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+Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Mountain that was 'God'
+       Being a Little Book About the Great Peak Which the Indians
+       Named 'Tacoma' but Which is Officially Called 'Rainier'
+
+Author: John H. Williams
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2007 [EBook #22056]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS 'GOD' ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected,
+all other inconsistencies are as in the original. Author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Probable typo:
+Pages named by the author are under the format (p. xx).
+Original pagination of the book have been kept under the
+format {p.xxx}.
+
+Missing page numbers correspond to blank pages.
+
+Page numbers corresponding to full page illustrations
+(which have been inserted in the caption of the illustration)
+may seem out of order; the illustration having been moved out
+of the paragraph.
+
+The illustrations of the page 31 and 89 share their captions
+with the illustration above them.]
+
+
+
+
+                         THE MOUNTAIN
+                        THAT WAS "GOD"
+
+
+               BEING A LITTLE BOOK ABOUT THE GREAT
+              PEAK WHICH THE INDIANS NAMED "TACOMA"
+             BUT WHICH IS OFFICIALLY CALLED "RAINIER"
+
+
+                     By JOHN H. WILLIAMS
+
+
+             _O, rarest miracle of mountain heights,
+             Thou hast the sky for thy imperial dome,
+             And dwell'st among the stars all days and nights,
+             In the far heavens familiarly at home._
+                  --William Hillis Wynn: "Mt. Tacoma; an Apotheosis."
+
+
+
+
+               Second Edition revised and greatly
+               enlarged, with 190 illustrations,
+               including eight colored halftones.
+
+
+
+
+                    TACOMA: JOHN H. WILLIAMS
+             NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS: LONDON
+                            1911
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1905, By Kiser Photo Co.
+Great Crevasses in the upper part of Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1910, 1911, by John H. Williams.
+
+
+{p.007}
+[Illustration: On the summit of Eagle Rock in winter.
+Boys looking over an 800-foot precipice.]
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD.
+
+
+Every summer there is demand for illustrated literature describing the
+mountain variously called "Rainier" or "Tacoma." Hitherto, we have had
+only small collections of pictures, without text, and confined to the
+familiar south and southwest sides.
+
+The little book which I now offer aims to show the grandest and most
+accessible of our extinct volcanoes from all points of view. Like the
+glacial rivers, its text will be found a narrow stream flowing swiftly
+amidst great mountain scenery. Its abundant illustrations cover not
+only the giants' fairyland south of the peak, but also the equally
+stupendous scenes that await the adventurer who penetrates the harder
+trails and climbs the greater glaciers of the north and east slopes.
+* * * *
+
+The title adopted for the book has reference, of course, to the Indian
+nature worship, of which something is said in the opening chapter.
+Both the title and a small part of the matter are reprinted from an
+article which I contributed last year to the _New York Evening Post_.
+Attention is called to the tangle in the names of glaciers and the
+need of a definitive nomenclature. As to the name of the Mountain
+itself, that famous bone of contention between two cities, I greatly
+prefer "Tacoma," one of the several authentic forms of the Indian name
+used by different tribes; but I believe that "Tahoma," proposed by the
+Rotary Club of Seattle, would be a justifiable compromise, and satisfy
+nearly everybody. Its adoption would free our national map from one
+more of its meaningless names--the name, in this case, of an
+undistinguished foreign naval officer whose only connection with our
+history is the fact that he fought against us during the American
+Revolution. Incidentally, it would also free me from the need of an
+apology for using the hybrid "Rainier-Tacoma"! * * * Many of the
+illustrations show wide reaches of wonderful country, and their
+details may well be studied with a reading glass.
+
+I am much indebted to the librarians and their courteous assistants at
+the Seattle and Tacoma public libraries; also to Prof. Flett for his
+interesting account of the flora of the National Park; to Mr. Eugene
+Ricksecker, of the United States Engineer Corps, for permission to
+reproduce his new map of the Park, now printed for the first time;
+and, most of all, to the photographers, both professional and amateur.
+In the table of illustrations, credit is given the maker of each
+photograph. The book is sent out in the hope of promoting a wider
+knowledge of our country's noblest landmark. May it lead many of its
+readers to delightful days of recreation and adventure.
+
+  Tacoma, June 1, 1910.                      J. H. W.
+
+Second Edition.--The text has been carefully revised, much new matter
+added, and the information for tourists brought to date. The
+illustrations have been rearranged, and more {p.008} than fifty new
+ones included. Views of the west and south sides, mainly, occupy the
+first half of the book, while the later pages carry the reader east
+and north from the Nisqually country.
+
+Nearly five thousand negatives and photographs have now been examined
+in selecting copy for the engravers. In the table of illustrations I
+am glad to place the names of several expert photographers in
+Portland, San Francisco, Pasadena and Boston. Their pictures, with
+other new ones obtained from photographers already represented, make
+this edition much more complete. For the convenience of tourists, as
+well as of persons unable to visit the Mountain but wishing to know
+its features, I have numbered the landmarks on three of the larger
+views, giving a key in the underlines. If this somewhat mars the
+beauty of these pictures, it gives them added value as maps of the
+areas shown. In renewing my acknowledgments to the photographers, I
+must mention especially Mr. Asahel Curtis of Seattle. The help and
+counsel of this intrepid and public-spirited mountaineer have been
+invaluable. Mr. A. H. Barnes, our Tacoma artist with camera and brush,
+whose fine pictures fill many of the following pages, is about to
+publish a book of his mountain views, for which I bespeak liberal
+patronage.
+
+My readers will join me in welcoming the beautiful verses written for
+this edition by a gracious and brilliant woman whose poems have
+delighted two generations of her countrymen.
+
+Thanks are also due to Senator Wesley L. Jones, Superintendent E. S.
+Hall of the Rainier National Park and the Secretary of the Interior
+for official information; to Director George Otis Smith of the U. S.
+Geological Survey for such elevations as have thus far been
+established by the new survey of the Park; to A. C. McClurg & Co. of
+Chicago, for permission to quote from Miss Judson's "_Myths and
+Legends of the Pacific Northwest_"; to Mr. Wallace Rice, literary
+executor of the late Francis Brooks, for leave to use Mr. Brooks's
+fine poem on the Mountain; to the librarians at the Public Library,
+the John Crerar Library and the Newberry Library in Chicago, and to
+many others who have aided me in obtaining photographs or data for
+this edition.
+
+Lovers of the mountains, in all parts of our country, will learn with
+regret that Congress, remains apparently indifferent to the
+conservation of the Rainier National Park and its complete opening to
+the public. At the last session, a small appropriation was asked for
+much-needed trails through the forests and to the high interglacial
+plateaus, now inaccessible save to the toughest mountaineer; it being
+the plan of the government engineers to build such trails on grades
+that would permit their ultimate widening into permanent roads. Even
+this was denied. The Idaho catastrophe last year again proved the
+necessity of trails to the protection of great forests. With the
+loggers pushing their operations closer to the Park, its danger calls
+for prompt action. Further, American tourists, it is said, annually
+spend $200,000,000 abroad, largely to view scenery surpassed in their
+own country. But Congress refuses the $50,000 asked, even refuses
+$25,000, toward making the grandest of our National Parks safe from
+forest fires and accessible to students and lovers of nature!
+
+  May 3, 1911.
+
+[Illustration: Winthrop Glacier and St. Elmo Pass, with Ruth Mountain
+(the Wedge) on right and Sour-Dough Mountains on left.]
+
+[Illustration: White Glacier and Little Tahoma, with eastern end of
+the Tatoosh Range in distance.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.009} CONTENTS.
+
+                                                             Page.
+
+       The Mountain Speaks. Poem    Edna Dean Proctor          15
+
+    I. Mount "Big Snow" and Indian
+       Tradition                                               17
+
+   II. The National Park, its Roads
+        and its Needs                                          43
+
+  III. The Story of the Mountain                               77
+
+   IV. The Climbers                                           113
+
+    V. The Flora of the Mountain
+       Slopes                       Prof. J. B. Flett         129
+
+       Notes                                                  139
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The * indicates engravings made from copyrighted photographs. See
+notice under the illustration.
+
+
+THREE-COLOR HALFTONES.
+
+  Title.                            Photographer.            Page.
+
+  Spanaway Lake, with reflection
+    of the Mountain                 A. H. Barnes.       Frontispiece
+
+  View from Electron, showing west
+    side of the Mountain            Asahel Curtis              19
+
+  View northward from top of
+    Pinnacle Peak                   Dr. F. A. Scott            46
+
+  Looking Northeast from slope
+    of Pinnacle Peak                Dr. F. A. Scott            47
+
+  * Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier      A. H. Barnes               73
+
+  * Spray Park, from Fay Peak       W. P. Romans               92
+
+  Crevasse in Carbon Glacier        Asahel Curtis             109
+
+  North Mowich Glacier and the
+    Mountain in a storm             George V. Caesar          128
+
+
+ONE-COLOR HALFTONES.
+
+  * Great crevasses in upper part
+    of Cowlitz Glacier              Kiser Photo Co.             6
+
+  On the summit of Eagle Rock in
+    winter                          George V. Caesar            7
+
+  Winthrop Glacier and St. Elmo
+    Pass                            Asahel Curtis               8
+
+  White Glacier and Little
+    Tahoma                          Asahel Curtis               9
+
+  White River Canyon, from
+    moraine of White Glacier        Dr. F. A. Scott            12
+
+  Telephoto view from near Electron,
+    showing plateau on the summit   Asahel Curtis              13
+
+  View of the Mountain from Fox
+    Island                          Charles Bedford            14
+
+  * The most kingly of American
+    mountains                       Romans Photographic Co.    16
+
+  Party of climbers on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis              17
+
+  Ice Terraces, South Tahoma
+    Glacier                         Rodney L. Glisan           17
+
+  Mineral Lake and the Mountain     A. H. Denman               18
+
+  Storm King Peak and Mineral
+    Lake                            A. H. Barnes               18
+
+  Nisqually Canyon                  Kiser Photo Co.            21
+
+  * North Peak, and South Mowich
+    Glacier                         A. H. Waite                22
+{p.010}
+
+  * Basaltic Columns, South
+    Mowich Glacier                  A. H. Waite                23
+
+  Mountain Goat                     A. H. Barnes               23
+
+  West side of summit, seen from
+    Tahoma Fork                     A. H. Barnes               24
+
+  Iron and Copper Mountains in
+    Indian Henry's                  A. G. Bowles, Jr.          25
+
+  Cutting steps up Paradise
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott            25
+
+  Great Crag on ridge separating
+    North and South Tahoma Glacier  Dr. F. A. Scott            26
+
+  The Whistling Marmot              Asahel Curtis              26
+
+  View from Beljica, showing west
+    side of the Mountain            A. H. Barnes               27
+
+  * Mountain Pine                   E. S. Curtis               28
+
+  * Mount Wow, or Goat Mountain     E. S. Curtis               28
+
+  Rounded Cone of Mt. St Helen's    A. H. Barnes               29
+
+  * View northward from Simlayshe,
+    or Eagle Peak                   Pillsbury Picture Co.  30, 31
+
+  * Simlayshe, or Eagle Peak        Linkletter Photographic
+                                      Co.                      30
+
+  Exploring Ice Cave, Paradise
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott            31
+
+  Junction of North and South
+    Tahoma Glaciers                 A. H. Denman               32
+
+  Anemones                          Miss Jessie Kershaw        32
+
+  * North Tahoma Glacier            A. H. Waite                33
+
+  * Snow Lake in Indian Henry's     A. H. Barnes               34
+
+  A fair Mountaineer                Asahel Curtis              35
+
+  Indian Henry's, seen from South
+    Tahoma Glacier                  A. H. Denman               36
+
+  * Southwest side of the Mountain,
+    seen from Indian Henry's        A. H. Barnes               37
+
+  Climbing Pinnacle Peak (2)        Asahel Curtis              38
+
+  A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak     Dr. F. A. Scott            39
+
+  * Rough Climbing                  E. S. Curtis               39
+
+  Ptarmigan                         Asahel Curtis              40
+
+  The Mountain, from Puyallup
+    river                           B. L. Aldrich, Jr.         40
+
+  Falls of the Little Mashell
+    river                           A. H. Barnes               41
+
+  Old Stage Road to Longmire
+    Springs                         A. H. Barnes               42
+
+  On Pierce County road, passing
+    Ohop Valley                     S. C. Lancaster            43
+
+  Cowlitz Chimneys                  S. C. Smith                43
+
+  * Old Road near Spanaway          A. H. Barnes               44
+
+  Automobile Party above Nisqually
+    Canyon                          Asahel Curtis              49
+
+  Prof. O. D. Allen's Cottage       Dr. F. A. Scott            49
+
+  "Ghost Trees"                     Mrs. H. A. Towne           50
+
+  Government Road in the Forest
+    Reserve                         S. C. Lancaster            51
+
+  "Hanging Glacier," an ice fall
+    above the Cowlitz               Asahel Curtis              51
+
+  Leaving National Park Inn for
+    Paradise                        Linkletter Photo Co.       52
+
+  * On the Summit, showing
+    Columbia's Crest                Asahel Curtis              52
+
+  Paradise Valley or "Park," and
+    Tatoosh Mountains               A. H. Barnes               53
+
+  On Government Road, a mile above
+    Longmires                       Linkletter Photo Co.       54
+
+  Road near "Gap Point"             Linkletter Photo Co.       54
+
+  Snout of Nisqually Glacier, and
+    Road Bridge                     Paul T. Shaw               55
+
+  Pony Trail Bridge across the
+    Nisqually                       Dr. H. B. Hinman           55
+
+  Road a mile above the Bridge      Asahel Curtis              56
+
+  On the Pony Trail to Paradise     Kiser Photo Co.            56
+
+  Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis              57
+
+  A Mountain Celery                 Mrs. Alexander Thompson    57
+
+  Narada Falls, on Paradise River   Herbert W. Gleason         58
+
+  Washington Torrents, on Paradise
+    River                           A. H. Barnes               59
+
+  Portion of Paradise Park and
+    Tatoosh Range                   A. H. Barnes               59
+
+  View of the Mountain from the
+    Tatoosh, with key to landmarks  Herbert W. Gleason         60
+
+  Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier       Dr. F. A. Scott            61
+
+  Tug of War                        Asahel Curtis              61
+
+  * Hiking through Paradise Valley
+    in Winter                       J. H. Weer                 62
+
+  * Tatoosh Range, from Reese's
+    Camp, in Winter                 J. H. Weer                 62
+
+  * Waterfall above Paradise
+    Valley                          Photo, W. E. Averett;
+                                    Copyright, Asahel Curtis   63
+
+  Looking from Stevens Glacier to
+    Mt. Adams                       Dr. F. A. Scott            64
+
+  Reese's Camp                      C. E. Cutter               64
+
+  Climbing the "Horn" on Unicorn
+    Peak                            Asahel Curtis              65
+
+  Stevens Canyon in October         A. H. Barnes               66
+
+  Sluiskin Falls                    A. H. Barnes               67
+
+  Eminent scientist practices the
+    simple life                     J. B. Flett                67
+
+  * Nisqually Glacier, with its
+    sources                         A. H. Barnes               68
+
+  Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier  Asahel Curtis              69
+
+  * Lost to the World               Asahel Curtis              69
+
+  "Sunshine" and "Storm" (2)        Mrs. H. A. Towne           70
+{p.011}
+
+  Nisqually Glacier, from top of
+    Gibraltar                       Asahel Curtis              71
+
+  Measuring the ice flow in
+    Nisqually Glacier               Asahel Curtis              72
+
+  * Miss Fay Fuller Exploring a
+    Crevasse                        E. S. Curtis               72
+
+  Fairy Falls, in Goat Lick
+    Basin                           A. H. Barnes               75
+
+  * Gibraltar and its Neighbors     E. S. Curtis               76
+
+  Crossing Carbon Glacier           Asahel Curtis              77
+
+  * Reflection Lake and the
+    Mountain                        E. S. Curtis               77
+
+  Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys
+    to Gibraltar                    Asahel Curtis              78
+
+  Divide of Paradise and Stevens
+    Glaciers                        A. H. Barnes               79
+
+  Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier    Asahel Curtis              79
+
+  Preparing for a night at Camp
+    Muir                            Asahel Curtis              80
+
+  The Bee Hive                      Asahel Curtis              80
+
+  Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys   Kiser Photo Co.            81
+
+  Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to
+    Gibraltar                       Asahel Curtis              81
+
+  Mazamas rounding Gibraltar        Rodney L. Glisan           82
+
+  Under the walls of Gibraltar      Asahel Curtis              83
+
+  One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir  A. H. Waite                83
+
+  Perilous position on edge of a
+    great crevasse                  Charles Bedford            84
+
+  Climbing the "Chute," west side
+    of Gibraltar                    Asahel Curtis              85
+
+  Looking from top of Gibraltar to
+    the summit                      A. H. Waite                86
+
+  View south from Cowlitz Glacier
+    to Mt. Adams                    Charles Bedford            87
+
+  One of the modern craters         Asahel Curtis          88, 89
+
+  Steam Caves in one of the
+    craters                         Asahel Curtis              88
+
+  North Peak, or "Liberty Cap."     A. W. Archer               89
+
+  Goat Peaks, glacier summits in
+    the Cascades                    Kiser Photo Co             90
+
+  Ice-bound lake in Cowlitz Park    S. C. Smith                93
+
+  Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier      S. C. Smith                93
+
+  Crossing a precipitous slope on
+    White Glacier                   A. W. Archer               94
+
+  * Climbing Goat Peaks in the
+    Cascades                        S. C. Smith                94
+
+  Looking up White Glacier to
+    Little Tahoma                   Dr. F. A. Scott            95
+
+  The Mountain seen from top of
+    Cascade Range                   S. C. Smith                96
+
+  Great Moraine built by Frying-Pan
+    Glacier on "Goat Island"        J. B. Flett                96
+
+  Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier,
+    below Little Tahoma             Dr. F. A. Scott            97
+
+  Sunrise above the clouds, Camp
+    Curtis                          Asahel Curtis              97
+
+  Looking up from Snipe Lake,
+    below Interglacier              Dr. F. A. Scott            98
+
+  Passing a big Crevasse on
+    Interglacier                    Asahel Curtis              98
+
+  View North from Mt. Ruth to
+    Grand Park                      J. B. Flett                99
+
+  Camp on St. Elmo Pass, north side
+    of the Wedge                    Asahel Curtis             100
+
+  East Face of Mountain, with route
+    to summit                       Asahel Curtis             100
+
+  Admiral Peter Rainier                                       101
+
+  First picture of the Mountain,
+    from Vancouver's "Voyage"                                 101
+
+  Climbers on St. Elmo Pass         A. W. Archer              102
+
+  St. Elmo Pass, from north side    A. W. Archer              102
+
+  Russell Peak, from Avalanche
+    Camp                            Asahel Curtis             103
+
+  Avalanche Camp                    Asahel Curtis             103
+
+  Looking up Winthrop Glacier from
+    Avalanche Camp                  Asahel Curtis             104
+
+  Looking across Winthrop Glacier
+    to Steamboat Prow               Asahel Curtis             104
+
+  View south from Sluiskin Mountains
+    across Moraine Park             Asahel Curtis             105
+
+  Part of Spray Park                George Caesar             106
+
+  Climbing the séracs on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott           107
+
+  Ice Pinnacles on the Carbon       A. W. Archer              107
+
+  Among the Ice Bridges of Carbon
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis             108
+
+  Building Tacoma's electric power
+    plant on the Nisqually (3)      George V. Caesar          111
+
+  Hydro-electric plant at Electron                            112
+
+  Cutting canal to divert White
+    River to Lake Tapps                                       112
+
+  Mystic Lake, in Moraine Park      Asahel Curtis             113
+
+  Glacier Table on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis             113
+
+  Carbon River and Mother
+    Mountains                       Dr. F. A. Scott           114
+
+  * Oldest and Youngest of the
+    Climbers                        C. E. Cutter              115
+
+  * P. B. Van Trump on his old
+    Camp Ground                     E. S. Curtis              115
+
+  Lower Spray Park, with Mother
+    Mountains beyond                Asahel Curtis             116
+
+  * John Muir, President of the
+    Sierra Club                     J. Edward B. Greene       116
+
+  Coasting in Moraine Park          Asahel Curtis             117
+
+  Sunset on Crater Lake             George V. Caesar          117
+
+  * Amphitheatre of Carbon Glacier  Asahel Curtis             118
+
+  * Avalanche falling on Willis
+    Wall                            Photo, Lea Bronson;
+                                    Copyright, P. V. Caesar   119
+{p.012}
+
+  * Birth of Carbon River           A. H. Waite               120
+
+  The Mountaineers building trail
+    on Carbon Moraine               Asahel Curtis             121
+
+  The Mountaineers lunching in a
+    crevasse                        Asahel Curtis             121
+
+  Looking southeast from Mt. Rose   George V. Caesar          122
+
+  Looking south from Mt. Rose,
+    across Crater Lake              George V. Caesar          123
+
+  * Looking up North Mowich Valley  Asahel Curtis             124
+
+  * Spray Falls                     Asahel Curtis             125
+
+  * A Rescue from a Crevasse        E. S. Curtis              126
+
+  Returning from the Summit         Asahel Curtis             126
+
+  * View across Moraine Park and
+    Carbon Glacier to Mother
+    Mountains                       Asahel Curtis             129
+
+  Senecio                           Mrs. Alexander Thompson   129
+
+  A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake  A. H. Barnes              130
+
+  Indian Pipe                       J. B. Flett               131
+
+  Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's
+   Park                             A. H. Barnes              131
+
+  Mosses and Ferns in the Forest
+    Reserve                         Charles Bedford           132
+
+  A Bank of White Heather           Asahel Curtis             133
+
+  Hellebore                         Mrs. Alexander Thompson   133
+
+  Alpine Hemlock and Mountain
+    Lilies                          Mrs. H. A. Towne          134
+
+  Mountain Asters                   A. H. Barnes              134
+
+  Studying the Phlox                J. B. Flett               135
+
+  Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily     Miss Jessie Kershaw       135
+
+  Avalanche Lilies                  Asahel Curtis             136
+
+  * Moraine Park, Sluiskin
+    Mountains and Mystic Lake       Asahel Curtis             136
+
+  Sunrise in Indian Henry's         A. H. Barnes              137
+
+  Anemone Seed Pods                 Asahel Curtis             138
+
+  Wind-swept Trees on North Side    George V. Caesar          139
+
+  Lupines                           Herbert W. Gleason        139
+
+  * The Mountain, seen from Green
+    River Hot Springs               C. E. Cutter              140
+
+  Glacial debris on lower Winthrop  Asahel Curtis             142
+
+  An Alpine Climbers' Cabin        From Whymper's "Chamonix
+                                   and Mt. Blanc"             144
+
+[Illustration: White River Canyon, from the terminal moraine of White
+Glacier. A fine example of glacial sculpture. The river seen in the
+distance is 2,000 feet below the plateau through which the glacier has
+carved this valley.]
+
+[Illustration {p.013}: Telephoto view from near Electron, 20 miles,
+showing vast summit plateau left when the Mountain blew its head off.
+1. Crater Peak, built by the two small, modern craters. 2. South Peak,
+or Peak Success. 3. North Peak, or Liberty Cap. 4. North Tahoma
+Glacier. 5. Puyallup Glacier. 6. South Mowich Glacier. 7.
+North Mowich Glacier. 8. Snow Cap above Carbon Glacier. The summit
+peaks (1, 2 and 3) form a triangle, each side of which is two miles or
+more in length.]
+
+[Illustration {p.014}: View of the Mountain from Fox Island,
+forty-two miles northwest, with part of Puget Sound in the
+foreground.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.015} THE MOUNTAIN SPEAKS.
+
+
+  I am Tacoma, Monarch of the Coast!
+      Uncounted ages heaped my shining snows;
+  The sun by day, by night the starry host,
+      Crown me with splendor; every breeze that blows
+      Wafts incense to my altars; never wanes
+  The glory my adoring children boast,
+      For one with sun and sea Tacoma reigns.
+
+          Tacoma--the Great Snow Peak--mighty name
+              My dusky tribes revered when time was young!
+          Their god was I in avalanche and flame--
+              In grove and mead and songs my rivers sung,
+              As blithe they ran to make the valleys fair--
+          Their Shrine of Peace where no avenger came
+              To vex Tacoma, lord of earth and air.
+
+  Ah! when at morn above the mists I tower
+      And see my cities gleam by slope and strand,
+  What joy have I in this transcendent dower--
+      The strength and beauty of my sea-girt land
+      That holds the future royally in fee!
+  And lest some danger, undescried, should lower,
+      From my far height I watch o'er wave and lea.
+
+          And cloudless eves when calm in heaven I rest,
+              All rose-bloom with a glow of paradise,
+          And through my firs the balm-wind of the west,
+              Blown over ocean islands, softly sighs,
+              While placid lakes my radiant image frame--
+          And know my worshippers, in loving quest,
+              Will mark my brow and fond lips breathe my name:
+
+  Enraptured from my valleys to my snows,
+      I charm my glow to crimson--soothe to gray;
+  And when the encircling shadow deeper grows,
+      Poise, a lone cloud, beside the starry way.
+      Then, while my realm is hushed from steep to shore,
+  I yield my grandeur to divine repose,
+      And know Tacoma reigns forevermore!
+
+  South Framingham, Mass.
+  March, 1911.                         Edna Dean Proctor
+
+[Illustration {p.016}: Copyright, 1906, By Romans Photographic Co.
+The most kingly of American mountains, seen from beautiful Lake
+Washington, Seattle, distance sixty miles.]
+
+{p.017}
+[Illustration: A party of climbers on Winthrop Glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS "GOD."
+
+I.
+
+MOUNT "BIG SNOW" AND INDIAN TRADITION.
+
+  Long hours we toiled up through the solemn wood,
+      Beneath moss-banners stretched from tree to tree;
+  At last upon a barren hill we stood,
+      And, lo, above loomed Majesty.
+
+  --_Herbert Bashford: "Mount Rainier."_
+
+
+The great Mountain fascinates us by its diversity. It is an
+inspiration and yet a riddle to all who are drawn to the mysterious or
+who love the sublime. Every view which the breaking clouds vouchsafe
+to us is a surprise. It never becomes commonplace, save to the
+commonplace.
+
+[Illustration: Ice Terraces on South Tahoma Glacier. These vast steps
+are often seen where a glacier moves down a steep and irregular
+slope.]
+
+Old Virgil's gibe at mankind's better half--"varium et mutabile semper
+femina"--might have been written of this fickle shape of rock and ice
+and vapor. One tries vainly, year after year, to define it in his own
+mind. The daily, hourly change of distance, size and aspect, tricks
+which the Indian's mountain {p.018} god plays with the puny
+creatures swarming more and more about his foot; his days of frank
+neighborliness, his swift transformations from smiles to anger, his
+fits of sullenness and withdrawal, all baffle study. Even though we
+live at its base, it is impossible to say we know the Mountain, so
+various are the spells the sun casts over this huge dome which it is
+slowly chiseling away with its tools of ice, and which, in coming
+centuries, it will level with the plain.
+
+[Illustration: Mineral Lake and the Mountain. Distance, eighteen
+miles.]
+
+We are lovers of the water as well as the hills, out here in this
+northwestern corner of the Republic. We spend many days--and should
+spend more--in cruising among the hidden bays and park-like islands
+which make Puget Sound the most interesting body of water in America.
+We grow a bit boastful about the lakes that cluster around our cities.
+Nowhere better than from sea level, or from the lakes raised but
+little above it, does one realize the bulk, the dominance, and yet the
+grace, of this noble peak. Its impressiveness, indeed, arises in part
+from the fact that it is one of the few great volcanic mountains whose
+entire height may be seen from tide level. Many of us can recall views
+of it from Lake Washington at Seattle, or from American or Spanaway
+Lake at Tacoma, or from the Sound, which will always haunt the memory.
+
+[Illustration: Storm King Peak and Mineral Lake, viewed from near
+Mineral Lake Inn.]
+
+Early one evening, last summer, I went with a friend to Point
+Defiance, Tacoma's fine park at the {p.021} end of the promontory
+on which the city is built. We drank in refreshment from the picture
+there unrolled of broad channels and evergreen shores. As sunset
+approached, we watched the western clouds building range upon range of
+golden mountains above the black, Alp-like crags of the Olympics.
+Then, entering a small boat, we rowed far out northward into the
+Sound. Overhead, and about us, the scenes of the great panorama were
+swiftly shifted. The western sky became a conflagration. Twilight
+settled upon the bay. The lights of the distant town came out, one by
+one, and those of the big smelter, near by, grew brilliant. No Turner
+ever dreamed so glorious a composition of sunlight and shade. But we
+were held by one vision.
+
+[Illustration {p.019}: View from Electron, showing west side of the
+mountain, with a vast intervening country of forested ranges and deep
+canyons.]
+
+{p.021}
+[Illustration: Nisqually Canyon.
+
+  ... "Where the mountain wall
+  Is piled to heaven, and through the narrow rift
+  Of the vast rocks, against whose rugged feet
+  Beats the mad torrent with perpetual roar:
+  Where noonday is as twilight, and the wind
+  Comes burdened with the everlasting moan
+  Of forests and far-off waterfalls."--Whittier.]
+
+Yonder, in the southeast, towering above the lower shadows of harbor
+and hills, rose a vast pyramid of soft flame. The setting sun had
+thrown a mantle of rose pink over the ice of the glaciers and the
+great cleavers of rock which buttress the mighty dome. The rounded
+summit was warm with beautiful orange light. Soon the colors upon its
+slope changed to deeper reds, and then to amethyst, and {p.023}
+violet, and pearl gray. The sun-forsaken ranges below fell away to
+dark neutral tints. But the fires upon the crest burned on, deepening
+from gold to burnished copper, a colossal beacon flaming high against
+the sunset purple of the eastern skies. Finally, even this great light
+paled to a ghostly white, as the supporting foundation of mountain
+ridges dropped into the darkness of the long northern twilight, until
+the snowy summit seemed no longer a part of earth, but a veil of
+uncanny mist, caught up by the winds from the Pacific and floating far
+above the black sky-line of the solid Cascades, that
+
+  * * * heaven-sustaining bulwark, reared
+  Between the East and West.
+
+[Illustration {p.022}: Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite. North Peak,
+or Liberty Cap, and South Mowich Glacier in storm, seen from an
+altitude of 6,000 feet, on ridge between South Mowich and Puyallup
+Glaciers. The glacier, 2,000 feet below, is nearly half a mile wide.
+Note the tremendous wall of ice in which it ends.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite. Basaltic Columns, part
+of the "Colonnade" on south side of South Mowich Glacier. These
+curious six-sided columns of volcanic rock are similar to those
+bordering the Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Goat, an accidental snap-shot of the fleet and
+wary Mazama; godfather of the famous Portland mountain club.]
+
+And when even that apparition had faded, and the Mountain appeared
+only as an uncertain bulk shadowed upon the night, then came the
+miracle. Gradually, the east, beyond the great hills, showed a faint
+silver glow. Silhouetted against this dim background, the profile of
+the peak grew definite. With no other warning, suddenly from its
+summit the full moon shot forth, huge, majestic and gracious, flooding
+the lower world with brightness. Clouds and mountain ranges alike
+shone with its glory. But the great peak loomed blacker and more
+sullen. Only, on its head, the wide crown of snow gleamed white under
+the cold rays of the moon.
+
+[Illustration {p.024}: West Side of the summit, seen from Tahoma Fork
+of the Nisqually, on road to Longmire Springs. Note the whiteness of
+the glacial water. This stream is fed by the united Tahoma glaciers.
+See pp. 32 and 37.]
+
+{p.025}
+[Illustration: Iron and Copper Mountains (right) in Indian Henry's.
+The top of Pyramid Peak shows in the saddle beyond with Peak Success
+towering far above.]
+
+No wonder that this mountain of changing moods, overtopping every
+other eminence in the Northwest, answered the idea of God to the
+simple, imaginative mind of the Indians who hunted in the forest on
+its slopes or fished in the waters of Whulge that ebbed and flowed at
+its base. Primitive peoples in every land have deified superlative
+manifestations of nature--the sun, the wind, great rivers, and
+waterfalls, the high mountains. By all the tribes within sight of its
+summit, this pre-eminent peak, variously called by them Tacoma
+(Tach-ho´ma), Tahoma or Tacob, as who should say "The Great Snow," was
+deemed a power to be feared and conciliated. Even when the
+missionaries taught them a better faith, they continued to hold the
+Mountain in superstitious reverence--an awe that still has power to
+silence their "civilized" and very unromantic descendants.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting steps up Paradise Glacier.]
+
+The Puget Sound tribes, with the Yakimas, Klickitats and others living
+just beyond the Cascades, had substantially the same language and
+beliefs, though differing much in physical and mental type. {p.026}
+East of the range, they lived by the chase. They were great horsemen
+and famous runners, a breed of lithe, upstanding, competent men, as
+keen of wit as they were stately in appearance. These were "the noble
+Red Men" of tradition. Fennimore Cooper might have found many a hero
+worthy of his pen among the savages inhabiting the fertile valley of
+the Columbia, which we now call the Inland Empire. But here on the
+Coast were the "Digger" tribes, who subsisted chiefly by spearing
+salmon and digging clams. Their stooped figures, flat faces, downcast
+eyes and low mentality reflected the life they led. Contrasting their
+heavy bodies with their feeble legs, which grew shorter with disuse, a
+Tacoma humorist last summer gravely proved to a party of English
+visitors that in a few generations more, had not the white man seized
+their fishing grounds, the squatting Siwashes would have had no legs
+at all!
+
+[Illustration: Great Crag on the ridge separating the North and South
+Tahoma Glaciers, with Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually visible several
+miles below. This rock is seen right of center on page 27.]
+
+[Illustration: The Marmot, whose shrill whistle is often heard among
+the crags.]
+
+Stolid and uninspired as he seemed to the whites, the Indian of the
+Sound was not without his touch of poetry. He had that imaginative
+curiosity which marked the native {p.028} American everywhere. He
+was ever peering into the causes of things, and seeing the
+supernatural in the world around him.[1]
+
+              [Footnote 1: Among those who have studied the Puget
+              Sound Indians most sympathetically is the Rev. Mr.
+              Hylebos of Tacoma. He came to the Northwest in 1870,
+              when the census gave Tacoma a white population of
+              seventy-three. In those days, says Father Hylebos, the
+              Tacoma tideflats, now filled in for mills and railway
+              terminals, were covered each autumn with the canoes of
+              Indians spearing salmon. It was no uncommon thing to see
+              at one time on Commencement Bay 1,800 fishermen. This
+              veteran worker among the "Siwashes" (French
+              "_sauvages_") first told me the myths that hallowed the
+              Mountain for every native, and the true meaning of the
+              beautiful Indian word "Tacoma." He knew well all the
+              leaders of the generation before the railways: Sluiskin,
+              the Klickitat chief who guided Stevens and Van Trump up
+              to the snow-line in 1870; Stanup, chief of the
+              Puyallups; Kiskax, head of the Cowlitz tribe; Angeline,
+              the famous daughter of Chief Seattle, godfather of the
+              city of that name, and many others.]
+
+[Illustration {p.027}: View from Beljica, showing the deeply indented
+west side of the Mountain. Beginning at extreme right, the glaciers
+are, successively: Kautz, South Tahoma, North Tahoma and Puyallup. In
+the left foreground is the canyon of Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually,
+which is fed by the Tahoma glaciers.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Mountain Pine, one of
+the last outposts of the forest below the line of eternal snow.]
+
+To the great Snow Mountain the Indians made frequent pilgrimages, for
+they thought this king of the primeval wild a divinity to be reckoned
+with. They dreaded its anger, seen in the storms about its head, the
+thunder of its avalanches, and the volcanic flashes of which their
+traditions told. They courted its favor, symbolized in the wild
+flowers that bloomed on its slope, and the tall grass that fed the
+mowich, or deer.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Mount Wow, or Goat
+Mountain, above Mesler's.]
+
+As they ascended the vast ridges, the grandeur about them spoke of the
+mountain god. There were groves of trees he must have planted, so
+orderly were they set out. The lakes of the lofty valleys seemed
+calmer than those on the prairies below, the foliage brighter, the
+ferns taller and more graceful. The song of the waterfalls here was
+sweeter than the music of the tamahnawas men, their Indian sorcerers.
+The many small meadows close to the snow-line, carpeted in deepest
+green and spread with flowers, were the gardens of the divinity,
+tended by his superhuman agents. Strange as it may seem, the
+nature-worship of the silent Red Man had many points in common with
+that of the imaginative, volatile Greek, who {p.030} peopled his
+mountains with immortals; and no wood in ancient Greece was ever
+thronged with hamadryads more real than the little gods whom the
+Indian saw in the forests watered by streams from Tacoma's glaciers.
+
+[Illustration {p.029}: Rounded Cone of Mt. St. Helens, seen from
+Indian Henry's, forty-five miles away.]
+
+[Illustration: View northward in early summer from Eagle Peak, at
+western end of the Tatoosh. Gibraltar Rock and Little Tahoma break the
+eastern sky-line. On the extreme right lies Paradise Valley, still deep
+in snow, with the canyon of Paradise River below it. Next is seen the
+Nisqually Glacier, with Nisqually River issuing from its snout. Then
+come Van Trump Glacier (an "interglacier"), and the big Kautz Glacier,
+dropping into its own deep canyon. Beyond the Kautz, Pyramid Peak and
+Iron and Copper Mountains rise on the Indian Henry plateau. The Tahoma
+Glaciers close the view westward.]
+
+[Illustration {p.031}: Copyright, 1907, By Pillsbury Picture Co.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Linkletter Photo. CO. Eagle Peak
+(Indian name, Simlayshe) at west end of the Tatoosh. Altitude about
+6,000 feet. A pony trail three miles long leads up from the Inn.]
+
+Countless snows had fallen since the mountain god created and
+beautified this home of his, when one day he grew angry, and in his
+wrath showed terrible tongues of fire. Thus he ignited an immense fir
+forest on the south side of the peak. When his anger subsided, the
+flames passed, and the land they left bare became covered with blue
+grass and wild flowers--a great sunny country where, before, the dark
+forest had been. Borrowing a word from the French _coureurs des bois_
+who came with the Hudson's Bay Company, the later Indians sometimes
+called this region "the Big Brulé"; and to this day some Americans
+call it the same. But for the Big Brulé the Indians had, from ancient
+times, another name, connected with their ideas of religion. It was
+their Saghalie Illahe, the "Land of Peace," Heaven. Our name,
+"Paradise Valley," {p.031} given to the beautiful open vale on the
+south slope of the Mountain, is an English equivalent.
+
+Here was the same bar to violence which religion has erected in many
+lands. The Hebrews had their "Cities of Refuge." The pagan ancients
+made every altar an asylum. Mediæval Christianity constituted all its
+churches sanctuaries. Thus, in lawless ages, the hand of vengeance was
+stayed, and the weak were protected.
+
+[Illustration: Exploring an Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier.]
+
+So, too, the Indian tradition ordained this home of rest and refuge.
+Indian custom was an eye for an eye, but on gaining this mountain
+haven the pursued was safe from his pursuer, the slayer might not be
+touched by his victim's kindred. When he crossed its border, the
+warrior laid down his arms. Criminals and cowards, too, were often
+sent here by the chiefs to do penance.
+
+[Illustration: Junction of North and South Tahoma Glaciers, viewed
+from Indian Henry's. The main ice stream thus formed, seen in the
+foreground, feeds Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually River. The Northern
+part of North Tahoma Glacier, seen in the distance beyond the wedge of
+rocks, feeds a tributary of the Puyallup.]
+
+The mountain divinity, with his under-gods, figures in much of the
+Siwash {p.032} folklore, and the "Land of Peace" is often heard of.
+It is through such typical Indian legends as that of Miser, the greedy
+hiaqua hunter, that we learn how large a place the great Mountain
+filled in the thought of the aborigines.
+
+[Illustration: Anemones, a familiar mountain flower.]
+
+This myth also explains why no Red Man could ever be persuaded to an
+ascent beyond the snow line. As to the Greek, so to the Indian the
+great peaks were sacred. The flames of an eruption, the fall of an
+avalanche, told of the wrath of the mountain god. The clouds that
+wrapped the summit of Tacoma spelled mystery and peril. Even so shrewd
+and intelligent a Siwash as Sluiskin, with all his keenness for
+"Boston chikamin," the white man's money, refused to accompany Stevens
+and Van Trump in the first ascent, in 1870; indeed, he gave them up as
+doomed, and bewailed their certain fate when they defied the
+Mountain's wrath and started for the summit in spite of his warnings.
+
+[Illustration {p.033}: Copyright 1910, A. H. WAITE. North Tahoma
+Glacier, flowing out of the huge cleft in the west side, between North
+and South Peaks. A great rock wedge splits the glacier, turning part
+of the ice stream northward into the Puyallup, while the other part,
+on the right pours down to join South Tahoma Glacier. Note how the
+promontory of rock in the foreground has been rounded and polished by
+the ice. Compare this view with pages 32 and 37.]
+
+[Illustration {p.034}: Snow Lake in Indian Henry's, surrounded by
+Alpine firs, which grow close to the snow line. Elevation about 6,000
+feet.]
+
+The hero of the Hiaqua Myth is the Indian {p.035} Rip Van
+Winkle.[2] He dwelt at the foot of Tacoma, and, like Irving's worthy,
+he was a mighty hunter and fisherman. He knew the secret pools where
+fish could always be found, and the dark places in the forest, where
+the elk hid when snows were deepest. But for these things Miser cared
+not. His lust was all for hiaqua, the Indian shell money.
+
+              [Footnote 2: This legend is well told in "Myths and
+              Legends of the Pacific Northwest," a delightful book by
+              Katharine B. Judson of the Seattle Public Library
+              (Chicago, A. C. McClurg & Co.). See also Prof. W. D.
+              Lyman's papers in "Mazama" Vol. 2, and "The
+              Mountaineer," Vol. 2; and Winthrop's "Canoe and
+              Saddle."]
+
+[Illustration: A fair Mountaineer at the timber line. Note her
+equipment, including shoe calks.]
+
+Now, Miser's totem was Moosmoos, the elk divinity. So Miser tried,
+even while hunting the elk, to talk with them, in order to learn where
+hiaqua might be found. One night Moosmoos persuaded him that on top of
+the Mountain he would find great store of it. Making him two elk-horn
+picks, and filling his ikta with dried salmon and kinnikinnick, he
+climbed in two nights and a day to the summit. Here he found three big
+rocks, one like a camas root, one like a salmon's head, the third like
+his friendly Moosmoos. Miser saw that Moosmoos had told him truly.
+
+[Illustration {p.036}: View of Indian Henry's Hunting Ground from a
+point on South Tahoma Glacier, looking across to Copper and Iron
+Mountains, with Mt. St. Helens above the clouds far beyond. This
+famous upland plateau or "park" gets its name from the fact that it
+was, years ago, the favorite haunt of a celebrated Indian hunter.]
+
+[Illustration {p.037}: Southwest side of the Mountain as seen from
+Indian Henry's, showing North and South Tahoma Glaciers meeting in
+foreground, and Kautz Glacier on extreme right.]
+
+After long digging, Miser overturned the rock that was like the elk's
+head. Beneath lay a vast quantity of hiaqua. This he strung on elk's
+sinews--enough of it to make him the richest of men. Then he hurried
+to depart. But he left no thank-offering to the tanahnawas powers.
+Thereupon the whole earth shook with a mighty convulsion, and the
+mountain shot forth terrible fires, which melted the snows and poured
+floods down the slopes, where they were turned to ice again by the
+breath of the storm-god. And above the roar of torrents and the crash
+of thunder, {p.038} Miser heard the voices of all the tamahnawas,
+hissing: "Hiaqua! Hiaqua! Ha, ha, Hiaqua!"
+
+[Illustration: Climbing Pinnacle Peak, in the Tatoosh. Elevation 6,500
+feet. The route leads up from Paradise Valley, over the steep snow
+field shown in the lower view, and thence by a difficult trail to the
+summit.]
+
+Panic-stricken at the results of his greed, Miser threw down his load
+of treasure to propitiate the angry tamahnawas. But the storm-god
+hurled him down the mountain side. Miser fell into a deep sleep. Many,
+many snows after, he awoke to find himself far from the summit, in a
+pleasant country of beautiful meadows carpeted with flowers, abounding
+in camas roots, and musical with the song of birds. He had grown very
+old, with white hair falling to his shoulders. His ikta was empty,
+save for a few dried leaves. Recognizing the scene about him as
+Saghalie Illahe, he sought his old tent. It was where he had left it.
+There, too, was his klootchman, or wife, grown old, like himself.
+Thirty snows, she said, she had awaited his return. Back they went to
+their {p.039} home on the bank of the Cowlitz, where he became a
+famous tamahnawas man, and spent the rest of his days in honor, for
+his tribesmen recognized that the aged Indian's heart had been
+marvelously softened and his mind enriched by his experience upon the
+peak. He had lost his love for hiaqua.
+
+[Illustration: A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak, with Paradise Valley and
+the Nisqually Glacier below.]
+
+Among the familiar myths of the Mountain was one of a great flood, not
+unlike that of Noah. I quote Miss Judson's version:
+
+     WHY THERE ARE NO SNAKES ON TAKHOMA.
+
+     A long, long time ago, Tyhce Sahale became angry with his people.
+     Sahale ordered a medicine man to take his bow and arrow and shoot
+     into the cloud which hung low over Takhoma. The medicine man shot
+     the arrow, and it stuck fast in the cloud. Then he shot another
+     into the lower end of the first. Then he shot another into the
+     lower end of the second. He shot arrows until he had made a chain
+     which reached from the cloud to the earth. The medicine man told
+     his klootchman and his children to climb up the arrow trail. Then
+     he told the good animals to climb up the arrow trail. Then the
+     medicine man climbed up himself. Just as he was climbing into the
+     cloud, he looked back. A long line of bad animals and snakes were
+     also climbing up the arrow trail. Therefore the medicine man
+     broke the chain of arrows. Thus the snakes and bad animals fell
+     down on the mountain side. Then at once it began to rain. It
+     rained until all the land was flooded. Water reached even to the
+     snow line of Takhoma. When all the bad animals and snakes were
+     drowned, it stopped raining. After a while the waters sank again.
+     Then the medicine man and his klootchman and the children climbed
+     out of the cloud and came down the mountain side. The good
+     animals also climbed out of the cloud. Thus there are now no
+     snakes or bad animals on Takhoma.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, by E. S. Curtis. Rough Climbing, an
+illustration of perils encountered in crossing the glaciers.]
+
+Childish and fantastic as they seem to our wise age, such legends show
+the Northwestern Indian struggling to interpret the world about him.
+Like savages everywhere, he peopled the unknown with spirits good and
+bad, and mingled his conception of a beneficent deity with his ideas
+of the evil one. Symbolism pervaded his crude but very positive mind.
+Ever by his side the old Siwash felt the Power that dwelt on Tacoma,
+protecting and aiding him, or leading him to destruction. Knowing
+{p.040} nothing of true worship, his primitive intelligence could
+imagine God only in things either the most beautiful or the most
+terrifying; and the more we know the Mountain, the more easily we
+shall understand why he deemed the majestic peak a factor of his
+destiny--an infinite force that could, at will, bless or destroy. For
+to us, too, though we have no illusions as to its supernatural powers,
+the majestic peak may bring a message. Before me is a letter from an
+inspiring New England writer, who has well earned the right to
+appraise life's values. "I saw the great Mountain three years ago,"
+she says; "would that it might ever be my lot to see it again! I love
+to dream of its glory, and its vast whiteness is a moral force in my
+life."
+
+                          Perpetual
+  And snowy tabernacle of the land,
+  While purples at thy base this peaceful sea,
+  And all thy hither slopes in evening bathe,
+  I hear soft twilight voices calling down
+  From all thy summits unto prayer and love.
+
+  --_Francis Brooks: "Mt. Rainier."_
+
+[Illustration: Ptarmigan, the Grouse of the ice-fields. Unlike its
+neighbor, the Mountain Goat, this bird is tame, and may sometimes be
+caught by hand. In winter its plumage turns from brown to white.]
+
+[Illustration: The Mountain, seen from Puyallup River, near Tacoma.]
+
+[Illustration {p.041}: Falls of the Little Mashell River, near
+Eatonville and the road to the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration {p.042}: Old Stage Road to Longmire Springs and the
+National Park Inn, showing the tall, clear trunks of the giant firs.]
+
+{p.043}
+[Illustration: On Pierce County's splendid scenic road to the
+Mountain. Passing Ohop Valley.]
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE NATIONAL PARK, ITS ROADS AND ITS NEEDS.
+
+     There are plenty of higher mountains, but it is the decided
+     isolation--the absolute standing alone in full majesty of its own
+     mightiness--that forms the attraction of Rainier. * * * It is no
+     squatting giant, perched on the shoulders of other mountains.
+     From Puget Sound, it is a sight for the gods, and one feels in
+     the presence of the gods.--_Paul Fountain: "The Seven Eaglets of
+     the West"_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+The first explorers to climb the Mountain, forty years ago, were
+compelled to make their way from Puget Sound through the dense growths
+of one of the world's greatest forests, over lofty ridges and deep
+canyons, and across perilous glacial torrents. The hardships of a
+journey to the timber line were more formidable than the difficulties
+encountered above it.
+
+[Illustration: Cowlitz Chimneys, seen from basin below Frying-Pan
+Glacier.]
+
+Even from the East the first railroad to the Coast had just reached
+San Francisco. Thence the traveler came north to the Sound by boat.
+The now busy cities of Seattle and Tacoma were, one, an ambitious
+village of 1,107 inhabitants; the other, a sawmill, with seventy
+persons living around it. They were frontier settlements, outposts of
+{p.044} civilization; but civilization paid little attention to them
+and their great Mountain, until the railways, some years later, began
+to connect them with the big world of people and markets beyond the
+Rockies.
+
+[Illustration: On the way out from Tacoma, over the partly wooded
+prairie, the automobilist sees many scenes like this old road near
+Spanaway Lake.]
+
+How different the case to-day! Six transcontinental railroads now
+deliver their trains in the Puget Sound cities. These are: The
+Northern Pacific, which was the first trunk line to reach the Sound;
+the Great Northern; the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & Puget Sound; the Oregon-Washington (Union Pacific), and
+the Canadian Pacific. A seventh, the North Coast, is planned.
+
+[Illustration {p.046}: View Northward from top of Pinnacle Peak in
+the Tatoosh range to Paradise Valley, Nisqually Glacier and Gibraltar
+Rock, eight miles away.]
+
+[Illustration {p.047}: Looking Northeast from slope of Pinnacle Peak,
+across Paradise, Stevens, Cowlitz and Frying Pan Glaciers. These two
+views form virtually a panorama.]
+
+Arriving in Seattle or Tacoma, the traveler has his choice of quick
+and enjoyable routes to the Mountain. He may go by automobile, leaving
+either city in the morning. After traveling one of the best and most
+interesting roads in the country--the only one, in fact, to reach a
+glacier--he may take luncheon at noon six thousand feet higher, in
+Paradise Park, overlooking great glaciers and close to the line of
+eternal snow. Or he may go by the comfortable trains of the Tacoma
+Eastern (Milwaukee system) to Ashford, fifty-five miles from Tacoma,
+and then by automobile stages, over a picturesque portion of the fine
+highway just mentioned, to the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs
+(altitude 2,762 feet). Lunching there, he may then go on, by coach
+over the new government road, or on horseback over one of the most
+inviting mountain trails in America, or afoot, as many prefer. Thus he
+{p.049} gains Paradise Park and its far-reaching observation
+point, Camp of the Clouds (elevation, 5,800 feet). From the Inn, too,
+another romantic bridle path leads to Indian Henry's famous Hunting
+Ground, equally convenient as a base of adventure.
+
+[Illustration: Automobile Party above Nisqually Canyon, Pierce County
+Road to the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Prof. O. D. Allen's cottage, in the Forest Reserve,
+where the former Yale professor has for years studied the flora of the
+Mountain.]
+
+Whether the visitor goes to the Mountain by train or by automobile,
+his choice will be a happy one. For either route leads through a
+country of uncommon charm. Each of them, too, will carry the visitor
+up from the Sound to the great and beautiful region on the southern
+slopes which includes the Tahoma, Kautz, Nisqually, Paradise and
+Stevens canyons, with their glaciers and the wonderful upland plateaus
+or "parks" that lie between.
+
+[Illustration: "Ghost Trees" in Indian Henry's. These white stalks
+tell of fires set by careless visitors.]
+
+Here let him stay a day or a month. Every moment of his time will be
+crowded with new experiences and packed with enjoyment. For here is
+sport to last for many months. He may content himself with a day spent
+in coasting down a steep snow-field in midsummer, snowballing his
+companions, and climbing Alta Vista to look down on the big Nisqually
+glacier in the deep bed which it has {p.050} carved for itself, and
+up its steep slopes to its névé field on the summit. Or he may explore
+this whole region at his leisure. He may climb the hard mountain
+trails that radiate from Longmires and Paradise. He may work up over
+the lower glaciers, studying their crevasses, ice caves and flow. He
+will want to ascend some of the tempting crags of the ragged Tatoosh,
+for the panorama of ice-capped peaks and dark, forested ranges which
+is there unfolded. After a week or two of such "trying-out," to
+develop wind and harden muscle, he may even scale the great Mountain
+itself under the safe lead of experienced guides. He may wander at
+will over the vast platform left by a prehistoric explosion which
+truncated the cone, and perhaps spend a night of sensational novelty
+(and discomfort) in a big steam cave, under the snow, inside a dead
+crater.
+
+The south side has the advantage of offering the wildest alpine sport
+in combination with a well-appointed hotel as a base of operations.
+Hence the majority of visitors know only that side. Everybody should
+know it, too, for there is not a nobler playground anywhere; but
+should also know that it is by no means the only side to see.
+
+One may, of course, work around from the Nisqually canyon and
+Paradise, east or west, to the other glaciers and "parks." It is quite
+practicable, if not easy, to make the trip eastward from Camp of the
+Clouds, crossing Paradise, Stevens and Cowlitz glaciers, and thus to
+reach the huge White glacier on the east side and Winthrop and Carbon
+glaciers on the north. Every summer sees more and more visitors making
+this wonderful journey.
+
+But the usual way to reach the great north side, especially for
+parties which carry camp equipment, is by a Northern Pacific train
+over the Carbonado branch to Fairfax. This is on Carbon river, five
+miles from the northwest corner of the National Park. Thence the
+traveler will go by horse or afoot, over a safe mountain trail, to
+Spray Park, the fascinating region between Carbon and North Mowich
+{p.051} glaciers. Standing here, on such an eminence as Fay Peak or
+Eagle Cliff, he may have views of the Mountain in its finest aspects
+that will a thousand times repay the labor of attainment.
+
+[Illustration: Government Road in the Forest Reserve.]
+
+[Illustration: "Hanging Glacier," or ice fall, above Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+A visit to this less known but no less interesting side involves the
+necessity of packing an outfit. But arrangements for horses and
+packers are easily made, and each year an increasing number of parties
+make Spray Park their headquarters, spending, if they are wise, at
+least a week in this wide region of flowering alpine valleys and
+commanding heights. From there they go south, over the west-side
+glaciers, or east, across the Carbon and through the great White river
+country. They camp on the south side of the Sluiskin mountains, in
+Moraine Park, and there have ready access to Carbon and Winthrop
+glaciers, with splendid views of the vast precipices that form the
+north face of the Mountain. Thence they climb east and south over the
+Winthrop and White glaciers. They visit the beautiful Grand Park and
+Summerland, and either make the ascent to the summit from "Steamboat
+Prow" on the "Wedge," over the long ice slope of the White glacier, or
+continue around to the Paradise country and Longmire Springs.
+
+{p.052}
+[Illustration: Leaving the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs for
+Paradise Park.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. On the Summit,
+showing Columbia's Crest, the great mound of snow that has, most
+curiously, formed on this wide, wind-swept platform. This, the actual
+top of the Mountain, is 14,363 feet above sea level.]
+
+The west side has been less visited than the others, but there is a
+trail from the North Mowich to the Nisqually, and from this
+adventurous explorers reach North and South Mowich and Puyallup
+glaciers. No one has yet climbed the Mountain over those glaciers, or
+from the north side. A view from any of the trails will explain why.
+The great rock spines are more precipitous than elsewhere, the
+glaciers more broken; and the summit is fronted on either side by a
+huge parapet of rock which hurls defiance at anything short of an
+airship. Doubtless, we shall some day travel to Crater Peak by
+aeroplanes, but until these vehicles are equipped with {p.054}
+runners for landing and starting on the snow, we shall do best to plan
+our ascents from the south or east side.
+
+[Illustration {p.053}: Paradise Valley or "Park," and Tatoosh
+Mountains, from slope below Paradise Glacier. The highest of the peaks
+are about 7,000 feet above sea level and 1,700 feet above the floor of
+the valley.]
+
+[Illustration: On the Government Road a mile above Longmires, bound
+for the Nisqually Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Near "Gap Point," where the road turns from the
+Nisqually canyon into that of Paradise River.]
+
+I have thus briefly pointed out the favorite routes followed in
+exploring the National Park. The time is fast approaching when it will
+be a truly national recreation ground, well known to Americans in
+every State. The coming of new railways to Puget Sound and the
+development of new facilities for reaching the Mountain make this
+certain.[3]
+
+              [Footnote 3: For details as to rates for transportation,
+              accommodations and guides, with the rules governing the
+              National Park, see the notes at end of the book.]
+
+[Illustration: Snout of Nisqually Glacier, with the river which it
+feeds. Though much shrunken since the epoch when it filled the whole
+canyon, the glacier is still a vast river of ice; and its front, seen
+several hundred yards above the bridge, rises sheer 500 feet. The new
+road to Narada Falls and Paradise Park crosses the Nisqually here.
+Automobiles are not permitted to go above this point.]
+
+Every step taken for the conservation of the natural beauty of the
+Park and its opening to proper use and enjoyment is a public benefit.
+Outside the national reserves, our lumbermen are fast destroying the
+forests; but, if properly guarded against fire, the great Park forest
+will still teach future generations how lavishly Nature plants, just
+as the delightful glacial valleys and towering landmarks teach how
+powerful and artistic a sculptor she is. Experienced travelers and
+alpinists {p.055} who have visited the Mountain unite in declaring
+its scenery, combining as it does great vistas of ice with vast
+stretches of noble forest, to be unequaled elsewhere in America, and
+unsurpassed anywhere. In the fascination of its glacial story, as well
+as in the grandeur of its features, it has few rivals among the great
+peaks of the world. The geologist, the botanist, the weary business
+man, the sportsman, all find it calling them to study, to rest, or to
+strenuous and profitable recreation. Here is a resource more lasting
+than our timber. When the loggers shall have left us only naked
+ranges, without the reserves, the Park may yield a crop more valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Pony bridge over the Nisqually, on trail to Paradise.
+Note the granite boulders which the stream has rounded in rolling them
+down from the glacier.]
+
+*[Illustration: The road a mile above the bridge, overlooking
+Nisqually Canyon and Glacier.]
+
+*[Illustration: On the Pony Trail to Paradise. This trail winds
+through the dense forest above Longmires, crosses the Nisqually, and
+then follows Paradise River, with its miles of picturesque cascades.
+It is one of the most beautiful mountain paths in America.]
+
+Until recent years this was known only to the hardy few who delight in
+doing difficult things for great rewards. But that day of isolation
+has passed. The value of the Park to the whole American people is more
+{p.056} and more appreciated by them, if not yet by their official
+representatives. While Congress has dealt less liberally with this
+than with the other great National Parks, what it has appropriated has
+been well spent in building an invaluable road, which opens one of the
+most important upland regions to public knowledge and use. This road
+is a continuation of the well-made highway maintained by Pierce County
+from Tacoma, which passes through an attractive country of partly
+wooded prairies and follows the picturesque Nisqually valley up the
+heavily forested slopes to the Forest Reserve and the southwestern
+corner of the Park. The public has been quick to seize the opportunity
+which the roads offered. The number of persons entering the Park, as
+shown by the annual reports of the Superintendent, has grown {p.057}
+from 1,786 in 1906 to more than 8,000 in 1910. In the same period, the
+Yellowstone National Park, with its greater age, its wider
+advertising, its many hotels, its abundance of government money,
+increased its total of visitors from 17,182 to 19,575.
+
+[Illustration: Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually Glacier. The huge ice
+wall in the distance is the west branch of the Nisqually, and is
+sometimes miscalled "Stevens Glacier." As seen here, it forms a
+"hanging glacier," which empties into the main glacier over the
+cliff.]
+
+For one thing, these roads have put it within the power of
+automobilists from all parts of the Coast to reach the grandest of
+American mountains and the largest glaciers of the United States south
+of Alaska. They connect at Tacoma, with excellent roads from Seattle
+and other cities on the Sound, as well as from Portland and points
+farther south. The travel from these cities has already justified the
+construction of the roads, and is increasing every year. Even from
+California many automobile parties visit the Mountain. The railway
+travel is also fast increasing, and the opening this year of its
+transcontinental service by the Milwaukee Railway, which owns the
+Tacoma Eastern line to Ashford, is likely soon to double the number of
+those who journey to the Mountain by rail.
+
+[Illustration: A Mountain Celery.]
+
+[Illustration: Narada Falls, 185 feet, on Paradise River (altitude,
+4,572 feet). Both trail and road pass it. "Narada" is an East Indian
+word meaning "peace." The name was given many years ago by a party of
+Theosophists who visited the falls. Happily, the effort to change the
+name to "Cushman Falls" has failed.]
+
+The new government road to Paradise and the trails {p.058}
+connecting with it have, however made only a fraction of the Park
+accessible. The most important work for the conservation of this great
+alpine area and its opening to the public still remains to be done.
+Congress is now asked to provide funds for the survey and gradual
+extension of the road to the other plateaus on all sides of the peak.
+Pending the construction of the road, it is highly important that, as
+soon as the surveys can be made, bridle trails be built on the easy
+grades thus established. Not only are these roads and trails much
+needed for the convenience of visitors to the Mountain, but, with the
+closer approach of logging operations, they are year by year becoming
+more necessary to the proper policing of the Park and its protection
+against forest fires. For want of them, great sections of forest
+within the Park are liable to be swept away at any time, before the
+rangers could find their way over the scant and broken trails now
+existing. The request for better access to the other sides of the
+Mountain has received the earnest indorsement of the Washington
+legislature, the commercial organizations of the entire Coast, and the
+several mountain clubs in different parts of the country. Only
+Congress remains blind to its importance.
+
+Congressional action affecting this immediate area began in 1899. A
+tract eighteen miles square, 207,360 acres, to be known as "Ranier
+National Park,"[4] was {p.059} withdrawn from the 2,146,600 acres of
+the Pacific Forest Reserve, previously created. The area thus set
+apart as "a public park for the benefit and enjoyment of the people"
+(Act of March 2, 1899) was already known to a few enthusiasts and
+explorers as one of the world's great wonderlands. In 1861 James
+Longmire, a prospector, had built a trail from Yelm over Mashell
+mountain and up the Nisqually river to Bear Prairie. This he extended
+in 1884 to the spot now known as Longmire Springs, and thence up the
+Nisqually and Paradise rivers to the region now called Paradise Park.
+Part of this trail was widened later into a wagon road, used for many
+years by persons seeking health at the remarkable mineral springs on
+the tract which the Longmires acquired from the government before the
+establishment of the Forest Reserve.
+
+              [Footnote 4: For some years, Congress and the Interior
+              Department spelled it "Ranier"! A well-known Congressman
+              from Seattle corrected their spelling of the name of the
+              forgotten admiral, and it has since been officially
+              "Rainier National Park."]
+
+[Illustration: Washington Torrents, on Paradise River; a series of
+falls a mile in length, seen from the new road to Paradise and still
+better from the pony trail.]
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Paradise Park and the Tatoosh Range.]
+
+The Longmire road, rough as it was, long remained the best route; but
+in 1903 the Mountain found a tireless friend in the late Francis W.
+Cushman, representative from this State, who persuaded Congress to
+authorize the survey and construction of a better highway. Work was
+not begun, however, until 1906. The {p.061} yearly appropriations
+have been small, and total only $240,000 for surveys, construction and
+maintenance, to the end of the last session.
+
+[Illustration {p.060}: View from north side of the Tatoosh. 1. Crater
+Peak. 2. South Peak, or Peak Success. 3. Nisqually Glacier, with
+feeders. 4. Gibraltar Rock. 5. Camp Muir, on Cowlitz Cleaver. 6.
+Cathedral Rocks. 7. Little Tahoma. 8. Paradise Glacier. 9. Alta Vista.
+10. Camp of the Clouds. 11. Reese's Camp. 12. Sluiskin Falls. 13.
+Paradise River and Valley. 14. Mazama Ridge. 15. Reflection Lake. 16.
+Van Trump Glacier. 17. Von Trump Park. 18. Kautz Glacier. 19.
+Pyramid Peak. 20. Tahoma Glaciers. 21. Indian Henry's. Dotted line
+shows South-side route to the summit.]
+
+[Illustration: Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Sports. Tug of War between teams picked from
+the feminine contingent of the Mountaineers.]
+
+The road, as now open to Paradise valley, is a monument to the
+engineering skill of Mr. Eugene Ricksecker, United States Assistant
+Engineer, in local charge of the work. Over its even floor you go from
+the west boundary of the Forest Reserve up the north bank of the
+Nisqually river, as far as the foot of its glacier. Crossing on the
+bridge here, you climb up and up, around the face of a bluff known as
+Gap Point, where a step over the retaining wall would mean a sheer
+drop of a thousand feet into the river below. Thus you wind over to
+the Paradise river and famous Narada Falls, switch back up the side of
+the deep Paradise canyon to the beautiful valley of the same name
+above, and, still climbing, reach Camp of the Clouds and its
+picturesque tent hotel. The road has brought you a zigzag journey of
+twenty-five miles to cover an air-line distance of twelve and a gain
+in elevation of 3,600 feet. It is probably unique in its grades. It
+has no descents. Almost everywhere it is a gentle climb. {p.062}
+Below Longmire Springs the maximum grade is 2.5 per cent., and the
+average, 1.6 per cent. Beyond, the grade is steeper, but nowhere more
+than 4 per cent.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer. Tatoosh Mountains and
+Paradise Park in Winter.]
+
+The alignment and grades originally planned have been followed, but
+for want of funds only one stretch, a mile and a quarter, has yet been
+widened to the standard width of eighteen feet. Lacking money for a
+broader road, the engineers built the rest of it twelve feet wide.
+They wisely believed that early opening of the route for vehicles to
+Paradise, even though the road be less than standard width, would
+serve the public by making the Park better known, and thus arouse
+interest in making it still more accessible. It will require about
+$60,000 to complete the road to full width, and render it thoroughly
+secure.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer.
+Hiking through Paradise in Winter.]
+
+Of still greater importance, however, to the safety of the Park and
+its opening to public use is the carrying out of Mr. Ricksecker's fine
+plan for a road around the Mountain. His new map of the Park, printed
+at the end of this volume, shows the route proposed. Leaving the
+present road near Christine Falls, below the Nisqually glacier, he
+would double back over the hills to Indian Henry's, thence dropping
+into the canyon of Tahoma {p.064} Fork, climbing up to St. Andrew's
+Park, and so working round to the Mowich glaciers, Spray Falls, and
+the great "parks" on the north. The snout of each glacier would be
+reached in turn, and the high plateaus which the glaciers have left
+would be visited.
+
+[Illustration {p.063}: Copyright, 1910, By Asahel Curtis. Waterfall
+from snowfields on ridge above Paradise Valley.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking from Stevens Glacier down into Stevens Canyon,
+and across the Tatoosh and Cascade ranges to Mt. Adams.]
+
+Crossing Spray Park, Moraine Park and Winthrop glacier's old bed, the
+road would ascend to Grand Park and the Sour-Dough country--a region
+unsurpassed anywhere on the Mountain for the breadth and grandeur of
+its views. More descents, climbs and detours would bring it to the
+foot of White glacier, and thence through Summerland and Cowlitz Park,
+and westward to a junction with the existing road in Paradise. Its
+elevation would range between four and seven thousand feet above the
+sea. The route, as indicated on the contour map, suggests very plainly
+the engineering feats involved in hanging roads on these steep and
+deeply-carved slopes.
+
+[Illustration: Reese's Camp, a tent hotel on a ridge in Paradise Park,
+below Camp of the Clouds (Elevation, 5,557 feet). This is the usual
+starting point of parties to the summit over the South-side route, via
+Gibraltar. See p. 60.]
+
+Between eighty and a hundred miles of construction work would be
+required, costing approximately $10,000 a mile. Including the
+completion of the present {p.067} road to standard width, Congress
+will thus have to provide a round million if it wishes to give
+reasonable protection to the Park and fully achieve the purpose of
+"benefit and enjoyment" for which it was created. Such a road would
+justify the Congress which authorizes it, immortalize the engineers
+who build it, and honor the nation that owns it.
+
+[Illustration {p.065}: Climbing the "horn" on the summit of Unicorn
+Peak, the highest crag in the Tatoosh (Elevation, about 7,000 feet).
+The man who first reached the top is dimly seen in the shadow on the
+left.]
+
+[Illustration {p.066}: Stevens Canyon in October, with Mt. Adams over
+eastern end of Tatoosh range on right, and Cascade range on left. The
+snow summits on the Cascade sky-line are "Goat Peaks." Goat Lick Basin
+is in lower left corner of the picture.]
+
+[Illustration: Sluiskin Falls, 150 feet, just below Paradise Glacier,
+named after Sluiskin, the famous Indian who guided Van Trump and
+Stevens to the snow line in 1870.]
+
+Talking with President David Starr Jordan of Stanford University a few
+weeks ago, I found that famous climber of mountains greatly interested
+in the project for better roads and trails in the National Park. "How
+much will the whole thing cost?" he asked. I told him.
+
+[Illustration: An eminent scientist practices the simple life in camp
+near the Timber Line.]
+
+"Why, a million dollars would pay for the upkeep of one of our
+battleships for a whole year!" exclaimed the great advocate of
+disarmament. Whether Congress can be induced to value scenery as
+highly as battleships remains to be seen. It has already done very
+well by the Yellowstone National Park, where $2,142,720 of government
+money had been spent on road building and administration up to July 1,
+1910. No one who knows the glories of that park will deem the amount
+excessive. But with its still grander scenery, its important glaciers,
+its priceless forests, and the greater population within easy reach of
+its opportunities for study and recreation, the claims of the Rainier
+National Park are at least equal to those of the Yellowstone, and they
+should be as liberally met.
+
+[Illustration {p.068}: Nisqually Glacier, with its sources in the
+snow field of the summit. On the right is Gibraltar Rock and on the
+extreme left Kautz Glacier flows down from Peak Success. Note the
+medial moraines, resulting from junction of ice streams above. These
+apparently small lines of dirt are often great ridges of rocks, cut
+from the cliffs. The picture also illustrates how the marginal
+crevasses of a glacier point down stream from the center, though the
+center flows faster than the sides.]
+
+{p.069}
+[Illustration: The Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier. This active
+California organization sent a large party to the Mountain in 1905.]
+
+It is not desired that the whole sum named be appropriated at once.
+Indeed, the recommendation of the engineers has been far more modest.
+As far back as 1907, Maj. H. M. Chittenden of the United States
+Engineer Corps, in charge, wrote as follows in his report to the
+Secretary of War:
+
+     A bridle trail around the Mountain, just under the glacier line,
+     is absolutely essential to the proper policing of the Park, and
+     very necessary for the convenience of tourists, if they are
+     really to have access to the attractions of the Park. The trail
+     should be so located that in time it may be enlarged into a wagon
+     road.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, Asahel Curtis. Lost to the World,
+7,500 feet above sea level, with an ocean of cloud rising.]
+
+This recommendation has been indorsed by Major Chittenden's successor,
+Maj. C. W. Kutz, and may be taken as expressing the conviction of the
+government {p.070} engineers as to the minimum of work needed in the
+Park at once. For the necessary surveys and the building of the
+trails, Mr. Ricksecker informs me that $50,000 will probably be
+enough. This is so insignificant in comparison with the good sought
+and the value of the national property to be protected and made
+accessible that its immediate appropriation by Congress should be
+beyond question. Nevertheless, half that amount has twice been asked
+for in measures introduced by Senator S. H. Piles, but in neither case
+did the appropriation pass both houses. It is to be hoped that the
+present Congress will give the full amount of $50,000, which will
+enable the surveys to be completed over the entire route, and trails
+to be built on most, if not all, of that route. Their widening into
+permanent roads will follow in due time, when the wonders of glacier,
+canyon and forest which they make accessible are once known.
+
+[Illustration: "Sunshine." View of the Mountain from above Sluiskin
+Falls at 3 P.M.]
+
+[Illustration: "Storm." View near the same point an hour later.]
+
+The road recently completed to Paradise Valley should be widened, by
+all means, and made safer by retaining walls at every danger point.
+But it is doubtful whether automobiles will ever be permitted above
+the bridge at the Nisqually glacier. Some automobile owners regard the
+Park as an automobile-club preserve, and insist that nothing more be
+done toward the opening of its {p.072} scenery or the conservation
+of its forest until it is made safe for them to run their touring cars
+into Paradise. This is unfortunate, because it betrays ignorance of
+the purpose of Congress in creating the National Parks, namely, the
+education and enjoyment of all the people, not the pleasure of a
+class. Moreover, no matter how wide or well-guarded the road may be
+above the bridge, it can never be wide enough to prevent a reckless
+chauffeur from causing a terrible fatality. It is necessarily a very
+crooked road, hung upon the high ledges of precipitous cliffs. While
+the road is safe for coaches drawn by well-broken horses and driven by
+trustworthy drivers, it would be criminal folly to open it to the
+crowd of automobiles that would rush to Paradise Valley. If
+automobiles are permitted to go beyond the Nisqually glacier, it
+should be only when in charge of a park officer.
+
+[Illustration {p.071}: Looking down on Nisqually Glacier from top of
+Gibraltar Rock, with storm clouds veiling the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Measuring the Ice Flow in Nisqually Glacier. In 1905
+Prof. J. N. Le Conte of Berkeley, Cal., established the fact that this
+glacier has an average flow, in summer, of 16.2 inches a day. The
+movement is greater at the center than on the sides, and greater on
+the convex side of a curve than on the concave side. It thus is a true
+river, though a slow one. The measurements are taken by running a line
+from one lateral moraine to the other with a transit, setting stakes
+across the glacier at short intervals, and ascertaining the advance
+they make from day to day.]
+
+Even from the older and wider roads of the Yellowstone automobiles
+have been excluded, although there are no large cities near by, as
+there are here, to send hundreds of cars into that park on any
+pleasant day. The automobilists will be wise to accept their privilege
+of access to the foot of the glacier, and use it with care, too.
+Several serious accidents have already occurred, and if greater care
+is not exercised, the Interior Department will apply the Yellowstone
+rule, at least to the extent of stopping all cars at Longmires.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Miss Fay Fuller
+exploring a crevasse.]
+
+[Illustration {p.073}: Copyright 1906, By A. H. Barnes. Ice Cave,
+Paradise Glacier.]
+
+Questions like this, involving conflict between the interests of a
+class and the vital needs of the Park as a public institution,
+{p.075} give especial emphasis to the recommendation made by
+Secretary Ballinger on his last annual report. Owing to the great
+number and extent of the National Parks, and the inefficiency of the
+present "perfunctory policy" in their administration, Mr. Ballinger
+asked Congress to put the management of these institutions under a
+Bureau of National Parks, conducted by a competent commissioner, and
+organized for efficient field administration and careful inspection of
+all public work and of the conduct of concessionaries. Regarding the
+need of such a systematic and scientific organization for the
+development of the parks, he says:
+
+     A definite policy for their maintenance, supervision and
+     improvement should be established, which would enable them to be
+     gradually opened up for the convenience of tourists and campers
+     and for the careful preservation of their natural features.
+     Complete and comprehensive plans for roads, trails, telegraph and
+     telephone lines, sewer and water systems, hotel accommodations,
+     transportation, and other conveniences should be made before any
+     large amount of money is expended. The treatment of our national
+     parks, except as regards the Yellowstone, has not heretofore had
+     the benefit of any well-considered or systematic plans. In all of
+     them the road and trail problems for public travel and
+     convenience to enable tourists to obtain the benefits of scenic
+     beauties are primary, but sewage, water, and electric-power
+     problems are after all of equal importance.
+
+[Illustration: Fairy Falls in Goat Lick Basin, below Stevens Glacier.]
+
+In line with Secretary Ballinger's report, Senator Flint of California
+introduced a bill authorizing the creation of such a bureau in the
+Interior Department. The bill failed to get through at the last
+session, but I am informed by Senator Jones that it will be
+reintroduced. Its purpose is of great public importance, and the
+indorsement of the very intelligent directors of the Sierra Club in
+California argues well for its form. Every person interested in the
+development of our National Parks to fullest usefulness and the proper
+conservation of their natural beauty should work for the passage of
+the bill.
+
+[Illustration {p.076}: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Gibraltar and
+its Neighbors, showing a mile of the deeply crevassed ice-field inside
+the angle of which the great crag is the apex. On the left are Cowlitz
+Cleaver and the Bee-Hive; on the right, Cathedral Rocks.]
+
+{p.077}
+[Illustration: Crossing Carbon Glacier. On the ice slopes, it
+is customary to divide a large party into companies of ten, with an
+experienced alpinist at the head of each. Note the medial moraines on
+the glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+THE STORY OF THE MOUNTAIN.
+
+     I asked myself, How was this colossal work performed? Who
+     chiseled these mighty and picturesque masses out of a mere
+     protuberance of earth? And the answer was at hand. Ever young,
+     ever mighty, with the vigor of a thousand worlds still within
+     him, the real sculptor was even then climbing up the eastern sky.
+     It was he who planted the glaciers on the mountain slopes, thus
+     giving gravity a plough to open out the valleys; and it is he
+     who, acting through the ages, will finally lay low these mighty
+     monuments, * * * so that the people of an older earth may see
+     mould spread and corn wave over the hidden rocks which at this
+     moment bear the weight of the Jungfrau.--_John Tyndall: "Hours of
+     Exercise in the Alps."_
+
+     The life of a glacier is one eternal grind.--_John Muir._
+
+
+Our stately Mountain, in its youth, was as comely and symmetrical a
+cone as ever graced the galaxy of volcanic peaks. To-day, while still
+young as compared with the obelisk crags of the Alps, it has already
+taken on the venerable and deeply-scarred physiognomy of a veteran. It
+is no longer merely an overgrown boy among the hills, but, cut and
+torn by the ice of centuries, it is fast assuming the dignity and
+interest of a patriarch of the mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Reflection Lake,
+below Pinnacle Peak and the Mountain.]
+
+To some, no doubt, the smooth, youthful contours of an active volcano
+seem more beautiful than the rugged grandeur of the Weisshorn. The
+perfect cone of Mt. St. Helens, until recently in eruption, pleases
+them more than the broad dome of Mt. Adams, rounded by an explosion in
+the unknown past. But for those who love nature and the story written
+upon its {p.079} face, mountains have character as truly as men,
+and they show it in their features as clearly.
+
+[Illustration {p.078}: Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys to Gibraltar
+and the summit. 1, Crater and Columbia's Crest. 2, Peak Success. 3,
+Upper snow fields of Nisqually Glacier. 4, Gibraltar Rock. 5, Cowlitz
+Cleaver. 6, Cathedral Rocks. 7, Little Tahoma. 8, Cowlitz Glacier. 9,
+Ingraham Glacier, emptying into the Cowlitz.]
+
+[Illustration: Divide of Paradise and Stevens Glaciers. Once probably
+separated by a chine of rock, they are now one save for a slight
+elevation in their bed, which turns them respectively toward Paradise
+Valley and Stevens Canyon.]
+
+[Illustration: Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier. Now comparatively small
+and harmless, this glacier did heavy work in its prime. Witness,
+Stevens Canyon (p. 66) and this huge pile of debris, showing that some
+time ago the glacier, finding a cliff in its way, cut it down and
+dumped it here.]
+
+Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the monarch of the
+Cascades. No longer the huge conical pimple which a volcano erected on
+the earth's crust, it bears upon it the history of its own explosion,
+which scattered its top far over the landscape, and of its losing
+battle with the sun, which, employing the heaviest of all {p.080}
+tools, is steadily destroying it. It has already lost a tenth of its
+height and a third of its bulk. The ice is cutting deeper and deeper
+into its sides. Upon three of them, it has excavated great
+amphitheaters, which it is ceaselessly driving back toward the heart
+of the peak. As if to compensate for losses in size and shapeliness,
+the Mountain presents the most important phenomena of glacial action
+to be seen in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: Climbers preparing for a night at Camp Muir (altitude
+10,000 feet), in order to get an early start for the summit. This is
+on the Cowlitz Cleaver, below Gibraltar. John Muir, the famous
+mountain climber, selected this spot as a camp in 1888. A stout cabin
+should be built here to shelter climbers.]
+
+[Illustration: The Bee-Hive, a landmark on Cowlitz Cleaver, below
+Gibraltar.]
+
+In its dimensions, however, it is still one of the world's great
+peaks. The Rainier National Park, eighteen miles square--as large as
+many counties in the East--has an elevation along its western and
+lowest boundary averaging four thousand feet above sea level. Assuming
+a diameter for the peak of only twenty miles, the {p.081} area
+occupied by this creature of a volcano exceeds three hundred square
+miles. Of its vast surface upwards of 32,500 acres, or about fifty-one
+square miles, are covered by glaciers or the fields of perpetual snow
+which feed them. A straight line drawn through from the end of North
+Tahoma glacier, on the west side, to the end of White glacier, on the
+east, would be thirteen miles long. The circumference of the crest on
+the 10,000-foot contour is nearly seven miles. Its glacial system is,
+and doubtless has long been, the most extensive on the continent,
+south of Alaska; it is said by scientists to outrank that of any
+mountain in Europe. The twelve primary glaciers vary in length from
+three to eight miles, and from half a mile to three miles in width.
+There are nearly as many "interglaciers," or smaller ice streams which
+gather their snow supply, not from the névé fields of the summit, but
+within the wedges of rock which the greater glaciers have left
+pointing upward on the higher slopes.
+
+[Illustration: Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys, looking across the
+ice-stream of the Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to Gibraltar. This hacked and
+weather-worn spine left by the glaciers forms one wing of a great
+inverted V, with Gibraltar as its apex. On the other side of it is a
+drop of several thousand feet to Nisqually Glacier.]
+
+The geological story may be told in a few untechnical words. As those
+folds in the earth's crust which parallel the coast were slowly formed
+by the lateral pressure of sea upon land, fractures often occurred in
+the general incline thus {p.082} created. Through the fissures that
+resulted the subterranean fires thrust molten rock. In many cases, the
+expulsion was of sufficient amount and duration to form clearly
+defined volcanic craters. The most active craters built up, by
+continued eruptions of lava and ashes, a great series of cones now
+seen on both sides of the Cordillera, that huge mountain system which
+borders the Pacific from Behring sea to the Straits of Magellan.
+Tacoma-Rainier is one of the more important units in this army of
+volcanic giants.
+
+[Illustration: Mazamas rounding Gibraltar--a reminiscence of the
+ascent by the Portland club in 1905. The precipice rises more than
+1000 feet above the trail which offers a precarious footing at the
+head of a steep slope of loose talus.]
+
+Unlike some of its companions, however, it owes its bulk less to lava
+flows than to the explosive eruptions which threw forth bombs and
+scoriae. It is a mass of agglomerates, with only occasional strata of
+solid volcanic rock. This becomes evident to one who inspects the
+exposed sides of any of the canyons, or of the great cliffs, Gibraltar
+Rock, Little Tahoma or Russell Peak. It is made clear in such pictures
+as are on this page and the next.
+
+This looseness of structure accounts for the rapidity with which the
+glaciers are cutting into the peak, and carrying it away. Most of them
+carry an extraordinary amount of debris, to be deposited in lateral or
+terminal moraines, or dropped in streams which they feed. They are
+rivers of rock as well as of ice.
+
+[Illustration: Under the walls of Gibraltar.]
+
+{p.083} That the glaciers of this and every other mountain in the
+northern hemisphere are receding, and that they are now mere pygmies
+compared with their former selves, is well known. What their
+destructive power must have been when their volume was many times
+greater than now may be judged from the moraines along their former
+channels. Some of these ridges are hundreds of feet in height. As you
+go to the Mountain from Tacoma, either by the Tacoma Eastern railway
+or the Nisqually canyon road, you find them everywhere above the
+prairies. They are largest on the north side of the Mountain, because
+there the largest glaciers have been busy. Many of them, on all sides,
+are covered with forests that must be centuries old.
+
+Even now, diminished as they are, the glaciers are fast transporting
+the Mountain toward the sea. Wherever a glacier skirts a cliff, it is
+cutting into its side, as it cuts into its own bed below. From the
+overhanging rocks, too, debris falls as a result of "weathering." The
+daily ebb and flow of frost and heat help greatly to tear down the
+cliffs. Thus marginal moraines built of the debris begin to form, on
+the ice, far up the side of the peak. As the glacier advances, driven
+by its weight and the resistless mass of snow above, it is often
+joined by another glacier, bringing its own marginal moraines. Where
+the two meet, a medial moraine results. (See illustrations, pp. 68 and
+77.) Some medial moraines are many feet high. Trees are found growing
+on them. In Switzerland houses are built upon them. Often the debris
+which they transport, as the ice carries them forward, includes rocks
+as big as a ship.
+
+[Illustration: One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir.]
+
+[Illustration {p.084}: A perilous position on the edge of a great
+crevasse. Cowlitz Glacier, near end of Cathedral Rocks.]
+
+A glacier's flow varies from a hundred to a thousand feet or more a
+year, depending upon {p.085} its volume, its width, and the slope of
+its bed. As the decades pass, its level is greatly lowered by the
+melting of the ice. More and more, earth and rocks accumulate upon the
+surface, as it travels onward, and are scattered over it by the rains
+and melting snow. At last, in its old age, when far down its canyon,
+the glacier is completely hidden, save where crevasses reveal the ice.
+Only at its snout, where it breaks off, as a rule, in a high wall of
+ice, do we realize how huge a volume and weight it must have, far
+above toward its sources, or why so many of the crevasses on the upper
+ice fields seem almost bottomless.
+
+[Illustration: Climbing the "Chute," west side of Gibraltar. Here the
+guides cut steps in the ice.]
+
+These hints of the almost inconceivable mass of a glacier, with its
+millions of millions of tons, suggest how much of the Mountain has
+already been whittled and planed away. But here we may do better than
+speculate. The original surface of the peak is clearly indicated by
+the tops of the great rocks which have survived the glacial
+sculpturing. These rise from one to two thousand feet above the
+glaciers, which are themselves several thousand feet in depth. The
+best known of them is the point formed by Gibraltar and the ridges
+that stretch downward from it, Cowlitz Cleaver and Cathedral Rocks,
+making a great inverted V. Eastward of this, another V with its apex
+toward the summit, is called Little Tahoma; and beyond, still another,
+Steamboat Prow, forming the tip of "The Wedge."
+
+Spines of rock like these are found on all sides of the peak. They
+help us to estimate its greater circumference and bulk, before the
+glaciers had chiseled so deep.
+
+[Illustration: Looking from top of Gibraltar to the Summit. Elevation
+of camera, 12,300 feet. In distance is seen the rim of the crater. The
+route to this is a steady climb, with 2,000 feet of ascent in one mile
+of distance. Many detours have to be made to avoid crevasses. Note the
+big crevasse stretching away on right--a "Bergschrund," as the Swiss
+call a break where one side falls below the other. The stratification
+on its side shows in each layer a year's snow, packed into ice.]
+
+{p.086} But they do even more. Wherever lava flows occurred in the
+building of the Mountain, strata formed; and such stratification is
+clearly seen at intervals on the sides of the great rocks just
+mentioned. Its incline, of course, is that of the former surface. The
+strata point upward--not toward the summit which we see, but far above
+it. For this reason the geologists who have examined the arêtes most
+closely are agreed that the peak has lost nearly two thousand feet of
+its height. It blew its own head off!
+
+Such explosive eruptions are among the worst vices of volcanoes. Every
+visitor to Naples remembers how plainly the landscape north of
+Vesuvius tells of a prehistoric decapitation, which left only a low,
+broad platform, on the south rim of which the little Vesuvius that
+many of us have climbed was formed by later eruptions, while a part of
+the north rim is well defined in "Monte Somma." Similarly, here at
+home, Mt. Adams and Mt. Baker are truncated cones, while, on the other
+hand, St. Helens and Hood are still symmetrical.
+
+Like Vesuvius, too, Rainier-Tacoma has built upon the plateau left
+when it lost its head. Peak Success, overlooking Indian Henry's, and
+Liberty Cap, the northern elevation, seen from Seattle and Tacoma, are
+nearly three miles apart on the west side of the broad summit. These
+are parts of the rim of the old crater. East of the line uniting them,
+and about two miles from each, the volcano built up an elevation now
+known as Crater Peak, comprising two small adjacent craters. These
+burnt-out craters are now filled with snow, and where the rims touch,
+a big snow-hill rises--the strange creature of eddying winds that
+sweep up through the great flume cut by volcanic explosion and
+glacial action in the west side of the peak. (See pp. 14, 27, and 52.)
+
+[Illustration {p.087}: View South from Cowlitz Glacier: elevation,
+8,000 feet. Seven miles away are the huge eastern peaks of the
+Tatoosh. The Cascades beyond break in Cispus Pass, and rise, on the
+left, to the glacier summits called Goat Peaks. The truncated cone of
+Mt. Adams, more than forty miles away, crowns the sky-line.]
+
+{p.088}
+[Illustration: These views show the larger of the two comparatively
+modern and small craters on the broad platform left by the explosion
+which decapitated the Peak. Prof. Flett measured this crater, and
+found it 1,600 feet from north to south, and 1,450 feet from east to
+west. The other, much smaller, adjoins it so closely that their rims
+touch. Together they form an eminence of 1,000 feet (Crater Peak), at
+a distance of about two miles from North Peak (Liberty Cap) and South
+Peak (Peak Success). At the junction of their rims is the great snow
+hill (on right of view) called "Columbia's Crest." This is the actual
+summit. The volcano having long been inactive, the craters are filled
+with snow, but the residual heat causes steam and gases to escape in
+places along their rims.]
+
+[Illustration {p.089}]
+
+This mound of snow is the present actual top. Believing it the highest
+point in the United States south of Alaska, a party of climbers, in
+1894, named it "Columbia's Crest." This was long thought to be the
+Mountain's rightful distinction, for different computations by experts
+gave various elevations ranging as high as 14,529 feet, with none
+prior to 1902 giving less than 14,444 feet. Even upon a government map
+published as late as 1907 the height is stated as 14,526 feet. In view
+of this variety of expert opinion, the flattering name, not
+unnaturally, has stuck, in spite of the fact that the government
+geographers have now adopted, for the Dictionary of Altitudes, the
+height found by the United States Geological Survey in 1902, 14,363
+feet. That decision leaves the honor of being the loftiest peak
+between Alaska and Mexico to Mt. Whitney in the California Sierra
+(14,502 feet).
+
+[Illustration: Steam Caves in one of the craters. The residual heat of
+the extinct volcano causes steam and gases to escape from vents in the
+rims of the two small craters. Alpinists often spend a night in the
+caves thus formed in the snow.]
+
+{p.089}
+[Illustration: North Peak, named "Liberty Cap" because of its
+resemblance to the Bonnet Rouge of the French Revolutionists.
+Elevation, about 14,000 feet. View taken from the side of Crater Peak.
+Distance, nearly two miles.]
+
+The definitive map of the National Park which was begun last summer by
+the Geological Survey, with Mr. Francois E. Matthes in charge, will
+establish the elevations of all important landmarks in the Park. Among
+these will be the Mountain itself. Whether this will add much, if
+anything, to the current figure of the Dictionary is uncertain. In any
+case, the result will not lessen the pride of the Northwest in its
+great peak. A few feet of height signify nothing. No California
+mountain masked behind the Sierra can vie in majesty with this lonely
+pile that rises in stately grandeur from the shores of Puget Sound.
+
+[Illustration {p.090}: Goat Peaks, glacier summits in the Cascades,
+southeast of the Mountain. Elevation, about 8,000 feet, A branch of
+the Cowlitz is seen flowing down from the glaciers above.]
+
+[Illustration {p.091}: Copyright 1907, By W. P. Romans. Spray Park,
+from Fay Peak, showing the beautiful region between the Carbon and
+North Mowich Glaciers.]
+
+{p.093}
+[Illustration: Ice-bound Lake in Cowlitz Park, with top of
+Little Tahoma in distance.]
+
+[Illustration: Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier, with waterfall dropping
+from Cowlitz Park, over basaltic cliffs.]
+
+The wide area which the Mountain thrusts far up into the sky is a
+highly efficient condenser of moisture. Near to the Pacific as it is,
+its broad summit and upper slopes collect several hundred feet of snow
+each year from the warm Chinooks blowing in from the west. On all
+sides this vast mass presses down, hardened into solid granular névé,
+to feed the twelve primary glaciers. Starting eastward from Paradise
+Valley, these principal ice-streams are: Cowlitz and Ingraham
+glaciers; White or White River glacier, largest of all; Winthrop
+glacier, named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, in whose romance of
+travel, "The Canoe and the Saddle," the ancient Indian name "Tacoma"
+was first printed; Carbon, North and South Mowich, Puyallup, North and
+South Tahoma, Kautz and Nisqually glaciers. The most important
+secondary glaciers, or "interglaciers," rising within the great rock
+wedges which I have described, are called Interglacier, Frying-Pan,
+{p.094} Stevens, Paradise and Van Trump. All of these are of the true
+Alpine type; that is, they are moving rivers of ice, as distinguished
+from "continental glaciers," the ice caps which cover vast regions in
+the Arctic and Antarctic.
+
+[Illustration: Crossing a precipitous slope on White Glacier. Little
+Tahoma in distance.]
+
+In thus naming the glaciers, I have followed the time-honored local
+usage, giving the names applied by the earliest explorers and since
+used with little variation in the Northwest. There has been some
+confusion, however, chiefly owing to a recent government map. For
+instance, in that publication, White glacier, properly so called
+because it is the main feeder of the White river, was named Emmons
+glacier, after S. F. Emmons, a geologist who was one of the first to
+visit it. It is interesting to note that in his reports Mr. Emmons
+himself called this the White River glacier. On the other hand, the
+map mentioned, after displacing the name White from the larger glacier
+to which it logically belongs, gave it to the ice-stream feeding
+another branch of the White river, namely, the glacier always locally
+called the Winthrop, and so called by Prof. Russell in his report to
+the Geological Survey in 1897.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, By S. C. Smith. Climbing Goat Peaks,
+in the Cascades, with the Mountain twenty miles away.]
+
+[Illustration {p.095}: Looking up White Glacier (right), from a point
+on its lower end, showing vast amount of morainal debris carried down
+by this glacier. Little Tahoma in middle distance; Gibraltar and
+Cathedral Rocks on extreme right; "Goat Island" on left. Elevation of
+camera, about 4,500 feet. Note the "cloud banner" which the crag has
+flung to the breeze.]
+
+{p.096}
+[Illustration: The Mountain seen from the top of Cascade
+range, with party starting west over the forest trails for Paradise.]
+
+[Illustration: Great moraine built by Frying-Pan Glacier on side of
+"Goat Island."]
+
+Similarly, North and South Mowich, names of the streams to which they
+give birth, were miscalled Willis and Edmunds glaciers, after Bailey
+Willis, geologist, and George F. Edmunds, late United States senator,
+who visited the Mountain many years ago. The Mowich rivers were so
+named by the Indians from the fact that, in the great rocks on the
+northwest side of the peak, just below the summit, they saw the figure
+of the mowich, or deer. The deer of rock is there still--he may be
+seen in several pictures in this volume,--and so long as he keeps to
+his icy pasture it will be difficult to displace his name from the
+glaciers and rivers below. The southern branch of the great Tahoma
+glacier, locally called South Tahoma glacier, this map renamed Wilson
+glacier, for A. D. Wilson, Emmons's companion in exploration. Finally,
+the name of General Hazard Stevens, who, {p.097} with Mr. Van Trump,
+made the first ascent of the peak in 1870, was misplaced, being given
+to the west branch of the Nisqually, whereas the general usage has
+fixed the name of that pioneer upon the well-defined interglacier east
+of the Paradise, and above Stevens canyon, which in its prime it
+carved on the side of the Mountain. General Stevens himself writes me
+from Boston that this is the correct usage.
+
+[Illustration: Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier, below Little Tahoma.]
+
+Such errors in an official document are the more inexcusable because
+their author ignored local names recognized in the earlier
+publications of the government and its agents. In such matters, too,
+the safe principle is to follow local custom where that is logical and
+established. The new map prepared by Mr. Ricksecker, and printed
+herewith, returns to the older and better usage. Unless good reason
+can be shown for departing from it, his careful compilation should be
+followed. Willis Wall, above Carbon Glacier, appropriately recalls the
+work of Bailey Willis. The explorations of Emmons and Wilson may well
+be commemorated by landmarks as yet unnamed, not by displacing fit
+names long current.
+
+In connection with his survey of the Park, Mr. Matthes has been
+authorized to collect local testimony as to established names within
+that area, and to invite suggestions as to appropriate names for
+landmarks not yet definitely named. His report will doubtless go to
+the National Geographic Board for final decision on the names
+recommended. Thus, in time, we may hope to see this awkward and
+confusing tangle in mountain nomenclature straightened out.
+
+[Illustration: Sunrise above the clouds, seen from Camp Curtis, on the
+Wedge, (altitude 9,500 feet); White Glacier below. This camp was named
+by the Mountaineers in 1909, in honor of Asahel Curtis, the Seattle
+climber.]
+
+{p.098}
+[Illustration: Looking up from "Snipe Lake," a small pond below
+Interglacier, to the head of Winthrop Glacier and Liberty Cap.]
+
+The written history of the Mountain begins with its discovery by
+Captain George Vancouver. Its first appearance upon a map occurs in
+Vancouver's well-known report, published in 1798, after his death:
+"Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and around the World,
+1790-1795."
+
+It was in the summer of 1792, shortly after Vancouver had entered the
+Sound, he tells us, that he first saw "a very remarkable high round
+mountain, covered with snow, apparently at the southern extremity of
+the distant snowy range." A few days later he again mentions "the
+round snowy mountain," "which, after my friend Rear-Admiral Rainier, I
+distinguished by the name of Mount Rainier." Nearly all of Captain
+Vancouver's friends were thus distinguished, at the cost of the Indian
+names, to which doubtless he gave no thought. Sonorous "Kulshan" and
+unique "Whulge" were lost, in order that we might celebrate "Mr.
+Baker" and "Mr. Puget," junior officers of Vancouver's expedition.
+
+[Illustration: Passing a big crevasse on Interglacier. Sour-Dough
+Mountains on the right, with Grand Park beyond: St. Elmo Pass in
+center, Snipe Lake and Glacier Basin in depression.]
+
+[Illustration {p.099}: View north from Mt. Ruth (part of the Wedge), with
+Interglacier in foreground, the Snipe Lake country below, Sour-Dough
+Mountains on right, Grand Park in middle distance, and Mt. Baker, with
+the summits of the Selkirks, far away in Canada, on the horizon.]
+
+{p.100}
+[Illustration: Camp on St. Elmo Pass, north side of the Wedge, between
+Winthrop Glacier and Interglacier. Elevation, 9,000 feet. Winthrop
+Glacier and the fork of White River which it feeds are seen in
+distance below. The man is Maj. E. S. Ingraham, a veteran explorer of
+the Mountain, after whom Ingraham Glacier is named.]
+
+[Illustration: East face of the Mountain, from south side of the
+Wedge, showing route to the summit over White Glacier.]
+
+Happily, the fine Indian name "Tacoma" was not offered up a sacrifice
+to such obscurity. Forgotten as he is now, Peter Rainier was, in his
+time, something of a figure. After some ransacking of libraries, I
+have found a page that gives us a glimpse of a certain hard-fought
+though unequal combat, in the year 1778, between an American privateer
+and two British ships. It is of interest in connection with "Mount
+Rainier," the name recognized by the Geographic Board at Washington in
+1889 as official.
+
+     On the 8th of July, the 14-gun ship Ostrich, Commander Peter
+     Rainier, on the Jamaica station, in company with the 10-gun armed
+     brig Lowestoffe's Prize, chased a large brig. After a long run,
+     the Ostrich brought the brig, which was the American privateer
+     Polly, to action, and, after an engagement of three hours'
+     duration (by which time the Lowestoffe's Prize had arrived up and
+     {p.101} taken part in the contest), compelled her to surrender.
+     * * * * Captain Rainier was wounded by a musket ball through the
+     left breast; he could not, however, be prevailed upon to go
+     below, but remained on deck till the close of the action. He was
+     posted, and appointed to command the 64-gun ship Burford.
+     (_Allen: "Battles of the British Navy,"_ Vol. I., London, 1872).
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Peter Rainier, of the British Navy, in whose
+honor Captain George Vancouver, in 1792, named the great peak "Mt.
+Rainier."]
+
+Before quitting with Vancouver and eighteenth-century history of the
+Mountain, I note that our peak enjoyed a further honor. Captain
+Vancouver records an interesting event that took place on the
+anniversary of King George's birth;--"on which auspicious day," he
+says, "I had long since designed to take formal possession of all the
+countries we had lately been employed in exploring, in the name of,
+and for, His Britannic Majesty, his heirs and successors." And he did!
+
+[Illustration: First picture of the Mountain, from Vancouver's "Voyage
+of Discovery," London, 1798.]
+
+After Vancouver's brief mention, and the caricature of our peak
+printed in his work, literature is practically silent about the
+Mountain for more than sixty years. Those years witnessed the failure
+of England's memorable struggle to make good Vancouver's "annexation."
+Oregon was at last a state. Out of its original area Washington
+Territory had just been carved. In that year of 1853 {p.102} came
+Theodore Winthrop, of the old New England family, who was destined to
+a lasting and pathetic fame as an author of delightful books and a
+victim of the first battle of the Civil War. Sailing into what is now
+the harbor of the city of Tacoma, he there beheld the peak. We feel
+his enthusiasm as he tells of the appeal it made to him.
+
+[Illustration: Climbers on St. Elmo Pass, seen from the upper side.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Elmo Pass from north side. The name was given by
+Maj. Ingraham in 1886 because of a remarkable exhibition of St. Elmo's
+fire seen here during a great storm. A cabin is needed at this
+important crossing.]
+
+[Illustration: Avalanche Camp (11,000 feet), on the high, ragged chine
+between Carbon and Winthrop. Carbon Glacier, seen below, has cut
+through a great range, leaving Mother Mountains on the left and the
+Sluiskins, right.]
+
+     We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of
+     sheltered calmness, when I was suddenly aware of a vast white
+     shadow in the water. What cloud, piled massive on the horizon,
+     could cast an image so sharp in outline, so full of vigorous
+     detail of surface? No cloud, but a cloud compeller. It was a
+     giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming to fill the
+     aerial spheres, as its image displaced the blue deeps of tranquil
+     water. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the
+     unearthly regions of clear blue noonday sky.
+
+     Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible consort,
+     though far to the north and the south its brethren and sisters
+     dominated their realms. Of all the peaks from California to
+     {p.103} Frazer's River, this one before me was royalest. Mount
+     Regnier[5] Christians have dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature
+     perpetuating the name of somebody or nobody. More melodiously the
+     Siwashes call it Tacoma,--a generic term also applied to all snow
+     peaks. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed volcanic dome, or
+     an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps not yet wholly
+     lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more of
+     feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and
+     hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer
+     and more divine.
+
+              [Footnote 5: Winthrop's error was a common one at that
+              time and has remained current till to-day. The admiral's
+              grandfather, the Huguenot exile, was "Regnier," but his
+              descendants anglicized the patronymic into "Rainier."]
+
+     No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a
+     virginal mountain, distant from human inquisitiveness as a marble
+     goddess is from human loves. Yet there was nothing unsympathetic
+     in its isolation, or despotic in its distant majesty. Only the
+     thought of eternal peace arose from this heaven-upbearing
+     monument like incense, and, overflowing, filled the world with
+     deep and holy calm.
+
+     Our lives demand visual images that can be symbols to us of the
+     grandeur or the sweetness of repose. The noble works of nature,
+     and mountains most of all,
+
+                        "have power to make
+  Our noisy years seem moments in the being
+  Of the eternal silence."
+
+     And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed
+     from it and entered into my being a thought and image of solemn
+     beauty, which I could thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I
+     must {p.104} have peace or die. For such emotion years of
+     pilgrimage were worthily spent. ("_The Canoe and the Saddle_,"
+     published posthumously in 1862).
+
+[Illustration: Russell Peak, from Avalanche Camp, 2,500 feet below.
+Named for Prof. Israel C. Russell, geologist.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking up Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking across Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp to
+Steamboat Prow (the Wedge) and St. Elmo Pass. Elevation of camera,
+11,000 feet.]
+
+In the controversy over the Mountain's name, some persons have been
+misled into imaging Winthrop a fabricator of pseudo-Indian
+nomenclature. But his work bears scrutiny. He wrote before there was
+any dispute as to the name, or any rivalry between towns to confound
+partisanship with scholarship. He was in the Territory while Captain
+George B. McClellan, was surveying the Cascades to find a pass for a
+railroad. He was in close touch with McClellan's party, and doubtless
+knew well its able ethnologist, George Gibbs, the Harvard man whose
+works on the Indian languages of the Northwest are the foundation of
+all later books in that field. Although he first learned it from the
+Indians, in all likelihood he discussed the name "Tacoma" with Gibbs,
+who was already collecting material for his writings, published in the
+{p.107} report of the Survey and in the "Contributions" of the
+Smithsonian Institution. Among these are the vocabularies of a score
+of Indian dialects, which must be mentioned here because they are
+conclusive as to the form, meaning and application of the name.
+
+[Illustration {p.105}: View south from the Sluiskin Mountains across
+Moraine Park to the head of Carbon Glacier. Elevation of camera, 6,500
+feet. Moraine Park, below, was until recently the bed of an
+interglacier. On the extreme left, Avalanche Camp and Russell Peak are
+seen between Carbon and Winthrop Glaciers.]
+
+[Illustration {p.106}: Portion of Spray Park, with north-side view of
+the Mountain, showing Observation Rock and timber line. Elevation of
+camera, 7,000 feet.]
+
+[Illustration: Climbing the séracs of Winthrop Glacier.]
+
+In his vocabulary of the Winatsha (Wenatchee) language, Gibbs entered:
+"T'koma, snow peak." In that of the Niswalli (Nisqually), he noted:
+"Takob, the name of Mt. Rainier." "T'kope," Chinook for white, is
+evidently closely allied. Gibbs himself tells us that the Northwestern
+dialects treated b and m as convertible. "Takob" is equivalent to
+"Takom" or "T'koma." Far, then, from coining the word, Winthrop did
+not even change its Indian form, as some have supposed, by modifying
+the mouth-filling "Tahoma" of the Yakimas into the simpler, stronger
+and more musical "Tacoma." This is as pure Indian as the other, and
+Winthrop's popularization of the word was a public service, as
+perpetuating one of the most significant of our Indian place-names.
+
+I have said thus much, not to revive a musty and, to me, very amusing
+quarrel, but because correspondents in different parts of the country
+have asked regarding facts that are naturally part of the history of
+the Mountain. Some would even have me stir the embers of that ancient
+controversy. For instance, here is the _Bulletin of the Geographical
+Society of Philadelphia_ taking me to task:
+
+     This book would also do a great service if it would help
+     popularize the name "Tacoma" in spite of the Mountain's official
+     designation "Rainier"--a name to which it has no right when its
+     old Indian name is at once so beautiful and appropriate. It is to
+     be regretted that a more vigorous protest has not been made
+     against the modern name, and also against such propositions as
+     that of changing "Narada Falls" to "Cushman Falls."
+
+[Illustration: Ice pinnacles on the Carbon.]
+
+The mistaken attempt to displace the name of Narada Falls was
+still-born from the start, and needed no help to kill it. There are
+many unnamed landmarks {p.108} in the National Park ready to
+commemorate Mr. Cushman's ambition to make the Mountain a real
+possession of all the people. As to the other matter--the name of the
+peak itself,--that may safely be left to the American sense of humor.
+But what I have said is due in justice to Winthrop, one of the finest
+figures in our literary history. His work in making the peak known
+demands that his name, given by local gratitude to one of its
+important glaciers, shall not be removed.
+
+[Illustration: Among the ice bridges of the Carbon.]
+
+A word about the industrial value of the Mountain may not be without
+interest in this day of electricity. Within a radius of sixty miles of
+the head of Puget Sound, more water descends from high levels to the
+sea than in any other similar area in the United States. A great part
+of this is collected on the largest peak. Hydraulic engineers have
+estimated, on investigation, an average annual precipitation, for the
+summit and upper slopes, of at least 180 inches, or four times the
+rainfall in Tacoma or Seattle. The melting snows feed the White,
+Puyallup and Nisqually rivers, large streams flowing into the Sound,
+and the Cowlitz, an important tributary of the Columbia. The minimum
+flow of these streams is computed at more than 1200 second feet, while
+their average flow is nearly twice that total.
+
+The utilization of this large water supply on the steep mountain
+slopes began in 1904 with the erection of the Electron plant of the
+Puget Sound Power Company. For this the water is diverted from the
+Puyallup river ten miles from the end of its glacier, and 1750 feet
+above sea level, and carried ten miles more in an open flume to a
+reservoir, from which four steel penstocks, each four feet in
+diameter, drop it to the power house 900 feet below. The plant
+generates 28,000 horse power, which is conveyed to Tacoma, twenty-five
+miles distant, at a pressure of 60,000 volts, and there is distributed
+for the operation of street railways, lights and factories in that
+city and Seattle.
+
+[Illustration {p.109}: Mountain Climbers in Crevasse on Carbon
+Glacier.]
+
+A more important development is in progress on the larger White river
+near Buckley, where the Pacific Coast Power Company is diverting the
+water by a dam and eight-mile canal to Lake Tapps, elevation 540 feet
+above tide. From this {p.111} great reservoir it will be taken
+through a tunnel and pipe line to the generating plant at Dieringer,
+elevation 65 feet. The 100,000 horse power ultimately to be produced
+here will be carried fifteen miles to Tacoma, for sale to
+manufacturers in the Puget Sound cities.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Building Tacoma's Electric Power Plant on the Nisqually
+Canyon. Upper view shows site of retention dam, above tunnel; middle
+view, end of tunnel, where pipeline crosses the canyon on a bridge;
+lower view, site of the generating plant (see p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Both these plants are enterprises of Stone & Webster, of Boston. A
+competitive plant is now nearing completion by the city of Tacoma,
+utilizing the third of the rivers emptying into the Sound. The
+Nisqually is dammed above its famous canyon, at an elevation of 970
+feet, where its minimum flow is 300 second feet. The water will be
+carried through a 10,000-foot tunnel and over a bridge to a reservoir
+at La Grande, from which the penstocks will carry it down the side of
+the canyon {p.112} to the 40,000 horse-power generating plant built
+on a narrow shelf a few feet above the river. The city expects to be
+able to produce power for its own use, with a considerable margin for
+sale, at a cost at least as low as can be attained anywhere in the
+United States.
+
+[Illustration: Hydro-electric plant at Electron, on the Puyallup
+River, producing 28,000 h. p.]
+
+The rocks of which the Mountain is composed are mainly andesites of
+different classes and basalt. But the peak rests upon a platform of
+granite, into which the glaciers have cut in their progress. Fine
+exposures of the older and harder rock are seen on the Nisqually, just
+below the present end of its glacier, as well as on the Carbon and in
+Moraine Park. This accounts for the fact that the river beds are full
+of granite bowlders, which are grinding the softer volcanic shingle
+into soil. Thus the glaciers are not only fast deforming the peak.
+They are "sowing the seeds of continents to be."
+
+[Illustration: Cutting canal to divert White River into Lake Tapps.]
+
+{p.113}
+[Illustration: Mystic Lake in Moraine Park.]
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+THE CLIMBERS.
+
+     Climb the mountains, and get their good tidings. Nature's peace
+     will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will
+     blow their own freshness into you, and the storms their energy,
+     while cares will drop off like autumn leaves.--_John Muir._
+
+     Upwards--towards the peaks, towards the stars, and towards the
+     great silence!--_Ibsen._
+
+
+Given good muscles and wind, the other requisites for an ascent of the
+Mountain are a competent guide and grit. It offers few problems like
+those confronting the climber of the older and more crag-like Alps.
+There are no perpendicular cliffs to scale, no abysses to swing across
+on a rope. If you can stand the punishment of a long up-hill pull,
+over loose volcanic talus and the rough ice, you may safely join a
+party for Gibraltar Rock and the summit. But the ascent should not be
+attempted without first spending some time in "try-outs" on lower
+elevations, both to prepare one's muscles for climbing and descending
+steep slopes, and to accustom one's lungs to the rarer atmosphere of
+high altitudes. Such preparation will save much discomfort, including,
+perhaps, a visit of "mountain sickness."
+
+[Illustration: Glacier Table on Winthrop Glacier. This phenomenon is
+due to the melting of the glacier, save where sheltered by the rock.
+Under the sun's rays, these "tables" incline more and more to the
+south, until they slide off their pedestals.]
+
+Another warning must be given to the general tourist. Do not try to
+climb the Mountain without guides. The seasoned alpinist, of course,
+will trust to previous experience on other peaks, and may find his
+climb here comparatively safe and easy. But the fate of {p.115} T.
+Y. Callaghan and Joseph W. Stevens, of Trenton, N. J., who perished on
+the glaciers in August, 1909, should serve as a warning against
+over-confidence. Unless one has intimate acquaintance with the ways of
+the great ice peaks, he should never attack such a wilderness of
+crevasses and shifting snow-slopes save in company of those who know
+its fickle trails.
+
+[Illustration {p.114}: Carbon River below its Gorge, and Mother
+Mountains. This range was so named because of a rude resemblance to
+the up-turned face of a woman seen here in the sky-line, while the
+view of snowy Liberty Cap beyond and the milky whiteness of the stream
+gave rise to the pleasing fiction that the Indian name of the peak
+meant "nourishing breast." "Tacoma" meant simply the Snow Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, By C. E. Cutter. Oldest and youngest
+climbers, Gen. Hazard Stevens and Jesse McRae. General Stevens, with
+P. B. Van Trump, in 1870, made the first ascent. In 1905, he came west
+from Boston and joined the Mazamas in their climb. The picture shows
+him before his tent in Paradise Park. He was then 63 years old.]
+
+Under the experienced guides, many climbers reach Crater Peak each
+summer, and no accidents of a serious nature have occurred. The
+successful climbers numbered one hundred and fifty-nine in 1910. Many
+more go only as far as Gibraltar, or even to McClure Rock (Elevation,
+7,385 feet), and are well rewarded by the magnificent views which
+these points command of the south-side glaciers and arêtes, with the
+ranges lying below. The name "McClure Rock" is a memorial of the
+saddest tragedy of the Mountain. Over the slope below this landmark
+Prof. Edgar McClure of the University of Oregon fell to his death on
+the night of July 27, 1897. He had spent the day in severe scientific
+labor on the summit, and was hurrying down in the moonlight, much
+wearied, to Reese's Camp for the night. Going ahead of his companions,
+to find a safe path for them, he called back that the ice was too
+steep. Then there was silence. Either he slipped in trying to
+re-ascend the slope, or he fainted from exhaustion. His body was found
+on the rocks below by his comrades of the Mazama Club.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. P. B. Van Trump, on
+his old campground, above Sluiskin Falls, where he and Gen. Stevens
+camped in 1870.]
+
+If one is going the popular route and is equal to so long and unbroken
+a climb, he may start with his guide from Reese's before dawn, and be
+on Columbia's Crest by 11 o'clock. But climbers frequently go up
+Cowlitz Cleaver in the evening, and spend the night at Camp Muir (see
+pp. 60 and 80). This ledge below Gibraltar gets its name from John
+Muir, the famous mountaineer, who, on his ascent in 1888, suggested it
+as a camping place because the presence of pumice indicated the
+{p.116} absence of severe winds. It offers none of the conveniences
+of a camp save a wind-break, and even in that respect no one has ever
+suffered for want of fresh air. It is highly desirable that a cabin be
+erected here for the convenience of climbers. Such shelters as the
+Alpine clubs have built on the high shoulders of many peaks in
+Switzerland are much needed, not only at Muir, but also on the Wedge,
+as well as inside one of the craters, where, doubtless a way might be
+found to utilize the residuary heat of the volcano for the comfort of
+the climbers.
+
+[Illustration: Lower Spray Park, with Mother Mountains beyond. One of
+the most beautiful alpine vales in the great Spray Park region.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By J. Edward B. Greene.
+John Muir, President of the Sierra Club and foremost of American
+mountaineers
+
+  "His daily teachers had been woods and rills,
+  The silence that is in the starry sky,
+  The sleep that is among the lonely hills."]
+
+Going to the summit by this route, the important thing is to pass
+Gibraltar early, before the sun starts the daily shower of icicles and
+rocks from the cliff over the narrow trail (see p. 83). This is the
+most dangerous point, but no lives have been lost here. Everywhere, of
+course, caution is needed, and strict obedience to the {p.117} guide.
+Once up the steep flume caused by the melting of the ice where it
+borders the rock (p. 85), the climber threads his way among the
+crevasses and snow-mounds for nearly two miles, until the crater is
+reached (pp. 86, 88, 89).
+
+[Illustration: Coasting in Moraine Park in the August sunshine.]
+
+The east-side route (p. 100) involves less danger, perhaps, but it is
+a longer climb, with no resting places or wind-breaks. It has been
+used less, because it is farther from Paradise Valley. Starting from a
+night's encampment on the Wedge (p. 97), parties descend to White
+glacier, and, over its steep incline of dazzling ice, gain the summit
+in eight or nine hours.
+
+[Illustration: Sunset on Crater Lake, north of Spray Park, with the
+Mountain in distance.]
+
+The first attempt to scale the Mountain was made in 1857 by Lieutenant
+(later General) A. V. Kautz. There is no foundation for the claim
+sometimes heard that Dr. W. F. Tolmie, Hudson's Bay Company agent at
+Fort Nisqually, who made a botanizing trip to the lower slopes in
+1833, attempted the peak. Lieutenant Kautz, with two companions from
+fort Steilacoom, climbed the arête between the glacier now named after
+him and the Nisqually glacier, but fearing a night on the summit, and
+knowing nothing of the steam caves in the crater, he turned back when
+probably at the crest of the south peak. Writing in the _Overland
+Monthly_ for May, 1875, he says that, "although there were points
+higher yet, the {p.120} Mountain spread out comparatively flat,"
+having the form of "a ridge perhaps two miles in length, with an angle
+about half-way, and depressions between the angle and each end of the
+ridge, which gave the summit the appearance of three small peaks."
+
+[Illustration {p.118}: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Amphitheatre
+of Carbon Glacier, the most noteworthy example of glacial sculpture
+upon the Mountain. It is nearly three miles wide. No other glacier has
+cut so deeply into the side of the peak. The Carbon was once two
+glaciers, separated by a ridge, of which a remnant is still seen in
+the huge spine of rock extending down from Liberty Cap.]
+
+[Illustration {p.119}: Photo By Lea Bronson. Copyright, 1909, By P. V.
+Caesar. Avalanche falling on Willis Wall, at head of Carbon Glacier
+amphitheatre. The cliff, up to the snow cap on the summit, is more
+than 4,000 feet high and nearly perpendicular. Avalanches fall every
+day, but this picture of a big one in action is probably unique.
+Willis Wall was named for Bailey Willis, the geologist.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By A. H. Waite. Birth of Carbon
+River, with part of Willis Wall visible in distance. The great height
+of this ice front appears on noting the man near the river.]
+
+It was not until August 17, 1870, thirteen years after Kautz's partial
+victory, that the Mountain was really conquered. This was by P. B. Van
+Trump of Yelm and Hazard Stevens, son of the first governor of
+Washington, who had distinguished himself in the Civil War, and was
+then living at Olympia as a Federal revenue officer. Each of these
+pioneers on the summit has published an interesting account of how
+they got there, General Stevens in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for
+November, 1876, and Mr. Van Trump in the second volume of _Mazama_. In
+Stevens's article, "The Ascent of Takhoma," his acquaintance with the
+Indians of the early territorial period, gives weight to this note:
+
+     Tak-ho-ma or Ta-ho-ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups,
+     Nisquallys and allied tribes is the generic term for mountain,
+     used precisely as we use the word "Mount," as Takhoma Wynatchie,
+     or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply as
+     Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call
+     it "Old He."
+
+Sluiskin, an Indian celebrity whom they employed as a guide, led the
+young men the longest and hardest way, taking them over the Tatoosh
+mountains instead of directly up the Nisqually and Paradise canyons.
+From the summit of that range, they at last looked across the Paradise
+valley, and beheld the great peak "directly in front, filling up the
+whole view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude {p.121} and
+grandeur." Below them lay "long green ridges projected from the snow
+belt, with deep valleys between, each at its upper end forming the bed
+of a glacier."
+
+[Illustration: The Mountaineers building trail on the lateral moraine
+of Carbon Glacier. Without such trails, the "tenderfoot" would fare
+badly.]
+
+Descending from the Tatoosh, the explorers camped near a waterfall
+which they named Sluiskin Falls, in honor of their guide. Sluiskin now
+endeavored, in a long oration, to dissuade them from their folly.
+Avalanches and winds, he said, would sweep them from the peak, and
+even if they should reach the summit, the awful being dwelling there
+would surely punish their sacrilege. Finding his oratory vain, he
+chanted a dismal dirge till late in the night, and next morning took
+solemn leave of them.
+
+[Illustration: The Mountaineers lunching in a crevasse on White
+Glacier, 13,000 feet above the sea, on their ascent in 1909. Even
+Little Tahoma, on the left, is far below.]
+
+Stevens describes their ascent by the now familiar path, over Cowlitz
+Cleaver and past Gibraltar. From the top of that "vast, square rock
+embedded in the side of the Mountain," they turned west over the upper
+snow-fields, and thus first reached the southern peak, which they
+named "Peak Success," to commemorate their victory.
+
+     This is a long, exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out
+     from the main dome for a mile into mid-air. On the right, the
+     snow descended in a steep, unbroken sheet into the tremendous
+     {p.124} basin which lies between the southern and the northern
+     peaks, and which is enclosed by them as by two mighty arms.[6]
+     Sheltered behind a pinnacle of ice, we fastened our flags upon
+     the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the furious blast,
+     waved them in triumph with three cheers.
+
+              [Footnote 6: See illustration, page 14.]
+
+[Illustration {p.122}: Looking southeast from Mt. Rose, above Eunice
+Lake, with Mother Mountains on left, and Spray Park in distance on
+right of center. Shows outposts of alpine firs and hemlocks on the
+timber line.]
+
+[Illustration {p.123}: Looking south from Mt. Rose, across Crater Lake
+to North Mowich Glacier and Mowich Ridge. This was taken from near the
+same place as the preceding view, and eight miles from the Mountain.
+Eagle Cliff, a celebrated view point, is on the right, overlooking
+Mowich canyon.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Looking up Mowich
+Valley. One of the densely wooded regions in the National Park that
+need trails as a means of protection against fires.]
+
+It was now five o'clock. They had spent eleven hours in the ascent,
+and knowing it would be impossible to descend before nightfall, they
+saw nothing to do but burrow in the loose rock and spend the night as
+best they could. The middle peak, however, was evidently higher, and
+they determined first to visit it. Climbing the long ridge and over
+the rim of the crater, they found jets of steam and smoke issuing from
+vents on the north side.
+
+     Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both
+     exclaimed, as we warmed our benumbed extremities over one of
+     Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against
+     freezing to death, at least.... A deep cavern extended under the
+     ice. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall of stones around
+     a jet of steam. Inclosed within this shelter, we ate our lunch
+     and warmed ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the
+     orifice was too great to bear for more than an instant. The steam
+     wet us, the smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so
+     severe that our clothes froze stiff when turned away from the
+     heated jet. We passed a miserable night, freezing on one side and
+     in a hot steam-sulphur bath on the other.
+
+In October of the same year, S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson, of the
+Geological Survey, reached the snow-line by way of the Cowlitz valley
+and glacier, and ascended the peak over the same route which Stevens
+and Van Trump had discovered and which has since been the popular path
+to Crater Peak. The Kautz route, by the cleaver between Kautz and
+Nisqually glaciers, has recently been found {p.125} practicable,
+though extremely difficult. In 1891 and again the next summer, Mr. Van
+Trump made an ascent along the ridge dividing the Tahoma glaciers. In
+1905, Raglan Glascock and Ernest Dudley, members of the Sierra Club
+party visiting the Mountain, climbed the Kautz glacier, and finding
+their way barred by ice cascades, reached the summit by a thrilling
+rock climb over the cliff above the South Tahoma glacier. This
+precipice (see p. 37) they found to be a series of rock terraces,
+often testing the strength and nerve of the climbers. In _Sunset
+Magazine_ for November, 1895, Mr. Glascock has told the story of their
+struggle and reward.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Spray Falls, a
+splendid scenic feature of the north side, where it drops more than
+five hundred feet from the Spray Park table-land into the canyon of
+North Mowich Glacier.]
+
+     Here the basalt terminated, and a red porous formation began,
+     which crumbled in the hand. This part of the cliff lay a little
+     out from the perpendicular, and there was apparently no way of
+     surmounting it. I looked at my watch. It was 4:15. In a flash the
+     whole situation came to me. It would be impossible to return and
+     cross the crevasses before dark. We could not stay where we were.
+     Already the icy wind cut to the bone.
+
+     "We must make it. There is no going back," I said to Dudley. I
+     gave him the ice ax, and started to the ascent of the remaining
+     cliff. I climbed six feet, and was helpless. I could not get
+     back, nor go forward. One of my feet swung loose, and I felt my
+     hands slipping. Then I noticed above me, about six or eight
+     inches to my right a sharp, projecting rock. It was here or
+     never. I gave a swing, and letting go my feet entirely, I reached
+     the rock. It held, and I was swinging by my hands over a
+     two-hundred-foot void. I literally glued myself to the face of
+     the rock, searching frantically for knob or crevasse with my
+     feet. By sheer luck, my toe found a small projection, and from
+     here I gradually worked myself up until I came to a broken cleft
+     in the cliff where it was possible to brace myself and lower the
+     rope to Dudley. This last ascent had only been fifteen feet, and,
+     in reality, had taken but three or four minutes, but to me it
+     seemed hours.
+
+     At 7:45, we reached the summit of the south peak. Here we stopped
+     to look down on Camp Sierra. Long shadows spread their mantle
+     across the glaciers, and in the east lay the phantom {p.126}
+     mountain--the shadow of Rainier. A flash of light attracted our
+     attention. We saw that our companions had been watching our
+     progress.
+
+[Illustration: A rescue from a crevasse.]
+
+The White glacier route on the east side was first used in 1885 by a
+party from Snohomish. The same glacier was traversed by the
+Willis-Russell party in 1896. The first woman to make the ascent was
+Miss Fay Fuller, of Tacoma, in 1890, over the Gibraltar route.
+
+The north and northwest sides, as I have said, are as yet unconquered.
+Some members of the Mountaineers have a theory that the summit can be
+reached from Avalanche Camp by climbing along the face of Russell
+Peak, and so around to the upper snowfield of Winthrop glacier. They
+have seen mountain goats making the trip, and propose to try it
+themselves. Whether they succeed or not, this trail will never be
+popular, owing to daily landslides in the loose rock of the cliff.
+
+[Illustration: Returning from the summit. The Mountaineers ending a
+memorable outing in 1909. Winthrop Glacier in foreground, Sluiskin
+Mountains in distance.]
+
+In 1897 and 1905, the Mazama Club of Portland sent parties to the
+Mountain, each making the ascent over the Gibraltar route. The Sierra
+Club of California was also represented in the latter year by a
+delegation of climbers who took the same path to the summit. In 1909,
+the Mountaineers Club of Seattle spent several weeks on the Mountain,
+entering the National Park by the Carbon trail, camping in Moraine
+Park on the north side, exploring Spray Park and the Carbon glacier,
+crossing Winthrop glacier to the Wedge, and thence climbing White
+glacier to the summit. Many members of the Appalachian Club and
+American Alpine Clubs and of European organizations of similar purpose
+have climbed to Crater Peak, either in company with the Western clubs
+named, or in smaller parties. Noteworthy accounts of these ascents
+have been printed in the publications of the several clubs, as well as
+in magazines of wider circulation, and have done much to make the
+Mountain known to the public. The principal articles are cited in a
+bibliographical note at the end of this volume.
+
+[Illustration {p.128}: Looking down from Ptarmigan Ridge into the
+Canyon of the North Mowich Glacier and up to the cloud-wreathed Peak.]
+
+{p.129}
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. View looking west
+across Moraine Park and Carbon Glacier to Mother Mountains.]
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+THE FLORA OF THE MOUNTAIN SLOPES.
+
+By PROF. J. B. FLETT.[7]
+
+              [Footnote 7: Prof. Flett knows the Mountain well. He has
+              spent many summers in its "parks," has climbed to its
+              summit four times, has visited all its glaciers, and has
+              made a remarkable collection of its flowers. In addition
+              to the chapter on the botany of the National Park, this
+              book is indebted to him for several of its most valuable
+              illustrations.]
+
+     Of all the fire-mountains which, like beacons, once blazed along
+     the Pacific Coast, Mount Rainier is the noblest in form. Its
+     massive white dome rises out of its forests, like a world by
+     itself. Above the forests there is a zone of the loveliest
+     flowers, fifty miles in circuit and nearly two miles wide, so
+     closely planted and luxuriant that it seems as if Nature, glad to
+     make an open space between woods so dense and ice so deep, were
+     economizing the precious ground, and trying to see how many of
+     her darlings she can get together in one mountain
+     wreath--daisies, anemones, columbines, erythroniums, larkspurs,
+     etc., among which we wade knee-deep and waist-deep, the bright
+     corollas in myriads touching petal to petal. Altogether this is
+     the richest subalpine garden I ever found, a perfect floral
+     elysium.--_John Muir: "Our National Parks."_
+
+
+No one can visit the Mountain without being impressed by its wild
+flowers. These are the more noticeable because of their high color--a
+common characteristic of flowers in alpine regions. As we visit the
+upland meadows at a season when the spring flowers of the lowlands
+have gone to seed, we find there another spring season with flowers in
+still greater number and more varied in color.
+
+[Illustration: Senecio.]
+
+The base of the Mountain up to an altitude of about 4,000 feet is
+covered by a somber forest of evergreens composed of the white and
+black pines; Douglas, Lovely and Noble firs; the white cedar; spruce,
+and hemlock. There are found also several deciduous trees--large-leafed
+maple, {p.130} white alder, cottonwood, quaking aspen, vine and
+smooth-leafed maples, and several species of willows. Thus the silva
+of the lower slopes is highly varied. The forest is often interrupted
+by the glacial canyons, and, at intervals, by fire-swept areas.
+
+[Illustration: A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake.]
+
+Among these foothills and valleys, lies the region of the virgin
+forest. This area is characterized by huge firs and cedars, all tall,
+straight and graceful, without a limb for 75 to 100 feet. This is
+probably the most valuable area of timber in the world, and it is one
+of the grandest parts of the Park. A death-like silence generally
+pervades this cool, dark region, where few kinds of animal life find a
+congenial abode. Occasionally the stillness is disturbed by the
+Douglas squirrel, busily gnawing off the fir cones for his winter's
+supply, or by the gentle flutter of the coy wren, darting to and fro
+among the old, fallen logs. The higher forms of vegetable life are
+also restricted to a few odd varieties. The most common of these are
+such saprophytes as _pterospora andromedea_, _allotropa virgata_, the
+so-called barber's pole, and the Indian pipe. This curious, waxy white
+plant is generally admired by all who see it, but it quickly
+disappoints those admirers who gather it by turning black.
+
+The mosses, liverworts, and lichens take possession of the trees and
+cover them with a unique decoration. The licorice fern often gains a
+foothold on the trees thus decorated, and grows luxuriantly, embedded
+in the deep growth of these plants.
+
+It is nearly impossible to get through this region without following a
+road or trail. For the safety of its priceless forest, there are far
+too few trails. In case of a forest fire it would be impossible to
+reach some areas in time to combat it with any success. Many beautiful
+regions in the lower parts of the Park are {p.131} wholly
+inaccessible. These should be opened with proper roads and trails, not
+only for their own safety, but also for the benefit of visitors.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Pipe.]
+
+The alpine meadows begin to appear at an altitude of about 5,000 feet.
+The real alpine trees, with their trim, straight trunks and drooping
+branches, are in strange contrast to their relatives of the lower
+altitude. The principal trees of the meadow area are the alpine fir,
+the alpine hemlock, and the Alaska cedar. These constitute the greater
+part of the silva of Paradise Valley. There are a few trees of the
+Lovely fir in the lower part of the valley, and a few white-barked
+pines overlooking the glaciers at timber line.
+
+[Illustration: Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's Park, showing "Mountain
+Heliotrope," more properly Valerian, and other flowers growing near
+the snow line.]
+
+[Illustration {p.132}: Mosses and Ferns, in the forest reserve, on way
+to Longmire Springs.]
+
+{p.133}
+[Illustration: A bank of White Heather.]
+
+The trees of the park zone differ greatly on different slopes. On the
+northeast and east, the white-barked pine and the alpine spruce form
+no small part of the tree groups. The white-barked pine branches out
+like the scrub oak on the prairie. It is never seen at a low altitude.
+The alpine spruce bears numerous cones all over the tree, and has
+sharp leaves, though not so sharp as its relative, the tideland
+spruce.
+
+[Illustration: Hellebore (Veratrum Viride).]
+
+Not only is there a difference in the trees on the different slopes of
+the Mountain, but there is a marked difference in the herbaceous
+plants as well. _Hesperogenia Strictlandi_ is a small, yellow plant of
+the celery family. This is very abundant, both in Spray Park and also
+in the country east of the Carbon Glacier, but rare on the south side.
+_Gilia Nuttallii_, a large, phlox-like plant, is abundant only in the
+Indian Henry region. Two anemones, one buttercup, three willows and
+one senecio seem to be confined to the White River country. The moss
+campion has been found only on Mowich.
+
+The most noticeable and abundant flower on all slopes is the avalanche
+lily (_erythronium montanum_). This plant comes up through several
+inches of the old snow crust, and forms beautiful beds of pure white
+flowers, to the exclusion of nearly all other plants. There are often
+from seven to nine blossoms on a stem. This has other popular names,
+such as deer-tongue and adder-tongue. There is also a yellow species,
+growing with the other, but less abundant. It seldom has more than one
+{p.134} or two flowers on a stem. The yellow alpine buttercup
+generally grows with the erythroniums. It also tries to rush the
+season by coming up through the snow. The western anemone is a little
+more deliberate, but is found quite near the snow. It may be known by
+its lavender, or purple flowers; and later by its large plume-like
+heads, which are no less admired than the flowers themselves.
+
+[Illustration: Alpine Hemlock and Mountain Lilies. In the struggle for
+existence at the timber line, flowers prosper, but trees fight for
+life against storm and snow.]
+
+The plants just mentioned are the harbingers of spring. Following them
+in rapid succession are many plants of various hues. The mountain
+dock, mountain dandelion, and potentilla seldom fail to appear later.
+The asters, often wrongly called daisies, are represented by several
+species, some of which blossom early, and are at their best along with
+the spring flowers. The great majority of the composite family bloom
+later, and thus prolong the gorgeous array. The lupines add much to
+the beauty of this meadow region, both at a low altitude, and also in
+the region above timber line. Their bright purple flowers, in long
+racemes, with palmate leaves, are very conspicuous on the grassy
+slopes. Between timber line and 8,500 feet, Lyall's lupine grows in
+dense silk mats, with dark purple flowers--the most beautiful plant in
+that zone.
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Asters.]
+
+Four different kinds of heather are found on the Mountain. The red
+heather is the largest and the most abundant. It grows at a lower
+altitude than the others, and is sometimes, erroneously, called Scotch
+heather. There are two kinds of white heather. One forms a prominent
+part of the {p.135} flora, often growing with the red. The other is
+less conspicuous and grows about timber line. The yellow heather also
+grows at the same altitude, and is larger and more common than the
+others. It often forms beautiful areas where other vegetation is rare.
+The white rhododendron is a beautiful shrub of the lower meadows. Its
+creamy white blossoms remind one of the cultivated azalea. There are
+several huckleberries, some with large bushes growing in the lower
+forest area, others small and adapted to the grassy meadows.
+
+[Illustration: Studying the Phlox.]
+
+[Illustration: Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily. (Xerophyllum tenax)]
+
+The figwort family has many and curious representatives. The
+rose-purple monkey-flower is very common and conspicuous in the lower
+meadows, along the streams. It is nearly always accompanied by the
+yellow fireweed. Higher up, large meadow areas are arrayed in bright
+yellow by the alpine monkey-flower. Above timber line, two
+pentstemons, with matted leaves and short stems with brilliant purple
+and red flowers, cover large rocky patches, mixed here and there with
+lavender beds of the alpine phlox; while the amber rays of the golden
+aster, scattered through these variegated beds, lend their {p.136}
+charm to the rocky ridges. The Indian paint-brush, the speedwell, the
+elephant's trunk, and the pigeon bills are all well-known members of
+the large figwort family which does much to embellish the Mountain
+meadows. The valerian, often wrongly called "mountain heliotrope," is
+very common on the grassy slopes. Its odor can often be detected
+before it is seen. The rosy spiraea, the mountain ash, and the wild
+currant, are three common shrubs in this area. There are also numerous
+small herbaceous plants of the saxifrage family, some forming dense
+mats to the exclusion of other plants. The mertensias, polemoniums,
+and shooting stars add much to the purple and blue coloring.
+
+[Illustration: Avalanche Lilies (Erythronium montanum), sometimes
+called deer tongues, forcing their way through the lingering snow.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Moraine Park,
+Sluiskin Mountains and Mystic Lake.]
+
+Two liliaceous plants of low altitude are always objects of marked
+interest. The Clintonia, popularly called alpine beauty, begins in the
+forest area, and continues up to the lower meadows. This may be known
+by its pure white blossoms and blue berries. Its leaves are oblong in
+tufts of from two to four. They spring up near the roots. The other is
+xerophyllum, mountain lily, sometimes called squaw grass, because it
+is used by the Indians in basket making. This has tall {p.138} stems
+with small fragrant flowers and coarse grass-like leaves.
+
+[Illustration {p.137}: Sunrise in Indian Henry's Park, with view of
+the southwest slope and Peak Success, showing Purple Asters, with
+bunches of Hellebore in center of the flower field.]
+
+[Illustration: Anemone Seed Pods.]
+
+The orchid family has a few curious saprophytic representatives on the
+lower slopes. Mertin's coral-root is one of the most common. This
+generally grows in clusters in the mossy woods, along the trail or
+government road above Longmire Springs. It is very common all around
+the mountain at an altitude of 3,000 to 4,500 feet. With it, grow two
+tway-blades and the rattlesnake plantain. In bogs, two species of
+piperia, with long spikes of greenish flowers, are abundant. In drier
+situations, a small form of the ladies' tresses is easily recognized
+by its spiral spike of small white flowers, which are more or less
+fragrant. In some of the swamps at the base of the mountain grows
+_Limnorchis leucostachys_. This is one of our most fragrant flowers,
+as well as one of the most beautiful, with its long spike of pure
+white blossoms.
+
+Of the ferns, the common brake is sometimes seen on the slopes near
+the terminal moraines of the glaciers. On the old moraines and cliffs
+is found the pea fern (_cryptogramma acrostichoides_), so called
+because the pinnules of its fruiting fronds resemble those of a pea
+pod. This dainty little fern with its two kinds of fronds is always
+admired by mountain visitors. It is strictly a mountain fern. The deer
+fern also has two kinds of fronds, but this grows all the way from sea
+level to the glaciers, being at its best in the dense forest area. The
+delicate oak fern grows in great abundance from Eatonville to the
+timber line, and probably does more to beautify the woods than any
+other fern. The sword fern grows in dense, radiate clusters, all
+through the mossy woods. The fronds are often five or six feet in
+length. The maidenhair fern is found along streams, waterfalls and
+moist cliffs, reaching its highest development in the deep canyons cut
+through the dense forest.
+
+On the very top of Pinnacle Peak and similar elevations, grows the
+beautiful mountain lace fern (_cheilanthes gracillima._) Nearly every
+tourist presses a souvenir of it in his notebook. _Phegopteris
+alpesteris_ is abundant along the glacial valleys, where the tall
+grasses and the beautiful array of alpine plants delight the eye.
+These ferns and grasses give a rich green color to the varigated
+slopes where nature blends so many harmonious colors in matchless
+grandeur in this great fairyland of flowers.
+
+{p.139}
+[Illustration: Wind Swept Trees on North Side, the last below the Snow
+line.]
+
+The writer has a list of about three hundred and sixty species from
+the Mountain. It includes only flowering plants and ferns. There are
+more than twenty type species named from the Mountain, not a few of
+which are found nowhere else. Its geographical position makes it the
+boundary between the arctic plants from the North and the plants of
+Oregon and California from the South. Its great altitude has a
+wonderful effect on plant life. This is seen in the trees at timber
+line, where snow rests upon them for months. Their prostrate trunks
+and gnarled branches give ample testimony to their extreme struggle
+for existence. Where the ordinary plants cease to exist the snowy
+protococcus holds undisputed sway on the extensive snow fields. This
+is a small one-celled microscopic plant having a blood red color in
+one stage of its existence. Even in the crater, on the warm rocks of
+the rim, will be found three or four mosses--I have noted one there
+which is not found anywhere else--several lichens, and at least one
+liverwort.
+
+[Illustration: Lupines.]
+
+{p.140}
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, by E. F. Cutter. The Mountain, as seen
+from a high ridge in the Cascades near Green River Hot Springs,
+showing the north and east faces of the Peak, and Little Tahoma on the
+left.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+Rates, Trains, Hotel Accommodations.--The round-trip fare from Tacoma
+via the Tacoma Eastern is $6.00. This includes railway transportation
+to Ashford and automobile-stage ride from Ashford to Longmire Springs
+and return. Tickets are good for the season. To parties of ten or more
+traveling together a single ticket is issued at $5.00 per capita. A
+week-end ticket, Saturday to Monday, is sold at $5.00. The rates from
+Seattle to the Springs are $1.50 more, in each case, than the Tacoma
+rates. The train schedule for 1911 follows:
+
+  SOUTHBOUND
+  Leave Seattle      7.45 A.M. and 12.30 P.M.
+  Arrive Tacoma      8.55 A.M. and  1.40 P.M.
+  Leave Tacoma       9.05 A.M. and  1.50 P.M.
+  Arrive Ashford    11.20 A.M. and  4.05 P.M.
+  Leave Ashford     11.30 A.M. and  4.15 P.M.
+  Arrive at Inn     12.45 P.M. and  5.30 P.M.
+
+  NORTHBOUND
+  Leave Inn          7.15 A.M. and  1.30 P.M.
+  Arrive Ashford     8.30 A.M. and  2.45 P.M.
+  Leave Ashford      8.40 A.M. and  2.55 P.M.
+  Arrive Tacoma     10.55 A.M. and  5.10 P.M.
+  Leave Tacoma      11.05 A.M. and  5.15 P.M.
+  Arrive Seattle    12.15 P.M. and  6.30 P.M.
+
+The National Park Inn, Longmire Springs, provides excellent rooms in
+the Inn, with a large number of well-furnished and comfortable tents
+near by. The rates range from $2.50 to $3.75 a day, including meals.
+The dining-room is under the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound
+dining-car management, which insures a satisfactory table.
+
+At the older Longmire Hotel, the rate is $2.50 a day for room and
+board. This hotel is open all the year, and in winter is much
+frequented by persons seeking Winter sports, or making use of the
+mineral springs.
+
+The springs are of great variety, and are highly recommended for their
+medicinal virtues. Within an area of several acres, there are a score
+of these springs, varying from the normal temperature of a mountain
+stream almost to blood heat. Well-appointed bathhouses are maintained.
+Fee, including attendance, $1.00.
+
+At Reese's Camp, in Paradise Park, and at Mrs. Hall's similar tent
+hotel in Indian Henry's Park, the charge for meals, with a tent for
+sleeping, is $2.50 per day.
+
+
+Stages, Horses, Guides.--The cost of getting from Longmire Springs to
+Paradise or Indian Henry's is moderate. Many prefer to make the trips
+on foot over the mountain trails. Parties are made up several times a
+day, under experienced guides, for each of these great "parks," and
+sure-footed horses are provided for those who wish to ride, at $1.50
+for the round trip. Guides and horses for the new trail to Eagle Peak
+are at the same rate. Guides may be had at the {p.141} National Park
+Inn or at either of the "camps" for many interesting trips over the
+mountain trails. Horses also are furnished. The charge varies with the
+number in a party.
+
+Stages carry passengers from the Inn over the government road to
+Nisqually glacier, Narada Falls and Reese's Camp in Paradise Park. The
+charge for the trip to Narada and return is $2.00; to Paradise and
+return, $3.00.
+
+For those who wish to make the ascent to the summit over the Gibraltar
+trail, trustworthy guides may be engaged at the Inn or at Reese's.
+Arrangements should be made several days in advance. The cost of such
+a trip depends upon the number in a party. The guides make a charge of
+$25 for the first member of the party, and $5 each for the others.
+They furnish alpenstocks, ropes, and calks for the shoes of climbers
+at a reasonable charge. Each person should carry with him a blanket or
+extra coat and a small amount of food, for use in the event of being
+on the summit over night. Still heavier clothing will be required if
+the night is to be spent at Camp Muir. A sleeping-bag, which can be
+easily made, or purchased at any outfitter's, will prove invaluable to
+campers. Ascents from other points than Reese's are usually made in
+special parties. All persons are warned not to attempt an ascent
+unless accompanied by experienced guides. Lives have been lost through
+neglect of this precaution.
+
+For persons visiting the North Side, the Northern Pacific rate from
+Tacoma to Fairfax is $1.25, and from Seattle to Fairfax, with change
+of cars at Puyallup, $1.75. Guides and horses may be engaged at
+Fairfax for the Spray Park trail.
+
+
+Automobiles and Motorcycles.--These vehicles are permitted to use the
+government road, as far as the Nisqually glacier, under the following
+regulations of the Interior Department:
+
+No automobile or motorcycle will be permitted within the Park unless
+its owner secures a written permit from the Superintendent, Edward S.
+Hall, Ashford, Washington, or his representative. Applications must
+show: Names of owner and driver, number of machine, and inclusive
+dates for which permit is desired, not exceeding one year, and be
+accompanied by a fee of $5 for each automobile and $1 for each
+motorcycle. All permits will expire on December 31. Permits must be
+presented to the Superintendent or his authorized representatives at
+the park entrance on the government road.
+
+Automobiles and motorcycles will be permitted on the government road
+west of Longmire Springs between the hours of 7 A.M. and 8.30 P.M.,
+but no automobile or motorcycle shall enter the Park or leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the western boundary, later than 8 P.M.,
+the use of automobiles and motorcycles to be permitted between
+Longmire Springs and Nisqually glacier between the hours of 9 A.M.
+and 9.30 P.M., but no automobile or motorcycle shall leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the glacier later than 7 P.M.
+
+When teams, saddle horses, or pack trains approach, automobiles and
+motorcycles shall take position on the outer edge of the roadway,
+taking care that sufficient room is left on the inside for them to
+pass, and remaining at rest until they have passed, or until the
+drivers are satisfied regarding the safety of their horses. Horses
+have the right of way, and automobiles and motorcycles will be backed
+or otherwise handled to enable horses to pass with safety.
+
+Speed shall be limited to 6 miles per hour, except on straight
+stretches where approaching teams, saddle horses, and pack trains will
+be visible, when, if none are in sight, this speed may be increased to
+the rate indicated on signboards along the road; in no event, however,
+shall it exceed 15 miles per hour. Signal with horn shall be given at
+or near every bend to announce to approaching drivers the proximity of
+a machine.
+
+Violation of any of the foregoing rules, or the general regulations of
+the Park, will cause the revocation of permit, subject the owner of
+the automobile or motorcycle to any damages occasioned thereby and to
+ejectment from the reservation, and be cause for refusal to issue a
+new permit without prior sanction in writing from the Secretary of the
+Interior.
+
+
+Literature of the Mountain.--Vancouver, Winthrop, Kautz, Stevens and
+Van Trump have been noted in the text. Other early accounts of, or
+references to, the Mountain may be found in _Wilkes: Narrative U. S.
+exploring expedition_. Phil. 1845, v. 4, 413, 415, 424; _U. S. War
+Dep't: Explorations for railroad to Pacific, 1853-4_, v. 1, 192;
+_Gibbs: Journal Am. Geog. Soc._, v. 4, 354-357. {p.142} Gibbs's
+Indian vocabularies, published at different dates, were reprinted four
+years after his death in _Contributions to Am. Ethnol._, v. 1. Wash.
+1877.
+
+For Emmons's account of his exploration in 1870, see _Bulletin Am.
+Geog. Soc._ v. 9, 44-61. _Am. Jour. of Science_, v. 101, 157-167, and
+_Nation_ v. 23, 313. Prof. Israel C. Russell's studies of the peak are
+in _U. S. geol. survey, 5th an. rep._ 335-339 and _18th an. rep., part
+2_, 349-415. See also his _Glaciers of N. Am._, Bost. 1901, 62-67, and
+_Volcanoes of N. Am._, Bost. 1895, 241-246. For other accessible
+studies consult _Wright: Ice age in N. Am. N. Y._ 1889, and _Muir: Our
+national parks_, Bost. 1901.
+
+The long controversy over the name of the peak is impartially reviewed
+in _Snowden: History of Washington_. N. Y. 1909, v. 4, 249-254.
+Snowden calls especial attention to an able paper by the late Thaddeus
+Hanford of Olympia on the Indian names and recommending the name
+Tacoma for the Territory, which was printed in the _Washington
+Standard_ in January, 1866. This article should be reprinted by the
+State Historical Society, as it represents a movement of considerable
+force at one time against the inept and confusing name adopted for the
+State. The Indian evidence for the native name of the Mountain was
+collected in _Wickersham: Is it "Mt. Tacoma" or "Mt. Rainier?"_,
+pamphlet, Tacoma, 1893. The argument of an eminent traveler and author
+against "Mt. Rainier" may be found in _Finck: Pacific coast scenic
+tour_. N. Y. 1891, 209-213, 229-230; also in the same writer's more
+recent article, _Scribner's Magazine_, v. 47, 234-5. See also _Lyman:
+The Columbia river_. N. Y. 1909, p. 32, 352-370, and _The Mountains of
+Washington_, in _The Mountaineer_, v. 1, 7-10; and Charles F. Lummis's
+editorial articles in _Out West_, v. 23, 367 and 494. On the other
+hand, Prof. Davidson, in _Sierra Club Bulletin_, v. 6, 87-98, presents
+reasons on which that club accepted "Mt. Rainier."
+
+_Wheeler: Climbing Mt. Rainier_, St. Paul, 1895, and _Plummer:
+Illustrated guide book to Mt. Tacoma_, Tacoma, n. d., are two
+pamphlets now out of print.
+
+The ascents by the Mazama, Sierra and Mountaineers clubs have
+furnished material for a great variety of articles on the geology,
+botany and glacier action, as well as many accounts of climbing
+adventures. _Mazama_, v. 2, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, v. 6, and _The
+Mountaineer_, v. 1 and 2, are mainly devoted to this peak. For
+articles in periodicals of wider circulation, see _Review of Reviews_,
+v. 9, 163-171 (by Carl Snyder); _Out West_, v. 24, 365-395 (Willoughby
+Rodman); _National geog. mag._, v. 20, 530-538 (Milnor Roberts);
+_Scribner's_ v. 22, 169-171 (I. C. Russell); _Outing_, v. 5, 323-332
+(J. R. W. Hitchcock), and v. 38, 386-392 (Ada Woodruff Anderson);
+_Overland_, n. s., v. 2, 300-312 (W. D. Lyman), v. 8, 266-278 (George
+Bailey), v. 32, 114-123 (J. P. Montgomery), v. 46, 447-455 (Harry H.
+Brown), v. 55, 552-560 (A. W. McCully), and v. 56, 150-155 (A. W.
+McCully); _Pacific monthly_, v. 8, 196-202 (John Muir); _The world
+today_, v. 9, 1047-53 (Anne Shannon Monroe); _Good words_, v. 42,
+101-114 (Arthur Inkersley); _Appalachia_, v. 7, 185-205 (Ernest C.
+Smith), and v. 11, 114-125 (W. A. Brooks); _Country life in Am._, v.
+14, 170-171 (C. E. Cutter); _The Northwest_, v. 1, 2-10 (Bailey
+Willis); _Outdoor life_, v. 26, 15-24 (Edna Cadwallader). Special
+studies of the rocks of the peak may be found in _U. S. geol. sur.,
+12th an. rep. pt. 1_, 612 (J. P. Iddings), and in _Neues Jahrbuch_, v.
+1, 222-226, Stuttgart, 1885 (K. Oebeke).
+
+[Illustration: Glacial debris on lower part of Winthrop Glacier, with
+Sluiskin Mountains beyond.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.143} INDEX.
+
+
+Figures in light face type refer to the text, those in the heavier
+type to illustrations.
+
+  Adams, Mount, 77, 86, 64, 66.
+  Allen, Prof. O. D., cottage, 49.
+  Alta Vista, 49, 60.
+  American Alpine Club, 126.
+  Anemones, 32;
+    seed pods, 138.
+  Appalachian Club, 126.
+  Ascents, Kautz, 117;
+    Stevens and Van Trump, 120-4;
+    Emmons and Wilson, 124;
+    Glascock and Dudley, 125;
+    the mountain clubs, 126.
+  Automobiles, 57, 70-72, 141, 41, 49, 54.
+  Avalanche on Willis Wall, 119.
+  Avalanche Camp, 103, 104, 105.
+  Avalanche Lilies, 136.
+
+
+  Baker, Mount, 86, 98, 99.
+  Ballinger, Richard, H. 75.
+  Basaltic Columns,--South Mowich, 23;
+    on Cowlitz, 93.
+  Bashford, Herbert,--verse, 17.
+  Bee Hive, 76, 80.
+  Beljica, view from, 27.
+  Brooks, Francis,--verse, 40.
+
+
+  Cabins needed on the ridges, 116, 144.
+  Camp of the Clouds, 49, 61, 60.
+  Carbon river, 50, 103, 114.
+  Cascade Mountains, 66, 87, 90, 96.
+  Cathedral Rocks, 85, 76, 84, 78.
+  Chittenden, Maj. H. M., urges trail, 69.
+  Columbia's Crest, 86, 88, 52, 78.
+  Commencement Bay, 28.
+  Congress, action affecting the Park, 58, 59, 67, 70.
+  Cowlitz Chimneys, 43, 78, 81.
+  Cowlitz Cleaver, 85, 76, 78, 81.
+  Cowlitz Park, 64, 93.
+  Crater, 50, 88, 89.
+  Crater Lake, 117.
+  Crater Peak, 13, 86, 60, 89.
+  Curtis, Camp, on the Wedge, 97.
+  Cushman, Francis W., 59, 108.
+
+
+  Dudley, Ernest, 125.
+
+
+  Eagle Cliff, 51.
+  Eagle Peak (Simlayshe), 30, 31;
+    new trail to, 141.
+  Eagle Rock in winter, 7.
+  East-side route to summit, 117, 126, 100.
+  Edmunds, George F., 96.
+  Electric-power development, 108-112.
+  Electron, The Mountain from, 13, 19;
+    Power plant at, 108, 112.
+  Emmons, S. F., Geologist, 94-97.
+
+
+  Fairfax, trail from, 50.
+  Fair Mountaineer, A, 35.
+  Fairy Falls, 73.
+  Fay Peak, 51, 92.
+  Ferns, 132.
+  Fires, danger of forest, 8, 58, 130.
+  Flett, Prof., J. B., 129, n.
+  Flint, Frank P., U. S. Senator, 75.
+  Flood, Indian legend of the, 39.
+  Fox Island, the Mountain from, 14.
+  Fountain, Paul, quoted, 43.
+  Fuller, Miss Fay, 126, 72.
+
+
+  Gap Point, 61, 54.
+  "Ghost Trees," 50.
+  Gibbs, George, on name "Mt. Tacoma," 104, 107, 142.
+  Gibraltar Rock, 82, 85, 116, 121, 60, 68, 71, 76, 78, 81, 82, 83,
+    85, 86.
+  Glaciers, their number and work, 79-83;
+    moraines, 83, 68, 77, 79, 96;
+    rate of flow, 83, 72;
+    names, 93-97;
+    rivers, 108;
+    --Carbon, 50, 51, 77, 103, 105, 107, 108, 118, 119, 120, 121, 129;
+    --Cowlitz, 50, 93, 6, 51, 78, 81, 84, 87;
+    --Frying-Pan, 93, 41, 96, 97;
+    --Ingraham, 93, 78;
+    --Interglacier, 93, 98, 99;
+    --Kautz, 93, 27, 30, 37, 60, 68;
+    --North Mowich, 50-52, 96, 13, 123, 124, 128;
+    --South Mowich, 52, 13, 22, 23;
+    --Nisqually, 49, 31, 55, 57, 60, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78, 81;
+    --Paradise, 50, 94, 97, 25, 31, 60, 79;
+    --Puyallup, 52, 13, 27, 33;
+    --Stevens, 50, 97, 61, 64, 79;
+    --North Tahoma, 93, 13, 26, 27, 32, 33, 37;
+    --South Tahoma, 93, 17, 27, 32, 36, 37, 60;
+    --Van Trump, 94, 31, 60;
+    --White, 50, 81, 93, 9, 12, 94, 95, 96, 100, 121;
+    --Winthrop, 50, 51, 93, 94, 8, 17, 130, 103, 104, 107, 113, 126,
+      142.
+  Glascock, Raglan, 125.
+  "Goat Island," moraine, 96.
+  Goat Mountain (Mt. Wow), 28.
+  Goat Peaks, 87, 90, 94.
+  Grand Park, 51, 64, 98, 99.
+  Green River, view of the Mountain from, 140.
+  Guides, 113, 141.
+
+
+  Hanging glaciers, 51, 57.
+  Heather, 133.
+  Hellebore, 133.
+  Hiaqua Hunter, Myth, 32-39.
+  Hood, Mt., 86.
+  Hylebos, P. F. (Rev.), 28, n.
+
+
+  Ice caves, 31, 73.
+  Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, 49, 25, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 50,
+    131, 137;
+    --Mrs. Hall's Camp, 141.
+  Indians, nature worship of the Mountain, 25-31, 39;
+    Puget Sound tribes, 25, 26;
+    fear of the snow-peaks, 32, 121.
+  Ingraham, Maj. E. S., 100.
+  Interglaciers, 93.
+  Iron and Copper mountains, 25, 30.
+
+
+  Jones, Wesley L., U. S. Senator, 75.
+  Jordan, David Starr, 67.
+  Judson, Miss Katharine B. 35, 39.
+
+
+  Kautz, Gen., A. V., 117.
+  Kulshan, Indian name for Mt. Baker, 98.
+  Kutz, Maj. C. W., 69.
+
+
+  Liberty Cap (North Peak), 86, 22, 89, 114.
+  Little Tahoma, 82, 85, 9, 31, 60, 78, 79, 94, 121.
+  Longmire, James, trail and road, 59.
+  Longmire Hotel, 141.
+  Longmire Springs, 44, 51, 141, 52.
+  Lost to the World, 69.
+  Lupines, 139.
+
+
+  McClure, Prof. Edgar, death, 115.
+  Marmot, 26.
+  Matthes, Francois E., U. S. geologist, 89, 97.
+  Mazama (mountain goat), 23.
+  Mazama Club, 126, 81, 82.
+  Mazama Ridge, 60.
+  Mineral Lake, 18.
+  Moraine Park, 51, 126, 105, 113, 117, 129, 136.
+  Mosses and ferns, 132.
+  Mother Mountains, 103, 114, 116, 122, 129.
+  Mountaineers, The, 126, 61, 121, 126.
+  Mountain goat, 23.
+  Mountain Lily, 136, 135.
+  Mountain Pine, 28.
+  Muir John, quoted, 77, 113, 129;
+    Portrait, 116.
+  Muir, Camp, 115, 60, 80, 83.
+  Mystic Lake, 113.
+
+
+  Narada Falls, 61, 107, 58.
+  National Park, see Rainier Natl. Park.
+  National Parks, proposed Bureau of, 75.
+  National Park Inn, 44, 50, 52.
+  Nisqually Canyon, 21.
+  Nisqually Glacier (see Glaciers).
+  Nisqually river, 108, 111, 21, 24, 55.
+  North Peak (Liberty Cap), 13, 22, 89.
+
+
+  Ohop Valley, 43.
+
+
+  Pacific Forest Reserve, 59.
+  Paradise River, 59.
+  Paradise Valley, or Park, 30, 49-51, 61, 31, 39, 46, 53, 59, 60, 62.
+  Peak Success (South Peak), 86, 123-125, 13, 24, 25, 27, 33, 37, 60,
+    68, 78.
+  Phlox, 135.
+  Pierce County road, 43, 49.
+  Piles, S. H., U. S. Senator, 70.
+  Pinnacle Peak, 38, 39, 46, 47.
+  Point Defiance Park, 18.
+  Power-plants on the Mountain, 108-112, 111, 112.
+  Proctor, Miss Edna Dean, poem, "The Mountain Speaks," 15.
+  Ptarmigan, 40.
+  Puget Sound 18, 25, 14;
+    named by Vancouver, 98.
+  Puyallup river, 108, 40.
+  Pyramid Peak, 25, 60.
+
+
+  Railways to Puget Sound, 44;
+    to the Mountain, 54, 57;
+    rates and time table, 140.
+  Rainier, Rear-Admiral Peter, 7, 98, 100, 103, n., 101.
+  Reese's Camp, 61, 115, 141, 64.
+  Reflection Lake, 60, 77.
+  Rainier National Park, 54;
+    increasing use of, 56, 57;
+    its creation, 58-9;
+    see also Roads.
+  Ricksecker, Eugene, engineer, 61, 62, 70, 97.
+  Rivers fed by the Mountain, 108.
+  Rocks of the Mountain, 82, 112.
+  Roads and trails, Pierce County's to the Mountain, 44, 56, 42, 43, 44,
+    49;
+    government road in National Park, 57-62, 51, 54, 55, 56;
+    trails 44, 45, 50-2, 55, 56, 121;
+    proposed road around the Mountain, 62-70;
+    need 58, 130.
+  Rough climbing, 39.
+  Russell, Prof. Israel C., 94.
+  Russell Peak, 82, 103, 105.
+
+
+  Saghalie Illahe, Indian land of peace, 30.
+  St. Elmo Pass, 8, 98, 100, 102, 104.
+  St. Helen's, Mt., 77, 86, 29, 36.
+  Seattle, 18, 43, 44, 108.
+  Senecio, 129.
+  Sierra Club, 75, 126, 57, 69.
+  Simlayshe (Eagle Peak), 30.
+  Siwashes, origin of term, 28, n.
+    See also Indians.
+  Sluiskin, guides Stevens and Van Trump, 28, 32, 120-1.
+  Sluiskin Falls, 67.
+  Sluiskin Mountains, 51, 103, 105, 126, 136, 142.
+  Snipe Lake, 98.
+  Snow Lake, 34.
+  Sour-Dough Mountains, 8, 98, 99.
+  Spanaway Lake, 4.
+  South Peak, see Peak Success.
+  Spray Falls, 125.
+  Spray Park, 50, 51, 92, 106, 116, 122.
+  Steamboat Prow, 51, 85, 104.
+  Steam Caves in Crater, 88.
+  Stevens, Gen. Hazard, 28, n., 32, 96, 97, 120-4, 115.
+  Stevens Canyon, 64, 66.
+  Storm King Peak, 18.
+  Summit, On the, 52;
+    South-side route to, 60;
+    East-side route, 100.
+  "Sunshine" and "Storm," 70.
+
+
+  "Tacoma," Indian name for the Mountain, 25, 100-7.
+  Tacoma (City) 18, 43, 44, 111.
+  Tatoosh Mountains, 50, 53, 59, 60, 62, 64, 87.
+  Tolmie, Dr. W. F., 117.
+  Trees in the National Park, 129-131, 139, 42, 130, 132.
+  Tyndall, Prof. John, quoted, 77.
+
+
+  Unicorn Peak, 65.
+  United States Geological Survey, 89.
+
+
+  Vancouver, Capt. George, discovers and names the Mountain, 98-101.
+  Van Trump, P. B., 28, n., 32, 120-5, 115.
+
+
+  Washington Lake, the Mountain from, 16.
+  Washington Torrents, 59.
+  Waterfall above Paradise Valley, 63.
+  Wedge, The, 51, 85, 8, 97, 99, 100.
+  White river, 110, 12, 112.
+  Whitney, Mt., 90.
+  Willis, Bailey, geologist, 96, 97.
+  Wilson, A. D., 96, 97.
+  Whulge, see Puget Sound.
+  Winthrop, Theodore, 93;
+    describes the Mountain, 102-4;
+    authority for his use of the Indian name, 104-7.
+  Wind-swept trees, 28, 139.
+  Wow, Mt. (Goat Mountain), 28.
+
+
+  Yellowstone National Park, 57, 67, 72.
+
+
+[Illustration {p.144}: A climbers' cabin on one of the shoulders of Mt.
+Blanc.]
+
+[Illustration: The Lakeside Press Chicago R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.]
+
+[Illustration {p.145}: Map Of Puget Sound Country And Roads To Mt.
+Rainier-tacoma]
+
+[Illustration {p.146}: Map of RAINIER NATIONAL PARK Compiled by EUGENE
+RICKSECKER U. S. Assistant Engineer FROM "THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS
+'GOD'"]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Mountain That Was "God," by John H. Williams</title>
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+
+Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Mountain that was 'God'
+       Being a Little Book About the Great Peak Which the Indians
+              Named 'Tacoma' but Which is Officially Called 'Rainier'
+
+Author: John H. Williams
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2007 [EBook #22056]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS 'GOD' ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="note">Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected,
+all other inconsistencies are as in the original. Author's spelling
+has been maintained.</p>
+
+<a id="imgcover" name="imgcover"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgcover.jpg" width="400" height="541" alt="Book cover" title="">
+</div>
+
+<h1>THE MOUNTAIN<br>
+  THAT WAS "GOD"</h1>
+
+<p class="center">BEING A LITTLE BOOK ABOUT THE GREAT<br>
+  PEAK WHICH THE INDIANS NAMED "TACOMA"<br>
+  BUT WHICH IS OFFICIALLY CALLED "RAINIER"</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+<h2>By JOHN H. WILLIAMS</h2>
+
+<div class="left25">
+<p><i>O, rarest miracle of mountain heights,<br>
+  Thou hast the sky for thy imperial dome,<br>
+  And dwell'st among the stars all days and nights,<br>
+  In the far heavens familiarly at home</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="add2em">&mdash;<span class="smcap">William Hillis Wynn</span>: "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Tacoma; an Apotheosis."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 center">Second Edition revised and greatly
+  enlarged, with 190 illustrations,
+  including eight colored halftones.</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center">TACOMA: JOHN H. WILLIAMS<br>
+  NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS: LONDON<br>
+  1911</p>
+
+<a id="imgp002" name="imgp002"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp002.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="Great Crevasses in the upper part of Cowlitz Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Great Crevasses in the upper part of Cowlitz Glacier.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1905, By Kiser Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 center">Copyright, 1910, 1911, by John H. Williams.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span>
+<a id="imgp003" name="imgp003"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp003.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="On the summit of Eagle Rock in winter." title="">
+<p class="smaller">On the summit of Eagle Rock in winter.<br>
+Boys looking over an 800-foot precipice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h2>FOREWORD.</h2>
+
+<p>Every summer there is demand for illustrated literature describing the
+mountain variously called "Rainier" or "Tacoma." Hitherto, we have had
+only small collections of pictures, without text, and confined to the
+familiar south and southwest sides.</p>
+
+<p>The little book which I now offer aims to show the grandest and most
+accessible of our extinct volcanoes from all points of view. Like the
+glacial rivers, its text will be found a narrow stream flowing swiftly
+amidst great mountain scenery. Its abundant illustrations cover not
+only the giants' fairyland south of the peak, but also the equally
+stupendous scenes that await the adventurer who penetrates the harder
+trails and climbs the greater glaciers of the north and east slopes.
+* * * *</p>
+
+<p>The title adopted for the book has reference, of course, to the Indian
+nature worship, of which something is said in the opening chapter.
+Both the title and a small part of the matter are reprinted from an
+article which I contributed last year to the <i>New York Evening Post</i>.
+Attention is called to the tangle in the names of glaciers and the
+need of a definitive nomenclature. As to the name of the Mountain
+itself, that famous bone of contention between two cities, I greatly
+prefer "Tacoma," one of the several authentic forms of the Indian name
+used by different tribes; but I believe that "Tahoma," proposed by the
+Rotary Club of Seattle, would be a justifiable compromise, and satisfy
+nearly everybody. Its adoption would free our national map from one
+more of its meaningless names&mdash;the name, in this case, of an
+undistinguished foreign naval officer whose only connection with our
+history is the fact that he fought against us during the American
+Revolution. Incidentally, it would also free me from the need of an
+apology for using the hybrid "Rainier-Tacoma"! * * * Many of the
+illustrations show wide reaches of wonderful country, and their
+details may well be studied with a reading glass.</p>
+
+<p>I am much indebted to the librarians and their courteous assistants at
+the Seattle and Tacoma public libraries; also to <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Flett for his
+interesting account of the flora of the National Park; to Mr. Eugene
+Ricksecker, of the United States Engineer Corps, for permission to
+reproduce his new map of the Park, now printed for the first time;
+and, most of all, to the photographers, both professional and amateur.
+In the table of illustrations, credit is given the maker of each
+photograph. The book is sent out in the hope of promoting a wider
+knowledge of our country's noblest landmark. May it lead many of its
+readers to delightful days of recreation and adventure.</p>
+
+<p class="left05">Tacoma, June 1, 1910.<span class="add8em">J. H. W.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Second Edition</span>.&mdash;The text has been carefully revised, much new matter
+added, and the information for tourists brought to date. The
+illustrations have been rearranged, and more <span class="pagenum"><a id="page008" name="page008"></a>(p. 008)</span> than fifty new
+ones included. Views of the west and south sides, mainly, occupy the
+first half of the book, while the later pages carry the reader east
+and north from the Nisqually country.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly five thousand negatives and photographs have now been examined
+in selecting copy for the engravers. In the table of illustrations I
+am glad to place the names of several expert photographers in
+Portland, San Francisco, Pasadena and Boston. Their pictures, with
+other new ones obtained from photographers already represented, make
+this edition much more complete. For the convenience of tourists, as
+well as of persons unable to visit the Mountain but wishing to know
+its features, I have numbered the landmarks on three of the larger
+views, giving a key in the underlines. If this somewhat mars the
+beauty of these pictures, it gives them added value as maps of the
+areas shown. In renewing my acknowledgments to the photographers, I
+must mention especially Mr. Asahel Curtis of Seattle. The help and
+counsel of this intrepid and public-spirited mountaineer have been
+invaluable. Mr. A. H. Barnes, our Tacoma artist with camera and brush,
+whose fine pictures fill many of the following pages, is about to
+publish a book of his mountain views, for which I bespeak liberal
+patronage.</p>
+
+<p>My readers will join me in welcoming the beautiful verses written for
+this edition by a gracious and brilliant woman whose poems have
+delighted two generations of her countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks are also due to Senator Wesley L. Jones, Superintendent E. S.
+Hall of the Rainier National Park and the Secretary of the Interior
+for official information; to Director George Otis Smith of the U. S.
+Geological Survey for such elevations as have thus far been
+established by the new survey of the Park; to A. C. McClurg &amp; <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr> of
+Chicago, for permission to quote from Miss Judson's "<i>Myths and
+Legends of the Pacific Northwest</i>"; to Mr. Wallace Rice, literary
+executor of the late Francis Brooks, for leave to use Mr. Brooks's
+fine poem on the Mountain; to the librarians at the Public Library,
+the John Crerar Library and the Newberry Library in Chicago, and to
+many others who have aided me in obtaining photographs or data for
+this edition.</p>
+
+<p>Lovers of the mountains, in all parts of our country, will learn with
+regret that Congress, remains apparently indifferent to the
+conservation of the Rainier National Park and its complete opening to
+the public. At the last session, a small appropriation was asked for
+much-needed trails through the forests and to the high interglacial
+plateaus, now inaccessible save to the toughest mountaineer; it being
+the plan of the government engineers to build such trails on grades
+that would permit their ultimate widening into permanent roads. Even
+this was denied. The Idaho catastrophe last year again proved the
+necessity of trails to the protection of great forests. With the
+loggers pushing their operations closer to the Park, its danger calls
+for prompt action. Further, American tourists, it is said, annually
+spend $200,000,000 abroad, largely to view scenery surpassed in their
+own country. But Congress refuses the $50,000 asked, even refuses
+$25,000, toward making the grandest of our National Parks safe from
+forest fires and accessible to students and lovers of nature!</p>
+
+<p class="add2em">May 3, 1911.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp008" name="imgp008"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp008.jpg" width="500" height="169" alt="Winthrop Glacier and Saint Elmo Pass." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Winthrop Glacier and <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass,<br> with Ruth Mountain
+(the Wedge) on right and Sour-Dough Mountains on left.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp009" name="imgp009"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp009.jpg" width="500" height="167" alt="White Glacier and Little Tahoma." title="">
+<p class="smaller">White Glacier and Little Tahoma,<br> with eastern end of
+the Tatoosh Range in distance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span> CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<a id="toc" name="toc"></a>
+<div class="toc">
+<ul class="upper">
+<li style="list-style-type:none;"><a href="#page015">The Mountain Speaks. Poem</a><span class="ralign">Edna Dean Proctor</span></li>
+<li value="1"><a href="#page017">Mount "Big Snow" and Indian Tradition</a></li>
+<li><a href="#page043">The National Park, its Roads and its Needs</a></li>
+<li><a href="#page077">The Story of the Mountain</a></li>
+<li><a href="#page113">The Climbers</a></li>
+<li><a href="#page129">The Flora of the Mountain Slopes</a><span class="ralign"><abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li style="list-style-type:none;"><a href="#page139">Notes</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<p>The * indicates engravings made from copyrighted photographs. See
+notice under the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>THREE-COLOR HALFTONES.</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li><span class="smcap">Title.</span>   <span class="ralign">Photographer.</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgcover">Spanaway Lake, with reflection of the Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes.</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp019">View from Electron, showing west side of the Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp046">View northward from top of Pinnacle Peak</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp047">Looking Northeast from slope of Pinnacle Peak</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp073">Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp091">Spray Park, from Fay Peak</a> <span class="ralign">W. P. Romans</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp109">Crevasse in Carbon Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp128">North Mowich Glacier and the Mountain in a storm</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>ONE-COLOR HALFTONES.</p>
+
+<ul class="none">
+<li>* <a href="#imgp002">Great crevasses in upper part of Cowlitz Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Kiser Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp003">On the summit of Eagle Rock in winter</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp008">Winthrop Glacier and <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp009">White Glacier and Little Tahoma</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp012">White River Canyon, from moraine of White Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp013">Telephoto view from near Electron, showing plateau on the summit</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp014">View of the Mountain from Fox Island</a> <span class="ralign">Charles Bedford</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp016">The most kingly of American mountains</a> <span class="ralign">Romans Photographic <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp017a">Party of climbers on Winthrop Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp017b">Ice Terraces, South Tahoma Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Rodney L. Glisan</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp018a">Mineral Lake and the Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Denman</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp018b">Storm King Peak and Mineral Lake</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp021">Nisqually Canyon</a> <span class="ralign">Kiser Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp022">North Peak, and South Mowich Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp023a">Basaltic Columns, South Mowich Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp023b">Mountain Goat</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp024">West side of summit, seen from Tahoma Fork</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp025a">Iron and Copper Mountains in Indian Henry's</a> <span class="ralign">A. G. Bowles, <abbr title="Junior">Jr.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp025b">Cutting steps up Paradise Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp026a">Great Crag on ridge separating North and South Tahoma Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp026b">The Whistling Marmot</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp027">View from Beljica, showing west side of the Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp028a">Mountain Pine</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp028b">Mount Wow, or Goat Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp029">Rounded Cone of <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> St Helen's</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp030a">View northward from Simlayshe, or Eagle Peak</a> <span class="ralign">Pillsbury Picture <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp030b">Simlayshe, or Eagle Peak</a>  <span class="ralign">Linkletter Photographic <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp031b">Exploring Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp032a">Junction of North and South Tahoma Glaciers</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Denman</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp032b">Anemones</a> <span class="ralign">Miss Jessie Kershaw</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp033">North Tahoma Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp034">Snow Lake in Indian Henry's</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp035">A fair Mountaineer</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp036">Indian Henry's, seen from South Tahoma Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Denman</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp037">Southwest side of the Mountain, seen from Indian Henry's</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp038">Climbing Pinnacle Peak (2)</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp039a">A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp039b">Rough Climbing</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp040a">Ptarmigan</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp040b">The Mountain, from Puyallup river</a> <span class="ralign">B. L. Aldrich, <abbr title="Junior">Jr.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp041">Falls of the Little Mashell river</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp042">Old Stage Road to Longmire Springs</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp043a">On Pierce County road, passing Ohop Valley</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Lancaster</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp043b">Cowlitz Chimneys</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Smith</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp044">Old Road near Spanaway</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp049a">Automobile Party above Nisqually Canyon</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp049b"><abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> O. D. Allen's Cottage</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp050">"Ghost Trees"</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. H. A. Towne</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp051a">Government Road in the Forest Reserve</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Lancaster</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp051b">"Hanging Glacier," an ice fall above the Cowlitz</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp052a">Leaving National Park Inn for Paradise</a> <span class="ralign">Linkletter Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp052b">On the Summit, showing Columbia's Crest</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp053">Paradise Valley or "Park," and Tatoosh Mountains</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp054a">On Government Road, a mile above Longmires</a> <span class="ralign">Linkletter Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp054b">Road near "Gap Point"</a> <span class="ralign">Linkletter Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp055a">Snout of Nisqually Glacier, and Road Bridge</a> <span class="ralign">Paul T. Shaw</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp055b">Pony Trail Bridge across the Nisqually</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> H. B. Hinman</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp056a">Road a mile above the Bridge</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp056b">On the Pony Trail to Paradise</a> <span class="ralign">Kiser Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp057a">Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp057b">A Mountain Celery</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. Alexander Thompson</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp058">Narada Falls, on Paradise River</a> <span class="ralign">Herbert W. Gleason</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp059a">Washington Torrents, on Paradise River</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp059b">Portion of Paradise Park and Tatoosh Range</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp060">View of the Mountain from the Tatoosh, with key to landmarks</a> <span class="ralign">Herbert W. Gleason</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp061a">Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp061b">Tug of War</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp062b">Hiking through Paradise Valley in Winter</a> <span class="ralign">J. H. Weer</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp062a">Tatoosh Range, from Reese's Camp, in Winter</a> <span class="ralign">J. H. Weer</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp063">Waterfall above Paradise Valley</a> <span class="ralign">Photo, W. E. Averett;</span><br>
+              <span class="ralign">Copyright, Asahel Curtis</span><br></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp064a">Looking from Stevens Glacier to <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp064b">Reese's Camp</a> <span class="ralign">C. E. Cutter</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp065">Climbing the "Horn" on Unicorn Peak</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp066">Stevens Canyon in October</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp067a">Sluiskin Falls</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp067b">Eminent scientist practices the simple life</a> <span class="ralign">J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp068">Nisqually Glacier, with its sources</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp069a">Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp069b">Lost to the World</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp070a">"Sunshine" and "Storm" (2)</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. H. A. Towne</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page011" name="page011"></a>(p. 011)</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp071">Nisqually Glacier, from top of Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp072a">Measuring the ice flow in Nisqually Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp072b">Miss Fay Fuller Exploring a Crevasse</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp075">Fairy Falls, in Goat Lick Basin</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp076">Gibraltar and its Neighbors</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp077a">Crossing Carbon Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp077b">Reflection Lake and the Mountain</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp078">Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys to Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp079a">Divide of Paradise and Stevens Glaciers</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp079b">Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp080a">Preparing for a night at Camp Muir</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp080b">The Bee Hive</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp081a">Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys</a> <span class="ralign">Kiser Photo <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp081b">Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp082">Mazamas rounding Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Rodney L. Glisan</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp083a">Under the walls of Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp083b">One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp084">Perilous position on edge of a great crevasse</a> <span class="ralign">Charles Bedford</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp085">Climbing the "Chute," west side of Gibraltar</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp086">Looking from top of Gibraltar to the summit</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp087">View south from Cowlitz Glacier to <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams</a> <span class="ralign">Charles Bedford</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp088a">One of the modern craters</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp088b">Steam Caves in one of the craters</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp089b">North Peak, or "Liberty Cap."</a> <span class="ralign">A. W. Archer</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp090">Goat Peaks, glacier summits in the Cascades</a> <span class="ralign">Kiser Photo Co</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp093a">Ice-bound lake in Cowlitz Park</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Smith</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp093b">Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Smith</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp094a">Crossing a precipitous slope on White Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">A. W. Archer</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp094b">Climbing Goat Peaks in the Cascades</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Smith</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp095">Looking up White Glacier to Little Tahoma</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp096a">The Mountain seen from top of Cascade Range</a> <span class="ralign">S. C. Smith</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp096b">Great Moraine built by Frying-Pan Glacier on "Goat Island"</a> <span class="ralign">J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp097a">Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier, below Little Tahoma</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp097b">Sunrise above the clouds, Camp Curtis</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp098a">Looking up from Snipe Lake, below Interglacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp098b">Passing a big Crevasse on Interglacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp099">View North from <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Ruth to Grand Park</a> <span class="ralign">J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp100a">Camp on <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass, north side of the Wedge</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp100b">East Face of Mountain, with route to summit</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp101a">Admiral Peter Rainier</a></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp101b">First picture of the Mountain, from Vancouver's "Voyage"</a></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp102a">Climbers on <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass</a> <span class="ralign">A. W. Archer</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp102b"><abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass, from north side</a> <span class="ralign">A. W. Archer</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp103b">Russell Peak, from Avalanche Camp</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp103a">Avalanche Camp</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp104a">Looking up Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp104b">Looking across Winthrop Glacier to Steamboat Prow</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp105">View south from Sluiskin Mountains across Moraine Park</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp106">Part of Spray Park</a> <span class="ralign">George Caesar</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp107a">Climbing the séracs on Winthrop Glacier</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp107b">Ice Pinnacles on the Carbon</a> <span class="ralign">A. W. Archer</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp108">Among the Ice Bridges of Carbon Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp111">Building Tacoma's electric power plant on the Nisqually (3)</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp112a">Hydro-electric plant at Electron</a></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp112b">Cutting canal to divert White River to Lake Tapps</a></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp113a">Mystic Lake, in Moraine Park</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp113b">Glacier Table on Winthrop Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp114">Carbon River and Mother Mountains</a> <span class="ralign"><abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> F. A. Scott</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp115a">Oldest and Youngest of the Climbers</a> <span class="ralign">C. E. Cutter</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp115b">P. B. Van Trump on his old Camp Ground</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp116a">Lower Spray Park, with Mother Mountains beyond</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp116b">John Muir, President of the Sierra Club</a> <span class="ralign">J. Edward B. Greene</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp117a">Coasting in Moraine Park</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp117b">Sunset on Crater Lake</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp118">Amphitheatre of Carbon Glacier</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp119">Avalanche falling on Willis Wall</a> <span class="ralign">Photo, Lea Bronson;</span><br>
+               <span class="ralign">Copyright, P. V. Caesar</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span><br></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp120">Birth of Carbon River</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Waite</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp121a">The Mountaineers building trail on Carbon Moraine</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp121b">The Mountaineers lunching in a crevasse</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp122">Looking south from <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rose, across Crater Lake</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp124">Looking up North Mowich Valley</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp125">Spray Falls</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp126a">A Rescue from a Crevasse</a> <span class="ralign">E. S. Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp126b">Returning from the Summit</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp129a">View across Moraine Park and Carbon Glacier to Mother Mountains</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp129b">Senecio</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. Alexander Thompson</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp130">A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp131a">Indian Pipe</a> <span class="ralign">J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp131b">Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's Park</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp132">Mosses and Ferns in the Forest Reserve</a> <span class="ralign">Charles Bedford</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp133a">A Bank of White Heather</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp133b">Hellebore</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. Alexander Thompson</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp134a">Alpine Hemlock and Mountain Lilies</a> <span class="ralign">Mrs. H. A. Towne</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp134b">Mountain Asters</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp135a">Studying the Phlox</a> <span class="ralign">J. B. Flett</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp135b">Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily</a> <span class="ralign">Miss Jessie Kershaw</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp136a">Avalanche Lilies</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp136b">Moraine Park, Sluiskin Mountains and Mystic Lake</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp137">Sunrise in Indian Henry's</a> <span class="ralign">A. H. Barnes</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp138">Anemone Seed Pods</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp139a">Wind-swept Trees on North Side</a> <span class="ralign">George V. Caesar</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp139b">Lupines</a> <span class="ralign">Herbert W. Gleason</span></li>
+<li>* <a href="#imgp140">The Mountain, seen from Green River Hot Springs</a> <span class="ralign">C. E. Cutter</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp141">Glacial debris on lower Winthrop</a> <span class="ralign">Asahel Curtis</span></li>
+<li><a href="#imgp142a">An Alpine Climbers' Cabin</a>  <span class="ralign">From Whymper's "Chamonix and <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Blanc"</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<a id="imgp012" name="imgp012"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp012.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="White River Canyon." title="">
+<p class="smaller">White River Canyon, from the terminal moraine of White
+Glacier. A fine example of glacial sculpture. The river seen in the
+distance is 2,000 feet below the plateau through which the glacier has
+carved this valley.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp013" name="imgp013"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp013.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Telephoto view from near Electron." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Telephoto view from near Electron, 20 miles,
+showing vast summit plateau left when the Mountain blew its head off.
+1. Crater Peak, built by the two small, modern craters. 2. South Peak,
+or Peak Success. 3. North Peak, or Liberty Cap. 4. North Tahoma
+Glacier. 5. Puyallup Glacier. 6. South Mowich Glacier. 7.
+North Mowich Glacier. 8. Snow Cap above Carbon Glacier. The summit
+peaks (1, 2 and 3) form a triangle, each side of which is two miles or
+more in length.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp014" name="imgp014"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp014.jpg" width="500" height="323" alt="View of the Mountain from Fox Island." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View of the Mountain from Fox Island,
+forty-two miles northwest, with part of Puget Sound in the
+foreground.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page015" name="page015"></a>(p. 015)</span> THE MOUNTAIN SPEAKS.</h2>
+
+<div class="poem15">
+<p>I am Tacoma, Monarch of the Coast!<br>
+<span class="add2em">Uncounted ages heaped my shining snows;</span><br>
+  The sun by day, by night the starry host,<br>
+<span class="add2em">Crown me with splendor; every breeze that blows</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">Wafts incense to my altars; never wanes</span><br>
+  The glory my adoring children boast,<br>
+<span class="add2em">For one with sun and sea Tacoma reigns.</span></p>
+
+<p class="add5em">Tacoma&mdash;the Great Snow Peak&mdash;mighty name<br>
+<span class="add2em">My dusky tribes revered when time was young!</span><br>
+          Their god was I in avalanche and flame&mdash;<br>
+<span class="add2em">In grove and mead and songs my rivers sung,</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">As blithe they ran to make the valleys fair&mdash;</span><br>
+          Their Shrine of Peace where no avenger came<br>
+<span class="add2em">To vex Tacoma, lord of earth and air.</span></p>
+
+<p>Ah! when at morn above the mists I tower<br>
+<span class="add2em">And see my cities gleam by slope and strand,</span><br>
+  What joy have I in this transcendent dower&mdash;<br>
+<span class="add2em">The strength and beauty of my sea-girt land</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">That holds the future royally in fee!</span><br>
+  And lest some danger, undescried, should lower,<br>
+<span class="add2em">From my far height I watch o'er wave and lea.</span></p>
+
+<p class="add5em">And cloudless eves when calm in heaven I rest,<br>
+<span class="add2em">All rose-bloom with a glow of paradise,</span><br>
+          And through my firs the balm-wind of the west,<br>
+<span class="add2em">Blown over ocean islands, softly sighs,</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">While placid lakes my radiant image frame&mdash;</span><br>
+          And know my worshippers, in loving quest,<br>
+<span class="add2em">Will mark my brow and fond lips breathe my name:</span></p>
+
+<p>Enraptured from my valleys to my snows,<br>
+<span class="add2em">I charm my glow to crimson&mdash;soothe to gray;</span><br>
+  And when the encircling shadow deeper grows,<br>
+<span class="add2em">Poise, a lone cloud, beside the starry way.</span><br>
+<span class="add2em">Then, while my realm is hushed from steep to shore,</span><br>
+  I yield my grandeur to divine repose,<br>
+<span class="add2em">And know Tacoma reigns forevermore!</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>South Framingham, <abbr title="Massachusetts">Mass.</abbr><br>
+  March, 1911. <span class="left55">Edna Dean Proctor</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a id="imgp016" name="imgp016"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp016.jpg" width="500" height="330" alt="The most kingly of American mountains." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The most kingly of American mountains, seen from beautiful Lake
+Washington, Seattle, distance sixty miles.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1906, By Romans Photographic <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page017" name="page017"></a>(p. 017)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp017a" name="imgp017a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp017a.jpg" width="500" height="164" alt="A party of climbers on Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">A party of climbers on Winthrop Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1>THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS "GOD."</h1>
+
+<h3><abbr title="1">I.</abbr></h3>
+
+<h5>MOUNT "BIG SNOW" AND INDIAN TRADITION.</h5>
+
+<p class="poem15">
+Long hours we toiled up through the solemn wood,<br>
+<span class="add2em">Beneath moss-banners stretched from tree to tree;</span><br>
+At last upon a barren hill we stood,<br>
+<span class="add2em">And, lo, above loomed Majesty.</span><br>
+<span class="add5em">&mdash;<i>Herbert Bashford: "Mount Rainier."</i></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2">The great Mountain fascinates us by its diversity. It is an
+inspiration and yet a riddle to all who are drawn to the mysterious or
+who love the sublime. Every view which the breaking clouds vouchsafe
+to us is a surprise. It never becomes commonplace, save to the
+commonplace.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp017b" name="imgp017b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp017b.jpg" width="300" height="198" alt="Ice Terraces on South Tahoma Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Ice Terraces on South Tahoma Glacier. These vast steps
+are often seen where a glacier moves down a steep and irregular
+slope.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Old Virgil's gibe at mankind's better half&mdash;"varium et mutabile semper
+femina"&mdash;might have been written of this fickle shape of rock and ice
+and vapor. One tries vainly, year after year, to define it in his own
+mind. The daily, hourly change of distance, size and aspect, tricks
+which the Indian's mountain <span class="pagenum"><a id="page018" name="page018"></a>(p. 018)</span> god plays with the puny
+creatures swarming more and more about his foot; his days of frank
+neighborliness, his swift transformations from smiles to anger, his
+fits of sullenness and withdrawal, all baffle study. Even though we
+live at its base, it is impossible to say we know the Mountain, so
+various are the spells the sun casts over this huge dome which it is
+slowly chiseling away with its tools of ice, and which, in coming
+centuries, it will level with the plain.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp018a" name="imgp018a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp018a.jpg" width="300" height="322" alt="Mineral Lake and the Mountain." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mineral Lake and the Mountain. Distance, eighteen
+miles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are lovers of the water as well as the hills, out here in this
+northwestern corner of the Republic. We spend many days&mdash;and should
+spend more&mdash;in cruising among the hidden bays and park-like islands
+which make Puget Sound the most interesting body of water in America.
+We grow a bit boastful about the lakes that cluster around our cities.
+Nowhere better than from sea level, or from the lakes raised but
+little above it, does one realize the bulk, the dominance, and yet the
+grace, of this noble peak. Its impressiveness, indeed, arises in part
+from the fact that it is one of the few great volcanic mountains whose
+entire height may be seen from tide level. Many of us can recall views
+of it from Lake Washington at Seattle, or from American or Spanaway
+Lake at Tacoma, or from the Sound, which will always haunt the memory.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp018b" name="imgp018b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp018b.jpg" width="300" height="263" alt="Storm King Peak and Mineral Lake." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Storm King Peak and Mineral Lake, viewed from near Mineral Lake Inn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Early one evening, last summer, I went with a friend to Point
+Defiance, Tacoma's fine park at the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span> end of the promontory
+on which the city is built. We drank in refreshment from the picture
+there unrolled of broad channels and evergreen shores. As sunset
+approached, we watched the western clouds building range upon range of
+golden mountains above the black, Alp-like crags of the Olympics.
+Then, entering a small boat, we rowed far out northward into the
+Sound. Overhead, and about us, the scenes of the great panorama were
+swiftly shifted. The western sky became a conflagration. Twilight
+settled upon the bay. The lights of the distant town came out, one by
+one, and those of the big smelter, near by, grew brilliant. No Turner
+ever dreamed so glorious a composition of sunlight and shade. But we
+were held by one vision.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp019" name="imgp019"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp019.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="View from Electron." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View from Electron, showing west side of the
+mountain, with a vast intervening country of forested ranges and deep
+canyons.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp021" name="imgp021"></a>
+<div class="floatleft-l">
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp021.jpg" width="200" height="413" alt="View from Electron." title=""><br><br>
+<span class="smaller max200px">Nisqually Canyon.</span></p>
+
+<p class="add2em">... "Where the mountain wall<br>
+  Is piled to heaven, and through the narrow rift<br>
+  Of the vast rocks, against whose rugged feet<br>
+  Beats the mad torrent with perpetual roar:<br>
+  Where noonday is as twilight, and the wind<br>
+  Comes burdened with the everlasting moan<br>
+  Of forests and far-off waterfalls."&mdash;Whittier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yonder, in the southeast, towering above the lower shadows of harbor
+and hills, rose a vast pyramid of soft flame. The setting sun had
+thrown a mantle of rose pink over the ice of the glaciers and the
+great cleavers of rock which buttress the mighty dome. The rounded
+summit was warm with beautiful orange light. Soon the colors upon its
+slope changed to deeper reds, and then to amethyst, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span>
+violet, and pearl gray. The sun-forsaken ranges below fell away to
+dark neutral tints. But the fires upon the crest burned on, deepening
+from gold to burnished copper, a colossal beacon flaming high against
+the sunset purple of the eastern skies. Finally, even this great light
+paled to a ghostly white, as the supporting foundation of mountain
+ridges dropped into the darkness of the long northern twilight, until
+the snowy summit seemed no longer a part of earth, but a veil of
+uncanny mist, caught up by the winds from the Pacific and floating far
+above the black sky-line of the solid Cascades, that</p>
+
+<p class="poem">* * * heaven-sustaining bulwark, reared<br>
+  Between the East and West.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp022" name="imgp022"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp022.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="North Peak, or Liberty Cap." title="">
+<p class="smaller">North Peak, or Liberty Cap, and South Mowich Glacier in storm, seen
+from an altitude of 6,000 feet, on ridge between South Mowich and
+Puyallup Glaciers. The glacier, 2,000 feet below, is nearly half a
+mile wide. Note the tremendous wall of ice in which it ends.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite.</span> </p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp023a" name="imgp023a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp023a.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="Basaltic Columns." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Basaltic Columns, part of the "Colonnade" on south side of South Mowich Glacier. These
+curious six-sided columns of volcanic rock are similar to those
+bordering the Cowlitz Glacier.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite.</span> </p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp023b" name="imgp023b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp023b.jpg" width="200" height="218" alt="Mountain Goat." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Mountain Goat, an accidental snap-shot of the fleet and
+wary Mazama; godfather of the famous Portland mountain club.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And when even that apparition had faded, and the Mountain appeared
+only as an uncertain bulk shadowed upon the night, then came the
+miracle. Gradually, the east, beyond the great hills, showed a faint
+silver glow. Silhouetted against this dim background, the profile of
+the peak grew definite. With no other warning, suddenly from its
+summit the full moon shot forth, huge, majestic and gracious, flooding
+the lower world with brightness. Clouds and mountain ranges alike
+shone with its glory. But the great peak loomed blacker and more
+sullen. Only, on its head, the wide crown of snow gleamed white under
+the cold rays of the moon.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp024" name="imgp024"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp024.jpg" width="500" height="648" alt="West Side of the summit." title="">
+<p class="smaller">West Side of the summit, seen from Tahoma Fork
+of the Nisqually, on road to Longmire Springs. Note the whiteness of
+the glacial water. This stream is fed by the united Tahoma glaciers.
+See <abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> <a href="#page032">32</a> and <a href="#imgp037">37</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp025a" name="imgp025a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp025a.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="Iron and Copper Mountains." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Iron and Copper Mountains (right) in Indian Henry's.
+The top of Pyramid Peak shows in the saddle beyond with Peak Success
+towering far above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>No wonder that this mountain of changing moods, overtopping every
+other eminence in the Northwest, answered the idea of God to the
+simple, imaginative mind of the Indians who hunted in the forest on
+its slopes or fished in the waters of Whulge that ebbed and flowed at
+its base. Primitive peoples in every land have deified superlative
+manifestations of nature&mdash;the sun, the wind, great rivers, and
+waterfalls, the high mountains. By all the tribes within sight of its
+summit, this pre-eminent peak, variously called by them Tacoma
+(Tach-ho´ma), Tahoma or Tacob, as who should say "The Great Snow," was
+deemed a power to be feared and conciliated. Even when the
+missionaries taught them a better faith, they continued to hold the
+Mountain in superstitious reverence&mdash;an awe that still has power to
+silence their "civilized" and very unromantic descendants.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp025b" name="imgp025b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp025b.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="Cutting steps up Paradise Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Cutting steps up Paradise Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Puget Sound tribes, with the Yakimas, Klickitats and others living
+just beyond the Cascades, had substantially the same language and
+beliefs, though differing much in physical and mental type. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span>
+East of the range, they lived by the chase. They were great horsemen
+and famous runners, a breed of lithe, upstanding, competent men, as
+keen of wit as they were stately in appearance. These were "the noble
+Red Men" of tradition. Fennimore Cooper might have found many a hero
+worthy of his pen among the savages inhabiting the fertile valley of
+the Columbia, which we now call the Inland Empire. But here on the
+Coast were the "Digger" tribes, who subsisted chiefly by spearing
+salmon and digging clams. Their stooped figures, flat faces, downcast
+eyes and low mentality reflected the life they led. Contrasting their
+heavy bodies with their feeble legs, which grew shorter with disuse, a
+Tacoma humorist last summer gravely proved to a party of English
+visitors that in a few generations more, had not the white man seized
+their fishing grounds, the squatting Siwashes would have had no legs
+at all!</p>
+
+<a id="imgp026a" name="imgp026a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp026a.jpg" width="500" height="372" alt="Great Crag on the ridge separating the North and South
+Tahoma Glaciers." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Great Crag on the ridge separating the North and South
+Tahoma Glaciers, with Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually visible several
+miles below. This rock is seen right of center on page <a href="#imgp027">27</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp026b" name="imgp026b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp026b.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="The Marmot." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">The Marmot, whose shrill whistle is often heard among
+the crags.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stolid and uninspired as he seemed to the whites, the Indian of the
+Sound was not without his touch of poetry. He had that imaginative
+curiosity which marked the native <span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span> American everywhere. He
+was ever peering into the causes of things, and seeing the
+supernatural in the world around him.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1">[1]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp027" name="imgp027"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp027.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="View from Beljica." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View from Beljica, showing the deeply indented
+west side of the Mountain. Beginning at extreme right, the glaciers
+are, successively: Kautz, South Tahoma, North Tahoma and Puyallup. In
+the left foreground is the canyon of Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually,
+which is fed by the Tahoma glaciers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp028a" name="imgp028a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp028a.jpg" width="300" height="217" alt="Mountain Pine." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mountain Pine, one of
+the last outposts of the forest below the line of eternal snow.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the great Snow Mountain the Indians made frequent pilgrimages, for
+they thought this king of the primeval wild a divinity to be reckoned
+with. They dreaded its anger, seen in the storms about its head, the
+thunder of its avalanches, and the volcanic flashes of which their
+traditions told. They courted its favor, symbolized in the wild
+flowers that bloomed on its slope, and the tall grass that fed the
+mowich, or deer.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp028b" name="imgp028b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp028b.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Mount Wow." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mount Wow, or Goat Mountain, above Mesler's.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As they ascended the vast ridges, the grandeur about them spoke of the
+mountain god. There were groves of trees he must have planted, so
+orderly were they set out. The lakes of the lofty valleys seemed
+calmer than those on the prairies below, the foliage brighter, the
+ferns taller and more graceful. The song of the waterfalls here was
+sweeter than the music of the tamahnawas men, their Indian sorcerers.
+The many small meadows close to the snow-line, carpeted in deepest
+green and spread with flowers, were the gardens of the divinity,
+tended by his superhuman agents. Strange as it may seem, the
+nature-worship of the silent Red Man had many points in common with
+that of the imaginative, volatile Greek, who <span class="pagenum"><a id="page030" name="page030"></a>(p. 030)</span> peopled his
+mountains with immortals; and no wood in ancient Greece was ever
+thronged with hamadryads more real than the little gods whom the
+Indian saw in the forests watered by streams from Tacoma's glaciers.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp029" name="imgp029"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp029.jpg" width="400" height="530" alt="Rounded Cone of Mount Saint Helens." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Rounded Cone of <abbr title="Mount Saint">Mt. St.</abbr> Helens, seen from
+Indian Henry's, forty-five miles away.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp030a" name="imgp030a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp030a.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="View northward in early summer from Eagle Peak." title="">
+<br><a id="imgp031a" name="imgp031a"></a>
+<img src="images/imgp031a.jpg" width="500" height="270" alt="View northward in early summer from Eagle Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View northward in early summer from Eagle Peak, at
+western end of the Tatoosh. Gibraltar Rock and Little Tahoma break the
+eastern sky-line. On the extreme right lies Paradise Valley, still deep
+in snow, with the canyon of Paradise River below it. Next is seen the
+Nisqually Glacier, with Nisqually River issuing from its snout. Then
+come Van Trump Glacier (an "interglacier"), and the big Kautz Glacier,
+dropping into its own deep canyon. Beyond the Kautz, Pyramid Peak and
+Iron and Copper Mountains rise on the Indian Henry plateau. The Tahoma
+Glaciers close the view westward.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1907, By Pillsbury Picture <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp030b" name="imgp030b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp030b.jpg" width="200" height="286" alt="Eagle Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Eagle Peak (Indian name, Simlayshe) at west end of the Tatoosh.
+Altitude about 6,000 feet. A pony trail three miles long leads up from the Inn.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Linkletter Photo. <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Countless snows had fallen since the mountain god created and
+beautified this home of his, when one day he grew angry, and in his
+wrath showed terrible tongues of fire. Thus he ignited an immense fir
+forest on the south side of the peak. When his anger subsided, the
+flames passed, and the land they left bare became covered with blue
+grass and wild flowers&mdash;a great sunny country where, before, the dark
+forest had been. Borrowing a word from the French <i>coureurs des bois</i>
+who came with the Hudson's Bay Company, the later Indians sometimes
+called this region "the Big Brulé"; and to this day some Americans
+call it the same. But for the Big Brulé the Indians had, from ancient
+times, another name, connected with their ideas of religion. It was
+their Saghalie Illahe, the "Land of Peace," Heaven. Our name,
+"Paradise Valley," <span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span> given to the beautiful open vale on the
+south slope of the Mountain, is an English equivalent.</p>
+
+<p>Here was the same bar to violence which religion has erected in many
+lands. The Hebrews had their "Cities of Refuge." The pagan ancients
+made every altar an asylum. Mediæval Christianity constituted all its
+churches sanctuaries. Thus, in lawless ages, the hand of vengeance was
+stayed, and the weak were protected.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp031b" name="imgp031b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp031b.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="Exploring an Ice Cave." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Exploring an Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So, too, the Indian tradition ordained this home of rest and refuge.
+Indian custom was an eye for an eye, but on gaining this mountain
+haven the pursued was safe from his pursuer, the slayer might not be
+touched by his victim's kindred. When he crossed its border, the
+warrior laid down his arms. Criminals and cowards, too, were often
+sent here by the chiefs to do penance.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp032a" name="imgp032a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp032a.jpg" width="500" height="362" alt="Junction of North and South Tahoma Glaciers." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Junction of North and South Tahoma Glaciers, viewed
+from Indian Henry's. The main ice stream thus formed, seen in the
+foreground, feeds Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually River. The Northern
+part of North Tahoma Glacier, seen in the distance beyond the wedge of
+rocks, feeds a tributary of the Puyallup.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mountain divinity, with his under-gods, figures in much of the
+Siwash <span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span> folklore, and the "Land of Peace" is often heard of.
+It is through such typical Indian legends as that of Miser, the greedy
+hiaqua hunter, that we learn how large a place the great Mountain
+filled in the thought of the aborigines.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp032b" name="imgp032b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp032b.jpg" width="200" height="251" alt="Anemones." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Anemones, a familiar mountain flower.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This myth also explains why no Red Man could ever be persuaded to an
+ascent beyond the snow line. As to the Greek, so to the Indian the
+great peaks were sacred. The flames of an eruption, the fall of an
+avalanche, told of the wrath of the mountain god. The clouds that
+wrapped the summit of Tacoma spelled mystery and peril. Even so shrewd
+and intelligent a Siwash as Sluiskin, with all his keenness for
+"Boston chikamin," the white man's money, refused to accompany Stevens
+and Van Trump in the first ascent, in 1870; indeed, he gave them up as
+doomed, and bewailed their certain fate when they defied the
+Mountain's wrath and started for the summit in spite of his warnings.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp033" name="imgp033"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp033.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt="North Tahoma Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">North Tahoma Glacier, flowing out of the huge cleft in the west side, between North
+and South Peaks. A great rock wedge splits the glacier, turning part
+of the ice stream northward into the Puyallup, while the other part,
+on the right pours down to join South Tahoma Glacier. Note how the
+promontory of rock in the foreground has been rounded and polished by
+the ice. Compare this view with pages <a href="#page032">32</a> and <a href="#imgp037">37</a>.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright 1910, A. H. WAITE.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp034" name="imgp034"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp034.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt="Snow Lake in Indian Henry's." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Snow Lake in Indian Henry's, surrounded by
+Alpine firs, which grow close to the snow line. Elevation about 6,000 feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hero of the Hiaqua Myth is the Indian <span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span> Rip Van
+Winkle.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2">[2]</a> He dwelt at the foot of Tacoma, and, like Irving's worthy,
+he was a mighty hunter and fisherman. He knew the secret pools where
+fish could always be found, and the dark places in the forest, where
+the elk hid when snows were deepest. But for these things Miser cared
+not. His lust was all for hiaqua, the Indian shell money.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp035" name="imgp035"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp035.jpg" width="300" height="443" alt="A fair Mountaineer at the timber line." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">A fair Mountaineer at the timber line. Note her
+equipment, including shoe calks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now, Miser's totem was Moosmoos, the elk divinity. So Miser tried,
+even while hunting the elk, to talk with them, in order to learn where
+hiaqua might be found. One night Moosmoos persuaded him that on top of
+the Mountain he would find great store of it. Making him two elk-horn
+picks, and filling his ikta with dried salmon and kinnikinnick, he
+climbed in two nights and a day to the summit. Here he found three big
+rocks, one like a camas root, one like a salmon's head, the third like
+his friendly Moosmoos. Miser saw that Moosmoos had told him truly.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp036" name="imgp036"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp036.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="View of Indian Henry's Hunting Ground." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View of Indian Henry's Hunting Ground from a
+point on South Tahoma Glacier, looking across to Copper and Iron
+Mountains, with <abbr title="Mount Saint">Mt. St.</abbr> Helens above the clouds far beyond. This
+famous upland plateau or "park" gets its name from the fact that it
+was, years ago, the favorite haunt of a celebrated Indian hunter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp037" name="imgp037"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp037.jpg" width="500" height="343" alt="Southwest side of the Mountain." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Southwest side of the Mountain as seen from
+Indian Henry's, showing North and South Tahoma Glaciers meeting in
+foreground, and Kautz Glacier on extreme right.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After long digging, Miser overturned the rock that was like the elk's
+head. Beneath lay a vast quantity of hiaqua. This he strung on elk's
+sinews&mdash;enough of it to make him the richest of men. Then he hurried
+to depart. But he left no thank-offering to the tanahnawas powers.
+Thereupon the whole earth shook with a mighty convulsion, and the
+mountain shot forth terrible fires, which melted the snows and poured
+floods down the slopes, where they were turned to ice again by the
+breath of the storm-god. And above the roar of torrents and the crash
+of thunder, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span> Miser heard the voices of all the tamahnawas,
+hissing: "Hiaqua! Hiaqua! Ha, ha, Hiaqua!"</p>
+
+<a id="imgp038" name="imgp038"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp038.gif" width="500" height="750" alt="Climbing Pinnacle Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller ill38 max200px">Climbing Pinnacle Peak, in the Tatoosh. Elevation 6,500
+feet. The route leads up from Paradise Valley, over the steep snow
+field shown in the lower view, and thence by a difficult trail to the
+summit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Panic-stricken at the results of his greed, Miser threw down his load
+of treasure to propitiate the angry tamahnawas. But the storm-god
+hurled him down the mountain side. Miser fell into a deep sleep. Many,
+many snows after, he awoke to find himself far from the summit, in a
+pleasant country of beautiful meadows carpeted with flowers, abounding
+in camas roots, and musical with the song of birds. He had grown very
+old, with white hair falling to his shoulders. His ikta was empty,
+save for a few dried leaves. Recognizing the scene about him as
+Saghalie Illahe, he sought his old tent. It was where he had left it.
+There, too, was his klootchman, or wife, grown old, like himself.
+Thirty snows, she said, she had awaited his return. Back they went to
+their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span> home on the bank of the Cowlitz, where he became a
+famous tamahnawas man, and spent the rest of his days in honor, for
+his tribesmen recognized that the aged Indian's heart had been
+marvelously softened and his mind enriched by his experience upon the
+peak. He had lost his love for hiaqua.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp039a" name="imgp039a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp039a.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak, with Paradise Valley and
+the Nisqually Glacier below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the familiar myths of the Mountain was one of a great flood, not
+unlike that of Noah. I quote Miss Judson's version:</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p class="center">WHY THERE ARE NO SNAKES ON TAKHOMA.</p>
+
+<p>A long, long time ago, Tyhce Sahale became angry with his people.
+     Sahale ordered a medicine man to take his bow and arrow and shoot
+     into the cloud which hung low over Takhoma. The medicine man shot
+     the arrow, and it stuck fast in the cloud. Then he shot another
+     into the lower end of the first. Then he shot another into the
+     lower end of the second. He shot arrows until he had made a chain
+     which reached from the cloud to the earth. The medicine man told
+     his klootchman and his children to climb up the arrow trail. Then
+     he told the good animals to climb up the arrow trail. Then the
+     medicine man climbed up himself. Just as he was climbing into the
+     cloud, he looked back. A long line of bad animals and snakes were
+     also climbing up the arrow trail. Therefore the medicine man
+     broke the chain of arrows. Thus the snakes and bad animals fell
+     down on the mountain side. Then at once it began to rain. It
+     rained until all the land was flooded. Water reached even to the
+     snow line of Takhoma. When all the bad animals and snakes were
+     drowned, it stopped raining. After a while the waters sank again.
+     Then the medicine man and his klootchman and the children climbed
+     out of the cloud and came down the mountain side. The good
+     animals also climbed out of the cloud. Thus there are now no
+     snakes or bad animals on Takhoma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp039b" name="imgp039b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp039b.jpg" width="150" height="350" alt="Rough Climbing." title="">
+<p class="smaller max150px">Rough Climbing, an
+illustration of perils encountered in crossing the glaciers.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, by E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp040a" name="imgp040a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp040a.jpg" width="200" height="123" alt="Ptarmigan, the Grouse of the ice-fields." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Ptarmigan, the Grouse of the ice-fields. Unlike its
+neighbor, the Mountain Goat, this bird is tame, and may sometimes be
+caught by hand. In winter its plumage turns from brown to white.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Childish and fantastic as they seem to our wise age, such legends show
+the Northwestern Indian struggling to interpret the world about him.
+Like savages everywhere, he peopled the unknown with spirits good and
+bad, and mingled his conception of a beneficent deity with his ideas
+of the evil one. Symbolism pervaded his crude but very positive mind.
+Ever by his side the old Siwash felt the Power that dwelt on Tacoma,
+protecting and aiding him, or leading him to destruction. Knowing
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span> nothing of true worship, his primitive intelligence could
+imagine God only in things either the most beautiful or the most
+terrifying; and the more we know the Mountain, the more easily we
+shall understand why he deemed the majestic peak a factor of his
+destiny&mdash;an infinite force that could, at will, bless or destroy. For
+to us, too, though we have no illusions as to its supernatural powers,
+the majestic peak may bring a message. Before me is a letter from an
+inspiring New England writer, who has well earned the right to
+appraise life's values. "I saw the great Mountain three years ago,"
+she says; "would that it might ever be my lot to see it again! I love
+to dream of its glory, and its vast whiteness is a moral force in my
+life."</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="add8em">Perpetual</span><br>
+  And snowy tabernacle of the land,<br>
+  While purples at thy base this peaceful sea,<br>
+  And all thy hither slopes in evening bathe,<br>
+  I hear soft twilight voices calling down<br>
+  From all thy summits unto prayer and love.<br>
+<span class="add5em">&mdash;<i>Francis Brooks: "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier."</i></span>
+<a href="#toc">[Back to content]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp040b" name="imgp040b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp040b.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="The Mountain." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The Mountain, seen from Puyallup River, near Tacoma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp041" name="imgp041"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp041.jpg" width="500" height="652" alt="Falls of the Little Mashell River." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Falls of the Little Mashell River, near
+Eatonville and the road to the Mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp042" name="imgp042"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp042.jpg" width="500" height="657" alt="Old Stage Road to Longmire Springs." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Old Stage Road to Longmire Springs and the
+National Park Inn, showing the tall, clear trunks of the giant firs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp043a" name="imgp043a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp043a.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="On Pierce County's splendid scenic road." title="">
+<p class="smaller">On Pierce County's splendid scenic road to the
+Mountain. Passing Ohop Valley.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3><abbr title="2">II.</abbr></h3>
+
+<h5>THE NATIONAL PARK, ITS ROADS AND ITS NEEDS.</h5>
+
+<p class="quote">There are plenty of higher mountains, but it is the decided
+     isolation&mdash;the absolute standing alone in full majesty of its own
+     mightiness&mdash;that forms the attraction of Rainier. * * * It is no
+     squatting giant, perched on the shoulders of other mountains.
+     From Puget Sound, it is a sight for the gods, and one feels in
+     the presence of the gods.&mdash;<i>Paul Fountain: "The Seven Eaglets of
+     the West"</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+
+<a id="imgp043b" name="imgp043b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp043b.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Cowlitz Chimneys." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Cowlitz Chimneys, seen from basin below Frying-Pan
+Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p2">The first explorers to climb the Mountain, forty years ago, were
+compelled to make their way from Puget Sound through the dense growths
+of one of the world's greatest forests, over lofty ridges and deep
+canyons, and across perilous glacial torrents. The hardships of a
+journey to the timber line were more formidable than the difficulties
+encountered above it.</p>
+
+<p>Even from the East the first railroad to the Coast had just reached
+San Francisco. Thence the traveler came north to the Sound by boat.
+The now busy cities of Seattle and Tacoma were, one, an ambitious
+village of 1,107 inhabitants; the other, a sawmill, with seventy
+persons living around it. They were frontier settlements, outposts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span> civilization; but civilization paid little attention to them
+and their great Mountain, until the railways, some years later, began
+to connect them with the big world of people and markets beyond the
+Rockies.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp044" name="imgp044"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp044.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="On the way out from Tacoma." title="">
+<p class="smaller">On the way out from Tacoma, over the partly wooded
+prairie, the automobilist sees many scenes like this old road near
+Spanaway Lake.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>How different the case to-day! Six transcontinental railroads now
+deliver their trains in the Puget Sound cities. These are: The
+Northern Pacific, which was the first trunk line to reach the Sound;
+the Great Northern; the Chicago, Burlington &amp; Quincy; the Chicago,
+Milwaukee &amp; Puget Sound; the Oregon-Washington (Union Pacific), and
+the Canadian Pacific. A seventh, the North Coast, is planned.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp046" name="imgp046"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp046.jpg" width="500" height="643" alt="View Northward from top of Pinnacle Peak in
+the Tatoosh range to Paradise Valley." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View Northward from top of Pinnacle Peak in
+the Tatoosh range to Paradise Valley, Nisqually Glacier and Gibraltar
+Rock, eight miles away.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp047" name="imgp047"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp047.jpg" width="500" height="642" alt="Looking Northeast from slope of Pinnacle Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking Northeast from slope of Pinnacle Peak,
+across Paradise, Stevens, Cowlitz and Frying Pan Glaciers. These two
+views form virtually a panorama.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Arriving in Seattle or Tacoma, the traveler has his choice of quick
+and enjoyable routes to the Mountain. He may go by automobile, leaving
+either city in the morning. After traveling one of the best and most
+interesting roads in the country&mdash;the only one, in fact, to reach a
+glacier&mdash;he may take luncheon at noon six thousand feet higher, in
+Paradise Park, overlooking great glaciers and close to the line of
+eternal snow. Or he may go by the comfortable trains of the Tacoma
+Eastern (Milwaukee system) to Ashford, fifty-five miles from Tacoma,
+and then by automobile stages, over a picturesque portion of the fine
+highway just mentioned, to the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs
+(altitude 2,762 feet). Lunching there, he may then go on, by coach
+over the new government road, or on horseback over one of the most
+inviting mountain trails in America, or afoot, as many prefer. Thus he
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span> gains Paradise Park and its far-reaching observation
+point, Camp of the Clouds (elevation, 5,800 feet). From the Inn, too,
+another romantic bridle path leads to Indian Henry's famous Hunting
+Ground, equally convenient as a base of adventure.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp049a" name="imgp049a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp049a.jpg" width="500" height="250" alt="Automobile Party." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Automobile Party above Nisqually Canyon, Pierce County
+Road to the Mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp049b" name="imgp049b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp049b.jpg" width="300" height="239" alt="Professor O. D. Allen's cottage." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px"><abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> O. D. Allen's cottage, in the Forest Reserve,
+where the former Yale professor has for years studied the flora of the
+Mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether the visitor goes to the Mountain by train or by automobile,
+his choice will be a happy one. For either route leads through a
+country of uncommon charm. Each of them, too, will carry the visitor
+up from the Sound to the great and beautiful region on the southern
+slopes which includes the Tahoma, Kautz, Nisqually, Paradise and
+Stevens canyons, with their glaciers and the wonderful upland plateaus
+or "parks" that lie between.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp050" name="imgp050"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp050.jpg" width="200" height="374" alt="&quot;Ghost Trees&quot; in Indian Henry's." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">"Ghost Trees" in Indian Henry's. These white stalks
+tell of fires set by careless visitors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here let him stay a day or a month. Every moment of his time will be
+crowded with new experiences and packed with enjoyment. For here is
+sport to last for many months. He may content himself with a day spent
+in coasting down a steep snow-field in midsummer, snowballing his
+companions, and climbing Alta Vista to look down on the big Nisqually
+glacier in the deep bed which it has <span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span> carved for itself, and
+up its steep slopes to its névé field on the summit. Or he may explore
+this whole region at his leisure. He may climb the hard mountain
+trails that radiate from Longmires and Paradise. He may work up over
+the lower glaciers, studying their crevasses, ice caves and flow. He
+will want to ascend some of the tempting crags of the ragged Tatoosh,
+for the panorama of ice-capped peaks and dark, forested ranges which
+is there unfolded. After a week or two of such "trying-out," to
+develop wind and harden muscle, he may even scale the great Mountain
+itself under the safe lead of experienced guides. He may wander at
+will over the vast platform left by a prehistoric explosion which
+truncated the cone, and perhaps spend a night of sensational novelty
+(and discomfort) in a big steam cave, under the snow, inside a dead
+crater.</p>
+
+<p>The south side has the advantage of offering the wildest alpine sport
+in combination with a well-appointed hotel as a base of operations.
+Hence the majority of visitors know only that side. Everybody should
+know it, too, for there is not a nobler playground anywhere; but
+should also know that it is by no means the only side to see.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp051a" name="imgp051a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp051a.jpg" width="200" height="338" alt="Government Road in the Forest Reserve." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Government Road in the Forest Reserve.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One may, of course, work around from the Nisqually canyon and
+Paradise, east or west, to the other glaciers and "parks." It is quite
+practicable, if not easy, to make the trip eastward from Camp of the
+Clouds, crossing Paradise, Stevens and Cowlitz glaciers, and thus to
+reach the huge White glacier on the east side and Winthrop and Carbon
+glaciers on the north. Every summer sees more and more visitors making
+this wonderful journey.</p>
+
+<p>But the usual way to reach the great north side, especially for
+parties which carry camp equipment, is by a Northern Pacific train
+over the Carbonado branch to Fairfax. This is on Carbon river, five
+miles from the northwest corner of the National Park. Thence the
+traveler will go by horse or afoot, over a safe mountain trail, to
+Spray Park, the fascinating region between Carbon and North Mowich
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page051" name="page051"></a>(p. 051)</span> glaciers. Standing here, on such an eminence as Fay Peak or
+Eagle Cliff, he may have views of the Mountain in its finest aspects
+that will a thousand times repay the labor of attainment.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp051b" name="imgp051b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp051b.jpg" width="500" height="269" alt="&quot;Hanging Glacier,&quot;" title="">
+<p class="smaller">"Hanging Glacier," or ice fall, above Cowlitz Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A visit to this less known but no less interesting side involves the
+necessity of packing an outfit. But arrangements for horses and
+packers are easily made, and each year an increasing number of parties
+make Spray Park their headquarters, spending, if they are wise, at
+least a week in this wide region of flowering alpine valleys and
+commanding heights. From there they go south, over the west-side
+glaciers, or east, across the Carbon and through the great White river
+country. They camp on the south side of the Sluiskin mountains, in
+Moraine Park, and there have ready access to Carbon and Winthrop
+glaciers, with splendid views of the vast precipices that form the
+north face of the Mountain. Thence they climb east and south over the
+Winthrop and White glaciers. They visit the beautiful Grand Park and
+Summerland, and either make the ascent to the summit from "Steamboat
+Prow" on the "Wedge," over the long ice slope of the White glacier, or
+continue around to the Paradise country and Longmire Springs.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp052a" name="imgp052a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp052a.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="Leaving the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs for
+Paradise Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Leaving the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs for
+Paradise Park.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp052b" name="imgp052b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp052b.jpg" width="500" height="168" alt="On the Summit." title="">
+<p class="smaller">On the Summit,
+showing Columbia's Crest, the great mound of snow that has, most
+curiously, formed on this wide, wind-swept platform. This, the actual
+top of the Mountain, is 14,363 feet above sea level.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The west side has been less visited than the others, but there is a
+trail from the North Mowich to the Nisqually, and from this
+adventurous explorers reach North and South Mowich and Puyallup
+glaciers. No one has yet climbed the Mountain over those glaciers, or
+from the north side. A view from any of the trails will explain why.
+The great rock spines are more precipitous than elsewhere, the
+glaciers more broken; and the summit is fronted on either side by a
+huge parapet of rock which hurls defiance at anything short of an
+airship. Doubtless, we shall some day travel to Crater Peak by
+aeroplanes, but until these vehicles are equipped with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span>
+runners for landing and starting on the snow, we shall do best to plan
+our ascents from the south or east side.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp053" name="imgp053"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp053.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="Paradise Valley or &quot;Park&quot;." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Paradise Valley or "Park," and Tatoosh
+Mountains, from slope below Paradise Glacier. The highest of the peaks
+are about 7,000 feet above sea level and 1,700 feet above the floor of
+the valley.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp054a" name="imgp054a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp054a.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="On the Government Road a mile above Longmires." title="">
+<p class="smaller">On the Government Road a mile above Longmires, bound
+for the Nisqually Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp054b" name="imgp054b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp054b.jpg" width="200" height="243" alt="Near &quot;Gap Point&quot;." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Near "Gap Point," where the road turns from the
+Nisqually canyon into that of Paradise River.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have thus briefly pointed out the favorite routes followed in
+exploring the National Park. The time is fast approaching when it will
+be a truly national recreation ground, well known to Americans in
+every State. The coming of new railways to Puget Sound and the
+development of new facilities for reaching the Mountain make this
+certain.<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3">[3]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp055a" name="imgp055a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp055a.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Snout of Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Snout of Nisqually Glacier, with the river which it
+feeds. Though much shrunken since the epoch when it filled the whole
+canyon, the glacier is still a vast river of ice; and its front, seen
+several hundred yards above the bridge, rises sheer 500 feet. The new
+road to Narada Falls and Paradise Park crosses the Nisqually here.
+Automobiles are not permitted to go above this point.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp055b" name="imgp055b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp055b.jpg" width="200" height="221" alt="Pony bridge over the Nisqually." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Pony bridge over the Nisqually, on trail to Paradise.
+Note the granite boulders which the stream has rounded in rolling them
+down from the glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every step taken for the conservation of the natural beauty of the
+Park and its opening to proper use and enjoyment is a public benefit.
+Outside the national reserves, our lumbermen are fast destroying the
+forests; but, if properly guarded against fire, the great Park forest
+will still teach future generations how lavishly Nature plants, just
+as the delightful glacial valleys and towering landmarks teach how
+powerful and artistic a sculptor she is. Experienced travelers and
+alpinists <span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span> who have visited the Mountain unite in declaring
+its scenery, combining as it does great vistas of ice with vast
+stretches of noble forest, to be unequaled elsewhere in America, and
+unsurpassed anywhere. In the fascination of its glacial story, as well
+as in the grandeur of its features, it has few rivals among the great
+peaks of the world. The geologist, the botanist, the weary business
+man, the sportsman, all find it calling them to study, to rest, or to
+strenuous and profitable recreation. Here is a resource more lasting
+than our timber. When the loggers shall have left us only naked
+ranges, without the reserves, the Park may yield a crop more valuable.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp056a" name="imgp056a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp056a.jpg" width="500" height="240" alt="The road a mile above the bridge." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The road a mile above the bridge, overlooking
+Nisqually Canyon and Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp056b" name="imgp056b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp056b.jpg" width="300" height="337" alt="On the Pony Trail to Paradise." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">On the Pony Trail to Paradise. This trail winds
+through the dense forest above Longmires, crosses the Nisqually, and
+then follows Paradise River, with its miles of picturesque cascades.
+It is one of the most beautiful mountain paths in America.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Until recent years this was known only to the hardy few who delight in
+doing difficult things for great rewards. But that day of isolation
+has passed. The value of the Park to the whole American people is more
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span> and more appreciated by them, if not yet by their official
+representatives. While Congress has dealt less liberally with this
+than with the other great National Parks, what it has appropriated has
+been well spent in building an invaluable road, which opens one of the
+most important upland regions to public knowledge and use. This road
+is a continuation of the well-made highway maintained by Pierce County
+from Tacoma, which passes through an attractive country of partly
+wooded prairies and follows the picturesque Nisqually valley up the
+heavily forested slopes to the Forest Reserve and the southwestern
+corner of the Park. The public has been quick to seize the opportunity
+which the roads offered. The number of persons entering the Park, as
+shown by the annual reports of the Superintendent, has grown <span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span>
+from 1,786 in 1906 to more than 8,000 in 1910. In the same period, the
+Yellowstone National Park, with its greater age, its wider
+advertising, its many hotels, its abundance of government money,
+increased its total of visitors from 17,182 to 19,575.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp057a" name="imgp057a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp057a.jpg" width="300" height="353" alt="Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually Glacier. The huge ice
+wall in the distance is the west branch of the Nisqually, and is
+sometimes miscalled "Stevens Glacier." As seen here, it forms a
+"hanging glacier," which empties into the main glacier over the
+cliff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For one thing, these roads have put it within the power of
+automobilists from all parts of the Coast to reach the grandest of
+American mountains and the largest glaciers of the United States south
+of Alaska. They connect at Tacoma, with excellent roads from Seattle
+and other cities on the Sound, as well as from Portland and points
+farther south. The travel from these cities has already justified the
+construction of the roads, and is increasing every year. Even from
+California many automobile parties visit the Mountain. The railway
+travel is also fast increasing, and the opening this year of its
+transcontinental service by the Milwaukee Railway, which owns the
+Tacoma Eastern line to Ashford, is likely soon to double the number of
+those who journey to the Mountain by rail.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp057b" name="imgp057b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp057b.jpg" width="300" height="183" alt="A Mountain Celery." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">A Mountain Celery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The new government road to Paradise and the trails <span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span>
+connecting with it have, however made only a fraction of the Park
+accessible. The most important work for the conservation of this great
+alpine area and its opening to the public still remains to be done.
+Congress is now asked to provide funds for the survey and gradual
+extension of the road to the other plateaus on all sides of the peak.
+Pending the construction of the road, it is highly important that, as
+soon as the surveys can be made, bridle trails be built on the easy
+grades thus established. Not only are these roads and trails much
+needed for the convenience of visitors to the Mountain, but, with the
+closer approach of logging operations, they are year by year becoming
+more necessary to the proper policing of the Park and its protection
+against forest fires. For want of them, great sections of forest
+within the Park are liable to be swept away at any time, before the
+rangers could find their way over the scant and broken trails now
+existing. The request for better access to the other sides of the
+Mountain has received the earnest indorsement of the Washington
+legislature, the commercial organizations of the entire Coast, and the
+several mountain clubs in different parts of the country. Only
+Congress remains blind to its importance.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp058" name="imgp058"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp058.jpg" width="300" height="432" alt="Narada Falls." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Narada Falls, 185 feet, on Paradise River (altitude,
+4,572 feet). Both trail and road pass it. "Narada" is an East Indian
+word meaning &quot;peace.&quot; The name was given many years ago by a party of
+Theosophists who visited the falls. Happily, the effort to change the
+name to &quot;Cushman Falls&quot; has failed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Congressional action affecting this immediate area began in 1899. A
+tract eighteen miles square, 207,360 acres, to be known as "Ranier
+National Park,"<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4">[4]</a> was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span> withdrawn from the 2,146,600 acres of
+the Pacific Forest Reserve, previously created. The area thus set
+apart as "a public park for the benefit and enjoyment of the people"
+(Act of March 2, 1899) was already known to a few enthusiasts and
+explorers as one of the world's great wonderlands. In 1861 James
+Longmire, a prospector, had built a trail from Yelm over Mashell
+mountain and up the Nisqually river to Bear Prairie. This he extended
+in 1884 to the spot now known as Longmire Springs, and thence up the
+Nisqually and Paradise rivers to the region now called Paradise Park.
+Part of this trail was widened later into a wagon road, used for many
+years by persons seeking health at the remarkable mineral springs on
+the tract which the Longmires acquired from the government before the
+establishment of the Forest Reserve.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp059a" name="imgp059a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp059a.jpg" width="300" height="315" alt="Washington Torrents." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px"> Washington Torrents, on Paradise River; a series of
+falls a mile in length, seen from the new road to Paradise and still
+better from the pony trail.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp059b" name="imgp059b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp059b.jpg" width="300" height="234" alt="Portion of Paradise Park and the Tatoosh Range." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Portion of Paradise Park and the Tatoosh Range.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Longmire road, rough as it was, long remained the best route; but
+in 1903 the Mountain found a tireless friend in the late Francis W.
+Cushman, representative from this State, who persuaded Congress to
+authorize the survey and construction of a better highway. Work was
+not begun, however, until 1906. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span> yearly appropriations
+have been small, and total only $240,000 for surveys, construction and
+maintenance, to the end of the last session.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp060" name="imgp060"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp060.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="View from north side of the Tatoosh." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View from north side of the Tatoosh. 1. Crater
+Peak. 2. South Peak, or Peak Success. 3. Nisqually Glacier, with
+feeders. 4. Gibraltar Rock. 5. Camp Muir, on Cowlitz Cleaver. 6.
+Cathedral Rocks. 7. Little Tahoma. 8. Paradise Glacier. 9. Alta Vista.
+10. Camp of the Clouds. 11. Reese's Camp. 12. Sluiskin Falls. 13.
+Paradise River and Valley. 14. Mazama Ridge. 15. Reflection Lake. 16.
+Van Trump Glacier. 17. Von Trump Park. 18. Kautz Glacier. 19.
+Pyramid Peak. 20. Tahoma Glaciers. 21. Indian Henry's. Dotted line
+shows South-side route to the summit.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp061a" name="imgp061a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp061a.jpg" width="300" height="398" alt="Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px"> Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp061b" name="imgp061b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp061b.jpg" width="300" height="137" alt="Mountain Sports." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mountain Sports. Tug of War between teams picked from
+the feminine contingent of the Mountaineers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The road, as now open to Paradise valley, is a monument to the
+engineering skill of Mr. Eugene Ricksecker, United States Assistant
+Engineer, in local charge of the work. Over its even floor you go from
+the west boundary of the Forest Reserve up the north bank of the
+Nisqually river, as far as the foot of its glacier. Crossing on the
+bridge here, you climb up and up, around the face of a bluff known as
+Gap Point, where a step over the retaining wall would mean a sheer
+drop of a thousand feet into the river below. Thus you wind over to
+the Paradise river and famous Narada Falls, switch back up the side of
+the deep Paradise canyon to the beautiful valley of the same name
+above, and, still climbing, reach Camp of the Clouds and its
+picturesque tent hotel. The road has brought you a zigzag journey of
+twenty-five miles to cover an air-line distance of twelve and a gain
+in elevation of 3,600 feet. It is probably unique in its grades. It
+has no descents. Almost everywhere it is a gentle climb. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span>
+Below Longmire Springs the maximum grade is 2.5 per cent., and the
+average, 1.6 per cent. Beyond, the grade is steeper, but nowhere more
+than 4 per cent.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp062a" name="imgp062a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp062a.jpg" width="500" height="248" alt="Tatoosh Mountains and Paradise Park in Winter." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Tatoosh Mountains and Paradise Park in Winter.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The alignment and grades originally planned have been followed, but
+for want of funds only one stretch, a mile and a quarter, has yet been
+widened to the standard width of eighteen feet. Lacking money for a
+broader road, the engineers built the rest of it twelve feet wide.
+They wisely believed that early opening of the route for vehicles to
+Paradise, even though the road be less than standard width, would
+serve the public by making the Park better known, and thus arouse
+interest in making it still more accessible. It will require about
+$60,000 to complete the road to full width, and render it thoroughly
+secure.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp062b" name="imgp062b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp062b.jpg" width="300" height="208" alt="Hiking through Paradise in Winter." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Hiking through Paradise in Winter.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of still greater importance, however, to the safety of the Park and
+its opening to public use is the carrying out of Mr. Ricksecker's fine
+plan for a road around the Mountain. His new map of the Park, printed
+at the end of this volume, shows the route proposed. Leaving the
+present road near Christine Falls, below the Nisqually glacier, he
+would double back over the hills to Indian Henry's, thence dropping
+into the canyon of Tahoma <span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span> Fork, climbing up to <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Andrew's
+Park, and so working round to the Mowich glaciers, Spray Falls, and
+the great "parks" on the north. The snout of each glacier would be
+reached in turn, and the high plateaus which the glaciers have left
+would be visited.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp063" name="imgp063"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp063.jpg" width="500" height="725" alt="Waterfall from snowfields on ridge above Paradise Valley." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Waterfall from snowfields on ridge above Paradise Valley.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1910, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp064a" name="imgp064a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp064a.jpg" width="300" height="350" alt="Looking from Stevens Glacier down into Stevens Canyon." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Looking from Stevens Glacier down into Stevens Canyon,
+and across the Tatoosh and Cascade ranges to <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Crossing Spray Park, Moraine Park and Winthrop glacier's old bed, the
+road would ascend to Grand Park and the Sour-Dough country&mdash;a region
+unsurpassed anywhere on the Mountain for the breadth and grandeur of
+its views. More descents, climbs and detours would bring it to the
+foot of White glacier, and thence through Summerland and Cowlitz Park,
+and westward to a junction with the existing road in Paradise. Its
+elevation would range between four and seven thousand feet above the
+sea. The route, as indicated on the contour map, suggests very plainly
+the engineering feats involved in hanging roads on these steep and
+deeply-carved slopes.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp064b" name="imgp064b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp064b.jpg" width="500" height="214" alt="Reese's Camp, a tent hotel on a ridge in Paradise Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Reese's Camp, a tent hotel on a ridge in Paradise Park,
+below Camp of the Clouds (Elevation, 5,557 feet). This is the usual
+starting point of parties to the summit over the South-side route, via
+Gibraltar. See <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#imgp060">60</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Between eighty and a hundred miles of construction work would be
+required, costing approximately $10,000 a mile. Including the
+completion of the present <span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span> road to standard width, Congress
+will thus have to provide a round million if it wishes to give
+reasonable protection to the Park and fully achieve the purpose of
+"benefit and enjoyment" for which it was created. Such a road would
+justify the Congress which authorizes it, immortalize the engineers
+who build it, and honor the nation that owns it.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp065" name="imgp065"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp065.jpg" width="500" height="751" alt="Climbing the &quot;horn&quot; on the summit of Unicorn Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Climbing the "horn" on the summit of Unicorn
+Peak, the highest crag in the Tatoosh (Elevation, about 7,000 feet).
+The man who first reached the top is dimly seen in the shadow on the
+left.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp066" name="imgp066"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp066.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="Stevens Canyon in October." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Stevens Canyon in October, with <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams over
+eastern end of Tatoosh range on right, and Cascade range on left. The
+snow summits on the Cascade sky-line are "Goat Peaks." Goat Lick Basin
+is in lower left corner of the picture.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp067a" name="imgp067a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp067a.jpg" width="300" height="415" alt="Sluiskin Falls, 150 feet, just below Paradise Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Sluiskin Falls, 150 feet, just below Paradise Glacier,
+named after Sluiskin, the famous Indian who guided Van Trump and
+Stevens to the snow line in 1870.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Talking with President David Starr Jordan of Stanford University a few
+weeks ago, I found that famous climber of mountains greatly interested
+in the project for better roads and trails in the National Park. "How
+much will the whole thing cost?" he asked. I told him.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp067b" name="imgp067b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp067b.jpg" width="200" height="222" alt="An eminent scientist practices the simple life." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">An eminent scientist practices the simple life in camp
+near the Timber Line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>"Why, a million dollars would pay for the upkeep of one of our
+battleships for a whole year!" exclaimed the great advocate of
+disarmament. Whether Congress can be induced to value scenery as
+highly as battleships remains to be seen. It has already done very
+well by the Yellowstone National Park, where $2,142,720 of government
+money had been spent on road building and administration up to July 1,
+1910. No one who knows the glories of that park will deem the amount
+excessive. But with its still grander scenery, its important glaciers,
+its priceless forests, and the greater population within easy reach of
+its opportunities for study and recreation, the claims of the Rainier
+National Park are at least equal to those of the Yellowstone, and they
+should be as liberally met.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp068" name="imgp068"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp068.jpg" width="500" height="663" alt="Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Nisqually Glacier, with its sources in the
+snow field of the summit. On the right is Gibraltar Rock and on the
+extreme left Kautz Glacier flows down from Peak Success. Note the
+medial moraines, resulting from junction of ice streams above. These
+apparently small lines of dirt are often great ridges of rocks, cut
+from the cliffs. The picture also illustrates how the marginal
+crevasses of a glacier point down stream from the center, though the
+center flows faster than the sides.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span>
+<a id="imgp069a" name="imgp069a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp069a.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="The Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier. This
+active California organization sent a large party to the Mountain in
+1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not desired that the whole sum named be appropriated at once.
+Indeed, the recommendation of the engineers has been far more modest.
+As far back as 1907, <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> H. M. Chittenden of the United States
+Engineer Corps, in charge, wrote as follows in his report to the
+Secretary of War:</p>
+
+<p class="quote">A bridle trail around the Mountain, just under the glacier line,
+     is absolutely essential to the proper policing of the Park, and
+     very necessary for the convenience of tourists, if they are
+     really to have access to the attractions of the Park. The trail
+     should be so located that in time it may be enlarged into a wagon
+     road.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp069b" name="imgp069b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp069b.jpg" width="500" height="157" alt="Lost to the World,
+7,500 feet above sea level, with an ocean of cloud rising." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Lost to the World,
+7,500 feet above sea level, with an ocean of cloud rising.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This recommendation has been indorsed by Major Chittenden's successor,
+<abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> C. W. Kutz, and may be taken as expressing the conviction of the
+government <span class="pagenum"><a id="page070" name="page070"></a>(p. 070)</span> engineers as to the minimum of work needed in the
+Park at once. For the necessary surveys and the building of the
+trails, Mr. Ricksecker informs me that $50,000 will probably be
+enough. This is so insignificant in comparison with the good sought
+and the value of the national property to be protected and made
+accessible that its immediate appropriation by Congress should be
+beyond question. Nevertheless, half that amount has twice been asked
+for in measures introduced by Senator S. H. Piles, but in neither case
+did the appropriation pass both houses. It is to be hoped that the
+present Congress will give the full amount of $50,000, which will
+enable the surveys to be completed over the entire route, and trails
+to be built on most, if not all, of that route. Their widening into
+permanent roads will follow in due time, when the wonders of glacier,
+canyon and forest which they make accessible are once known.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp070a" name="imgp070a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp070a.jpg" width="500" height="186" alt="&quot;Sunshine.&quot;" title="">
+<p class="smaller">"Sunshine." View of the Mountain from above Sluiskin
+Falls at 3 p. m.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp070b" name="imgp070b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp070b.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="&quot;Storm.&quot;" title="">
+<p class="smaller">"Storm." View near the same point an hour later.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The road recently completed to Paradise Valley should be widened, by
+all means, and made safer by retaining walls at every danger point.
+But it is doubtful whether automobiles will ever be permitted above
+the bridge at the Nisqually glacier. Some automobile owners regard the
+Park as an automobile-club preserve, and insist that nothing more be
+done toward the opening of its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page072" name="page072"></a>(p. 072)</span> scenery or the conservation
+of its forest until it is made safe for them to run their touring cars
+into Paradise. This is unfortunate, because it betrays ignorance of
+the purpose of Congress in creating the National Parks, namely, the
+education and enjoyment of all the people, not the pleasure of a
+class. Moreover, no matter how wide or well-guarded the road may be
+above the bridge, it can never be wide enough to prevent a reckless
+chauffeur from causing a terrible fatality. It is necessarily a very
+crooked road, hung upon the high ledges of precipitous cliffs. While
+the road is safe for coaches drawn by well-broken horses and driven by
+trustworthy drivers, it would be criminal folly to open it to the
+crowd of automobiles that would rush to Paradise Valley. If
+automobiles are permitted to go beyond the Nisqually glacier, it
+should be only when in charge of a park officer.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp071" name="imgp071"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp071.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="Looking down on Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking down on Nisqually Glacier from top of
+Gibraltar Rock, with storm clouds veiling the Mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp072a" name="imgp072a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp072a.jpg" width="300" height="285" alt="Measuring the Ice Flow in Nisqually Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Measuring the Ice Flow in Nisqually Glacier. In 1905
+<abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> J. N. Le Conte of Berkeley, <abbr title="California">Cal.</abbr>, established the fact that this
+glacier has an average flow, in summer, of 16.2 inches a day. The
+movement is greater at the center than on the sides, and greater on
+the convex side of a curve than on the concave side. It thus is a true
+river, though a slow one. The measurements are taken by running a line
+from one lateral moraine to the other with a transit, setting stakes
+across the glacier at short intervals, and ascertaining the advance
+they make from day to day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even from the older and wider roads of the Yellowstone automobiles
+have been excluded, although there are no large cities near by, as
+there are here, to send hundreds of cars into that park on any
+pleasant day. The automobilists will be wise to accept their privilege
+of access to the foot of the glacier, and use it with care, too.
+Several serious accidents have already occurred, and if greater care
+is not exercised, the Interior Department will apply the Yellowstone
+rule, at least to the extent of stopping all cars at Longmires.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp072b" name="imgp072b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp072b.jpg" width="200" height="210" alt="Miss Fay Fuller exploring a crevasse." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Miss Fay Fuller exploring a crevasse.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp073" name="imgp073"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp073.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright 1906, By A. H. Barnes.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Questions like this, involving conflict between the interests of a
+class and the vital needs of the Park as a public institution,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span> give especial emphasis to the recommendation made by
+Secretary Ballinger on his last annual report. Owing to the great
+number and extent of the National Parks, and the inefficiency of the
+present "perfunctory policy" in their administration, Mr. Ballinger
+asked Congress to put the management of these institutions under a
+Bureau of National Parks, conducted by a competent commissioner, and
+organized for efficient field administration and careful inspection of
+all public work and of the conduct of concessionaries. Regarding the
+need of such a systematic and scientific organization for the
+development of the parks, he says:</p>
+
+<p class="quote">A definite policy for their maintenance, supervision and
+     improvement should be established, which would enable them to be
+     gradually opened up for the convenience of tourists and campers
+     and for the careful preservation of their natural features.
+     Complete and comprehensive plans for roads, trails, telegraph and
+     telephone lines, sewer and water systems, hotel accommodations,
+     transportation, and other conveniences should be made before any
+     large amount of money is expended. The treatment of our national
+     parks, except as regards the Yellowstone, has not heretofore had
+     the benefit of any well-considered or systematic plans. In all of
+     them the road and trail problems for public travel and
+     convenience to enable tourists to obtain the benefits of scenic
+     beauties are primary, but sewage, water, and electric-power
+     problems are after all of equal importance.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp075" name="imgp075"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp075.jpg" width="200" height="487" alt="Fairy Falls in Goat Lick Basin, below Stevens Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Fairy Falls in Goat Lick Basin, below Stevens Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In line with Secretary Ballinger's report, Senator Flint of California
+introduced a bill authorizing the creation of such a bureau in the
+Interior Department. The bill failed to get through at the last
+session, but I am informed by Senator Jones that it will be
+reintroduced. Its purpose is of great public importance, and the
+indorsement of the very intelligent directors of the Sierra Club in
+California argues well for its form. Every person interested in the
+development of our National Parks to fullest usefulness and the proper
+conservation of their natural beauty should work for the passage of
+the bill.<a href="#toc">[Back to content]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp076" name="imgp076"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp076.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="Gibraltar and its Neighbors." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Gibraltar and
+its Neighbors, showing a mile of the deeply crevassed ice-field inside
+the angle of which the great crag is the apex. On the left are Cowlitz
+Cleaver and the Bee-Hive; on the right, Cathedral Rocks.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp077a" name="imgp077a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp077a.jpg" width="500" height="165" alt="Crossing Carbon Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Crossing Carbon Glacier. On the ice slopes, it
+is customary to divide a large party into companies of ten, with an
+experienced alpinist at the head of each. Note the medial moraines on
+the glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><abbr title="3">III.</abbr></h3>
+
+<h5>THE STORY OF THE MOUNTAIN.</h5>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>I asked myself, How was this colossal work performed? Who
+     chiseled these mighty and picturesque masses out of a mere
+     protuberance of earth? And the answer was at hand. Ever young,
+     ever mighty, with the vigor of a thousand worlds still within
+     him, the real sculptor was even then climbing up the eastern sky.
+     It was he who planted the glaciers on the mountain slopes, thus
+     giving gravity a plough to open out the valleys; and it is he
+     who, acting through the ages, will finally lay low these mighty
+     monuments, * * * so that the people of an older earth may see
+     mould spread and corn wave over the hidden rocks which at this
+     moment bear the weight of the Jungfrau.&mdash;<i>John Tyndall: "Hours of
+     Exercise in the Alps."</i></p>
+
+<p>The life of a glacier is one eternal grind.&mdash;<i>John Muir.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p2">Our stately Mountain, in its youth, was as comely and symmetrical a
+cone as ever graced the galaxy of volcanic peaks. To-day, while still
+young as compared with the obelisk crags of the Alps, it has already
+taken on the venerable and deeply-scarred physiognomy of a veteran. It
+is no longer merely an overgrown boy among the hills, but, cut and
+torn by the ice of centuries, it is fast assuming the dignity and
+interest of a patriarch of the mountains.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp077b" name="imgp077b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp077b.jpg" width="300" height="198" alt="Reflection Lake." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Reflection Lake, below Pinnacle Peak and the Mountain.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To some, no doubt, the smooth, youthful contours of an active volcano
+seem more beautiful than the rugged grandeur of the Weisshorn. The
+perfect cone of <abbr title="Mount Saint">Mt. St.</abbr> Helens, until recently in eruption, pleases
+them more than the broad dome of <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams, rounded by an explosion in
+the unknown past. But for those who love nature and the story written
+upon its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span> face, mountains have character as truly as men,
+and they show it in their features as clearly.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp078" name="imgp078"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp078.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys to Gibraltar
+and the summit." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys to Gibraltar
+and the summit. 1, Crater and Columbia's Crest. 2, Peak Success. 3,
+Upper snow fields of Nisqually Glacier. 4, Gibraltar Rock. 5, Cowlitz
+Cleaver. 6, Cathedral Rocks. 7, Little Tahoma. 8, Cowlitz Glacier. 9,
+Ingraham Glacier, emptying into the Cowlitz.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp079a" name="imgp079a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp079a.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="Divide of Paradise and Stevens Glaciers." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Divide of Paradise and Stevens Glaciers. Once probably
+separated by a chine of rock, they are now one save for a slight
+elevation in their bed, which turns them respectively toward Paradise
+Valley and Stevens Canyon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp079b" name="imgp079b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp079b.jpg" width="500" height="239" alt="Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier. Now comparatively small
+and harmless, this glacier did heavy work in its prime. Witness,
+Stevens Canyon (<abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#imgp066">66</a>) and this huge pile of debris, showing that some
+time ago the glacier, finding a cliff in its way, cut it down and
+dumped it here.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the monarch of the
+Cascades. No longer the huge conical pimple which a volcano erected on
+the earth's crust, it bears upon it the history of its own explosion,
+which scattered its top far over the landscape, and of its losing
+battle with the sun, which, employing the heaviest of all <span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span>
+tools, is steadily destroying it. It has already lost a tenth of its
+height and a third of its bulk. The ice is cutting deeper and deeper
+into its sides. Upon three of them, it has excavated great
+amphitheaters, which it is ceaselessly driving back toward the heart
+of the peak. As if to compensate for losses in size and shapeliness,
+the Mountain presents the most important phenomena of glacial action
+to be seen in the United States.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp080a" name="imgp080a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp080a.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt="Climbers preparing for a night at Camp Muir." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Climbers preparing for a night at Camp Muir (altitude
+10,000 feet), in order to get an early start for the summit. This is
+on the Cowlitz Cleaver, below Gibraltar. John Muir, the famous
+mountain climber, selected this spot as a camp in 1888. A stout cabin
+should be built here to shelter climbers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp080b" name="imgp080b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp080b.jpg" width="300" height="299" alt="The Bee-Hive, a landmark on Cowlitz Cleaver, below
+Gibraltar." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">The Bee-Hive, a landmark on Cowlitz Cleaver, below
+Gibraltar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In its dimensions, however, it is still one of the world's great
+peaks. The Rainier National Park, eighteen miles square&mdash;as large as
+many counties in the East&mdash;has an elevation along its western and
+lowest boundary averaging four thousand feet above sea level. Assuming
+a diameter for the peak of only twenty miles, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span> area
+occupied by this creature of a volcano exceeds three hundred square
+miles. Of its vast surface upwards of 32,500 acres, or about fifty-one
+square miles, are covered by glaciers or the fields of perpetual snow
+which feed them. A straight line drawn through from the end of North
+Tahoma glacier, on the west side, to the end of White glacier, on the
+east, would be thirteen miles long. The circumference of the crest on
+the 10,000-foot contour is nearly seven miles. Its glacial system is,
+and doubtless has long been, the most extensive on the continent,
+south of Alaska; it is said by scientists to outrank that of any
+mountain in Europe. The twelve primary glaciers vary in length from
+three to eight miles, and from half a mile to three miles in width.
+There are nearly as many "interglaciers," or smaller ice streams which
+gather their snow supply, not from the névé fields of the summit, but
+within the wedges of rock which the greater glaciers have left
+pointing upward on the higher slopes.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp081a" name="imgp081a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp081a.jpg" width="300" height="259" alt="Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys, looking across the
+ice-stream of the Cowlitz Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp081b" name="imgp081b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp081b.jpg" width="200" height="250" alt="Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to Gibraltar." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to Gibraltar. This hacked and
+weather-worn spine left by the glaciers forms one wing of a great
+inverted V, with Gibraltar as its apex. On the other side of it is a
+drop of several thousand feet to Nisqually Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The geological story may be told in a few untechnical words. As those
+folds in the earth's crust which parallel the coast were slowly formed
+by the lateral pressure of sea upon land, fractures often occurred in
+the general incline thus <span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span> created. Through the fissures that
+resulted the subterranean fires thrust molten rock. In many cases, the
+expulsion was of sufficient amount and duration to form clearly
+defined volcanic craters. The most active craters built up, by
+continued eruptions of lava and ashes, a great series of cones now
+seen on both sides of the Cordillera, that huge mountain system which
+borders the Pacific from Behring sea to the Straits of Magellan.
+Tacoma-Rainier is one of the more important units in this army of
+volcanic giants.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp082" name="imgp082"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp082.jpg" width="300" height="518" alt="Mazamas rounding Gibraltar." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Mazamas rounding Gibraltar&mdash;a reminiscence of the
+ascent by the Portland club in 1905. The precipice rises more than
+1000 feet above the trail which offers a precarious footing at the
+head of a steep slope of loose talus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unlike some of its companions, however, it owes its bulk less to lava
+flows than to the explosive eruptions which threw forth bombs and
+scoriae. It is a mass of agglomerates, with only occasional strata of
+solid volcanic rock. This becomes evident to one who inspects the
+exposed sides of any of the canyons, or of the great cliffs, Gibraltar
+Rock, Little Tahoma or Russell Peak. It is made clear in such pictures
+as are on this page and the next.</p>
+
+<p>This looseness of structure accounts for the rapidity with which the
+glaciers are cutting into the peak, and carrying it away. Most of them
+carry an extraordinary amount of debris, to be deposited in lateral or
+terminal moraines, or dropped in streams which they feed. They are
+rivers of rock as well as of ice.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp083a" name="imgp083a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp083a.jpg" width="200" height="370" alt="Under the walls of Gibraltar." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Under the walls of Gibraltar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span> That the glaciers of this and every other mountain in the
+northern hemisphere are receding, and that they are now mere pygmies
+compared with their former selves, is well known. What their
+destructive power must have been when their volume was many times
+greater than now may be judged from the moraines along their former
+channels. Some of these ridges are hundreds of feet in height. As you
+go to the Mountain from Tacoma, either by the Tacoma Eastern railway
+or the Nisqually canyon road, you find them everywhere above the
+prairies. They are largest on the north side of the Mountain, because
+there the largest glaciers have been busy. Many of them, on all sides,
+are covered with forests that must be centuries old.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp083b" name="imgp083b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp083b.jpg" width="300" height="251" alt="One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even now, diminished as they are, the glaciers are fast transporting
+the Mountain toward the sea. Wherever a glacier skirts a cliff, it is
+cutting into its side, as it cuts into its own bed below. From the
+overhanging rocks, too, debris falls as a result of "weathering." The
+daily ebb and flow of frost and heat help greatly to tear down the
+cliffs. Thus marginal moraines built of the debris begin to form, on
+the ice, far up the side of the peak. As the glacier advances, driven
+by its weight and the resistless mass of snow above, it is often
+joined by another glacier, bringing its own marginal moraines. Where
+the two meet, a medial moraine results. (See illustrations, <abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> <a href="#imgp068">68</a> and
+<a href="#page077">77</a>.) Some medial moraines are many feet high. Trees are found growing
+on them. In Switzerland houses are built upon them. Often the debris
+which they transport, as the ice carries them forward, includes rocks
+as big as a ship.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp084" name="imgp084"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp084.jpg" width="500" height="639" alt="A perilous position on the edge of a great crevasse." title="">
+<p class="smaller">A perilous position on the edge of a great
+crevasse. Cowlitz Glacier, near end of Cathedral Rocks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A glacier's flow varies from a hundred to a thousand feet or more a
+year, depending upon <span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span> its volume, its width, and the slope of
+its bed. As the decades pass, its level is greatly lowered by the
+melting of the ice. More and more, earth and rocks accumulate upon the
+surface, as it travels onward, and are scattered over it by the rains
+and melting snow. At last, in its old age, when far down its canyon,
+the glacier is completely hidden, save where crevasses reveal the ice.
+Only at its snout, where it breaks off, as a rule, in a high wall of
+ice, do we realize how huge a volume and weight it must have, far
+above toward its sources, or why so many of the crevasses on the upper
+ice fields seem almost bottomless.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp085" name="imgp085"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp085.jpg" width="300" height="431" alt="Climbing the &quot;Chute,&quot; west side of Gibraltar." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Climbing the "Chute," west side of Gibraltar. Here the
+guides cut steps in the ice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These hints of the almost inconceivable mass of a glacier, with its
+millions of millions of tons, suggest how much of the Mountain has
+already been whittled and planed away. But here we may do better than
+speculate. The original surface of the peak is clearly indicated by
+the tops of the great rocks which have survived the glacial
+sculpturing. These rise from one to two thousand feet above the
+glaciers, which are themselves several thousand feet in depth. The
+best known of them is the point formed by Gibraltar and the ridges
+that stretch downward from it, Cowlitz Cleaver and Cathedral Rocks,
+making a great inverted V. Eastward of this, another V with its apex
+toward the summit, is called Little Tahoma; and beyond, still another,
+Steamboat Prow, forming the tip of "The Wedge."</p>
+
+<p>Spines of rock like these are found on all sides of the peak. They
+help us to estimate its greater circumference and bulk, before the
+glaciers had chiseled so deep.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp086" name="imgp086"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp086.jpg" width="300" height="425" alt="Looking from top of Gibraltar to the Summit." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Looking from top of Gibraltar to the Summit. Elevation
+of camera, 12,300 feet. In distance is seen the rim of the crater. The
+route to this is a steady climb, with 2,000 feet of ascent in one mile
+of distance. Many detours have to be made to avoid crevasses. Note the
+big crevasse stretching away on right&mdash;a "Bergschrund," as the Swiss
+call a break where one side falls below the other. The stratification
+on its side shows in each layer a year's snow, packed into ice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page086" name="page086"></a>(p. 086)</span> But they do even more. Wherever lava flows occurred in the
+building of the Mountain, strata formed; and such stratification is
+clearly seen at intervals on the sides of the great rocks just
+mentioned. Its incline, of course, is that of the former surface. The
+strata point upward&mdash;not toward the summit which we see, but far above
+it. For this reason the geologists who have examined the arêtes most
+closely are agreed that the peak has lost nearly two thousand feet of
+its height. It blew its own head off!</p>
+
+<p>Such explosive eruptions are among the worst vices of volcanoes. Every
+visitor to Naples remembers how plainly the landscape north of
+Vesuvius tells of a prehistoric decapitation, which left only a low,
+broad platform, on the south rim of which the little Vesuvius that
+many of us have climbed was formed by later eruptions, while a part of
+the north rim is well defined in "Monte Somma." Similarly, here at
+home, <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams and <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Baker are truncated cones, while, on the other
+hand, <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Helens and Hood are still symmetrical.</p>
+
+<p>Like Vesuvius, too, Rainier-Tacoma has built upon the plateau left
+when it lost its head. Peak Success, overlooking Indian Henry's, and
+Liberty Cap, the northern elevation, seen from Seattle and Tacoma, are
+nearly three miles apart on the west side of the broad summit. These
+are parts of the rim of the old crater. East of the line uniting them,
+and about two miles from each, the volcano built up an elevation now
+known as Crater Peak, comprising two small adjacent craters. These
+burnt-out craters are now filled with snow, and where the rims touch,
+a big snow-hill rises&mdash;the strange creature of eddying winds that
+sweep up through the great flume cut by volcanic explosion and
+glacial action in the west side of the peak. (See <abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> <a href="#imgp014">14</a>,
+<a href="#imgp027">27</a>, and <a href="#page052">52</a>.)</p>
+
+<a id="imgp087" name="imgp087"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp087.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="View South from Cowlitz Glacier: elevation, 8,000 feet." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View South from Cowlitz Glacier: elevation,
+8,000 feet. Seven miles away are the huge eastern peaks of the
+Tatoosh. The Cascades beyond break in Cispus Pass, and rise, on the
+left, to the glacier summits called Goat Peaks. The truncated cone of
+<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Adams, more than forty miles away, crowns the sky-line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp088a" name="imgp088a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp088a.jpg" width="500" height="168" alt="These views show the larger of the two comparatively
+modern and small craters on the broad platform left by the explosion
+which decapitated the Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller">These views show the larger of the two comparatively
+modern and small craters on the broad platform left by the explosion
+which decapitated the Peak.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp089a" name="imgp089a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp089a.jpg" width="500" height="167" alt="Go with previous picture." title="">
+<p class="smaller">These views show the larger of the two comparatively
+modern and small craters on the broad platform left by the explosion
+which decapitated the Peak. <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Flett measured this crater, and
+found it 1,600 feet from north to south, and 1,450 feet from east to
+west. The other, much smaller, adjoins it so closely that their rims
+touch. Together they form an eminence of 1,000 feet (Crater Peak), at
+a distance of about two miles from North Peak (Liberty Cap) and South
+Peak (Peak Success). At the junction of their rims is the great snow
+hill (on right of view) called "Columbia's Crest." This is the actual
+summit. The volcano having long been inactive, the craters are filled
+with snow, but the residual heat causes steam and gases to escape in
+places along their rims.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This mound of snow is the present actual top. Believing it the highest
+point in the United States south of Alaska, a party of climbers, in
+1894, named it "Columbia's Crest." This was long thought to be the
+Mountain's rightful distinction, for different computations by experts
+gave various elevations ranging as high as 14,529 feet, with none
+prior to 1902 giving less than 14,444 feet. Even upon a government map
+published as late as 1907 the height is stated as 14,526 feet. In view
+of this variety of expert opinion, the flattering name, not
+unnaturally, has stuck, in spite of the fact that the government
+geographers have now adopted, for the Dictionary of Altitudes, the
+height found by the United States Geological Survey in 1902, 14,363
+feet. That decision leaves the honor of being the loftiest peak
+between Alaska and Mexico to <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Whitney in the California Sierra
+(14,502 feet).</p>
+
+<a id="imgp088b" name="imgp088b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp088b.jpg" width="500" height="297" alt="Steam Caves in one of the craters." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Steam Caves in one of the craters. The residual heat of
+the extinct volcano causes steam and gases to escape from vents in the
+rims of the two small craters. Alpinists often spend a night in the
+caves thus formed in the snow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page089" name="page089"></a>(p. 089)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp089b" name="imgp089b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp089b.jpg" width="500" height="264" alt="North Peak, named &quot;Liberty Cap&quot;." title="">
+<p class="smaller">North Peak, named "Liberty Cap" because of its
+resemblance to the Bonnet Rouge of the French Revolutionists.
+Elevation, about 14,000 feet. View taken from the side of Crater Peak.
+Distance, nearly two miles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The definitive map of the National Park which was begun last summer by
+the Geological Survey, with Mr. Francois E. Matthes in charge, will
+establish the elevations of all important landmarks in the Park. Among
+these will be the Mountain itself. Whether this will add much, if
+anything, to the current figure of the Dictionary is uncertain. In any
+case, the result will not lessen the pride of the Northwest in its
+great peak. A few feet of height signify nothing. No California
+mountain masked behind the Sierra can vie in majesty with this lonely
+pile that rises in stately grandeur from the shores of Puget Sound.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp090" name="imgp090"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp090.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Goat Peaks." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Goat Peaks, glacier summits in the Cascades,
+southeast of the Mountain. Elevation, about 8,000 feet, A branch of
+the Cowlitz is seen flowing down from the glaciers above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp091" name="imgp091"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp091.jpg" width="500" height="643" alt="Spray Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Spray Park,
+from Fay Peak, showing the beautiful region between the Carbon and
+North Mowich Glaciers.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright 1907, By W. P. Romans.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp093" name="imgp093"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a id="imgp093a" name="imgp093a"></a>
+<p class="smaller ill93a max200px">Ice-bound Lake in Cowlitz Park, with top of
+Little Tahoma in distance.</p>
+<a id="imgp093b" name="imgp093b"></a>
+<img src="images/imgp093.gif" width="500" height="745" alt="" title="">
+<p class="smaller ill93b max200px">Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier, with waterfall dropping
+from Cowlitz Park, over basaltic cliffs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wide area which the Mountain thrusts far up into the sky is a
+highly efficient condenser of moisture. Near to the Pacific as it is,
+its broad summit and upper slopes collect several hundred feet of snow
+each year from the warm Chinooks blowing in from the west. On all
+sides this vast mass presses down, hardened into solid granular névé,
+to feed the twelve primary glaciers. Starting eastward from Paradise
+Valley, these principal ice-streams are: Cowlitz and Ingraham
+glaciers; White or White River glacier, largest of all; Winthrop
+glacier, named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, in whose romance of
+travel, "The Canoe and the Saddle," the ancient Indian name "Tacoma"
+was first printed; Carbon, North and South Mowich, Puyallup, North and
+South Tahoma, Kautz and Nisqually glaciers. The most important
+secondary glaciers, or "interglaciers," rising within the great rock
+wedges which I have described, are called Interglacier, Frying-Pan,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page094" name="page094"></a>(p. 094)</span> Stevens, Paradise and Van Trump. All of these are of the true
+Alpine type; that is, they are moving rivers of ice, as distinguished
+from "continental glaciers," the ice caps which cover vast regions in
+the Arctic and Antarctic.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp094a" name="imgp094a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp094a.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="Crossing a precipitous slope on White Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Crossing a precipitous slope on White Glacier. Little
+Tahoma in distance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp094b" name="imgp094b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp094b.jpg" width="200" height="268" alt="Climbing Goat Peaks." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Climbing Goat Peaks,
+in the Cascades, with the Mountain twenty miles away.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1910, By S. C. Smith.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In thus naming the glaciers, I have followed the time-honored local
+usage, giving the names applied by the earliest explorers and since
+used with little variation in the Northwest. There has been some
+confusion, however, chiefly owing to a recent government map. For
+instance, in that publication, White glacier, properly so called
+because it is the main feeder of the White river, was named Emmons
+glacier, after S. F. Emmons, a geologist who was one of the first to
+visit it. It is interesting to note that in his reports Mr. Emmons
+himself called this the White River glacier. On the other hand, the
+map mentioned, after displacing the name White from the larger glacier
+to which it logically belongs, gave it to the ice-stream feeding
+another branch of the White river, namely, the glacier always locally
+called the Winthrop, and so called by <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Russell in his report to
+the Geological Survey in 1897.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp095" name="imgp095"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp095.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="Looking up White Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking up White Glacier (right), from a point
+on its lower end, showing vast amount of morainal debris carried down
+by this glacier. Little Tahoma in middle distance; Gibraltar and
+Cathedral Rocks on extreme right; "Goat Island" on left. Elevation of
+camera, about 4,500 feet. Note the "cloud banner" which the crag has
+flung to the breeze.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page096" name="page096"></a>(p. 096)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp096a" name="imgp096a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp096a.jpg" width="300" height="410" alt="The Mountain seen from the top of Cascade
+range." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">The Mountain seen from the top of Cascade
+range, with party starting west over the forest trails for Paradise.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Similarly, North and South Mowich, names of the streams to which they
+give birth, were miscalled Willis and Edmunds glaciers, after Bailey
+Willis, geologist, and George F. Edmunds, late United States senator,
+who visited the Mountain many years ago. The Mowich rivers were so
+named by the Indians from the fact that, in the great rocks on the
+northwest side of the peak, just below the summit, they saw the figure
+of the mowich, or deer. The deer of rock is there still&mdash;he may be
+seen in several pictures in this volume,&mdash;and so long as he keeps to
+his icy pasture it will be difficult to displace his name from the
+glaciers and rivers below. The southern branch of the great Tahoma
+glacier, locally called South Tahoma glacier, this map renamed Wilson
+glacier, for A. D. Wilson, Emmons's companion in exploration. Finally,
+the name of General Hazard Stevens, who, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page097" name="page097"></a>(p. 097)</span> with Mr. Van Trump,
+made the first ascent of the peak in 1870, was misplaced, being given
+to the west branch of the Nisqually, whereas the general usage has
+fixed the name of that pioneer upon the well-defined interglacier east
+of the Paradise, and above Stevens canyon, which in its prime it
+carved on the side of the Mountain. General Stevens himself writes me
+from Boston that this is the correct usage.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp096b" name="imgp096b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp096b.jpg" width="500" height="202" alt="Great moraine." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Great moraine built by Frying-Pan Glacier on side of
+"Goat Island."</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp097a" name="imgp097a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp097a.jpg" width="300" height="178" alt="Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier, below Little Tahoma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such errors in an official document are the more inexcusable because
+their author ignored local names recognized in the earlier
+publications of the government and its agents. In such matters, too,
+the safe principle is to follow local custom where that is logical and
+established. The new map prepared by Mr. Ricksecker, and printed
+herewith, returns to the older and better usage. Unless good reason
+can be shown for departing from it, his careful compilation should be
+followed. Willis Wall, above Carbon Glacier, appropriately recalls the
+work of Bailey Willis. The explorations of Emmons and Wilson may well
+be commemorated by landmarks as yet unnamed, not by displacing fit
+names long current.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with his survey of the Park, Mr. Matthes has been
+authorized to collect local testimony as to established names within
+that area, and to invite suggestions as to appropriate names for
+landmarks not yet definitely named. His report will doubtless go to
+the National Geographic Board for final decision on the names
+recommended. Thus, in time, we may hope to see this awkward and
+confusing tangle in mountain nomenclature straightened out.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp097b" name="imgp097b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp097b.jpg" width="500" height="201" alt="Sunrise above the clouds." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Sunrise above the clouds, seen from Camp Curtis, on the
+Wedge, (altitude 9,500 feet); White Glacier below. This camp was named
+by the Mountaineers in 1909, in honor of Asahel Curtis, the Seattle
+climber.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page098" name="page098"></a>(p. 098)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp098a" name="imgp098a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp098a.jpg" width="300" height="380" alt="Looking up from &quot;Snipe Lake&quot;." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Looking up from "Snipe Lake," a small pond below
+Interglacier, to the head of Winthrop Glacier and Liberty Cap.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The written history of the Mountain begins with its discovery by
+Captain George Vancouver. Its first appearance upon a map occurs in
+Vancouver's well-known report, published in 1798, after his death:
+"Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and around the World,
+1790-1795."</p>
+
+<p>It was in the summer of 1792, shortly after Vancouver had entered the
+Sound, he tells us, that he first saw "a very remarkable high round
+mountain, covered with snow, apparently at the southern extremity of
+the distant snowy range." A few days later he again mentions "the
+round snowy mountain," "which, after my friend Rear-Admiral Rainier, I
+distinguished by the name of Mount Rainier." Nearly all of Captain
+Vancouver's friends were thus distinguished, at the cost of the Indian
+names, to which doubtless he gave no thought. Sonorous "Kulshan" and
+unique "Whulge" were lost, in order that we might celebrate "Mr.
+Baker" and "Mr. Puget," junior officers of Vancouver's expedition.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp098b" name="imgp098b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp098b.jpg" width="500" height="164" alt="Passing a big crevasse on Interglacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Passing a big crevasse on Interglacier. Sour-Dough
+Mountains on the right, with Grand Park beyond: <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass in
+center, Snipe Lake and Glacier Basin in depression.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp099" name="imgp099"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp099.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="View north from Mount Ruth." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View north from <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Ruth (part of the Wedge), with
+Interglacier in foreground, the Snipe Lake country below, Sour-Dough
+Mountains on right, Grand Park in middle distance, and <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Baker, with
+the summits of the Selkirks, far away in Canada, on the horizon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>(p. 100)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp100a" name="imgp100a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp100a.jpg" width="500" height="198" alt="Camp on Saint Elmo Pass." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Camp on <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass, north side of the Wedge, between
+Winthrop Glacier and Interglacier. Elevation, 9,000 feet. Winthrop
+Glacier and the fork of White River which it feeds are seen in
+distance below. The man is <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> E. S. Ingraham, a veteran explorer of
+the Mountain, after whom Ingraham Glacier is named.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp100b" name="imgp100b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp100b.jpg" width="500" height="271" alt="East face of the Mountain." title="">
+<p class="smaller">East face of the Mountain, from south side of the
+Wedge, showing route to the summit over White Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Happily, the fine Indian name "Tacoma" was not offered up a sacrifice
+to such obscurity. Forgotten as he is now, Peter Rainier was, in his
+time, something of a figure. After some ransacking of libraries, I
+have found a page that gives us a glimpse of a certain hard-fought
+though unequal combat, in the year 1778, between an American privateer
+and two British ships. It is of interest in connection with "Mount
+Rainier," the name recognized by the Geographic Board at Washington in
+1889 as official.</p>
+
+<p class="quote">On the 8th of July, the 14-gun ship Ostrich, Commander Peter
+     Rainier, on the Jamaica station, in company with the 10-gun armed
+     brig Lowestoffe's Prize, chased a large brig. After a long run,
+     the Ostrich brought the brig, which was the American privateer
+     Polly, to action, and, after an engagement of three hours'
+     duration (by which time the Lowestoffe's Prize had arrived up and
+     <span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>(p. 101)</span> taken part in the contest), compelled her to surrender.
+     * * * * Captain Rainier was wounded by a musket ball through the
+     left breast; he could not, however, be prevailed upon to go
+     below, but remained on deck till the close of the action. He was
+     posted, and appointed to command the 64-gun ship Burford.
+     (<i>Allen: "Battles of the British Navy,"</i> <abbr title="Volume 1">Vol. I.</abbr>, London, 1872).</p>
+
+<a id="imgp101a" name="imgp101a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp101a.jpg" width="300" height="378" alt="Admiral Peter Rainier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Admiral Peter Rainier, of the British Navy, in whose
+honor Captain George Vancouver, in 1792, named the great peak "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>
+Rainier."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before quitting with Vancouver and eighteenth-century history of the
+Mountain, I note that our peak enjoyed a further honor. Captain
+Vancouver records an interesting event that took place on the
+anniversary of King George's birth;&mdash;"on which auspicious day," he
+says, "I had long since designed to take formal possession of all the
+countries we had lately been employed in exploring, in the name of,
+and for, His Britannic Majesty, his heirs and successors." And he did!</p>
+
+<a id="imgp101b" name="imgp101b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp101b.jpg" width="500" height="200" alt="First picture of the Mountain." title="">
+<p class="smaller">First picture of the Mountain, from Vancouver's "Voyage
+of Discovery," London, 1798.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After Vancouver's brief mention, and the caricature of our peak
+printed in his work, literature is practically silent about the
+Mountain for more than sixty years. Those years witnessed the failure
+of England's memorable struggle to make good Vancouver's "annexation."
+Oregon was at last a state. Out of its original area Washington
+Territory had just been carved. In that year of 1853 <span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>(p. 102)</span> came
+Theodore Winthrop, of the old New England family, who was destined to
+a lasting and pathetic fame as an author of delightful books and a
+victim of the first battle of the Civil War. Sailing into what is now
+the harbor of the city of Tacoma, he there beheld the peak. We feel
+his enthusiasm as he tells of the appeal it made to him.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp102a" name="imgp102a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp102a.jpg" width="300" height="354" alt="Climbers on Saint Elmo Pass." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Climbers on <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass, seen from the upper side.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of
+     sheltered calmness, when I was suddenly aware of a vast white
+     shadow in the water. What cloud, piled massive on the horizon,
+     could cast an image so sharp in outline, so full of vigorous
+     detail of surface? No cloud, but a cloud compeller. It was a
+     giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming to fill the
+     aerial spheres, as its image displaced the blue deeps of tranquil
+     water. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the
+     unearthly regions of clear blue noonday sky.</p>
+
+<p>Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible consort,
+     though far to the north and the south its brethren and sisters
+     dominated their realms. Of all the peaks from California to
+     <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>(p. 103)</span> Frazer's River, this one before me was royalest. Mount
+     Regnier<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5">[5]</a> Christians have dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature
+     perpetuating the name of somebody or nobody. More melodiously the
+     Siwashes call it Tacoma,&mdash;a generic term also applied to all snow
+     peaks. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed volcanic dome, or
+     an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps not yet wholly
+     lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more of
+     feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and
+     hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer
+     and more divine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp102b" name="imgp102b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp102b.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="Saint Elmo Pass from north side." title="">
+<p class="smaller"><abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass from north side. The name was given by
+<abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> Ingraham in 1886 because of a remarkable exhibition of <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo's
+fire seen here during a great storm. A cabin is needed at this
+important crossing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a
+     virginal mountain, distant from human inquisitiveness as a marble
+     goddess is from human loves. Yet there was nothing unsympathetic
+     in its isolation, or despotic in its distant majesty. Only the
+     thought of eternal peace arose from this heaven-upbearing
+     monument like incense, and, overflowing, filled the world with
+     deep and holy calm.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp103a" name="imgp103a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp103a.jpg" width="500" height="243" alt="Avalanche Camp (11,000 feet)." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Avalanche Camp (11,000 feet), on the high, ragged chine
+between Carbon and Winthrop. Carbon Glacier, seen below, has cut
+through a great range, leaving Mother Mountains on the left and the
+Sluiskins, right.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>Our lives demand visual images that can be symbols to us of the
+     grandeur or the sweetness of repose. The noble works of nature,
+     and mountains most of all,</p>
+
+<p><span class="add8em">"have power to make</span><br>
+  Our noisy years seem moments in the being<br>
+  Of the eternal silence."</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp103b" name="imgp103b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp103b.jpg" width="200" height="311" alt="Russell Peak." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Russell Peak, from Avalanche Camp, 2,500 feet below.
+Named for <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Israel C. Russell, geologist.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed
+     from it and entered into my being a thought and image of solemn
+     beauty, which I could thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I
+     must <span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>(p. 104)</span> have peace or die. For such emotion years of
+     pilgrimage were worthily spent. ("<i>The Canoe and the Saddle</i>,"
+     published posthumously in 1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp104a" name="imgp104a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp104a.jpg" width="300" height="447" alt="Looking up Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Looking up Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the controversy over the Mountain's name, some persons have been
+misled into imaging Winthrop a fabricator of pseudo-Indian
+nomenclature. But his work bears scrutiny. He wrote before there was
+any dispute as to the name, or any rivalry between towns to confound
+partisanship with scholarship. He was in the Territory while Captain
+George B. McClellan, was surveying the Cascades to find a pass for a
+railroad. He was in close touch with McClellan's party, and doubtless
+knew well its able ethnologist, George Gibbs, the Harvard man whose
+works on the Indian languages of the Northwest are the foundation of
+all later books in that field. Although he first learned it from the
+Indians, in all likelihood he discussed the name "Tacoma" with Gibbs,
+who was already collecting material for his writings, published in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>(p. 107)</span> report of the Survey and in the "Contributions" of the
+Smithsonian Institution. Among these are the vocabularies of a score
+of Indian dialects, which must be mentioned here because they are
+conclusive as to the form, meaning and application of the name.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp104b" name="imgp104b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp104b.jpg" width="500" height="162" alt="Looking across Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking across Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp to
+Steamboat Prow (the Wedge) and <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass. Elevation of camera,
+11,000 feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp105" name="imgp105"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp105.jpg" width="500" height="710" alt="View south from the Sluiskin Mountains." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View south from the Sluiskin Mountains across
+Moraine Park to the head of Carbon Glacier. Elevation of camera, 6,500
+feet. Moraine Park, below, was until recently the bed of an
+interglacier. On the extreme left, Avalanche Camp and Russell Peak are
+seen between Carbon and Winthrop Glaciers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp106" name="imgp106"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp106.jpg" width="500" height="655" alt="Portion of Spray Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Portion of Spray Park, with north-side view of
+the Mountain, showing Observation Rock and timber line. Elevation of
+camera, 7,000 feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp107a" name="imgp107a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp107a.jpg" width="200" height="313" alt="Climbing the séracs of Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Climbing the séracs of Winthrop Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In his vocabulary of the Winatsha (Wenatchee) language, Gibbs entered:
+"T'koma, snow peak." In that of the Niswalli (Nisqually), he noted:
+"Takob, the name of <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier." "T'kope," Chinook for white, is
+evidently closely allied. Gibbs himself tells us that the Northwestern
+dialects treated b and m as convertible. "Takob" is equivalent to
+"Takom" or "T'koma." Far, then, from coining the word, Winthrop did
+not even change its Indian form, as some have supposed, by modifying
+the mouth-filling "Tahoma" of the Yakimas into the simpler, stronger
+and more musical "Tacoma." This is as pure Indian as the other, and
+Winthrop's popularization of the word was a public service, as
+perpetuating one of the most significant of our Indian place-names.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp107b" name="imgp107b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp107b.jpg" width="200" height="226" alt="Ice pinnacles on the Carbon." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Ice pinnacles on the Carbon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have said thus much, not to revive a musty and, to me, very amusing
+quarrel, but because correspondents in different parts of the country
+have asked regarding facts that are naturally part of the history of
+the Mountain. Some would even have me stir the embers of that ancient
+controversy. For instance, here is the <i>Bulletin of the Geographical
+Society of Philadelphia</i> taking me to task:</p>
+
+<p class="quote">This book would also do a great service if it would help
+     popularize the name "Tacoma" in spite of the Mountain's official
+     designation "Rainier"&mdash;a name to which it has no right when its
+     old Indian name is at once so beautiful and appropriate. It is to
+     be regretted that a more vigorous protest has not been made
+     against the modern name, and also against such propositions as
+     that of changing "Narada Falls" to "Cushman Falls."</p>
+
+<p>The mistaken attempt to displace the name of Narada Falls was
+still-born from the start, and needed no help to kill it. There are
+many unnamed landmarks <span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>(p. 108)</span> in the National Park ready to
+commemorate Mr. Cushman's ambition to make the Mountain a real
+possession of all the people. As to the other matter&mdash;the name of the
+peak itself,&mdash;that may safely be left to the American sense of humor.
+But what I have said is due in justice to Winthrop, one of the finest
+figures in our literary history. His work in making the peak known
+demands that his name, given by local gratitude to one of its
+important glaciers, shall not be removed.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp108" name="imgp108"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp108.jpg" width="500" height="221" alt="Among the ice bridges of the Carbon." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Among the ice bridges of the Carbon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A word about the industrial value of the Mountain may not be without
+interest in this day of electricity. Within a radius of sixty miles of
+the head of Puget Sound, more water descends from high levels to the
+sea than in any other similar area in the United States. A great part
+of this is collected on the largest peak. Hydraulic engineers have
+estimated, on investigation, an average annual precipitation, for the
+summit and upper slopes, of at least 180 inches, or four times the
+rainfall in Tacoma or Seattle. The melting snows feed the White,
+Puyallup and Nisqually rivers, large streams flowing into the Sound,
+and the Cowlitz, an important tributary of the Columbia. The minimum
+flow of these streams is computed at more than 1200 second feet, while
+their average flow is nearly twice that total.</p>
+
+<p>The utilization of this large water supply on the steep mountain
+slopes began in 1904 with the erection of the Electron plant of the
+Puget Sound Power Company. For this the water is diverted from the
+Puyallup river ten miles from the end of its glacier, and 1750 feet
+above sea level, and carried ten miles more in an open flume to a
+reservoir, from which four steel penstocks, each four feet in
+diameter, drop it to the power house 900 feet below. The plant
+generates 28,000 horse power, which is conveyed to Tacoma, twenty-five
+miles distant, at a pressure of 60,000 volts, and there is distributed
+for the operation of street railways, lights and factories in that
+city and Seattle.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp109" name="imgp109"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp109.jpg" width="500" height="221" alt="Mountain Climbers in Crevasse on Carbon
+Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Mountain Climbers in Crevasse on Carbon
+Glacier.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A more important development is in progress on the larger White river
+near Buckley, where the Pacific Coast Power Company is diverting the
+water by a dam and eight-mile canal to Lake Tapps, elevation 540 feet
+above tide. From this <span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>(p. 111)</span> great reservoir it will be taken
+through a tunnel and pipe line to the generating plant at Dieringer,
+elevation 65 feet. The 100,000 horse power ultimately to be produced
+here will be carried fifteen miles to Tacoma, for sale to
+manufacturers in the Puget Sound cities.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp111" name="imgp111"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<p class="smaller max200px ill111a">Building Tacoma's Electric Power Plant on the Nisqually
+Canyon.</p>
+<img src="images/imgp111.gif" width="500" height="752" alt="" title="">
+<p class="smaller ill111c">Upper view shows site of retention dam, above tunnel; middle
+view, end of tunnel, where pipeline crosses the canyon on a bridge;
+lower view, site of the generating plant (see <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#page021">21</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both these plants are enterprises of Stone &amp; Webster, of Boston. A
+competitive plant is now nearing completion by the city of Tacoma,
+utilizing the third of the rivers emptying into the Sound. The
+Nisqually is dammed above its famous canyon, at an elevation of 970
+feet, where its minimum flow is 300 second feet. The water will be
+carried through a 10,000-foot tunnel and over a bridge to a reservoir
+at La Grande, from which the penstocks will carry it down the side of
+the canyon <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>(p. 112)</span> to the 40,000 horse-power generating plant built
+on a narrow shelf a few feet above the river. The city expects to be
+able to produce power for its own use, with a considerable margin for
+sale, at a cost at least as low as can be attained anywhere in the
+United States.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp112a" name="imgp112a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp112a.jpg" width="500" height="247" alt="Hydro-electric plant at Electron." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Hydro-electric plant at Electron, on the Puyallup
+River, producing 28,000 h. p.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rocks of which the Mountain is composed are mainly andesites of
+different classes and basalt. But the peak rests upon a platform of
+granite, into which the glaciers have cut in their progress. Fine
+exposures of the older and harder rock are seen on the Nisqually, just
+below the present end of its glacier, as well as on the Carbon and in
+Moraine Park. This accounts for the fact that the river beds are full
+of granite bowlders, which are grinding the softer volcanic shingle
+into soil. Thus the glaciers are not only fast deforming the peak.
+They are "sowing the seeds of continents to be."<a href="#toc">[Back to content]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp112b" name="imgp112b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp112b.jpg" width="500" height="197" alt="Cutting canal to divert White River into Lake Tapps." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Cutting canal to divert White River into Lake Tapps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>(p. 113)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp113a" name="imgp113a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp113a.jpg" width="500" height="165" alt="Mystic Lake in Moraine Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Mystic Lake in Moraine Park.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><abbr title="4">IV.</abbr></h3>
+
+<h5>THE CLIMBERS.</h5>
+
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>Climb the mountains, and get their good tidings. Nature's peace
+     will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will
+     blow their own freshness into you, and the storms their energy,
+     while cares will drop off like autumn leaves.&mdash;<i>John Muir.</i></p>
+
+<p>Upwards&mdash;towards the peaks, towards the stars, and towards the
+     great silence!&mdash;<i>Ibsen.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p2">Given good muscles and wind, the other requisites for an ascent of the
+Mountain are a competent guide and grit. It offers few problems like
+those confronting the climber of the older and more crag-like Alps.
+There are no perpendicular cliffs to scale, no abysses to swing across
+on a rope. If you can stand the punishment of a long up-hill pull,
+over loose volcanic talus and the rough ice, you may safely join a
+party for Gibraltar Rock and the summit. But the ascent should not be
+attempted without first spending some time in "try-outs" on lower
+elevations, both to prepare one's muscles for climbing and descending
+steep slopes, and to accustom one's lungs to the rarer atmosphere of
+high altitudes. Such preparation will save much discomfort, including,
+perhaps, a visit of "mountain sickness."</p>
+
+<a id="imgp113b" name="imgp113b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp113b.jpg" width="300" height="161" alt="Glacier Table on Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Glacier Table on Winthrop Glacier. This phenomenon is
+due to the melting of the glacier, save where sheltered by the rock.
+Under the sun's rays, these "tables" incline more and more to the
+south, until they slide off their pedestals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another warning must be given to the general tourist. Do not try to
+climb the Mountain without guides. The seasoned alpinist, of course,
+will trust to previous experience on other peaks, and may find his
+climb here comparatively safe and easy. But the fate of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>(p. 115)</span> T.
+Y. Callaghan and Joseph W. Stevens, of Trenton, <abbr title="New Jersey">N. J.</abbr>, who perished on
+the glaciers in August, 1909, should serve as a warning against
+over-confidence. Unless one has intimate acquaintance with the ways of
+the great ice peaks, he should never attack such a wilderness of
+crevasses and shifting snow-slopes save in company of those who know
+its fickle trails.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp114" name="imgp114"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp114.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt="Carbon River below its Gorge, and Mother
+Mountains." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Carbon River below its Gorge, and Mother
+Mountains. This range was so named because of a rude resemblance to
+the up-turned face of a woman seen here in the sky-line, while the
+view of snowy Liberty Cap beyond and the milky whiteness of the stream
+gave rise to the pleasing fiction that the Indian name of the peak
+meant "nourishing breast." "Tacoma" meant simply the Snow Mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp115a" name="imgp115a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp115a.jpg" width="200" height="306" alt="Oldest and youngest
+climbers." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Oldest and youngest
+climbers, <abbr title="General">Gen.</abbr> Hazard Stevens and Jesse McRae. General Stevens, with
+P. B. Van Trump, in 1870, made the first ascent. In 1905, he came west
+from Boston and joined the Mazamas in their climb. The picture shows
+him before his tent in Paradise Park. He was then 63 years old.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1910, By C. E. Cutter.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the experienced guides, many climbers reach Crater Peak each
+summer, and no accidents of a serious nature have occurred. The
+successful climbers numbered one hundred and fifty-nine in 1910. Many
+more go only as far as Gibraltar, or even to McClure Rock (Elevation,
+7,385 feet), and are well rewarded by the magnificent views which
+these points command of the south-side glaciers and arêtes, with the
+ranges lying below. The name "McClure Rock" is a memorial of the
+saddest tragedy of the Mountain. Over the slope below this landmark
+<abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Edgar McClure of the University of Oregon fell to his death on
+the night of July 27, 1897. He had spent the day in severe scientific
+labor on the summit, and was hurrying down in the moonlight, much
+wearied, to Reese's Camp for the night. Going ahead of his companions,
+to find a safe path for them, he called back that the ice was too
+steep. Then there was silence. Either he slipped in trying to
+re-ascend the slope, or he fainted from exhaustion. His body was found
+on the rocks below by his comrades of the Mazama Club.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp115b" name="imgp115b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp115b.jpg" width="200" height="216" alt="P. B. Van Trump." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">P. B. Van Trump, on
+his old campground, above Sluiskin Falls, where he and <abbr title="General">Gen.</abbr> Stevens
+camped in 1870.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If one is going the popular route and is equal to so long and unbroken
+a climb, he may start with his guide from Reese's before dawn, and be
+on Columbia's Crest by 11 o'clock. But climbers frequently go up
+Cowlitz Cleaver in the evening, and spend the night at Camp Muir (see
+<abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> <a href="#imgp060">60</a> and <a href="#page080">80</a>). This ledge below Gibraltar gets its name from John
+Muir, the famous mountaineer, who, on his ascent in 1888, suggested it
+as a camping place because the presence of pumice indicated the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>(p. 116)</span> absence of severe winds. It offers none of the conveniences
+of a camp save a wind-break, and even in that respect no one has ever
+suffered for want of fresh air. It is highly desirable that a cabin be
+erected here for the convenience of climbers. Such shelters as the
+Alpine clubs have built on the high shoulders of many peaks in
+Switzerland are much needed, not only at Muir, but also on the Wedge,
+as well as inside one of the craters, where, doubtless a way might be
+found to utilize the residuary heat of the volcano for the comfort of
+the climbers.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp116a" name="imgp116a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp116a.jpg" width="500" height="272" alt="Lower Spray Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Lower Spray Park, with Mother Mountains beyond. One of
+the most beautiful alpine vales in the great Spray Park region.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp116b" name="imgp116b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp116b.jpg" width="200" height="272" alt="John Muir." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">John Muir, President of the Sierra Club and foremost of American
+mountaineers</p>
+<p class="left00 smaller">"His daily teachers had been woods and rills,<br>
+The silence that is in the starry sky,<br>
+The sleep that is among the lonely hills."</p>
+<p class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By J. Edward B. Greene.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Going to the summit by this route, the important thing is to pass
+Gibraltar early, before the sun starts the daily shower of icicles and
+rocks from the cliff over the narrow trail (see <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#page083">83</a>). This is the
+most dangerous point, but no lives have been lost here. Everywhere, of
+course, caution is needed, and strict obedience to the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>(p. 117)</span> guide.
+Once up the steep flume caused by the melting of the ice where it
+borders the rock (<abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#page085">85</a>), the climber threads his way among the
+crevasses and snow-mounds for nearly two miles, until the crater is
+reached (<abbr title="pages">pp.</abbr> <a href="#page086">86</a>, <a href="#page088">88</a>,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>).</p>
+
+<a id="imgp117a" name="imgp117a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp117a.jpg" width="200" height="321" alt="Coasting in Moraine Park in the August sunshine." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Coasting in Moraine Park in the August sunshine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The east-side route (<abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#page100">100</a>) involves less danger, perhaps, but it is
+a longer climb, with no resting places or wind-breaks. It has been
+used less, because it is farther from Paradise Valley. Starting from a
+night's encampment on the Wedge (<abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#page097">97</a>), parties descend to White
+glacier, and, over its steep incline of dazzling ice, gain the summit
+in eight or nine hours.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp117b" name="imgp117b"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp117b.jpg" width="300" height="235" alt="Sunset on Crater Lake." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Sunset on Crater Lake, north of Spray Park, with the
+Mountain in distance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first attempt to scale the Mountain was made in 1857 by Lieutenant
+(later General) A. V. Kautz. There is no foundation for the claim
+sometimes heard that <abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> W. F. Tolmie, Hudson's Bay Company agent at
+Fort Nisqually, who made a botanizing trip to the lower slopes in
+1833, attempted the peak. Lieutenant Kautz, with two companions from
+fort Steilacoom, climbed the arête between the glacier now named after
+him and the Nisqually glacier, but fearing a night on the summit, and
+knowing nothing of the steam caves in the crater, he turned back when
+probably at the crest of the south peak. Writing in the <i>Overland
+Monthly</i> for May, 1875, he says that, "although there were points
+higher yet, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>(p. 120)</span> Mountain spread out comparatively flat,"
+having the form of "a ridge perhaps two miles in length, with an angle
+about half-way, and depressions between the angle and each end of the
+ridge, which gave the summit the appearance of three small peaks."</p>
+
+<a id="imgp118" name="imgp118"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp118.jpg" width="500" height="319" alt="Amphitheatre
+of Carbon Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Amphitheatre
+of Carbon Glacier, the most noteworthy example of glacial sculpture
+upon the Mountain. It is nearly three miles wide. No other glacier has
+cut so deeply into the side of the peak. The Carbon was once two
+glaciers, separated by a ridge, of which a remnant is still seen in
+the huge spine of rock extending down from Liberty Cap.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp119" name="imgp119"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp119.jpg" width="500" height="695" alt="Avalanche falling on Willis Wall." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Avalanche falling on Willis Wall, at head of Carbon Glacier
+amphitheatre. The cliff, up to the snow cap on the summit, is more
+than 4,000 feet high and nearly perpendicular. Avalanches fall every
+day, but this picture of a big one in action is probably unique.
+Willis Wall was named for Bailey Willis, the geologist.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Photo By Lea Bronson. Copyright, 1909, By P. V.
+Caesar.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp120" name="imgp120"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp120.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="Birth of Carbon River." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Birth of Carbon River, with part of Willis Wall visible in distance.
+The great height of this ice front appears on nothing the man near the river.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By A. H. WAITE.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was not until August 17, 1870, thirteen years after Kautz's partial
+victory, that the Mountain was really conquered. This was by P. B. Van
+Trump of Yelm and Hazard Stevens, son of the first governor of
+Washington, who had distinguished himself in the Civil War, and was
+then living at Olympia as a Federal revenue officer. Each of these
+pioneers on the summit has published an interesting account of how
+they got there, General Stevens in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for
+November, 1876, and Mr. Van Trump in the second volume of <i>Mazama</i>. In
+Stevens's article, "The Ascent of Takhoma," his acquaintance with the
+Indians of the early territorial period, gives weight to this note:</p>
+
+<p class="quote">
+     Tak-ho-ma or Ta-ho-ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups,
+     Nisquallys and allied tribes is the generic term for mountain,
+     used precisely as we use the word "Mount," as Takhoma Wynatchie,
+     or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply as
+     Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call
+     it "Old He."
+</p>
+
+<p>Sluiskin, an Indian celebrity whom they employed as a guide, led the
+young men the longest and hardest way, taking them over the Tatoosh
+mountains instead of directly up the Nisqually and Paradise canyons.
+From the summit of that range, they at last looked across the Paradise
+valley, and beheld the great peak "directly in front, filling up the
+whole view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude <span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>(p. 121)</span> and
+grandeur." Below them lay "long green ridges projected from the snow
+belt, with deep valleys between, each at its upper end forming the bed
+of a glacier."</p>
+
+<a id="imgp121a" name="imgp121a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp121a.jpg" width="300" height="366" alt="The Mountaineers building trail on the lateral moraine
+of Carbon Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">The Mountaineers building trail on the lateral moraine
+of Carbon Glacier. Without such trails, the "tenderfoot" would fare
+badly.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Descending from the Tatoosh, the explorers camped near a waterfall
+which they named Sluiskin Falls, in honor of their guide. Sluiskin now
+endeavored, in a long oration, to dissuade them from their folly.
+Avalanches and winds, he said, would sweep them from the peak, and
+even if they should reach the summit, the awful being dwelling there
+would surely punish their sacrilege. Finding his oratory vain, he
+chanted a dismal dirge till late in the night, and next morning took
+solemn leave of them.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp121b" name="imgp121b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp121b.jpg" width="500" height="233" alt="The Mountaineers lunching in a crevasse on White
+Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The Mountaineers lunching in a crevasse on White
+Glacier, 13,000 feet above the sea, on their ascent in 1909. Even
+Little Tahoma, on the left, is far below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stevens describes their ascent by the now familiar path, over Cowlitz
+Cleaver and past Gibraltar. From the top of that "vast, square rock
+embedded in the side of the Mountain," they turned west over the upper
+snow-fields, and thus first reached the southern peak, which they
+named "Peak Success," to commemorate their victory.</p>
+
+<p class="quote">This is a long, exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out
+     from the main dome for a mile into mid-air. On the right, the
+     snow descended in a steep, unbroken sheet into the tremendous
+     <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>(p. 124)</span> basin which lies between the southern and the northern
+     peaks, and which is enclosed by them as by two mighty arms.<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6">[6]</a>
+     Sheltered behind a pinnacle of ice, we fastened our flags upon
+     the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the furious blast,
+     waved them in triumph with three cheers.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp122" name="imgp122"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp122.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="Looking southeast from Mount Rose." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking southeast from <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rose, above Eunice
+Lake, with Mother Mountains on left, and Spray Park in distance on
+right of center. Shows outposts of alpine firs and hemlocks on the
+timber line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp123" name="imgp123"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp123.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="Looking southeast from Mount Rose." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking south from <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rose, across Crater Lake
+to North Mowich Glacier and Mowich Ridge. This was taken from near the
+same place as the preceding view, and eight miles from the Mountain.
+Eagle Cliff, a celebrated view point, is on the right, overlooking
+Mowich canyon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp124" name="imgp124"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp124.jpg" width="300" height="632" alt="Looking up Mowich
+Valley." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Looking up Mowich
+Valley. One of the densely wooded regions in the National Park that
+need trails as a means of protection against fires.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was now five o'clock. They had spent eleven hours in the ascent,
+and knowing it would be impossible to descend before nightfall, they
+saw nothing to do but burrow in the loose rock and spend the night as
+best they could. The middle peak, however, was evidently higher, and
+they determined first to visit it. Climbing the long ridge and over
+the rim of the crater, they found jets of steam and smoke issuing from
+vents on the north side.</p>
+
+<p class="quote">Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both
+     exclaimed, as we warmed our benumbed extremities over one of
+     Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against
+     freezing to death, at least.... A deep cavern extended under the
+     ice. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall of stones around
+     a jet of steam. Inclosed within this shelter, we ate our lunch
+     and warmed ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the
+     orifice was too great to bear for more than an instant. The steam
+     wet us, the smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so
+     severe that our clothes froze stiff when turned away from the
+     heated jet. We passed a miserable night, freezing on one side and
+     in a hot steam-sulphur bath on the other.</p>
+
+<p>In October of the same year, S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson, of the
+Geological Survey, reached the snow-line by way of the Cowlitz valley
+and glacier, and ascended the peak over the same route which Stevens
+and Van Trump had discovered and which has since been the popular path
+to Crater Peak. The Kautz route, by the cleaver between Kautz and
+Nisqually glaciers, has recently been found <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>(p. 125)</span> practicable,
+though extremely difficult. In 1891 and again the next summer, Mr. Van
+Trump made an ascent along the ridge dividing the Tahoma glaciers. In
+1905, Raglan Glascock and Ernest Dudley, members of the Sierra Club
+party visiting the Mountain, climbed the Kautz glacier, and finding
+their way barred by ice cascades, reached the summit by a thrilling
+rock climb over the cliff above the South Tahoma glacier. This
+precipice (see <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#imgp037">37</a>) they found to be a series of rock terraces,
+often testing the strength and nerve of the climbers. In <i>Sunset
+Magazine</i> for November, 1895, Mr. Glascock has told the story of their
+struggle and reward.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp125" name="imgp125"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp125.jpg" width="300" height="675" alt="Spray Falls." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Spray Falls, a
+splendid scenic feature of the north side, where it drops more than
+five hundred feet from the Spray Park table-land into the canyon of
+North Mowich Glacier.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>Here the basalt terminated, and a red porous formation began,
+     which crumbled in the hand. This part of the cliff lay a little
+     out from the perpendicular, and there was apparently no way of
+     surmounting it. I looked at my watch. It was 4:15. In a flash the
+     whole situation came to me. It would be impossible to return and
+     cross the crevasses before dark. We could not stay where we were.
+     Already the icy wind cut to the bone.</p>
+
+<p>"We must make it. There is no going back," I said to Dudley. I
+     gave him the ice ax, and started to the ascent of the remaining
+     cliff. I climbed six feet, and was helpless. I could not get
+     back, nor go forward. One of my feet swung loose, and I felt my
+     hands slipping. Then I noticed above me, about six or eight
+     inches to my right a sharp, projecting rock. It was here or
+     never. I gave a swing, and letting go my feet entirely, I reached
+     the rock. It held, and I was swinging by my hands over a
+     two-hundred-foot void. I literally glued myself to the face of
+     the rock, searching frantically for knob or crevasse with my
+     feet. By sheer luck, my toe found a small projection, and from
+     here I gradually worked myself up until I came to a broken cleft
+     in the cliff where it was possible to brace myself and lower the
+     rope to Dudley. This last ascent had only been fifteen feet, and,
+     in reality, had taken but three or four minutes, but to me it
+     seemed hours.</p>
+
+<p>At 7:45, we reached the summit of the south peak. Here we stopped
+     to look down on Camp Sierra. Long shadows spread their mantle
+     across the glaciers, and in the east lay the phantom <span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>(p. 126)</span>
+     mountain&mdash;the shadow of Rainier. A flash of light attracted our
+     attention. We saw that our companions had been watching our
+     progress.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp126a" name="imgp126a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp126a.jpg" width="200" height="314" alt="A rescue from a crevasse." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">A rescue from a crevasse.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The White glacier route on the east side was first used in 1885 by a
+party from Snohomish. The same glacier was traversed by the
+Willis-Russell party in 1896. The first woman to make the ascent was
+Miss Fay Fuller, of Tacoma, in 1890, over the Gibraltar route.</p>
+
+<p>The north and northwest sides, as I have said, are as yet unconquered.
+Some members of the Mountaineers have a theory that the summit can be
+reached from Avalanche Camp by climbing along the face of Russell
+Peak, and so around to the upper snowfield of Winthrop glacier. They
+have seen mountain goats making the trip, and propose to try it
+themselves. Whether they succeed or not, this trail will never be
+popular, owing to daily landslides in the loose rock of the cliff.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp126b" name="imgp126b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp126b.jpg" width="500" height="156" alt="Returning from the summit." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Returning from the summit. The Mountaineers ending a
+memorable outing in 1909. Winthrop Glacier in foreground, Sluiskin
+Mountains in distance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1897 and 1905, the Mazama Club of Portland sent parties to the
+Mountain, each making the ascent over the Gibraltar route. The Sierra
+Club of California was also represented in the latter year by a
+delegation of climbers who took the same path to the summit. In 1909,
+the Mountaineers Club of Seattle spent several weeks on the Mountain,
+entering the National Park by the Carbon trail, camping in Moraine
+Park on the north side, exploring Spray Park and the Carbon glacier,
+crossing Winthrop glacier to the Wedge, and thence climbing White
+glacier to the summit. Many members of the Appalachian Club and
+American Alpine Clubs and of European organizations of similar purpose
+have climbed to Crater Peak, either in company with the Western clubs
+named, or in smaller parties. Noteworthy accounts of these ascents
+have been printed in the publications of the several clubs, as well as
+in magazines of wider circulation, and have done much to make the
+Mountain known to the public. The principal articles are cited in a
+bibliographical note at the end of this volume.<a href="#toc">[Back to content]</a></p>
+
+<a id="imgp128" name="imgp128"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp128.jpg" width="500" height="638" alt="Looking down from Ptarmigan Ridge." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Looking down from Ptarmigan Ridge into the
+Canyon of the North Mowich Glacier and up to the cloud-wreathed Peak.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>(p. 129)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp129a" name="imgp129a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp129a.jpg" width="500" height="166" alt="View looking west
+across Moraine Park and Carbon Glacier to Mother Mountains." title="">
+<p class="smaller">View looking west
+across Moraine Park and Carbon Glacier to Mother Mountains.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h3><abbr title="5">V.</abbr></h3>
+
+<h5>THE FLORA OF THE MOUNTAIN SLOPES.<br>
+By <abbr title="Professor">PROF.</abbr> J. B. FLETT.<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7">[7]</a></h5>
+
+<p class="quote">Of all the fire-mountains which, like beacons, once blazed along
+     the Pacific Coast, Mount Rainier is the noblest in form. Its
+     massive white dome rises out of its forests, like a world by
+     itself. Above the forests there is a zone of the loveliest
+     flowers, fifty miles in circuit and nearly two miles wide, so
+     closely planted and luxuriant that it seems as if Nature, glad to
+     make an open space between woods so dense and ice so deep, were
+     economizing the precious ground, and trying to see how many of
+     her darlings she can get together in one mountain
+     wreath&mdash;daisies, anemones, columbines, erythroniums, larkspurs,
+     <abbr title="etcetera">etc.</abbr>, among which we wade knee-deep and waist-deep, the bright
+     corollas in myriads touching petal to petal. Altogether this is
+     the richest subalpine garden I ever found, a perfect floral
+     elysium.&mdash;<i>John Muir: "Our National Parks."</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2">No one can visit the Mountain without being impressed by its wild
+flowers. These are the more noticeable because of their high color&mdash;a
+common characteristic of flowers in alpine regions. As we visit the
+upland meadows at a season when the spring flowers of the lowlands
+have gone to seed, we find there another spring season with flowers in
+still greater number and more varied in color.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp129b" name="imgp129b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp129b.jpg" width="200" height="108" alt="Senecio." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Senecio.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The base of the Mountain up to an altitude of about 4,000 feet is
+covered by a somber forest of evergreens composed of the white and
+black pines; Douglas, Lovely and Noble firs; the white cedar; spruce,
+and hemlock. There are found also several deciduous trees&mdash;large-leafed
+maple, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>(p. 130)</span> white alder, cottonwood, quaking aspen, vine and
+smooth-leafed maples, and several species of willows. Thus the silva
+of the lower slopes is highly varied. The forest is often interrupted
+by the glacial canyons, and, at intervals, by fire-swept areas.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp130" name="imgp130"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp130.jpg" width="300" height="396" alt="A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among these foothills and valleys, lies the region of the virgin
+forest. This area is characterized by huge firs and cedars, all tall,
+straight and graceful, without a limb for 75 to 100 feet. This is
+probably the most valuable area of timber in the world, and it is one
+of the grandest parts of the Park. A death-like silence generally
+pervades this cool, dark region, where few kinds of animal life find a
+congenial abode. Occasionally the stillness is disturbed by the
+Douglas squirrel, busily gnawing off the fir cones for his winter's
+supply, or by the gentle flutter of the coy wren, darting to and fro
+among the old, fallen logs. The higher forms of vegetable life are
+also restricted to a few odd varieties. The most common of these are
+such saprophytes as <i>pterospora andromedea</i>, <i>allotropa virgata</i>, the
+so-called barber's pole, and the Indian pipe. This curious, waxy white
+plant is generally admired by all who see it, but it quickly
+disappoints those admirers who gather it by turning black.</p>
+
+<p>The mosses, liverworts, and lichens take possession of the trees and
+cover them with a unique decoration. The licorice fern often gains a
+foothold on the trees thus decorated, and grows luxuriantly, embedded
+in the deep growth of these plants.</p>
+
+<p>It is nearly impossible to get through this region without following a
+road or trail. For the safety of its priceless forest, there are far
+too few trails. In case of a forest fire it would be impossible to
+reach some areas in time to combat it with any success. Many beautiful
+regions in the lower parts of the Park are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>(p. 131)</span> wholly
+inaccessible. These should be opened with proper roads and trails, not
+only for their own safety, but also for the benefit of visitors.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp131a" name="imgp131a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp131a.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="Indian Pipe." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Indian Pipe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The alpine meadows begin to appear at an altitude of about 5,000 feet.
+The real alpine trees, with their trim, straight trunks and drooping
+branches, are in strange contrast to their relatives of the lower
+altitude. The principal trees of the meadow area are the alpine fir,
+the alpine hemlock, and the Alaska cedar. These constitute the greater
+part of the silva of Paradise Valley. There are a few trees of the
+Lovely fir in the lower part of the valley, and a few white-barked
+pines overlooking the glaciers at timber line.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp131b" name="imgp131b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp131b.jpg" width="500" height="381" alt="Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's Park, showing "Mountain
+Heliotrope," more properly Valerian, and other flowers growing near
+the snow line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp132" name="imgp132"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp132.jpg" width="500" height="666" alt="Mosses and Ferns." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Mosses and Ferns, in the forest reserve, on way
+to Longmire Springs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>(p. 133)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp133a" name="imgp133a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp133a.jpg" width="500" height="245" alt="A bank of White Heather." title="">
+<p class="smaller">A bank of White Heather.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The trees of the park zone differ greatly on different slopes. On the
+northeast and east, the white-barked pine and the alpine spruce form
+no small part of the tree groups. The white-barked pine branches out
+like the scrub oak on the prairie. It is never seen at a low altitude.
+The alpine spruce bears numerous cones all over the tree, and has
+sharp leaves, though not so sharp as its relative, the tideland
+spruce.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp133b" name="imgp133b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp133b.jpg" width="200" height="303" alt="Hellebore (Veratrum Viride)." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Hellebore (Veratrum Viride).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not only is there a difference in the trees on the different slopes of
+the Mountain, but there is a marked difference in the herbaceous
+plants as well. <i>Hesperogenia Strictlandi</i> is a small, yellow plant of
+the celery family. This is very abundant, both in Spray Park and also
+in the country east of the Carbon Glacier, but rare on the south side.
+<i>Gilia Nuttallii</i>, a large, phlox-like plant, is abundant only in the
+Indian Henry region. Two anemones, one buttercup, three willows and
+one senecio seem to be confined to the White River country. The moss
+campion has been found only on Mowich.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable and abundant flower on all slopes is the avalanche
+lily (<i>erythronium montanum</i>). This plant comes up through several
+inches of the old snow crust, and forms beautiful beds of pure white
+flowers, to the exclusion of nearly all other plants. There are often
+from seven to nine blossoms on a stem. This has other popular names,
+such as deer-tongue and adder-tongue. There is also a yellow species,
+growing with the other, but less abundant. It seldom has more than one
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>(p. 134)</span> or two flowers on a stem. The yellow alpine buttercup
+generally grows with the erythroniums. It also tries to rush the
+season by coming up through the snow. The western anemone is a little
+more deliberate, but is found quite near the snow. It may be known by
+its lavender, or purple flowers; and later by its large plume-like
+heads, which are no less admired than the flowers themselves.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp134a" name="imgp134a"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp134a.jpg" width="200" height="436" alt="Alpine Hemlock and Mountain Lilies." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Alpine Hemlock and Mountain Lilies. In the struggle for
+existence at the timber line, flowers prosper, but trees fight for
+life against storm and snow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plants just mentioned are the harbingers of spring. Following them
+in rapid succession are many plants of various hues. The mountain
+dock, mountain dandelion, and potentilla seldom fail to appear later.
+The asters, often wrongly called daisies, are represented by several
+species, some of which blossom early, and are at their best along with
+the spring flowers. The great majority of the composite family bloom
+later, and thus prolong the gorgeous array. The lupines add much to
+the beauty of this meadow region, both at a low altitude, and also in
+the region above timber line. Their bright purple flowers, in long
+racemes, with palmate leaves, are very conspicuous on the grassy
+slopes. Between timber line and 8,500 feet, Lyall's lupine grows in
+dense silk mats, with dark purple flowers&mdash;the most beautiful plant in
+that zone.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp134b" name="imgp134b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp134b.jpg" width="200" height="251" alt="Mountain Asters." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Mountain Asters.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Four different kinds of heather are found on the Mountain. The red
+heather is the largest and the most abundant. It grows at a lower
+altitude than the others, and is sometimes, erroneously, called Scotch
+heather. There are two kinds of white heather. One forms a prominent
+part of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>(p. 135)</span> flora, often growing with the red. The other is
+less conspicuous and grows about timber line. The yellow heather also
+grows at the same altitude, and is larger and more common than the
+others. It often forms beautiful areas where other vegetation is rare.
+The white rhododendron is a beautiful shrub of the lower meadows. Its
+creamy white blossoms remind one of the cultivated azalea. There are
+several huckleberries, some with large bushes growing in the lower
+forest area, others small and adapted to the grassy meadows.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp135a" name="imgp135a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp135a.jpg" width="500" height="295" alt="Studying the Phlox." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Studying the Phlox.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp135b" name="imgp135b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp135b.jpg" width="200" height="230" alt="Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily. (Xerophyllum tenax).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The figwort family has many and curious representatives. The
+rose-purple monkey-flower is very common and conspicuous in the lower
+meadows, along the streams. It is nearly always accompanied by the
+yellow fireweed. Higher up, large meadow areas are arrayed in bright
+yellow by the alpine monkey-flower. Above timber line, two
+pentstemons, with matted leaves and short stems with brilliant purple
+and red flowers, cover large rocky patches, mixed here and there with
+lavender beds of the alpine phlox; while the amber rays of the golden
+aster, scattered through these variegated beds, lend their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>(p. 136)</span>
+charm to the rocky ridges. The Indian paint-brush, the speedwell, the
+elephant's trunk, and the pigeon bills are all well-known members of
+the large figwort family which does much to embellish the Mountain
+meadows. The valerian, often wrongly called "mountain heliotrope," is
+very common on the grassy slopes. Its odor can often be detected
+before it is seen. The rosy spiraea, the mountain ash, and the wild
+currant, are three common shrubs in this area. There are also numerous
+small herbaceous plants of the saxifrage family, some forming dense
+mats to the exclusion of other plants. The mertensias, polemoniums,
+and shooting stars add much to the purple and blue coloring.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp136a" name="imgp136a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp136a.jpg" width="300" height="230" alt="Avalanche Lilies (Erythronium montanum)." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Avalanche Lilies (Erythronium montanum), sometimes
+called deer tongues, forcing their way through the lingering snow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two liliaceous plants of low altitude are always objects of marked
+interest. The Clintonia, popularly called alpine beauty, begins in the
+forest area, and continues up to the lower meadows. This may be known
+by its pure white blossoms and blue berries. Its leaves are oblong in
+tufts of from two to four. They spring up near the roots. The other is
+xerophyllum, mountain lily, sometimes called squaw grass, because it
+is used by the Indians in basket making. This has tall <span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>(p. 138)</span> stems
+with small fragrant flowers and coarse grass-like leaves.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp136b" name="imgp136b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp136b.jpg" width="500" height="166" alt="Moraine Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Moraine Park,
+Sluiskin Mountains and Mystic Lake.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp137" name="imgp137"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp137.jpg" width="500" height="643" alt="Sunrise in Indian Henry's Park." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Sunrise in Indian Henry's Park, with view of
+the southwest slope and Peak Success, showing Purple Asters, with
+bunches of Hellebore in center of the flower field.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp138" name="imgp138"></a>
+<div class="floatleft">
+<img src="images/imgp138.jpg" width="200" height="304" alt="Anemone Seed Pods." title="">
+<p class="smaller max200px">Anemone Seed Pods.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The orchid family has a few curious saprophytic representatives on the
+lower slopes. Mertin's coral-root is one of the most common. This
+generally grows in clusters in the mossy woods, along the trail or
+government road above Longmire Springs. It is very common all around
+the mountain at an altitude of 3,000 to 4,500 feet. With it, grow two
+tway-blades and the rattlesnake plantain. In bogs, two species of
+piperia, with long spikes of greenish flowers, are abundant. In drier
+situations, a small form of the ladies' tresses is easily recognized
+by its spiral spike of small white flowers, which are more or less
+fragrant. In some of the swamps at the base of the mountain grows
+<i>Limnorchis leucostachys</i>. This is one of our most fragrant flowers,
+as well as one of the most beautiful, with its long spike of pure
+white blossoms.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ferns, the common brake is sometimes seen on the slopes near
+the terminal moraines of the glaciers. On the old moraines and cliffs
+is found the pea fern (<i>cryptogramma acrostichoides</i>), so called
+because the pinnules of its fruiting fronds resemble those of a pea
+pod. This dainty little fern with its two kinds of fronds is always
+admired by mountain visitors. It is strictly a mountain fern. The deer
+fern also has two kinds of fronds, but this grows all the way from sea
+level to the glaciers, being at its best in the dense forest area. The
+delicate oak fern grows in great abundance from Eatonville to the
+timber line, and probably does more to beautify the woods than any
+other fern. The sword fern grows in dense, radiate clusters, all
+through the mossy woods. The fronds are often five or six feet in
+length. The maidenhair fern is found along streams, waterfalls and
+moist cliffs, reaching its highest development in the deep canyons cut
+through the dense forest.</p>
+
+<p>On the very top of Pinnacle Peak and similar elevations, grows the
+beautiful mountain lace fern (<i>cheilanthes gracillima.</i>) Nearly every
+tourist presses a souvenir of it in his notebook. <i>Phegopteris
+alpesteris</i> is abundant along the glacial valleys, where the tall
+grasses and the beautiful array of alpine plants delight the eye.
+These ferns and grasses give a rich green color to the varigated
+slopes where nature blends so many harmonious colors in matchless
+grandeur in this great fairyland of flowers.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>(p. 139)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp139a" name="imgp139a"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp139a.jpg" width="300" height="143" alt="Wind Swept Trees on North Side." title="">
+<p class="smaller max300px">Wind Swept Trees on North Side, the last below the Snow
+line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The writer has a list of about three hundred and sixty species from
+the Mountain. It includes only flowering plants and ferns. There are
+more than twenty type species named from the Mountain, not a few of
+which are found nowhere else. Its geographical position makes it the
+boundary between the arctic plants from the North and the plants of
+Oregon and California from the South. Its great altitude has a
+wonderful effect on plant life. This is seen in the trees at timber
+line, where snow rests upon them for months. Their prostrate trunks
+and gnarled branches give ample testimony to their extreme struggle
+for existence. Where the ordinary plants cease to exist the snowy
+protococcus holds undisputed sway on the extensive snow fields. This
+is a small one-celled microscopic plant having a blood red color in
+one stage of its existence. Even in the crater, on the warm rocks of
+the rim, will be found three or four mosses&mdash;I have noted one there
+which is not found anywhere else&mdash;several lichens, and at least one
+liverwort.</p>
+
+<a id="imgp139b" name="imgp139b"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp139b.jpg" width="500" height="249" alt="Lupines." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Lupines.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>(p. 140)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp140" name="imgp140"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp140.jpg" width="500" height="199" alt="The Mountain, as seen
+from a high ridge in the Cascades." title="">
+<p class="smaller">The Mountain, as seen
+from a high ridge in the Cascades near Green River Hot Springs,
+showing the north and east faces of the Peak, and Little Tahoma on the
+left.<br>
+<span class="smaller">Copyright, 1910, by E. F. Cutter.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>NOTES.</h2>
+
+
+<p><strong>Rates, Trains, Hotel Accommodations.</strong>&mdash;The round-trip fare from Tacoma
+via the Tacoma Eastern is $6.00. This includes railway transportation
+to Ashford and automobile-stage ride from Ashford to Longmire Springs
+and return. Tickets are good for the season. To parties of ten or more
+traveling together a single ticket is issued at $5.00 per capita. A
+week-end ticket, Saturday to Monday, is sold at $5.00. The rates from
+Seattle to the Springs are $1.50 more, in each case, than the Tacoma
+rates. The train schedule for 1911 follows:</p>
+
+<table  border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Train schedule.">
+<colgroup>
+    <col width="17%">
+    <col width="16%">
+    <col width="15%">
+    <col width="3%">
+    <col width="17%">
+    <col width="16%">
+    <col width="15%">
+
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="td-center">SOUTHBOUND</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="td-center">NORTHBOUND</td>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Leave Seattle</td>
+<td class="td-right">7.45 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and</td>
+<td>12.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Leave Inn</td>
+<td class="td-right">7.15 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>1.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Arrive Tacoma</td>
+<td class="td-right">8.55 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and </td>
+<td>1.40 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Arrive Ashford</td>
+<td class="td-right">8.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>2.45 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Leave Tacoma</td>
+<td class="td-right">9.05 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>1.50 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Leave Ashford</td>
+<td class="td-right">8.40 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>2.55 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Arrive Ashford</td>
+<td class="td-right">11.20 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>4.05 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Arrive Tacoma</td>
+<td class="td-right">10.55 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>5.10 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Leave Ashford</td>
+<td class="td-right">11.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>4.15 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Leave Tacoma</td>
+<td class="td-right">11.05 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>5.15 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Arrive at Inn</td>
+<td class="td-right">12.45 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>5.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Arrive Seattle</td>
+<td class="td-right">12.15 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> and  </td>
+<td>6.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The National Park Inn, Longmire Springs, provides excellent rooms in
+the Inn, with a large number of well-furnished and comfortable tents
+near by. The rates range from $2.50 to $3.75 a day, including meals.
+The dining-room is under the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; Puget Sound
+dining-car management, which insures a satisfactory table.</p>
+
+<p>At the older Longmire Hotel, the rate is $2.50 a day for room and
+board. This hotel is open all the year, and in winter is much
+frequented by persons seeking Winter sports, or making use of the
+mineral springs.</p>
+
+<p>The springs are of great variety, and are highly recommended for their
+medicinal virtues. Within an area of several acres, there are a score
+of these springs, varying from the normal temperature of a mountain
+stream almost to blood heat. Well-appointed bathhouses are maintained.
+Fee, including attendance, $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>At Reese's Camp, in Paradise Park, and at Mrs. Hall's similar tent
+hotel in Indian Henry's Park, the charge for meals, with a tent for
+sleeping, is $2.50 per day.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><strong>Stages, Horses, Guides.</strong>&mdash;The cost of getting from Longmire Springs to
+Paradise or Indian Henry's is moderate. Many prefer to make the trips
+on foot over the mountain trails. Parties are made up several times a
+day, under experienced guides, for each of these great "parks," and
+sure-footed horses are provided for those who wish to ride, at $1.50
+for the round trip. Guides and horses for the new trail to Eagle Peak
+are at the same rate. Guides may be had at the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>(p. 141)</span> National Park
+Inn or at either of the "camps" for many interesting trips over the
+mountain trails. Horses also are furnished. The charge varies with the
+number in a party.</p>
+
+<p>Stages carry passengers from the Inn over the government road to
+Nisqually glacier, Narada Falls and Reese's Camp in Paradise Park. The
+charge for the trip to Narada and return is $2.00; to Paradise and
+return, $3.00.</p>
+
+<p>For those who wish to make the ascent to the summit over the Gibraltar
+trail, trustworthy guides may be engaged at the Inn or at Reese's.
+Arrangements should be made several days in advance. The cost of such
+a trip depends upon the number in a party. The guides make a charge of
+$25 for the first member of the party, and $5 each for the others.
+They furnish alpenstocks, ropes, and calks for the shoes of climbers
+at a reasonable charge. Each person should carry with him a blanket or
+extra coat and a small amount of food, for use in the event of being
+on the summit over night. Still heavier clothing will be required if
+the night is to be spent at Camp Muir. A sleeping-bag, which can be
+easily made, or purchased at any outfitter's, will prove invaluable to
+campers. Ascents from other points than Reese's are usually made in
+special parties. All persons are warned not to attempt an ascent
+unless accompanied by experienced guides. Lives have been lost through
+neglect of this precaution.</p>
+
+<p>For persons visiting the North Side, the Northern Pacific rate from
+Tacoma to Fairfax is $1.25, and from Seattle to Fairfax, with change
+of cars at Puyallup, $1.75. Guides and horses may be engaged at
+Fairfax for the Spray Park trail.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><strong>Automobiles and Motorcycles.</strong>&mdash;These vehicles are permitted to use the
+government road, as far as the Nisqually glacier, under the following
+regulations of the Interior Department:</p>
+
+<p>No automobile or motorcycle will be permitted within the Park unless
+its owner secures a written permit from the Superintendent, Edward S.
+Hall, Ashford, Washington, or his representative. Applications must
+show: Names of owner and driver, number of machine, and inclusive
+dates for which permit is desired, not exceeding one year, and be
+accompanied by a fee of $5 for each automobile and $1 for each
+motorcycle. All permits will expire on December 31. Permits must be
+presented to the Superintendent or his authorized representatives at
+the park entrance on the government road.</p>
+
+<p>Automobiles and motorcycles will be permitted on the government road
+west of Longmire Springs between the hours of 7 a. m. and 8.30 p. m.,
+but no automobile or motorcycle shall enter the Park or leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the western boundary, later than 8 p. m.,
+the use of automobiles and motorcycles to be permitted between
+Longmire Springs and Nisqually glacier between the hours of 9 a. m.
+and 9.30 p. m., but no automobile or motorcycle shall leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the glacier later than 7 p. m.</p>
+
+<p>When teams, saddle horses, or pack trains approach, automobiles and
+motorcycles shall take position on the outer edge of the roadway,
+taking care that sufficient room is left on the inside for them to
+pass, and remaining at rest until they have passed, or until the
+drivers are satisfied regarding the safety of their horses. Horses
+have the right of way, and automobiles and motorcycles will be backed
+or otherwise handled to enable horses to pass with safety.</p>
+
+<p>Speed shall be limited to 6 miles per hour, except on straight
+stretches where approaching teams, saddle horses, and pack trains will
+be visible, when, if none are in sight, this speed may be increased to
+the rate indicated on signboards along the road; in no event, however,
+shall it exceed 15 miles per hour. Signal with horn shall be given at
+or near every bend to announce to approaching drivers the proximity of
+a machine.</p>
+
+<p>Violation of any of the foregoing rules, or the general regulations of
+the Park, will cause the revocation of permit, subject the owner of
+the automobile or motorcycle to any damages occasioned thereby and to
+ejectment from the reservation, and be cause for refusal to issue a
+new permit without prior sanction in writing from the Secretary of the
+Interior.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><strong>Literature of the Mountain.</strong>&mdash;Vancouver, Winthrop, Kautz, Stevens and
+Van Trump have been noted in the text. Other early accounts of, or
+references to, the Mountain may be found in <i>Wilkes: Narrative U. S.
+exploring expedition</i>. <abbr title="Philadelphia">Phil.</abbr> 1845, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 4, 413, 415, 424; <i>U. S. War
+Dep't: Explorations for railroad to Pacific, 1853-4</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 1, 192;
+<i>Gibbs: Journal <abbr title="American Geographical Society">Am. Geog. Soc.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 4, 354-357. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>(p. 142)</span> Gibbs's
+Indian vocabularies, published at different dates, were reprinted four
+years after his death in <i>Contributions to <abbr title="American Ehtnological">Am. Ethnol.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 1. Wash.
+1877.</p>
+
+<p>For Emmons's account of his exploration in 1870, see <i>Bulletin <abbr title="American Geographical Society">Am.
+Geog. Soc.</abbr></i> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 9, 44-61. <i><abbr title="American Journal">Am. Jour.</abbr> of Science</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 101, 157-167, and
+<i>Nation</i> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 23, 313. <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Israel C. Russell's studies of the peak are
+in <i>U. S. <abbr title="geological">geol.</abbr> survey, 5th <abbr title="annual report">an. rep.</abbr></i> 335-339 and <i>18th <abbr title="annual report">an. rep.</abbr>, part
+2</i>, 349-415. See also his <i>Glaciers of <abbr title="North America">N. Am.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="Boston">Bost.</abbr> 1901, 62-67, and
+<i>Volcanoes of <abbr title="North America">N. Am.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="Boston">Bost.</abbr> 1895, 241-246. For other accessible
+studies consult <i>Wright: Ice age in <abbr title="North America New York">N. Am. N. Y.</abbr></i> 1889, and <i>Muir: Our
+national parks</i>, <abbr title="Boston">Bost.</abbr> 1901.</p>
+
+<p>The long controversy over the name of the peak is impartially reviewed
+in <i>Snowden: History of Washington</i>. <abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr> 1909, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 4, 249-254.
+Snowden calls especial attention to an able paper by the late Thaddeus
+Hanford of Olympia on the Indian names and recommending the name
+Tacoma for the Territory, which was printed in the <i>Washington
+Standard</i> in January, 1866. This article should be reprinted by the
+State Historical Society, as it represents a movement of considerable
+force at one time against the inept and confusing name adopted for the
+State. The Indian evidence for the native name of the Mountain was
+collected in <i>Wickersham: Is it "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Tacoma" or "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier?"</i>,
+pamphlet, Tacoma, 1893. The argument of an eminent traveler and author
+against "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier" may be found in <i>Finck: Pacific coast scenic
+tour</i>. <abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr> 1891, 209-213, 229-230; also in the same writer's more
+recent article, <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 47, 234-5. See also <i>Lyman:
+The Columbia river</i>. <abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr> 1909, <abbr title="page">p.</abbr> 32, 352-370, and <i>The Mountains of
+Washington</i>, in <i>The Mountaineer</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 1, 7-10; and Charles F. Lummis's
+editorial articles in <i>Out West</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 23, 367 and 494. On the other
+hand, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Davidson, in <i>Sierra Club Bulletin</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 6, 87-98, presents
+reasons on which that club accepted "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier."</p>
+
+<p><i>Wheeler: Climbing <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Rainier</i>, <abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Paul, 1895, and <i>Plummer:
+Illustrated guide book to <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Tacoma</i>, Tacoma, n. d., are two
+pamphlets now out of print.</p>
+
+<p>The ascents by the Mazama, Sierra and Mountaineers clubs have
+furnished material for a great variety of articles on the geology,
+botany and glacier action, as well as many accounts of climbing
+adventures. <i>Mazama</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 2, <i>Sierra Club Bulletin</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 6, and <i>The
+Mountaineer</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 1 and 2, are mainly devoted to this peak. For
+articles in periodicals of wider circulation, see <i>Review of Reviews</i>,
+<abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 9, 163-171 (by Carl Snyder); <i>Out West</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 24, 365-395 (Willoughby
+Rodman); <i>National <abbr title="geographic magazin">geog. mag.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 20, 530-538 (Milnor Roberts);
+<i>Scribner's</i> <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 22, 169-171 (I. C. Russell); <i>Outing</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 5, 323-332
+(J. R. W. Hitchcock), and <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 38, 386-392 (Ada Woodruff Anderson);
+<i>Overland</i>, n. s., <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 2, 300-312 (W. D. Lyman), <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 8, 266-278 (George
+Bailey), <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 32, 114-123 (J. P. Montgomery), <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 46, 447-455 (Harry H.
+Brown), <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 55, 552-560 (A. W. McCully), and <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 56, 150-155 (A. W.
+McCully); <i>Pacific monthly</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 8, 196-202 (John Muir); <i>The world
+today</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 9, 1047-53 (Anne Shannon Monroe); <i>Good words</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 42,
+101-114 (Arthur Inkersley); <i>Appalachia</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 7, 185-205 (Ernest C.
+Smith), and <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 11, 114-125 (W. A. Brooks); <i>Country life in <abbr title="America">Am.</abbr></i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr>
+14, 170-171 (C. E. Cutter); <i>The Northwest</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 1, 2-10 (Bailey
+Willis); <i>Outdoor life</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr> 26, 15-24 (Edna Cadwallader). Special
+studies of the rocks of the peak may be found in <i>U. S. <abbr title="geological survey">geol. sur.</abbr>,
+12th <abbr title="annual report part">an. rep. pt.</abbr> 1</i>, 612 (J. P. Iddings), and in <i>Neues Jahrbuch</i>, <abbr title="volume">v.</abbr>
+1, 222-226, Stuttgart, 1885 (K. Oebeke).</p>
+
+<a id="imgp141" name="imgp141"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp141.jpg" width="500" height="192" alt="Glacial debris on lower part of Winthrop Glacier." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Glacial debris on lower part of Winthrop Glacier, with
+Sluiskin Mountains beyond.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>(p. 143)</span> INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Figures in light face type refer to the text, those in the heavier
+type to illustrations.</p>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p class="p2">
+Adams, Mount,
+<a href="#page077">77</a>,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<a href="#imgp064a"><strong>64</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp066"><strong>66</strong></a>.<br>
+Allen, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> O. D., cottage,
+<a href="#imgp049b"><strong>49</strong></a>.<br>
+Alta Vista,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>.<br>
+American Alpine Club,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>.<br>
+Anemones,
+<a href="#imgp032b"><strong>32</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">seed pods,</span>
+<a href="#imgp138"><strong>138</strong></a>.<br>
+Appalachian Club,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>.<br>
+Ascents, Kautz,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Stevens and Van Trump,</span>
+<a href="#page120">120</a>-4;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Emmons and Wilson,</span>
+<a href="#page124">124</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Glascock and Dudley,</span>
+<a href="#page125">125</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">the mountain clubs,</span>
+<a href="#page126">126</a>.<br>
+Automobiles,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>,
+<a href="#page070">70</a>-72,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>,
+<a href="#imgp041"><strong>41</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp049a"><strong>49</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp054a"><strong>54</strong></a>.<br>
+Avalanche on Willis Wall,
+<a href="#imgp119"><strong>119</strong></a>.<br>
+Avalanche Camp,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp104a"><strong>104</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp105"><strong>105</strong></a>.<br>
+Avalanche Lilies,
+<a href="#imgp136a"><strong>136</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Baker, Mount,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>,
+<a href="#imgp099"><strong>99</strong></a>.<br>
+Ballinger, Richard, H.
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+Basaltic Columns,&mdash;South Mowich,
+<a href="#imgp023a"><strong>23</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">on Cowlitz,</span>
+<a href="#imgp093"><strong>93</strong></a>.<br>
+Bashford, Herbert,&mdash;verse,
+<a href="#page017">17</a>.<br>
+Bee Hive,
+<a href="#imgp076"><strong>76</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp080b"><strong>80</strong></a>.<br>
+Beljica, view from,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>.<br>
+Brooks, Francis,&mdash;verse,
+<a href="#page040">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Cabins needed on the ridges,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>,
+<a href="#imgp142a"><strong>144</strong></a>.<br>
+Camp of the Clouds,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>.<br>
+Carbon river,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp114"><strong>114</strong></a>.<br>
+Cascade Mountains,
+<a href="#imgp066"><strong>66</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp087"><strong>87</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp090"><strong>90</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp096a"><strong>96</strong></a>.<br>
+Cathedral Rocks,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#imgp076"><strong>76</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp084"><strong>84</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>.<br>
+Chittenden, <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> H. M., urges trail,
+<a href="#imgp069a"><strong>69</strong></a>.<br>
+Columbia's Crest,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<a href="#page088">88</a>,
+<a href="#imgp052b"><strong>52</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>.<br>
+Commencement Bay,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>.<br>
+Congress, action affecting the Park,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>,
+<a href="#page070">70</a>.<br>
+Cowlitz Chimneys,
+<a href="#imgp043b"><strong>43</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>.<br>
+Cowlitz Cleaver,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#imgp076"><strong>76</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>.<br>
+Cowlitz Park,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>,
+<a href="#imgp093"><strong>93</strong></a>.<br>
+Crater,
+<a href="#imgp050"><strong>50</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp088b"><strong>88</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp089a"><strong>89</strong></a>.<br>
+Crater Lake,
+<a href="#imgp117b"><strong>117</strong></a>.<br>
+Crater Peak,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp086"><strong>86</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp089a"><strong>89</strong></a>.<br>
+Curtis, Camp, on the Wedge,
+<a href="#imgp097b"><strong>97</strong></a>.<br>
+Cushman, Francis W.,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  Dudley, Ernest,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Eagle Cliff,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>.<br>
+Eagle Peak (Simlayshe),
+<a href="#imgp030a"><strong>30</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp031a"><strong>31</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">new trail to,</span>
+<a href="#imgp141"><strong>141</strong></a>.<br>
+Eagle Rock in winter,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>.<br>
+East-side route to summit,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp100b"><strong>100</strong></a>.<br>
+Edmunds, George F.,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>.<br>
+Electric-power development,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>-112.<br>
+Electron, The Mountain from,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp019"><strong>19</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Power plant at,</span>
+<a href="#page108">108</a>,
+<a href="#imgp112a"><strong>112</strong></a>.<br>
+Emmons, S. F., Geologist,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>-97.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Fairfax, trail from,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>.<br>
+Fair Mountaineer, A,
+<a href="#imgp035"><strong>35</strong></a>.<br>
+Fairy Falls,
+<a href="#page075">73</a>.<br>
+Fay Peak,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#imgp091"><strong>92</strong></a>.<br>
+Ferns,
+<a href="#imgp132"><strong>132</strong></a>.<br>
+Fires, danger of forest,
+<a href="#page008">8</a>,
+<a href="#page058">58</a>,
+<a href="#page130">130</a>.<br>
+Flett, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr>, J. B.,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr><br>
+Flint, Frank P., U. S. Senator,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+Flood, Indian legend of the,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>.<br>
+Fox Island, the Mountain from,
+<a href="#imgp014"><strong>14</strong></a>.<br>
+Fountain, Paul, quoted,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>.<br>
+Fuller, Miss Fay,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp072b"><strong>72</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Gap Point,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#imgp054b"><strong>54</strong></a>.<br>
+"Ghost Trees,"
+<a href="#imgp050"><strong>50</strong></a>.<br>
+Gibbs, George, on name "<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Tacoma,"
+<a href="#page104">104</a>,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>,
+<a href="#page142">142</a>.<br>
+Gibraltar Rock,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp068"><strong>68</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp071"><strong>71</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp076"><strong>76</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp082"><strong>82</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp083a"><strong>83</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp085"><strong>85</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp086"><strong>86</strong></a>.<br>
+<a id="glaciers" name="glaciers"></a>
+Glaciers, their number and work,
+<a href="#page079">79</a>-83;<br>
+<span class="add1em">moraines,</span>
+<a href="#page083">83</a>,
+<a href="#imgp068"><strong>68</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp077a"><strong>77</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp079b"><strong>79</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp096b"><strong>96</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">rate of flow,</span>
+<a href="#page083">83</a>,
+<a href="#imgp072a"><strong>72</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">names,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>-97;<br>
+<span class="add1em">rivers,</span>
+<a href="#page108">108</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Carbon,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#imgp077a"><strong>77</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp105"><strong>105</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp107b"><strong>107</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp108"><strong>108</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp118"><strong>118</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp119"><strong>119</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp120"><strong>120</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp121b"><strong>121</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp129a"><strong>129</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Cowlitz,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#imgp093"><strong>93</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp002"><strong>6</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp051b"><strong>51</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp084"><strong>84</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp087"><strong>87</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Frying-Pan,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp041"><strong>41</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp096b"><strong>96</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp097a"><strong>97</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Ingraham,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Interglacier,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp098a"><strong>98</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp099"><strong>99</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Kautz,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp030a"><strong>30</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp037"><strong>37</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp068"><strong>68</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;North Mowich,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>-52,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp123"><strong>123</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp124"><strong>124</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp128"><strong>128</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;South Mowich,</span>
+<a href="#page052">52</a>,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp022"><strong>22</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp023a"><strong>23</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Nisqually,</span>
+<a href="#imgp049a"><strong>49</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp031a"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp055a"><strong>55</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp057a"><strong>57</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp068"><strong>68</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp069a"><strong>69</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp071"><strong>71</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp072a"><strong>72</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Paradise,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>,
+<a href="#imgp025b"><strong>25</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp031b"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp079a"><strong>79</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Puyallup,</span>
+<a href="#page052">52</a>,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp033"><strong>33</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Stevens,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>,
+<a href="#imgp061a"><strong>61</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp064a"><strong>64</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp079a"><strong>79</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;North Tahoma,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp026a"><strong>26</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp032a"><strong>32</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp033"><strong>33</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp037"><strong>37</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;South Tahoma,</span>
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp017b"><strong>17</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp032a"><strong>32</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp036"><strong>36</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp037"><strong>37</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Van Trump,</span>
+<a href="#page094">94</a>,
+<a href="#imgp031a"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;White,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page081">81</a>,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#imgp009"><strong>9</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp012"><strong>12</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp094a"><strong>94</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp095"><strong>95</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp096a"><strong>96</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp100a"><strong>100</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp121b"><strong>121</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Winthrop,</span>
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>,
+<a href="#imgp008"><strong>8</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp017a"><strong>17</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp130"><strong>130</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp104a"><strong>104</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp107a"><strong>107</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp113b"><strong>113</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp126a"><strong>126</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp141"><strong>142</strong></a>.<br>
+Glascock, Raglan,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br>
+"Goat Island," moraine,
+<a href="#imgp096b"><strong>96</strong></a>.<br>
+Goat Mountain (<abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Wow),
+<a href="#imgp028b"><strong>28</strong></a>.<br>
+Goat Peaks,
+<a href="#imgp087"><strong>87</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp090"><strong>90</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp094b"><strong>94</strong></a>.<br>
+Grand Park,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page064">64</a>,
+<a href="#imgp098b"><strong>98</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp099"><strong>99</strong></a>.<br>
+Green River, view of the Mountain from,
+<a href="#imgp140"><strong>140</strong></a>.<br>
+Guides,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Hanging glaciers,
+<a href="#imgp051b"><strong>51</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp057a"><strong>57</strong></a>.<br>
+Heather,
+<a href="#imgp133a"><strong>133</strong></a>.<br>
+Hellebore,
+<a href="#imgp133b"><strong>133</strong></a>.<br>
+Hiaqua Hunter, Myth,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>-39.<br>
+Hood, <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>.<br>
+Hylebos, P. F. (<abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr>),
+<a href="#page028">28</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr></p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Ice caves,
+<a href="#imgp031b"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp073"><strong>73</strong></a>.<br>
+Indian Henry's Hunting Ground,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>,
+<a href="#imgp025a"><strong>25</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp029"><strong>29</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp032a"><strong>32</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp034"><strong>34</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp036"><strong>36</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp037"><strong>37</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp040b"><strong>40</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp050"><strong>50</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp131a"><strong>131</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp137"><strong>137</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">&mdash;Mrs. Hall's Camp,</span>
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.<br>
+<a id="indians" name="indians"></a>
+Indians, nature worship of the Mountain,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>-31,
+<a href="#page039">39</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Puget Sound tribes,</span>
+<a href="#page025">25</a>,
+<a href="#page026">26</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">fear of the snow-peaks,</span>
+<a href="#page032">32</a>,
+<a href="#page121">121</a>.<br>
+Ingraham, <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> E. S.,
+<a href="#imgp100a"><strong>100</strong></a>.<br>
+Interglaciers,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>.<br>
+Iron and Copper mountains,
+<a href="#imgp025a"><strong>25</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp030a"><strong>30</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Jones, Wesley L., U. S. Senator,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+Jordan, David Starr,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>.<br>
+Judson, Miss Katharine B.
+<a href="#imgp035"><strong>35</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp039a"><strong>39</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Kautz, <abbr title="General">Gen.</abbr>, A. V.,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>.<br>
+Kulshan, Indian name for <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> Baker,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>.<br>
+Kutz, <abbr title="Major">Maj.</abbr> C. W.,
+<a href="#page069">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Liberty Cap (North Peak),
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<a href="#imgp022"><strong>22</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp089a"><strong>89</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp114"><strong>114</strong></a>.<br>
+Little Tahoma,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#imgp009"><strong>9</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp031a"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp079a"><strong>79</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp094a"><strong>94</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp121b"><strong>121</strong></a>.<br>
+Longmire, James, trail and road,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>.<br>
+Longmire Hotel,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>.<br>
+Longmire Springs,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>,
+<a href="#page052">52</a>.<br>
+Lost to the World,
+<a href="#imgp069b"><strong>69</strong></a>.<br>
+Lupines,
+<a href="#imgp139b"><strong>139</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+McClure, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Edgar, death,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>.<br>
+Marmot,
+<a href="#imgp026b"><strong>26</strong></a>.<br>
+Matthes, Francois E., U. S. geologist,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>.<br>
+Mazama (mountain goat),
+<a href="#imgp023b"><strong>23</strong></a>.<br>
+Mazama Club,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp081a"><strong>81</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp082"><strong>82</strong></a>.<br>
+Mazama Ridge,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>.<br>
+Mineral Lake,
+<a href="#imgp018a"><strong>18</strong></a>.<br>
+Moraine Park,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp105"><strong>105</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp113a"><strong>113</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp117a"><strong>117</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp129a"><strong>129</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp136b"><strong>136</strong></a>.<br>
+Mosses and ferns,
+<a href="#imgp132"><strong>132</strong></a>.<br>
+Mother Mountains,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp114"><strong>114</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp116a"><strong>116</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp122"><strong>122</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp129a"><strong>129</strong></a>.<br>
+Mountaineers, The,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp061b"><strong>61</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp121b"><strong>121</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp126b"><strong>126</strong></a>.<br>
+Mountain goat,
+<a href="#imgp023b"><strong>23</strong></a>.<br>
+Mountain Lily,
+<a href="#page136">136</a>,
+<a href="#imgp135b"><strong>135</strong></a>.<br>
+Mountain Pine,
+<a href="#imgp028a"><strong>28</strong></a>.<br>
+Muir John, quoted,
+<a href="#page077">77</a>,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">Portrait,</span>
+<a href="#imgp116b"><strong>116</strong></a>.<br>
+Muir, Camp,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp080a"><strong>80</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp083b"><strong>83</strong></a>.<br>
+Mystic Lake,
+<a href="#imgp113a"><strong>113</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Narada Falls,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>,
+<a href="#imgp058"><strong>58</strong></a>.<br>
+National Park, see <a href="#rainierpark">Rainier <abbr title="national">Natl.</abbr> Park.</a><br>
+National Parks, proposed Bureau of,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>.<br>
+National Park Inn,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#imgp052a"><strong>52</strong></a>.<br>
+Nisqually Canyon,
+<a href="#imgp021"><strong>21</strong></a>.<br>
+Nisqually Glacier (see <a href="#glaciers">Glaciers</a>).<br>
+Nisqually river,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>,
+<a href="#page111">111</a>,
+<a href="#imgp021"><strong>21</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp024"><strong>24</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp055a"><strong>55</strong></a>.<br>
+North Peak (Liberty Cap),
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp022"><strong>22</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp089a"><strong>89</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Ohop Valley,
+<a href="#imgp043a"><strong>43</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Pacific Forest Reserve,
+<a href="#page059">59</a>.<br>
+Paradise River,
+<a href="#imgp059a"><strong>59</strong></a>.<br>
+Paradise Valley, or Park,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>,
+<a href="#page049">49</a>-51,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#imgp031a"><strong>31</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp039a"><strong>39</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp046"><strong>46</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp053"><strong>53</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp059b"><strong>59</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp062a"><strong>62</strong></a>.<br>
+<a id="peak" name="peak"></a>
+Peak Success (South Peak),
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<strong><a href="#imgp123">123</a>-125</strong>,
+<a href="#imgp013"><strong>13</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp024"><strong>24</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp025b"><strong>25</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp027"><strong>27</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp033"><strong>33</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp037"><strong>37</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp068"><strong>68</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp078"><strong>78</strong></a>.<br>
+Phlox,
+<a href="#imgp135a"><strong>135</strong></a>.<br>
+Pierce County road,
+<a href="#imgp043a"><strong>43</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp049a"><strong>49</strong></a>.<br>
+Piles, S. H., U. S. Senator,
+<a href="#page070">70</a>.<br>
+Pinnacle Peak,
+<a href="#imgp038"><strong>38</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp039a"><strong>39</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp046"><strong>46</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp047"><strong>47</strong></a>.<br>
+Point Defiance Park,
+<a href="#page018">18</a>.<br>
+Power-plants on the Mountain,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>-112,
+<a href="#imgp111"><strong>111</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp112a"><strong>112</strong></a>.<br>
+Proctor, Miss Edna Dean, poem, "The Mountain Speaks,"
+<a href="#page015">15</a>.<br>
+Ptarmigan,
+<a href="#imgp040a"><strong>40</strong></a>.<br>
+<a id="pugetsound" name="pugetsound"></a>
+Puget Sound
+<a href="#page018">18</a>,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>,
+<a href="#imgp014"><strong>14</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">named by Vancouver,</span>
+<a href="#page098">98</a>.<br>
+Puyallup river,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>,
+<a href="#imgp040b"><strong>40</strong></a>.<br>
+Pyramid Peak,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Railways to Puget Sound,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">to the Mountain,</span>
+<a href="#page054">54</a>,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">rates and time table,</span>
+<a href="#page140">140</a>.<br>
+Rainier, Rear-Admiral Peter,
+<a href="#page007">7</a>,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>,
+<a href="#page103">103</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr>,
+<a href="#imgp101a"><strong>101</strong></a>.<br>
+Reese's Camp,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#page115">115</a>,
+<a href="#page141">141</a>,
+<a href="#imgp064b"><strong>64</strong></a>.<br>
+Reflection Lake,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp077b"><strong>77</strong></a>.<br>
+<a id="rainierpark" name="rainierpark"></a>
+Rainier National Park,
+<a href="#page054">54</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">increasing use of,</span>
+<a href="#page056">56</a>,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">its creation,</span>
+<a href="#page058">58</a>-9;<br>
+<span class="add1em">see also <a href="#roads">Roads</a>.</span><br>
+Ricksecker, Eugene, engineer,
+<a href="#page061">61</a>,
+<a href="#page062">62</a>,
+<a href="#page070">70</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>.<br>
+Rivers fed by the Mountain,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.<br>
+Rocks of the Mountain,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>,
+<a href="#page112">112</a>.<br>
+<a id="roads" name="roads"></a>
+Roads and trails, Pierce County's to the Mountain,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>,
+<a href="#page056">56</a>,
+<a href="#imgp042"><strong>42</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp043a"><strong>43</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp044"><strong>44</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp049a"><strong>49</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">government road in National Park,</span>
+<a href="#page057">57</a>-62,
+<a href="#imgp051a"><strong>51</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp054a"><strong>54</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp055a"><strong>55</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp056a"><strong>56</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">trails,</span>
+<a href="#imgp044"><strong>44</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp046">45</a>,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>-2,
+<a href="#imgp055a"><strong>55</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp056a"><strong>56</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp121a"><strong>121</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">proposed road around the Mountain,</span>
+<a href="#page062">62</a>-70;<br>
+<span class="add1em">need,</span>
+<a href="#page058">58</a>,
+<a href="#page130">130</a>.<br>
+Rough climbing,
+<a href="#imgp039b"><strong>39</strong></a>.<br>
+Russell, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Israel C.,
+<a href="#page094">94</a>.<br>
+Russell Peak,
+<a href="#page082">82</a>,
+<a href="#imgp103b"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp105"><strong>105</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Saghalie Illahe, Indian land of peace,
+<a href="#page030">30</a>.<br>
+<abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Elmo Pass,
+<a href="#imgp008"><strong>8</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp098b"><strong>98</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp100b"><strong>100</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp102a"><strong>102</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp104b"><strong>104</strong></a>.<br>
+<abbr title="Saint">St.</abbr> Helen's, <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>,
+<a href="#page077">77</a>,
+<a href="#page086">86</a>,
+<a href="#imgp029"><strong>29</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp036"><strong>36</strong></a>.<br>
+Seattle,
+<a href="#page018">18</a>,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.<br>
+Senecio,
+<a href="#imgp129b"><strong>129</strong></a>.<br>
+Sierra Club,
+<a href="#page075">75</a>,
+<a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#imgp057a"><strong>57</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp069a"><strong>69</strong></a>.<br>
+Simlayshe (Eagle Peak),
+<a href="#imgp030a"><strong>30</strong></a>.<br>
+Siwashes, origin of term,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr><br>
+<span class="add1em">See also <a href="#indians">Indians</a>.</span><br>
+Sluiskin, guides Stevens and Van Trump,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>-1.<br>
+Sluiskin Falls,
+<a href="#imgp067a"><strong>67</strong></a>.<br>
+Sluiskin Mountains,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#imgp103a"><strong>103</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp105"><strong>105</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp126a"><strong>126</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp136b"><strong>136</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp141"><strong>142</strong></a>.<br>
+Snipe Lake,
+<a href="#imgp098b"><strong>98</strong></a>.<br>
+Snow Lake,
+<a href="#imgp034"><strong>34</strong></a>.<br>
+Sour-Dough Mountains, <strong>8</strong>,
+<a href="#imgp098b"><strong>98</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp099"><strong>99</strong></a>.<br>
+Spanaway Lake, <a href="#imgcover"><strong>4</strong></a>.<br>
+South Peak, see <a href="#peak">Peak Success</a>.<br>
+Spray Falls,
+<a href="#imgp125"><strong>125</strong></a>.<br>
+Spray Park,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#imgp091"><strong>92</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp106"><strong>106</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp116a"><strong>116</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp122"><strong>122</strong></a>.<br>
+Steamboat Prow,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#imgp104b"><strong>104</strong></a>.<br>
+Steam Caves in Crater,
+<a href="#imgp088a"><strong>88</strong></a>.<br>
+Stevens, <abbr title="General">Gen.</abbr> Hazard,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr>,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>-4,
+<a href="#imgp115a"><strong>115</strong></a>.<br>
+Stevens Canyon,
+<a href="#imgp064b"><strong>64</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp066"><strong>66</strong></a>.<br>
+Storm King Peak,
+<a href="#imgp018b"><strong>18</strong></a>.<br>
+Summit, On the,
+<a href="#imgp052b"><strong>52</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">South-side route to,</span>
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">East-side route,</span>
+<a href="#imgp100b"><strong>100</strong></a>.<br>
+"Sunshine" and "Storm,"
+<a href="#imgp070a"><strong>70</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+"Tacoma," Indian name for the Mountain,
+<a href="#page025">25</a>,
+<a href="#page100">100</a>-7.<br>
+Tacoma (City)
+<a href="#page018">18</a>,
+<a href="#page043">43</a>,
+<a href="#page044">44</a>,
+<a href="#imgp111"><strong>111</strong></a>.<br>
+Tatoosh Mountains,
+<a href="#page050">50</a>,
+<a href="#imgp053"><strong>53</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp059b"><strong>59</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp060"><strong>60</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp062a"><strong>62</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp064b"><strong>64</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp087"><strong>87</strong></a>.<br>
+Tolmie, <abbr title="Doctor">Dr.</abbr> W. F.,
+<a href="#page117">117</a>.<br>
+Trees in the National Park,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>-131,
+<a href="#page139">139</a>,
+<a href="#imgp042"><strong>42</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp130"><strong>130</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp132"><strong>132</strong></a>.<br>
+Tyndall, <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> John, quoted,
+<a href="#page077">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Unicorn Peak,
+<a href="#imgp065"><strong>65</strong></a>.<br>
+United States Geological Survey,
+<a href="#page089">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Vancouver, <abbr title="Captain">Capt.</abbr> George, discovers and names the Mountain,
+<a href="#page098">98</a>-101.<br>
+Van Trump, P. B.,
+<a href="#page028">28</a>, <abbr title="note">n.</abbr>,
+<a href="#page032">32</a>,
+<a href="#page120">120</a>-5,
+<a href="#imgp115b"><strong>115</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Washington Lake, the Mountain from,
+<a href="#imgp016"><strong>16</strong></a>.<br>
+Washington Torrents,
+<a href="#imgp059a"><strong>59</strong></a>.<br>
+Waterfall above Paradise Valley,
+<a href="#imgp063"><strong>63</strong></a>.<br>
+Wedge, The,
+<a href="#page051">51</a>,
+<a href="#page085">85</a>,
+<a href="#imgp008"><strong>8</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp097b"><strong>97</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp099"><strong>99</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp100b"><strong>100</strong></a>.<br>
+White river,
+<a href="#imgp111"><strong>110</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp012"><strong>12</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp112b"><strong>112</strong></a>.<br>
+Whitney, <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>,
+<a href="#page088">90</a>.<br>
+Willis, Bailey, geologist,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>.<br>
+Wilson, A. D.,
+<a href="#page096">96</a>,
+<a href="#page097">97</a>.<br>
+Whulge, see <a href="#pugetsound">Puget Sound</a>.<br>
+Winthrop, Theodore,
+<a href="#page093">93</a>;<br>
+<span class="add1em">describes the Mountain,</span>
+<a href="#page102">102</a>-4;<br>
+<span class="add1em">authority for his use of the Indian name,</span>
+<a href="#page104">104</a>-7.<br>
+Wind-swept trees,
+<a href="#imgp028a"><strong>28</strong></a>,
+<a href="#imgp139a"><strong>139</strong></a>.<br>
+Wow, <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr> (Goat Mountain),
+<a href="#imgp028b"><strong>28</strong></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+  Yellowstone National Park,
+<a href="#page057">57</a>,
+<a href="#page067">67</a>,
+<a href="#page072">72</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>(p. 144)</span>
+<a id="imgp142a" name="imgp142a"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp142a.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="A climbers' cabin on one of the shoulders of Mount
+Blanc." title="">
+<p class="smaller">A climbers' cabin on one of the shoulders of <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>
+Blanc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a id="imgp142b" name="imgp142b"></a>
+<div class="floatright">
+<img src="images/imgp142b.jpg" width="150" height="210" alt="Editor arms." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>(p. 145)</span></p>
+
+<a id="imgp145" name="imgp145"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp145.jpg" width="500" height="781" alt="Map Of Puget Sound Country And Roads To Mount
+Rainier-tacoma." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Map Of Puget Sound Country And Roads To <abbr title="Mount">Mt.</abbr>
+Rainier-tacoma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4">&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>(p. 146)</span>
+
+<a id="imgp146" name="imgp146"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/imgp146.jpg" width="600" height="459" alt="Map of RAINIER NATIONAL PARK." title="">
+<p class="smaller">Map of RAINIER NATIONAL PARK Compiled by EUGENE
+RICKSECKER U. S. Assistant Engineer FROM "THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS
+'GOD'"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a>
+<b>Footnote 1:</b> Among those who have studied the Puget Sound Indians most
+sympathetically is the <abbr title="Reverend">Rev.</abbr> Mr. Hylebos of Tacoma. He came to the
+Northwest in 1870, when the census gave Tacoma a white population of
+seventy-three. In those days, says Father Hylebos, the Tacoma
+tideflats, now filled in for mills and railway terminals, were covered
+each autumn with the canoes of Indians spearing salmon. It was no
+uncommon thing to see at one time on Commencement Bay 1,800 fishermen.
+This veteran worker among the "Siwashes" (French "<i>sauvages</i>") first
+told me the myths that hallowed the Mountain for every native, and the
+true meaning of the beautiful Indian word "Tacoma." He knew well all
+the leaders of the generation before the railways: Sluiskin, the
+Klickitat chief who guided Stevens and Van Trump up to the snow-line
+in 1870; Stanup, chief of the Puyallups; Kiskax, head of the Cowlitz
+tribe; Angeline, the famous daughter of Chief Seattle, godfather of
+the city of that name, and many others.<a href="#footnotetag1">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a>
+<b>Footnote 2:</b> This legend is well told in "Myths and Legends of the
+Pacific Northwest," a delightful book by Katharine B. Judson of the
+Seattle Public Library (Chicago, A. C. McClurg &amp; <abbr title="Company">Co.</abbr>). See also <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr>
+W. D. Lyman's papers in "Mazama" <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr> 2, and "The Mountaineer," <abbr title="Volume">Vol.</abbr>
+2; and Winthrop's "Canoe and Saddle."<a href="#footnotetag2">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a>
+<b>Footnote 3:</b> For details as to rates for transportation,
+accommodations and guides, with the rules governing the National Park,
+see the notes at end of the book.<a href="#footnotetag3">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a>
+<b>Footnote 4:</b> For some years, Congress and the Interior Department
+spelled it "Ranier"! A well-known Congressman from Seattle corrected
+their spelling of the name of the forgotten admiral, and it has since
+been officially "Rainier National Park."<a href="#footnotetag4">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a>
+<b>Footnote 5:</b> Winthrop's error was a common one at that time and has
+remained current till to-day. The admiral's grandfather, the Huguenot
+exile, was "Regnier," but his descendants anglicized the patronymic
+into "Rainier."<a href="#footnotetag5">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a>
+<b>Footnote 6:</b> See illustration, page <a href="#imgp014">14</a>.<a href="#footnotetag6">(Back)</a>
+
+<p><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a>
+<b>Footnote 7:</b> <abbr title="Professor">Prof.</abbr> Flett knows the Mountain well. He has spent many
+summers in its "parks," has climbed to its summit four times, has
+visited all its glaciers, and has made a remarkable collection of its
+flowers. In addition to the chapter on the botany of the National
+Park, this book is indebted to him for several of its most valuable
+illustrations.<a href="#footnotetag7">(Back)</a>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Mountain that was 'God'
+       Being a Little Book About the Great Peak Which the Indians
+       Named 'Tacoma' but Which is Officially Called 'Rainier'
+
+Author: John H. Williams
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2007 [EBook #22056]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS 'GOD' ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Christine P. Travers and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected,
+all other inconsistencies are as in the original. Author's spelling
+has been maintained.
+
+Probable typo:
+Pages named by the author are under the format (p. xx).
+Original pagination of the book have been kept under the
+format {p.xxx}.
+
+Missing page numbers correspond to blank pages.
+
+Page numbers corresponding to full page illustrations
+(which have been inserted in the caption of the illustration)
+may seem out of order; the illustration having been moved out
+of the paragraph.
+
+The illustrations of the page 31 and 89 share their captions
+with the illustration above them.]
+
+
+
+
+                         THE MOUNTAIN
+                        THAT WAS "GOD"
+
+
+               BEING A LITTLE BOOK ABOUT THE GREAT
+              PEAK WHICH THE INDIANS NAMED "TACOMA"
+             BUT WHICH IS OFFICIALLY CALLED "RAINIER"
+
+
+                     By JOHN H. WILLIAMS
+
+
+             _O, rarest miracle of mountain heights,
+             Thou hast the sky for thy imperial dome,
+             And dwell'st among the stars all days and nights,
+             In the far heavens familiarly at home._
+                  --William Hillis Wynn: "Mt. Tacoma; an Apotheosis."
+
+
+
+
+               Second Edition revised and greatly
+               enlarged, with 190 illustrations,
+               including eight colored halftones.
+
+
+
+
+                    TACOMA: JOHN H. WILLIAMS
+             NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS: LONDON
+                            1911
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1905, By Kiser Photo Co.
+Great Crevasses in the upper part of Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1910, 1911, by John H. Williams.
+
+
+{p.007}
+[Illustration: On the summit of Eagle Rock in winter.
+Boys looking over an 800-foot precipice.]
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD.
+
+
+Every summer there is demand for illustrated literature describing the
+mountain variously called "Rainier" or "Tacoma." Hitherto, we have had
+only small collections of pictures, without text, and confined to the
+familiar south and southwest sides.
+
+The little book which I now offer aims to show the grandest and most
+accessible of our extinct volcanoes from all points of view. Like the
+glacial rivers, its text will be found a narrow stream flowing swiftly
+amidst great mountain scenery. Its abundant illustrations cover not
+only the giants' fairyland south of the peak, but also the equally
+stupendous scenes that await the adventurer who penetrates the harder
+trails and climbs the greater glaciers of the north and east slopes.
+* * * *
+
+The title adopted for the book has reference, of course, to the Indian
+nature worship, of which something is said in the opening chapter.
+Both the title and a small part of the matter are reprinted from an
+article which I contributed last year to the _New York Evening Post_.
+Attention is called to the tangle in the names of glaciers and the
+need of a definitive nomenclature. As to the name of the Mountain
+itself, that famous bone of contention between two cities, I greatly
+prefer "Tacoma," one of the several authentic forms of the Indian name
+used by different tribes; but I believe that "Tahoma," proposed by the
+Rotary Club of Seattle, would be a justifiable compromise, and satisfy
+nearly everybody. Its adoption would free our national map from one
+more of its meaningless names--the name, in this case, of an
+undistinguished foreign naval officer whose only connection with our
+history is the fact that he fought against us during the American
+Revolution. Incidentally, it would also free me from the need of an
+apology for using the hybrid "Rainier-Tacoma"! * * * Many of the
+illustrations show wide reaches of wonderful country, and their
+details may well be studied with a reading glass.
+
+I am much indebted to the librarians and their courteous assistants at
+the Seattle and Tacoma public libraries; also to Prof. Flett for his
+interesting account of the flora of the National Park; to Mr. Eugene
+Ricksecker, of the United States Engineer Corps, for permission to
+reproduce his new map of the Park, now printed for the first time;
+and, most of all, to the photographers, both professional and amateur.
+In the table of illustrations, credit is given the maker of each
+photograph. The book is sent out in the hope of promoting a wider
+knowledge of our country's noblest landmark. May it lead many of its
+readers to delightful days of recreation and adventure.
+
+  Tacoma, June 1, 1910.                      J. H. W.
+
+Second Edition.--The text has been carefully revised, much new matter
+added, and the information for tourists brought to date. The
+illustrations have been rearranged, and more {p.008} than fifty new
+ones included. Views of the west and south sides, mainly, occupy the
+first half of the book, while the later pages carry the reader east
+and north from the Nisqually country.
+
+Nearly five thousand negatives and photographs have now been examined
+in selecting copy for the engravers. In the table of illustrations I
+am glad to place the names of several expert photographers in
+Portland, San Francisco, Pasadena and Boston. Their pictures, with
+other new ones obtained from photographers already represented, make
+this edition much more complete. For the convenience of tourists, as
+well as of persons unable to visit the Mountain but wishing to know
+its features, I have numbered the landmarks on three of the larger
+views, giving a key in the underlines. If this somewhat mars the
+beauty of these pictures, it gives them added value as maps of the
+areas shown. In renewing my acknowledgments to the photographers, I
+must mention especially Mr. Asahel Curtis of Seattle. The help and
+counsel of this intrepid and public-spirited mountaineer have been
+invaluable. Mr. A. H. Barnes, our Tacoma artist with camera and brush,
+whose fine pictures fill many of the following pages, is about to
+publish a book of his mountain views, for which I bespeak liberal
+patronage.
+
+My readers will join me in welcoming the beautiful verses written for
+this edition by a gracious and brilliant woman whose poems have
+delighted two generations of her countrymen.
+
+Thanks are also due to Senator Wesley L. Jones, Superintendent E. S.
+Hall of the Rainier National Park and the Secretary of the Interior
+for official information; to Director George Otis Smith of the U. S.
+Geological Survey for such elevations as have thus far been
+established by the new survey of the Park; to A. C. McClurg & Co. of
+Chicago, for permission to quote from Miss Judson's "_Myths and
+Legends of the Pacific Northwest_"; to Mr. Wallace Rice, literary
+executor of the late Francis Brooks, for leave to use Mr. Brooks's
+fine poem on the Mountain; to the librarians at the Public Library,
+the John Crerar Library and the Newberry Library in Chicago, and to
+many others who have aided me in obtaining photographs or data for
+this edition.
+
+Lovers of the mountains, in all parts of our country, will learn with
+regret that Congress, remains apparently indifferent to the
+conservation of the Rainier National Park and its complete opening to
+the public. At the last session, a small appropriation was asked for
+much-needed trails through the forests and to the high interglacial
+plateaus, now inaccessible save to the toughest mountaineer; it being
+the plan of the government engineers to build such trails on grades
+that would permit their ultimate widening into permanent roads. Even
+this was denied. The Idaho catastrophe last year again proved the
+necessity of trails to the protection of great forests. With the
+loggers pushing their operations closer to the Park, its danger calls
+for prompt action. Further, American tourists, it is said, annually
+spend $200,000,000 abroad, largely to view scenery surpassed in their
+own country. But Congress refuses the $50,000 asked, even refuses
+$25,000, toward making the grandest of our National Parks safe from
+forest fires and accessible to students and lovers of nature!
+
+  May 3, 1911.
+
+[Illustration: Winthrop Glacier and St. Elmo Pass, with Ruth Mountain
+(the Wedge) on right and Sour-Dough Mountains on left.]
+
+[Illustration: White Glacier and Little Tahoma, with eastern end of
+the Tatoosh Range in distance.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.009} CONTENTS.
+
+                                                             Page.
+
+       The Mountain Speaks. Poem    Edna Dean Proctor          15
+
+    I. Mount "Big Snow" and Indian
+       Tradition                                               17
+
+   II. The National Park, its Roads
+        and its Needs                                          43
+
+  III. The Story of the Mountain                               77
+
+   IV. The Climbers                                           113
+
+    V. The Flora of the Mountain
+       Slopes                       Prof. J. B. Flett         129
+
+       Notes                                                  139
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+The * indicates engravings made from copyrighted photographs. See
+notice under the illustration.
+
+
+THREE-COLOR HALFTONES.
+
+  Title.                            Photographer.            Page.
+
+  Spanaway Lake, with reflection
+    of the Mountain                 A. H. Barnes.       Frontispiece
+
+  View from Electron, showing west
+    side of the Mountain            Asahel Curtis              19
+
+  View northward from top of
+    Pinnacle Peak                   Dr. F. A. Scott            46
+
+  Looking Northeast from slope
+    of Pinnacle Peak                Dr. F. A. Scott            47
+
+  * Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier      A. H. Barnes               73
+
+  * Spray Park, from Fay Peak       W. P. Romans               92
+
+  Crevasse in Carbon Glacier        Asahel Curtis             109
+
+  North Mowich Glacier and the
+    Mountain in a storm             George V. Caesar          128
+
+
+ONE-COLOR HALFTONES.
+
+  * Great crevasses in upper part
+    of Cowlitz Glacier              Kiser Photo Co.             6
+
+  On the summit of Eagle Rock in
+    winter                          George V. Caesar            7
+
+  Winthrop Glacier and St. Elmo
+    Pass                            Asahel Curtis               8
+
+  White Glacier and Little
+    Tahoma                          Asahel Curtis               9
+
+  White River Canyon, from
+    moraine of White Glacier        Dr. F. A. Scott            12
+
+  Telephoto view from near Electron,
+    showing plateau on the summit   Asahel Curtis              13
+
+  View of the Mountain from Fox
+    Island                          Charles Bedford            14
+
+  * The most kingly of American
+    mountains                       Romans Photographic Co.    16
+
+  Party of climbers on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis              17
+
+  Ice Terraces, South Tahoma
+    Glacier                         Rodney L. Glisan           17
+
+  Mineral Lake and the Mountain     A. H. Denman               18
+
+  Storm King Peak and Mineral
+    Lake                            A. H. Barnes               18
+
+  Nisqually Canyon                  Kiser Photo Co.            21
+
+  * North Peak, and South Mowich
+    Glacier                         A. H. Waite                22
+{p.010}
+
+  * Basaltic Columns, South
+    Mowich Glacier                  A. H. Waite                23
+
+  Mountain Goat                     A. H. Barnes               23
+
+  West side of summit, seen from
+    Tahoma Fork                     A. H. Barnes               24
+
+  Iron and Copper Mountains in
+    Indian Henry's                  A. G. Bowles, Jr.          25
+
+  Cutting steps up Paradise
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott            25
+
+  Great Crag on ridge separating
+    North and South Tahoma Glacier  Dr. F. A. Scott            26
+
+  The Whistling Marmot              Asahel Curtis              26
+
+  View from Beljica, showing west
+    side of the Mountain            A. H. Barnes               27
+
+  * Mountain Pine                   E. S. Curtis               28
+
+  * Mount Wow, or Goat Mountain     E. S. Curtis               28
+
+  Rounded Cone of Mt. St Helen's    A. H. Barnes               29
+
+  * View northward from Simlayshe,
+    or Eagle Peak                   Pillsbury Picture Co.  30, 31
+
+  * Simlayshe, or Eagle Peak        Linkletter Photographic
+                                      Co.                      30
+
+  Exploring Ice Cave, Paradise
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott            31
+
+  Junction of North and South
+    Tahoma Glaciers                 A. H. Denman               32
+
+  Anemones                          Miss Jessie Kershaw        32
+
+  * North Tahoma Glacier            A. H. Waite                33
+
+  * Snow Lake in Indian Henry's     A. H. Barnes               34
+
+  A fair Mountaineer                Asahel Curtis              35
+
+  Indian Henry's, seen from South
+    Tahoma Glacier                  A. H. Denman               36
+
+  * Southwest side of the Mountain,
+    seen from Indian Henry's        A. H. Barnes               37
+
+  Climbing Pinnacle Peak (2)        Asahel Curtis              38
+
+  A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak     Dr. F. A. Scott            39
+
+  * Rough Climbing                  E. S. Curtis               39
+
+  Ptarmigan                         Asahel Curtis              40
+
+  The Mountain, from Puyallup
+    river                           B. L. Aldrich, Jr.         40
+
+  Falls of the Little Mashell
+    river                           A. H. Barnes               41
+
+  Old Stage Road to Longmire
+    Springs                         A. H. Barnes               42
+
+  On Pierce County road, passing
+    Ohop Valley                     S. C. Lancaster            43
+
+  Cowlitz Chimneys                  S. C. Smith                43
+
+  * Old Road near Spanaway          A. H. Barnes               44
+
+  Automobile Party above Nisqually
+    Canyon                          Asahel Curtis              49
+
+  Prof. O. D. Allen's Cottage       Dr. F. A. Scott            49
+
+  "Ghost Trees"                     Mrs. H. A. Towne           50
+
+  Government Road in the Forest
+    Reserve                         S. C. Lancaster            51
+
+  "Hanging Glacier," an ice fall
+    above the Cowlitz               Asahel Curtis              51
+
+  Leaving National Park Inn for
+    Paradise                        Linkletter Photo Co.       52
+
+  * On the Summit, showing
+    Columbia's Crest                Asahel Curtis              52
+
+  Paradise Valley or "Park," and
+    Tatoosh Mountains               A. H. Barnes               53
+
+  On Government Road, a mile above
+    Longmires                       Linkletter Photo Co.       54
+
+  Road near "Gap Point"             Linkletter Photo Co.       54
+
+  Snout of Nisqually Glacier, and
+    Road Bridge                     Paul T. Shaw               55
+
+  Pony Trail Bridge across the
+    Nisqually                       Dr. H. B. Hinman           55
+
+  Road a mile above the Bridge      Asahel Curtis              56
+
+  On the Pony Trail to Paradise     Kiser Photo Co.            56
+
+  Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis              57
+
+  A Mountain Celery                 Mrs. Alexander Thompson    57
+
+  Narada Falls, on Paradise River   Herbert W. Gleason         58
+
+  Washington Torrents, on Paradise
+    River                           A. H. Barnes               59
+
+  Portion of Paradise Park and
+    Tatoosh Range                   A. H. Barnes               59
+
+  View of the Mountain from the
+    Tatoosh, with key to landmarks  Herbert W. Gleason         60
+
+  Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier       Dr. F. A. Scott            61
+
+  Tug of War                        Asahel Curtis              61
+
+  * Hiking through Paradise Valley
+    in Winter                       J. H. Weer                 62
+
+  * Tatoosh Range, from Reese's
+    Camp, in Winter                 J. H. Weer                 62
+
+  * Waterfall above Paradise
+    Valley                          Photo, W. E. Averett;
+                                    Copyright, Asahel Curtis   63
+
+  Looking from Stevens Glacier to
+    Mt. Adams                       Dr. F. A. Scott            64
+
+  Reese's Camp                      C. E. Cutter               64
+
+  Climbing the "Horn" on Unicorn
+    Peak                            Asahel Curtis              65
+
+  Stevens Canyon in October         A. H. Barnes               66
+
+  Sluiskin Falls                    A. H. Barnes               67
+
+  Eminent scientist practices the
+    simple life                     J. B. Flett                67
+
+  * Nisqually Glacier, with its
+    sources                         A. H. Barnes               68
+
+  Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier  Asahel Curtis              69
+
+  * Lost to the World               Asahel Curtis              69
+
+  "Sunshine" and "Storm" (2)        Mrs. H. A. Towne           70
+{p.011}
+
+  Nisqually Glacier, from top of
+    Gibraltar                       Asahel Curtis              71
+
+  Measuring the ice flow in
+    Nisqually Glacier               Asahel Curtis              72
+
+  * Miss Fay Fuller Exploring a
+    Crevasse                        E. S. Curtis               72
+
+  Fairy Falls, in Goat Lick
+    Basin                           A. H. Barnes               75
+
+  * Gibraltar and its Neighbors     E. S. Curtis               76
+
+  Crossing Carbon Glacier           Asahel Curtis              77
+
+  * Reflection Lake and the
+    Mountain                        E. S. Curtis               77
+
+  Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys
+    to Gibraltar                    Asahel Curtis              78
+
+  Divide of Paradise and Stevens
+    Glaciers                        A. H. Barnes               79
+
+  Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier    Asahel Curtis              79
+
+  Preparing for a night at Camp
+    Muir                            Asahel Curtis              80
+
+  The Bee Hive                      Asahel Curtis              80
+
+  Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys   Kiser Photo Co.            81
+
+  Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to
+    Gibraltar                       Asahel Curtis              81
+
+  Mazamas rounding Gibraltar        Rodney L. Glisan           82
+
+  Under the walls of Gibraltar      Asahel Curtis              83
+
+  One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir  A. H. Waite                83
+
+  Perilous position on edge of a
+    great crevasse                  Charles Bedford            84
+
+  Climbing the "Chute," west side
+    of Gibraltar                    Asahel Curtis              85
+
+  Looking from top of Gibraltar to
+    the summit                      A. H. Waite                86
+
+  View south from Cowlitz Glacier
+    to Mt. Adams                    Charles Bedford            87
+
+  One of the modern craters         Asahel Curtis          88, 89
+
+  Steam Caves in one of the
+    craters                         Asahel Curtis              88
+
+  North Peak, or "Liberty Cap."     A. W. Archer               89
+
+  Goat Peaks, glacier summits in
+    the Cascades                    Kiser Photo Co             90
+
+  Ice-bound lake in Cowlitz Park    S. C. Smith                93
+
+  Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier      S. C. Smith                93
+
+  Crossing a precipitous slope on
+    White Glacier                   A. W. Archer               94
+
+  * Climbing Goat Peaks in the
+    Cascades                        S. C. Smith                94
+
+  Looking up White Glacier to
+    Little Tahoma                   Dr. F. A. Scott            95
+
+  The Mountain seen from top of
+    Cascade Range                   S. C. Smith                96
+
+  Great Moraine built by Frying-Pan
+    Glacier on "Goat Island"        J. B. Flett                96
+
+  Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier,
+    below Little Tahoma             Dr. F. A. Scott            97
+
+  Sunrise above the clouds, Camp
+    Curtis                          Asahel Curtis              97
+
+  Looking up from Snipe Lake,
+    below Interglacier              Dr. F. A. Scott            98
+
+  Passing a big Crevasse on
+    Interglacier                    Asahel Curtis              98
+
+  View North from Mt. Ruth to
+    Grand Park                      J. B. Flett                99
+
+  Camp on St. Elmo Pass, north side
+    of the Wedge                    Asahel Curtis             100
+
+  East Face of Mountain, with route
+    to summit                       Asahel Curtis             100
+
+  Admiral Peter Rainier                                       101
+
+  First picture of the Mountain,
+    from Vancouver's "Voyage"                                 101
+
+  Climbers on St. Elmo Pass         A. W. Archer              102
+
+  St. Elmo Pass, from north side    A. W. Archer              102
+
+  Russell Peak, from Avalanche
+    Camp                            Asahel Curtis             103
+
+  Avalanche Camp                    Asahel Curtis             103
+
+  Looking up Winthrop Glacier from
+    Avalanche Camp                  Asahel Curtis             104
+
+  Looking across Winthrop Glacier
+    to Steamboat Prow               Asahel Curtis             104
+
+  View south from Sluiskin Mountains
+    across Moraine Park             Asahel Curtis             105
+
+  Part of Spray Park                George Caesar             106
+
+  Climbing the seracs on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Dr. F. A. Scott           107
+
+  Ice Pinnacles on the Carbon       A. W. Archer              107
+
+  Among the Ice Bridges of Carbon
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis             108
+
+  Building Tacoma's electric power
+    plant on the Nisqually (3)      George V. Caesar          111
+
+  Hydro-electric plant at Electron                            112
+
+  Cutting canal to divert White
+    River to Lake Tapps                                       112
+
+  Mystic Lake, in Moraine Park      Asahel Curtis             113
+
+  Glacier Table on Winthrop
+    Glacier                         Asahel Curtis             113
+
+  Carbon River and Mother
+    Mountains                       Dr. F. A. Scott           114
+
+  * Oldest and Youngest of the
+    Climbers                        C. E. Cutter              115
+
+  * P. B. Van Trump on his old
+    Camp Ground                     E. S. Curtis              115
+
+  Lower Spray Park, with Mother
+    Mountains beyond                Asahel Curtis             116
+
+  * John Muir, President of the
+    Sierra Club                     J. Edward B. Greene       116
+
+  Coasting in Moraine Park          Asahel Curtis             117
+
+  Sunset on Crater Lake             George V. Caesar          117
+
+  * Amphitheatre of Carbon Glacier  Asahel Curtis             118
+
+  * Avalanche falling on Willis
+    Wall                            Photo, Lea Bronson;
+                                    Copyright, P. V. Caesar   119
+{p.012}
+
+  * Birth of Carbon River           A. H. Waite               120
+
+  The Mountaineers building trail
+    on Carbon Moraine               Asahel Curtis             121
+
+  The Mountaineers lunching in a
+    crevasse                        Asahel Curtis             121
+
+  Looking southeast from Mt. Rose   George V. Caesar          122
+
+  Looking south from Mt. Rose,
+    across Crater Lake              George V. Caesar          123
+
+  * Looking up North Mowich Valley  Asahel Curtis             124
+
+  * Spray Falls                     Asahel Curtis             125
+
+  * A Rescue from a Crevasse        E. S. Curtis              126
+
+  Returning from the Summit         Asahel Curtis             126
+
+  * View across Moraine Park and
+    Carbon Glacier to Mother
+    Mountains                       Asahel Curtis             129
+
+  Senecio                           Mrs. Alexander Thompson   129
+
+  A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake  A. H. Barnes              130
+
+  Indian Pipe                       J. B. Flett               131
+
+  Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's
+   Park                             A. H. Barnes              131
+
+  Mosses and Ferns in the Forest
+    Reserve                         Charles Bedford           132
+
+  A Bank of White Heather           Asahel Curtis             133
+
+  Hellebore                         Mrs. Alexander Thompson   133
+
+  Alpine Hemlock and Mountain
+    Lilies                          Mrs. H. A. Towne          134
+
+  Mountain Asters                   A. H. Barnes              134
+
+  Studying the Phlox                J. B. Flett               135
+
+  Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily     Miss Jessie Kershaw       135
+
+  Avalanche Lilies                  Asahel Curtis             136
+
+  * Moraine Park, Sluiskin
+    Mountains and Mystic Lake       Asahel Curtis             136
+
+  Sunrise in Indian Henry's         A. H. Barnes              137
+
+  Anemone Seed Pods                 Asahel Curtis             138
+
+  Wind-swept Trees on North Side    George V. Caesar          139
+
+  Lupines                           Herbert W. Gleason        139
+
+  * The Mountain, seen from Green
+    River Hot Springs               C. E. Cutter              140
+
+  Glacial debris on lower Winthrop  Asahel Curtis             142
+
+  An Alpine Climbers' Cabin        From Whymper's "Chamonix
+                                   and Mt. Blanc"             144
+
+[Illustration: White River Canyon, from the terminal moraine of White
+Glacier. A fine example of glacial sculpture. The river seen in the
+distance is 2,000 feet below the plateau through which the glacier has
+carved this valley.]
+
+[Illustration {p.013}: Telephoto view from near Electron, 20 miles,
+showing vast summit plateau left when the Mountain blew its head off.
+1. Crater Peak, built by the two small, modern craters. 2. South Peak,
+or Peak Success. 3. North Peak, or Liberty Cap. 4. North Tahoma
+Glacier. 5. Puyallup Glacier. 6. South Mowich Glacier. 7.
+North Mowich Glacier. 8. Snow Cap above Carbon Glacier. The summit
+peaks (1, 2 and 3) form a triangle, each side of which is two miles or
+more in length.]
+
+[Illustration {p.014}: View of the Mountain from Fox Island,
+forty-two miles northwest, with part of Puget Sound in the
+foreground.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.015} THE MOUNTAIN SPEAKS.
+
+
+  I am Tacoma, Monarch of the Coast!
+      Uncounted ages heaped my shining snows;
+  The sun by day, by night the starry host,
+      Crown me with splendor; every breeze that blows
+      Wafts incense to my altars; never wanes
+  The glory my adoring children boast,
+      For one with sun and sea Tacoma reigns.
+
+          Tacoma--the Great Snow Peak--mighty name
+              My dusky tribes revered when time was young!
+          Their god was I in avalanche and flame--
+              In grove and mead and songs my rivers sung,
+              As blithe they ran to make the valleys fair--
+          Their Shrine of Peace where no avenger came
+              To vex Tacoma, lord of earth and air.
+
+  Ah! when at morn above the mists I tower
+      And see my cities gleam by slope and strand,
+  What joy have I in this transcendent dower--
+      The strength and beauty of my sea-girt land
+      That holds the future royally in fee!
+  And lest some danger, undescried, should lower,
+      From my far height I watch o'er wave and lea.
+
+          And cloudless eves when calm in heaven I rest,
+              All rose-bloom with a glow of paradise,
+          And through my firs the balm-wind of the west,
+              Blown over ocean islands, softly sighs,
+              While placid lakes my radiant image frame--
+          And know my worshippers, in loving quest,
+              Will mark my brow and fond lips breathe my name:
+
+  Enraptured from my valleys to my snows,
+      I charm my glow to crimson--soothe to gray;
+  And when the encircling shadow deeper grows,
+      Poise, a lone cloud, beside the starry way.
+      Then, while my realm is hushed from steep to shore,
+  I yield my grandeur to divine repose,
+      And know Tacoma reigns forevermore!
+
+  South Framingham, Mass.
+  March, 1911.                         Edna Dean Proctor
+
+[Illustration {p.016}: Copyright, 1906, By Romans Photographic Co.
+The most kingly of American mountains, seen from beautiful Lake
+Washington, Seattle, distance sixty miles.]
+
+{p.017}
+[Illustration: A party of climbers on Winthrop Glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS "GOD."
+
+I.
+
+MOUNT "BIG SNOW" AND INDIAN TRADITION.
+
+  Long hours we toiled up through the solemn wood,
+      Beneath moss-banners stretched from tree to tree;
+  At last upon a barren hill we stood,
+      And, lo, above loomed Majesty.
+
+  --_Herbert Bashford: "Mount Rainier."_
+
+
+The great Mountain fascinates us by its diversity. It is an
+inspiration and yet a riddle to all who are drawn to the mysterious or
+who love the sublime. Every view which the breaking clouds vouchsafe
+to us is a surprise. It never becomes commonplace, save to the
+commonplace.
+
+[Illustration: Ice Terraces on South Tahoma Glacier. These vast steps
+are often seen where a glacier moves down a steep and irregular
+slope.]
+
+Old Virgil's gibe at mankind's better half--"varium et mutabile semper
+femina"--might have been written of this fickle shape of rock and ice
+and vapor. One tries vainly, year after year, to define it in his own
+mind. The daily, hourly change of distance, size and aspect, tricks
+which the Indian's mountain {p.018} god plays with the puny
+creatures swarming more and more about his foot; his days of frank
+neighborliness, his swift transformations from smiles to anger, his
+fits of sullenness and withdrawal, all baffle study. Even though we
+live at its base, it is impossible to say we know the Mountain, so
+various are the spells the sun casts over this huge dome which it is
+slowly chiseling away with its tools of ice, and which, in coming
+centuries, it will level with the plain.
+
+[Illustration: Mineral Lake and the Mountain. Distance, eighteen
+miles.]
+
+We are lovers of the water as well as the hills, out here in this
+northwestern corner of the Republic. We spend many days--and should
+spend more--in cruising among the hidden bays and park-like islands
+which make Puget Sound the most interesting body of water in America.
+We grow a bit boastful about the lakes that cluster around our cities.
+Nowhere better than from sea level, or from the lakes raised but
+little above it, does one realize the bulk, the dominance, and yet the
+grace, of this noble peak. Its impressiveness, indeed, arises in part
+from the fact that it is one of the few great volcanic mountains whose
+entire height may be seen from tide level. Many of us can recall views
+of it from Lake Washington at Seattle, or from American or Spanaway
+Lake at Tacoma, or from the Sound, which will always haunt the memory.
+
+[Illustration: Storm King Peak and Mineral Lake, viewed from near
+Mineral Lake Inn.]
+
+Early one evening, last summer, I went with a friend to Point
+Defiance, Tacoma's fine park at the {p.021} end of the promontory
+on which the city is built. We drank in refreshment from the picture
+there unrolled of broad channels and evergreen shores. As sunset
+approached, we watched the western clouds building range upon range of
+golden mountains above the black, Alp-like crags of the Olympics.
+Then, entering a small boat, we rowed far out northward into the
+Sound. Overhead, and about us, the scenes of the great panorama were
+swiftly shifted. The western sky became a conflagration. Twilight
+settled upon the bay. The lights of the distant town came out, one by
+one, and those of the big smelter, near by, grew brilliant. No Turner
+ever dreamed so glorious a composition of sunlight and shade. But we
+were held by one vision.
+
+[Illustration {p.019}: View from Electron, showing west side of the
+mountain, with a vast intervening country of forested ranges and deep
+canyons.]
+
+{p.021}
+[Illustration: Nisqually Canyon.
+
+  ... "Where the mountain wall
+  Is piled to heaven, and through the narrow rift
+  Of the vast rocks, against whose rugged feet
+  Beats the mad torrent with perpetual roar:
+  Where noonday is as twilight, and the wind
+  Comes burdened with the everlasting moan
+  Of forests and far-off waterfalls."--Whittier.]
+
+Yonder, in the southeast, towering above the lower shadows of harbor
+and hills, rose a vast pyramid of soft flame. The setting sun had
+thrown a mantle of rose pink over the ice of the glaciers and the
+great cleavers of rock which buttress the mighty dome. The rounded
+summit was warm with beautiful orange light. Soon the colors upon its
+slope changed to deeper reds, and then to amethyst, and {p.023}
+violet, and pearl gray. The sun-forsaken ranges below fell away to
+dark neutral tints. But the fires upon the crest burned on, deepening
+from gold to burnished copper, a colossal beacon flaming high against
+the sunset purple of the eastern skies. Finally, even this great light
+paled to a ghostly white, as the supporting foundation of mountain
+ridges dropped into the darkness of the long northern twilight, until
+the snowy summit seemed no longer a part of earth, but a veil of
+uncanny mist, caught up by the winds from the Pacific and floating far
+above the black sky-line of the solid Cascades, that
+
+  * * * heaven-sustaining bulwark, reared
+  Between the East and West.
+
+[Illustration {p.022}: Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite. North Peak,
+or Liberty Cap, and South Mowich Glacier in storm, seen from an
+altitude of 6,000 feet, on ridge between South Mowich and Puyallup
+Glaciers. The glacier, 2,000 feet below, is nearly half a mile wide.
+Note the tremendous wall of ice in which it ends.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1900, By A. H. Waite. Basaltic Columns, part
+of the "Colonnade" on south side of South Mowich Glacier. These
+curious six-sided columns of volcanic rock are similar to those
+bordering the Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Goat, an accidental snap-shot of the fleet and
+wary Mazama; godfather of the famous Portland mountain club.]
+
+And when even that apparition had faded, and the Mountain appeared
+only as an uncertain bulk shadowed upon the night, then came the
+miracle. Gradually, the east, beyond the great hills, showed a faint
+silver glow. Silhouetted against this dim background, the profile of
+the peak grew definite. With no other warning, suddenly from its
+summit the full moon shot forth, huge, majestic and gracious, flooding
+the lower world with brightness. Clouds and mountain ranges alike
+shone with its glory. But the great peak loomed blacker and more
+sullen. Only, on its head, the wide crown of snow gleamed white under
+the cold rays of the moon.
+
+[Illustration {p.024}: West Side of the summit, seen from Tahoma Fork
+of the Nisqually, on road to Longmire Springs. Note the whiteness of
+the glacial water. This stream is fed by the united Tahoma glaciers.
+See pp. 32 and 37.]
+
+{p.025}
+[Illustration: Iron and Copper Mountains (right) in Indian Henry's.
+The top of Pyramid Peak shows in the saddle beyond with Peak Success
+towering far above.]
+
+No wonder that this mountain of changing moods, overtopping every
+other eminence in the Northwest, answered the idea of God to the
+simple, imaginative mind of the Indians who hunted in the forest on
+its slopes or fished in the waters of Whulge that ebbed and flowed at
+its base. Primitive peoples in every land have deified superlative
+manifestations of nature--the sun, the wind, great rivers, and
+waterfalls, the high mountains. By all the tribes within sight of its
+summit, this pre-eminent peak, variously called by them Tacoma
+(Tach-ho'ma), Tahoma or Tacob, as who should say "The Great Snow," was
+deemed a power to be feared and conciliated. Even when the
+missionaries taught them a better faith, they continued to hold the
+Mountain in superstitious reverence--an awe that still has power to
+silence their "civilized" and very unromantic descendants.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting steps up Paradise Glacier.]
+
+The Puget Sound tribes, with the Yakimas, Klickitats and others living
+just beyond the Cascades, had substantially the same language and
+beliefs, though differing much in physical and mental type. {p.026}
+East of the range, they lived by the chase. They were great horsemen
+and famous runners, a breed of lithe, upstanding, competent men, as
+keen of wit as they were stately in appearance. These were "the noble
+Red Men" of tradition. Fennimore Cooper might have found many a hero
+worthy of his pen among the savages inhabiting the fertile valley of
+the Columbia, which we now call the Inland Empire. But here on the
+Coast were the "Digger" tribes, who subsisted chiefly by spearing
+salmon and digging clams. Their stooped figures, flat faces, downcast
+eyes and low mentality reflected the life they led. Contrasting their
+heavy bodies with their feeble legs, which grew shorter with disuse, a
+Tacoma humorist last summer gravely proved to a party of English
+visitors that in a few generations more, had not the white man seized
+their fishing grounds, the squatting Siwashes would have had no legs
+at all!
+
+[Illustration: Great Crag on the ridge separating the North and South
+Tahoma Glaciers, with Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually visible several
+miles below. This rock is seen right of center on page 27.]
+
+[Illustration: The Marmot, whose shrill whistle is often heard among
+the crags.]
+
+Stolid and uninspired as he seemed to the whites, the Indian of the
+Sound was not without his touch of poetry. He had that imaginative
+curiosity which marked the native {p.028} American everywhere. He
+was ever peering into the causes of things, and seeing the
+supernatural in the world around him.[1]
+
+              [Footnote 1: Among those who have studied the Puget
+              Sound Indians most sympathetically is the Rev. Mr.
+              Hylebos of Tacoma. He came to the Northwest in 1870,
+              when the census gave Tacoma a white population of
+              seventy-three. In those days, says Father Hylebos, the
+              Tacoma tideflats, now filled in for mills and railway
+              terminals, were covered each autumn with the canoes of
+              Indians spearing salmon. It was no uncommon thing to see
+              at one time on Commencement Bay 1,800 fishermen. This
+              veteran worker among the "Siwashes" (French
+              "_sauvages_") first told me the myths that hallowed the
+              Mountain for every native, and the true meaning of the
+              beautiful Indian word "Tacoma." He knew well all the
+              leaders of the generation before the railways: Sluiskin,
+              the Klickitat chief who guided Stevens and Van Trump up
+              to the snow-line in 1870; Stanup, chief of the
+              Puyallups; Kiskax, head of the Cowlitz tribe; Angeline,
+              the famous daughter of Chief Seattle, godfather of the
+              city of that name, and many others.]
+
+[Illustration {p.027}: View from Beljica, showing the deeply indented
+west side of the Mountain. Beginning at extreme right, the glaciers
+are, successively: Kautz, South Tahoma, North Tahoma and Puyallup. In
+the left foreground is the canyon of Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually,
+which is fed by the Tahoma glaciers.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Mountain Pine, one of
+the last outposts of the forest below the line of eternal snow.]
+
+To the great Snow Mountain the Indians made frequent pilgrimages, for
+they thought this king of the primeval wild a divinity to be reckoned
+with. They dreaded its anger, seen in the storms about its head, the
+thunder of its avalanches, and the volcanic flashes of which their
+traditions told. They courted its favor, symbolized in the wild
+flowers that bloomed on its slope, and the tall grass that fed the
+mowich, or deer.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Mount Wow, or Goat
+Mountain, above Mesler's.]
+
+As they ascended the vast ridges, the grandeur about them spoke of the
+mountain god. There were groves of trees he must have planted, so
+orderly were they set out. The lakes of the lofty valleys seemed
+calmer than those on the prairies below, the foliage brighter, the
+ferns taller and more graceful. The song of the waterfalls here was
+sweeter than the music of the tamahnawas men, their Indian sorcerers.
+The many small meadows close to the snow-line, carpeted in deepest
+green and spread with flowers, were the gardens of the divinity,
+tended by his superhuman agents. Strange as it may seem, the
+nature-worship of the silent Red Man had many points in common with
+that of the imaginative, volatile Greek, who {p.030} peopled his
+mountains with immortals; and no wood in ancient Greece was ever
+thronged with hamadryads more real than the little gods whom the
+Indian saw in the forests watered by streams from Tacoma's glaciers.
+
+[Illustration {p.029}: Rounded Cone of Mt. St. Helens, seen from
+Indian Henry's, forty-five miles away.]
+
+[Illustration: View northward in early summer from Eagle Peak, at
+western end of the Tatoosh. Gibraltar Rock and Little Tahoma break the
+eastern sky-line. On the extreme right lies Paradise Valley, still deep
+in snow, with the canyon of Paradise River below it. Next is seen the
+Nisqually Glacier, with Nisqually River issuing from its snout. Then
+come Van Trump Glacier (an "interglacier"), and the big Kautz Glacier,
+dropping into its own deep canyon. Beyond the Kautz, Pyramid Peak and
+Iron and Copper Mountains rise on the Indian Henry plateau. The Tahoma
+Glaciers close the view westward.]
+
+[Illustration {p.031}: Copyright, 1907, By Pillsbury Picture Co.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Linkletter Photo. CO. Eagle Peak
+(Indian name, Simlayshe) at west end of the Tatoosh. Altitude about
+6,000 feet. A pony trail three miles long leads up from the Inn.]
+
+Countless snows had fallen since the mountain god created and
+beautified this home of his, when one day he grew angry, and in his
+wrath showed terrible tongues of fire. Thus he ignited an immense fir
+forest on the south side of the peak. When his anger subsided, the
+flames passed, and the land they left bare became covered with blue
+grass and wild flowers--a great sunny country where, before, the dark
+forest had been. Borrowing a word from the French _coureurs des bois_
+who came with the Hudson's Bay Company, the later Indians sometimes
+called this region "the Big Brule"; and to this day some Americans
+call it the same. But for the Big Brule the Indians had, from ancient
+times, another name, connected with their ideas of religion. It was
+their Saghalie Illahe, the "Land of Peace," Heaven. Our name,
+"Paradise Valley," {p.031} given to the beautiful open vale on the
+south slope of the Mountain, is an English equivalent.
+
+Here was the same bar to violence which religion has erected in many
+lands. The Hebrews had their "Cities of Refuge." The pagan ancients
+made every altar an asylum. Mediaeval Christianity constituted all its
+churches sanctuaries. Thus, in lawless ages, the hand of vengeance was
+stayed, and the weak were protected.
+
+[Illustration: Exploring an Ice Cave, Paradise Glacier.]
+
+So, too, the Indian tradition ordained this home of rest and refuge.
+Indian custom was an eye for an eye, but on gaining this mountain
+haven the pursued was safe from his pursuer, the slayer might not be
+touched by his victim's kindred. When he crossed its border, the
+warrior laid down his arms. Criminals and cowards, too, were often
+sent here by the chiefs to do penance.
+
+[Illustration: Junction of North and South Tahoma Glaciers, viewed
+from Indian Henry's. The main ice stream thus formed, seen in the
+foreground, feeds Tahoma Fork of the Nisqually River. The Northern
+part of North Tahoma Glacier, seen in the distance beyond the wedge of
+rocks, feeds a tributary of the Puyallup.]
+
+The mountain divinity, with his under-gods, figures in much of the
+Siwash {p.032} folklore, and the "Land of Peace" is often heard of.
+It is through such typical Indian legends as that of Miser, the greedy
+hiaqua hunter, that we learn how large a place the great Mountain
+filled in the thought of the aborigines.
+
+[Illustration: Anemones, a familiar mountain flower.]
+
+This myth also explains why no Red Man could ever be persuaded to an
+ascent beyond the snow line. As to the Greek, so to the Indian the
+great peaks were sacred. The flames of an eruption, the fall of an
+avalanche, told of the wrath of the mountain god. The clouds that
+wrapped the summit of Tacoma spelled mystery and peril. Even so shrewd
+and intelligent a Siwash as Sluiskin, with all his keenness for
+"Boston chikamin," the white man's money, refused to accompany Stevens
+and Van Trump in the first ascent, in 1870; indeed, he gave them up as
+doomed, and bewailed their certain fate when they defied the
+Mountain's wrath and started for the summit in spite of his warnings.
+
+[Illustration {p.033}: Copyright 1910, A. H. WAITE. North Tahoma
+Glacier, flowing out of the huge cleft in the west side, between North
+and South Peaks. A great rock wedge splits the glacier, turning part
+of the ice stream northward into the Puyallup, while the other part,
+on the right pours down to join South Tahoma Glacier. Note how the
+promontory of rock in the foreground has been rounded and polished by
+the ice. Compare this view with pages 32 and 37.]
+
+[Illustration {p.034}: Snow Lake in Indian Henry's, surrounded by
+Alpine firs, which grow close to the snow line. Elevation about 6,000
+feet.]
+
+The hero of the Hiaqua Myth is the Indian {p.035} Rip Van
+Winkle.[2] He dwelt at the foot of Tacoma, and, like Irving's worthy,
+he was a mighty hunter and fisherman. He knew the secret pools where
+fish could always be found, and the dark places in the forest, where
+the elk hid when snows were deepest. But for these things Miser cared
+not. His lust was all for hiaqua, the Indian shell money.
+
+              [Footnote 2: This legend is well told in "Myths and
+              Legends of the Pacific Northwest," a delightful book by
+              Katharine B. Judson of the Seattle Public Library
+              (Chicago, A. C. McClurg & Co.). See also Prof. W. D.
+              Lyman's papers in "Mazama" Vol. 2, and "The
+              Mountaineer," Vol. 2; and Winthrop's "Canoe and
+              Saddle."]
+
+[Illustration: A fair Mountaineer at the timber line. Note her
+equipment, including shoe calks.]
+
+Now, Miser's totem was Moosmoos, the elk divinity. So Miser tried,
+even while hunting the elk, to talk with them, in order to learn where
+hiaqua might be found. One night Moosmoos persuaded him that on top of
+the Mountain he would find great store of it. Making him two elk-horn
+picks, and filling his ikta with dried salmon and kinnikinnick, he
+climbed in two nights and a day to the summit. Here he found three big
+rocks, one like a camas root, one like a salmon's head, the third like
+his friendly Moosmoos. Miser saw that Moosmoos had told him truly.
+
+[Illustration {p.036}: View of Indian Henry's Hunting Ground from a
+point on South Tahoma Glacier, looking across to Copper and Iron
+Mountains, with Mt. St. Helens above the clouds far beyond. This
+famous upland plateau or "park" gets its name from the fact that it
+was, years ago, the favorite haunt of a celebrated Indian hunter.]
+
+[Illustration {p.037}: Southwest side of the Mountain as seen from
+Indian Henry's, showing North and South Tahoma Glaciers meeting in
+foreground, and Kautz Glacier on extreme right.]
+
+After long digging, Miser overturned the rock that was like the elk's
+head. Beneath lay a vast quantity of hiaqua. This he strung on elk's
+sinews--enough of it to make him the richest of men. Then he hurried
+to depart. But he left no thank-offering to the tanahnawas powers.
+Thereupon the whole earth shook with a mighty convulsion, and the
+mountain shot forth terrible fires, which melted the snows and poured
+floods down the slopes, where they were turned to ice again by the
+breath of the storm-god. And above the roar of torrents and the crash
+of thunder, {p.038} Miser heard the voices of all the tamahnawas,
+hissing: "Hiaqua! Hiaqua! Ha, ha, Hiaqua!"
+
+[Illustration: Climbing Pinnacle Peak, in the Tatoosh. Elevation 6,500
+feet. The route leads up from Paradise Valley, over the steep snow
+field shown in the lower view, and thence by a difficult trail to the
+summit.]
+
+Panic-stricken at the results of his greed, Miser threw down his load
+of treasure to propitiate the angry tamahnawas. But the storm-god
+hurled him down the mountain side. Miser fell into a deep sleep. Many,
+many snows after, he awoke to find himself far from the summit, in a
+pleasant country of beautiful meadows carpeted with flowers, abounding
+in camas roots, and musical with the song of birds. He had grown very
+old, with white hair falling to his shoulders. His ikta was empty,
+save for a few dried leaves. Recognizing the scene about him as
+Saghalie Illahe, he sought his old tent. It was where he had left it.
+There, too, was his klootchman, or wife, grown old, like himself.
+Thirty snows, she said, she had awaited his return. Back they went to
+their {p.039} home on the bank of the Cowlitz, where he became a
+famous tamahnawas man, and spent the rest of his days in honor, for
+his tribesmen recognized that the aged Indian's heart had been
+marvelously softened and his mind enriched by his experience upon the
+peak. He had lost his love for hiaqua.
+
+[Illustration: A silhouette on Pinnacle Peak, with Paradise Valley and
+the Nisqually Glacier below.]
+
+Among the familiar myths of the Mountain was one of a great flood, not
+unlike that of Noah. I quote Miss Judson's version:
+
+     WHY THERE ARE NO SNAKES ON TAKHOMA.
+
+     A long, long time ago, Tyhce Sahale became angry with his people.
+     Sahale ordered a medicine man to take his bow and arrow and shoot
+     into the cloud which hung low over Takhoma. The medicine man shot
+     the arrow, and it stuck fast in the cloud. Then he shot another
+     into the lower end of the first. Then he shot another into the
+     lower end of the second. He shot arrows until he had made a chain
+     which reached from the cloud to the earth. The medicine man told
+     his klootchman and his children to climb up the arrow trail. Then
+     he told the good animals to climb up the arrow trail. Then the
+     medicine man climbed up himself. Just as he was climbing into the
+     cloud, he looked back. A long line of bad animals and snakes were
+     also climbing up the arrow trail. Therefore the medicine man
+     broke the chain of arrows. Thus the snakes and bad animals fell
+     down on the mountain side. Then at once it began to rain. It
+     rained until all the land was flooded. Water reached even to the
+     snow line of Takhoma. When all the bad animals and snakes were
+     drowned, it stopped raining. After a while the waters sank again.
+     Then the medicine man and his klootchman and the children climbed
+     out of the cloud and came down the mountain side. The good
+     animals also climbed out of the cloud. Thus there are now no
+     snakes or bad animals on Takhoma.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, by E. S. Curtis. Rough Climbing, an
+illustration of perils encountered in crossing the glaciers.]
+
+Childish and fantastic as they seem to our wise age, such legends show
+the Northwestern Indian struggling to interpret the world about him.
+Like savages everywhere, he peopled the unknown with spirits good and
+bad, and mingled his conception of a beneficent deity with his ideas
+of the evil one. Symbolism pervaded his crude but very positive mind.
+Ever by his side the old Siwash felt the Power that dwelt on Tacoma,
+protecting and aiding him, or leading him to destruction. Knowing
+{p.040} nothing of true worship, his primitive intelligence could
+imagine God only in things either the most beautiful or the most
+terrifying; and the more we know the Mountain, the more easily we
+shall understand why he deemed the majestic peak a factor of his
+destiny--an infinite force that could, at will, bless or destroy. For
+to us, too, though we have no illusions as to its supernatural powers,
+the majestic peak may bring a message. Before me is a letter from an
+inspiring New England writer, who has well earned the right to
+appraise life's values. "I saw the great Mountain three years ago,"
+she says; "would that it might ever be my lot to see it again! I love
+to dream of its glory, and its vast whiteness is a moral force in my
+life."
+
+                          Perpetual
+  And snowy tabernacle of the land,
+  While purples at thy base this peaceful sea,
+  And all thy hither slopes in evening bathe,
+  I hear soft twilight voices calling down
+  From all thy summits unto prayer and love.
+
+  --_Francis Brooks: "Mt. Rainier."_
+
+[Illustration: Ptarmigan, the Grouse of the ice-fields. Unlike its
+neighbor, the Mountain Goat, this bird is tame, and may sometimes be
+caught by hand. In winter its plumage turns from brown to white.]
+
+[Illustration: The Mountain, seen from Puyallup River, near Tacoma.]
+
+[Illustration {p.041}: Falls of the Little Mashell River, near
+Eatonville and the road to the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration {p.042}: Old Stage Road to Longmire Springs and the
+National Park Inn, showing the tall, clear trunks of the giant firs.]
+
+{p.043}
+[Illustration: On Pierce County's splendid scenic road to the
+Mountain. Passing Ohop Valley.]
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE NATIONAL PARK, ITS ROADS AND ITS NEEDS.
+
+     There are plenty of higher mountains, but it is the decided
+     isolation--the absolute standing alone in full majesty of its own
+     mightiness--that forms the attraction of Rainier. * * * It is no
+     squatting giant, perched on the shoulders of other mountains.
+     From Puget Sound, it is a sight for the gods, and one feels in
+     the presence of the gods.--_Paul Fountain: "The Seven Eaglets of
+     the West"_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+The first explorers to climb the Mountain, forty years ago, were
+compelled to make their way from Puget Sound through the dense growths
+of one of the world's greatest forests, over lofty ridges and deep
+canyons, and across perilous glacial torrents. The hardships of a
+journey to the timber line were more formidable than the difficulties
+encountered above it.
+
+[Illustration: Cowlitz Chimneys, seen from basin below Frying-Pan
+Glacier.]
+
+Even from the East the first railroad to the Coast had just reached
+San Francisco. Thence the traveler came north to the Sound by boat.
+The now busy cities of Seattle and Tacoma were, one, an ambitious
+village of 1,107 inhabitants; the other, a sawmill, with seventy
+persons living around it. They were frontier settlements, outposts of
+{p.044} civilization; but civilization paid little attention to them
+and their great Mountain, until the railways, some years later, began
+to connect them with the big world of people and markets beyond the
+Rockies.
+
+[Illustration: On the way out from Tacoma, over the partly wooded
+prairie, the automobilist sees many scenes like this old road near
+Spanaway Lake.]
+
+How different the case to-day! Six transcontinental railroads now
+deliver their trains in the Puget Sound cities. These are: The
+Northern Pacific, which was the first trunk line to reach the Sound;
+the Great Northern; the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & Puget Sound; the Oregon-Washington (Union Pacific), and
+the Canadian Pacific. A seventh, the North Coast, is planned.
+
+[Illustration {p.046}: View Northward from top of Pinnacle Peak in
+the Tatoosh range to Paradise Valley, Nisqually Glacier and Gibraltar
+Rock, eight miles away.]
+
+[Illustration {p.047}: Looking Northeast from slope of Pinnacle Peak,
+across Paradise, Stevens, Cowlitz and Frying Pan Glaciers. These two
+views form virtually a panorama.]
+
+Arriving in Seattle or Tacoma, the traveler has his choice of quick
+and enjoyable routes to the Mountain. He may go by automobile, leaving
+either city in the morning. After traveling one of the best and most
+interesting roads in the country--the only one, in fact, to reach a
+glacier--he may take luncheon at noon six thousand feet higher, in
+Paradise Park, overlooking great glaciers and close to the line of
+eternal snow. Or he may go by the comfortable trains of the Tacoma
+Eastern (Milwaukee system) to Ashford, fifty-five miles from Tacoma,
+and then by automobile stages, over a picturesque portion of the fine
+highway just mentioned, to the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs
+(altitude 2,762 feet). Lunching there, he may then go on, by coach
+over the new government road, or on horseback over one of the most
+inviting mountain trails in America, or afoot, as many prefer. Thus he
+{p.049} gains Paradise Park and its far-reaching observation
+point, Camp of the Clouds (elevation, 5,800 feet). From the Inn, too,
+another romantic bridle path leads to Indian Henry's famous Hunting
+Ground, equally convenient as a base of adventure.
+
+[Illustration: Automobile Party above Nisqually Canyon, Pierce County
+Road to the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Prof. O. D. Allen's cottage, in the Forest Reserve,
+where the former Yale professor has for years studied the flora of the
+Mountain.]
+
+Whether the visitor goes to the Mountain by train or by automobile,
+his choice will be a happy one. For either route leads through a
+country of uncommon charm. Each of them, too, will carry the visitor
+up from the Sound to the great and beautiful region on the southern
+slopes which includes the Tahoma, Kautz, Nisqually, Paradise and
+Stevens canyons, with their glaciers and the wonderful upland plateaus
+or "parks" that lie between.
+
+[Illustration: "Ghost Trees" in Indian Henry's. These white stalks
+tell of fires set by careless visitors.]
+
+Here let him stay a day or a month. Every moment of his time will be
+crowded with new experiences and packed with enjoyment. For here is
+sport to last for many months. He may content himself with a day spent
+in coasting down a steep snow-field in midsummer, snowballing his
+companions, and climbing Alta Vista to look down on the big Nisqually
+glacier in the deep bed which it has {p.050} carved for itself, and
+up its steep slopes to its neve field on the summit. Or he may explore
+this whole region at his leisure. He may climb the hard mountain
+trails that radiate from Longmires and Paradise. He may work up over
+the lower glaciers, studying their crevasses, ice caves and flow. He
+will want to ascend some of the tempting crags of the ragged Tatoosh,
+for the panorama of ice-capped peaks and dark, forested ranges which
+is there unfolded. After a week or two of such "trying-out," to
+develop wind and harden muscle, he may even scale the great Mountain
+itself under the safe lead of experienced guides. He may wander at
+will over the vast platform left by a prehistoric explosion which
+truncated the cone, and perhaps spend a night of sensational novelty
+(and discomfort) in a big steam cave, under the snow, inside a dead
+crater.
+
+The south side has the advantage of offering the wildest alpine sport
+in combination with a well-appointed hotel as a base of operations.
+Hence the majority of visitors know only that side. Everybody should
+know it, too, for there is not a nobler playground anywhere; but
+should also know that it is by no means the only side to see.
+
+One may, of course, work around from the Nisqually canyon and
+Paradise, east or west, to the other glaciers and "parks." It is quite
+practicable, if not easy, to make the trip eastward from Camp of the
+Clouds, crossing Paradise, Stevens and Cowlitz glaciers, and thus to
+reach the huge White glacier on the east side and Winthrop and Carbon
+glaciers on the north. Every summer sees more and more visitors making
+this wonderful journey.
+
+But the usual way to reach the great north side, especially for
+parties which carry camp equipment, is by a Northern Pacific train
+over the Carbonado branch to Fairfax. This is on Carbon river, five
+miles from the northwest corner of the National Park. Thence the
+traveler will go by horse or afoot, over a safe mountain trail, to
+Spray Park, the fascinating region between Carbon and North Mowich
+{p.051} glaciers. Standing here, on such an eminence as Fay Peak or
+Eagle Cliff, he may have views of the Mountain in its finest aspects
+that will a thousand times repay the labor of attainment.
+
+[Illustration: Government Road in the Forest Reserve.]
+
+[Illustration: "Hanging Glacier," or ice fall, above Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+A visit to this less known but no less interesting side involves the
+necessity of packing an outfit. But arrangements for horses and
+packers are easily made, and each year an increasing number of parties
+make Spray Park their headquarters, spending, if they are wise, at
+least a week in this wide region of flowering alpine valleys and
+commanding heights. From there they go south, over the west-side
+glaciers, or east, across the Carbon and through the great White river
+country. They camp on the south side of the Sluiskin mountains, in
+Moraine Park, and there have ready access to Carbon and Winthrop
+glaciers, with splendid views of the vast precipices that form the
+north face of the Mountain. Thence they climb east and south over the
+Winthrop and White glaciers. They visit the beautiful Grand Park and
+Summerland, and either make the ascent to the summit from "Steamboat
+Prow" on the "Wedge," over the long ice slope of the White glacier, or
+continue around to the Paradise country and Longmire Springs.
+
+{p.052}
+[Illustration: Leaving the National Park Inn at Longmire Springs for
+Paradise Park.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. On the Summit,
+showing Columbia's Crest, the great mound of snow that has, most
+curiously, formed on this wide, wind-swept platform. This, the actual
+top of the Mountain, is 14,363 feet above sea level.]
+
+The west side has been less visited than the others, but there is a
+trail from the North Mowich to the Nisqually, and from this
+adventurous explorers reach North and South Mowich and Puyallup
+glaciers. No one has yet climbed the Mountain over those glaciers, or
+from the north side. A view from any of the trails will explain why.
+The great rock spines are more precipitous than elsewhere, the
+glaciers more broken; and the summit is fronted on either side by a
+huge parapet of rock which hurls defiance at anything short of an
+airship. Doubtless, we shall some day travel to Crater Peak by
+aeroplanes, but until these vehicles are equipped with {p.054}
+runners for landing and starting on the snow, we shall do best to plan
+our ascents from the south or east side.
+
+[Illustration {p.053}: Paradise Valley or "Park," and Tatoosh
+Mountains, from slope below Paradise Glacier. The highest of the peaks
+are about 7,000 feet above sea level and 1,700 feet above the floor of
+the valley.]
+
+[Illustration: On the Government Road a mile above Longmires, bound
+for the Nisqually Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Near "Gap Point," where the road turns from the
+Nisqually canyon into that of Paradise River.]
+
+I have thus briefly pointed out the favorite routes followed in
+exploring the National Park. The time is fast approaching when it will
+be a truly national recreation ground, well known to Americans in
+every State. The coming of new railways to Puget Sound and the
+development of new facilities for reaching the Mountain make this
+certain.[3]
+
+              [Footnote 3: For details as to rates for transportation,
+              accommodations and guides, with the rules governing the
+              National Park, see the notes at end of the book.]
+
+[Illustration: Snout of Nisqually Glacier, with the river which it
+feeds. Though much shrunken since the epoch when it filled the whole
+canyon, the glacier is still a vast river of ice; and its front, seen
+several hundred yards above the bridge, rises sheer 500 feet. The new
+road to Narada Falls and Paradise Park crosses the Nisqually here.
+Automobiles are not permitted to go above this point.]
+
+Every step taken for the conservation of the natural beauty of the
+Park and its opening to proper use and enjoyment is a public benefit.
+Outside the national reserves, our lumbermen are fast destroying the
+forests; but, if properly guarded against fire, the great Park forest
+will still teach future generations how lavishly Nature plants, just
+as the delightful glacial valleys and towering landmarks teach how
+powerful and artistic a sculptor she is. Experienced travelers and
+alpinists {p.055} who have visited the Mountain unite in declaring
+its scenery, combining as it does great vistas of ice with vast
+stretches of noble forest, to be unequaled elsewhere in America, and
+unsurpassed anywhere. In the fascination of its glacial story, as well
+as in the grandeur of its features, it has few rivals among the great
+peaks of the world. The geologist, the botanist, the weary business
+man, the sportsman, all find it calling them to study, to rest, or to
+strenuous and profitable recreation. Here is a resource more lasting
+than our timber. When the loggers shall have left us only naked
+ranges, without the reserves, the Park may yield a crop more valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Pony bridge over the Nisqually, on trail to Paradise.
+Note the granite boulders which the stream has rounded in rolling them
+down from the glacier.]
+
+*[Illustration: The road a mile above the bridge, overlooking
+Nisqually Canyon and Glacier.]
+
+*[Illustration: On the Pony Trail to Paradise. This trail winds
+through the dense forest above Longmires, crosses the Nisqually, and
+then follows Paradise River, with its miles of picturesque cascades.
+It is one of the most beautiful mountain paths in America.]
+
+Until recent years this was known only to the hardy few who delight in
+doing difficult things for great rewards. But that day of isolation
+has passed. The value of the Park to the whole American people is more
+{p.056} and more appreciated by them, if not yet by their official
+representatives. While Congress has dealt less liberally with this
+than with the other great National Parks, what it has appropriated has
+been well spent in building an invaluable road, which opens one of the
+most important upland regions to public knowledge and use. This road
+is a continuation of the well-made highway maintained by Pierce County
+from Tacoma, which passes through an attractive country of partly
+wooded prairies and follows the picturesque Nisqually valley up the
+heavily forested slopes to the Forest Reserve and the southwestern
+corner of the Park. The public has been quick to seize the opportunity
+which the roads offered. The number of persons entering the Park, as
+shown by the annual reports of the Superintendent, has grown {p.057}
+from 1,786 in 1906 to more than 8,000 in 1910. In the same period, the
+Yellowstone National Park, with its greater age, its wider
+advertising, its many hotels, its abundance of government money,
+increased its total of visitors from 17,182 to 19,575.
+
+[Illustration: Sierra Club lunching on Nisqually Glacier. The huge ice
+wall in the distance is the west branch of the Nisqually, and is
+sometimes miscalled "Stevens Glacier." As seen here, it forms a
+"hanging glacier," which empties into the main glacier over the
+cliff.]
+
+For one thing, these roads have put it within the power of
+automobilists from all parts of the Coast to reach the grandest of
+American mountains and the largest glaciers of the United States south
+of Alaska. They connect at Tacoma, with excellent roads from Seattle
+and other cities on the Sound, as well as from Portland and points
+farther south. The travel from these cities has already justified the
+construction of the roads, and is increasing every year. Even from
+California many automobile parties visit the Mountain. The railway
+travel is also fast increasing, and the opening this year of its
+transcontinental service by the Milwaukee Railway, which owns the
+Tacoma Eastern line to Ashford, is likely soon to double the number of
+those who journey to the Mountain by rail.
+
+[Illustration: A Mountain Celery.]
+
+[Illustration: Narada Falls, 185 feet, on Paradise River (altitude,
+4,572 feet). Both trail and road pass it. "Narada" is an East Indian
+word meaning "peace." The name was given many years ago by a party of
+Theosophists who visited the falls. Happily, the effort to change the
+name to "Cushman Falls" has failed.]
+
+The new government road to Paradise and the trails {p.058}
+connecting with it have, however made only a fraction of the Park
+accessible. The most important work for the conservation of this great
+alpine area and its opening to the public still remains to be done.
+Congress is now asked to provide funds for the survey and gradual
+extension of the road to the other plateaus on all sides of the peak.
+Pending the construction of the road, it is highly important that, as
+soon as the surveys can be made, bridle trails be built on the easy
+grades thus established. Not only are these roads and trails much
+needed for the convenience of visitors to the Mountain, but, with the
+closer approach of logging operations, they are year by year becoming
+more necessary to the proper policing of the Park and its protection
+against forest fires. For want of them, great sections of forest
+within the Park are liable to be swept away at any time, before the
+rangers could find their way over the scant and broken trails now
+existing. The request for better access to the other sides of the
+Mountain has received the earnest indorsement of the Washington
+legislature, the commercial organizations of the entire Coast, and the
+several mountain clubs in different parts of the country. Only
+Congress remains blind to its importance.
+
+Congressional action affecting this immediate area began in 1899. A
+tract eighteen miles square, 207,360 acres, to be known as "Ranier
+National Park,"[4] was {p.059} withdrawn from the 2,146,600 acres of
+the Pacific Forest Reserve, previously created. The area thus set
+apart as "a public park for the benefit and enjoyment of the people"
+(Act of March 2, 1899) was already known to a few enthusiasts and
+explorers as one of the world's great wonderlands. In 1861 James
+Longmire, a prospector, had built a trail from Yelm over Mashell
+mountain and up the Nisqually river to Bear Prairie. This he extended
+in 1884 to the spot now known as Longmire Springs, and thence up the
+Nisqually and Paradise rivers to the region now called Paradise Park.
+Part of this trail was widened later into a wagon road, used for many
+years by persons seeking health at the remarkable mineral springs on
+the tract which the Longmires acquired from the government before the
+establishment of the Forest Reserve.
+
+              [Footnote 4: For some years, Congress and the Interior
+              Department spelled it "Ranier"! A well-known Congressman
+              from Seattle corrected their spelling of the name of the
+              forgotten admiral, and it has since been officially
+              "Rainier National Park."]
+
+[Illustration: Washington Torrents, on Paradise River; a series of
+falls a mile in length, seen from the new road to Paradise and still
+better from the pony trail.]
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Paradise Park and the Tatoosh Range.]
+
+The Longmire road, rough as it was, long remained the best route; but
+in 1903 the Mountain found a tireless friend in the late Francis W.
+Cushman, representative from this State, who persuaded Congress to
+authorize the survey and construction of a better highway. Work was
+not begun, however, until 1906. The {p.061} yearly appropriations
+have been small, and total only $240,000 for surveys, construction and
+maintenance, to the end of the last session.
+
+[Illustration {p.060}: View from north side of the Tatoosh. 1. Crater
+Peak. 2. South Peak, or Peak Success. 3. Nisqually Glacier, with
+feeders. 4. Gibraltar Rock. 5. Camp Muir, on Cowlitz Cleaver. 6.
+Cathedral Rocks. 7. Little Tahoma. 8. Paradise Glacier. 9. Alta Vista.
+10. Camp of the Clouds. 11. Reese's Camp. 12. Sluiskin Falls. 13.
+Paradise River and Valley. 14. Mazama Ridge. 15. Reflection Lake. 16.
+Van Trump Glacier. 17. Von Trump Park. 18. Kautz Glacier. 19.
+Pyramid Peak. 20. Tahoma Glaciers. 21. Indian Henry's. Dotted line
+shows South-side route to the summit.]
+
+[Illustration: Ice Bridge, Stevens Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Sports. Tug of War between teams picked from
+the feminine contingent of the Mountaineers.]
+
+The road, as now open to Paradise valley, is a monument to the
+engineering skill of Mr. Eugene Ricksecker, United States Assistant
+Engineer, in local charge of the work. Over its even floor you go from
+the west boundary of the Forest Reserve up the north bank of the
+Nisqually river, as far as the foot of its glacier. Crossing on the
+bridge here, you climb up and up, around the face of a bluff known as
+Gap Point, where a step over the retaining wall would mean a sheer
+drop of a thousand feet into the river below. Thus you wind over to
+the Paradise river and famous Narada Falls, switch back up the side of
+the deep Paradise canyon to the beautiful valley of the same name
+above, and, still climbing, reach Camp of the Clouds and its
+picturesque tent hotel. The road has brought you a zigzag journey of
+twenty-five miles to cover an air-line distance of twelve and a gain
+in elevation of 3,600 feet. It is probably unique in its grades. It
+has no descents. Almost everywhere it is a gentle climb. {p.062}
+Below Longmire Springs the maximum grade is 2.5 per cent., and the
+average, 1.6 per cent. Beyond, the grade is steeper, but nowhere more
+than 4 per cent.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer. Tatoosh Mountains and
+Paradise Park in Winter.]
+
+The alignment and grades originally planned have been followed, but
+for want of funds only one stretch, a mile and a quarter, has yet been
+widened to the standard width of eighteen feet. Lacking money for a
+broader road, the engineers built the rest of it twelve feet wide.
+They wisely believed that early opening of the route for vehicles to
+Paradise, even though the road be less than standard width, would
+serve the public by making the Park better known, and thus arouse
+interest in making it still more accessible. It will require about
+$60,000 to complete the road to full width, and render it thoroughly
+secure.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1911, By J. H. Weer.
+Hiking through Paradise in Winter.]
+
+Of still greater importance, however, to the safety of the Park and
+its opening to public use is the carrying out of Mr. Ricksecker's fine
+plan for a road around the Mountain. His new map of the Park, printed
+at the end of this volume, shows the route proposed. Leaving the
+present road near Christine Falls, below the Nisqually glacier, he
+would double back over the hills to Indian Henry's, thence dropping
+into the canyon of Tahoma {p.064} Fork, climbing up to St. Andrew's
+Park, and so working round to the Mowich glaciers, Spray Falls, and
+the great "parks" on the north. The snout of each glacier would be
+reached in turn, and the high plateaus which the glaciers have left
+would be visited.
+
+[Illustration {p.063}: Copyright, 1910, By Asahel Curtis. Waterfall
+from snowfields on ridge above Paradise Valley.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking from Stevens Glacier down into Stevens Canyon,
+and across the Tatoosh and Cascade ranges to Mt. Adams.]
+
+Crossing Spray Park, Moraine Park and Winthrop glacier's old bed, the
+road would ascend to Grand Park and the Sour-Dough country--a region
+unsurpassed anywhere on the Mountain for the breadth and grandeur of
+its views. More descents, climbs and detours would bring it to the
+foot of White glacier, and thence through Summerland and Cowlitz Park,
+and westward to a junction with the existing road in Paradise. Its
+elevation would range between four and seven thousand feet above the
+sea. The route, as indicated on the contour map, suggests very plainly
+the engineering feats involved in hanging roads on these steep and
+deeply-carved slopes.
+
+[Illustration: Reese's Camp, a tent hotel on a ridge in Paradise Park,
+below Camp of the Clouds (Elevation, 5,557 feet). This is the usual
+starting point of parties to the summit over the South-side route, via
+Gibraltar. See p. 60.]
+
+Between eighty and a hundred miles of construction work would be
+required, costing approximately $10,000 a mile. Including the
+completion of the present {p.067} road to standard width, Congress
+will thus have to provide a round million if it wishes to give
+reasonable protection to the Park and fully achieve the purpose of
+"benefit and enjoyment" for which it was created. Such a road would
+justify the Congress which authorizes it, immortalize the engineers
+who build it, and honor the nation that owns it.
+
+[Illustration {p.065}: Climbing the "horn" on the summit of Unicorn
+Peak, the highest crag in the Tatoosh (Elevation, about 7,000 feet).
+The man who first reached the top is dimly seen in the shadow on the
+left.]
+
+[Illustration {p.066}: Stevens Canyon in October, with Mt. Adams over
+eastern end of Tatoosh range on right, and Cascade range on left. The
+snow summits on the Cascade sky-line are "Goat Peaks." Goat Lick Basin
+is in lower left corner of the picture.]
+
+[Illustration: Sluiskin Falls, 150 feet, just below Paradise Glacier,
+named after Sluiskin, the famous Indian who guided Van Trump and
+Stevens to the snow line in 1870.]
+
+Talking with President David Starr Jordan of Stanford University a few
+weeks ago, I found that famous climber of mountains greatly interested
+in the project for better roads and trails in the National Park. "How
+much will the whole thing cost?" he asked. I told him.
+
+[Illustration: An eminent scientist practices the simple life in camp
+near the Timber Line.]
+
+"Why, a million dollars would pay for the upkeep of one of our
+battleships for a whole year!" exclaimed the great advocate of
+disarmament. Whether Congress can be induced to value scenery as
+highly as battleships remains to be seen. It has already done very
+well by the Yellowstone National Park, where $2,142,720 of government
+money had been spent on road building and administration up to July 1,
+1910. No one who knows the glories of that park will deem the amount
+excessive. But with its still grander scenery, its important glaciers,
+its priceless forests, and the greater population within easy reach of
+its opportunities for study and recreation, the claims of the Rainier
+National Park are at least equal to those of the Yellowstone, and they
+should be as liberally met.
+
+[Illustration {p.068}: Nisqually Glacier, with its sources in the
+snow field of the summit. On the right is Gibraltar Rock and on the
+extreme left Kautz Glacier flows down from Peak Success. Note the
+medial moraines, resulting from junction of ice streams above. These
+apparently small lines of dirt are often great ridges of rocks, cut
+from the cliffs. The picture also illustrates how the marginal
+crevasses of a glacier point down stream from the center, though the
+center flows faster than the sides.]
+
+{p.069}
+[Illustration: The Sierra Club on Nisqually Glacier. This active
+California organization sent a large party to the Mountain in 1905.]
+
+It is not desired that the whole sum named be appropriated at once.
+Indeed, the recommendation of the engineers has been far more modest.
+As far back as 1907, Maj. H. M. Chittenden of the United States
+Engineer Corps, in charge, wrote as follows in his report to the
+Secretary of War:
+
+     A bridle trail around the Mountain, just under the glacier line,
+     is absolutely essential to the proper policing of the Park, and
+     very necessary for the convenience of tourists, if they are
+     really to have access to the attractions of the Park. The trail
+     should be so located that in time it may be enlarged into a wagon
+     road.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, Asahel Curtis. Lost to the World,
+7,500 feet above sea level, with an ocean of cloud rising.]
+
+This recommendation has been indorsed by Major Chittenden's successor,
+Maj. C. W. Kutz, and may be taken as expressing the conviction of the
+government {p.070} engineers as to the minimum of work needed in the
+Park at once. For the necessary surveys and the building of the
+trails, Mr. Ricksecker informs me that $50,000 will probably be
+enough. This is so insignificant in comparison with the good sought
+and the value of the national property to be protected and made
+accessible that its immediate appropriation by Congress should be
+beyond question. Nevertheless, half that amount has twice been asked
+for in measures introduced by Senator S. H. Piles, but in neither case
+did the appropriation pass both houses. It is to be hoped that the
+present Congress will give the full amount of $50,000, which will
+enable the surveys to be completed over the entire route, and trails
+to be built on most, if not all, of that route. Their widening into
+permanent roads will follow in due time, when the wonders of glacier,
+canyon and forest which they make accessible are once known.
+
+[Illustration: "Sunshine." View of the Mountain from above Sluiskin
+Falls at 3 P.M.]
+
+[Illustration: "Storm." View near the same point an hour later.]
+
+The road recently completed to Paradise Valley should be widened, by
+all means, and made safer by retaining walls at every danger point.
+But it is doubtful whether automobiles will ever be permitted above
+the bridge at the Nisqually glacier. Some automobile owners regard the
+Park as an automobile-club preserve, and insist that nothing more be
+done toward the opening of its {p.072} scenery or the conservation
+of its forest until it is made safe for them to run their touring cars
+into Paradise. This is unfortunate, because it betrays ignorance of
+the purpose of Congress in creating the National Parks, namely, the
+education and enjoyment of all the people, not the pleasure of a
+class. Moreover, no matter how wide or well-guarded the road may be
+above the bridge, it can never be wide enough to prevent a reckless
+chauffeur from causing a terrible fatality. It is necessarily a very
+crooked road, hung upon the high ledges of precipitous cliffs. While
+the road is safe for coaches drawn by well-broken horses and driven by
+trustworthy drivers, it would be criminal folly to open it to the
+crowd of automobiles that would rush to Paradise Valley. If
+automobiles are permitted to go beyond the Nisqually glacier, it
+should be only when in charge of a park officer.
+
+[Illustration {p.071}: Looking down on Nisqually Glacier from top of
+Gibraltar Rock, with storm clouds veiling the Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Measuring the Ice Flow in Nisqually Glacier. In 1905
+Prof. J. N. Le Conte of Berkeley, Cal., established the fact that this
+glacier has an average flow, in summer, of 16.2 inches a day. The
+movement is greater at the center than on the sides, and greater on
+the convex side of a curve than on the concave side. It thus is a true
+river, though a slow one. The measurements are taken by running a line
+from one lateral moraine to the other with a transit, setting stakes
+across the glacier at short intervals, and ascertaining the advance
+they make from day to day.]
+
+Even from the older and wider roads of the Yellowstone automobiles
+have been excluded, although there are no large cities near by, as
+there are here, to send hundreds of cars into that park on any
+pleasant day. The automobilists will be wise to accept their privilege
+of access to the foot of the glacier, and use it with care, too.
+Several serious accidents have already occurred, and if greater care
+is not exercised, the Interior Department will apply the Yellowstone
+rule, at least to the extent of stopping all cars at Longmires.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Miss Fay Fuller
+exploring a crevasse.]
+
+[Illustration {p.073}: Copyright 1906, By A. H. Barnes. Ice Cave,
+Paradise Glacier.]
+
+Questions like this, involving conflict between the interests of a
+class and the vital needs of the Park as a public institution,
+{p.075} give especial emphasis to the recommendation made by
+Secretary Ballinger on his last annual report. Owing to the great
+number and extent of the National Parks, and the inefficiency of the
+present "perfunctory policy" in their administration, Mr. Ballinger
+asked Congress to put the management of these institutions under a
+Bureau of National Parks, conducted by a competent commissioner, and
+organized for efficient field administration and careful inspection of
+all public work and of the conduct of concessionaries. Regarding the
+need of such a systematic and scientific organization for the
+development of the parks, he says:
+
+     A definite policy for their maintenance, supervision and
+     improvement should be established, which would enable them to be
+     gradually opened up for the convenience of tourists and campers
+     and for the careful preservation of their natural features.
+     Complete and comprehensive plans for roads, trails, telegraph and
+     telephone lines, sewer and water systems, hotel accommodations,
+     transportation, and other conveniences should be made before any
+     large amount of money is expended. The treatment of our national
+     parks, except as regards the Yellowstone, has not heretofore had
+     the benefit of any well-considered or systematic plans. In all of
+     them the road and trail problems for public travel and
+     convenience to enable tourists to obtain the benefits of scenic
+     beauties are primary, but sewage, water, and electric-power
+     problems are after all of equal importance.
+
+[Illustration: Fairy Falls in Goat Lick Basin, below Stevens Glacier.]
+
+In line with Secretary Ballinger's report, Senator Flint of California
+introduced a bill authorizing the creation of such a bureau in the
+Interior Department. The bill failed to get through at the last
+session, but I am informed by Senator Jones that it will be
+reintroduced. Its purpose is of great public importance, and the
+indorsement of the very intelligent directors of the Sierra Club in
+California argues well for its form. Every person interested in the
+development of our National Parks to fullest usefulness and the proper
+conservation of their natural beauty should work for the passage of
+the bill.
+
+[Illustration {p.076}: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Gibraltar and
+its Neighbors, showing a mile of the deeply crevassed ice-field inside
+the angle of which the great crag is the apex. On the left are Cowlitz
+Cleaver and the Bee-Hive; on the right, Cathedral Rocks.]
+
+{p.077}
+[Illustration: Crossing Carbon Glacier. On the ice slopes, it
+is customary to divide a large party into companies of ten, with an
+experienced alpinist at the head of each. Note the medial moraines on
+the glacier.]
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+THE STORY OF THE MOUNTAIN.
+
+     I asked myself, How was this colossal work performed? Who
+     chiseled these mighty and picturesque masses out of a mere
+     protuberance of earth? And the answer was at hand. Ever young,
+     ever mighty, with the vigor of a thousand worlds still within
+     him, the real sculptor was even then climbing up the eastern sky.
+     It was he who planted the glaciers on the mountain slopes, thus
+     giving gravity a plough to open out the valleys; and it is he
+     who, acting through the ages, will finally lay low these mighty
+     monuments, * * * so that the people of an older earth may see
+     mould spread and corn wave over the hidden rocks which at this
+     moment bear the weight of the Jungfrau.--_John Tyndall: "Hours of
+     Exercise in the Alps."_
+
+     The life of a glacier is one eternal grind.--_John Muir._
+
+
+Our stately Mountain, in its youth, was as comely and symmetrical a
+cone as ever graced the galaxy of volcanic peaks. To-day, while still
+young as compared with the obelisk crags of the Alps, it has already
+taken on the venerable and deeply-scarred physiognomy of a veteran. It
+is no longer merely an overgrown boy among the hills, but, cut and
+torn by the ice of centuries, it is fast assuming the dignity and
+interest of a patriarch of the mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. Reflection Lake,
+below Pinnacle Peak and the Mountain.]
+
+To some, no doubt, the smooth, youthful contours of an active volcano
+seem more beautiful than the rugged grandeur of the Weisshorn. The
+perfect cone of Mt. St. Helens, until recently in eruption, pleases
+them more than the broad dome of Mt. Adams, rounded by an explosion in
+the unknown past. But for those who love nature and the story written
+upon its {p.079} face, mountains have character as truly as men,
+and they show it in their features as clearly.
+
+[Illustration {p.078}: Looking up from Cowlitz Chimneys to Gibraltar
+and the summit. 1, Crater and Columbia's Crest. 2, Peak Success. 3,
+Upper snow fields of Nisqually Glacier. 4, Gibraltar Rock. 5, Cowlitz
+Cleaver. 6, Cathedral Rocks. 7, Little Tahoma. 8, Cowlitz Glacier. 9,
+Ingraham Glacier, emptying into the Cowlitz.]
+
+[Illustration: Divide of Paradise and Stevens Glaciers. Once probably
+separated by a chine of rock, they are now one save for a slight
+elevation in their bed, which turns them respectively toward Paradise
+Valley and Stevens Canyon.]
+
+[Illustration: Old Moraine of Stevens Glacier. Now comparatively small
+and harmless, this glacier did heavy work in its prime. Witness,
+Stevens Canyon (p. 66) and this huge pile of debris, showing that some
+time ago the glacier, finding a cliff in its way, cut it down and
+dumped it here.]
+
+Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the monarch of the
+Cascades. No longer the huge conical pimple which a volcano erected on
+the earth's crust, it bears upon it the history of its own explosion,
+which scattered its top far over the landscape, and of its losing
+battle with the sun, which, employing the heaviest of all {p.080}
+tools, is steadily destroying it. It has already lost a tenth of its
+height and a third of its bulk. The ice is cutting deeper and deeper
+into its sides. Upon three of them, it has excavated great
+amphitheaters, which it is ceaselessly driving back toward the heart
+of the peak. As if to compensate for losses in size and shapeliness,
+the Mountain presents the most important phenomena of glacial action
+to be seen in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: Climbers preparing for a night at Camp Muir (altitude
+10,000 feet), in order to get an early start for the summit. This is
+on the Cowlitz Cleaver, below Gibraltar. John Muir, the famous
+mountain climber, selected this spot as a camp in 1888. A stout cabin
+should be built here to shelter climbers.]
+
+[Illustration: The Bee-Hive, a landmark on Cowlitz Cleaver, below
+Gibraltar.]
+
+In its dimensions, however, it is still one of the world's great
+peaks. The Rainier National Park, eighteen miles square--as large as
+many counties in the East--has an elevation along its western and
+lowest boundary averaging four thousand feet above sea level. Assuming
+a diameter for the peak of only twenty miles, the {p.081} area
+occupied by this creature of a volcano exceeds three hundred square
+miles. Of its vast surface upwards of 32,500 acres, or about fifty-one
+square miles, are covered by glaciers or the fields of perpetual snow
+which feed them. A straight line drawn through from the end of North
+Tahoma glacier, on the west side, to the end of White glacier, on the
+east, would be thirteen miles long. The circumference of the crest on
+the 10,000-foot contour is nearly seven miles. Its glacial system is,
+and doubtless has long been, the most extensive on the continent,
+south of Alaska; it is said by scientists to outrank that of any
+mountain in Europe. The twelve primary glaciers vary in length from
+three to eight miles, and from half a mile to three miles in width.
+There are nearly as many "interglaciers," or smaller ice streams which
+gather their snow supply, not from the neve fields of the summit, but
+within the wedges of rock which the greater glaciers have left
+pointing upward on the higher slopes.
+
+[Illustration: Mazama Club on Cowlitz Chimneys, looking across the
+ice-stream of the Cowlitz Glacier.]
+
+[Illustration: Climbing Cowlitz Cleaver to Gibraltar. This hacked and
+weather-worn spine left by the glaciers forms one wing of a great
+inverted V, with Gibraltar as its apex. On the other side of it is a
+drop of several thousand feet to Nisqually Glacier.]
+
+The geological story may be told in a few untechnical words. As those
+folds in the earth's crust which parallel the coast were slowly formed
+by the lateral pressure of sea upon land, fractures often occurred in
+the general incline thus {p.082} created. Through the fissures that
+resulted the subterranean fires thrust molten rock. In many cases, the
+expulsion was of sufficient amount and duration to form clearly
+defined volcanic craters. The most active craters built up, by
+continued eruptions of lava and ashes, a great series of cones now
+seen on both sides of the Cordillera, that huge mountain system which
+borders the Pacific from Behring sea to the Straits of Magellan.
+Tacoma-Rainier is one of the more important units in this army of
+volcanic giants.
+
+[Illustration: Mazamas rounding Gibraltar--a reminiscence of the
+ascent by the Portland club in 1905. The precipice rises more than
+1000 feet above the trail which offers a precarious footing at the
+head of a steep slope of loose talus.]
+
+Unlike some of its companions, however, it owes its bulk less to lava
+flows than to the explosive eruptions which threw forth bombs and
+scoriae. It is a mass of agglomerates, with only occasional strata of
+solid volcanic rock. This becomes evident to one who inspects the
+exposed sides of any of the canyons, or of the great cliffs, Gibraltar
+Rock, Little Tahoma or Russell Peak. It is made clear in such pictures
+as are on this page and the next.
+
+This looseness of structure accounts for the rapidity with which the
+glaciers are cutting into the peak, and carrying it away. Most of them
+carry an extraordinary amount of debris, to be deposited in lateral or
+terminal moraines, or dropped in streams which they feed. They are
+rivers of rock as well as of ice.
+
+[Illustration: Under the walls of Gibraltar.]
+
+{p.083} That the glaciers of this and every other mountain in the
+northern hemisphere are receding, and that they are now mere pygmies
+compared with their former selves, is well known. What their
+destructive power must have been when their volume was many times
+greater than now may be judged from the moraines along their former
+channels. Some of these ridges are hundreds of feet in height. As you
+go to the Mountain from Tacoma, either by the Tacoma Eastern railway
+or the Nisqually canyon road, you find them everywhere above the
+prairies. They are largest on the north side of the Mountain, because
+there the largest glaciers have been busy. Many of them, on all sides,
+are covered with forests that must be centuries old.
+
+Even now, diminished as they are, the glaciers are fast transporting
+the Mountain toward the sea. Wherever a glacier skirts a cliff, it is
+cutting into its side, as it cuts into its own bed below. From the
+overhanging rocks, too, debris falls as a result of "weathering." The
+daily ebb and flow of frost and heat help greatly to tear down the
+cliffs. Thus marginal moraines built of the debris begin to form, on
+the ice, far up the side of the peak. As the glacier advances, driven
+by its weight and the resistless mass of snow above, it is often
+joined by another glacier, bringing its own marginal moraines. Where
+the two meet, a medial moraine results. (See illustrations, pp. 68 and
+77.) Some medial moraines are many feet high. Trees are found growing
+on them. In Switzerland houses are built upon them. Often the debris
+which they transport, as the ice carries them forward, includes rocks
+as big as a ship.
+
+[Illustration: One of the bedrooms at Camp Muir.]
+
+[Illustration {p.084}: A perilous position on the edge of a great
+crevasse. Cowlitz Glacier, near end of Cathedral Rocks.]
+
+A glacier's flow varies from a hundred to a thousand feet or more a
+year, depending upon {p.085} its volume, its width, and the slope of
+its bed. As the decades pass, its level is greatly lowered by the
+melting of the ice. More and more, earth and rocks accumulate upon the
+surface, as it travels onward, and are scattered over it by the rains
+and melting snow. At last, in its old age, when far down its canyon,
+the glacier is completely hidden, save where crevasses reveal the ice.
+Only at its snout, where it breaks off, as a rule, in a high wall of
+ice, do we realize how huge a volume and weight it must have, far
+above toward its sources, or why so many of the crevasses on the upper
+ice fields seem almost bottomless.
+
+[Illustration: Climbing the "Chute," west side of Gibraltar. Here the
+guides cut steps in the ice.]
+
+These hints of the almost inconceivable mass of a glacier, with its
+millions of millions of tons, suggest how much of the Mountain has
+already been whittled and planed away. But here we may do better than
+speculate. The original surface of the peak is clearly indicated by
+the tops of the great rocks which have survived the glacial
+sculpturing. These rise from one to two thousand feet above the
+glaciers, which are themselves several thousand feet in depth. The
+best known of them is the point formed by Gibraltar and the ridges
+that stretch downward from it, Cowlitz Cleaver and Cathedral Rocks,
+making a great inverted V. Eastward of this, another V with its apex
+toward the summit, is called Little Tahoma; and beyond, still another,
+Steamboat Prow, forming the tip of "The Wedge."
+
+Spines of rock like these are found on all sides of the peak. They
+help us to estimate its greater circumference and bulk, before the
+glaciers had chiseled so deep.
+
+[Illustration: Looking from top of Gibraltar to the Summit. Elevation
+of camera, 12,300 feet. In distance is seen the rim of the crater. The
+route to this is a steady climb, with 2,000 feet of ascent in one mile
+of distance. Many detours have to be made to avoid crevasses. Note the
+big crevasse stretching away on right--a "Bergschrund," as the Swiss
+call a break where one side falls below the other. The stratification
+on its side shows in each layer a year's snow, packed into ice.]
+
+{p.086} But they do even more. Wherever lava flows occurred in the
+building of the Mountain, strata formed; and such stratification is
+clearly seen at intervals on the sides of the great rocks just
+mentioned. Its incline, of course, is that of the former surface. The
+strata point upward--not toward the summit which we see, but far above
+it. For this reason the geologists who have examined the aretes most
+closely are agreed that the peak has lost nearly two thousand feet of
+its height. It blew its own head off!
+
+Such explosive eruptions are among the worst vices of volcanoes. Every
+visitor to Naples remembers how plainly the landscape north of
+Vesuvius tells of a prehistoric decapitation, which left only a low,
+broad platform, on the south rim of which the little Vesuvius that
+many of us have climbed was formed by later eruptions, while a part of
+the north rim is well defined in "Monte Somma." Similarly, here at
+home, Mt. Adams and Mt. Baker are truncated cones, while, on the other
+hand, St. Helens and Hood are still symmetrical.
+
+Like Vesuvius, too, Rainier-Tacoma has built upon the plateau left
+when it lost its head. Peak Success, overlooking Indian Henry's, and
+Liberty Cap, the northern elevation, seen from Seattle and Tacoma, are
+nearly three miles apart on the west side of the broad summit. These
+are parts of the rim of the old crater. East of the line uniting them,
+and about two miles from each, the volcano built up an elevation now
+known as Crater Peak, comprising two small adjacent craters. These
+burnt-out craters are now filled with snow, and where the rims touch,
+a big snow-hill rises--the strange creature of eddying winds that
+sweep up through the great flume cut by volcanic explosion and
+glacial action in the west side of the peak. (See pp. 14, 27, and 52.)
+
+[Illustration {p.087}: View South from Cowlitz Glacier: elevation,
+8,000 feet. Seven miles away are the huge eastern peaks of the
+Tatoosh. The Cascades beyond break in Cispus Pass, and rise, on the
+left, to the glacier summits called Goat Peaks. The truncated cone of
+Mt. Adams, more than forty miles away, crowns the sky-line.]
+
+{p.088}
+[Illustration: These views show the larger of the two comparatively
+modern and small craters on the broad platform left by the explosion
+which decapitated the Peak. Prof. Flett measured this crater, and
+found it 1,600 feet from north to south, and 1,450 feet from east to
+west. The other, much smaller, adjoins it so closely that their rims
+touch. Together they form an eminence of 1,000 feet (Crater Peak), at
+a distance of about two miles from North Peak (Liberty Cap) and South
+Peak (Peak Success). At the junction of their rims is the great snow
+hill (on right of view) called "Columbia's Crest." This is the actual
+summit. The volcano having long been inactive, the craters are filled
+with snow, but the residual heat causes steam and gases to escape in
+places along their rims.]
+
+[Illustration {p.089}]
+
+This mound of snow is the present actual top. Believing it the highest
+point in the United States south of Alaska, a party of climbers, in
+1894, named it "Columbia's Crest." This was long thought to be the
+Mountain's rightful distinction, for different computations by experts
+gave various elevations ranging as high as 14,529 feet, with none
+prior to 1902 giving less than 14,444 feet. Even upon a government map
+published as late as 1907 the height is stated as 14,526 feet. In view
+of this variety of expert opinion, the flattering name, not
+unnaturally, has stuck, in spite of the fact that the government
+geographers have now adopted, for the Dictionary of Altitudes, the
+height found by the United States Geological Survey in 1902, 14,363
+feet. That decision leaves the honor of being the loftiest peak
+between Alaska and Mexico to Mt. Whitney in the California Sierra
+(14,502 feet).
+
+[Illustration: Steam Caves in one of the craters. The residual heat of
+the extinct volcano causes steam and gases to escape from vents in the
+rims of the two small craters. Alpinists often spend a night in the
+caves thus formed in the snow.]
+
+{p.089}
+[Illustration: North Peak, named "Liberty Cap" because of its
+resemblance to the Bonnet Rouge of the French Revolutionists.
+Elevation, about 14,000 feet. View taken from the side of Crater Peak.
+Distance, nearly two miles.]
+
+The definitive map of the National Park which was begun last summer by
+the Geological Survey, with Mr. Francois E. Matthes in charge, will
+establish the elevations of all important landmarks in the Park. Among
+these will be the Mountain itself. Whether this will add much, if
+anything, to the current figure of the Dictionary is uncertain. In any
+case, the result will not lessen the pride of the Northwest in its
+great peak. A few feet of height signify nothing. No California
+mountain masked behind the Sierra can vie in majesty with this lonely
+pile that rises in stately grandeur from the shores of Puget Sound.
+
+[Illustration {p.090}: Goat Peaks, glacier summits in the Cascades,
+southeast of the Mountain. Elevation, about 8,000 feet, A branch of
+the Cowlitz is seen flowing down from the glaciers above.]
+
+[Illustration {p.091}: Copyright 1907, By W. P. Romans. Spray Park,
+from Fay Peak, showing the beautiful region between the Carbon and
+North Mowich Glaciers.]
+
+{p.093}
+[Illustration: Ice-bound Lake in Cowlitz Park, with top of
+Little Tahoma in distance.]
+
+[Illustration: Crevasses in Cowlitz Glacier, with waterfall dropping
+from Cowlitz Park, over basaltic cliffs.]
+
+The wide area which the Mountain thrusts far up into the sky is a
+highly efficient condenser of moisture. Near to the Pacific as it is,
+its broad summit and upper slopes collect several hundred feet of snow
+each year from the warm Chinooks blowing in from the west. On all
+sides this vast mass presses down, hardened into solid granular neve,
+to feed the twelve primary glaciers. Starting eastward from Paradise
+Valley, these principal ice-streams are: Cowlitz and Ingraham
+glaciers; White or White River glacier, largest of all; Winthrop
+glacier, named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, in whose romance of
+travel, "The Canoe and the Saddle," the ancient Indian name "Tacoma"
+was first printed; Carbon, North and South Mowich, Puyallup, North and
+South Tahoma, Kautz and Nisqually glaciers. The most important
+secondary glaciers, or "interglaciers," rising within the great rock
+wedges which I have described, are called Interglacier, Frying-Pan,
+{p.094} Stevens, Paradise and Van Trump. All of these are of the true
+Alpine type; that is, they are moving rivers of ice, as distinguished
+from "continental glaciers," the ice caps which cover vast regions in
+the Arctic and Antarctic.
+
+[Illustration: Crossing a precipitous slope on White Glacier. Little
+Tahoma in distance.]
+
+In thus naming the glaciers, I have followed the time-honored local
+usage, giving the names applied by the earliest explorers and since
+used with little variation in the Northwest. There has been some
+confusion, however, chiefly owing to a recent government map. For
+instance, in that publication, White glacier, properly so called
+because it is the main feeder of the White river, was named Emmons
+glacier, after S. F. Emmons, a geologist who was one of the first to
+visit it. It is interesting to note that in his reports Mr. Emmons
+himself called this the White River glacier. On the other hand, the
+map mentioned, after displacing the name White from the larger glacier
+to which it logically belongs, gave it to the ice-stream feeding
+another branch of the White river, namely, the glacier always locally
+called the Winthrop, and so called by Prof. Russell in his report to
+the Geological Survey in 1897.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, By S. C. Smith. Climbing Goat Peaks,
+in the Cascades, with the Mountain twenty miles away.]
+
+[Illustration {p.095}: Looking up White Glacier (right), from a point
+on its lower end, showing vast amount of morainal debris carried down
+by this glacier. Little Tahoma in middle distance; Gibraltar and
+Cathedral Rocks on extreme right; "Goat Island" on left. Elevation of
+camera, about 4,500 feet. Note the "cloud banner" which the crag has
+flung to the breeze.]
+
+{p.096}
+[Illustration: The Mountain seen from the top of Cascade
+range, with party starting west over the forest trails for Paradise.]
+
+[Illustration: Great moraine built by Frying-Pan Glacier on side of
+"Goat Island."]
+
+Similarly, North and South Mowich, names of the streams to which they
+give birth, were miscalled Willis and Edmunds glaciers, after Bailey
+Willis, geologist, and George F. Edmunds, late United States senator,
+who visited the Mountain many years ago. The Mowich rivers were so
+named by the Indians from the fact that, in the great rocks on the
+northwest side of the peak, just below the summit, they saw the figure
+of the mowich, or deer. The deer of rock is there still--he may be
+seen in several pictures in this volume,--and so long as he keeps to
+his icy pasture it will be difficult to displace his name from the
+glaciers and rivers below. The southern branch of the great Tahoma
+glacier, locally called South Tahoma glacier, this map renamed Wilson
+glacier, for A. D. Wilson, Emmons's companion in exploration. Finally,
+the name of General Hazard Stevens, who, {p.097} with Mr. Van Trump,
+made the first ascent of the peak in 1870, was misplaced, being given
+to the west branch of the Nisqually, whereas the general usage has
+fixed the name of that pioneer upon the well-defined interglacier east
+of the Paradise, and above Stevens canyon, which in its prime it
+carved on the side of the Mountain. General Stevens himself writes me
+from Boston that this is the correct usage.
+
+[Illustration: Coming around Frying-Pan Glacier, below Little Tahoma.]
+
+Such errors in an official document are the more inexcusable because
+their author ignored local names recognized in the earlier
+publications of the government and its agents. In such matters, too,
+the safe principle is to follow local custom where that is logical and
+established. The new map prepared by Mr. Ricksecker, and printed
+herewith, returns to the older and better usage. Unless good reason
+can be shown for departing from it, his careful compilation should be
+followed. Willis Wall, above Carbon Glacier, appropriately recalls the
+work of Bailey Willis. The explorations of Emmons and Wilson may well
+be commemorated by landmarks as yet unnamed, not by displacing fit
+names long current.
+
+In connection with his survey of the Park, Mr. Matthes has been
+authorized to collect local testimony as to established names within
+that area, and to invite suggestions as to appropriate names for
+landmarks not yet definitely named. His report will doubtless go to
+the National Geographic Board for final decision on the names
+recommended. Thus, in time, we may hope to see this awkward and
+confusing tangle in mountain nomenclature straightened out.
+
+[Illustration: Sunrise above the clouds, seen from Camp Curtis, on the
+Wedge, (altitude 9,500 feet); White Glacier below. This camp was named
+by the Mountaineers in 1909, in honor of Asahel Curtis, the Seattle
+climber.]
+
+{p.098}
+[Illustration: Looking up from "Snipe Lake," a small pond below
+Interglacier, to the head of Winthrop Glacier and Liberty Cap.]
+
+The written history of the Mountain begins with its discovery by
+Captain George Vancouver. Its first appearance upon a map occurs in
+Vancouver's well-known report, published in 1798, after his death:
+"Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and around the World,
+1790-1795."
+
+It was in the summer of 1792, shortly after Vancouver had entered the
+Sound, he tells us, that he first saw "a very remarkable high round
+mountain, covered with snow, apparently at the southern extremity of
+the distant snowy range." A few days later he again mentions "the
+round snowy mountain," "which, after my friend Rear-Admiral Rainier, I
+distinguished by the name of Mount Rainier." Nearly all of Captain
+Vancouver's friends were thus distinguished, at the cost of the Indian
+names, to which doubtless he gave no thought. Sonorous "Kulshan" and
+unique "Whulge" were lost, in order that we might celebrate "Mr.
+Baker" and "Mr. Puget," junior officers of Vancouver's expedition.
+
+[Illustration: Passing a big crevasse on Interglacier. Sour-Dough
+Mountains on the right, with Grand Park beyond: St. Elmo Pass in
+center, Snipe Lake and Glacier Basin in depression.]
+
+[Illustration {p.099}: View north from Mt. Ruth (part of the Wedge), with
+Interglacier in foreground, the Snipe Lake country below, Sour-Dough
+Mountains on right, Grand Park in middle distance, and Mt. Baker, with
+the summits of the Selkirks, far away in Canada, on the horizon.]
+
+{p.100}
+[Illustration: Camp on St. Elmo Pass, north side of the Wedge, between
+Winthrop Glacier and Interglacier. Elevation, 9,000 feet. Winthrop
+Glacier and the fork of White River which it feeds are seen in
+distance below. The man is Maj. E. S. Ingraham, a veteran explorer of
+the Mountain, after whom Ingraham Glacier is named.]
+
+[Illustration: East face of the Mountain, from south side of the
+Wedge, showing route to the summit over White Glacier.]
+
+Happily, the fine Indian name "Tacoma" was not offered up a sacrifice
+to such obscurity. Forgotten as he is now, Peter Rainier was, in his
+time, something of a figure. After some ransacking of libraries, I
+have found a page that gives us a glimpse of a certain hard-fought
+though unequal combat, in the year 1778, between an American privateer
+and two British ships. It is of interest in connection with "Mount
+Rainier," the name recognized by the Geographic Board at Washington in
+1889 as official.
+
+     On the 8th of July, the 14-gun ship Ostrich, Commander Peter
+     Rainier, on the Jamaica station, in company with the 10-gun armed
+     brig Lowestoffe's Prize, chased a large brig. After a long run,
+     the Ostrich brought the brig, which was the American privateer
+     Polly, to action, and, after an engagement of three hours'
+     duration (by which time the Lowestoffe's Prize had arrived up and
+     {p.101} taken part in the contest), compelled her to surrender.
+     * * * * Captain Rainier was wounded by a musket ball through the
+     left breast; he could not, however, be prevailed upon to go
+     below, but remained on deck till the close of the action. He was
+     posted, and appointed to command the 64-gun ship Burford.
+     (_Allen: "Battles of the British Navy,"_ Vol. I., London, 1872).
+
+[Illustration: Admiral Peter Rainier, of the British Navy, in whose
+honor Captain George Vancouver, in 1792, named the great peak "Mt.
+Rainier."]
+
+Before quitting with Vancouver and eighteenth-century history of the
+Mountain, I note that our peak enjoyed a further honor. Captain
+Vancouver records an interesting event that took place on the
+anniversary of King George's birth;--"on which auspicious day," he
+says, "I had long since designed to take formal possession of all the
+countries we had lately been employed in exploring, in the name of,
+and for, His Britannic Majesty, his heirs and successors." And he did!
+
+[Illustration: First picture of the Mountain, from Vancouver's "Voyage
+of Discovery," London, 1798.]
+
+After Vancouver's brief mention, and the caricature of our peak
+printed in his work, literature is practically silent about the
+Mountain for more than sixty years. Those years witnessed the failure
+of England's memorable struggle to make good Vancouver's "annexation."
+Oregon was at last a state. Out of its original area Washington
+Territory had just been carved. In that year of 1853 {p.102} came
+Theodore Winthrop, of the old New England family, who was destined to
+a lasting and pathetic fame as an author of delightful books and a
+victim of the first battle of the Civil War. Sailing into what is now
+the harbor of the city of Tacoma, he there beheld the peak. We feel
+his enthusiasm as he tells of the appeal it made to him.
+
+[Illustration: Climbers on St. Elmo Pass, seen from the upper side.]
+
+[Illustration: St. Elmo Pass from north side. The name was given by
+Maj. Ingraham in 1886 because of a remarkable exhibition of St. Elmo's
+fire seen here during a great storm. A cabin is needed at this
+important crossing.]
+
+[Illustration: Avalanche Camp (11,000 feet), on the high, ragged chine
+between Carbon and Winthrop. Carbon Glacier, seen below, has cut
+through a great range, leaving Mother Mountains on the left and the
+Sluiskins, right.]
+
+     We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of
+     sheltered calmness, when I was suddenly aware of a vast white
+     shadow in the water. What cloud, piled massive on the horizon,
+     could cast an image so sharp in outline, so full of vigorous
+     detail of surface? No cloud, but a cloud compeller. It was a
+     giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming to fill the
+     aerial spheres, as its image displaced the blue deeps of tranquil
+     water. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the
+     unearthly regions of clear blue noonday sky.
+
+     Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible consort,
+     though far to the north and the south its brethren and sisters
+     dominated their realms. Of all the peaks from California to
+     {p.103} Frazer's River, this one before me was royalest. Mount
+     Regnier[5] Christians have dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature
+     perpetuating the name of somebody or nobody. More melodiously the
+     Siwashes call it Tacoma,--a generic term also applied to all snow
+     peaks. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed volcanic dome, or
+     an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps not yet wholly
+     lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more of
+     feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and
+     hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer
+     and more divine.
+
+              [Footnote 5: Winthrop's error was a common one at that
+              time and has remained current till to-day. The admiral's
+              grandfather, the Huguenot exile, was "Regnier," but his
+              descendants anglicized the patronymic into "Rainier."]
+
+     No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a
+     virginal mountain, distant from human inquisitiveness as a marble
+     goddess is from human loves. Yet there was nothing unsympathetic
+     in its isolation, or despotic in its distant majesty. Only the
+     thought of eternal peace arose from this heaven-upbearing
+     monument like incense, and, overflowing, filled the world with
+     deep and holy calm.
+
+     Our lives demand visual images that can be symbols to us of the
+     grandeur or the sweetness of repose. The noble works of nature,
+     and mountains most of all,
+
+                        "have power to make
+  Our noisy years seem moments in the being
+  Of the eternal silence."
+
+     And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed
+     from it and entered into my being a thought and image of solemn
+     beauty, which I could thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I
+     must {p.104} have peace or die. For such emotion years of
+     pilgrimage were worthily spent. ("_The Canoe and the Saddle_,"
+     published posthumously in 1862).
+
+[Illustration: Russell Peak, from Avalanche Camp, 2,500 feet below.
+Named for Prof. Israel C. Russell, geologist.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking up Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp.]
+
+[Illustration: Looking across Winthrop Glacier from Avalanche Camp to
+Steamboat Prow (the Wedge) and St. Elmo Pass. Elevation of camera,
+11,000 feet.]
+
+In the controversy over the Mountain's name, some persons have been
+misled into imaging Winthrop a fabricator of pseudo-Indian
+nomenclature. But his work bears scrutiny. He wrote before there was
+any dispute as to the name, or any rivalry between towns to confound
+partisanship with scholarship. He was in the Territory while Captain
+George B. McClellan, was surveying the Cascades to find a pass for a
+railroad. He was in close touch with McClellan's party, and doubtless
+knew well its able ethnologist, George Gibbs, the Harvard man whose
+works on the Indian languages of the Northwest are the foundation of
+all later books in that field. Although he first learned it from the
+Indians, in all likelihood he discussed the name "Tacoma" with Gibbs,
+who was already collecting material for his writings, published in the
+{p.107} report of the Survey and in the "Contributions" of the
+Smithsonian Institution. Among these are the vocabularies of a score
+of Indian dialects, which must be mentioned here because they are
+conclusive as to the form, meaning and application of the name.
+
+[Illustration {p.105}: View south from the Sluiskin Mountains across
+Moraine Park to the head of Carbon Glacier. Elevation of camera, 6,500
+feet. Moraine Park, below, was until recently the bed of an
+interglacier. On the extreme left, Avalanche Camp and Russell Peak are
+seen between Carbon and Winthrop Glaciers.]
+
+[Illustration {p.106}: Portion of Spray Park, with north-side view of
+the Mountain, showing Observation Rock and timber line. Elevation of
+camera, 7,000 feet.]
+
+[Illustration: Climbing the seracs of Winthrop Glacier.]
+
+In his vocabulary of the Winatsha (Wenatchee) language, Gibbs entered:
+"T'koma, snow peak." In that of the Niswalli (Nisqually), he noted:
+"Takob, the name of Mt. Rainier." "T'kope," Chinook for white, is
+evidently closely allied. Gibbs himself tells us that the Northwestern
+dialects treated b and m as convertible. "Takob" is equivalent to
+"Takom" or "T'koma." Far, then, from coining the word, Winthrop did
+not even change its Indian form, as some have supposed, by modifying
+the mouth-filling "Tahoma" of the Yakimas into the simpler, stronger
+and more musical "Tacoma." This is as pure Indian as the other, and
+Winthrop's popularization of the word was a public service, as
+perpetuating one of the most significant of our Indian place-names.
+
+I have said thus much, not to revive a musty and, to me, very amusing
+quarrel, but because correspondents in different parts of the country
+have asked regarding facts that are naturally part of the history of
+the Mountain. Some would even have me stir the embers of that ancient
+controversy. For instance, here is the _Bulletin of the Geographical
+Society of Philadelphia_ taking me to task:
+
+     This book would also do a great service if it would help
+     popularize the name "Tacoma" in spite of the Mountain's official
+     designation "Rainier"--a name to which it has no right when its
+     old Indian name is at once so beautiful and appropriate. It is to
+     be regretted that a more vigorous protest has not been made
+     against the modern name, and also against such propositions as
+     that of changing "Narada Falls" to "Cushman Falls."
+
+[Illustration: Ice pinnacles on the Carbon.]
+
+The mistaken attempt to displace the name of Narada Falls was
+still-born from the start, and needed no help to kill it. There are
+many unnamed landmarks {p.108} in the National Park ready to
+commemorate Mr. Cushman's ambition to make the Mountain a real
+possession of all the people. As to the other matter--the name of the
+peak itself,--that may safely be left to the American sense of humor.
+But what I have said is due in justice to Winthrop, one of the finest
+figures in our literary history. His work in making the peak known
+demands that his name, given by local gratitude to one of its
+important glaciers, shall not be removed.
+
+[Illustration: Among the ice bridges of the Carbon.]
+
+A word about the industrial value of the Mountain may not be without
+interest in this day of electricity. Within a radius of sixty miles of
+the head of Puget Sound, more water descends from high levels to the
+sea than in any other similar area in the United States. A great part
+of this is collected on the largest peak. Hydraulic engineers have
+estimated, on investigation, an average annual precipitation, for the
+summit and upper slopes, of at least 180 inches, or four times the
+rainfall in Tacoma or Seattle. The melting snows feed the White,
+Puyallup and Nisqually rivers, large streams flowing into the Sound,
+and the Cowlitz, an important tributary of the Columbia. The minimum
+flow of these streams is computed at more than 1200 second feet, while
+their average flow is nearly twice that total.
+
+The utilization of this large water supply on the steep mountain
+slopes began in 1904 with the erection of the Electron plant of the
+Puget Sound Power Company. For this the water is diverted from the
+Puyallup river ten miles from the end of its glacier, and 1750 feet
+above sea level, and carried ten miles more in an open flume to a
+reservoir, from which four steel penstocks, each four feet in
+diameter, drop it to the power house 900 feet below. The plant
+generates 28,000 horse power, which is conveyed to Tacoma, twenty-five
+miles distant, at a pressure of 60,000 volts, and there is distributed
+for the operation of street railways, lights and factories in that
+city and Seattle.
+
+[Illustration {p.109}: Mountain Climbers in Crevasse on Carbon
+Glacier.]
+
+A more important development is in progress on the larger White river
+near Buckley, where the Pacific Coast Power Company is diverting the
+water by a dam and eight-mile canal to Lake Tapps, elevation 540 feet
+above tide. From this {p.111} great reservoir it will be taken
+through a tunnel and pipe line to the generating plant at Dieringer,
+elevation 65 feet. The 100,000 horse power ultimately to be produced
+here will be carried fifteen miles to Tacoma, for sale to
+manufacturers in the Puget Sound cities.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Building Tacoma's Electric Power Plant on the Nisqually
+Canyon. Upper view shows site of retention dam, above tunnel; middle
+view, end of tunnel, where pipeline crosses the canyon on a bridge;
+lower view, site of the generating plant (see p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Both these plants are enterprises of Stone & Webster, of Boston. A
+competitive plant is now nearing completion by the city of Tacoma,
+utilizing the third of the rivers emptying into the Sound. The
+Nisqually is dammed above its famous canyon, at an elevation of 970
+feet, where its minimum flow is 300 second feet. The water will be
+carried through a 10,000-foot tunnel and over a bridge to a reservoir
+at La Grande, from which the penstocks will carry it down the side of
+the canyon {p.112} to the 40,000 horse-power generating plant built
+on a narrow shelf a few feet above the river. The city expects to be
+able to produce power for its own use, with a considerable margin for
+sale, at a cost at least as low as can be attained anywhere in the
+United States.
+
+[Illustration: Hydro-electric plant at Electron, on the Puyallup
+River, producing 28,000 h. p.]
+
+The rocks of which the Mountain is composed are mainly andesites of
+different classes and basalt. But the peak rests upon a platform of
+granite, into which the glaciers have cut in their progress. Fine
+exposures of the older and harder rock are seen on the Nisqually, just
+below the present end of its glacier, as well as on the Carbon and in
+Moraine Park. This accounts for the fact that the river beds are full
+of granite bowlders, which are grinding the softer volcanic shingle
+into soil. Thus the glaciers are not only fast deforming the peak.
+They are "sowing the seeds of continents to be."
+
+[Illustration: Cutting canal to divert White River into Lake Tapps.]
+
+{p.113}
+[Illustration: Mystic Lake in Moraine Park.]
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+THE CLIMBERS.
+
+     Climb the mountains, and get their good tidings. Nature's peace
+     will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will
+     blow their own freshness into you, and the storms their energy,
+     while cares will drop off like autumn leaves.--_John Muir._
+
+     Upwards--towards the peaks, towards the stars, and towards the
+     great silence!--_Ibsen._
+
+
+Given good muscles and wind, the other requisites for an ascent of the
+Mountain are a competent guide and grit. It offers few problems like
+those confronting the climber of the older and more crag-like Alps.
+There are no perpendicular cliffs to scale, no abysses to swing across
+on a rope. If you can stand the punishment of a long up-hill pull,
+over loose volcanic talus and the rough ice, you may safely join a
+party for Gibraltar Rock and the summit. But the ascent should not be
+attempted without first spending some time in "try-outs" on lower
+elevations, both to prepare one's muscles for climbing and descending
+steep slopes, and to accustom one's lungs to the rarer atmosphere of
+high altitudes. Such preparation will save much discomfort, including,
+perhaps, a visit of "mountain sickness."
+
+[Illustration: Glacier Table on Winthrop Glacier. This phenomenon is
+due to the melting of the glacier, save where sheltered by the rock.
+Under the sun's rays, these "tables" incline more and more to the
+south, until they slide off their pedestals.]
+
+Another warning must be given to the general tourist. Do not try to
+climb the Mountain without guides. The seasoned alpinist, of course,
+will trust to previous experience on other peaks, and may find his
+climb here comparatively safe and easy. But the fate of {p.115} T.
+Y. Callaghan and Joseph W. Stevens, of Trenton, N. J., who perished on
+the glaciers in August, 1909, should serve as a warning against
+over-confidence. Unless one has intimate acquaintance with the ways of
+the great ice peaks, he should never attack such a wilderness of
+crevasses and shifting snow-slopes save in company of those who know
+its fickle trails.
+
+[Illustration {p.114}: Carbon River below its Gorge, and Mother
+Mountains. This range was so named because of a rude resemblance to
+the up-turned face of a woman seen here in the sky-line, while the
+view of snowy Liberty Cap beyond and the milky whiteness of the stream
+gave rise to the pleasing fiction that the Indian name of the peak
+meant "nourishing breast." "Tacoma" meant simply the Snow Mountain.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, By C. E. Cutter. Oldest and youngest
+climbers, Gen. Hazard Stevens and Jesse McRae. General Stevens, with
+P. B. Van Trump, in 1870, made the first ascent. In 1905, he came west
+from Boston and joined the Mazamas in their climb. The picture shows
+him before his tent in Paradise Park. He was then 63 years old.]
+
+Under the experienced guides, many climbers reach Crater Peak each
+summer, and no accidents of a serious nature have occurred. The
+successful climbers numbered one hundred and fifty-nine in 1910. Many
+more go only as far as Gibraltar, or even to McClure Rock (Elevation,
+7,385 feet), and are well rewarded by the magnificent views which
+these points command of the south-side glaciers and aretes, with the
+ranges lying below. The name "McClure Rock" is a memorial of the
+saddest tragedy of the Mountain. Over the slope below this landmark
+Prof. Edgar McClure of the University of Oregon fell to his death on
+the night of July 27, 1897. He had spent the day in severe scientific
+labor on the summit, and was hurrying down in the moonlight, much
+wearied, to Reese's Camp for the night. Going ahead of his companions,
+to find a safe path for them, he called back that the ice was too
+steep. Then there was silence. Either he slipped in trying to
+re-ascend the slope, or he fainted from exhaustion. His body was found
+on the rocks below by his comrades of the Mazama Club.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1897, By E. S. Curtis. P. B. Van Trump, on
+his old campground, above Sluiskin Falls, where he and Gen. Stevens
+camped in 1870.]
+
+If one is going the popular route and is equal to so long and unbroken
+a climb, he may start with his guide from Reese's before dawn, and be
+on Columbia's Crest by 11 o'clock. But climbers frequently go up
+Cowlitz Cleaver in the evening, and spend the night at Camp Muir (see
+pp. 60 and 80). This ledge below Gibraltar gets its name from John
+Muir, the famous mountaineer, who, on his ascent in 1888, suggested it
+as a camping place because the presence of pumice indicated the
+{p.116} absence of severe winds. It offers none of the conveniences
+of a camp save a wind-break, and even in that respect no one has ever
+suffered for want of fresh air. It is highly desirable that a cabin be
+erected here for the convenience of climbers. Such shelters as the
+Alpine clubs have built on the high shoulders of many peaks in
+Switzerland are much needed, not only at Muir, but also on the Wedge,
+as well as inside one of the craters, where, doubtless a way might be
+found to utilize the residuary heat of the volcano for the comfort of
+the climbers.
+
+[Illustration: Lower Spray Park, with Mother Mountains beyond. One of
+the most beautiful alpine vales in the great Spray Park region.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By J. Edward B. Greene.
+John Muir, President of the Sierra Club and foremost of American
+mountaineers
+
+  "His daily teachers had been woods and rills,
+  The silence that is in the starry sky,
+  The sleep that is among the lonely hills."]
+
+Going to the summit by this route, the important thing is to pass
+Gibraltar early, before the sun starts the daily shower of icicles and
+rocks from the cliff over the narrow trail (see p. 83). This is the
+most dangerous point, but no lives have been lost here. Everywhere, of
+course, caution is needed, and strict obedience to the {p.117} guide.
+Once up the steep flume caused by the melting of the ice where it
+borders the rock (p. 85), the climber threads his way among the
+crevasses and snow-mounds for nearly two miles, until the crater is
+reached (pp. 86, 88, 89).
+
+[Illustration: Coasting in Moraine Park in the August sunshine.]
+
+The east-side route (p. 100) involves less danger, perhaps, but it is
+a longer climb, with no resting places or wind-breaks. It has been
+used less, because it is farther from Paradise Valley. Starting from a
+night's encampment on the Wedge (p. 97), parties descend to White
+glacier, and, over its steep incline of dazzling ice, gain the summit
+in eight or nine hours.
+
+[Illustration: Sunset on Crater Lake, north of Spray Park, with the
+Mountain in distance.]
+
+The first attempt to scale the Mountain was made in 1857 by Lieutenant
+(later General) A. V. Kautz. There is no foundation for the claim
+sometimes heard that Dr. W. F. Tolmie, Hudson's Bay Company agent at
+Fort Nisqually, who made a botanizing trip to the lower slopes in
+1833, attempted the peak. Lieutenant Kautz, with two companions from
+fort Steilacoom, climbed the arete between the glacier now named after
+him and the Nisqually glacier, but fearing a night on the summit, and
+knowing nothing of the steam caves in the crater, he turned back when
+probably at the crest of the south peak. Writing in the _Overland
+Monthly_ for May, 1875, he says that, "although there were points
+higher yet, the {p.120} Mountain spread out comparatively flat,"
+having the form of "a ridge perhaps two miles in length, with an angle
+about half-way, and depressions between the angle and each end of the
+ridge, which gave the summit the appearance of three small peaks."
+
+[Illustration {p.118}: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Amphitheatre
+of Carbon Glacier, the most noteworthy example of glacial sculpture
+upon the Mountain. It is nearly three miles wide. No other glacier has
+cut so deeply into the side of the peak. The Carbon was once two
+glaciers, separated by a ridge, of which a remnant is still seen in
+the huge spine of rock extending down from Liberty Cap.]
+
+[Illustration {p.119}: Photo By Lea Bronson. Copyright, 1909, By P. V.
+Caesar. Avalanche falling on Willis Wall, at head of Carbon Glacier
+amphitheatre. The cliff, up to the snow cap on the summit, is more
+than 4,000 feet high and nearly perpendicular. Avalanches fall every
+day, but this picture of a big one in action is probably unique.
+Willis Wall was named for Bailey Willis, the geologist.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By A. H. Waite. Birth of Carbon
+River, with part of Willis Wall visible in distance. The great height
+of this ice front appears on noting the man near the river.]
+
+It was not until August 17, 1870, thirteen years after Kautz's partial
+victory, that the Mountain was really conquered. This was by P. B. Van
+Trump of Yelm and Hazard Stevens, son of the first governor of
+Washington, who had distinguished himself in the Civil War, and was
+then living at Olympia as a Federal revenue officer. Each of these
+pioneers on the summit has published an interesting account of how
+they got there, General Stevens in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for
+November, 1876, and Mr. Van Trump in the second volume of _Mazama_. In
+Stevens's article, "The Ascent of Takhoma," his acquaintance with the
+Indians of the early territorial period, gives weight to this note:
+
+     Tak-ho-ma or Ta-ho-ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups,
+     Nisquallys and allied tribes is the generic term for mountain,
+     used precisely as we use the word "Mount," as Takhoma Wynatchie,
+     or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply as
+     Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call
+     it "Old He."
+
+Sluiskin, an Indian celebrity whom they employed as a guide, led the
+young men the longest and hardest way, taking them over the Tatoosh
+mountains instead of directly up the Nisqually and Paradise canyons.
+From the summit of that range, they at last looked across the Paradise
+valley, and beheld the great peak "directly in front, filling up the
+whole view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude {p.121} and
+grandeur." Below them lay "long green ridges projected from the snow
+belt, with deep valleys between, each at its upper end forming the bed
+of a glacier."
+
+[Illustration: The Mountaineers building trail on the lateral moraine
+of Carbon Glacier. Without such trails, the "tenderfoot" would fare
+badly.]
+
+Descending from the Tatoosh, the explorers camped near a waterfall
+which they named Sluiskin Falls, in honor of their guide. Sluiskin now
+endeavored, in a long oration, to dissuade them from their folly.
+Avalanches and winds, he said, would sweep them from the peak, and
+even if they should reach the summit, the awful being dwelling there
+would surely punish their sacrilege. Finding his oratory vain, he
+chanted a dismal dirge till late in the night, and next morning took
+solemn leave of them.
+
+[Illustration: The Mountaineers lunching in a crevasse on White
+Glacier, 13,000 feet above the sea, on their ascent in 1909. Even
+Little Tahoma, on the left, is far below.]
+
+Stevens describes their ascent by the now familiar path, over Cowlitz
+Cleaver and past Gibraltar. From the top of that "vast, square rock
+embedded in the side of the Mountain," they turned west over the upper
+snow-fields, and thus first reached the southern peak, which they
+named "Peak Success," to commemorate their victory.
+
+     This is a long, exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out
+     from the main dome for a mile into mid-air. On the right, the
+     snow descended in a steep, unbroken sheet into the tremendous
+     {p.124} basin which lies between the southern and the northern
+     peaks, and which is enclosed by them as by two mighty arms.[6]
+     Sheltered behind a pinnacle of ice, we fastened our flags upon
+     the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the furious blast,
+     waved them in triumph with three cheers.
+
+              [Footnote 6: See illustration, page 14.]
+
+[Illustration {p.122}: Looking southeast from Mt. Rose, above Eunice
+Lake, with Mother Mountains on left, and Spray Park in distance on
+right of center. Shows outposts of alpine firs and hemlocks on the
+timber line.]
+
+[Illustration {p.123}: Looking south from Mt. Rose, across Crater Lake
+to North Mowich Glacier and Mowich Ridge. This was taken from near the
+same place as the preceding view, and eight miles from the Mountain.
+Eagle Cliff, a celebrated view point, is on the right, overlooking
+Mowich canyon.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Looking up Mowich
+Valley. One of the densely wooded regions in the National Park that
+need trails as a means of protection against fires.]
+
+It was now five o'clock. They had spent eleven hours in the ascent,
+and knowing it would be impossible to descend before nightfall, they
+saw nothing to do but burrow in the loose rock and spend the night as
+best they could. The middle peak, however, was evidently higher, and
+they determined first to visit it. Climbing the long ridge and over
+the rim of the crater, they found jets of steam and smoke issuing from
+vents on the north side.
+
+     Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both
+     exclaimed, as we warmed our benumbed extremities over one of
+     Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against
+     freezing to death, at least.... A deep cavern extended under the
+     ice. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall of stones around
+     a jet of steam. Inclosed within this shelter, we ate our lunch
+     and warmed ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the
+     orifice was too great to bear for more than an instant. The steam
+     wet us, the smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so
+     severe that our clothes froze stiff when turned away from the
+     heated jet. We passed a miserable night, freezing on one side and
+     in a hot steam-sulphur bath on the other.
+
+In October of the same year, S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson, of the
+Geological Survey, reached the snow-line by way of the Cowlitz valley
+and glacier, and ascended the peak over the same route which Stevens
+and Van Trump had discovered and which has since been the popular path
+to Crater Peak. The Kautz route, by the cleaver between Kautz and
+Nisqually glaciers, has recently been found {p.125} practicable,
+though extremely difficult. In 1891 and again the next summer, Mr. Van
+Trump made an ascent along the ridge dividing the Tahoma glaciers. In
+1905, Raglan Glascock and Ernest Dudley, members of the Sierra Club
+party visiting the Mountain, climbed the Kautz glacier, and finding
+their way barred by ice cascades, reached the summit by a thrilling
+rock climb over the cliff above the South Tahoma glacier. This
+precipice (see p. 37) they found to be a series of rock terraces,
+often testing the strength and nerve of the climbers. In _Sunset
+Magazine_ for November, 1895, Mr. Glascock has told the story of their
+struggle and reward.
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Spray Falls, a
+splendid scenic feature of the north side, where it drops more than
+five hundred feet from the Spray Park table-land into the canyon of
+North Mowich Glacier.]
+
+     Here the basalt terminated, and a red porous formation began,
+     which crumbled in the hand. This part of the cliff lay a little
+     out from the perpendicular, and there was apparently no way of
+     surmounting it. I looked at my watch. It was 4:15. In a flash the
+     whole situation came to me. It would be impossible to return and
+     cross the crevasses before dark. We could not stay where we were.
+     Already the icy wind cut to the bone.
+
+     "We must make it. There is no going back," I said to Dudley. I
+     gave him the ice ax, and started to the ascent of the remaining
+     cliff. I climbed six feet, and was helpless. I could not get
+     back, nor go forward. One of my feet swung loose, and I felt my
+     hands slipping. Then I noticed above me, about six or eight
+     inches to my right a sharp, projecting rock. It was here or
+     never. I gave a swing, and letting go my feet entirely, I reached
+     the rock. It held, and I was swinging by my hands over a
+     two-hundred-foot void. I literally glued myself to the face of
+     the rock, searching frantically for knob or crevasse with my
+     feet. By sheer luck, my toe found a small projection, and from
+     here I gradually worked myself up until I came to a broken cleft
+     in the cliff where it was possible to brace myself and lower the
+     rope to Dudley. This last ascent had only been fifteen feet, and,
+     in reality, had taken but three or four minutes, but to me it
+     seemed hours.
+
+     At 7:45, we reached the summit of the south peak. Here we stopped
+     to look down on Camp Sierra. Long shadows spread their mantle
+     across the glaciers, and in the east lay the phantom {p.126}
+     mountain--the shadow of Rainier. A flash of light attracted our
+     attention. We saw that our companions had been watching our
+     progress.
+
+[Illustration: A rescue from a crevasse.]
+
+The White glacier route on the east side was first used in 1885 by a
+party from Snohomish. The same glacier was traversed by the
+Willis-Russell party in 1896. The first woman to make the ascent was
+Miss Fay Fuller, of Tacoma, in 1890, over the Gibraltar route.
+
+The north and northwest sides, as I have said, are as yet unconquered.
+Some members of the Mountaineers have a theory that the summit can be
+reached from Avalanche Camp by climbing along the face of Russell
+Peak, and so around to the upper snowfield of Winthrop glacier. They
+have seen mountain goats making the trip, and propose to try it
+themselves. Whether they succeed or not, this trail will never be
+popular, owing to daily landslides in the loose rock of the cliff.
+
+[Illustration: Returning from the summit. The Mountaineers ending a
+memorable outing in 1909. Winthrop Glacier in foreground, Sluiskin
+Mountains in distance.]
+
+In 1897 and 1905, the Mazama Club of Portland sent parties to the
+Mountain, each making the ascent over the Gibraltar route. The Sierra
+Club of California was also represented in the latter year by a
+delegation of climbers who took the same path to the summit. In 1909,
+the Mountaineers Club of Seattle spent several weeks on the Mountain,
+entering the National Park by the Carbon trail, camping in Moraine
+Park on the north side, exploring Spray Park and the Carbon glacier,
+crossing Winthrop glacier to the Wedge, and thence climbing White
+glacier to the summit. Many members of the Appalachian Club and
+American Alpine Clubs and of European organizations of similar purpose
+have climbed to Crater Peak, either in company with the Western clubs
+named, or in smaller parties. Noteworthy accounts of these ascents
+have been printed in the publications of the several clubs, as well as
+in magazines of wider circulation, and have done much to make the
+Mountain known to the public. The principal articles are cited in a
+bibliographical note at the end of this volume.
+
+[Illustration {p.128}: Looking down from Ptarmigan Ridge into the
+Canyon of the North Mowich Glacier and up to the cloud-wreathed Peak.]
+
+{p.129}
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. View looking west
+across Moraine Park and Carbon Glacier to Mother Mountains.]
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+THE FLORA OF THE MOUNTAIN SLOPES.
+
+By PROF. J. B. FLETT.[7]
+
+              [Footnote 7: Prof. Flett knows the Mountain well. He has
+              spent many summers in its "parks," has climbed to its
+              summit four times, has visited all its glaciers, and has
+              made a remarkable collection of its flowers. In addition
+              to the chapter on the botany of the National Park, this
+              book is indebted to him for several of its most valuable
+              illustrations.]
+
+     Of all the fire-mountains which, like beacons, once blazed along
+     the Pacific Coast, Mount Rainier is the noblest in form. Its
+     massive white dome rises out of its forests, like a world by
+     itself. Above the forests there is a zone of the loveliest
+     flowers, fifty miles in circuit and nearly two miles wide, so
+     closely planted and luxuriant that it seems as if Nature, glad to
+     make an open space between woods so dense and ice so deep, were
+     economizing the precious ground, and trying to see how many of
+     her darlings she can get together in one mountain
+     wreath--daisies, anemones, columbines, erythroniums, larkspurs,
+     etc., among which we wade knee-deep and waist-deep, the bright
+     corollas in myriads touching petal to petal. Altogether this is
+     the richest subalpine garden I ever found, a perfect floral
+     elysium.--_John Muir: "Our National Parks."_
+
+
+No one can visit the Mountain without being impressed by its wild
+flowers. These are the more noticeable because of their high color--a
+common characteristic of flowers in alpine regions. As we visit the
+upland meadows at a season when the spring flowers of the lowlands
+have gone to seed, we find there another spring season with flowers in
+still greater number and more varied in color.
+
+[Illustration: Senecio.]
+
+The base of the Mountain up to an altitude of about 4,000 feet is
+covered by a somber forest of evergreens composed of the white and
+black pines; Douglas, Lovely and Noble firs; the white cedar; spruce,
+and hemlock. There are found also several deciduous trees--large-leafed
+maple, {p.130} white alder, cottonwood, quaking aspen, vine and
+smooth-leafed maples, and several species of willows. Thus the silva
+of the lower slopes is highly varied. The forest is often interrupted
+by the glacial canyons, and, at intervals, by fire-swept areas.
+
+[Illustration: A 14-foot Fir, near Mineral Lake.]
+
+Among these foothills and valleys, lies the region of the virgin
+forest. This area is characterized by huge firs and cedars, all tall,
+straight and graceful, without a limb for 75 to 100 feet. This is
+probably the most valuable area of timber in the world, and it is one
+of the grandest parts of the Park. A death-like silence generally
+pervades this cool, dark region, where few kinds of animal life find a
+congenial abode. Occasionally the stillness is disturbed by the
+Douglas squirrel, busily gnawing off the fir cones for his winter's
+supply, or by the gentle flutter of the coy wren, darting to and fro
+among the old, fallen logs. The higher forms of vegetable life are
+also restricted to a few odd varieties. The most common of these are
+such saprophytes as _pterospora andromedea_, _allotropa virgata_, the
+so-called barber's pole, and the Indian pipe. This curious, waxy white
+plant is generally admired by all who see it, but it quickly
+disappoints those admirers who gather it by turning black.
+
+The mosses, liverworts, and lichens take possession of the trees and
+cover them with a unique decoration. The licorice fern often gains a
+foothold on the trees thus decorated, and grows luxuriantly, embedded
+in the deep growth of these plants.
+
+It is nearly impossible to get through this region without following a
+road or trail. For the safety of its priceless forest, there are far
+too few trails. In case of a forest fire it would be impossible to
+reach some areas in time to combat it with any success. Many beautiful
+regions in the lower parts of the Park are {p.131} wholly
+inaccessible. These should be opened with proper roads and trails, not
+only for their own safety, but also for the benefit of visitors.
+
+[Illustration: Indian Pipe.]
+
+The alpine meadows begin to appear at an altitude of about 5,000 feet.
+The real alpine trees, with their trim, straight trunks and drooping
+branches, are in strange contrast to their relatives of the lower
+altitude. The principal trees of the meadow area are the alpine fir,
+the alpine hemlock, and the Alaska cedar. These constitute the greater
+part of the silva of Paradise Valley. There are a few trees of the
+Lovely fir in the lower part of the valley, and a few white-barked
+pines overlooking the glaciers at timber line.
+
+[Illustration: Floral Carpet in Indian Henry's Park, showing "Mountain
+Heliotrope," more properly Valerian, and other flowers growing near
+the snow line.]
+
+[Illustration {p.132}: Mosses and Ferns, in the forest reserve, on way
+to Longmire Springs.]
+
+{p.133}
+[Illustration: A bank of White Heather.]
+
+The trees of the park zone differ greatly on different slopes. On the
+northeast and east, the white-barked pine and the alpine spruce form
+no small part of the tree groups. The white-barked pine branches out
+like the scrub oak on the prairie. It is never seen at a low altitude.
+The alpine spruce bears numerous cones all over the tree, and has
+sharp leaves, though not so sharp as its relative, the tideland
+spruce.
+
+[Illustration: Hellebore (Veratrum Viride).]
+
+Not only is there a difference in the trees on the different slopes of
+the Mountain, but there is a marked difference in the herbaceous
+plants as well. _Hesperogenia Strictlandi_ is a small, yellow plant of
+the celery family. This is very abundant, both in Spray Park and also
+in the country east of the Carbon Glacier, but rare on the south side.
+_Gilia Nuttallii_, a large, phlox-like plant, is abundant only in the
+Indian Henry region. Two anemones, one buttercup, three willows and
+one senecio seem to be confined to the White River country. The moss
+campion has been found only on Mowich.
+
+The most noticeable and abundant flower on all slopes is the avalanche
+lily (_erythronium montanum_). This plant comes up through several
+inches of the old snow crust, and forms beautiful beds of pure white
+flowers, to the exclusion of nearly all other plants. There are often
+from seven to nine blossoms on a stem. This has other popular names,
+such as deer-tongue and adder-tongue. There is also a yellow species,
+growing with the other, but less abundant. It seldom has more than one
+{p.134} or two flowers on a stem. The yellow alpine buttercup
+generally grows with the erythroniums. It also tries to rush the
+season by coming up through the snow. The western anemone is a little
+more deliberate, but is found quite near the snow. It may be known by
+its lavender, or purple flowers; and later by its large plume-like
+heads, which are no less admired than the flowers themselves.
+
+[Illustration: Alpine Hemlock and Mountain Lilies. In the struggle for
+existence at the timber line, flowers prosper, but trees fight for
+life against storm and snow.]
+
+The plants just mentioned are the harbingers of spring. Following them
+in rapid succession are many plants of various hues. The mountain
+dock, mountain dandelion, and potentilla seldom fail to appear later.
+The asters, often wrongly called daisies, are represented by several
+species, some of which blossom early, and are at their best along with
+the spring flowers. The great majority of the composite family bloom
+later, and thus prolong the gorgeous array. The lupines add much to
+the beauty of this meadow region, both at a low altitude, and also in
+the region above timber line. Their bright purple flowers, in long
+racemes, with palmate leaves, are very conspicuous on the grassy
+slopes. Between timber line and 8,500 feet, Lyall's lupine grows in
+dense silk mats, with dark purple flowers--the most beautiful plant in
+that zone.
+
+[Illustration: Mountain Asters.]
+
+Four different kinds of heather are found on the Mountain. The red
+heather is the largest and the most abundant. It grows at a lower
+altitude than the others, and is sometimes, erroneously, called Scotch
+heather. There are two kinds of white heather. One forms a prominent
+part of the {p.135} flora, often growing with the red. The other is
+less conspicuous and grows about timber line. The yellow heather also
+grows at the same altitude, and is larger and more common than the
+others. It often forms beautiful areas where other vegetation is rare.
+The white rhododendron is a beautiful shrub of the lower meadows. Its
+creamy white blossoms remind one of the cultivated azalea. There are
+several huckleberries, some with large bushes growing in the lower
+forest area, others small and adapted to the grassy meadows.
+
+[Illustration: Studying the Phlox.]
+
+[Illustration: Squaw Grass, or Mountain Lily. (Xerophyllum tenax)]
+
+The figwort family has many and curious representatives. The
+rose-purple monkey-flower is very common and conspicuous in the lower
+meadows, along the streams. It is nearly always accompanied by the
+yellow fireweed. Higher up, large meadow areas are arrayed in bright
+yellow by the alpine monkey-flower. Above timber line, two
+pentstemons, with matted leaves and short stems with brilliant purple
+and red flowers, cover large rocky patches, mixed here and there with
+lavender beds of the alpine phlox; while the amber rays of the golden
+aster, scattered through these variegated beds, lend their {p.136}
+charm to the rocky ridges. The Indian paint-brush, the speedwell, the
+elephant's trunk, and the pigeon bills are all well-known members of
+the large figwort family which does much to embellish the Mountain
+meadows. The valerian, often wrongly called "mountain heliotrope," is
+very common on the grassy slopes. Its odor can often be detected
+before it is seen. The rosy spiraea, the mountain ash, and the wild
+currant, are three common shrubs in this area. There are also numerous
+small herbaceous plants of the saxifrage family, some forming dense
+mats to the exclusion of other plants. The mertensias, polemoniums,
+and shooting stars add much to the purple and blue coloring.
+
+[Illustration: Avalanche Lilies (Erythronium montanum), sometimes
+called deer tongues, forcing their way through the lingering snow.]
+
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, By Asahel Curtis. Moraine Park,
+Sluiskin Mountains and Mystic Lake.]
+
+Two liliaceous plants of low altitude are always objects of marked
+interest. The Clintonia, popularly called alpine beauty, begins in the
+forest area, and continues up to the lower meadows. This may be known
+by its pure white blossoms and blue berries. Its leaves are oblong in
+tufts of from two to four. They spring up near the roots. The other is
+xerophyllum, mountain lily, sometimes called squaw grass, because it
+is used by the Indians in basket making. This has tall {p.138} stems
+with small fragrant flowers and coarse grass-like leaves.
+
+[Illustration {p.137}: Sunrise in Indian Henry's Park, with view of
+the southwest slope and Peak Success, showing Purple Asters, with
+bunches of Hellebore in center of the flower field.]
+
+[Illustration: Anemone Seed Pods.]
+
+The orchid family has a few curious saprophytic representatives on the
+lower slopes. Mertin's coral-root is one of the most common. This
+generally grows in clusters in the mossy woods, along the trail or
+government road above Longmire Springs. It is very common all around
+the mountain at an altitude of 3,000 to 4,500 feet. With it, grow two
+tway-blades and the rattlesnake plantain. In bogs, two species of
+piperia, with long spikes of greenish flowers, are abundant. In drier
+situations, a small form of the ladies' tresses is easily recognized
+by its spiral spike of small white flowers, which are more or less
+fragrant. In some of the swamps at the base of the mountain grows
+_Limnorchis leucostachys_. This is one of our most fragrant flowers,
+as well as one of the most beautiful, with its long spike of pure
+white blossoms.
+
+Of the ferns, the common brake is sometimes seen on the slopes near
+the terminal moraines of the glaciers. On the old moraines and cliffs
+is found the pea fern (_cryptogramma acrostichoides_), so called
+because the pinnules of its fruiting fronds resemble those of a pea
+pod. This dainty little fern with its two kinds of fronds is always
+admired by mountain visitors. It is strictly a mountain fern. The deer
+fern also has two kinds of fronds, but this grows all the way from sea
+level to the glaciers, being at its best in the dense forest area. The
+delicate oak fern grows in great abundance from Eatonville to the
+timber line, and probably does more to beautify the woods than any
+other fern. The sword fern grows in dense, radiate clusters, all
+through the mossy woods. The fronds are often five or six feet in
+length. The maidenhair fern is found along streams, waterfalls and
+moist cliffs, reaching its highest development in the deep canyons cut
+through the dense forest.
+
+On the very top of Pinnacle Peak and similar elevations, grows the
+beautiful mountain lace fern (_cheilanthes gracillima._) Nearly every
+tourist presses a souvenir of it in his notebook. _Phegopteris
+alpesteris_ is abundant along the glacial valleys, where the tall
+grasses and the beautiful array of alpine plants delight the eye.
+These ferns and grasses give a rich green color to the varigated
+slopes where nature blends so many harmonious colors in matchless
+grandeur in this great fairyland of flowers.
+
+{p.139}
+[Illustration: Wind Swept Trees on North Side, the last below the Snow
+line.]
+
+The writer has a list of about three hundred and sixty species from
+the Mountain. It includes only flowering plants and ferns. There are
+more than twenty type species named from the Mountain, not a few of
+which are found nowhere else. Its geographical position makes it the
+boundary between the arctic plants from the North and the plants of
+Oregon and California from the South. Its great altitude has a
+wonderful effect on plant life. This is seen in the trees at timber
+line, where snow rests upon them for months. Their prostrate trunks
+and gnarled branches give ample testimony to their extreme struggle
+for existence. Where the ordinary plants cease to exist the snowy
+protococcus holds undisputed sway on the extensive snow fields. This
+is a small one-celled microscopic plant having a blood red color in
+one stage of its existence. Even in the crater, on the warm rocks of
+the rim, will be found three or four mosses--I have noted one there
+which is not found anywhere else--several lichens, and at least one
+liverwort.
+
+[Illustration: Lupines.]
+
+{p.140}
+[Illustration: Copyright, 1910, by E. F. Cutter. The Mountain, as seen
+from a high ridge in the Cascades near Green River Hot Springs,
+showing the north and east faces of the Peak, and Little Tahoma on the
+left.]
+
+
+
+
+NOTES.
+
+
+Rates, Trains, Hotel Accommodations.--The round-trip fare from Tacoma
+via the Tacoma Eastern is $6.00. This includes railway transportation
+to Ashford and automobile-stage ride from Ashford to Longmire Springs
+and return. Tickets are good for the season. To parties of ten or more
+traveling together a single ticket is issued at $5.00 per capita. A
+week-end ticket, Saturday to Monday, is sold at $5.00. The rates from
+Seattle to the Springs are $1.50 more, in each case, than the Tacoma
+rates. The train schedule for 1911 follows:
+
+  SOUTHBOUND
+  Leave Seattle      7.45 A.M. and 12.30 P.M.
+  Arrive Tacoma      8.55 A.M. and  1.40 P.M.
+  Leave Tacoma       9.05 A.M. and  1.50 P.M.
+  Arrive Ashford    11.20 A.M. and  4.05 P.M.
+  Leave Ashford     11.30 A.M. and  4.15 P.M.
+  Arrive at Inn     12.45 P.M. and  5.30 P.M.
+
+  NORTHBOUND
+  Leave Inn          7.15 A.M. and  1.30 P.M.
+  Arrive Ashford     8.30 A.M. and  2.45 P.M.
+  Leave Ashford      8.40 A.M. and  2.55 P.M.
+  Arrive Tacoma     10.55 A.M. and  5.10 P.M.
+  Leave Tacoma      11.05 A.M. and  5.15 P.M.
+  Arrive Seattle    12.15 P.M. and  6.30 P.M.
+
+The National Park Inn, Longmire Springs, provides excellent rooms in
+the Inn, with a large number of well-furnished and comfortable tents
+near by. The rates range from $2.50 to $3.75 a day, including meals.
+The dining-room is under the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound
+dining-car management, which insures a satisfactory table.
+
+At the older Longmire Hotel, the rate is $2.50 a day for room and
+board. This hotel is open all the year, and in winter is much
+frequented by persons seeking Winter sports, or making use of the
+mineral springs.
+
+The springs are of great variety, and are highly recommended for their
+medicinal virtues. Within an area of several acres, there are a score
+of these springs, varying from the normal temperature of a mountain
+stream almost to blood heat. Well-appointed bathhouses are maintained.
+Fee, including attendance, $1.00.
+
+At Reese's Camp, in Paradise Park, and at Mrs. Hall's similar tent
+hotel in Indian Henry's Park, the charge for meals, with a tent for
+sleeping, is $2.50 per day.
+
+
+Stages, Horses, Guides.--The cost of getting from Longmire Springs to
+Paradise or Indian Henry's is moderate. Many prefer to make the trips
+on foot over the mountain trails. Parties are made up several times a
+day, under experienced guides, for each of these great "parks," and
+sure-footed horses are provided for those who wish to ride, at $1.50
+for the round trip. Guides and horses for the new trail to Eagle Peak
+are at the same rate. Guides may be had at the {p.141} National Park
+Inn or at either of the "camps" for many interesting trips over the
+mountain trails. Horses also are furnished. The charge varies with the
+number in a party.
+
+Stages carry passengers from the Inn over the government road to
+Nisqually glacier, Narada Falls and Reese's Camp in Paradise Park. The
+charge for the trip to Narada and return is $2.00; to Paradise and
+return, $3.00.
+
+For those who wish to make the ascent to the summit over the Gibraltar
+trail, trustworthy guides may be engaged at the Inn or at Reese's.
+Arrangements should be made several days in advance. The cost of such
+a trip depends upon the number in a party. The guides make a charge of
+$25 for the first member of the party, and $5 each for the others.
+They furnish alpenstocks, ropes, and calks for the shoes of climbers
+at a reasonable charge. Each person should carry with him a blanket or
+extra coat and a small amount of food, for use in the event of being
+on the summit over night. Still heavier clothing will be required if
+the night is to be spent at Camp Muir. A sleeping-bag, which can be
+easily made, or purchased at any outfitter's, will prove invaluable to
+campers. Ascents from other points than Reese's are usually made in
+special parties. All persons are warned not to attempt an ascent
+unless accompanied by experienced guides. Lives have been lost through
+neglect of this precaution.
+
+For persons visiting the North Side, the Northern Pacific rate from
+Tacoma to Fairfax is $1.25, and from Seattle to Fairfax, with change
+of cars at Puyallup, $1.75. Guides and horses may be engaged at
+Fairfax for the Spray Park trail.
+
+
+Automobiles and Motorcycles.--These vehicles are permitted to use the
+government road, as far as the Nisqually glacier, under the following
+regulations of the Interior Department:
+
+No automobile or motorcycle will be permitted within the Park unless
+its owner secures a written permit from the Superintendent, Edward S.
+Hall, Ashford, Washington, or his representative. Applications must
+show: Names of owner and driver, number of machine, and inclusive
+dates for which permit is desired, not exceeding one year, and be
+accompanied by a fee of $5 for each automobile and $1 for each
+motorcycle. All permits will expire on December 31. Permits must be
+presented to the Superintendent or his authorized representatives at
+the park entrance on the government road.
+
+Automobiles and motorcycles will be permitted on the government road
+west of Longmire Springs between the hours of 7 A.M. and 8.30 P.M.,
+but no automobile or motorcycle shall enter the Park or leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the western boundary, later than 8 P.M.,
+the use of automobiles and motorcycles to be permitted between
+Longmire Springs and Nisqually glacier between the hours of 9 A.M.
+and 9.30 P.M., but no automobile or motorcycle shall leave Longmire
+Springs in the direction of the glacier later than 7 P.M.
+
+When teams, saddle horses, or pack trains approach, automobiles and
+motorcycles shall take position on the outer edge of the roadway,
+taking care that sufficient room is left on the inside for them to
+pass, and remaining at rest until they have passed, or until the
+drivers are satisfied regarding the safety of their horses. Horses
+have the right of way, and automobiles and motorcycles will be backed
+or otherwise handled to enable horses to pass with safety.
+
+Speed shall be limited to 6 miles per hour, except on straight
+stretches where approaching teams, saddle horses, and pack trains will
+be visible, when, if none are in sight, this speed may be increased to
+the rate indicated on signboards along the road; in no event, however,
+shall it exceed 15 miles per hour. Signal with horn shall be given at
+or near every bend to announce to approaching drivers the proximity of
+a machine.
+
+Violation of any of the foregoing rules, or the general regulations of
+the Park, will cause the revocation of permit, subject the owner of
+the automobile or motorcycle to any damages occasioned thereby and to
+ejectment from the reservation, and be cause for refusal to issue a
+new permit without prior sanction in writing from the Secretary of the
+Interior.
+
+
+Literature of the Mountain.--Vancouver, Winthrop, Kautz, Stevens and
+Van Trump have been noted in the text. Other early accounts of, or
+references to, the Mountain may be found in _Wilkes: Narrative U. S.
+exploring expedition_. Phil. 1845, v. 4, 413, 415, 424; _U. S. War
+Dep't: Explorations for railroad to Pacific, 1853-4_, v. 1, 192;
+_Gibbs: Journal Am. Geog. Soc._, v. 4, 354-357. {p.142} Gibbs's
+Indian vocabularies, published at different dates, were reprinted four
+years after his death in _Contributions to Am. Ethnol._, v. 1. Wash.
+1877.
+
+For Emmons's account of his exploration in 1870, see _Bulletin Am.
+Geog. Soc._ v. 9, 44-61. _Am. Jour. of Science_, v. 101, 157-167, and
+_Nation_ v. 23, 313. Prof. Israel C. Russell's studies of the peak are
+in _U. S. geol. survey, 5th an. rep._ 335-339 and _18th an. rep., part
+2_, 349-415. See also his _Glaciers of N. Am._, Bost. 1901, 62-67, and
+_Volcanoes of N. Am._, Bost. 1895, 241-246. For other accessible
+studies consult _Wright: Ice age in N. Am. N. Y._ 1889, and _Muir: Our
+national parks_, Bost. 1901.
+
+The long controversy over the name of the peak is impartially reviewed
+in _Snowden: History of Washington_. N. Y. 1909, v. 4, 249-254.
+Snowden calls especial attention to an able paper by the late Thaddeus
+Hanford of Olympia on the Indian names and recommending the name
+Tacoma for the Territory, which was printed in the _Washington
+Standard_ in January, 1866. This article should be reprinted by the
+State Historical Society, as it represents a movement of considerable
+force at one time against the inept and confusing name adopted for the
+State. The Indian evidence for the native name of the Mountain was
+collected in _Wickersham: Is it "Mt. Tacoma" or "Mt. Rainier?"_,
+pamphlet, Tacoma, 1893. The argument of an eminent traveler and author
+against "Mt. Rainier" may be found in _Finck: Pacific coast scenic
+tour_. N. Y. 1891, 209-213, 229-230; also in the same writer's more
+recent article, _Scribner's Magazine_, v. 47, 234-5. See also _Lyman:
+The Columbia river_. N. Y. 1909, p. 32, 352-370, and _The Mountains of
+Washington_, in _The Mountaineer_, v. 1, 7-10; and Charles F. Lummis's
+editorial articles in _Out West_, v. 23, 367 and 494. On the other
+hand, Prof. Davidson, in _Sierra Club Bulletin_, v. 6, 87-98, presents
+reasons on which that club accepted "Mt. Rainier."
+
+_Wheeler: Climbing Mt. Rainier_, St. Paul, 1895, and _Plummer:
+Illustrated guide book to Mt. Tacoma_, Tacoma, n. d., are two
+pamphlets now out of print.
+
+The ascents by the Mazama, Sierra and Mountaineers clubs have
+furnished material for a great variety of articles on the geology,
+botany and glacier action, as well as many accounts of climbing
+adventures. _Mazama_, v. 2, _Sierra Club Bulletin_, v. 6, and _The
+Mountaineer_, v. 1 and 2, are mainly devoted to this peak. For
+articles in periodicals of wider circulation, see _Review of Reviews_,
+v. 9, 163-171 (by Carl Snyder); _Out West_, v. 24, 365-395 (Willoughby
+Rodman); _National geog. mag._, v. 20, 530-538 (Milnor Roberts);
+_Scribner's_ v. 22, 169-171 (I. C. Russell); _Outing_, v. 5, 323-332
+(J. R. W. Hitchcock), and v. 38, 386-392 (Ada Woodruff Anderson);
+_Overland_, n. s., v. 2, 300-312 (W. D. Lyman), v. 8, 266-278 (George
+Bailey), v. 32, 114-123 (J. P. Montgomery), v. 46, 447-455 (Harry H.
+Brown), v. 55, 552-560 (A. W. McCully), and v. 56, 150-155 (A. W.
+McCully); _Pacific monthly_, v. 8, 196-202 (John Muir); _The world
+today_, v. 9, 1047-53 (Anne Shannon Monroe); _Good words_, v. 42,
+101-114 (Arthur Inkersley); _Appalachia_, v. 7, 185-205 (Ernest C.
+Smith), and v. 11, 114-125 (W. A. Brooks); _Country life in Am._, v.
+14, 170-171 (C. E. Cutter); _The Northwest_, v. 1, 2-10 (Bailey
+Willis); _Outdoor life_, v. 26, 15-24 (Edna Cadwallader). Special
+studies of the rocks of the peak may be found in _U. S. geol. sur.,
+12th an. rep. pt. 1_, 612 (J. P. Iddings), and in _Neues Jahrbuch_, v.
+1, 222-226, Stuttgart, 1885 (K. Oebeke).
+
+[Illustration: Glacial debris on lower part of Winthrop Glacier, with
+Sluiskin Mountains beyond.]
+
+
+
+
+{p.143} INDEX.
+
+
+Figures in light face type refer to the text, those in the heavier
+type to illustrations.
+
+  Adams, Mount, 77, 86, 64, 66.
+  Allen, Prof. O. D., cottage, 49.
+  Alta Vista, 49, 60.
+  American Alpine Club, 126.
+  Anemones, 32;
+    seed pods, 138.
+  Appalachian Club, 126.
+  Ascents, Kautz, 117;
+    Stevens and Van Trump, 120-4;
+    Emmons and Wilson, 124;
+    Glascock and Dudley, 125;
+    the mountain clubs, 126.
+  Automobiles, 57, 70-72, 141, 41, 49, 54.
+  Avalanche on Willis Wall, 119.
+  Avalanche Camp, 103, 104, 105.
+  Avalanche Lilies, 136.
+
+
+  Baker, Mount, 86, 98, 99.
+  Ballinger, Richard, H. 75.
+  Basaltic Columns,--South Mowich, 23;
+    on Cowlitz, 93.
+  Bashford, Herbert,--verse, 17.
+  Bee Hive, 76, 80.
+  Beljica, view from, 27.
+  Brooks, Francis,--verse, 40.
+
+
+  Cabins needed on the ridges, 116, 144.
+  Camp of the Clouds, 49, 61, 60.
+  Carbon river, 50, 103, 114.
+  Cascade Mountains, 66, 87, 90, 96.
+  Cathedral Rocks, 85, 76, 84, 78.
+  Chittenden, Maj. H. M., urges trail, 69.
+  Columbia's Crest, 86, 88, 52, 78.
+  Commencement Bay, 28.
+  Congress, action affecting the Park, 58, 59, 67, 70.
+  Cowlitz Chimneys, 43, 78, 81.
+  Cowlitz Cleaver, 85, 76, 78, 81.
+  Cowlitz Park, 64, 93.
+  Crater, 50, 88, 89.
+  Crater Lake, 117.
+  Crater Peak, 13, 86, 60, 89.
+  Curtis, Camp, on the Wedge, 97.
+  Cushman, Francis W., 59, 108.
+
+
+  Dudley, Ernest, 125.
+
+
+  Eagle Cliff, 51.
+  Eagle Peak (Simlayshe), 30, 31;
+    new trail to, 141.
+  Eagle Rock in winter, 7.
+  East-side route to summit, 117, 126, 100.
+  Edmunds, George F., 96.
+  Electric-power development, 108-112.
+  Electron, The Mountain from, 13, 19;
+    Power plant at, 108, 112.
+  Emmons, S. F., Geologist, 94-97.
+
+
+  Fairfax, trail from, 50.
+  Fair Mountaineer, A, 35.
+  Fairy Falls, 73.
+  Fay Peak, 51, 92.
+  Ferns, 132.
+  Fires, danger of forest, 8, 58, 130.
+  Flett, Prof., J. B., 129, n.
+  Flint, Frank P., U. S. Senator, 75.
+  Flood, Indian legend of the, 39.
+  Fox Island, the Mountain from, 14.
+  Fountain, Paul, quoted, 43.
+  Fuller, Miss Fay, 126, 72.
+
+
+  Gap Point, 61, 54.
+  "Ghost Trees," 50.
+  Gibbs, George, on name "Mt. Tacoma," 104, 107, 142.
+  Gibraltar Rock, 82, 85, 116, 121, 60, 68, 71, 76, 78, 81, 82, 83,
+    85, 86.
+  Glaciers, their number and work, 79-83;
+    moraines, 83, 68, 77, 79, 96;
+    rate of flow, 83, 72;
+    names, 93-97;
+    rivers, 108;
+    --Carbon, 50, 51, 77, 103, 105, 107, 108, 118, 119, 120, 121, 129;
+    --Cowlitz, 50, 93, 6, 51, 78, 81, 84, 87;
+    --Frying-Pan, 93, 41, 96, 97;
+    --Ingraham, 93, 78;
+    --Interglacier, 93, 98, 99;
+    --Kautz, 93, 27, 30, 37, 60, 68;
+    --North Mowich, 50-52, 96, 13, 123, 124, 128;
+    --South Mowich, 52, 13, 22, 23;
+    --Nisqually, 49, 31, 55, 57, 60, 68, 69, 71, 72, 78, 81;
+    --Paradise, 50, 94, 97, 25, 31, 60, 79;
+    --Puyallup, 52, 13, 27, 33;
+    --Stevens, 50, 97, 61, 64, 79;
+    --North Tahoma, 93, 13, 26, 27, 32, 33, 37;
+    --South Tahoma, 93, 17, 27, 32, 36, 37, 60;
+    --Van Trump, 94, 31, 60;
+    --White, 50, 81, 93, 9, 12, 94, 95, 96, 100, 121;
+    --Winthrop, 50, 51, 93, 94, 8, 17, 130, 103, 104, 107, 113, 126,
+      142.
+  Glascock, Raglan, 125.
+  "Goat Island," moraine, 96.
+  Goat Mountain (Mt. Wow), 28.
+  Goat Peaks, 87, 90, 94.
+  Grand Park, 51, 64, 98, 99.
+  Green River, view of the Mountain from, 140.
+  Guides, 113, 141.
+
+
+  Hanging glaciers, 51, 57.
+  Heather, 133.
+  Hellebore, 133.
+  Hiaqua Hunter, Myth, 32-39.
+  Hood, Mt., 86.
+  Hylebos, P. F. (Rev.), 28, n.
+
+
+  Ice caves, 31, 73.
+  Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, 49, 25, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 50,
+    131, 137;
+    --Mrs. Hall's Camp, 141.
+  Indians, nature worship of the Mountain, 25-31, 39;
+    Puget Sound tribes, 25, 26;
+    fear of the snow-peaks, 32, 121.
+  Ingraham, Maj. E. S., 100.
+  Interglaciers, 93.
+  Iron and Copper mountains, 25, 30.
+
+
+  Jones, Wesley L., U. S. Senator, 75.
+  Jordan, David Starr, 67.
+  Judson, Miss Katharine B. 35, 39.
+
+
+  Kautz, Gen., A. V., 117.
+  Kulshan, Indian name for Mt. Baker, 98.
+  Kutz, Maj. C. W., 69.
+
+
+  Liberty Cap (North Peak), 86, 22, 89, 114.
+  Little Tahoma, 82, 85, 9, 31, 60, 78, 79, 94, 121.
+  Longmire, James, trail and road, 59.
+  Longmire Hotel, 141.
+  Longmire Springs, 44, 51, 141, 52.
+  Lost to the World, 69.
+  Lupines, 139.
+
+
+  McClure, Prof. Edgar, death, 115.
+  Marmot, 26.
+  Matthes, Francois E., U. S. geologist, 89, 97.
+  Mazama (mountain goat), 23.
+  Mazama Club, 126, 81, 82.
+  Mazama Ridge, 60.
+  Mineral Lake, 18.
+  Moraine Park, 51, 126, 105, 113, 117, 129, 136.
+  Mosses and ferns, 132.
+  Mother Mountains, 103, 114, 116, 122, 129.
+  Mountaineers, The, 126, 61, 121, 126.
+  Mountain goat, 23.
+  Mountain Lily, 136, 135.
+  Mountain Pine, 28.
+  Muir John, quoted, 77, 113, 129;
+    Portrait, 116.
+  Muir, Camp, 115, 60, 80, 83.
+  Mystic Lake, 113.
+
+
+  Narada Falls, 61, 107, 58.
+  National Park, see Rainier Natl. Park.
+  National Parks, proposed Bureau of, 75.
+  National Park Inn, 44, 50, 52.
+  Nisqually Canyon, 21.
+  Nisqually Glacier (see Glaciers).
+  Nisqually river, 108, 111, 21, 24, 55.
+  North Peak (Liberty Cap), 13, 22, 89.
+
+
+  Ohop Valley, 43.
+
+
+  Pacific Forest Reserve, 59.
+  Paradise River, 59.
+  Paradise Valley, or Park, 30, 49-51, 61, 31, 39, 46, 53, 59, 60, 62.
+  Peak Success (South Peak), 86, 123-125, 13, 24, 25, 27, 33, 37, 60,
+    68, 78.
+  Phlox, 135.
+  Pierce County road, 43, 49.
+  Piles, S. H., U. S. Senator, 70.
+  Pinnacle Peak, 38, 39, 46, 47.
+  Point Defiance Park, 18.
+  Power-plants on the Mountain, 108-112, 111, 112.
+  Proctor, Miss Edna Dean, poem, "The Mountain Speaks," 15.
+  Ptarmigan, 40.
+  Puget Sound 18, 25, 14;
+    named by Vancouver, 98.
+  Puyallup river, 108, 40.
+  Pyramid Peak, 25, 60.
+
+
+  Railways to Puget Sound, 44;
+    to the Mountain, 54, 57;
+    rates and time table, 140.
+  Rainier, Rear-Admiral Peter, 7, 98, 100, 103, n., 101.
+  Reese's Camp, 61, 115, 141, 64.
+  Reflection Lake, 60, 77.
+  Rainier National Park, 54;
+    increasing use of, 56, 57;
+    its creation, 58-9;
+    see also Roads.
+  Ricksecker, Eugene, engineer, 61, 62, 70, 97.
+  Rivers fed by the Mountain, 108.
+  Rocks of the Mountain, 82, 112.
+  Roads and trails, Pierce County's to the Mountain, 44, 56, 42, 43, 44,
+    49;
+    government road in National Park, 57-62, 51, 54, 55, 56;
+    trails 44, 45, 50-2, 55, 56, 121;
+    proposed road around the Mountain, 62-70;
+    need 58, 130.
+  Rough climbing, 39.
+  Russell, Prof. Israel C., 94.
+  Russell Peak, 82, 103, 105.
+
+
+  Saghalie Illahe, Indian land of peace, 30.
+  St. Elmo Pass, 8, 98, 100, 102, 104.
+  St. Helen's, Mt., 77, 86, 29, 36.
+  Seattle, 18, 43, 44, 108.
+  Senecio, 129.
+  Sierra Club, 75, 126, 57, 69.
+  Simlayshe (Eagle Peak), 30.
+  Siwashes, origin of term, 28, n.
+    See also Indians.
+  Sluiskin, guides Stevens and Van Trump, 28, 32, 120-1.
+  Sluiskin Falls, 67.
+  Sluiskin Mountains, 51, 103, 105, 126, 136, 142.
+  Snipe Lake, 98.
+  Snow Lake, 34.
+  Sour-Dough Mountains, 8, 98, 99.
+  Spanaway Lake, 4.
+  South Peak, see Peak Success.
+  Spray Falls, 125.
+  Spray Park, 50, 51, 92, 106, 116, 122.
+  Steamboat Prow, 51, 85, 104.
+  Steam Caves in Crater, 88.
+  Stevens, Gen. Hazard, 28, n., 32, 96, 97, 120-4, 115.
+  Stevens Canyon, 64, 66.
+  Storm King Peak, 18.
+  Summit, On the, 52;
+    South-side route to, 60;
+    East-side route, 100.
+  "Sunshine" and "Storm," 70.
+
+
+  "Tacoma," Indian name for the Mountain, 25, 100-7.
+  Tacoma (City) 18, 43, 44, 111.
+  Tatoosh Mountains, 50, 53, 59, 60, 62, 64, 87.
+  Tolmie, Dr. W. F., 117.
+  Trees in the National Park, 129-131, 139, 42, 130, 132.
+  Tyndall, Prof. John, quoted, 77.
+
+
+  Unicorn Peak, 65.
+  United States Geological Survey, 89.
+
+
+  Vancouver, Capt. George, discovers and names the Mountain, 98-101.
+  Van Trump, P. B., 28, n., 32, 120-5, 115.
+
+
+  Washington Lake, the Mountain from, 16.
+  Washington Torrents, 59.
+  Waterfall above Paradise Valley, 63.
+  Wedge, The, 51, 85, 8, 97, 99, 100.
+  White river, 110, 12, 112.
+  Whitney, Mt., 90.
+  Willis, Bailey, geologist, 96, 97.
+  Wilson, A. D., 96, 97.
+  Whulge, see Puget Sound.
+  Winthrop, Theodore, 93;
+    describes the Mountain, 102-4;
+    authority for his use of the Indian name, 104-7.
+  Wind-swept trees, 28, 139.
+  Wow, Mt. (Goat Mountain), 28.
+
+
+  Yellowstone National Park, 57, 67, 72.
+
+
+[Illustration {p.144}: A climbers' cabin on one of the shoulders of Mt.
+Blanc.]
+
+[Illustration: The Lakeside Press Chicago R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.]
+
+[Illustration {p.145}: Map Of Puget Sound Country And Roads To Mt.
+Rainier-tacoma]
+
+[Illustration {p.146}: Map of RAINIER NATIONAL PARK Compiled by EUGENE
+RICKSECKER U. S. Assistant Engineer FROM "THE MOUNTAIN THAT WAS
+'GOD'"]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Mountain that was 'God', by John H. Williams
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