subsisted between his father and him.
+But Pompey's deputies, having executed their commission, began to
+converse with less restraint with the king's troops, and to advise
+them to act with friendship to Pompey, and not to think meanly of his
+bad fortune. In Ptolemy's army were several of Pompey's soldiers, of
+whom Gabinius[56] had received the command in Syria, and had brought
+them over to Alexandria, and at the conclusion of the war had left
+with Ptolemy the father of the young king.
+
+The king's friends, who were regents of the kingdom during the
+minority, being informed of these things, either induced by fear, as
+they afterward declared, lest Pompey should corrupt the king's army,
+and seize on Alexandria[57] and Egypt, or despising his bad fortune,
+as in adversity friends commonly change to enemies, in public gave a
+favorable answer to his deputies, and desired him to come to the king;
+but secretly laid a plot against him, and dispatched Achillas, captain
+of the king's guards, a man of singular boldness, and Lucius
+Septimius, a military tribune, to assassinate him. Being kindly
+addrest by them, and deluded by an acquaintance with Septimius,
+because in the war with the pirates the latter had commanded a company
+under him, he embarked in a small boat, with a few attendants, and was
+there murdered by Achillas and Septimius. In like manner, Lucius
+Lentulus was seized by the king's order, and put to death in
+prison....
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 33: Cicero, whose praise of Caesar as a writer has been
+shared by many readers since his time, described Caesar's works as
+"unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, their ornament being stript
+off as it were a garment." Caesar did his work so well that "he has
+deterred all men of sound taste from touching him."]
+
+[Footnote 34: From Book IV of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."
+Translated by McDivett and W. S. Bohn. The site of this bridge is
+believed to be in the neighborhood of Cologne.]
+
+[Footnote 35: The Suevi were migratory Germans who, in Caesar's time,
+occupied the eastern banks of the Rhine in and about the present
+country of Baden.]
+
+[Footnote 36: From Book V of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."]
+
+[Footnote 37: The Belgae comprised various tribes that lived between
+the Seine and the Rhine and were the most warlike of the Gauls.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Caesar's error here has often been commented on, Spain
+lying to the south, rather than to the west, of Britain.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Now known as the Isle of Man.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Cassivelaunus was a chieftain of the Britons who had
+been entrusted with the supreme command against Caesar. His own
+territory lay north of the Thames.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Bede, the learned Benedictine, who lived in the eighth
+century, says that, in his time, remains of these stakes were still to
+be seen.]
+
+[Footnote 42: These people occupied what are now the counties of Essex
+and Middlesex.]
+
+[Footnote 43: The translator notes that Tacitus has remarked that
+Britain was surveyed, rather than conquered, by Caesar. He gives the
+honor of its real conquest to his own father-in-law, Agricola. While
+the Roman armies "owe much to the military virtues of Agricola as
+displayed in England, Caesar," adds the translator, "did what no one
+had done before him; he levied tribute upon the Britons and
+effectually paved the way for all that Rome subsequently accomplished
+in this island."]
+
+[Footnote 44: From Book II of the "Commentaries on the Gallic War."]
+
+[Footnote 45: The Nervii were one of the Belgic tribes and are
+understood to have been the most warlike of them all.]
+
+[Footnote 46: From Book III of the "Commentaries on the Civil War."
+Pharsalia is a district of Thessaly in Greece. Caesar's army numbered
+22,000 legionaries and 1,000 cavalry; Pompey's, 45,000 legionaries and
+7,000 cavalry.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Pompey's army having been recruited from aristocratic
+families and their dependents, was not so much accustomed to the
+severities of war as were the soldiers of Caesar, recruited largely
+from the populace.]
+
+[Footnote 48: The modern Durazzo, a seaport on the Adriatic in
+Albania. It was founded by colonies from Corfu about 625 B.C. and
+became important afterward as a terminus of one of the great Roman
+roads. Pompey here defeated Caesar a short time before he was himself
+defeated at Pharsalia.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Caesar on this occasion is said to have advised his
+soldiers to aim at the faces of Pompey's cavalry, who, being composed
+principally of the young noblemen of Rome, dreaded a scar in the face
+more than death itself.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Amphipolis, a city of Macedonia, originally Thracian,
+but colonized from Athens. It was situated three miles inland from the
+AEgean Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Mitylene was the capital of the island of Lesbos, and an
+important maritime power in ancient times.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Arrowsmith describes Antioch as, not only the capital of
+Syria, but at one time of Western Asia. It was for years the third
+city of the world in beauty, size, and population. It was here that
+the followers of Christ first received the name of Christians (in A.D.
+39), having before been called Nazarenes and Galileans. In a
+neighboring grove stood a famous temple to Apollo and Diana.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Rhodes is the largest island in the AEgean Sea after
+Crete and Euboea. Its capital, having the same name and situated
+near the northern end of the island, was famous for a bronze statue of
+the sun called the Colossus, which was one of the "seven wonders of
+the world."]
+
+[Footnote 54: Pelusium was an ancient city of Egypt, situated in the
+delta of the Nile, strongly fortified and regarded as the gate to
+Egypt, on its eastern frontier. It lay in the midst of marshes formed
+by the overflow of the river, and continued its importance, in a
+military sense, until the waters of the river found their way into the
+Damietta branch.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Ptolemy XII, who came to the throne of Egypt co-jointly
+with his sister Cleopatra in 51 B.C. He expelled Cleopatra in 49, and
+in 48 Caesar reinstated her. In the war which ensued, he was defeated
+and drowned in the Nile.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Gabinius was a Roman tribune who had proposed the
+statute bearing his name which gave to Pompey command of the
+Mediterranean coast for the suppression of pirates.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Alexandria was founded in 331 B.C. by Alexander the
+Great. Its principal street, 2,000 feet wide, was adorned with "some
+of the most costly edifices and structures of marble which perhaps the
+world ever saw." Many of these marbles were subsequently taken to Rome
+and Constantinople. Alexandria for a long period was the center of
+commerce for all merchandise passing between Europe and the East. As a
+city of learning, it possest a famous library, which at one period
+comprized 700,000 volumes.]
+
+
+
+
+SALLUST
+
+     Born in Italy about 86 B.C.; died about 34; elected tribune
+     in 52; expelled from the Senate by the censors in 50,
+     probably for being an active partizan of Caesar; accompanied
+     Caesar on his African campaign in 46; became governor of
+     Numidia, where he is said to have amassed a fortune
+     unjustly; author of histories of the Catiline conspiracy and
+     the war with Jugurtha.[58]
+
+
+I
+
+THE GENESIS OF CATILINE[59]
+
+
+Of the city of Rome, as I understand, the founders and earliest
+inhabitants were the Trojans, who, under the conduct of AEneas, were
+wandering about as exiles from their country, without any settled
+abode; and with these were joined the Aborigines, a savage race of
+men, without laws or government, free, and owning no control. How
+easily these two tribes, tho of different origin, dissimilar language,
+and opposite habits of life, formed a union when they met within the
+same walls is almost incredible. But when their state, from an
+accession of population and territory and an improved condition of
+morals, showed itself tolerably flourishing and powerful, envy, as is
+generally the case in human affairs, was the consequence of its
+prosperity. The neighboring kings and people, accordingly, began to
+assail them in war, while a few only of their friends came to their
+support; for the rest, struck with alarm, shrunk from sharing their
+dangers. But the Romans, active at home and in the field, prepared
+with alacrity for their defense. They encouraged one another, and
+hurried to meet the enemy. They protected, with their arms, their
+liberty, their country, and their homes. And when they had at length
+repelled danger by valor, they lent assistance to their allies and
+supporters, and procured friendships rather by bestowing favors than
+by receiving them.
+
+They had a government regulated by laws. The denomination of their
+government was monarchy. Chosen men, whose bodies might be enfeebled
+by years, but whose minds were vigorous in understanding, formed the
+council of the state; and these, whether from their age, or from the
+similarity of their duty, were called Fathers. But afterward, when the
+monarchical power, which had been originally established for the
+protection of liberty and for the promotion of the public interest,
+had degenerated into tyranny and oppression, they changed their plan,
+and appointed two magistrates, with power only annual; for they
+conceived that, by this method, the human mind would be least likely
+to grow overbearing through want of control.
+
+At this period every citizen began to seek distinction, and to display
+his talents with greater freedom; for, with princes, the meritorious
+are greater objects of suspicion than the undeserving, and to them the
+worth of others is a source of alarm. But when liberty was secured, it
+is almost incredible how much the state strengthened itself in a short
+space of time, so strong a passion for distinction had pervaded it.
+Now, for the first time, the youth, as soon as they were able to bear
+the toils of war, acquired military skill by actual service in the
+camp, and took pleasure rather in splendid arms and military steeds
+than in the society of mistresses and convivial indulgence. To such
+men no toil was unusual, no place was difficult or inaccessible, no
+armed enemy was formidable; their valor had overcome everything. But
+among themselves the grand rivalry was for glory; each sought to be
+first to wound an enemy, to scale a wall, and to be noticed while
+performing such an exploit. Distinction such as this they regarded as
+wealth, honor, and true nobility. They were covetous of praise, but
+liberal of money; they desired competent riches, but boundless glory.
+I could mention, but that the account would draw me too far from my
+subject, places in which the Roman people, with a small body of men,
+routed vast armies of the enemy; and cities which, tho fortified by
+nature, they carried by assault....
+
+By these two virtues, intrepidity in war and equity in peace, they
+maintained themselves and their state; of their exercise of which
+virtues, I consider these as the greatest proofs: that, in war,
+punishment was oftener inflicted on those who attacked an enemy
+contrary to orders, and who, when commanded to retreat, retired too
+slowly from the contest, than on those who had dared to desert their
+standards, or, when prest by the enemy, to abandon their posts; and
+that, in peace, they governed more by conferring benefits than by
+exciting terror, and, when they received an injury, chose rather to
+pardon than to revenge it.
+
+But when, by perseverance and integrity, the republic had increased
+its power; when mighty princes had been vanquished in war; when
+barbarous tribes and populous states had been reduced to subjection;
+when Carthage, the rival of Rome's dominion, had been utterly
+destroyed, and sea and land lay everywhere open to her sway, Fortune
+then began to exercise her tyranny, and to introduce universal
+innovation. To those who had easily endured toils, dangers, and
+doubtful and difficult circumstances, ease and wealth, the objects of
+desire to others, became a burden and a trouble. At first the love of
+money, and then that of power, began to prevail, and these became, as
+it were, the sources of every evil. For avarice subverted honesty,
+integrity, and other honorable principles, and in their stead,
+inculcated pride, inhumanity, contempt of religion, and general
+venality. Ambition prompted many to become deceitful; to keep one
+thing concealed in the breast, and another ready on the tongue; to
+estimate friendships and enmities, not by their worth, but according
+to interest; and to carry rather a specious countenance than an honest
+heart. These vices at first advanced but slowly, and were sometimes
+restrained by correction; but afterward, when their infection had
+spread like a pestilence, the state was entirely changed, and the
+government, from being the most equitable and praiseworthy, became
+rapacious and insupportable.
+
+At first, however, it was ambition, rather than avarice, that
+influenced the minds of men--a vice which approaches nearer to virtue
+than the other. For of glory, honor, and power, the worthy is as
+desirous as the worthless; but the one pursues them by just methods;
+the other, being destitute of honorable qualities, works with fraud
+and deceit. But avarice has merely money for its object, which no wise
+man has ever immoderately desired. It is a vice which, as if imbued
+with deadly poison, enervates whatever is manly in body or mind. It is
+always unbounded and insatiable, and is abated neither by abundance
+nor by want.
+
+But after Lucius Sulla, having recovered the government by force of
+arms, proceeded, after a fair commencement, to a pernicious
+termination, all became robbers and plunderers; some set their
+affections on houses, others on lands; his victorious troops knew
+neither restraint nor moderation, but inflicted on the citizens
+disgraceful and inhuman outrages. Their rapacity was increased by the
+circumstance that Sulla, in order to secure the attachment of the
+forces which he had commanded in Asia, had treated them, contrary to
+the practise of our ancestors, with extraordinary indulgence and
+exemption from discipline; and pleasant and luxurious quarters had
+easily, during seasons of idleness, enervated the minds of the
+soldiery. Then the armies of the Roman people first became habituated
+to licentiousness and intemperance, and began to admire statues,
+pictures, and sculptured vases; to seize such objects alike in public
+edifices and private dwellings; to spoil temples; and to cast off
+respect for everything, sacred and profane. Such troops, accordingly,
+when once they obtained the mastery, left nothing to the vanquished.
+Success unsettles the principles even of the wise, and scarcely would
+those of debauched habits use victory with moderation....
+
+In so populous and so corrupt a city, Catiline, as it was very easy to
+do, kept about him, like a body-guard, crowds of the unprincipled and
+desperate. For all those shameless, libertine, and profligate
+characters who had dissipated their patrimonies by gaming, luxury, and
+sensuality; all who had contracted heavy debts, to purchase immunity
+for their crimes or offenses; all assassins or sacrilegious persons
+from every quarter, convicted or dreading conviction for their evil
+deeds; all, besides, whom their tongue or their hand maintained by
+perjury or civil bloodshed; all, in fine, whom wickedness, poverty, or
+a guilty conscience disquieted, were the associates and intimate
+friends of Catiline. And if any one, as yet of unblemished character,
+fell into his society, he was presently rendered, by daily intercourse
+and temptation, similar and equal to the rest. But it was the young
+whose acquaintance he chiefly courted, as their minds, ductile and
+unsettled from their age, were easily ensnared by his stratagems. For
+as the passions of each, according to his years, appeared excited, he
+furnished mistresses to some, bought horses and dogs for others, and
+spared, in a word, neither his purse nor his character, if he could
+but make them his devoted and trustworthy supporters. There were some,
+I know, who thought that the youth who frequented the house of
+Catiline were guilty of crimes against nature; but this report arose
+rather from other causes than from any evidence of the fact....
+
+Depending on such accomplices and adherents, and knowing that the load
+of debt was everywhere great, and that the veterans of Sulla,[60]
+having spent their money too liberally, and remembering their spoils
+and former victory, were longing for a civil war, Catiline formed the
+design of overthrowing the government. There was no army in Italy;
+Pompey was fighting in a distant part of the world;[61] he himself had
+great hopes of obtaining the consulship; the Senate was wholly off its
+guard; everything was quiet and tranquil, and all these circumstances
+were exceedingly favorable for Catiline....
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FATE OF THE CONSPIRATORS[62]
+
+
+When the Senate, as I have stated, had gone over to the opinion of
+Cato, the Consul, thinking it best not to wait till night, which was
+coming on, lest any new attempts should be made during the interval,
+ordered the triumvirs to make such preparations as the execution of
+the conspirators required. He himself, having posted the necessary
+guards, conducted Lentulus[63] to the prison; and the same office was
+performed for the rest by the praetors.
+
+There is a place in the prison, which is called the Tullian
+dungeon,[64] and which, after a slight ascent to the left, is sunk
+about twelve feet under ground. Walls secure it on every side, and
+over it is a vaulted roof connected with stone arches; but its
+appearance is disgusting and horrible, by reason of the filth,
+darkness, and stench. When Lentulus had been let down into this place,
+certain men, to whom orders had been given, strangled him with a
+cord. Thus this patrician who was of the illustrious family of the
+Cornelii, and who had filled the office of Consul at Rome, met with an
+end suited to his character and conduct. On Cethegus, Statilius,
+Gabinius, and Coeparius, punishment was inflicted in a similar
+manner.
+
+During these proceedings at Rome, Catiline, out of the entire force
+which he himself had brought with him, and that which Manlius had
+previously collected, formed two legions, filling up the cohorts as
+far as his numbers would allow; and afterward, as any volunteers, or
+recruits from his confederates, arrived in his camp, he distributed
+them equally throughout the cohorts, and thus filled up his legions,
+in a short time, with their regular number of men, tho at first he had
+not had more than two thousand. But, of his whole army, only about a
+fourth part had the proper weapons of soldiers; the rest, as chance
+had equipped them, carried darts, spears, or sharpened stakes.
+
+As Antonius[65] approached with his army, Catiline directed his march
+over the hills, encamping, at one time, in the direction of Rome, at
+another in that of Gaul. He gave the enemy no opportunity of fighting,
+yet hoped himself shortly to find one, if his accomplices at Rome
+should succeed in their objects. Slaves, meanwhile, of whom vast
+numbers had at first flocked to him, he continued to reject, not only
+as depending on the strength of the conspiracy, but as thinking it
+impolitic to appear to share the cause of citizens with runagates.
+
+When it was reported in his camp, however, that the conspiracy had
+been discovered at Rome, and that Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest
+whom I have named had been put to death, most of those whom the hope
+of plunder or the love of change had led to join in the war fell away.
+The remainder Catiline conducted, over rugged mountains and by forced
+marches, into the neighborhood of Pistoria, with a view to escape
+covertly, by crossroads, into Gaul.
+
+But Quintus Metellus Celer, who, with a force of three legions, had,
+at that time, his station at Picenum, suspected that Catiline, from
+the difficulties of his position, would adopt precisely the course
+which we have just described. When, therefore, he had learned
+Catiline's route from some deserters, he immediately broke up his
+camp, and took his post at the very foot of the hills, at the point
+where Catiline's descent would be, in his hurried march into Gaul.[66]
+Nor was Antonius far distant, as he was pursuing, tho with a large
+army, yet through plainer ground, and with fewer hindrances, the enemy
+in retreat.
+
+Catiline, when he saw that he was surrounded by mountains and by
+hostile forces, that his schemes in the city had been unsuccessful,
+and that there was no hope either of escape or of succor, thinking it
+best, in such circumstances, to try the fortune of a battle, resolved
+upon engaging, as speedily as possible, with Antonius....
+
+When he had spoken, he ordered, after a short delay, the signal for
+battle to be sounded, and led down his troops, in regular order, to
+the level ground. Having then sent away the horses of all the cavalry,
+in order to increase the men's courage by making their danger equal,
+he himself, on foot, drew up his troops suitably to their numbers and
+the nature of the ground. As a plain stretched between the mountains
+on the left, with a rugged rock on the right, he placed eight cohorts
+in front, and stationed the rest of his force, in close order, in the
+rear. From among these he removed all the ablest centurions, the
+veterans, and the stoutest of the common soldiers that were regularly
+armed into the foremost ranks. He ordered Caius Manlius to take the
+command on the right, and a certain officer of Faesulae on the left;
+while he himself, with his freedmen and the colonists, took his
+station by the eagle, which Caius Marius was said to have had in his
+army in the Cimbrian war.
+
+On the other side, Caius Antonius, who, being lame, was unable to be
+present in the engagement, gave the command of the army to Marcus
+Petreius, his lieutenant-general. Petreius ranged the cohorts of
+veterans, which he had raised to meet the present insurrection, in
+front, and behind them the rest of his force in lines. Then, riding
+round among his troops, and addressing his men by name, he encouraged
+them, and bade them remember that they were to fight against unarmed
+marauders, in defense of their country, their children, their temples,
+and their homes. Being a military man, and having served with great
+reputation for more than thirty years, as tribune, prefect,
+lieutenant, or praetor, he knew most of the soldiers and their
+honorable actions, and, by calling these to their remembrance, roused
+the spirits of the men.
+
+When he had made a complete survey, he gave the signal with the
+trumpet, and ordered the cohorts to advance slowly. The army of the
+enemy followed his example; and when they had approached so near that
+the action could be commenced by the light-armed troops, both sides,
+with a loud shout, rushed together in a furious charge. They threw
+aside their missiles, and fought only with their swords. The veterans,
+calling to mind their deeds of old, engaged fiercely in the closest
+combat. The enemy made an obstinate resistance; and both sides
+contended with the utmost fury. Catiline, during this time, was
+exerting himself with his light troops in the front, sustaining such
+as were prest, substituting fresh men for the wounded, attending to
+every exigency, charging in person, wounding many an enemy, and
+performing at once the duties of a valiant soldier and a skilful
+general.
+
+When Petreius, contrary to his expectation, found Catiline attacking
+him with such impetuosity, he led his praetorian cohort against the
+center of the enemy, among whom, being thus thrown into confusion, and
+offering but partial resistance, he made great slaughter, and ordered,
+at the same time, an assault on both flanks. Manlius and the Faesulan,
+sword in hand, were among the first that fell; and Catiline, when he
+saw his army routed, and himself left with but few supporters,
+remembering his birth and former dignity, rushed into the thickest of
+the enemy, where he was slain, fighting to the last.
+
+When the battle was over, it was plainly seen what boldness and what
+energy of spirit had prevailed throughout the army of Catiline; for,
+almost everywhere, every soldier, after yielding up his breath,
+covered with his corpse the spot which he had occupied when alive. A
+few, indeed, whom the praetorian cohort had dispersed, had fallen
+somewhat differently, but all with wounds in front. Catiline himself
+was found, far in advance of his men, among the dead bodies of the
+enemy; he still breathed, and exprest in his countenance the
+fierceness of spirit which he had shown during his life. Of his whole
+army, neither in the battle, nor in flight, was any free-born citizen
+made prisoner, for they had spared their own lives no more than those
+of the enemy.
+
+Nor did the army of the Roman people obtain a joyful or bloodless
+victory; for all their bravest men were either killed in the battle or
+left the field severely wounded.
+
+Of many who went from the camp to view the ground or plunder the
+slain, some, in turning over the bodies of the enemy, discovered a
+friend, others an acquaintance, others a relative; some, too,
+recognized their enemies. Thus, gladness and sorrow, grief and joy,
+were variously felt throughout the whole army.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 58: Quintilian thought Sallust had rivaled Thucydides, but
+it has generally been held that he rather imitated him. The
+resemblance lies in the main in the language he employs. Cruttwell
+remarks "that the deep insight of the Athenian into the connection of
+events is far removed from the popular rhetoric in which the Roman
+deplores the decline of virtue."]
+
+[Footnote 59: From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson. Catiline came of an old but impoverished patrician family. In
+the first Civil War, he had joined Sulla, and in the time of the
+proscription is said to have killed with his own hand his
+brother-in-law. In 67 B.C. he was governor of Africa; in 64 he joined
+P. Antronius in an attempt to murder the consuls-elect; in 64 he was
+himself defeated for the consulship.]
+
+[Footnote 60: These were men to whom Sulla had given land as rewards
+for services, but who from extravagance had fallen into debt. Cicero
+said nothing could help them but the resurrection of Sulla from the
+dead.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Pompey was then conducting his campaign against
+Mithridates.]
+
+[Footnote 62: From "The Conspiracy of Catiline." Translated by J. S.
+Watson.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Lentulus, who came of the ancient and noble Cornelian
+family, was one of the chiefs of the Catiline conspiracy. In 71 B.C.
+he was Consul, but in the next year was ejected from the Senate for
+"infamous life and manners."]
+
+[Footnote 64: The Tullian dungeon at Rome was built by King Ancus
+Martius and enlarged by Servius Tullius, from whom it derived its
+name. It still exists as a subterranean chapel beneath the small
+church of San Pietro in Carcere. The church tradition is that St.
+Peter was imprisoned in this dungeon.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Not the triumvir, but his uncle, Caius Antonius, a man
+who after the conspiracy made a scandalous record, and in consequence
+was surnamed "Hybrida." He was Consul with Cicero, and is believed to
+have been one of the original Catiline conspirators, but Cicero gained
+him over to his own side by promising him the rich province of
+Macedonia. As Consul, Antonius was under the necessity of leading the
+army against Catiline; but, owing to unwillingness to fight against
+his former friend (Sallust says owing to lameness) he gave the
+immediate command on the day of battle to his legate, Petreius. The
+father of this Antonius and the grandfather of Mark Antony, the
+triumvir, was Mark Antony, the orator, frequently referred to by
+Cicero as one of the greatest of Roman orators.]
+
+[Footnote 66: That is, northern Italy, which In ancient times had been
+occupied by Gallic people. Pistoria was an Etruscan town lying at the
+foot of the Apennines.]
+
+
+
+
+LIVY
+
+     Born In Padua in 59 B.C.; died there in 17 A.D.; one of the
+     most famous of the Roman historians; his work, embracing the
+     period from the founding of the city, comprized one hundred
+     and forty-two books, of which only thirty-five have come
+     down to us; he spent over forty years in writing the
+     history; he wrote also philosophical dialogs and a work on
+     rhetorical training.[67]
+
+
+I
+
+HORATIUS COCLES AT THE BRIDGE[68]
+
+(About 510 B.C.)
+
+
+The Sublician bridge[69] well-nigh afforded a passage to the enemy,
+had it not been for one man, Horatius Cocles, given by fortune on that
+day as a defense of Rome. He happened to be posted on guard at the
+bridge and when he saw the Janiculum taken by a sudden assault, and
+that the enemy were pouring down thence in full speed, and that his
+own party in terror and confusion were abandoning their arms and
+ranks--laying hold of them one by one, standing in their way, and
+appealing to the faith of gods and men, he declared "that their flight
+would avail them nothing if they deserted their post; if they passed
+the bridge and left it behind them, there would soon be more of the
+enemy in the Palatium and Capitol than in the Janiculum; for that
+reason he advised and charged them to demolish the bridge, by their
+sword, by fire, or by any means whatever; that he would stand the
+shock of the enemy as far as could be done by one man."
+
+He then advanced to the first entrance of the bridge, and being easily
+distinguished among those who showed their backs in retreating from
+the fight, facing about to engage the foe hand to hand, by his
+surprizing bravery he terrified the enemy. Two indeed a sense of shame
+kept with him--Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius--men eminent for
+their birth, and renowned for their gallant exploits.
+
+With them he for a short time stood the first storm of the danger, and
+the severest brunt of the battle. But as they who demolished the
+bridge called upon them to retire, he obliged them also to withdraw to
+a place of safety on a small portion of the bridge still left. Then
+casting his stern eyes round all the officers of the Etrurians in a
+threatening manner, he sometimes challenged them singly, sometimes
+reproached them all: "the slaves of haughty tyrants, who, regardless
+of their own freedom, came to oppress the liberty of others." They
+hesitated for a considerable time, looking round one at the other, to
+commence the fight; shame then put the army in motion, and a shout
+being raised, they hurled their weapons from all sides on their single
+adversary; and when they all stuck in the shield held before him, and
+he with no less obstinacy kept possession of the bridge with firm
+step, they now endeavored to thrust him down from it by one push, when
+at once the crash of the falling bridge, at the same time a shout of
+the Romans raised for joy at having completed their purpose, checked
+their ardor with sudden panic. Then Cocles says, "Holy father
+Tiberinus, I pray that thou wouldst receive these arms and this thy
+soldier in thy propitious stream." Armed as he was, he leapt into the
+Tiber, and, amid showers of darts hurled on him, swam across safe to
+his party, having dared an act which is likely to obtain more fame
+than belief with posterity. The state was grateful toward such valor;
+a statue was erected to him in the Comitium, and as much land was
+given to him as he plowed around in one day. The zeal of private
+individuals also was conspicuous among the public honors. For amid the
+great scarcity, each person contributed something to him according to
+his supply at home, depriving himself of his own support.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HANNIBAL'S CROSSING OF THE ALPS[70] (218 B.C.)
+
+
+From the Druentia, by a road that lay principally through plains,
+Hannibal arrived at the Alps without molestation from the Gauls who
+inhabit those regions. Then, tho the scene had been previously
+anticipated from report (by which uncertainties are wont to be
+exaggerated), yet the height of the mountains when viewed so near, and
+the snows almost mingling with the sky, the shapeless huts situated on
+the cliffs, the cattle and beasts of burden withered by the cold, the
+men unshorn and wildly drest, all things, animate and inanimate,
+stiffened with frost, and other objects more terrible to be seen than
+described, renewed their alarm.
+
+To them, marching up the first acclivities, the mountaineers appeared
+occupying the heights overhead, who, if they had occupied the more
+concealed valleys, might, by rushing out suddenly to the attack, have
+occasioned great flight and havoc. Hannibal orders them to halt, and
+having sent forward Gauls to view the ground, when he found there was
+no passage that way, he pitches his camp in the widest valley he could
+find, among places all rugged and precipitous. Then, having learned
+from the same Gauls, when they had mixed in conversation with the
+mountaineers, from whom they differed little in language and manners,
+that the pass was only beset during the day, and that at night each
+withdrew to his own dwelling, he advanced at the dawn to the heights,
+as if designing openly and by day to force his way through the defile.
+The day then being passed in feigning a different attempt from that
+which was in preparation, when they had fortified the camp in the same
+place where they had halted, as soon as he perceived that the
+mountaineers had descended from the heights, and that the guards were
+withdrawn, having lighted for show a greater number of fires than was
+proportioned to the number that remained, and having left the baggage
+in the camp, with the cavalry and the principal part of the infantry,
+he himself with a party of light-armed soldiers, consisting of all the
+most courageous of his troops, rapidly cleared the defile, and took
+posts on those very heights which the enemy had occupied.
+
+At dawn of light the next day the camp broke up, and the rest of the
+army began to move forward. The mountaineers, on a signal being given,
+were now assembling from their forts to their usual station, when
+they suddenly behold part of the enemy overhanging them from above, in
+possession of their former position, and the others passing along the
+road. Both these objects, presented at the same time to the eye and
+the mind, made them stand motionless for a little while; but when they
+afterward saw the confusion in the pass, and that the marching body
+was thrown into disorder by the tumult which itself created,
+principally from the horses being terrified, thinking that whatever
+terror they added would suffice for the destruction of the enemy, they
+scramble along the dangerous rocks, as being accustomed alike to
+pathless and circuitous ways. Then indeed the Carthaginians were
+opposed at once by the enemy and by the difficulties of the ground;
+and each striving to escape first from the danger, there was more
+fighting among themselves than with their opponents. The horses, in
+particular, created danger in the lines, which being terrified by the
+discordant clamors that the groves and reechoing valleys augmented,
+fell into confusion; and if by chance struck or wounded, they were so
+dismayed that they occasioned a great loss both of men and baggage of
+every description; and as the pass on both sides was broken and
+precipitous, this tumult threw many down to an immense depth, some
+even of the armed men; but the beasts of burden, with their loads,
+were rolled down like the fall of some vast fabric.
+
+Tho these disasters were shocking to view, Hannibal, however, held his
+place for a little, and kept his men together, lest he might augment
+the tumult and disorder: but afterward, when he saw the line broken,
+and that there was danger that he should bring over his army preserved
+to no purpose if deprived of their baggage, he hastened down from the
+higher ground; and tho he had routed the enemy by the first onset
+alone, he at the same time increased the disorder in his own army; but
+that tumult was composed in a moment, after the roads were cleared by
+the flight of the mountaineers, and presently the whole army was
+conducted through, not only without being disturbed, but almost in
+silence. He then took a fortified place, which was the capital of that
+district, and the little villages that lay around it, and fed his army
+for three days with the corn and cattle he had taken; and during these
+three days, as the soldiers were neither obstructed by the
+mountaineers, who had been daunted by the first engagement, nor yet
+much by the ground, he made considerable way.
+
+He then came to another state, abounding, for a mountainous country,
+with inhabitants, where he was nearly overcome, not by open war, but
+by his own arts of treachery and ambuscade. Some old men, governors of
+forts, came as deputies to the Carthaginian, professing, "that having
+been warned by the useful example of the calamities of others, they
+wished rather to experience the friendship than the hostilities of the
+Carthaginians; they would, therefore, obediently execute his commands,
+and begged that he would accept of a supply of provisions, guides of
+his march, and hostages for the sincerity of their promises."
+Hannibal, when he had answered them in a friendly manner, thinking
+that they should neither be rashly trusted nor yet rejected, lest if
+repulsed they might openly become enemies, having received the
+hostages whom they proffered, and made use of the provisions which
+they of their own accord brought down to the road, followed their
+guides, by no means as among a people with whom he was at peace, but
+with his line of march in close order. The elephants and cavalry
+formed the van of the marching body; he himself, examining everything
+around, and intent on every circumstance, followed with the choicest
+of his infantry. When they came into a narrower pass, lying on one
+side beneath an overhanging eminence, the barbarians, rising at once
+on all sides from their ambush, assail them in front and rear, both at
+close quarters and from a distance, and roll down huge stones on the
+army. The most numerous body of men prest on the rear; against whom
+the infantry facing about and directing their attack made it very
+obvious that, had not the rear of the army been well supported, a
+great loss must have been sustained in that pass. Even as it was, they
+came to the extremity of danger, and almost to destruction; for while
+Hannibal hesitated to lead down his division into the defile, because,
+tho he himself was a protection to the cavalry, he had not in the same
+way left any aid to the infantry in the rear; the mountaineers,
+charging obliquely, and on having broken through the middle of the
+army, took possession of the road; and one night was spent by Hannibal
+without his cavalry and baggage....
+
+On the standards being moved forward at daybreak, when the army
+proceeded slowly over all places entirely blocked up with snow, and
+languor and despair strongly appeared in the countenances of all,
+Hannibal, having advanced before the standards, and ordered the
+soldiers to halt on a certain eminence, whence there was a prospect
+far and wide, pointed out to them Italy and the plains of the Po,
+extending themselves beneath the Alpine mountains; and said "that they
+were now surmounting not only the ramparts of Italy, but also of the
+city of Rome; that the rest of the journey would be smooth and
+down-hill; that after one, or, at most, a second battle, they would
+have the citadel and capital of Italy in their power and possession."
+The army then began to advance, the enemy now making no attempts
+beyond petty thefts, as opportunity offered. But the journey proved
+much more difficult than it had been in the ascent, as the declivity
+of the Alps, being generally shorter on the side of Italy, is
+consequently steeper; for nearly all the road was precipitous, narrow,
+and slippery, so that neither those who made the least stumble could
+prevent themselves from falling, nor, when fallen, remain in the same
+place, but rolled, both men and beasts of burden, one upon another.
+
+They then came to a rock much more narrow, and formed of such
+perpendicular ledges that a light-armed soldier, carefully making the
+attempt, and clinging with his hands to the bushes and roots around,
+could with difficulty lower himself down. The ground, even before very
+steep by nature, had been broken by a recent falling away of the earth
+into a precipice of nearly a thousand feet in depth. Here when the
+cavalry halted, as if at the end of their journey, it was announced to
+Hannibal, wondering what obstructed the march, that the rock was
+impassable. Having then gone himself to view the place, it seemed
+clear to him that he must lead his army, by however great a circuit,
+through the pathless and untrodden regions around it. But this route
+also proved impracticable; for while the new snow of a moderate depth
+remained on the old, which had not been removed, their footsteps were
+planted with ease as they walked upon the new snow, which was soft and
+not too deep; but when it was dissolved by the trampling of so many
+men and beasts of burden, they then walked on the bare ice below, and
+through the dirty fluid formed by the melting snow. Here there was a
+wretched struggle, both on account of the slippery ice not affording
+any hold to the step, and giving way beneath the foot more readily by
+reason of the slope; and whether they assisted themselves in rising by
+their hands or their knees, their supports themselves giving way, they
+would tumble again; nor were there any stumps or roots near by
+pressing against which one might with hand or foot support oneself; so
+that they only floundered on the smooth ice and amidst the melted
+snow. The beasts of burden sometimes also cut into this lower ice by
+merely treading upon it, at others they broke it completely through,
+by the violence with which they struck in their hoofs in their
+struggling, so that most of them, as if taken in a trap, stuck in the
+hardened and deeply frozen ice.
+
+At length, after the men and beasts of burden had been fatigued to no
+purpose, the camp was pitched on the summit, the ground being cleared
+for that purpose with great difficulty, so much snow was there to be
+dug out and carried away. The soldiers being then set to make a way
+down the cliff, by which alone a passage could be effected, and it
+being necessary that they should cut through the rocks, having felled
+and lopped a number of large trees which grew around, they make a huge
+pile of timber; and as soon as a strong wind fit for exciting the
+flames arose, they set fire to it, and, pouring vinegar on the heated
+stones, they render them soft and crumbling. They then open a way with
+iron instruments through the rock thus heated by the fire, and soften
+its declivities by gentle windings, so that not only the beasts of
+burden, but also the elephants, could be led down it. Four days were
+spent about this rock, the beasts nearly perishing through hunger; for
+the summits of the mountains are for the most part bare, and if there
+is any pasture the snows bury it. The lower parts contain valleys, and
+some sunny hills, and rivulets flowing beside woods, and scenes more
+worthy of the abode of man. There the beasts of burden were sent out
+to pasture, and rest given for three days to the men, fatigued with
+forming the passage; they then descended into the plains, the country
+and the dispositions of the inhabitants being now less rugged.
+
+In this manner chiefly they came to Italy, in the fifth month (as some
+authors relate) after leaving New Carthage, having crossed the Alps
+in fifteen days. What number of forces Hannibal had when he had passed
+into Italy is by no means agreed upon by authors. Those who state them
+at the highest make mention of a hundred thousand foot and twenty
+thousand horse; those who state them at the lowest, of twenty thousand
+foot and six thousand horse. Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who relates
+that he was made prisoner by Hannibal, would influence me most as an
+authority did he not confound the number by adding the Gauls and
+Ligurians. Including these (who, it is more probable, flocked to him
+afterward, as some authors assert), he says that eighty thousand foot
+and ten thousand horse were brought into Italy; and that he had heard
+from Hannibal himself that, after crossing the Rhone, he had lost
+thirty-six thousand men, and an immense number of horses and other
+beasts of burden among the Taurini,[71] the next nation to the Gauls,
+as he descended into Italy.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+HANNIBAL AND SCIPIO AT ZAMA[72]
+
+(202 B.C.)
+
+
+Hannibal had by this time arrived at Adrumetum,[73] from which place,
+after employing a few days there in refreshing his soldiers, who had
+suffered from the motion by sea, he proceeded by forced marches to
+Zama, roused by the alarming statements of messengers, who brought
+word that all the country round Carthage was filled with armed troops.
+Zama is distant from Carthage a five days' journey. Some spies, whom
+he had sent out from this place, being intercepted by the Roman guard,
+and brought before Scipio, he directed that they should be handed over
+to the military tribunes, and, after having been desired fearlessly to
+survey everything, he conducted them through the camp wherever they
+chose; then, asking them whether they had examined everything to their
+satisfaction, he assigned them an escort, and sent them back to
+Hannibal. Hannibal received none of the circumstances which were
+reported to him with feelings of joy; for they brought word that, as
+it happened, Masinissa had joined the enemy that very day, with six
+thousand infantry and four thousand horse; but he was principally
+dispirited by the confidence of his enemy, which, doubtless, was not
+conceived without some ground. Accordingly, tho he himself was the
+originator of the war, and by his coming had upset the truce which had
+been entered into, and cut off all hopes of a treaty, yet, concluding
+that more favorable terms might be obtained if he solicited peace
+while his strength was unimpaired than when vanquished, he sent a
+message to Scipio requesting permission to confer with him.
+
+Their armed attendants having retired to an equal distance, they met,
+each attended by one interpreter, being the greatest generals not only
+of their own times, but of any to be found in the records of the times
+preceding them, and equal to any of the kings or generals of any
+nation whatever. When they came within sight of each other they
+remained silent for a short time, thunderstruck, as it were, with
+mutual admiration. At length Hannibal thus began:
+
+"Since fate hath so ordained it, that I, who was the first to wage war
+upon the Romans, and who have so often had victory almost within my
+reach, should voluntarily come to sue for peace, I rejoice that it is
+you, above all others, from whom it is my lot to solicit it. To you,
+also, amidst the many distinguished events of your life, it will not
+be esteemed one of the least glorious that Hannibal, to whom the gods
+had so often granted victory over the Roman generals, should have
+yielded to you; and that you should have put an end to this war, which
+has been rendered remarkable by your calamities before it was by
+ours. In this, also, fortune would seem to have exhibited a
+disposition to sport with events, for it was when your father was
+Consul that I first took up arms; he was the first Roman general with
+whom I engaged in a pitched battle; and it is to his son that I now
+come unarmed to solicit peace. It were, indeed, most to have been
+desired that the gods should have put such dispositions into the minds
+of our fathers, that you should have been content with the empire of
+Italy, and we with that of Africa; nor, indeed, even to you, are
+Sicily and Sardinia of sufficient value to compensate you for the loss
+of so many fleets, so many armies, so many and such distinguished
+generals.
+
+"But what is past may be more easily censured than retrieved. In our
+attempts to acquire the possessions of others, we have been compelled
+to fight for our own; and not only have you had a war in Italy, and we
+also in Africa, but you have beheld the standards and arms of your
+enemies almost in your gates and on your walls, and we now, from the
+walls of Carthage, distinctly hear the din of a Roman camp. What,
+therefore, we should most earnestly deprecate, and you should most
+devoutly wish for, is now the case: peace is proposed at a time when
+you have the advantage. We who negotiate it are the persons whom it
+most concerns to obtain it, and we are persons 'whose arrangements, be
+they what they will, our states will ratify. All we want is a
+disposition not averse from peaceful counsels. So far as relates to
+myself, time (for I am returning to that country an old man which I
+left a boy),[74] and prosperity, and adversity, have so schooled me
+that I am more inclined to follow reason than fortune. But I fear your
+youth and uninterrupted good fortune, both of which are apt to inspire
+a degree of confidence ill comporting with pacific counsels. Rarely
+does that man consider the uncertainty of events whom fortune hath
+never deceived. What I was at Trasimenus and at Cannae that you are
+this day. Invested with command when you had scarcely yet attained the
+military age, tho all your enterprises were of the boldest
+description, in no instance has fortune deserted you. Avenging the
+death of your father and uncle, you have derived from the calamity of
+your house the high honor of distinguished valor and filial duty. You
+have recovered Spain, which had been lost, after driving thence four
+Carthaginian armies. When elected Consul, tho all others wanted
+courage to defend Italy, you crossed over into Africa, where, having
+cut to pieces two armies, having at once captured and burned two camps
+in the same hour, having made prisoner Syphax, a most powerful king,
+and seized so many towns of his dominions and so many of ours, you
+have dragged me from Italy, the possession of which I had firmly held
+for now sixteen years....
+
+"Formerly, in this same country, Marcus Atilius would have formed one
+among the few instances of good fortune and valor, if, when
+victorious, he had granted a peace to our fathers when they requested
+it; but by not setting any bounds to his success, and not checking
+good fortune, which was elating him, he fell with a degree of ignominy
+proportioned to his elevation. It is, indeed, the right of him who
+grants, and not of him who solicits it, to dictate the terms of peace;
+but perhaps we may not be unworthy to impose upon ourselves the fine.
+We do not refuse that all those possessions on account of which the
+war was begun should be yours--Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, with all the
+islands lying in any part of the sea, between Africa and Italy. Let us
+Carthaginians, confined within the shores of Africa, behold you, since
+such is the pleasure of the gods, extending your empire over foreign
+nations, both by sea and land. I can not deny that you have reason to
+suspect the Carthaginian faith, in consequence of their insincerity
+lately in soliciting a peace and while awaiting the decision. The
+sincerity with which a peace will be observed depends much, Scipio, on
+the person by whom it is sought. Your Senate, as I hear, refused to
+grant a peace, in some measure, because the deputies were deficient in
+respectability. It is I, Hannibal, who now solicit peace, who would
+neither ask for it unless I believed it expedient, nor will I fail to
+observe it for the same reason of expedience on account of which I
+have solicited it. And in the same manner as I, because the war was
+commenced by me, brought it to pass that no one regretted it till the
+gods began to regard me with displeasure, so will I also exert myself
+that no one may regret the peace procured by my means."
+
+In answer to these things the Roman general spoke nearly to the
+following effect: "I was aware that it was in consequence of the
+expectation of your arrival that the Carthaginians violated the
+existing faith of the truce and broke off all hope of a peace. Nor,
+indeed, do you conceal the fact; inasmuch as you artfully withdraw
+from the former conditions of peace every concession except what
+relates to those things which have for a long time been in our own
+power. But as it is your object that your countrymen should be
+sensible how great a burden they are relieved from by your means, so
+it is incumbent upon me to endeavor that they may not receive, as the
+reward of their perfidy, the concessions which they formerly
+stipulated, by expunging them now from the conditions of the peace.
+Tho you do not deserve to be allowed the same conditions as before,
+you now request even to be benefited by your treachery. Neither did
+our fathers first make war respecting Sicily, nor did we respecting
+Spain. In the former case, the danger which threatened our allies, the
+Mamertines, and in the present the destruction of Saguntum, girded us
+with just and pious arms. That you were the aggressors, both you
+yourselves confess and the gods are witnesses, who determined the
+issue of the former war, and who are now determining, and will
+determine, the issue of the present according to right and justice. As
+to myself, I am not forgetful of the instability of human affairs, but
+consider the influence of fortune, and am well aware that all our
+measures are liable to a thousand casualties. But as I should
+acknowledge that my conduct would savor of insolence and oppression
+if I rejected you on your coming in person to solicit peace, before I
+crossed over into Africa, you voluntarily retiring from Italy, and
+after you had embarked your troops, so now, when I have dragged you
+into Africa almost by manual force, notwithstanding your resistance
+and evasions, I am not bound to treat you with any respect. Wherefore,
+if in addition to those stipulations on which it was considered that a
+peace would at that time have been agreed upon, and what they are you
+are informed, a compensation is proposed for having seized our ships,
+together with their stores, during a truce, and for the violence
+offered to our ambassadors, I shall then have matter to lay before my
+council. But if these things also appear oppressive, prepare for war,
+since you could not brook the conditions of peace."
+
+Thus, without effecting an accommodation, when they had returned from
+the conference to their armies, they informed them that words had been
+bandied to no purpose, that the question must be decided by arms, and
+that they must accept that fortune which the gods assigned them.
+
+When they had arrived at their camps, they both issued orders that
+their soldiers should get their arms in readiness and prepare their
+minds for the final contest; in which, if fortune should favor them,
+they would continue victorious, not for a single day, but forever.
+"Before tomorrow night," they said, "they would know whether Rome or
+Carthage should give laws to the world; and that neither Africa nor
+Italy, but the whole world, would be the prize of victory; that the
+dangers which threatened those who had the misfortune to be defeated
+were proportioned to the rewards of the victors." For the Romans had
+not any place of refuge in an unknown and foreign land, and immediate
+destruction seemed to await Carthage if the troops which formed her
+last reliance were defeated. To this important contest, the day
+following, two generals, by far the most renowned of any, and
+belonging to two of the most powerful nations in the world, advanced
+either to crown or overthrow, on that day, the many honors they had
+previously acquired....
+
+While the general was busily employed among the Carthaginians, and the
+captains of the respective nations among their countrymen, most of
+them employing interpreters among troops intermixed with those of
+different nations, the trumpets and cornets of the Romans sounded; and
+such a clamor arose that the elephants, especially those in the left
+wing, turned round upon their own party, the Moors and Numidians.
+Masinissa had no difficulty in increasing the alarm of the terrified
+enemy, and deprived them of the aid of their cavalry in that wing. A
+few, however, of the beasts which were driven against the enemy, and
+were not turned back through fear, made great havoc among the ranks of
+the velites, tho not without receiving many wounds themselves; for
+when the velites, retiring to the companies, had made way for the
+elephants, that they might not be trampled down, they discharged their
+darts at the beasts, exposed as they were to wounds on both sides,
+those in the van also keeping up a continual discharge of javelins;
+until, driven out of the Roman line by the weapons which fell upon
+them from all quarters, these elephants also put to flight even the
+cavalry of the Carthaginians posted in their right wing. Laelius, when
+he saw the enemy in disorder, struck additional terror into them in
+their confusion.
+
+The Carthaginian line was deprived of the cavalry on both sides, when
+the infantry, who were now not a match for the Romans in confidence or
+strength, engaged. In addition to this there was one circumstance,
+trifling in itself, but at the same time producing important
+consequences in the action. On the part of the Romans the shout was
+uniform, and on that account louder and more terrific; while the
+voices of the enemy, consisting as they did of many nations of
+different languages, were dissonant. The Romans used the stationary
+kind of fight, pressing upon the enemy with their own weight and that
+of their arms; but on the other side there was more of skirmishing and
+rapid movement than force.
+
+Accordingly, on the first charge, the Romans immediately drove back
+the line of their opponents; then pushing them with their elbows and
+the bosses of their shields, and pressing forward into the places from
+which they had pushed them, they advanced a considerable space, as tho
+there had been no one to resist them, those who formed the rear urging
+forward those in front when they perceived the line of the enemy
+giving way, which circumstance itself gave great additional force in
+repelling them. On the side of the enemy, the second line, consisting
+of the Africans and Carthaginians, were so far from supporting the
+first line when giving ground, that, on the contrary, they even
+retired, lest their enemy, by slaying those who made a firm
+resistance, should penetrate to themselves also. Accordingly, the
+auxiliaries suddenly turned their backs, and facing about upon their
+own party, fled some of them into the second line, while others slew
+those who did not receive them into their ranks, since before they did
+not support them, and now refused to receive them.
+
+And now there were, in a manner, two contests going on together, the
+Carthaginians being compelled to fight at once with the enemy and with
+their own party. Not even then, however, did they receive into their
+line the terrified and exasperated troops; but, closing their ranks,
+drove them out of the scene of action to the wings and the surrounding
+plain, lest they should mingle these soldiers, terrified with defeat
+and wounds, with that part of their line which was firm and fresh. But
+such a heap of men and arms had filled the space in which the
+auxiliaries a little while ago had stood that it was almost more
+difficult to pass through it than through a close line of troops. The
+spearmen, therefore, who formed the front line, pursuing the enemy as
+each could find a way through the heap of firms and men, and streams
+of blood, threw into complete disorder the battalions and companies.
+The standards, also, of the principes had begun to waver when they saw
+the line before them driven from their ground. Scipio, perceiving
+this, promptly ordered the signal to be given for the spearmen to
+retreat, and, having taken his wounded into the rear, brought the
+principes and triarii to the wings, in order that the line of
+spearmen in the center might be more strong and secure. Thus a fresh
+and renewed battle commenced, inasmuch as they had penetrated to their
+real antagonists, men equal to them in the nature of their arms, in
+their experience in war, in the fame of their achievements, and the
+greatness of their hopes and fears. But the Romans were superior both
+in numbers and courage, for they had now routed both the cavalry and
+the elephants, and, having already defeated the front line, were
+fighting against the second....
+
+Hannibal, after performing this, as it were, his last work of valor,
+fled to Adrumetum, whence, having been summoned to Carthage, he
+returned thither in the six and thirtieth year after he had left it
+when a boy, and confest in the senate house that he was defeated, not
+only in the battle, but in the war, and that there was no hope o+-
+safety in anything but obtaining peace.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 67: "The most eloquent of all historians," says Cruttwell.
+Livy understood the spirit of ancient times, making it real to modern
+minds because he possest "antiquity of soul." In his own day Livy's
+popularity was almost limitless. Pliny the Younger recalled that a man
+once traveled to Rome from Cadiz with the express purpose of seeing
+Livy. Having seen him he returned home at once, caring for nothing
+else in Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 68: From Book II of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. "Cocles" was a nick-name meaning the
+"one-eyed." With this story every school-boy has been made familiar
+through Macaulay's "Lay," beginning:
+
+    "Lars Porsena of Clusium
+       By the Nine Gods he swore
+    That the great house of Tarquin
+       Should suffer wrong no more."
+]
+
+[Footnote 69: Authorities differ as to the site of this bridge.
+"Larousse" has a map which identifies it as the site now occupied by
+the AEmilian bridge, at the base of the Palatine, near the mouth of the
+Cloaca Maxima; but the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," in a map of ancient
+Rome, places it farther down the Tiber near the center of the base of
+the Aventine. Murray's "Handbook of Rome" agrees with the
+"Britannica." This bridge was the first one built at Rome, and is
+ascribed to King Ancus Martius.]
+
+[Footnote 70: From Book XXI of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds. The identity of the pass through which
+Hannibal crossed has been the subject of much controversy. A writer in
+Smith's "Dictionary" says the account in Polybius "will be found, on
+the whole, to agree best with the supposition that Hannibal crossed by
+the Little St. Bernard." At the same time, "there are some
+difficulties" attending this inference.]
+
+[Footnote 71: A tribe living in the upper valley of the Po, near
+Turin.]
+
+[Footnote 72: From Book XXX of the "History of Rome." Translated by D.
+Spillan and Cyrus Edmonds.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Adrumetum lay in what is now Tunis and was originally a
+Phenician city. It was older than Carthage. For many centuries it was
+a chief seaport for northern Africa. It is now known as Susa.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Hannibal, who when a boy of nine had left Carthage for
+Spain with his father, Hamilcar Barca, at that time took an oath upon
+an altar declaring eternal hostility to Rome. In the year of Zama he
+was forty-five years old.]
+
+
+
+
+SENECA
+
+     Born in Spain about 4 B.C.; died near Rome in 65 A.D.;
+     celebrated as a Stoic and writer; taken to Rome when a
+     child; a senator in Caligula's reign; banished to Corsica by
+     Claudius in 41; recalled in 49, and entrusted with the
+     education of Nero; after Nero's accession in 54 virtually
+     controlled the imperial government, exercising power in
+     concert with the Praetorian prefect, Burrus; on the
+     assassination of Burrus in 62 petitioned for leave to retire
+     from court, and virtually did withdraw; on being charged
+     with complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he committed
+     suicide in obedience to Nero's order; his extant writings
+     are numerous, and include "Benefits," "Clemency," and "Minor
+     Essays."[75]
+
+
+I
+
+OF THE WISE MAN[76]
+
+
+I might truly say, Serenus, that there is as wide a difference between
+the Stoics and the other sects of philosophers as there is between men
+and women, since each class contributes an equal share to human
+society, but the one is born to command, the other to obey. The other
+philosophers deal with us gently and coaxingly, just as our
+accustomed family physicians usually do with our bodies, treating them
+not by the best and shortest method, but by that which we allow them
+to employ; whereas the Stoics adopt a manly course, and do not care
+about its appearing attractive to those who are entering upon it, but
+that it should as quickly as possible take us out of the world, and
+lead us to that lofty eminence which is so far beyond the scope of any
+missile weapon that it is above the reach of Fortune herself. "But the
+way by which we are asked to climb is steep and uneven." What then?
+Can heights be reached by a level path? Yet they are not so sheer and
+precipitous as some think. It is only the first part that has rocks
+and cliffs and no apparent outlet, just as many hills seen from a long
+way off appear abruptly steep and joined together, because the
+distance deceives our sight, and then, as we draw nearer, those very
+hills which our mistaken eyes had made into one gradually unfold
+themselves, those parts which seemed precipitous from afar assume a
+gently sloping outline. When just now mention was made of Marcus Cato,
+you whose mind revolts at injustice were indignant at Cato's own age
+having so little understood him, at its having allotted a place below
+Vatinius to one who towered above both Caesar and Pompey; it seemed
+shameful to you, that when he spoke against some law in the Forum his
+toga was torn from him, and that he was hustled through the hands of a
+mutinous mob from the Rostra as far as the arch of Fabius,[77]
+enduring all the bad language, spitting, and other insults of the
+frantic rabble.
+
+I then answered, that you had good cause to be anxious on behalf of
+the commonwealth, which Publius Clodius on the one side, Vatinius and
+all the greatest scoundrels on the other, were putting up for sale,
+and, carried away by their blind covetousness, did not understand that
+when they sold it they themselves were sold with it; I bade you have
+no fears on behalf of Cato himself, because the wise man can neither
+receive injury nor-insult, and it is more certain that the immortal
+gods have given Cato as a pattern of a wise man to us, than that they
+gave Ulysses or Hercules to the earlier ages; for these our Stoics
+have declared were wise men, unconquered by labors, despisers of
+pleasure, and superior to all terrors. Cato did not slay wild beasts,
+whose pursuit belongs to huntsmen and countrymen, nor did he
+exterminate fabulous creatures with fire and sword, or live in times
+when it was possible to believe that the heavens could be supported on
+the shoulders of one man. In an age which had thrown off its belief in
+antiquated superstitions, and had carried material knowledge to its
+highest point, he had to struggle against that many-headed monster,
+ambition, against that boundless lust for power which the whole world
+divided among three men could not satisfy. He alone withstood the
+vices of a worn-out state sinking into ruin through its own bulk; he
+upheld the falling commonwealth as far as it could be upheld by one
+man's hand, until at last his support was withdrawn, and he shared the
+crash which he had so long averted, and perished together with that
+from which it was impious to separate him--for Cato did not outlive
+freedom, nor did freedom outlive Cato. Think you that the people could
+do any wrong to such a man when they tore away his praetorship or his
+toga? when they bespattered his sacred head with the rinsings of their
+mouths? The wise man is safe, and no injury or insult can touch
+him....
+
+Consider now, whether any thief, or false accuser, or headstrong
+neighbor, or rich man enjoying the power conferred by a childless old
+age, could do any injury to this man, from whom neither war nor an
+enemy whose profession was the noble art of battering city walls could
+take away anything. Amid the flash of swords on all sides, and the
+riot of the plundering soldiery, amid the flames and blood and ruin of
+the fallen city, amid the crash of temples falling upon their gods,
+one man was at peace. You need not therefore account that a reckless
+boast, for which I will give you a surety, if my word goes for
+nothing. Indeed, you would hardly believe so much constancy or such
+greatness of mind to belong to any man; but here a man comes forward
+to prove that you have no reason for doubting that one who is but of
+human birth can raise himself above human necessities, can tranquilly
+behold pains, losses, diseases, wounds, and great natural convulsions
+roaring around him, can bear adversity with calm and prosperity with
+moderation, neither yielding to the former nor trusting to the latter,
+that he can remain the same amid all varieties of fortune, and think
+nothing to be his own save himself, and himself too only as regards
+his better part....
+
+You have no cause for saying, as you are wont to do, that this wise
+man of ours is nowhere to be found; we do not invent him as an unreal
+glory of the human race, or conceive a mighty shadow of an untruth,
+but we have displayed and will display him just as we sketch him, tho
+he may perhaps be uncommon, and only one appears at long intervals;
+for what is great and transcends the common ordinary type is not often
+produced; but this very Marcus Cato himself, the mention of whom
+started this discussion, was a man who I fancy even surpassed our
+model. Moreover, that which hurts must be stronger than that which is
+hurt. Now wickedness is not stronger than virtue; therefore the wise
+man can not be hurt. Only the bad attempt to injure the good. Good men
+are at peace among themselves; bad ones are equally mischievous to the
+good and to one another. If a man can not be hurt by one weaker than
+himself, and a bad man be weaker than a good one, and the good have no
+injury to dread, except from one unlike themselves; then, no injury
+takes effect upon the wise man; for by this time I need not remind you
+that no one save the wise man is good....
+
+The nobler a man is by birth, by reputation, or by inheritance, the
+more bravely he should bear himself, remembering that the tallest men
+stand in the front rank in battle. As for insults, offensive language,
+marks of disgrace, and such like disfigurements, he ought to bear them
+as he would bear the shouts of the enemy, and darts or stones flung
+from a distance, which rattle upon his helmet without causing a wound;
+while he should look upon injuries as wounds, some received on his
+armor and others on his body, which he endures without falling or even
+leaving his place in the ranks. Even tho you be hard prest and
+violently attacked by the enemy, still it is base to give way; hold
+the post assigned to you by nature. You ask, what this post is? it is
+that of being a man. The wise man has another help, of the opposite
+kind to this; you are hard at work, while he has already won the
+victory. Do not quarrel with your own good advantage, and, until you
+shall have made your way to the truth, keep alive this hope in your
+minds, be willing to receive the news of a better life, and encourage
+it by your admiration and your prayers; it is to the interest of the
+commonwealth of mankind that there should be some one who is
+unconquered, some one against whom fortune has no power.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+OF CONSOLATION FOR THE LOSS OF FRIENDS[78]
+
+
+Why should I lead you on through the endless series of great men and
+pick out the unhappy ones, as tho it were not more difficult to find
+happy ones? for how few households have remained possest of all their
+members to the end? what one is there that has not suffered some loss?
+Take any one year you please and name the Consuls for it; if you like,
+that of Lucius Bibulus[79] and Julius Caesar; you will see that, tho
+these colleagues were each other's bitterest enemies, yet their
+fortunes agreed. Lucius Bibulus, a man more remarkable for goodness
+than for strength of character, had both his sons murdered at the same
+time, and even insulted by the Egyptian soldiery, so that the agent of
+his bereavement was as much a subject for tears as the bereavement
+itself. Nevertheless Bibulus, who during the whole of his year of
+office had remained hidden in his house, to cast reproach upon his
+colleague Caesar on the day following that upon which he heard of both
+his sons' deaths, came forth and went through the routine business of
+his magistracy. Who could devote less than one day to mourning for
+two sons? Thus soon did he end his mourning for his children, altho he
+had mourned a whole year for his consulship. Gaius Caesar, after having
+traversed Britain, and not allowed even the ocean to set bounds to his
+successes, heard of the death of his daughter, which hurried on the
+crisis of affairs. Already Cnaeus Pompey stood before his eyes, a man
+who would ill endure that any one besides himself should become a
+great power in the state, and one who was likely to place a check upon
+his advancement, which he had regarded, as onerous even when each
+gained by the other's rise: yet within three days' time he resumed his
+duties as general, and conquered his grief as quickly as he was wont
+to conquer everything else.
+
+Why need I remind you of the deaths of the other Caesars, whom fortune
+appears to me sometimes to have outraged in order that even by their
+deaths they might be useful to mankind, by proving that not even they,
+altho they were styled "sons of gods," and "fathers of gods to come,"
+could exercise the same power over their own fortunes which they did
+over those of others? The Emperor Augustus lost his children and his
+grandchildren, and after all the family of Caesar had perished was
+obliged to prop his empty house by adopting a son: yet he bore his
+losses as bravely as tho he were already personally concerned in the
+honor of the gods, and as tho it were especially to his interest that
+no one should complain of the injustice of Heaven. Tiberius Caesar lost
+both the son whom he begot and the son whom he adopted, yet he
+himself pronounced a panegyric upon his son from the Rostra, and
+stood in full view of the corpse, which merely had a curtain on one
+side to prevent the eyes of the high priest resting upon the dead
+body, and did not change his countenance, tho all the Romans wept: he
+gave Sejanus, who stood by his side, a proof of how patiently he could
+endure the loss of his relatives. See you not what numbers of most
+eminent men there have been, none of whom have been spared by this
+blight which prostrates us all: men, too, adorned with every grace of
+character, and every distinction that public or private life can
+confer. It appears as tho this plague moved in a regular orbit, and
+spread ruin and desolation among us all without distinction of
+persons, all being alike its prey. Bid any number of individuals tell
+you the story of their lives: you will find that all have paid some
+penalty for being born.
+
+I know what you will say, "You quote men as examples: you forget that
+it is a woman that you are trying to console." Yet who would say that
+nature has dealt grudgingly with the minds of women and stunted their
+virtues? Believe me, they have the same intellectual power as men, and
+the same capacity for honorable and generous action. If trained to do
+so, they are just as able to endure sorrow or labor. Ye good gods, do
+I say this in that very city in which Lucretia and Brutus removed the
+yoke of kings from the necks of the Romans? We owe liberty to Brutus,
+but we owe Brutus to Lucretia--in which Cloelia,[80] for the
+sublime courage with which she scorned both the enemy and the river,
+has been almost reckoned as a man.
+
+The statue of Coelia, mounted on horseback, in the busiest of
+thoroughfares, the Sacred Way, continually reproaches the youth of the
+present day, who never mount anything but a cushioned seat in a
+carriage, with journeying in such a fashion through that very city in
+which we have enrolled even women among our knights. If you wish me to
+point out to you examples of women who have bravely endured the loss
+of their children, I shall not go far afield to search for them: in
+one family I can quote two Cornelias, one the daughter of Scipio, and
+the mother of Gracchi, who made acknowledgment of the birth of her
+twelve children by burying them all; nor was it so hard to do this in
+the case of the others, whose birth and death were alike unknown to
+the public, but she beheld the murdered and unburied corpses of both
+Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, whom even those who will not
+call them good must admit were great men. Yet to those who tried to
+console her and called her unfortunate, she answered, "I shall never
+cease to call myself happy, because I am the mother of the Gracchi."
+Cornelia, the wife of Livius Drusus,[81] lost by the hands of an
+unknown assassin a young son of great distinction, who was treading in
+the footsteps of the Gracchi, and was murdered in his own house just
+when he had so many bills half-way through the process of becoming
+law: nevertheless she bore the untimely and unavenged death of her son
+with as lofty a spirit as he had shown in carrying his laws.
+
+Will you not, Marcia, forgive Fortune because she has not refrained
+from striking you with the darts which she launched at the Scipios,
+and the mothers and daughters of the Scipios, and with which she has
+attacked the Caesars themselves? Life is full of misfortunes; our path
+is beset with them: no one can make a long peace, nay, scarcely an
+armistice with fortune. You, Marcia, have borne four children; now
+they say that no dart which is hurled into a close column of soldiers
+can fail to hit one--ought you then to wonder at not having been able
+to lead along such a company without exciting the ill will of Fortune,
+or suffering loss at her hands?...
+
+Think how great a blessing is a timely death, how many have been
+injured by living longer than they ought. If sickness had carried off
+that glory and support of the empire, Cnaeus Pompey, at Naples, he
+would have died undoubted head of the Roman people, but as it was, a
+short extension of time cast him down from his pinnacle of fame: he
+beheld his legions slaughtered before his eyes: and what a sad relic
+of that battle, in which the Senate formed the first line, was the
+survival of the general. He saw his Egyptian butcher, and offered his
+body, hallowed by so many victories, to a guardsman's sword, altho,
+even had he been unhurt, he would have regretted his safety: for what
+could have been more infamous than that a Pompey should owe his life
+to the clemency of a king? If Marcus Cicero had fallen at the time
+when he avoided those dangers which Catiline aimed equally at him and
+at his country, he might have died as the savior of the commonwealth
+which he had set free: if his death had even followed upon that of his
+daughter, he might have died happy. He would not then have seen swords
+drawn for the slaughter of Roman citizens, the goods of the murdered
+divided among the murderers, that men might pay from their own purse
+the price of their own blood, the public auction of the Consul's spoil
+in the civil war, the public letting out of murder to be done,
+brigandage, war, pillage, hosts of Catilines. Would it not have been a
+good thing for Marcus Cato if the sea had swallowed him up when he was
+returning from Cyprus after sequestrating the king's hereditary
+possessions, even if that very money which he was bringing to pay the
+soldiers in the civil war had been lost with him? He certainly would
+have been able to boast that no one would dare to do wrong in the
+presence of Cato: as it was, the extension of his life for a very few
+more years forced one who was born for personal and political freedom
+to flee from Caesar and to become Pompey's follower. Premature death
+therefore did him no evil: indeed, it put an end to the power of any
+evil to hurt him....
+
+Born for a very brief space of time, we regard this life as an inn
+which we are soon to quit that it may be made ready for the coming
+guest, Do I speak of our lives, which we know roll away incredibly
+fast? Reckon up the centuries of cities: you will find that even those
+which boast of their antiquity have not existed for long. All human
+works are brief and fleeting: they take up no part whatever of
+infinite time. Tried by the standard of the universe, we regard this
+earth of ours, with all its cities, nations, rivers, and seaboard, as
+a mere point: our life occupies less than a point when compared with
+all time, the measure of which exceeds that of the world, for indeed
+the world is contained many times in it. Of what importance, then, can
+it be to lengthen that which, however much you add to it, will never
+be much more than nothing? We can only make our lives long by one
+expedient, that is, by being satisfied with their length: you may tell
+me of long-lived men, whose length of days has been celebrated by
+tradition, you may assign a hundred and ten years apiece to them: yet
+when you allow your mind to conceive the idea of eternity, there will
+be no difference between the shortest and the longest life, if you
+compare the time during which any one has been alive with that during
+which he has not been alive. In the next place, when he died his life
+was complete; he had lived as long as he needed to live: there was
+nothing left for him to accomplish.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+TO NERO ON CLEMENCY[82]
+
+
+You, Caesar, can boldly say that everything which has come into your
+charge has been kept safe, and that the state has neither openly nor
+secretly suffered any loss at your hands. You have coveted a glory
+which is most rare, and which has been obtained by no emperor before
+you, that of innocence. Your remarkable goodness is not thrown away,
+nor is it ungratefully or spitefully undervalued. Men feel gratitude
+toward you: no one person ever was so dear to another as you are to
+the people of Rome, whose great and enduring benefit you are. You
+have, however, taken upon yourself a mighty burden: no one any longer
+speaks of the good times of the late Emperor Augustus, or the first
+years of the reign of Tiberius, or proposes for your imitation any
+model outside yourself: yours is a pattern reign. This would have been
+difficult had your goodness of heart not been innate, but merely
+adopted for a time; for no one can wear a mask for long, and
+fictitious qualities soon give place to true ones. Those which are
+founded upon truth, become greater and better as time goes on.
+
+The Roman people were in a state of great hazard as long as it was
+uncertain how your generous disposition would turn out: now, however,
+the prayers of the community are sure of an answer, for there is no
+fear that you should suddenly forget your own character. Indeed,
+excess of happiness makes men greedy, and our desires are never so
+moderate as to be bounded by what they have obtained: great successes
+become the stepping-stones to greater ones, and those who have
+obtained more than they hoped, entertain even more extravagant hopes
+than before; yet by all your countrymen we hear it admitted that they
+are now happy, and moreover, that nothing can be added to the
+blessings that they enjoy, except that they should be eternal. Many
+circumstances force this admission from them, altho it is the one
+which men are least willing to make: we enjoy a profound and
+prosperous peace, the power of the law has been openly asserted in the
+sight of all men, and raised beyond the reach of any violent
+interference: the form of our government is so happy, as to contain
+all the essentials of liberty except the power of destroying itself.
+It is nevertheless your clemency which is most especially admired by
+the high and low alike: every man enjoys or hopes to enjoy the other
+blessings of your rule according to the measure of his own personal
+good fortune, whereas from your clemency all hope alike: no one has so
+much confidence in his innocence, as not to feel glad that in your
+presence stands a clemency which is ready to make allowance for human
+errors....
+
+Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall state the best model
+on which a prince may mold his life to be, that he deal with his
+countrymen as he would that the gods may deal with himself. Is it then
+desirable that the gods should show no mercy upon sins and mistakes,
+and that they should harshly pursue us to our ruin? In that case what
+king will be safe? Whose limbs will not be torn asunder and collected
+by the sooth-sayers If, on the other hand, the gods are placable and
+kind, and do not at once avenge the crimes of the powerful with
+thunderbolts, is it not far more just that a man set in authority over
+other men should exercise his power in a spirit of clemency and should
+consider whether the conditions of the world is more beauteous and
+pleasant to the eyes on a fine calm day, or when everything is shaken
+with frequent thunder-claps and when lightning flashes on all sides!
+Yet the appearance of a peaceful and constitutional reign is the same
+as that of the calm and brilliant sky. A cruel reign is disordered and
+hidden in darkness, and while all shake with terror at the sudden
+explosions, not even he who caused all this disturbance escapes
+unharmed. It is easier to find excuses for private men who obstinately
+claim their rights; possibly they may have been injured and their rage
+may spring from their wrongs; besides this, they fear to be despised,
+and not to return the injuries which they have received looks like
+weakness rather than clemency; but one who can easily avenge himself,
+if he neglects to do so, is certain to gain praise for goodness of
+heart. Those who are born in a humble station may with greater freedom
+exercise violence, go to law, engage in quarrels, and indulge their
+angry passions; even blows count for little between two equals; but in
+case of a king, even loud clamor and unmeasured talk are
+unbecoming....
+
+Such was Augustus when an old man, or when growing old: in his youth
+he was hasty and passionate, and did many things upon which he looked
+back with regret. No one will venture to compare the rule of the blest
+Augustus to the mildness of your own, even if your youth be compared
+with his more than ripe old age: he was gentle and placable, but it
+was after he had dyed the sea at Actium with Roman blood; after he had
+wrecked both the enemy's fleet and his own at Sicily; after the
+holocaust of Perusia and the proscriptions. But I do not call it
+clemency to be wearied of cruelty; true clemency, Caesar, is that which
+you display, which has not begun from remorse at its past ferocity, on
+which there is no stain, which has never shed the blood of your
+countrymen: this, when combined with unlimited power, shows the truest
+self-control and all-embracing love of the human race as of one's
+self, not corrupted by any low desires, any extravagant ideas, or any
+of the bad examples of former emperors into trying, by actual
+experiment, how great a tyranny you would be allowed to exercise over
+his countrymen, but inclining rather to blunting your sword of empire.
+
+You, Caesar, have granted us the boon of keeping our state free from
+bloodshed, and that of which you boast, that you have not caused one
+single drop of blood to flow in any part of the world, is all the more
+magnanimous and marvelous because no one ever had the power of the
+sword placed in his hands at an earlier age. Clemency, then, makes
+empires besides being their most trustworthy means of preservation.
+Why have legitimate sovereigns grown old on the throne, and bequeathed
+their power to their children and grandchildren, while the sway of
+despotic usurpers is both hateful and short-lived? What is the
+difference between the tyrant and the king--for their outward symbols
+of authority and their powers are the same--except it be that tyrants
+take delight in cruelty, whereas kings are only cruel for good reasons
+and because they can not help it....
+
+Nothing can be imagined which is more becoming to a sovereign than
+clemency, by whatever title and right he may be set over his fellow
+citizens. The greater his power, the more beautiful and admirable he
+will confess his clemency to be: for there is no reason why power
+should do any harm, if only it be wielded in accordance with the laws
+of nature. Nature herself has conceived the idea of a king, as you may
+learn from various animals, and especially from bees, among whom the
+king's cell is the roomiest, and is placed in the most central and
+safest part of the hive; moreover, he does no work, but employs
+himself in keeping the others up to their work. If the king be lost,
+the entire swarm disperses: they never endure to have more than one
+king at a time, and find out which is the better by making them fight
+with one another: moreover the king is distinguished by his statelier
+appearance, being both larger and more brilliantly colored than the
+other bees.
+
+The most remarkable distinction, however, is the following: bees are
+very fierce, and for their size are the most pugnacious of creatures,
+and leave their stings in the wounds which they make, but the king
+himself has no sting: nature does not wish him to be savage or to seek
+revenge at so dear a rate, and so has deprived him of his weapon and
+disarmed his rage. She has offered him as a pattern to great
+sovereigns; for she is wont to practise herself in small matters, and
+to scatter abroad tiny models of the hugest structures. We ought to be
+ashamed of not learning a lesson in behavior from these small
+creatures, for a man, who has so much more power of doing harm than
+they, ought to show a correspondingly greater amount of self-control.
+Would that human beings were subject to the same law, and that their
+anger destroyed itself together with its instruments, so that they
+could only inflict a wound once, and would not make use of the
+strength of others to carry out their hatreds; for their fury would
+soon grow faint if it carried its own punishment with it, and could
+only give rein to its violence at the risk of death. Even as it is,
+however, no one can exercise it with safety, for he must needs feel as
+much fear as he hopes to cause, he must watch every one's movements,
+and even when his enemies are not laying violent hands upon him he
+must bear in mind that they are plotting to do so, and he can not have
+a single moment free from alarm. Would any one endure to live such a
+life as this, when he might enjoy all the privileges of his high
+station to the general joy of all men, without fear? for it is a
+mistake to suppose that the king can be safe in a state where nothing
+is safe from the king; he can only purchase a life without anxiety
+for himself by guaranteeing the same for his subjects. He need not
+pile up lofty citadels, escarp steep hills, cut away the sides of
+mountains, and fence himself about with many lines of walls and
+towers: clemency will render a king safe even upon an open plain. The
+one fortification which can not be stormed is the love of his
+countrymen....
+
+The reason why cruelty is the most hateful of all vices is that it
+goes first beyond ordinary limits, and then beyond those of humanity;
+that it devises new kinds of punishments, calls ingenuity to aid it in
+inventing devices for varying and lengthening men's torture, and takes
+delight in their sufferings: this accursed disease of the mind reaches
+its highest pitch of madness when cruelty itself turns into pleasure
+and the act of killing a man becomes enjoyment. Such a ruler is soon
+cast down from his throne; his life is attempted by poison one day and
+by the sword the next; he is exposed to as many dangers as there are
+men to whom he is dangerous, and he is sometimes destroyed by the
+plots of individuals, and at others by a general insurrection. Whole
+communities are not roused to action by unimportant outrages on
+private persons; but cruelty which takes a wider range, and from which
+no one is safe, becomes a mark for all men's weapons. Very small
+snakes escape our notice, and the whole country does not combine to
+destroy them; but when one of them exceeds the usual size and grows
+into a monster, when it poisons fountains with its spittle, scorches
+herbage with its breath, and spreads ruin wherever it crawls, we
+shoot at it with military engines. Trifling evils may cheat us and
+elude our observation, but we gird up our loins to attack great ones.
+One sick person does not so much as disquiet the house in which he
+lies; but when frequent deaths show that a plague is raging, there is
+a general outcry, men take to flight and shake their fists angrily at
+the very gods themselves. If a fire breaks out under one single roof,
+the family and the neighbors pour water upon it; but a wide
+conflagration which has consumed many houses must be smothered under
+the ruins of a whole quarter of a city....
+
+I have been especially led to write about clemency, Nero Caesar, by a
+saying of yours, which I remember having heard with admiration and
+which I afterward told to others: a noble saying, showing a great mind
+and great gentleness, which suddenly burst from you without
+premeditation, and was not meant to reach any ears but your own, and
+which displayed the conflict which was raging between your natural
+goodness and your imperial duties. Your praefect Burrus[83], an
+excellent man who was born to be the servant of such an emperor as you
+are, was about to order two brigands to be executed, and was pressing
+you to write their names and the grounds on which they were to be put
+to death; this had often been put off, and he was insisting that it
+should then be done. When he reluctantly produced the document and
+put it in your equally reluctant hands, you exclaimed: "Would that I
+had never learned my letters!" O what a speech, how worthy to be heard
+by all nations, both those who dwell within the Roman Empire, those
+who enjoy a debatable independence upon its borders, and those who
+either in will or in deed fight against it! It is a speech which ought
+to be spoken before a meeting of all mankind, whose words all kings
+and princes ought to swear to and obey: a speech worthy of the days of
+human innocence, and worthy to bring back that golden age. Now in
+truth we ought all to agree to love righteousness and goodness,
+covetousness, which is the root of all evil, ought to be driven away,
+piety and virtue, good faith and modesty ought to resume their
+interrupted reign, and the vices which have so long and so shamefully
+ruled us ought at last to give way to an age of happiness and purity.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE PILOT[84]
+
+
+A tempest and storme hurt a Pilot, but notwithstanding they make him
+not worse. Certaine Stoicks do thus answer against this, that a Pilot
+is made worse by a tempest and by a storme, because that thing which
+he had purposed he cannot effect, nor keep on his course. Worse is he
+made, not in his skill, but in his work. To whom the Aristotelian:
+therefore, saith he, pouertie and dolour, and what soeuer such like
+thing there shall be, shall not take vertue from him, but shall hinder
+his working thereof.
+
+This were rightly said, except the condition of a Pilot and of a
+wise-man were unlike. For the purpose of him is in leading his life,
+not without faile to effect that which he assayeth to doe, but to doe
+all things aright. It is the purpose of the Pilot, without faile to
+bring a ship into a hauen. They be seruile arts, they ought to
+performe that which they promise. Wisedome is mistresse and
+gouernesse. The arts doe serve to, wisedome commandeth our life. I
+judge that we must answere after another sort, namely that neyther the
+skill of the gouernour is made worse by any tempest, nor yet the very
+administration of art. The gouernour hath not promised prosperous
+successe unto thee, but his profitable endeuour, and skill to gouerne
+the ship. This appeareth the more, by how much the more some force of
+fortune hath hindered him. He that hath beene able to say this, O
+Neptune, this ship was neuer but right, hath satisfied skill. A
+tempest hindereth not the work of a pilot, but the successe.
+
+What therefore sayeth thou? Doth not that thing hurt a Pilot, which
+hindereth him from entring the Port? Which causeth his endeuours to be
+vaine? Which eyther beareth him back, or detaineth and disarmeth him?
+It hurteth him not as Pilot, but as one that doth saile. Otherwise it
+doth not so much hinder, as shew the Pilot's skill. For euery one
+can, as they say, be a pilot in the calme. These things hinder the
+ship; not a pilot as he is a pilot. Two persons a pilot hath; the one
+common with all who haue gone aboard the same ship, wherein he
+himselfe also is a passenger; the other proper as he is gouernour. The
+tempest hurteth him as he is a passenger not as a Pilot. Furthermore
+the art of a Pilot is another good, it appertaineth to those whom he
+carrieth: as the art of a Physitian appertaineth to those whom he doth
+cure. Wisedome is a common good; and is proper to ownes selfe, for
+those with whom he doth liue. Therefore peraduenture a Pilot is hurt,
+whose promised seruice to others is let by a tempest.
+
+A wise man is not hurt by pouertie, nor by doulour, nor by other
+tempests of life. For not all workes of him be hindered, but only
+those that pertain to other men; alwayes is he himself indeed, the
+greatest of all, when fortune hath opposed herselfe unto him, then
+manageth he the businesse of wisdome itselfe: which wisdome we haue
+said to be both anothers and his owne good. Furthermore not then
+indeed is he hindered to profite other men, when some necessities do
+presse him. Through pouertie he is hindred to teach, how a
+Commonwealth may be managed: but he teacheth that thing, how pouertie
+is to be managed. His worke is extended all his life long. Thus no
+fortune, no thing excludeth the acts of a wise-man. For he doth not
+that verie thing, whereby he is forbidden to do other things. He is
+fit for both chances: a gouernour of the bad, an ouercommer of the
+good. So I say hath he exercised himselfe, that he sheweth vertue as
+well in prosperous as in aduerse affaires; neyther looketh he upon
+the matter thereof, but upon itselfe. Therefore neither pouerty nor
+doulour, nor any other thing which turneth back the unskilfull, and
+driuest them headlong, hindereth them. Hast thou rather he should be
+pressed? He maketh use of it. Not only of iuorie did Phidias know how
+to make images: he made them of brasse. If marble were unto him, if
+thou hadst offered baser matter, he would haue made such a one
+thereof, as could be made of that which was the best.
+
+So a wise-man will show uertue, if he may, in wealth, if not in
+pouertie: if he shall be able, in his countrie; if not in banishment;
+if he can, being a commander; if not, being a souldier: if he can
+being sound; if not, being weaker what fortune soeuer he shall
+entertaine, he will performe some memorable thing thereby. Certain
+tamers there be of wild beasts, who teach the fiercest creatures, and
+which terrifie a man when they meet him, to suffer the yoake: and not
+wanted to have shaken fiercenesse off, do tame them, euer to keep them
+companie. The master useth often to thrust out his hand to Lions; they
+kisse it. The keeper commandeth his tyger; the Ethiopian Player
+commandeth his elephants to fall upon their knees, and to walke upon a
+rope; so a wise-man is skilfull to subdue euil things. Dolour,
+pouertie, ignominie, prison, banishment, when they come unto him, are
+made tame.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+OF A HAPPY LIFE[85]
+
+
+All men, brother Gallio, wish to live happily, but are dull at
+perceiving exactly what it is that makes life happy: and so far is it
+from being easy to attain to happiness that the more eagerly a man
+struggles to reach it the further he departs from it, if he takes the
+wrong road; for, since this leads in the opposite direction, his very
+swiftness carries him all the further away. We must therefore first
+define clearly what it is at which we aim: next we must consider by
+what path we may most speedily reach it, for on our journey itself,
+provided it be made in the right direction, we shall learn how much
+progress we have made each day, and how much nearer we are to the goal
+toward which our natural desires urge us. But as long as we wander at
+random, not following any guide except the shouts and discordant
+clamors of those who invite us to proceed in different directions, our
+short life will be wasted in useless roamings, even if we labor both
+day and night to get a good understanding. Let us not therefore decide
+whither we must tend, and by what path, without the advice of some
+experienced person who has explored the region which we are about to
+enter, because this journey is not subject to the same conditions as
+others; for in them some distinctly understood track and inquiries
+made of the natives make it impossible for us to go wrong, but here
+the most beaten and frequented tracks are those which lead us astray.
+Nothing, therefore, is more important than that we should not, like
+sheep, follow the flock that has gone before us, and thus proceed not
+whither we ought, but whither the rest are going....
+
+True wisdom consists in not departing from nature and in molding our
+conduct according to her laws and model. A happy life, therefore, is
+one which is in accordance with its own nature, and can not be brought
+about unless in the first place the mind be sound and vigorous,
+enduring all things with most admirable courage suited to the times in
+which it lives, careful of the body and its appurtenances, yet not
+troublesomely careful. It must also set due value upon all the things
+which adorn our lives, without overestimating any one of them, and
+must be able to enjoy the bounty of Fortune without becoming her
+slave....
+
+A happy life consists in a mind which is free, upright, undaunted, and
+stedfast beyond the influence of fear or desire, which thinks nothing
+good except honor, and nothing bad except shame, and regards
+everything else as a mass of mean details which can neither add
+anything to nor take anything away from the happiness of life, but
+which come and go without either increasing or diminishing the highest
+good? A man of these principles, whether he will or no, must be
+accompanied by a continual cheerfulness, a high happiness, which
+comes indeed from on high because he delights in what he has, and
+desires no greater pleasures than those which his home affords. Is he
+not right in allowing these to turn the scale against petty,
+ridiculous, and short-lived movements of his wretched body? on the day
+on which he becomes proof against pleasure he also becomes proof
+against pain. See, on the other hand, how evil and guilty a slavery a
+man is forced to serve who is dominated in turn by pleasures and
+pains, those most untrustworthy and passionate of masters. We must,
+therefore, escape from them into freedom. This nothing will bestow
+upon us save contempt of Fortune; but if we attain to this, then there
+will dawn upon us those invaluable blessings, the repose of a mind
+that is at rest in a safe haven, its lofty imaginings, its great and
+steady delight at casting out errors and learning to know the truth,
+its courtesy and its cheerfulness, in all of which we shall take
+delight, not regarding them as good things, but as proceeding from the
+proper good of man....
+
+Why do you put together two things which are unlike and even
+incompatible one with another? virtue is a lofty quality, sublime,
+royal, unconquerable, untiring: pleasure is low, slavish, weakly,
+perishable; its haunts and homes are the brothel and the tavern. You
+will meet virtue in the temple, the market-place, the senate-house,
+manning the walls, covered with dust, sunburnt, horny-handed: you will
+find pleasure skulking out of sight, seeking for shady nooks at the
+public baths, hot chambers, and places which dread the visits of the
+aedile, soft, effeminate, reeking of wine and perfumes, pale or
+perhaps painted and made up with cosmetics. The highest good is
+immortal: it knows no ending, and does not admit of either satiety or
+regret: for a right-thinking mind never alters or becomes hateful to
+itself, nor do the best things ever undergo any change: but pleasure
+dies at the very moment when it charms us most: it has no great scope,
+and therefore it soon cloys and wearies us, and fades away as soon as
+its first impulse is over: indeed, we can not depend upon anything
+whose nature is to change. Consequently, it is not even possible that
+there should be any solid substance in that which comes and goes so
+swiftly and which perishes by the very exercise of its own functions,
+for it arrives at a point at which it ceases to be, and even while it
+is beginning always keeps its end in view....
+
+A man should be unbiassed and not to be conquered by external things:
+he ought to admire himself alone, to feel confidence in his own
+spirit, and so to order his life as to be ready alike for good or bad
+fortune. Let not his confidence be without knowledge, nor his
+knowledge without stedfastness: let him always abide by what he has
+once determined, and let there be no erasure in his doctrine. It will
+be understood, even tho I append it not, that such a man will be
+tranquil and composed in his demeanor, high-minded and courteous in
+his actions. Let reason be encouraged by the senses to seek for the
+truth, and draw its first principles from thence: indeed it has no
+other base of operations or place from which to start in pursuit of
+truth: it must fall back upon itself. Even the all-embracing universe
+and God who is its guide extends Himself forth into outward things,
+and yet altogether returns from all sides back to Himself. Let our
+mind do the same thing: when, following its bodily senses, it has by
+means of them sent itself forth into the things of the outward world,
+let it remain still their master and its own. By this means we shall
+obtain a strength and an ability which are united and allied together;
+we shall derive from it that reason which never halts between two
+opinions, nor is dull in forming its perceptions, beliefs, or
+convictions. Such a mind, when it has ranged itself in order, made its
+various parts agree together, and, if I may so express myself,
+harmonized them, has attained to the highest good: for it has nothing
+evil or hazardous remaining, nothing to shake it or make it stumble:
+it will do everything under the guidance of its own will, and nothing
+unexpected will befall it, but whatever may be done by it will turn
+out well, and that, too, readily and easily, without the doer having
+recourse to any underhand devices: for slow and hesitating purpose.
+You may, then, boldly declare that the highest good is singleness of
+mind: for where agreement and unity are, there must the virtues be: it
+is the vices that are at war with one another....
+
+It is the act of the generous spirit to proportion its efforts not to
+its own strength, but to that of human nature, to entertain lofty
+aims, and to conceive plans which are too vast to be carried into
+execution even by those who are endowed with gigantic intellects, who
+appoint for themselves the following rules: "I will look upon death or
+upon a comedy with the same expression of countenance: I will submit
+to labors, however great they may be, supporting the strength of my
+body by that of my mind: I will despise riches when I have them as
+much as when I have them not; if they be elsewhere I will not be more
+gloomy, if they sparkle around me I will not be more lively than I
+should otherwise be: whether Fortune comes or goes I will take no
+notice of her: I will view all lands as tho they belonged to me, and
+my own as tho they belonged to all mankind: I will so live as to
+remember that I was born for others, and will thank Nature on this
+account: for in what fashion could she have done better for me? she
+has given me alone to all, and all to me alone. Whatever I may
+possess, I will neither hoard it greedily nor squander it recklessly.
+I will think that I have no possessions so real as those which I have
+given away to deserving people: I will not reckon benefits by their
+magnitude or number, or by anything except the value set upon them by
+the receiver: I never will consider a gift to be a large one if it be
+bestowed upon a worthy object. I will do nothing because of public
+opinion, but everything because of conscience: whenever I do anything
+alone by myself I will believe that the eyes of the Roman people are
+upon me while I do it. In eating and drinking my object shall be to
+quench the desires of Nature, not to fill and empty my belly. I will
+be agreeable with my friends, gentle and mild to my foes: I will grant
+pardon before I am asked for it, and will meet the wishes of honorable
+men half-way. I will bear in mind that, the world is my native city,
+that its governors are the gods, and that they stand above and around
+me, criticizing whatever I do or say. Whenever either Nature demands
+my breath again, or reason bids me dismiss it, I will quit this life,
+calling all to witness that I have loved a good conscience, and good
+pursuits; that no one's freedom, my own least of all, has been
+impaired through me." He who sets up these as the rules of his life
+will soar aloft and strive to make his way to the gods: of a truth,
+even tho he fails, yet he
+
+     "Fails in a high emprise."
+
+But you, who hate both virtue and those who practise it, do nothing at
+which we need be surprized, for sickly lights can not bear the sun,
+nocturnal creatures avoid the brightness of day, and at its first
+dawning become bewildered and all betake themselves to their dens
+together: creatures that fear the light hide themselves in crevices.
+So croak away, and exercise your miserable tongues in reproaching good
+men: open wide your jaws, bite hard: you will break many teeth before
+you make any impression....
+
+Where, indeed, can fortune invest riches more securely than in a place
+from whence they can always be recovered without any squabble with
+their trustee? Marcus Cato, when he was praising Curius and
+Coruncanius and that century in which the possession of a few small
+silver coins were an offense which was punished by the Censor, himself
+owned four million sesterces; a less fortune, no doubt, than that of
+Crassus, but larger than of Cato the Censor. If the amounts be
+compared, he had outstript his great-grandfather further than he
+himself was outdone by Crassus, and if still greater riches had
+fallen to his lot, he would not have spurned them, for the wise man
+does not think himself unworthy of any chance presents: he does not
+love riches, but he prefers to have them; he does not receive them
+into his spirit, but only into his house: nor does he cast away from
+him what he already possesses, but keeps them, and is willing that his
+virtue should receive a larger subject-matter for its exercise....
+
+Cease, then, forbidding philosophers to possess money: no one has
+condemned wisdom to poverty. The philosopher may own ample wealth, but
+will not own wealth that which has been torn from another, or which is
+stained with another's blood: his must be obtained without wronging
+any man, and without its being won by base means; it must be alike
+honorably come by and honorably spent, and must be such as spite could
+alone shake its head at. Raise it to whatever figure you please, it
+will still be an honorable possession, if, while it includes much
+which every man would like to call his own, there be nothing which any
+one can say is his own. Such a man will not forfeit his right to the
+favor of Fortune, and will neither boast of his inheritance nor blush
+for it if it was honorably acquired; yet he will have something to
+boast of, if he throw his house open, let all his countrymen come
+among his property, and say, "If any one recognizes here anything
+belonging to him, let him take it." What a great man, how excellently
+rich will he be, if after this speech he possesses as much as he had
+before! I say, then, that if he can safely and confidently submit his
+accounts to the scrutiny of the people, and no one can find in them
+any item upon which he can lay hands, such a man may boldly and
+unconcealedly enjoy his riches. The wise man will not allow a single
+ill-won penny to cross his threshold; yet he will not refuse or close
+his door against great riches, if they are the gift of fortune and the
+product of virtue: what reason has he for grudging them good quarters:
+let them come and be his guests: he will neither brag of them nor hide
+them away: the one is the part of a silly, the other of a cowardly and
+paltry spirit, which, as it were, muffles up a good thing in its lap.
+As he is capable of performing a journey upon his own feet, but yet
+would prefer to mount a carriage, just so he will be capable of being
+poor, yet will wish to be rich; he will own wealth, but will view it
+as an uncertain possession which will some day fly away from him. He
+will not allow it to be a burden either to himself or to any one else:
+he will give it--why do you prick up your ears? why do you open your
+pockets?--he will give it either to good men or to those whom it may
+make into good men. He will give it after having taken the utmost
+pains to choose those who are fittest to receive it, as becomes one
+who bears in mind that he ought to give an account of what he spends
+as well as of what he receives. He will give for good and commendable
+reasons, for a gift ill bestowed counts as a shameful loss: he will
+have an easily opened pocket, but not one with a hole in it, so that
+much may be taken out of it, yet nothing may fall out of it.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 75: Seneca's influence on writers in his own day was
+notable. He seems almost to have superseded Cicero as a model. Critics
+of our day, while recognizing all this and the charm of his style,
+have found in his philosophy a lack of sincere qualities. An old
+question is that of his relations to Christianity. So much in his
+writings partakes of the spirit of the Apostles that he has been
+credited with having been influenced by them. It is known that his
+brother Gallio met St. Paul in Corinth and that Burrus, the colleague
+and intimate friend of Seneca, was the captain of the Praetorian guards
+before whom St. Paul was brought in Rome. Cruttwell dismisses the
+claim, believing that Seneca's philosophy was "the natural development
+of the thoughts of his predecessors in a mind at once capacious and
+smitten with the love of virtue." Philosophy to Seneca was "altogether
+a question of practise." Like other thinkers of his day, "he cared
+nothing for consistency of opinion, everything for impressiveness of
+application."]
+
+[Footnote 76: From Book II of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Quintilius Fabius, the general, who before the battle of
+Cannae commanded in Italy against Hannibal. He was famous for avoiding
+pitched battles and hence the term "Fabian policy."]
+
+[Footnote 78: From Book VI of the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey
+Stewart. Marcia, to whom this letter was addrest, was "a respectable
+and opulent lady," the daughter of Cremutius Cordus.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Made Consul with Julius Caesar in 59 B.C. He represented
+the aristocratic party and bitterly opposed some of the measures of
+Caesar. In the war with Pompey he joined his forces to those of
+Pompey.]
+
+[Footnote 80: A legendary maiden delivered as hostage to Lars Porsena
+of Clusium, but who escaped by swimming across the Tiber.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Marcus Livius Drusus was a politician, who in 91 B.C.
+became tribune of the plebs. He was about to bring forward a proposal
+giving citizenship to the Italians when he was assassinated, an event
+which precipitated the Social War.]
+
+[Footnote 82: From the "Minor Essays." Translated by Aubrey Stewart.
+"This," says Alexander Thomson, the eighteenth-century translator of
+Suetonius, "appears to have been written in the beginning of the reign
+of Nero, on whom the author bestows some high encomiums which at that
+time seem not to have been destitute of foundation."]
+
+[Footnote 83: Burrus in 52 A.D. had been made sole Praetorian Praefect
+by Claudius and, conjointly with Seneca, was entrusted with the
+education of Nero. It was his influence with the Praetorian Guards that
+secured to Nero in 54 the independent succession. He was put to death
+by poison, under orders from Nero, who had been offended by the
+severity of his moral conduct.]
+
+[Footnote 84: From Epistle 85. Translated by Thomas Lodge. Printed
+here with the spelling and punctuation of the first edition (1613).]
+
+[Footnote 85: From Book VII of the "Minor Essays." Translated by
+Aubrey Stewart. This essay addrest to Gallio, Seneca is thought to
+have intended "as a vindication of himself against those who
+calumniated him on account of his riches and manner of living."]
+
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER
+
+     Born in Como, in 23 A.D.; perished in the eruption of
+     Vesuvius in 79; celebrated as naturalist; commanded cavalry
+     in Germany at the age of twenty-three; procurator in Spain
+     under Nero; wrote voluminously on military tactics, history,
+     grammar and natural science; his death due to his efforts to
+     observe more closely the eruption; of all his writings only
+     his "Natural History" in thirty-seven books has survived.
+
+
+I
+
+THE QUALITIES OF THE DOG[86]
+
+
+Among the animals that are domesticated with mankind there are many
+circumstances that are deserving of being known: among these there are
+more particularly that most faithful friend of man, the dog, and the
+horse. We have an account of a dog that fought against a band of
+robbers in defending its master; and altho it was pierced with wounds,
+still it would not leave the body, from which it drove away all birds
+and beasts. Another dog, in Epirus, recognized the murderer of its
+master in the midst of an assemblage of people, and, by biting and
+barking at him, extorted from him a confession of his crime. A king of
+the Garamantes,[87] also, was brought back from exile by two hundred
+dogs, which maintained the combat against all his opponents. The
+people of Colophon[88] and Castabala[89] kept troops of dogs for the
+purposes of war; and these used to fight in the front rank and never
+retreat; they were the most faithful of auxiliaries, and yet required
+no pay. After the defeat of the Cimbri[90] their dogs defended their
+movable houses, which were carried upon wagons. Jason, the Lycian,
+having been slain, his dog refused to take food, and died of famine. A
+dog, to which Darius gives the name of Hyrcanus, upon the funeral pile
+of King Lysimachus being lighted, threw itself into the flames; and
+the dog of King Hiero[91] did the same. Philistus also gives a similar
+account of Pyrrhus, the dog of the tyrant Gelon; and it is said also,
+that the dog of Nicomedes, King of Bithynia[92], tore Consingis, the
+wife of that king, in consequence of her wanton behavior, when toying
+with her husband.
+
+Dogs are the only animals that are sure to know their masters, and if
+they suddenly meet him as a stranger, they will instantly recognize
+him. They are the only animals that will answer to their names, and
+recognize the voices of the family. They recollect a road along which
+they have passed, however long it may be. Next to man there is no
+living creature whose memory is so retentive. By sitting down on the
+ground we may arrest their most impetuous attack, even when prompted
+by the most violent rage.
+
+In daily life, we have discovered many other valuable qualities in
+this animal; but its intelligence and sagacity are more especially
+shown in the chase. It discovers and traces out the tracks of the
+animal, leading by the leash the sportsman who accompanies it straight
+up to the prey; and as soon as ever it has perceived it, how silent it
+is, and how secret but significant is the indication which it gives,
+first by the tail and afterward by the nose!
+
+When Alexander the Great was on his Indian expedition, he was
+presented by the King of Albania with a dog of unusual size; being
+greatly delighted with its noble appearance, he ordered bears, and
+after them wild boars, and then deer, to be let loose before it; but
+the dog lay down and regarded them with a kind of immovable contempt.
+The noble spirit of the general became irritated by the sluggishness
+thus manifested by an animal of such vast bulk, and he ordered it to
+be killed. The report of this reached the king, who accordingly sent
+another dog, and at the same time sent word that its powers were to be
+tried, not upon small animals, but upon the lion or the elephant;
+adding, that he had originally but two, and that if this one were put
+to death, the race would be extinct. Alexander, without delay,
+procured a lion, which in his presence was instantly torn to pieces.
+He then ordered an elephant to be brought, and never was he more
+delighted with any spectacle; for the dog, bristling up its hair all
+over the body, began by thundering forth a loud barking, and then
+attacked the animal, leaping at it first on the one side and then on
+the other, attacking it in the most skilful manner, and then again
+retreating at the opportune moment, until at last the elephant, being
+rendered quite giddy by turning round and round, fell to the earth,
+and made it quite reecho with its fall.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THREE GREAT ARTISTS OF GREECE[93]
+
+
+Apelles,[94] of Cos, surpassed all the other painters who either
+preceded or succeeded him. Single-handed, he contributed more to
+painting than all the others together, and even went so far as to
+publish some treatises on the principles of the art. The great point
+of artistic merit with him was his singular charm of gracefulness, and
+this too, tho the greatest of painters were his contemporaries. In
+admiring their works and bestowing high eulogiums upon them, he used
+to say that there was still wanting in them that equal of beauty so
+peculiar to himself, and known to the Greeks as "Charis"; others, he
+said, had acquired all the other requisites of perfection, but in
+this one point he himself had no equal. He also asserted his claim to
+another great point of merit; admiring a picture by Protogenes, which
+bore evident marks of unbounded laboriousness and the most minute
+finish, he remarked that in every respect Protogenes was fully his
+equal, or perhaps his superior, except in this, that he himself knew
+when to take his hand off a picture--a memorable lesson, which teaches
+us that over-carefulness may be productive of bad results. His candor,
+too, was equal to his talent; he acknowledged the superiority of
+Melanthius[95] in his grouping, and of Asclepiodorus in the niceness
+of his measurements, or in other words, the distances that ought to be
+left between the objects represented.
+
+A circumstance that happened to him in connection with Protogenes[96]
+is worthy of notice. The latter was living at Rhodes, when Apelles
+disembarked there, desirous of seeing the works of a man whom he had
+hitherto only known by reputation. Accordingly, he repaired at once to
+the studio; Protogenes was not at home, but there happened to be a
+large panel upon the easel ready for painting, with an old woman who
+was left in charge. To his inquiries she made answer that Protogenes
+was not at home; and then asked whom she should name as the visitor.
+"Here he is," was the reply of Apelles; and seizing a brush, he traced
+with color upon the panel an outline of a singularly minute fineness.
+Upon his return the old woman mentioned to Protogenes what had
+happened. The artist, it is said, upon remarking the delicacy of the
+touch, instantly exclaimed that Apelles must have been the visitor,
+for that no other person was capable of executing anything so
+exquisitely perfect. So saying, he traced within the same outline a
+still finer outline, but with another color; and then took his
+departure, with instructions to the woman to show it to the stranger
+if he returned, and to let him know that this was the person whom he
+had come to see.
+
+It happened as he anticipated--Apelles returned; and vexed at finding
+himself thus surpassed, he took up another color and split both of the
+outlines, leaving no possibility of anything finer being executed.
+Upon seeing this, Protogenes admitted that he was defeated, and at
+once flew to the harbor to look for his guest. He thought proper, too,
+to transmit the panel to posterity, just as it was; and it always
+continued to be held in the highest admiration by all--artists in
+particular. I am told that it was burned in the first fire which took
+place at Caesar's palace on the Palatine Hill; but in former times I
+have often stopt to admire it. Upon its vast surface it contained
+nothing whatever except the three outlines, so remarkably fine as to
+escape the sight: among the most elaborate works of numerous other
+artists it had all the appearance of a blank space; and yet by that
+very fact it attracted the notice of every one, and was held in higher
+estimation than any other painting there.
+
+It was a custom with Apelles, to which he most tenaciously adhered,
+never to let any day pass, however busy he might be, without
+exercising himself by tracing some outline or other; a practise which
+has now passed into a proverb. It was also a practise with him, when
+he had completed a work, to exhibit it to the view of the passers-by
+in some exposed place; while he himself, concealed behind the picture,
+would listen to the criticisms that were passed upon it: it being his
+opinion that the judgment of the public was preferable to his own, as
+being the more discerning of the two. It was under these
+circumstances, they say, that he was censured by a shoemaker for
+having represented the shoes with one shoe-string too little. The next
+day, the shoemaker, quite proud at seeing the former error corrected,
+thanks to his advice, began to criticize the leg; upon which Apelles,
+full of indignation, popped his head out, and reminded him that a
+shoemaker should give no opinion beyond the shoes--a piece of advice
+which has equally passed into a proverbial saying. In fact, Apelles
+was a person of great amenity of manners--a circumstance which
+rendered him particularly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who would
+often come to his studio. He had forbidden himself by public edict, as
+already stated, to be represented by any other artist. On one
+occasion, however, when the prince was in his studio, talking a great
+deal about painting without knowing anything about it, Apelles quietly
+begged that he would quit the subject, telling him that he would get
+laughed at by the boys who were there grinding the colors; so great
+was the influence which he rightfully possest over a monarch who was
+otherwise of an irascible temperament. And yet, irascible as he was,
+Alexander conferred upon him a very signal mark of the high estimation
+in which he held him: for having, in his admiration of her
+extraordinary beauty, engaged Apelles to paint Pancaste undraped--the
+most beloved of all his concubines--the artist while so engaged fell
+in love with her; upon which, Alexander, perceiving this to be the
+ease, made him a present of her: thus showing himself, tho a great
+king in courage, a still greater one in self-command--this action
+redounding no less to his honor than any of his victories.
+
+Superior to all the statues not only of Praxiteles,[97] but of any
+other artist that ever existed, is his Cnidian Venus; for the
+inspection of which, many persons before now have purposely undertaken
+a voyage to Cnidos. The artist made two statues of the goddess, and
+offered them both for sale: one of them was represented with drapery,
+and for this reason was preferred by the people of Cos, who had the
+choice; the second was offered them at the same price, but on the
+grounds of propriety and modesty they thought fit to choose the other.
+Upon this, the Cnidians purchased the rejected statue, and immensely
+superior has it always been held in general estimation. At a later
+period, King Nicomedes wished to purchase this statue of the Cnidians,
+and made them an offer to pay off the whole of their public debt,
+which was very large. They preferred, however, to submit to any
+extremity rather than part with it; and with good reason, for by this
+statue Praxiteles has perpetuated the glory of Cnidos. The little
+temple in which it is placed is open on all sides, so that the
+beauties of the statue admit of being seen from every point of
+view--an arrangement which was favored by the goddess herself, it is
+generally believed.
+
+Among all nations which the fame of the Olympian Jupiter has reached,
+Phidias[98] is looked upon, beyond all doubt, as the most famous of
+artists; but to let those who have never seen his works know how
+deservedly he is esteemed, we will take this opportunity of adducing a
+few slight proofs of the genius which he displayed. In doing this we
+shall not appeal to the beauty of his Olympian Jupiter, nor yet to the
+vast proportions of his Athenian Minerva, six-and-twenty cubits in
+height, and composed of ivory and gold: but it is to the shield of
+this last statue that we shall draw attention; upon the convex face of
+which he has chased a combat of the Amazons, while upon the concave
+side of it he has represented the battle between the gods and the
+giants. Upon the sandals, again, we see the wars of the Lapithae and
+Centaurs; so careful has he been to fill every smallest portion of his
+work with some proof or other of his artistic skill.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 86: From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.]
+
+[Footnote 87: A name applied to tribes living in Africa east of the
+desert of Sahara.]
+
+[Footnote 88: An Ionian city of Asia, distant seventy miles from
+Ephesus.]
+
+[Footnote 89: An interior town of Cilicia, in Asia Minor.]
+
+[Footnote 90: The home of this warlike people appears to have been
+Jutland.]
+
+[Footnote 91: The tyrant king of Syracuse, successor to Gelon.]
+
+[Footnote 92: A country of Asia Minor occupying a part of the Black
+Sea coast.]
+
+[Footnote 93: From the "Natural History." Translated by John Bostock
+and H. T. Riley.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Apelles lived in the time of Philip and Alexander the
+Great. Cos is an island in the AEgean Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 95: A painter of the Sicyonian school who flourished in the
+third century B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Protogenes, a native of Caria, in Asia Minor, was
+celebrated as a painter at Rhodes in the second half of the fourth
+century B.C.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Praxiteles was born in Athena about the end of the fifth
+century and continued active as an artist until the time at Alexander
+the Great. Nearly sixty of his works are mentioned in ancient
+writings, but only two have been identified in modern times.]
+
+[Footnote 98: Phidias was born in Athens about 500 B.C. and died about
+430.]
+
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN
+
+     Born in Spain about 35 A.D.; died about 95; celebrated as
+     rhetorian; educated in Rome, where he taught oratory for
+     twenty years; patronized by the emperors Vespasian and
+     Domitian; his most celebrated work the "Institutio
+     Oratoria."[99]
+
+
+THE ORATOR MUST BE A GOOD MAN[100]
+
+
+Let the orator, then, whom I propose to form, be such a one as is
+characterized by the definition of Marcus Cato, _a good man skilled in
+speaking_.
+
+But the requisite which Cato has placed first in this definition, that
+an orator should be _a good man_, is naturally of more estimation and
+importance than the other. It is of importance that an orator should
+be good, because, should the power of speaking be a support to evil,
+nothing would be more pernicious than eloquence alike to public
+concerns and private, and I myself, who, as far as is in my power,
+strive to contribute something to the faculty of the orator, should
+deserve very ill of the world, since I should furnish arms, not for
+soldiers, but for robbers. May I not draw an argument from the
+condition of mankind? Nature herself, in bestowing on man that which
+she seems to have granted him preeminently, and by which she appears
+to have distinguished us from all other animals, would have acted, not
+as a parent, but as a stepmother, if she had designed the faculty of
+speech to be the promoter of crime, the oppressor of innocence, and
+the enemy of truth; for it would have been better for us to have been
+born dumb, and to have been left destitute of reasoning powers, than
+to have received endowments from providence only to turn them to the
+destruction of one another.
+
+My judgment carries me still further; for I not only say that he who
+would answer my idea of an orator must be a good man, but that no man,
+unless he be good, can ever be an orator. To an orator discernment and
+prudence are necessary; but we can certainly not allow discernment to
+those, who when the ways of virtue and vice are set before them,
+prefer to follow that of vice; nor can we allow them prudence, since
+they subject themselves, by the unforeseen consequences of their
+actions, often to the heaviest penalty of the law, and always to that
+of an evil conscience. But if it be not only truly said by the wise,
+but always justly believed by the vulgar, that no man is vicious who
+is not also foolish, a fool, assuredly, will never become an orator.
+
+It is to be further considered that the mind can not be in a condition
+for pursuing the most noble of studies, unless it be entirely free
+from vice; not only because there can be no communion of good and evil
+in the same breast, and to meditate at once on the best things and the
+worst is no more in the power of the same mind than it is possible
+for the same man to be at once virtuous and vicious; but also because
+a mind intent on so arduous a study should be exempt from all other
+cares, even such as are unconnected with vice; for then, and then
+only, when it is free and master of itself, and when no other object
+harasses and distracts its attention, will it be able to keep in view
+the end to which it is devoted. But if an inordinate attention to an
+estate, a too anxious pursuit of wealth, indulgence in the pleasures
+of the chase, and the devotion of our days to public spectacles, rob
+our studies of much of our time (for whatever time is given to one
+thing is lost to another), what effect must we suppose that ambition,
+avarice, and envy will produce, whose excitements are so violent as
+even to disturb our sleep and our dreams? Nothing indeed is so
+preoccupied, so unsettled, so torn and lacerated with such numerous
+and various passions, as a bad mind; for when it intends evil, it is
+agitated with hope, care, and anxiety, and when it has attained the
+object of its wickedness, it is tormented with uneasiness, and the
+dread of every kind of punishment.
+
+No man, certainly, will doubt, that it is the object of all oratory,
+that what is stated to the judge may appear to him to be true and
+just; and which of the two, let me ask, will produce such a conviction
+with the greater ease, the good man or the bad? A good man, doubtless,
+will speak of what is true and honest with greater frequency; but even
+if, from being influenced by some call of duty, he endeavors to
+support what is fallacious (a case which, as I shall show, may
+sometimes occur), he must still be heard with greater credit than a
+bad man. But with bad men, on the other hand, dissimulation sometimes
+fails, as well through their contempt for the opinion of mankind, as
+through their ignorance of what is right; hence they assert without
+modesty, and maintain their assertions without shame; and, in
+attempting what evidently can not be accomplished, there appears in
+them a repulsive obstinacy and useless perseverance; for bad men, as
+well in their pleadings as in their lives, entertain dishonest
+expectations; and it often happens, that even when they speak the
+truth, belief is not accorded them, and the employment of advocates of
+such a character is regarded as a proof of the badness of a cause.
+
+I must, however, notice those objections to my opinion, which appear
+to be clamored forth, as it were, by the general consent of the
+multitude. Was not then Demosthenes, they ask, a great orator? yet we
+have heard that he was not a good man. Was not Cicero a great orator?
+yet many have thrown censure upon his character. To such questions how
+shall I answer? Great displeasure is likely to be shown at any reply
+whatever; and the ears of my audience require first to be propitiated.
+The character of Demosthenes, let me say, does not appear to me
+deserving of such severe reprehension, that I should believe all the
+calumnies that are heaped upon him by his enemies, especially when I
+read his excellent plans for the benefit of his country and the
+honorable termination of his life. Nor do I see that the feeling of an
+upright citizen was, in any respect, wanting to Cicero. As proofs of
+his integrity, may be mentioned his consulship, in which he conducted
+himself with so much honor, his honorable administration of his
+province; his refusal to be one of the twenty commissioners; and,
+during the civil wars, which fell with great severity on his times,
+his uprightness of mind, which was never swayed, either by hope or by
+fear, from adhering to the better party, or the supporters of the
+commonwealth. He is thought by some to have been deficient in courage,
+but he has given an excellent reply to this charge, when he says that
+he was timid, not in encountering dangers, but in taking precautions
+against them; an assertion of which he proved the truth at his death,
+to which he submitted with the noblest fortitude. But even should the
+height of virtue have been wanting to these eminent men, I shall reply
+to those who ask me whether they were orators as the Stoics reply when
+they are asked whether Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus were wise men;
+they say that they were great and deserving of veneration, but that
+they did not attain the highest excellence of which human nature is
+susceptible.
+
+Pythagoras desired to be called, not wise, like those who preceded
+him, but a lover of wisdom. I, however, in speaking of Cicero, have
+often said, according to the common mode of speech, and shall continue
+to say, that he was a perfect orator, as we term our friends, in
+ordinary discourse, good and prudent men, tho such epithets can be
+justly given only to the perfectly wise. But when I have to speak
+precisely, and in conformity with the exactness of truth, I shall
+express myself as longing to see such an orator as he himself also
+longed to see; for tho I acknowledge that Cicero stood at the head of
+eloquence, and that I can scarcely find a passage in his speeches to
+which anything can be added, however many I might find which I may
+imagine that he would have pruned (for the learned have in general
+been of opinion that he had numerous excellences and some faults, and
+he himself says that he had cut off most of his juvenile exuberance),
+yet, since he did not claim to himself, tho he had no mean opinion of
+his merits, the praise of perfection, and since he might certainly
+have spoken better if a longer life had been granted him, and a more
+tranquil season for composition, I may not unreasonably believe that
+the summit of excellence was not attained by him, to which,
+notwithstanding, no man made nearer approaches. If I had thought
+otherwise, I might have maintained my opinion with still greater
+determination and freedom. Did Marcus Antonius declare that he had
+seen no man truly eloquent, tho to be eloquent is much less than to be
+a perfect orator; does Cicero himself say that he is still seeking for
+an orator, and merely conceives and imagines one; and shall I fear to
+say that in that portion of eternity which is yet to come something
+may arise still more excellent than what has yet been seen? I take no
+advantage of the opinion of those who refuse to allow great merit to
+Cicero and Demosthenes even in eloquence; tho Demosthenes, indeed,
+does not appear sufficiently near perfection even to Cicero himself,
+who says that he sometimes nods; nor does Cicero appear so to Brutus
+and Calvus, who certainly find fault with his language.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 99: Quintilian is notable as a writer who was not influenced
+by his great contemporary Seneca, whom he disliked and harshly
+criticized for literary defects. Quintilian modeled his own style on
+that of Cicero, altho at times he dropt back unconsciously into that
+of Seneca.]
+
+[Footnote 100: From Book XII, Chapter I, of the "Institutes of
+Oratory." Translated by J. S. Watson.]
+
+
+
+
+TACITUS
+
+     Born about 55 A.D.; died about 117; celebrated as historian
+     and orator; praetor in 88; Consul in 97; a friend of the
+     younger Pliny; son-in-law of Agricola; his extant works
+     include a dialog of oratory, a biography of Agricola,
+     "Germania," a history of Rome from Galba to Domitian, and
+     his "Annals," which are a history of the Julian
+     dynasty.[101]
+
+
+I
+
+FROM REPUBLICAN TO IMPERIAL ROME[102]
+
+
+Kings held dominion in the city of Rome from its foundation: Lucius
+Brutus instituted liberty and the consulate. Dictatorships were
+resorted to in temporary emergencies: neither the power of the
+decemvirs continued in force beyond two years, nor the consular
+authority of the military tribunes for any length of time. The
+domination of Cinna did not continue long, nor that of Sulla: the
+influence of Pompey and Crassus quickly merged in Caesar: the arms of
+Lepidus and Antony in Augustus, who, with the title of prince, took
+under his command the commonwealth, exhausted with civil dissensions.
+But the affairs of the ancient Roman people, whether prosperous or
+adverse, have been recorded by writers of renown. Nor were there
+wanting authors of distinguished genius to have composed the history
+of the times of Augustus, till by the spirit of flattery, which became
+prevalent, they were deterred. As to Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and
+Nero, whilst they yet reigned the histories of their times were
+falsified through fear; and after they had fallen, they were written
+under the influence of recent detestation. Thence my own design of
+recounting a few incidents respecting Augustus, and those toward the
+latter part of his life; and, after that, of giving a history of the
+reign of Tiberius and the rest; uninfluenced by resentment and
+partiality, as I stand aloof from the causes of them.
+
+When, after the fall of Brutus and Cassius, there remained none to
+fight for the commonwealth; when Sextus Pompeius was utterly defeated
+at Sicily; and Lepidus being deprived of his command, and Mark Antony
+slain, there remained no leader even to the Julian party but Octavius;
+having put off the name of triumvir, styling himself Consul, and
+pretending that all he aimed at was the jurisdiction attached to the
+tribuneship for the protection of the commons; when he had cajoled the
+soldiery by donations, the people by distribution of corn, and men in
+general by the charms of peace, he (Octavius) began by gradations to
+exalt himself over them; to draw to himself the functions of the
+senate and of the magistrate, and the framing of the laws; in which
+he was thwarted by no man: the boldest spirits having fallen in some
+or other of the regular battles, or by proscription; and the surviving
+nobility being distinguished by wealth and public honors, according to
+the measure of their promptness to bondage; and as these innovations
+had been the cause of aggrandizement to them, preferring the present
+state of things with safety to the revival of ancient liberty with
+personal peril. Neither were the provinces averse to that condition of
+affairs; since they mistrusted the government of the senate and
+people, on account of the contentions among the great and the avarice
+of the magistrates: while the protection of the laws was enfeebled and
+borne down by violence, intrigue, and bribery.
+
+Moreover, Augustus, as supports to his domination, raised his sister's
+son, Claudius Marcellus,[103] a mere youth, to the dignity of pontiff
+and curule aedile; aggrandized by two successive consulships Marcus
+Agrippa,[104] a man meanly born, but an accomplished soldier, and the
+companion of his victories; and soon, on the death of Marcellus, chose
+him for his son-in-law. The sons of his wife, Tiberius Nero and
+Claudius Drusus, he dignified with the title of Imperator, tho there
+had been no diminution in the members of his house. For into the
+family of the Caesars he had already adopted Lucius and Caius, the sons
+of Agrippa; and tho they had not yet laid aside the puerile garment,
+vehement had been his ambition to see them declared princes of the
+Roman youth, and even designed to the consulship; while he affected to
+decline the honors for them. Upon the decease of Agrippa, they were
+cut off, either by a death premature but natural, or by the arts of
+their stepmother Livia; Lucius on his journey to the armies in Spain,
+Caius on his return from Armenia, ill of a wound: and as Drusus had
+been long since dead, Tiberius Nero was the only survivor of his
+stepsons. On him every honor was accumulated (to that quarter all
+things inclined); he was by Augustus adopted for his son, assumed
+colleague in the empire, partner in the tribunitian authority, and
+presented to the several armies; not from the secret machinations of
+his mother, as heretofore, but at her open suit For over Augustus, now
+very aged, she had obtained such absolute sway, that he banished into
+the isle of Planasia his only surviving grandson, Agrippa Posthumus; a
+person destitute indeed of liberal accomplishments, and a man of
+clownish brutality with great bodily strength, but convicted of no
+heinous offense. The emperor, strange to say, set Germanicus, the son
+of Drusus, over eight legions quartered upon the Rhine, and ordered
+that he should be engrafted into his family by Tiberius by adoption,
+tho Tiberius had then a son of his own on the verge of manhood; but
+the object was that he might stand firm by having many to support and
+protect him. War at that time there remained none, except that in
+Germany, kept on foot rather to blot out the disgrace sustained by the
+loss of Quintilius Varus, with his army, than from any ambition to
+enlarge the empire, or for any advantage worth contending for. In
+profound tranquillity were affairs at Rome. The magistrates retained
+their wonted names; of the Romans, the younger sort had been born
+since the battle of Actium, and even most of the old during the civil
+wars: how few were then living who had seen the ancient free state!
+
+The character of the government thus totally changed; no traces were
+to be found of the spirit of ancient institutions. The system by which
+every citizen shared in the government being thrown aside, all men
+regarded the orders of the prince as the only rule of conduct and
+obedience; nor felt they any anxiety for the present, while Augustus,
+yet in the vigor of life, maintained the credit of himself and house,
+and the peace of the state. But when old age had crept over him, and
+he was sinking under bodily infirmities--when his end was at hand, and
+thence a new source of hopes and views was presented--some few there
+were who began to talk idly about the blessings of liberty: many
+dreaded a civil war--others longed for one; while far the greatest
+part were occupied in circulating various surmises reflecting upon
+those who seemed likely to be their masters: "That Agrippa was
+naturally stern and savage, and exasperated by contumely; and neither
+in age nor experience equal to a task of such magnitude. Tiberius,
+indeed, had arrived at fulness of years, and was a distinguished
+captain, but possest the inveterate and inherent pride of the
+Claudian family; and many indications of cruel nature escaped him, in
+spite of all his arts to disguise it; that even from his early infancy
+he had been trained up in an imperial house; that consulships and
+triumphs had been accumulated upon him while but a youth. Not even
+during the years of his abode at Rhodes, where under the plausible
+name of retirement, he was in fact an exile, did he employ himself
+otherwise than in meditating future vengeance, studying the arts of
+simulation, and practising secret and abominable sensualities. That to
+these considerations was added that of his mother, a woman with the
+ungovernable spirit peculiar to her sex; that the Romans must be under
+bondage to a woman, and moreover to two youths, who would meanwhile
+oppress the state, and, at one time or other, rend it piecemeal."
+
+While the public mind was agitated by these and similar discussions,
+the illness of Augustus grew daily more serious, and some suspected
+nefarious practises on the part of his wife. For some months before, a
+rumor had gone abroad that Augustus, having singled out a few to whom
+he communicated his purpose, had taken Fabius Maximus for his only
+companion, had sailed over to the island of Planasia, to visit
+Agrippa; that many tears were shed on both sides, many tokens of
+mutual tenderness shown, and hopes from thence conceived that the
+youth would be restored to the household gods of his grandfather. That
+Maximus had disclosed this to Martia, his wife--she to Livia; and that
+the emperor was informed of it: and that Maximus, not long after,
+dying (it is doubtful whether naturally or by means sought for the
+purpose), Martia was observed, in her lamentations at his funeral, to
+upbraid herself as the cause of her husband's destruction. Howsoever
+that matter might have been, Tiberius was scarce entered Illyrium when
+he was summoned by a letter from his mother, forwarded with speed, nor
+is it fully known whether, at his return to Nola,[105] he found
+Augustus yet breathing, or already lifeless. For Livia had carefully
+beset the palace, and all the avenues to it, with vigilant guards; and
+favorable bulletins were from time to time given out, until, the
+provisions which the conjuncture required being completed, in one and
+the same moment were published the departure of Augustus, and the
+accession of Tiberius.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE FUNERAL OF GERMANICUS[106]
+
+(19 A.D.)
+
+
+Agrippina,[107] continuing her course without the least intermission
+through all the perils and rigors of a sea-voyage in the winter,
+arrived at the island Corcyra, situated over against the shores of
+Calabria. Unable to moderate her grief, and impatient from
+inexperience of affliction, she spent a few days there to tranquillize
+her troubled spirit; when, on hearing of her arrival, all the intimate
+friends of her family, and most of the officers who had served under
+Germanicus, with a number of strangers from the neighboring municipal
+towns, some thinking it due as a mark of respect to the prince, but
+the greater part carried along with the current, rushed to the city of
+Brundusium, the readiest port in her way, and the safest landing. As
+soon as the fleet appeared in the deep, instantly were filled, not the
+port alone and adjacent parts of the sea, but the walls and roofs, and
+wherever the most distant prospect could be obtained, with a sorrowing
+multitude, earnestly asking each other "whether they should receive
+her on landing in silence, or with some expression of feeling?" Nor
+was it clearly determined what course would be most suitable to the
+occasion, when the fleet came slowly in, not as usual in sprightly
+trim, but all wearing the impress of sadness. When she descended from
+the ship, accompanied by her two infants,[108] and bearing in her hand
+the funeral urn, her eyes fixt stedfastly upon the earth, one
+simultaneous groan burst from the whole assemblage; nor could you
+distinguish relations from strangers, nor the wailings of men from
+those of women; nor could any difference be discerned, except that
+those who came to meet her, in the vehemence of recent grief,
+surpassed the attendants of Agrippina, who were exhausted with
+continued mourning.
+
+Tiberius had dispatched two praetorian cohorts, with directions that
+the magistrates of Calabria, with Apulians and Campanians, should pay
+their last offices of respect to the memory of his son; upon the
+shoulders, therefore, of the tribunes and centurions his ashes were
+borne; before them were carried the ensigns unadorned, and the fasces
+reversed. As they passed through the colonies, the populace in black,
+the knights in their purple robes, burned precious raiment, perfumes,
+and whatever else is used in funeral solemnities, according to the
+ability of the place; even they whose cities lay remote from the
+route, came forth, offered victims, and erected altars to the gods of
+the departed, and with tears and ejaculations testified their sorrow.
+Drusus came as far as Terracina, with Claudius the brother of
+Germanicus, and those of his children who had been left at Rome.[109]
+The Consuls, Marcus Valerius and Marcus Aurelius[110] (for they had
+now entered upon their office), the senate, and great part of the
+people, filled the road--a scattered procession, each walking and
+expressing his grief as inclination led him; in sooth, flattery was an
+utter stranger here, for all knew how real was the joy, how hollow the
+grief, of Tiberius for the death of Germanicus.
+
+Tiberius and Livia[111] avoided appearing abroad--public lamentation
+they thought below their dignity--or perhaps they apprehended that if
+their countenances were examined by all eyes their hypocrisy would be
+detected. That Antonia, mother to the deceased, bore any part in the
+funeral, I do not find either in the historians or in the journals,
+tho, besides Agrippina and Drusus, and Claudius, his other relations
+are likewise there recorded by name; whether by sickness she was
+prevented, or whether her soul, vanquished by sorrow, could not bear
+to go through the representation of such an over-powering calamity. I
+would rather believe her constrained by Tiberius and Livia, who left
+not the palace, that they might seem to grieve alike and that the
+grandmother and uncle might appear to have followed her example in
+staying at home.
+
+The day on which his remains were deposited in the tomb of Augustus,
+at one time exhibited the silence of perfect desolation; at another,
+the uproar of vociferous lamentation; the streets of the city were
+crowded, one general blaze of torches glared throughout the Campus
+Martius; there the soldiers under arms, the magistrates without the
+insignia of office, and the people ranged according to their tribes,
+passionately exclaimed, "that the commonwealth was utterly lost, that
+henceforth there remained no hope," so openly and so boldly that you
+would have believed they had forgotten those who ruled over them. But
+nothing pierced Tiberius more deeply than the warm interest excited
+in favor of Agrippina, while they gave her such titles as "the
+ornament of her country, the only blood of Augustus, an unparalleled
+example of primitive virtue"; and, looking up to heaven and the gods,
+they implored "the preservation of her issue, and that they might
+outlive their oppressors."
+
+There were those who missed the pomp of a public funeral, and compared
+with this the superior honors and magnificence displayed by Augustus
+in that of Drusus, the father of Germanicus; observing, "that he
+himself had traveled, in the depth of winter, as far as Ticinus, and,
+continuing by the corpse, had with it entered the city; around his
+bier were crowded the images of the Claudii and Julii; he was mourned
+in the forum; his encomium pronounced on the rostra; all the honors
+invented by our ancestors, or added by their posterity, were heaped
+upon him. But to Germanicus were denied the ordinary solemnities, and
+such as were due to every distinguished Roman. Certainly his corpse
+was burned in a foreign country because of the long journey, in such a
+manner as it was, but afterward it was but just to have compensated
+the scantiness of the first ceremony by the increased solemnity of the
+last; his brother met him but one day's journey, his uncle not, even
+at the gate. Where were those observances of the ancients, the
+effigies of the dead laid in state on a bed, hymns composed in memory
+of departed virtue, with encomiums and tears? Where at least the
+ceremonial of sorrow?"
+
+All this was known to Tiberius, and to suppress the reflections of the
+populace, he admonished them in an edict, "that many illustrious
+Romans had died for the commonwealth, but none so universally and
+vehemently regretted; and that it was to the honor of himself and all
+others, if bounds were observed. The same things which became private
+families and small states, became not princes and an imperial people;
+that it was not unseemly to lament in the first transport of sorrow,
+nay, relief was afforded by weeping, but it was now time to recover
+and compose their minds. Thus the deified Julius, upon the loss of an
+only daughter;[112] thus the deified Augustus, upon the premature
+death of his grandsons, had both concealed their sorrow. More ancient
+examples were unnecessary; how often had the Roman people sustained
+with equanimity the slaughter of their armies, the death of their
+generals, and entire destruction of illustrious families--princes were
+mortal, the commonwealth was eternal--they should therefore resume
+their customary vocations." And because the spectacle of the
+Megalesian games was at hand, he added, "that they should even lay
+aside their grief for amusements."
+
+The vacation ended, public affairs were resumed; Drusus departed for
+the army in Illyricum, the minds of all men impatiently looking for
+vengeance upon Piso; and amidst many complaints, that while he was
+roaming at large through the delightful regions of Asia and Greece, he
+was undermining by contemptuous and artful delay the evidences of his
+crimes; for it was generally known that Martina, that notorious
+trafficker in sorceries, and sent, as I have above related, by Cneius
+Sentius to Rome, had died suddenly at Brundusium; that poison lay
+concealed in a knot of her hair.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE DEATH OF SENECA[113]
+
+(65 A.D.)
+
+
+The next death added by Nero was that of Plautius Lateranus, consul
+elect; and with such precipitation, that he would not allow him to
+embrace his children, nor the usual brief interval to choose his mode
+of death. He was dragged to the place allotted for the execution of
+slaves, and there, by the hand of Statius the tribune, slaughtered. In
+his death he maintained the most invincible silence, not charging his
+executioner with participation in the design for which he suffered.
+The destruction of Seneca followed, to the infinite joy of the prince;
+not because he had ascertained that he was a party to the conspiracy,
+but that he might assail him with the sword, since poison had failed:
+for Natalis only had named him; and his disclosure amounted but to
+this, "that he had been sent by Piso[114] to visit Seneca, then
+indisposed, to complain that he was refused admittance; and to
+represent, that it would be better if they maintained their friendship
+by intercourse: that to this Seneca replied, that talking to each
+other and frequent interviews were to the service of neither; but upon
+the safety of Piso his own security rested." Granius Silvanus, tribune
+of a pretorian cohort, was ordered to represent this to Seneca, and to
+demand of him, "whether he admitted the words of Natalis, and his own
+answers." Seneca had that very day, either from chance or design,
+returned from Campania, and rested at a villa of his, four miles from
+Rome: thither arrived the tribune toward evening, and beset the villa
+with his men; and then, as he sat at table with Pauline his wife, and
+two friends, delivered his orders from the emperor.
+
+Seneca replied, "that Natalis had in truth been sent to him, and in
+the name of Piso complained, that he was debarred from visiting him;
+and that he had excused himself on the score of illness and his love
+of retirement; but he had no motive to declare that he preferred the
+safety of a private man to his own security; nor was his disposition
+prone to flattery; as no man better knew than Nero, who had
+experienced more frequent proofs of the freedom than the servility of
+Seneca."
+
+When this answer was by the tribune reported to Nero, in presence of
+Poppaea[115] and Tigellinus, who composed the cabinet council, the
+raging tyrant asked, whether Seneca meditated a voluntary death? the
+tribune averred "that he had manifested no symptoms of fear; and
+neither in his words nor looks did he detect any indication of
+regret." He was therefore commanded to return, and tell him he was
+doomed to die. Fabius Rusticus writes, "that the tribune did not
+return by the road he went, but turning off went to Fenius, captain of
+the guards, and stating to him the emperor's orders, asked whether he
+should obey him; and was by him admonished to execute them"; thus
+displaying that want of spirit which by some fatality prevailed
+universally; for Silvanus too was one of the conspirators, and yet was
+contributing to multiply the atrocities he had conspired to avenge. He
+avoided, however, seeing and speaking to Seneca; but sent in a
+centurion to apprize him of his final doom.
+
+Seneca undismayed, called for tables to make his will; and, as this
+was prohibited by the centurion, turning to his friends, he told them,
+"that since he was debarred from requiting their services, he
+bequeathed them that which alone was now left him, but which yet was
+the fairest legacy he had to leave them--the example of his life: and
+if they kept it in view, they would reap the fame due to honorable
+acquirements and inviolable friendship." At the same time he
+endeavored to repress their tears and restore their fortitude, now by
+soothing language, and now in a more animated strain and in a tone of
+rebuke, asking them, "where were the precepts of philosophy? where the
+rules of conduct under impending evils, studied for so many years?
+For who was unapprized of the ferocious disposition of Nero? Nor could
+anything else be expected after he had murdered his mother and brother
+than that he should proceed to destroy his nursing father and
+preceptor."
+
+After these and similar reasonings addrest to the company in general,
+he embraced his wife; and after a brief but vigorous effort to get the
+better of the apprehensions that prest upon him at that moment, he
+besought and implored her "to refrain from surrendering herself to
+endless grief; but endeavor to mitigate her regret for her husband by
+means of those honorable consolations which she would experience in
+the contemplation of his virtuous life." Paulina, on the contrary,
+urged her purpose to die with him, and called for the hand of the
+executioner. When Seneca, unwilling to impede her glory, and also from
+affection, as he was anxious not to leave one who was dear to him
+above everything, exposed to the hard usage of the world, thus addrest
+her: "I had pointed out to you how to soften the ills of life; but you
+prefer the renown of dying: I will not envy you the honor of the
+example. Tho both display the same unflinching fortitude in
+encountering death; still the glory of your exit will be superior to
+mine." After this, both had the veins of their arms opened with the
+same stroke. As the blood flowed slowly from the aged body of Seneca,
+attenuated as it was too by scanty sustenance, he had the veins of his
+legs and hams also cut; and unable to bear up under the excessive
+torture, lest by his own sufferings he should overpower the
+resolution of his wife, and by witnessing her anguish be betrayed into
+impatience himself, he advised her to retire into another chamber. His
+eloquence continued to flow during the latest moments of his
+existence, and summoning his secretaries, he dictated many things,
+which, as they have been published in his own words, I forbear to
+exhibit in other language.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE BURNING OF ROME BY ORDER OF NERO[116]
+
+(64 A.D.)
+
+
+There followed a dreadful disaster; whether fortuitously, or by the
+wicked contrivance of the prince[117] is not determined, for both are
+asserted by historians: but of all the calamities which ever befell
+this city from the rage of fire, this was the most terrible and
+severe. It broke out in that part of the Circus which is contiguous to
+mounts Palatine and Coelius; where, by reason of shops in which were
+kept such goods as minister aliment to fire, the moment it commenced
+it acquired strength, and being accelerated by the wind, it spread at
+once through the whole extent of the Circus: for neither were the
+houses secured by enclosures, nor the temples environed with walls,
+nor was there any other obstacle to intercept its progress; but the
+flame, spreading every way impetuously, invaded first the lower
+regions of the city, then mounted to the higher; then again ravaging
+the lower, it baffled every effort to extinguish it, by the rapidity
+of its destructive course, and from the liability of the city to
+conflagration, in consequence of the narrow and intricate alleys, and
+the irregularity of the streets in ancient Rome.[118] Add to this, the
+wailings of terrified women, the infirm condition of the aged, and the
+helplessness of childhood: such as strove to provide for themselves,
+and those who labored to assist others; these dragging the feeble,
+those waiting for them; some hurrying, others lingering; altogether
+created a scene of universal confusion and embarrassment: and while
+they looked back upon the danger in their rear, they often found
+themselves beset before, and on their sides: or if they had escaped
+into the quarters adjoining, these too were already seized by the
+devouring flames; even the parts which they believed remote and
+exempt, were found to be in the same distress. At last, not knowing
+what to shun, or where to seek sanctuary, they crowded the streets,
+and lay along in the open fields. Some, from the loss of their whole
+substance, even the means of their daily sustenance, others, from
+affection for their relations, whom they had not been able to snatch
+from the flames, suffered themselves to perish in them, tho they had
+opportunity to escape. Neither dared any man offer to check the fire:
+so repeated were the menaces of many who forbade to extinguish it; and
+because others openly threw firebrands, with loud declarations "that
+they had one who authorized them"; whether they did it that they might
+plunder with the less restraint, or in consequence of orders given.
+
+Nero, who was at that juncture sojourning at Antium,[119] did not
+return to the city till the fire approached that quarter of his house
+which connected the palace with the gardens of Maecenas;[120] nor could
+it, however, be prevented from devouring the house and palace, and
+everything around. But for the relief of the people, thus destitute,
+and driven from their dwellings, he opened the fields of Mars and the
+monumental edifices erected by Agrippa,[121] and even his own gardens.
+He likewise reared temporary houses for the reception of the forlorn
+multitude: and from Ostia and the neighboring cities were brought, up
+the river, household necessaries; and the price of grain was reduced
+to three sesterces the measure. All which proceedings, tho of a
+popular character, were thrown away, because a rumor had become
+universally current, "that the very time when the city was in flames,
+Nero, going on the stage of his private theater, sang 'The Destruction
+of Troy,' assimilating the present disaster to that catastrophe of
+ancient times."
+
+At length, on the sixth day, the conflagration was stayed at the foot
+of Esquilliae, by pulling down an immense quantity of buildings, so
+that an open space, and, as it were, void air, might check the raging
+element by breaking the continuity. But ere the consternation had
+subsided the fire broke out afresh, with no little violence, but in
+regions more spacious, and therefore with less destruction of human
+life: but more extensive havoc was made of the temples, and the
+porticoes dedicated to amusement. This conflagration, too was the
+subject of more censorious remark, as it arose in the AEmilian
+possessions of Tigellinus: and Nero seemed to aim at the glory of
+building a new city, and calling it by his own name: for, of the
+fourteen sections into which Rome is divided, four were still standing
+entire, three were leveled with the ground, and in the seven others
+there remained only here and there a few remnants of houses, shattered
+and half-consumed.
+
+It were no easy task to recount the number of tenements and temples
+which were lost: but the following, most venerable for antiquity and
+sanctity, were consumed: that dedicated by Servius Tullius to the
+Moon; the temple and great altar consecrated by Evander the Arcadian
+to Hercules while present; the chapel vowed by Romulus to Jupiter
+Stator; the palace of Numa,[122] with the temple of Vesta, and in it
+the tutelar gods of Rome. Moreover, the treasures accumulated by so
+many victories, the beautiful productions of Greek artists, ancient
+writings of authors celebrated for genius, and till then preserved
+entire, were consumed: and tho great was the beauty of the city, in
+its renovated form, the older inhabitants remembered many decorations
+of the ancient which could not be replaced in the modern city. There
+were some who remarked that the commencement of this fire showed
+itself on the fourteenth before the calends of July, the day on which
+the Senones set fire to the captured city. Others carried their
+investigation so far as to determine that an equal number of years,
+months, and days intervened between the two fires.
+
+To proceed: Nero appropriated to his own purposes the ruins of his
+country, and founded upon them a palace; in which the old-fashioned,
+and, in those luxurious times, common ornaments of gold and precious
+stones, were not so much the objects of attraction as lands and lakes;
+in one part, woods like vast deserts: in another part, open spaces and
+expansive prospects. The projectors and superintendents of this plan
+were Severus and Celer, men of such ingenuity and daring enterprise as
+to attempt to conquer by art the obstacles of nature, and fool away
+the treasures of the prince: they had even undertaken to sink a
+navigable canal from the lake Avernus to the mouth of the Tiber, over
+an arid shore, or through opposing mountains: nor indeed does there
+occur anything of a humid nature for supplying water, except the
+Pomptine marshes; the rest is either craggy rock or a parched soil:
+and had it even been possible to break through these obstructions, the
+toil had been intolerable, and disproportioned to the object. Nero,
+however who longed to achieve things that exceeded credibility,
+exerted all his might to perforate the mountains adjoining to Avernus:
+and to this day there remain traces of his abortive project.
+
+But the rest of the old site not occupied by his palace, was laid out,
+not as after the Gallic fire, without discrimination and regularity,
+but with the lines of streets measured out, broad spaces left for
+transit, the height of the buildings limited, open areas left, and
+porticoes added to protect the front of the clustered dwellings: these
+porticoes Nero engaged to rear at his own expense, and then to deliver
+to each proprietor the areas about them cleared. He moreover proposed
+rewards proportioned to every man's rank and private substance, and
+fixt a day within which, if their houses, single or clustered, were
+finished, they should receive them: he appointed the marshes of Ostia
+for a receptacle of the rubbish, and that the vessels which had
+conveyed grain up the Tiber should return laden with rubbish; that the
+buildings themselves should be raised to a certain portion of their
+height without beams, and arched with stone from the quarries of Gabii
+or Alba, that stone being proof against fire: that over the water
+springs, which had been improperly intercepted by private individuals,
+overseers should be placed, to provide for their flowing in greater
+abundance, and in a greater number of places, for the supply of the
+public: that every housekeeper should have in his yard means for
+extinguishing fire; neither should there be party-walls, but every
+house should be enclosed by its own walls. These regulations, which
+were favorably received, in consideration of their utility, were also
+a source of beauty to the new city: yet some there were who believed
+that the ancient form was more conducive to health, as from the
+narrowness of the streets and the height of the buildings the rays of
+the sun were more excluded; whereas now, the spacious breadth of the
+streets, without any shade to protect it, was more intensely heated in
+warm weather.
+
+Such were the provisions made by human counsels. The gods were next
+addrest with expiations and recourse had to the Sibyl's books. By
+admonition from them to Vulcan, Ceres, and Proserpina, supplicatory
+sacrifices were made, and Juno propitiated by the matrons, first in
+the Capitol, then upon the nearest shore, where, by water drawn from
+the sea, the temple and image of the goddess were besprinkled; and the
+ceremony of placing the goddess in her sacred chair, and her vigil,
+were celebrated by ladies who had husbands. But not all the relief
+that could come from man, not all the bounties that the prince could
+bestow, nor all the atonements which could be presented to the gods,
+availed to relieve Nero from the infamy of being believed to have
+ordered the conflagration.
+
+Hence, to suppress the rumor, he falsely charged with the guilt, and
+punished with the most exquisite tortures, the persons commonly
+called Christians,[123] who were hated for their enormities. Christus,
+the founder of that name was put to death as a criminal by Pontius
+Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the
+pernicious superstition, represt for a time, broke out again, not only
+through Judea where the mischief originated, but through the city of
+Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow, from all
+quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged.
+Accordingly, first those were seized who confest they were Christians;
+next, on their information a vast multitude were convicted, not so
+much on the charge of burning the city, as of hating the human race.
+And in their deaths they were also made the subjects of sport, for
+they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death
+by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and when day declined,
+burned to serve for nocturnal lights. Nero offered his own gardens for
+that spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately
+mingling with the common people in the habit of a charioteer, or else
+standing in his chariot. Whence a feeling of compassion arose toward
+the sufferers, tho guilty and deserving to be made examples of by
+capital punishment, because they seemed not to be cut off for the
+public good, but victims to the ferocity of one man.[124]
+
+In the mean time, in order to supply money, all Italy was pillaged,
+the provinces ruined: both the people in alliance with us, and the
+states which are called free. Even the gods were not exempt from
+plunder on this occasion, their temples in the city being despoiled,
+and all their gold conveyed away, which the Roman people, in every
+age, either in gratitude for triumphs, or in fulfilment of vows, had
+consecrated, in times of prosperity, or in seasons of dismay. Through
+Greece and Asia, indeed, the gifts and oblations, and even the statues
+of the deities were carried off; Acratus and Secundus Carinas being
+sent into those provinces for the purpose: the former, Nero's
+freedman, a prompt instrument in any iniquity; the other, acquainted
+with Greek learning, as far as relates to lip-knowledge, but unadorned
+with virtuous accomplishments. Of Seneca it was reported, "that to
+avert from himself the odium of this sacrilege, he prayed to retire to
+a seat of his, remote from Rome, and being refused, feigned
+indisposition, as tho his nerves were affected, and confined himself
+to his chamber." Some authors have recorded, "that a freedman of his,
+named Cleonicus, had, by the command of Nero, prepared poison for his
+master, who escaped it, either from the discovery made by the
+freedman, or from the caution inspired by his own apprehensions, as he
+supported nature by a diet perfectly simple, satisfying the cravings
+of hunger by wild fruits, and the solicitations of thirst from the
+running brook."
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE BURNING OF THE CAPITOL AT ROME[125]
+
+(69 A.D.)
+
+
+Martialis had scarcely reentered the Capitol when the furious soldiers
+appeared before it, without a general, and each man acting on his own
+suggestions. Having rapidly passed the forum, and the temples that
+overlook it, they marched up the opposite hill, as far as the first
+gates of the citadel. On the right side of the ascent, a range of
+porticoes had been built in ancient times. Going out upon the roof of
+those, the besieged threw a shower of stones and tiles. The assailants
+had no weapons but their swords, and to fetch engines and missiles
+seemed a tedious delay. They threw brands into the portico that jutted
+near them. They followed up the fire, and would have forced their way
+through the gate of the Capitol, which the fire had laid hold of, if
+Sabinus had not placed as a barrier in the very approach, in lieu of a
+wall, the statues, those honorable monuments of our ancestors, which
+were pulled down wherever they could be found. They then assaulted the
+Capitol in two different quarters near the grove of the asylum, and
+where the Tarpeian rock is ascended by a hundred steps. Both attacks
+were unforeseen.
+
+That by the asylum was the nearer and most vigorous. Nor could they be
+stopt from climbing up the contiguous buildings, which being raised
+high under the idea of undisturbed peace, reach the basement of the
+Capitol. Here a doubt exists whether the fire was thrown upon the
+roofs by the storming party or the besieged, the latter being more
+generally supposed to have done it, to repulse those who were climbing
+up, and had advanced some way. The fire extended itself thence to the
+porticoes adjoining the temples; soon the eagles that supported the
+cupola caught fire, and as the timber was old they fed the flame. Thus
+the Capitol, with its gates shut, neither stormed, nor defended, was
+burned to the ground.
+
+From the foundation of the city to that hour, the Roman republic had
+felt no calamity so deplorable, so shocking, as that, unassailed by a
+foreign enemy, and, were it not for the vices of the age, with the
+deities propitious, the temple of Jupiter supremely good and great,
+built by our ancestors with solemn auspices, the pledge of empire,
+which neither Porsena,[126] when Rome surrendered to his arms, nor the
+Gauls,[127] when they captured the city, were permitted to violate,
+should be now demolished by the madness of the rulers of the state.
+The Capitol was once before destroyed by fire during a civil war; but
+it was from the guilty machinations of private individuals. Now it
+was besieged publicly, publicly set fire to; and what were the motives
+for the war? what was the object to be gained, that so severe a
+calamity was incurred? Warred we in our country's cause?--Tarquinius
+Priscus, during the war with the Sabines, built it in fulfillment of a
+vow, and laid the foundations more in conformity with his
+anticipations of the future grandeur of the empire, than the limited
+extent of the Roman means at that time. Servius Tullius, assisted by
+the zeal of the allies of Rome, and after him Tarquin the Proud, with
+the spoils of Suessa Pometia, added to the building. But the glory of
+completing the design was reserved for the era of liberty. When
+tyrants were swept away, Horatius Pulvilus, in his second consulship,
+dedicated the temple, finished with such magnificence that the wealth
+of after ages graced it with new embellishments, but added nothing to
+its dimensions. Four hundred and fifteen years afterward, in the
+consulship of Lucius Scipio and Caius Norbanus, it was burned to the
+ground, and again rebuilt on the old foundation. Sulla having now
+triumphed over his opponents, undertook to build it, but nevertheless
+did not dedicate it; the only thing wanting to crown his felicity.
+That honor was reserved for Lutatius Catulus, whose name, amidst so
+many works of the Caesars, remained legible till the days of Vitellius.
+Such was the sacred building which was at this time reduced to ashes.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE SIEGE OF CREMONA[128]
+
+(69 A.D.)
+
+
+When they came to Cremona, they found a new and enormous difficulty.
+In the war with Otho, the German legions had formed a camp round the
+walls of the town, and fortified it with lines of circumvallation. New
+works were added afterward. The victors stood astonished at the sight,
+and even the generals were at a stand, undecided what orders to give.
+With troops harassed by exertions through the night and day, to carry
+the place by storm was difficult, and, without succors at hand, might
+be dangerous; but if they marched to Bedriacum, the fatigue would be
+insupportable, and the victory would end in nothing. To throw up
+intrenchments was dangerous, in the face of an enemy, who might
+suddenly sally forth and put them to the rout, while employed on the
+work in detached parties. A difficulty still greater than all arose
+from the temper of the men, more patient of danger than delay:
+inasmuch as a state of security afforded no excitement, while hope
+grew out of enterprise, however perilous; and carnage, wounds and
+blood, to whatever extent, were counterbalanced by the insatiable
+desire of plunder.
+
+Antonius[129] determined upon the latter course and ordered the
+rampart to be invested. The attack began at a distance with a volley
+of stones and darts, with the greater loss to the Flavians, on whom
+the enemy's weapons were thrown with advantage from above. Antonius
+presently assigned portions of the rampart and the gates to the
+legions that by this mode of attack in different quarters, valor and
+cowardice might be distinguished, and a spirit of emulation in honor
+animate the army. The third and seventh legions took their station
+nearest the road to Bedriacum; the seventh and eighth Claudian, a
+portion more to the right hand of the rampart; the thirteenth were
+carried by their own impetuosity to the gate that looked toward
+Brixia.[130] Some delay then took place while they supplied themselves
+from the neighboring villages with pickaxes, spades, and hooks, and
+scaling-ladders. They then formed a close military shell with their
+shields raised above their heads, and under that cover advanced to the
+ramparts. The Roman art of war was seen on both sides. The Vitellians
+rolled down massy stones, with which, having disjoined and shaken the
+shell, they inserted their long poles and spears; till at last, the
+whole frame and texture of the shields being dissolved, they strewed
+the ground with numbers of the crusht and mangled assailants....
+
+Severe in the extreme was the conflict maintained by the third and
+the seventh legions. Antonius in person led on a select body of
+auxiliaries to the same quarter. The Vitellians were no longer able to
+sustain the shock of men all bent on victory, and seeing their darts
+fall on the military shell, and glide off without effect, at last they
+rolled down their battering-engine on the heads of the besiegers. For
+the moment, it dispersed and overwhelmed the party among which, it
+fell; but it also drew after it, in its fall, the battlements and
+upper parts of the rampart. An adjoining tower, at the same time,
+yielded to the effect of stones which struck it, and left a breach, at
+which the seventh legion, in the form of a wedge, endeavored to force
+their way, while the third hewed down the gate with axes and swords.
+The first man that entered, according to all historians, was Caius
+Volusius, a common soldier of the third legion. He gained the summit
+of the rampart, and, bearing down all resistance, in the view of all
+beckoned with his hand, and cried aloud that the camp was captured.
+The rest of the legion followed him with resistless fury, the
+Vitellians being panic-struck, and throwing themselves headlong from
+the works. The whole space between the camp and the walls of Cremona
+was filled with slain.[131]
+
+And now a new form of difficulty was presented by the high walls of
+the city, and towers of stone, the gates secured by iron bars, and
+troops brandishing their arms; the inhabitants, a large and numerous
+body, all devoted to Vitellius; and a conflux of people from all parts
+of Italy at the stated fair which was then held. The latter was
+regarded by the garrison as an aid, from the increase of numbers; but
+inflamed the ardor of the besiegers on the score of booty. Antonius
+ordered his men to take combustibles, and set fire to the most elegant
+edifices without the city; if, peradventure, the inhabitants, seeing
+their mansions destroyed, would be induced to abandon the adverse
+cause. In the houses that stood near the walls, of a height to
+overlook the works, he placed the bravest of his troops; and from
+those stations beams, tiles and firebrands were thrown down to drive
+the defenders of the walls from their posts.
+
+The legions under Antonius now formed a military shell, while the rest
+poured in a volley of stones and darts; when the spirit of the
+besieged gradually gave way. The men highest in rank were willing to
+make terms for themselves, lest, if Cremona was taken by storm, they
+should receive no quarter, and the conquerors, disdaining vulgar
+lives, should fall on the tribunes and centurions, from whom the
+largest booty was to be expected. The common men, as usual, careless
+about future events, and safe in their obscurity, still held out.
+Roaming about the streets, or lurking in private houses, they did not
+sue for peace even when they had given up the contest. The principal
+officers took down the name and images of Vitellius. Caecina, for he
+was still in confinement, they released from his fetters, and desired
+his aid in pleading their cause with the conqueror. He heard their
+petition with disdain, swelling with insolence, while they importuned
+him with tears; the last stage of human misery, when so many brave
+and gallant men were obliged to sue to a traitor for protection! They
+then hung out from the walls the fillets and badges of supplicants.
+When Antonius ordered a cessation of hostilities, the garrison brought
+out their eagles and standards; a mournful train of soldiers without
+their aims, their eyes riveted to the ground, followed them. The
+conquerors gathered round them, and first heaped reproaches upon them,
+and threatened violence to their persons; but afterward, when they saw
+the passiveness with which they received the insults, and that the
+vanquished, abandoning all their former pride, submitted to every
+indignity, the thought occurred that these very men lately conquered
+at Bedriacum, and used their victory with moderation. But when Caecina
+came forth, decorated with his robes, and preceded by his lictors, who
+opened a way for him through the crowd, the indignation of the victors
+burst into a flame. They reproached him for his pride, his cruelty,
+and even for his treachery: so detested is villainy. Antonius opposed
+the fury of his men, and sent him under escort to Vespasian.
+
+Meanwhile, the common people of Cremona, in the midst of so many
+soldiers, were subjected to grievous oppressions, and were in danger
+of being all put to the sword, if the rage of the soldiery had not
+been assuaged by the entreaties of their leaders. Antonius called them
+to an assembly, when he spoke of the conquerors in lofty terms, and of
+the vanquished with humanity; of Cremona he said nothing either way.
+But the army, adding to their love of plunder an inveterate aversion
+to the people, were bent on the extirpation of the inhabitants. In
+the war against Otho they were deemed the abettors of Vitellius; and
+afterward, when the thirteenth legion was left among them to build an
+amphitheater, with the usual insolence of the lower orders in towns,
+they had assailed them with offensive ribaldry. The spectacle of
+gladiators exhibited there by Caecina inflamed the animosity against
+the people. Their city, too, was now for the second time the seat of
+war; and, in the heat of the last engagement, the Vitellians were
+thence supplied with refreshments; and some of their women, led into
+the field of battle by their zeal for the cause, were slain. The
+period, too, of the fair had given to a colony otherwise affluent an
+imposing appearance of accumulated wealth. Antonius, by his fame and
+brilliant success, eclipsed all the other commanders: the attention of
+all was fixt on him alone. He hastened to the baths to wash off the
+blood; and on observing that the water was not hot enough, he said
+that they would soon grow hotter. The expression was caught up: a
+casual word among slaves had the effect of throwing upon him the whole
+odium of having given a signal for setting fire to Cremona, which was
+already in flames.
+
+Forty thousand armed men had poured into it. The number of drudges and
+camp-followers was still greater, and more abandoned to lust and
+cruelty. Neither age nor dignity served as a protection; deeds of lust
+were perpetrated amidst scenes of carnage, and murder was added to
+rape. Aged men and women that had passed their prime, and who were
+useless as booty, were made the objects of brutal sport. If a mature
+maiden, or any one of comely appearance, fell in their way, after
+being torn piecemeal by the rude hands of contending ruffians, they at
+last were the occasion of their turning their swords against each
+other. While eagerly carrying off money or massy gold from the
+temples, they were butchered by others stronger than themselves. Not
+content with the treasures that lay open to their view, some forced
+the owners to discover their hidden wealth, and dig up their buried
+riches. Numbers carried flaming torches, and, as soon as they had
+brought forth their booty, in their wanton sport set the gutted houses
+and plundered temples on fire. In an army differing in language and
+manners, composed of Roman citizens, allies, and foreign auxiliaries,
+all the diversities of passions were exhibited. Each had his separate
+notions of right and wrong; nor was anything unlawful. Four days did
+Cremona minister to their rapacity. When everything else, sacred and
+profane, was leveled in the conflagration, the temple of Memphitis
+alone remained standing, outside of the walls; saved either by its
+situation, or the influence of the deity.
+
+Such was the fate of Cremona, two hundred and eighty-six years from
+its foundation. It was built during the consulship of Tiberius
+Sempronius and Publius Cornelius, at the time when Hannibal threatened
+an irruption into Italy, as a bulwark against the Gauls inhabiting
+beyond the Po, or any other power that might break in over the Alps.
+The colony, as might be expected, grew and flourished in the number of
+its settlers, from the contiguity of rivers, the fertility of its
+soil, from alliances and intermarriages with the neighboring people;
+never having suffered from foreign wars, but a sad sufferer from civil
+dissensions. Antonius, shrinking from the infamy of this horrible
+transaction (for the detestation it excited was increasing), issued an
+edict forbidding all manner of persons to detain the citizens of
+Cremona as prisoners of war. At the same time the booty was rendered
+valueless by a resolution adopted throughout Italy, not to purchase
+the captives taken on that occasion. The soldiers then began to murder
+them. However, when this was known, the prisoners were eagerly
+ransomed by their friends and relations. The survivors in a short time
+returned to Cremona. The temples and public places were rebuilt, at
+the recommendation of Vespasian, by the munificence of the burgesses.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+AGRICOLA[132]
+
+
+Cnaeus Julius Agricola was born at the ancient and illustrious colony
+of Forum Julii. Both his grandfathers were imperial procurators, an
+office which confers the rank of equestrian nobility. His father,
+Julius Graecinus, of the senatorian order, was famous for the study of
+eloquence and philosophy; and by these accomplishments he drew on
+himself the displeasure of Caius Caesar,[133] for, being commanded to
+undertake the accusation of Marcus Silanus--on his refusal, he was
+put to death. His mother was Julia Procilla, a lady of exemplary
+chastity. Educated with tenderness in her bosom, he passed his
+childhood and youth in the attainment of every liberal art. He was
+preserved from the allurements of vice, not only by a naturally good
+disposition, but by being sent very early to pursue his studies at
+Massilia;[134] a place where Grecian politeness and provincial
+frugality are happily united. I remember he was used to relate, that
+in his early youth he should have engaged with more ardor in
+philosophical speculation than was suitable to a Roman and a senator,
+had not the prudence of his mother restrained the warmth and vehemence
+of his disposition: for his lofty and upright spirit, inflamed by the
+charms of glory and exalted reputation, led him to the pursuit with
+more eagerness than discretion. Reason and riper years tempered his
+warmth; and from the study of wisdom, he retained what is most
+difficult to compass--moderation.
+
+He learned the rudiments of war in Britain, under Suetonius Paulinus,
+an active and prudent commander, who chose him for his tent companion,
+in order to form an estimate of his merit. Nor did Agricola, like many
+young men, who convert military service into wanton pastime, avail
+himself licentiously or slothfully of his tribunitial title, or his
+inexperience, to spend his time in pleasures and absences from duty;
+but he employed himself in gaining a knowledge of the country, making
+himself known to the army, learning from the experienced, and
+imitating the best; neither pressing to be employed through vainglory,
+nor declining it through timidity; and performing his duty with equal
+solicitude and spirit. At no other time in truth was Britain more
+agitated or in a state of greater uncertainty. Our veterans
+slaughtered, our colonies burned, our armies cut off--we were then
+contending for safety, afterward for victory. During this period,
+altho all things were transacted under the conduct and direction of
+another, and the stress of the whole, as well as the glory of
+recovering the province, fell to the general's share, yet they
+imparted to the young Agricola skill, experience, and incentives; and
+the passion for military glory entered his soul; a passion ungrateful
+to the times, in which eminence was unfavorably construed, and a great
+reputation was no less dangerous than a bad one.
+
+Departing thence to undertake the offices of magistracy in Rome, he
+married Domitia Decidiana, a lady of illustrious descent, from which
+connection he derived credit and support in his pursuit of greater
+things. They lived together in admirable harmony and mutual affection;
+each giving the preference to the other; a conduct equally laudable in
+both, except that a greater degree of praise is due to a good wife, in
+proportion as a bad one deserves the greater censure. The lot of
+questorship gave him Asia for his province, and the proconsul Salvius
+Titianus[135] for his superior; by neither of which circumstances was
+he corrupted, altho the province was wealthy and open to plunder, and
+the proconsul, from his rapacious disposition, would readily have
+agreed to a mutual concealment of guilt. His family was there
+increased by the birth of a daughter, who was both the support of his
+house, and his consolation; for he lost an elder-born son in
+infancy....
+
+On his return from commanding the legion he was raised by Vespasian to
+the patrician order, and then invested with the government of
+Aquitania, a distinguished promotion, both in respect to the office
+itself, and the hopes of the consulate to which it destined him. It is
+a common supposition that military men, habituated to the unscrupulous
+and summary processes of camps, where things are carried with a strong
+hand, are deficient in the address and subtlety of genius requisite in
+civil jurisdiction. Agricola, however, by his natural prudence, was
+enabled to act with facility and precision even among civilians. He
+distinguished the hours of business from those of relaxation. When the
+court or tribunal demanded his presence, he was grave, intent, awful,
+yet generally inclined to lenity. When the duties of his office were
+over, the man of power was instantly laid aside. Nothing of sternness,
+arrogance, or rapaciousness appeared; and, what was a singular
+felicity, his affability did not impair his authority, nor his
+severity render him less beloved. To mention integrity and freedom
+from corruption in such a man, would be an affront to his virtues. He
+did not even court reputation, an object to which men of worth
+frequently sacrifice, by ostentation or artifice: equally avoiding
+competition with his colleagues, and contention with the procurators.
+To overcome in such a contest he thought inglorious; and to be put
+down, a disgrace. Somewhat less than three years were spent in this
+office, when he was recalled to the immediate prospect of the
+consulate; while at the same time a popular opinion prevailed that the
+government of Britain would be conferred upon him; an opinion not
+founded upon any suggestions of his own, but upon his being thought
+equal to the station. Common fame does not always err, sometimes it
+even directs a choice. When Consul,[136] he contracted his daughter, a
+lady already of the happiest promise, to myself, then a very young
+man; and after his office was expired I received her in marriage. He
+was immediately appointed governor of Britain, and the pontificate was
+added to his other dignities....
+
+His decease was a severe affliction to his family, a grief to his
+friends, and a subject of regret even to foreigners, and those who had
+no personal knowledge of him. The common people too, and the class who
+little interest themselves about public concerns, were frequent in
+their inquiries at his house during his sickness, and made him the
+subject of conversation at the forum and in private circles; nor did
+any person either rejoice at the news of his death, or speedily forget
+it. Their commiseration was aggravated by a prevailing report that he
+was taken off by poison. I can not venture to affirm anything certain
+of this matter; yet, during the whole course of his illness, the
+principal of the imperial freedmen and the most confidential of the
+physicians was sent much more frequently than was customary with a
+court whose visits were chiefly paid by messages; whether that was
+done out of real solicitude, or for the purposes of state inquisition.
+On the day of his decease, it is certain that accounts of his
+approaching dissolution were every instant transmitted to the emperor
+by couriers stationed for the purpose; and no one believed that the
+information, which so much pains was taken to accelerate, could be
+received with regret. He put on, however, in his countenance and
+demeanor, the semblance of grief: for he was now secured from an
+object of hatred, and could more easily conceal his joy than his fear.
+It was well known that on reading the will, in which he was nominated
+co-heir with the excellent wife and most dutiful daughter of Agricola,
+he exprest great satisfaction, as if it had been a voluntary testimony
+of honor and esteem: so blind and corrupt had his mind been rendered
+by continual adulation, that he was ignorant none but a bad prince
+could be nominated heir to a good father.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 101: "If by eloquence is meant the ability to persuade, then
+Tacitus," according to Cruttwell, "is the most eloquent historian that
+ever existed." His portraits, especially those of Tiberius and Nero,
+have been severely criticized by French and English writers, but while
+his verdicts have been shaken, they have not been reversed. The world
+still fails to doubt their substantial reality. Tacitus, adds
+Cruttwell, has probably exercised upon readers a greater power than
+any other writer of prose whom Rome produced.]
+
+[Footnote 102: From Book I of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Marcellus was the son of Octavia by her husband C.
+Claudius Marcellus. He married Julia, a daughter of Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Agrippa was the leading administrative mind under
+Augustus, with whom he had served in the Civil War and in the battle
+Actium. The Pantheon, the only complete building of Imperial Rome that
+still survives, was finished and dedicated by him. He married as his
+third wife Julia, the widow of Marcellus.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Nola lay sixteen miles northeast of Naples. The
+reference is to Drusus, son of Tiberius, and to Germanicus, at that
+time commanding on the Rhine.]
+
+[Footnote 106: From Book III of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 107: This Agrippina was the daughter of Agrippa and Julia.
+She married Germanicus, became the mother of Caligula, and was a woman
+of lofty character, who died by voluntary starvation after having been
+exiled by Tiberius.]
+
+[Footnote 108: It has been conjectured that the two children of
+Germanicus here referred to were Caligula, who had gone to the East
+with his father, and Julia, who was born in Lesbos.]
+
+[Footnote 109: These children were Nero, Drusus, Agrippina and
+Drusilla.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Not the Emperor of that name, who was not born until
+121 A.D.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Mother of Tiberius by a husband whom she had married
+before she married Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Julia, daughter of Julius Caesar by his wife Cornelia.]
+
+[Footnote 113: From Book XV of the "Annals." The Oxford translation
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Caius Piso, lender of an unsuccessful conspiracy
+against Nero in 65. Other famous Romans of the name of Piso are
+Lucius, censor, consul and author; another Lucius whose daughter was
+married to Julius Caesar; and Cneius, governor of Syria, who was
+accused of murdering Germanicus.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Poppaea Sabina, who once was the wife of Otho and
+mistress of Nero. She was afterward divorced from Otho and married to
+Nero in 62 A.D. She died from the effects of a kick given by Nero.]
+
+[Footnote 116: From Book XV at the "Annals." The Oxford translator
+revised.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Nero.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Suetonius relates that, when some one repeated to Nero
+the line "When I am dead, let fire devour the world," he replied, "Let
+it be whilst I am living." That author asserts that Nero's purpose
+sprung in part from his dislike of old buildings and narrow streets.
+During the progress of the fire several men of consular rank met
+Nero's domestic servants with torches and combustibles which they were
+using to start fires, but did not dare to stay their hands. Livy
+asserts that, after it was destroyed by the Gauls, Rome had been
+rebuilt with narrow winding streets.]
+
+[Footnote 119: A city in the central Apennines, six miles from Lake
+Fucinus.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Near the Esquiline.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The house, gardens, baths and the Pantheon of Agrippa
+are here referred to. Nero's gardens were near the Vatican.]
+
+[Footnote 122: The palace of Numa, on the Palatine hill, had been the
+mansion of Augustus.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Carlyle, in his essay on Voltaire, refers to this
+passage as having been "inserted as a small, transitory, altogether
+trifling circumstance, in the history of such a potentate as Nero";
+but it has become "to us the most earnest, sad and sternly significant
+passage that we know to exist in writing."]
+
+[Footnote 124: Claudius already had expelled the Jews from Rome and
+included in their number the followers of Christ. But his edict was
+not specifically directed against the Christians. Nero was the first
+emperor who persecuted them as professors of a new faith.]
+
+[Footnote 125: From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Pliny, Josephus and Dio all agree that the Capitol was set on
+fire by the followers of Vitellius.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Porsena did not actually get into Rome, being induced
+to raise the siege when only at its gates.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The capture of Rome by the Gauls under Brennus took
+place in 390 B.C. The destruction of the Capitol in the first Civil
+War occurred in 83 B.C., during the consulship of Lucius Scipio and
+Caius Norbaius. The fire was not started as an act of open violence,
+however, but by clandestine incendiaries.]
+
+[Footnote 128: From Book III of the "History." The Oxford translation
+revised. Near Cremona had been fought the first battle of Bedriacum by
+the armies of Vitellius and Otho, rivals for the imperial throne, Otho
+being defeated. A few months later on the same field the army of
+Vitellius was overthrown by Vespasian, who succeeded him as emperor.
+Vitellius retired to Cremona, which was then placed under siege by
+Vespasian, and altho strongly fortified, captured.]
+
+[Footnote 129: Antonius Primus, the chief commander of Vespasian's
+forces.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The modern Brescia.]
+
+[Footnote 131: According to Josephus 30,000 of the Vitellians perished
+and 4,500 of the followers of Vespasian.]
+
+[Footnote 132: From the Oxford translation revised.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Caligula, not Caius Julius Caesar, is here referred to,
+he also having borne the name of Caius.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Now Marseilles, founded by Phoenicians, who
+introduced, there a degree of Greek culture which long made the city
+famous.]
+
+[Footnote 135: A brother of the Emperor Otho.]
+
+[Footnote 136: Agricola was Consul in 77 A.D., and had for colleague
+Domitian, afterward Emperor.]
+
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER
+
+     Born at Como, in 63 A.D.; died in 113; nephew of the elder
+     Pliny; Consul in 100; governor of Bithynia and Pontus in
+     111; friend of Trajan and Tacitus; his letters and a eulogy
+     of Trajan alone among his writings have survived.
+
+
+I
+
+OF THE CHRISTIANS IN HIS PROVINCE[137]
+
+
+It is my invariable rule, Sir, to refer to you in all matters where I
+feel doubtful; for who is more capable of removing my scruples, or
+informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials
+concerning those who profess Christianity, I am unacquainted not only
+with the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their punishment,
+but how far it is proper to enter into an examination concerning them.
+Whether, therefore, any difference is usually made with respect to
+ages, or no distinction is to be observed between the young and the
+adult; whether repentance entitles them to a pardon; or if a man has
+been once a Christian, it avails nothing to desist from his error;
+whether the very profession of Christianity, unattended with any
+criminal act, or only the crimes themselves inherent in the profession
+are punishable; on all these points I am in great doubt. In the
+meanwhile, the method I have observed toward those who have been
+brought before me as Christians is this: I asked them whether they
+were Christians; if they admitted it, I repeated the question twice,
+and threatened them with punishment; if they persisted, I ordered them
+to be at once punished: for I was persuaded whatever the nature of
+their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible obstinacy
+certainly deserved correction. There were others also brought before
+me possest with the same infatuation, but being Roman citizens I
+directed them to be sent to Rome.
+
+But this crime spreading (as is usually the case) while it was
+actually under prosecution, several instances of the same nature
+occurred. An anonymous information was laid before me, containing a
+charge against several persons, who upon examination denied they were
+Christians, or had ever been so. They repeated after me an invocation
+to the gods, and offered religious rites with wine and incense before
+your statue (which for that purpose I had ordered to be brought,
+together with those of the gods), and even reviled the name of Christ:
+whereas there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really
+Christians into any of these compliances: I thought it proper,
+therefore, to discharge them. Some among those who were accused by a
+witness in person at first confest themselves Christians but
+immediately after denied it; the rest owned indeed that they had been
+of that number formerly, but had now (some above three, others more,
+and a few above twenty years ago) renounced that error. They all
+worshiped your statue and the images of the gods, uttering
+imprecations at the same time against the name of Christ. They
+affirmed the whole of their guilt of their error, was, that they met
+on a stated day before it was light, and addrest a form of prayer to
+Christ, as to a divinity, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for
+the purposes of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud,
+theft, or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when
+they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their
+custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless
+meal. From this custom, however, they desisted after the publication
+of my edict, by which, according to your commands, I forbade the
+meeting of any assemblies.
+
+After receiving this account, I judged it so much the more necessary
+to endeavor to extort the real truth by putting two female slaves to
+the torture, who were said to officiate in their religious rites: but
+all I could discover was evidence of an absurd and extravagant
+superstition. I deemed it expedient, therefore, to adjourn all further
+proceedings, in order to consult you. For it appears to be a matter
+highly deserving your consideration, more especially as great numbers
+must be involved in the danger of these prosecutions, which have
+already extended, and are still likely to extend, to persons of all
+ranks and ages, and even of both sexes. In fact, this contagious
+superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its
+infection among the neighboring villages and country. Nevertheless, it
+still seems possible to restrain its progress. The temples, at least,
+which were once almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the
+sacred rites, after a long intermission, are again revived; while
+there is a general demand for the victims, which till lately found
+very few purchasers. From all this it is easy to conjecture what
+numbers might be reclaimed if a general pardon were granted to those
+who shall repent of their error.[138]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+TO TACITUS ON THE ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS[139]
+
+(79 A.D.)
+
+
+Your request that I would send you an account of my uncle's[140]
+death, in order to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity,
+deserves my acknowledgments; for, if this accident shall be celebrated
+by your pen, the glory of it, I am well assured, will be rendered
+forever illustrious. And notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune,
+which, as it involved at the same time a most beautiful country in
+ruins, and destroyed so many populous cities, seems to promise him an
+everlasting remembrance; notwithstanding he has himself composed many
+and lasting works; yet I am persuaded the mentioning of him in your
+immortal writings will greatly contribute to render his name immortal.
+
+He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum.[141]
+On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired
+him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and
+shape. He had just taken a turn in the sun, and, after bathing
+himself in cold water, and making a light luncheon, gone back to his
+books: he immediately arose and went out upon a rising ground from
+whence he might get a better sight of this very uncommon appearance. A
+cloud, from which mountain was uncertain, at this distance (but it was
+found afterward to come from Mount Vesuvius),[142] was ascending, the
+appearance of which I can not give you a more exact description of
+than by likening it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up to a great
+height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at
+the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, I imagine, either by a
+sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which decreased as
+it advanced upward, or the cloud itself being prest back again by its
+own weight, expanded in the manner I have mentioned; it appeared
+sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted according as it was
+either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. This
+phenomenon seemed to a man of such learning and research as my uncle
+extraordinary and worth further looking into. He ordered a light
+vessel to be got ready, and gave me leave, if I liked, to accompany
+him. I said I had rather go on with my work; and it so happened he had
+himself given me something to write out.
+
+As he was coming out of the house, he received a note from Rectina,
+the wife of Bassus, who was in the utmost alarm at the imminent danger
+which threatened her; for her villa lying at the foot of Mount
+Vesuvius, there was no way of escape but by sea; she earnestly
+entreated him therefore to come to her assistance. He accordingly
+changed his first intention and what he had begun from a
+philosophical, he now carries out in a noble and generous spirit. He
+ordered the galleys to put to sea and went himself on board with an
+intention of assisting not only Rectina but the several other towns
+which lay thickly strewn along that beautiful coast. Hastening then to
+the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered
+his course direct to the point of danger, and with so much calmness
+and presence of mind as to be able to make and dictate his
+observations upon the motion and all the phenomena of that dreadful
+scene. He was now so close to the mountain that the cinders, which
+grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships,
+together with pumice stones, and black pieces of burning rock: they
+were in danger too not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of
+the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the
+mountains, and obstructed all the shore. Here he stopt to consider
+whether he should turn back again; to which the pilot advising him,
+"Fortune," said he, "favors the brave; steer to where Pomponianus is."
+Pomponianus was then at Stabiae,[143] separated by a bay, which the
+sea, after several insensible windings, forms with the shore. He had
+already sent his baggage on board; for tho he was not at that time in
+actual danger, yet being within sight of it, and indeed extremely
+near, if it should in the least increase, he was determined to put to
+sea as soon as the wind, which was blowing dead in-shore, should go
+down.
+
+It was favorable, however, for carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom
+he found in the greatest consternation: he embraced him tenderly,
+encouraging and urging him to keep up his spirits, and the more
+effectually to soothe his fears by seeming unconcerned himself,
+ordered a bath to be got ready, and then, after having bathed, sat
+down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at least (what is just as
+heroic) with every appearance of it. Meanwhile broad flames shone out
+in several places from Mount Vesuvius, which the darkness of the night
+contributed to render still brighter and clearer. But my uncle, in
+order to soothe the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was
+only the burning of the villages, which the country people had
+abandoned to the flames: after this he retired to rest, and it is most
+certain he was so little disquieted as to fall into a sound sleep: for
+his breathing, which, on account of his corpulence, was rather heavy
+and sonorous, was heard by the attendants outside. The court which led
+to his apartment being now almost filled with stones and ashes, if he
+had continued there any time longer, it would have been impossible for
+him to have made his way out. So he was awoke and got up, and went to
+Pomponianus and the rest of his company, who were feeling too anxious
+to think of going to bed. They consulted together whether it would be
+most prudent to trust to the houses, which now rocked from side to
+side with frequent and violent concussions as tho shaken from their
+very foundations; or fly to the open fields, where the calcined stones
+and cinders, tho light indeed yet fell in large showers, and
+threatened destruction. In this choice of dangers they resolved for
+the fields: a resolution which, while the rest of the company were
+hurried into by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and
+deliberate consideration. They went out then, having pillows tied upon
+their heads with napkins; and this was their whole defense against the
+storm of stones that fell round them.
+
+It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness prevailed
+than in the thickest night; which however was in some degree
+alleviated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They thought
+proper to go farther down upon the shore to see if they might safely
+put out to sea, but found the waves still running extremely high, and
+boisterous. There my uncle, laying himself down upon a sail-cloth,
+which was spread for him, called twice for some cold water, which he
+drank, when immediately the flames, preceded by a strong whiff of
+sulfur, dispersed the rest of the party, and obliged him to rise. He
+raised himself up with the assistance of two of his servants, and
+instantly fell down dead; suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross
+and noxious vapor, having always had a weak throat, which was often
+inflamed. As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third
+day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and
+without any marks of violence upon it, in the dress in which he fell,
+and looking more like a man asleep than dead....
+
+My uncle having left us,[144] I spent such time as was left on my
+studies (it was on their account indeed that I had stopt behind), till
+it was time for my bath. After which I went to supper, and then fell
+into a short and uneasy sleep. There had been noticed for many days
+before a trembling of the earth, which did not alarm us much, as this
+is quite an ordinary occurrence in Campania; but it was so
+particularly violent that night that it not only shook but actually
+overturned, as it would seem, everything about us. My mother rushed
+into my chamber, where she found me rising, in order to awaken her. We
+sat down in the open court of the house, which occupied a small space
+between the buildings and the sea. As I was at that time but eighteen
+years of age, I know not whether I should call my behavior, in this
+dangerous juncture, courage or folly; but I took up Livy, and amused
+myself with turning over that author, and even making extracts from
+him, as if I had been perfectly at my leisure. Just then, a friend of
+my uncle's, who had lately come to him from Spain, joined us, and
+observing me sitting by my mother with a book in my hand, reproved her
+for her calmness, and me at the same time for my careless security:
+nevertheless I went on with my author.
+
+Tho it was now morning, the light was still exceedingly faint and
+doubtful; the buildings all around us tottered, and tho we stood upon
+open ground, yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
+remaining without imminent danger: we therefore resolved to quit the
+town.
+
+A panic-stricken crowd followed us, and (as to a mind distracted with
+terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its own) prest on us
+in dense array to drive us forward as we came out. Being at a
+convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a
+most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we had ordered
+to be drawn out, were so agitated backward and forward, tho upon the
+most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by
+supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon
+itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of
+the earth; it is certain at least the shore was considerably enlarged,
+and several sea animals were left upon it. On the other side, a black
+and dreadful cloud, broken with rapid, zigzag flashes, revealed behind
+it variously shaped masses of flame: these last were like
+sheet-lightning, but much larger. Upon this our Spanish friend, whom I
+mentioned above, addressing himself to my mother and me with great
+energy and urgency: "If your brother," he said, "if your uncle be
+safe, he certainly wishes you may be so too; but if he perished, it
+was his desire, no doubt, that you might both survive him: why
+therefore do you delay your escape a moment?" We could never think of
+our own safety, we said, while we were uncertain of his. Upon this our
+friend left us, and withdrew from the danger with the utmost
+precipitation. Soon afterward, the cloud began to descend, and cover
+the sea. It had already surrounded and concealed the island of
+Capreae.[145]
+
+My mother now besought, urged, even commanded me to make my escape at
+any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself,
+she said, her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sort
+impossible; however she would willingly meet death if she could have
+the satisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But
+I absolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand,
+compelled her to go with me. She complied with great reluctance, and
+not without many reproaches to herself for retarding my flight. The
+ashes now began to fall upon us, tho in no great quantity. I looked
+back; a dense dark mist seemed to be following us, spreading itself
+over the country like a cloud. "Let us turn out of the high-road," I
+said, "while we can still see, for fear that, should we fall in the
+road, we should be prest to death in the dark, by the crowds that are
+following us." We had scarcely sat down when night came upon us, not
+such as we have when the sky is cloudy, or when there is no moon, but
+that of a room when it is shut up, and all the lights put out. You
+might hear the shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the
+shouts of men; some calling for their children, others for their
+parents, others for their husbands, and seeking to recognize each
+other by the voices that replied; one lamenting his own fate, another
+that of his family; some wishing to die, from the very fear of dying;
+some lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part convinced
+that there were now no gods at all, and that the final endless night
+of which we have heard had come upon the world. Among these there
+were some who augmented the real terrors by others imaginary or
+wilfully invented. I remember some who declared that one part of
+Misenum had fallen, that another was on fire; it was false, but they
+found people to believe them. It now grew rather lighter, which we
+imagined to be rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames
+(as in truth it was) than the return of day: however, the fire fell at
+a distance from us: then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and
+a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every
+now and then to stand up to shake off, otherwise we should have been
+crusht and buried in the heap.
+
+I might boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh, or
+expression of fear, escaped me, had not my support been grounded in
+that miserable, tho mighty, consolation, that all mankind were
+involved in the same calamity and that I was perishing with the world
+itself. At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like
+a cloud or smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun shone out,
+tho with a lurid light, like when an eclipse is coming on. Every
+object that presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely
+weakened) seemed changed, being covered deep with ashes as if with
+snow. My mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we had passed, and
+that which still threatened us, had no thoughts of leaving the place,
+till we could receive some news of my uncle.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 137: Addrest to the Emperor Trajan while proconsul in Pontus
+and Bithynia. The Melmoth translation revised by Bosanquet. This
+letter and the passage in Tacitus printed elsewhere in this volume,
+are the only genuine contemporary references to the early Christians
+to be found in ancient writings. Pliny's letter was preserved by the
+Christians themselves as evidence of the purity of their faith and
+practises. Early writers of the Church frequently appeal to it against
+calumniators. It was written within forty years of the death of St.
+Paul.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Trajan's reply to this letter was as follows: "You have
+adopted the right course, my dearest Secundus, in investigating the
+charges against the Christians who were brought before you. It is not
+possible to lay down any general rule for all such cases. Do not go
+out of your way to look for them. If indeed they should be brought
+before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished; with the
+restriction, however, that where the party denies he is a Christian,
+and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let
+him (notwithstanding any former suspicion) be pardoned upon his
+repentance. Anonymous information ought not to be received in any sort
+of prosecution. It is introducing a very dangerous precedent and is
+quite foreign to the spirit of our age."]
+
+[Footnote 139: The translation of William Melmoth, revised by F. C. T.
+Bosanquet. Pliny wrote two letters to Tacitus on this subject, each at
+the request of the historian. Both are given here.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Pliny the elder was his uncle.]
+
+[Footnote 141: In the Bay of Naples.]
+
+[Footnote 142: About six miles distant from Naples. This eruption of
+Vesuvius, in which Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried, happened A.D.
+79, in the first year of the emperor Titus.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Now called Castellammare, in the Bay of Naples, about
+fifteen miles southeast of the city of Naples.]
+
+[Footnote 144: The paragraphs from this point to the end are from
+Pliny's second letter to Tacitus.]
+
+[Footnote 145: The island near Naples, now called Capri.]
+
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS
+
+     Lived in the first half of the second century A.D.;
+     biographer and historian; private secretary of the emperor
+     Hadrian about 119-121; a friend of the younger Pliny, whom
+     he accompanied to Bithynia in 112; wrote several works, of
+     which only His "Lives of the Twelve Caesars" have survived.
+
+
+I
+
+THE LAST DAYS OF AUGUSTUS[146]
+
+(14 A.D.)
+
+
+His death, of which I shall now speak, and his subsequent deification,
+were intimated by divers manifest prodigies. As he was finishing the
+census amidst a great crowd of people in the Campus Martius, an eagle
+hovered round him several times, and then directed its course to a
+neighboring temple, where it settled upon the name of Agrippa, and at
+the first letter. Upon observing this, he ordered his colleague
+Tiberius to put up the vows, which it is usual to make on such
+occasions, for the succeeding Lustrum. For he declared he would not
+meddle with what it was probable he should never accomplish, tho the
+tables were ready drawn for it. About the same time, the first letter
+of his name, in an inscription upon one of his statues, was struck out
+by lightning; which was interpreted as a presage that he would live
+only a hundred days longer, the letter C denoting that number; and
+that he would be placed among the gods as AEsar, which in the remaining
+part of the word Caesar, signifies, in the Tuscan language, a god.
+Being, therefore, about dispatching Tiberius to Illyricum, and
+designing to go with him as far as Beneventum, but being detained by
+several persons who applied to him respecting causes they had
+depending, he cried out (and it was afterward regarded as an omen of
+his death), "Not all the business in the world shall detain me at Rome
+one moment longer"; and setting out upon his journey, he went as far
+as Astura, whence, contrary to his custom, he put to sea in the
+night-time, as there was a favorable wind.
+
+His malady proceeded from diarrhea; notwithstanding which, he went
+round the coast of Campania, and the adjacent islands, and spent four
+days in that of Capri; where he gave himself up entirely to repose and
+relaxation. Happening to sail by the bay of Puteoli,[147] the
+passengers and mariners aboard a ship of Alexandria, just then
+arrived, clad all in white, with chaplets upon their heads, and
+offering incense, loaded him with praises and joyful acclamations,
+crying out, "By you we live, by you we sail securely, by you enjoy our
+liberty and our fortunes." At which being greatly pleased, he
+distributed to each of those who attended him, forty gold pieces,
+requiring from them an assurance on oath, not to employ the sum given
+them in any other way than the purchase of Alexandrian merchandise.
+And during several days afterward, he distributed Togae and Pallia,
+among other gifts, on condition that the Romans should use the Greek
+and the Greeks the Roman dress and language. He likewise constantly
+attended to see the boys perform their exercises, according to an
+ancient custom still continued at Capri. He gave them likewise an
+entertainment in his presence, and not only permitted, but required
+from them the utmost freedom in jesting, and scrambling for fruit,
+victuals, and other things which he threw among them. In a word, he
+indulged himself in all the ways of amusement he could contrive....
+
+Upon the day of his death, he now and then inquired if there was any
+disturbance in the town on his account; and calling for a mirror, he
+ordered his hair to be combed, and his shrunk cheeks to be adjusted.
+Then asking his friends who were admitted into the room, "Do ye think
+that I have acted my part on the stage of life well?" he immediately
+subjoined,
+
+    "If all be right, with joy your voices raise,
+    In loud applauses to the actor's praise."
+
+After which, having dismissed them all, whilst he was inquiring of
+some persons who were just arrived from Rome, concerning Drusus's
+daughter, who was in a bad state of health, he expired suddenly,
+amidst the kisses of Livia, and with these words: "Livia! live mindful
+of our union; and now, farewell!" dying a very easy death, and such as
+he himself had always wished for. For as often as he heard that any
+person had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and
+his friends the like _euthanasia_ (an easy death), for that was the
+word he made use of. He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed
+his last, of being delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden
+much frightened, and complained that he was carried away by forty men.
+But this was rather a presage, than any delirium: for precisely that
+number of soldiers, belonging to the praetorian cohort, carried out his
+corpse.
+
+He expired in the same room in which his father Octavius had died,
+when the two Sextus's, Pompey and Apuleius, were Consuls, upon the
+fourteenth of the calends of September [the 19th August], at the ninth
+hour of the day, being seventy-six years of age, wanting only
+thirty-five days. His remains were carried by the magistrates of the
+municipal towns and colonies, from Nola to Bovillae,[148] and in the
+night-time because of the season of the year. During the intervals,
+the body lay in some basilica, or great temple, of each town. At
+Bovillae it was met by the Equestrian Order, who carried it to the
+city, and deposited it in the vestibule of his own house. The senate
+proceeded with so much zeal in the arrangement of his funeral, and
+paying honor to his memory, that, among several other proposals, some
+were for having the funeral procession made through the triumphal
+gate, preceded by the image of Victory which is in the senate-house,
+and the children of highest rank and of both sexes singing the funeral
+dirge. Others proposed, that on the day of the funeral, they should
+lay aside their gold rings, and wear rings of iron; and others, that
+his bones should be collected by the priests of the principal
+colleges. One likewise proposed to transfer the name of August to
+September, because he was born in the latter, but died in the former.
+Another moved, that the whole period of time, from his birth to his
+death, should be called the Augustan age, and be inserted in the
+calendar under that title. But at last it was judged proper to be
+moderate in the honors paid to his memory. Two funeral orations were
+pronounced in his praise, one before the temple of Julius, by
+Tiberius; and the other before the rostra, under the old shops, by
+Drusus, Tiberius's son. The body was then carried upon the shoulders
+of senators into the Campus Martius, and there burned. A man of
+praetorian rank affirmed upon oath, that he saw his spirit ascend from
+the funeral pile to heaven. The most distinguished persons of the
+equestrian order, barefooted, and with their tunics loose, gathered up
+his relics, and deposited them in the mausoleum[149] which had been
+built in his sixth consulship between the Flaminian Way and the bank
+of the Tiber; at which time likewise he gave the groves and walks
+about it for the use of the people.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE GOOD DEEDS OF NERO[150]
+
+
+He was seventeen years of age at the death of that prince,[151] and as
+soon as that event was made public, he went out to the cohort on guard
+between the hours of six and seven; for the omens were so disastrous,
+that no earlier time of the day was judged proper. On the steps before
+the palace gate, he was unanimously saluted by the soldiers as their
+emperor, and then carried in a litter to the camp; thence, after
+making a short speech to the troops, into the senate-house, where he
+continued until the evening; of all the immense honors which were
+heaped upon him, refusing none but the title of FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY,
+on account of his youth.
+
+He began his reign with an ostentation of dutiful regard to the memory
+of Claudius, whom he buried with the utmost pomp and magnificence,
+pronouncing the funeral oration himself, and then had him enrolled
+among the gods. He paid likewise the highest honors to the memory of
+his father Domitius. He left the management of affairs, both public
+and private, to his mother. The word which he gave the first day of
+his reign to the tribune on guard was, "The Best of Mothers," and
+afterward he frequently appeared with her in the streets of Rome in
+her litter. He settled a colony at Antium,[152] in which he placed
+the veteran soldiers belonging to the guards; and obliged several of
+the richest centurions of the first rank to transfer their residence
+to that place; where he likewise made a noble harbor at a prodigious
+expense.
+
+To establish still further his character, he declared, "that he
+designed to govern according to the model of Augustus"; and omitted no
+opportunity of showing his generosity, clemency, and complaisance. The
+more burdensome taxes he either entirely took off, or diminished. The
+rewards appointed for informers by the Papian law, he reduced to a
+fourth part, and distributed to the people four hundred sesterces a
+man. To the noblest of the senators who were much reduced in their
+circumstances, he granted annual allowances, in some cases as much as
+five hundred thousand sesterces; and to the praetorian cohorts a
+monthly allowance of corn gratis. When called upon to subscribe the
+sentence, according to custom, of a criminal condemned to die, "I
+wish," said he, "I had never learned to read and write." He
+continually saluted people of the several orders by name, without a
+prompter. When the senate returned him their thanks for his good
+government, he replied to them, "It will be time enough to do so when
+I shall have deserved it." He admitted the common people to see him
+perform his exercises in the Campus Martius. He frequently declaimed
+in public, and recited verses of his own composing, not only at home,
+but in the theater; so much to the joy of all the people, that public
+prayers were appointed to be put up to the gods upon that account; and
+the verses which had been publicly read, were, after being written in
+gold letters, consecrated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
+
+He presented the people with a great number and variety of spectacles,
+as the Juvenal and Circensian games, stage-plays, and an exhibition of
+gladiators. In the Juvenal, he even admitted senators and aged matrons
+to perform parts. In the Circensian games, he assigned the equestrian
+order seats apart from the rest of the people, and had races performed
+by chariots drawn each by four camels. In the games which he
+instituted for the eternal duration of the empire, and therefore
+ordered to be called _Maximi_, many of the senatorian and equestrian
+order, of both sexes, performed. A distinguished Roman knight
+descended on the stage by a rope, mounted on an elephant. A Roman
+play, likewise, composed by Afranius, was brought upon the stage. It
+was entitled, "The Fire"; and in it the performers were allowed to
+carry off, and to keep to themselves, the furniture of the house,
+which as the plot of the play required, was burned down in the
+theater. Every day during the solemnity, many thousand articles of all
+descriptions were thrown among the people to scramble for; such as
+fowls of different kinds, tickets for corn, clothes, gold, silver,
+gems, pearls, pictures, slaves, beasts of burden, wild beasts that had
+been tamed; at last, ships, lots of houses, and lands, Were offered as
+prizes in a lottery.
+
+These games he beheld from the front of the proscenium. In the show
+of gladiators, which he exhibited in a wooden amphitheater, built
+within a year in the district of the Campus Martius, he ordered that
+none should be slain, not even the condemned criminals employed in the
+combats. He secured four hundred senators, and six hundred Roman
+knights, among whom were some of unbroken fortunes and unblemished
+reputation, to act as gladiators. From the same orders, he engaged
+persons to encounter wild beasts, and for various other services in
+the theater. He presented the public with the representation of a
+naval fight, upon sea-water, with huge fishes swimming in it; as also
+with the Pyrrhic dance, performed by certain youths, to each of whom,
+after the performance was over, he granted the freedom of Rome. During
+this diversion, a bull covered Pasiphae, concealed within a wooden
+statue of a cow, as many of the spectators believed. Icarus, upon his
+first attempt to fly, fell on the stage close to the emperor's
+pavilion, and bespattered him with blood. For he very seldom presided
+in the games, but used to view them reclining on a couch, at first
+through some narrow apertures, but afterward with the _Podium_ quite
+open. He was the first who instituted, in imitation of the Greeks, a
+trial of skill in the three several exercises of music, wrestling, and
+horse-racing, to be performed at Rome every five years, and which he
+called Neronia. Upon the dedication of his bath[153] and gymnasium, he
+furnished the senate and the equestrian order with oil. He appointed
+as judges of the trial men of consular rank, chosen by lot, who eat
+with the praetors. At this time he went down into the orchestra among
+the senators, and received the crown for the best performance in Latin
+prose and verse for which several persons of the greatest merit
+contended, but they unanimously yielded to him. The crown for the best
+performer on the harp; being likewise awarded to him by the judges, he
+devoutly saluted it, and ordered it to be carried to the statue of
+Augustus. In the gymnastic exercises, which he presented in the Septa,
+while they were preparing the great sacrifice of an ox, he shaved his
+beard for the first time, and putting it up in a casket of gold
+studded with pearls of great price, consecrated it to Jupiter
+Capitolinus. He invited the Vestal Virgins to see the wrestlers
+perform, because, at Olympia, the priestesses of Ceres are allowed the
+privilege of witnessing that exhibition....
+
+Twice only he undertook any foreign expeditions, one to Alexandria,
+and the other to Achaia; but he abandoned the prosecution of the
+former on the very day fixt for his departure, by being deterred both
+by ill omens, and the hazard of the voyage. For while he was making
+the circuit of the temples, having seated himself in that of Vesta,
+when he attempted to rise, the skirt of his robe stuck fast; and he
+was instantly seized with such a dimness in his eyes, that he could
+not see a yard before him. In Achaia, he attempted to make a cut
+through the Isthmus;[154] and, having made a speech encouraging his
+pretorians to set about the work, on a signal given by sound of
+trumpet, he first broke ground with a spade, and carried off a
+basketful of earth upon his shoulders. He made preparations for an
+expedition to the Pass of the Caspian mountains, forming a new legion
+out of his late levies in Italy, of men all six feet high, which he
+called the phalanx of Alexander the Great. These transactions, in part
+unexceptionable, and in part highly commendable, I have brought into
+one view, in order to separate them from the scandalous and criminal
+part of his conduct.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE DEATH OF NERO[155]
+
+(68 A.D.)
+
+
+He was terrified with manifest warnings, both old and new, arising
+from dreams, auspices, and omens. He had never been used to dream
+before the murder of his mother. After that event, he fancied in his
+sleep that he was steering a ship, and that the rudder was forced from
+him: that he was dragged by his wife Octavia into a prodigiously dark
+place; and was at one time covered over with a vast swarm of winged
+ants, and at another, surrounded by the national images which were set
+up near Pompey's theater, and hindered from advancing farther; that a
+Spanish jennet he was fond of, had his hinder parts so changed as to
+resemble those of an ape; and that having his head only left
+unaltered, he neighed very harmoniously. The doors of the mausoleum of
+Augustus flying open of themselves, there issued from it a voice,
+calling on him by name. The Lares being adorned with fresh garlands on
+the calends (the first) of January, fell down during the preparations
+for sacrificing to them. While he was taking the omens, Sporus
+presented him with a ring, the stone of which had carved upon it the
+Rape of Proserpine. When a great multitude of several orders was
+assembled, to attend at the solemnity of making vows to the gods, it
+was a long time before the keys of the Capitol could be found. And
+when, in a speech of his to the senate against Vindex, these words
+were read, "that the miscreants should be punished and soon make the
+end they merited," they all cried out, "You will do it, Augustus." It
+was likewise remarked, that the last tragic piece which he sung, was
+OEdipus in Exile, and that he fell as he was repeating this verse:
+
+    "Wife, mother, father, force me to my end."
+
+Meanwhile, on the arrival of the news that the rest of the armies had
+declared against him, he tore to piece the letters which were
+delivered to him at dinner, overthrew the table, and dashed with
+violence against the ground two favorite cups, which he called
+Homer's, because some of that poet's verses were cut upon them. Then
+taking from Locusta a dose of poison, which he put up in a golden box,
+he went into the Servilian gardens, and thence dispatching a trusty
+freedman to Ostia, with orders to make ready a fleet, he endeavored to
+prevail with some tribunes and centurions of the praetorian guards to
+attend him in his flight; but part of them showing no great
+inclination to comply, others absolutely refusing, and one of them
+crying out aloud,
+
+     "Say, is it then so sad a thing to die?"
+
+he was in great perplexity whether he should submit himself to
+Galba,[156] or apply to the Parthians for protection, or else appear
+before the people drest in mourning, and, upon the rostra, in the most
+piteous manner, beg pardon for his past misdemeanors, and, if he could
+not prevail, request of them to grant him at least the government of
+Egypt. A speech to this purpose was afterward found in his
+writing-case. But it is conjectured that he durst not venture upon
+this project, for fear of being torn to pieces, before he could get to
+the forum.
+
+Deferring, therefore, his resolution until the next day, he awoke
+about midnight, and finding the guards withdrawn, he leapt out of bed,
+and sent round for his friends. But none of them vouchsafing any
+message in reply, he went with a few attendants to their houses. The
+doors being everywhere shut, and no one giving him any answer, he
+returned to his bed-chamber; whence those who had the charge of it had
+all now eloped; some having gone one way, and some another, carrying
+off with them his bedding and box of poison. He then endeavored to
+find Spicillus, the gladiator, or some one to kill him; but not being
+able to procure any one, "What!" said he, "have I then neither friend
+nor foe?" and immediately ran out, as if he would throw himself into
+the Tiber.
+
+But this furious impulse subsiding, he wished for some place of
+privacy, where he might collect his thoughts; and his freedman Phaon
+offering him his country-house, between the Salarian and Nomentan
+roads, about four miles from the city, he mounted a horse, barefoot as
+he was, and in his tunic, only slipping over it an old soiled cloak;
+with his head muffled up, and a handkerchief before his face, and four
+persons only to attend him, of whom Sporus was one. He was suddenly
+struck with horror by an earthquake, and by a flash of lightning which
+darted full in his face, and heard from the neighboring camp the
+shouts of the soldiers, wishing his destruction, and prosperity to
+Galba. He also heard a traveler they met on the road, say, "They are
+in pursuit of Nero": and another ask, "Is there any news in the city
+about Nero?" Uncovering his face when his horse was started by the
+scent of a carcass which lay in the road, he was recognized and
+saluted by an old soldier who had been discharged from the guards.
+When they came to the lane which turned up to the house, they quitted
+their horses, and with much difficulty he wound among bushes and
+briars, and along a track through a bed of rushes, over which they
+spread their cloaks for him to walk on. Having reached a wall at the
+back of the villa, Phaon advised him to hide himself a while in a
+sand-pit; when he replied, "I will not go underground alive." Staying
+there some little time, while preparations were made for bringing him
+privately into the villa, he took up some water out of a neighboring
+tank in his hand, to drink, saying, "This is Nero's distilled water."
+Then his cloak having been torn by the brambles, he pulled out the
+thorns which stuck in it. At last, being admitted, creeping upon his
+hands and knees, through a hole made for him in the wall, he lay down
+in the first closet he came to, upon a miserable pallet, with an old
+coverlet thrown over it; and being both hungry and thirsty, tho he
+refused some coarse bread that was brought him, he drank a little warm
+water.
+
+All who surrounded him now pressing him to save himself from the
+indignities which were ready to befall him, he ordered a pit to be
+sunk before his eyes, of the size of his body, and the bottom to be
+covered with pieces of marble put together, if any could be found
+about the house; and water and wood to be got ready for immediate use
+about his corpse; weeping at everything that was done, and frequently
+saying, "What an artist is now about to perish!" Meanwhile, letters
+being brought in by a servant belonging to Phaon, he snatched them out
+of his hand, and there read, "That he had been declared an enemy by
+the senate, and that search was making for him, that he might be
+punished according to the ancient custom of the Romans." He then
+inquired what kind of punishment that was; and being told, that the
+practise was to strip the criminal naked, and scourge him to death
+while his neck was fastened within a forked stake, he was so
+terrified that he took up two daggers which he had brought with him,
+and after feeling the points of both, put them up again, saying, "The
+fatal hour is not yet come." One while, he begged of Sporus to begin
+to wail and lament; another while, he entreated that one of them would
+set him an example by killing himself; and then again, he condemned
+his own want of resolution in these words: "I yet live to my shame and
+disgrace: this is not becoming for Nero: it is not becoming. Thou
+oughtest in such circumstances to have a good heart: Come then:
+courage, man!" The horsemen who had received orders to bring him away
+alive, were now approaching the house. As soon as he heard them
+coming, he uttered with a trembling voice the following verse,
+
+    "The noise of swift-heel'd steeds assails my ears";
+
+he drove a dagger into his throat, being assisted in the act by
+Epaphroditus,[157] his secretary. A centurion bursting in just as he
+was half-dead, and applying his cloak to the wound, pretending that he
+was come to his assistance, he made no other reply but this, "'Tis too
+late"; and "Is this your loyalty?" Immediately after pronouncing these
+words, he expired, with his eyes fixt and starting out of his head, to
+the terror of all who beheld him....
+
+In stature he was a little below the common height; his skin was foul
+and spotted; his hair inclined to yellow; his features were agreeable,
+rather than handsome; his eyes gray and dull, his neck was thick, his
+belly prominent, his legs very slender, his constitution sound. For,
+tho excessively luxurious in his mode of living, he had, in the course
+of fourteen years, only three fits of sickness; which were so slight,
+that he neither forbore the use of wine, nor made any alteration in
+his usual diet. In his dress, and the care of his person, he was so
+careless, that he had his hair cut in rings, one above another; and
+when in Achaia, he let it grow long behind; and he generally appeared
+in public in the loose dress which he used at table, with a
+handkerchief about his neck and without either a girdle or shoes.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 146: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 147: Now Pozzuoli, which fronts on the bay, seven miles west
+of Naples. It still has ruins of an amphitheater, 482 feet by 384 in
+size. In Roman times it was as important commercial city.]
+
+[Footnote 148: Bovillae is now known as Frattochio. It stands on the
+Appian Way, about nineteen miles from Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 149: This mausoleum was of white marble rising in terraces
+to a great height, and was crowned by a dome on which stood a statue
+of Augustus. Marcellus was the first person buried there. Its site was
+near the present Porta del Popolo.]
+
+[Footnote 150: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 151: The Emperor Claudius.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Nero was born in Antium, distant from Rome about
+thirty-eight miles. The Apollo Belvidere was found among its ruins.]
+
+[Footnote 153: These baths stood west of the Pantheon. Altho of great
+extent, no remains of them now exist.]
+
+[Footnote 154: This scheme, which was a favorite one of many Roman
+emperors and even of Julius Caesar, was not realized until our time.
+The Corinth canal was completed in 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 155: From the translation by Alexander Thomson, revised by
+T. Forester.]
+
+[Footnote 156: The Roman general, then leader of the revolt against
+Nero, who was afterward proclaimed Emperor.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Epaphroditus was the master of Epictetus, the Stoic
+philosopher, before his freedom.]
+
+
+
+
+MARCUS AURELIUS
+
+     Born in Rome in 121 A.D.; died in 180; celebrated as emperor
+     and Stoic philosopher; a nephew of Antoninus Pius, whom he
+     succeeded as emperor, with Lucius Verus; after the death of
+     Verus in 169 became sole emperor; his reign notable for
+     wisdom and the happiness of the Roman people; wrote his
+     "Meditations" in Greek; a bronze equestrian statue of him in
+     Rome is the finest extant specimen of ancient bronze.
+
+
+HIS DEBT TO OTHERS[158]
+
+
+1. From my grandfather Verus[159] [I learned] good morals and the
+government of my temper.
+
+2. From the reputation and remembrance of my father,[160] modesty and
+a manly character.
+
+3. From my mother,[161] piety and beneficence, and abstinence, not
+only from evil deeds, but even from evil thoughts; and, further,
+simplicity in my way of living, far removed from the habits of the
+rich.
+
+4. From my great-grandfather,[162] not to have frequented public
+schools, and to have had good teachers at home, and to know that on
+such things a man should spend liberally.
+
+5. From my governor, to be neither of the green nor of the blue party
+at the games in the circus, nor a partizan either of the Parmularius
+or the Scutarius at the gladiators' fights; from him too I learned
+endurance of labor and to want little, and to work with my own hands,
+and not to meddle with other people's affairs, and not to be ready to
+listen to slander.
+
+6. From Diognetus,[163] not to busy myself about trifling things, and
+not to give credit to what was said by miracle-workers and jugglers
+about incantations and the driving away of demons and such things; and
+not to breed quails [for fighting], not to give myself up passionately
+to such things; and to endure freedom of speech; and to have become
+intimate with philosophy; and to have been a hearer, first of
+Bacchius, then of Tandasis and Marcianus; and to have written dialogs
+in my youth; and to have desired a plank bed and skin, and whatever
+else of the kind belongs to the Grecian discipline.
+
+7. From Rusticus[164] I received the impression that my character
+required improvement and discipline; and from him I learned not to be
+led astray to sophistic emulation, nor to writing on speculative
+matters, nor to delivering little hortatory orations, nor to showing
+myself off as a man who practises much discipline, or does benevolent
+acts in order to make a display; and to abstain from rhetoric, and
+poetry, and fine writing; and not to walk about in the house in my
+outdoor dress, nor to do other things of the kind; and to write my
+letters with simplicity, like the letter which Rusticus wrote from
+Sinuessa to my mother; and with respect to those who have offended me
+by words, or done me wrong, to be easily disposed to be pacified and
+reconciled, as soon as they have shown a readiness to be reconciled;
+and to read carefully, and not to be satisfied with a superficial
+understanding of a book; not hastily to give my assent to those who
+talk overmuch; and I am indebted to him for being acquainted with the
+discourses of Epictetus.
+
+8. From Apollonius[165] I learned freedom of will and undeviating
+steadiness of purpose; and to look to nothing else, not even for a
+moment, except to reason; and to be always the same, in sharp pains,
+on the occasion of the loss of a child, and in long illness; and to
+see clearly in a living example that the same man can be both most
+resolute and yielding, and not peevish in giving his instruction; and
+to have had before my eyes a man who clearly considered his experience
+and his skill in expounding philosophical principles as the smallest
+of his merits; and from him I learned how to receive from friends what
+are esteemed favors, without being either humbled by them or letting
+them pass unnoticed.
+
+9. From Sextus,[166] a benevolent disposition, and the example of a
+family governed in a fatherly manner, and the idea of living
+conformably to nature; and gravity without affectation, and to look
+carefully after the interests of friends, and to tolerate ignorant
+persons and those who form opinions without consideration: he had the
+power of readily accommodating himself to all, so that intercourse
+with him was more agreeable than any flattery; and at the same time he
+was most highly venerated by those who associated with him; and he had
+the faculty both of discovering and ordering, in an intelligent
+methodical way, the principles necessary for life; and he never showed
+anger or any other passion, but was entirely free from passion, and
+also most affectionate; and he could express approbation without noisy
+display, and he possessed much knowledge without ostentation.
+
+10. From Alexander[167] the grammarian, to refrain from fault-finding,
+and not in a reproachful way to chide those who uttered any barbarous
+or solecistic or strange-sounding expression; but dexterously to
+introduce the very expression which ought to have been used, and in
+the way of answer or giving confirmation, or joining in an inquiry
+about the thing itself, not about the word, or by some other fit
+suggestion.
+
+11. From Fronto[168] I learned to observe what envy, and duplicity,
+and hypocrisy are in a tyrant, and that generally those among us who
+are called Patricians are rather deficient in paternal affection.
+
+12. From Alexander the Platonic, not frequently nor without necessity
+to say to any one, or to write in a letter, that I have no leisure;
+nor continually to excuse the neglect of duties required by our
+relation to those with whom we live, by alleging urgent occupations.
+
+13. From Catulus,[169] not to be indifferent when a friend finds
+fault, even if he should find fault without reason, but to try to
+restore him to his usual disposition; and to be ready to speak well of
+teachers, as it is reported of Domitius and Athenodotus; and to love
+my children truly.
+
+14. From my brother Severus, to love my kin, and to love truth, and to
+love justice; and through him I learned to know Thrasea, Helvidius,
+Cato, Dion, Brutus; and from him I received the idea of a polity in
+which there is the same law for all, a polity administered with regard
+to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly
+government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed; I
+learned from him also consistency and undeviating steadiness in my
+regard for philosophy; and a disposition to do good, and to give to
+others readily, and to cherish good hopes, and to believe that I am
+loved by my friends; and in him I observed no concealment of his
+opinions with respect to those whom he condemned, and that his friends
+had no need to conjecture what he wished or did not wish, but it was
+quite plain.
+
+15. From Maximus[170] I learned self-government, and not to be led
+aside by anything; and cheerfulness in all circumstances as well as in
+illness; and a just admixture in the moral character of sweetness and
+dignity, and to do what was set before me without complaining. I
+observed that everybody believed that he thought as he spoke, and that
+in all that he did he never had any bad intention; and he never showed
+amazement and surprize, and was never in a hurry, and never put off
+doing a thing, nor was perplexed nor dejected, nor did he ever laugh
+to disguise his vexation, nor, on the other hand, was he ever
+passionate or suspicious. He was accustomed to do acts of beneficence,
+and was ready to forgive, and was free from all falsehood; and he
+presented the appearance of a man who could not be diverted from right
+rather than of a man who had been improved. I observed, too that no
+man could ever think that he was despised by Maximus, or ever venture
+to think himself a better man. He had also the art of being humorous
+in an agreeable way.
+
+16. In my father[171] I observed mildness of temper, and unchangeable
+resolution in the things which he had determined after due
+deliberation; and no vainglory in those things which men call honors;
+and a love of labor and perseverance; and a readiness to listen to
+those who had anything to propose for the common weal; and undeviating
+firmness in giving to every man according to his deserts; and a
+knowledge derived from experience of the occasions for vigorous action
+and for remission. And I observed that he had overcome all passion
+for boys; and he considered himself no more than any other citizen;
+and he released his friends from all obligation to sup with him or to
+attend him of necessity when he went abroad, and those who had failed
+to accompany him, by reason of any urgent circumstances, always found
+him the same. I observed too his habit of careful inquiry in all
+matters of deliberation, and his persistency, and that he never stopt
+his investigation through being satisfied with appearances which first
+present themselves; and that his disposition was to keep his friends,
+and not to be soon tired of them, nor yet to be extravagant in his
+affection; and to be satisfied on all occasions, and cheerful; and to
+foresee things a long way off, and to provide for the smallest without
+display; and to check immediately popular applause and all flattery;
+and to be ever watchful over the things which were necessary for the
+administration of the empire, and to be a good manager of the
+expenditure, and patiently to endure the blame which he got for such
+conduct; and he was neither superstitious with respect to the gods,
+nor did he court men by gifts or by trying to please them, or by
+flattering the populace; but he showed sobriety in all things and
+firmness, and never any mean thoughts or action, nor love of
+novelty....
+
+17. To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good
+parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, good kinsmen
+and friends, nearly everything good. Further, I owe it to the gods
+that I was not hurried into any offense against any of them, tho I had
+a disposition which, if opportunity had offered, might have led me to
+do something of this kind; but, through their favor, there never was
+such a concurrence of circumstances as put me to the trial. Further, I
+am thankful to the gods that I was not longer brought up with my
+grandfather's concubine, and that I preserved the flower of my youth,
+and that I did not make proof of my virility before the proper season,
+but even deferred the time; that I was subjected to a ruler and a
+father who was able to take away all pride from me, and to bring me to
+the knowledge that it is possible for a man to live in a palace
+without wanting either guards or embroidered dresses, or torches and
+statues, and such-like show; but that it is in such a man's power to
+bring himself very near to the fashion of a private person, without
+being for this reason either meaner in thought, or more remiss in
+action, with respect to the things which must be done for the public
+interest in a manner that befits a ruler. I thank the gods for giving
+me such a brother,[172] who was able by his moral character to rouse
+me to vigilance over myself, and who, at the same time, pleased me by
+his respect and affection; that my children have not been stupid nor
+deformed in body; that I did not make more proficiency in rhetoric,
+poetry, and the other studies, in which I should perhaps have been
+completely engaged, if I had seen that I was making progress in them;
+that I made haste to place those who brought me up in the station of
+honor, which they seemed to desire, without putting them off with
+hope of my doing it some time after, because they were then still
+young; that I knew Apollonius, Rusticus, Maximus; that I received
+clear and frequent impressions about living according to nature, and
+what kind of a life that is, so that, so far as depended on the gods,
+and their gifts, and help, and inspirations, nothing hindered me from
+forthwith living according to nature, tho I still fall short of it
+through my own fault, and through not observing the admonitions of the
+gods, and I may almost say, their direct instructions; that my body
+has held out so long in such a kind of life; that I never touched
+either Benedicta or Theodotus; and that, after having fallen into
+amatory passions, I was cured; and, tho I was often out of humor with
+Rusticus, I never did anything of which I had occasion to repent;
+that, tho it was my mother's fate to die young, she spent the last
+years of her life with me; that, whenever I wished to help any man in
+his need, or on any other occasion, I was never told that I had not
+the means of doing it; and that to myself the same necessity never
+happened, to receive anything from another; that I have such a wife,
+so obedient, and so affectionate, and so simple; that I had abundance
+of good masters for my children; and that remedies have been shown to
+me by dreams, both others, and against blood-spitting and giddiness;
+and that, when I had an inclination to philosophy, I did not fall into
+the hands of any sophist.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 158: From the "Meditations." Translated by George Long.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Annius Verus.]
+
+[Footnote 160: His father's name also was Annius Verus.]
+
+[Footnote 161: His mother was Domitia Calvilla, named also Lucilla.]
+
+[Footnote 162: His mother's grandfather, Catilius Severus, may be
+referred to here.]
+
+[Footnote 163: The translator notes that, in the works of Justinus, is
+printed a letter from one Diognetus, a Gentile, who wished very much
+to know what the religion of the Christians was, and how it had taught
+them to believe neither in the gods of the Greeks nor the
+superstitions of the Jews. It has been suggested that this Diognetus
+may have been the tutor of Marcus Aurelius.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Junius Rusticus, a Stoic philosopher, whom the author
+highly valued.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Apollonius of Chalcis, who came to Rome to be the
+author's preceptor. He was a rigid Stoic.]
+
+[Footnote 166: Sextus of Chaeronea, a grandson, or nephew, of
+Plutarch.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Alexander, a native of Phrygia, wrote a commentary on
+Homer.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Cornelius Fronto, a rhetorician and friend of the
+author.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Cinna Catulus, a Stoic.]
+
+[Footnote 170: Claudius Maximus, a Stoic, whom the author's
+predecessor, Antoninus Pius, also valued highly.]
+
+[Footnote 171: The reference here made is to the Emperor Antoninus
+Pius, who adopted him.]
+
+[Footnote 172: His brother by adoption, L. Verus, is probably referred
+to here.]
+
+
+END OF VOLUME II.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Best of the World's Classics,
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