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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Task of Social Hygiene, by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Task of Social Hygiene
+
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+
+
+Release Date: July 17, 2007  [eBook #22090]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Ross Wilburn, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+   STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY
+   OF SEX. SIX VOLS.
+
+   THE NEW SPIRIT
+
+   AFFIRMATIONS
+
+   MAN AND WOMAN
+
+   THE CRIMINAL
+
+   THE WORLD OF DREAMS
+
+   THE SOUL OF SPAIN
+
+   IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS
+
+   ESSAYS IN WAR-TIME. ETC.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+Author of "The Soul of Spain"; "The World of Dreams"; etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Boston and New York
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+1916
+
+Printed in Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The study of social hygiene means the study of those things which
+concern the welfare of human beings living in societies. There can,
+therefore, be no study more widely important or more generally
+interesting. I fear, however, that by many persons social hygiene is
+vaguely regarded either as a mere extension of sanitary science, or else
+as an effort to set up an intolerable bureaucracy to oversee every
+action of our lives, and perhaps even to breed us as cattle are bred.
+
+That is certainly not the point of view from which this book has been
+written. Plato and Rabelais, Campanella and More, have been among those
+who announced the principles of social hygiene here set forth. There
+must be a social order, all these great pioneers recognized, but the
+health of society, like the health of the body, is marked by expansion
+as much as by restriction, and, the striving for order is only justified
+because without order there can be no freedom. If it were not the
+mission of social hygiene to bring a new joy and a new freedom into life
+I should not have concerned myself with the writing of this book.
+
+When we thus contemplate the process of social hygiene, we are no longer
+in danger of looking upon it as an artificial interference with Nature.
+It is in the Book of Nature, as Campanella put it, that the laws of
+life and of government are to be read. Or, as Quesnel said two centuries
+ago, more precisely for our present purpose, "Nature is universal
+hygiene." All animals are scrupulous in hygiene; the elaboration of
+hygiene moves _pari passu_ with the rank of a species in intelligence.
+Even the cockroach, which lives on what we call filth, spends the
+greater part of its time in the cultivation of personal cleanliness. And
+all social hygiene, in its fullest sense, is but an increasingly complex
+and extended method of purification--the purification of the conditions
+of life by sound legislation, the purification of our own minds by
+better knowledge, the purification of our hearts by a growing sense of
+responsibility, the purification of the race itself by an enlightened
+eugenics, consciously aiding Nature in her manifest effort to embody new
+ideals of life. It was not Man, but Nature, who realized the daring and
+splendid idea--risky as it was--of placing the higher anthropoids on
+their hind limbs and so liberating their fore-limbs in the service of
+their nimble and aspiring brains. We may humbly follow in the same path,
+liberating latent forces of life and suppressing those which no longer
+serve the present ends of life. For, as Shakespeare said, when in _The
+Winter's Tale_ he set forth a luminous philosophy of social hygiene and
+applied it to eugenics,
+
+
+      "Nature is made better by no mean
+    But Nature makes that mean ...
+                          This is an art
+    Which does mend Nature, change it rather, but
+    The art itself is Nature."
+
+
+In whatever way it may be understood, however, social hygiene is now very
+much to the front of people's minds. The present volume, I wish to make
+clear, has not been hastily written to meet any real or supposed demand.
+It has slowly grown during a period of nearly twenty-five years, and it
+expresses an attitude which is implicit or explicit in the whole of my
+work. By some readers, doubtless, it will be seen to constitute an
+extension in various directions of the arguments developed in the larger
+work on "Sex in Relation to Society," which is the final volume of my
+_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_. The book I now bring forward may,
+however, be more properly regarded as a presentation of the wider scheme
+of social reform out of which the more special sex studies have
+developed. We are faced to-day by the need for vast and complex changes
+in social organization. In these changes the welfare of individuals and
+the welfare of communities are alike concerned. Moreover, they are
+matters which are not confined to the affairs of this nation or of that
+nation, but of the whole family of nations participating in the
+fraternity of modern progress.
+
+The word "progress," indeed, which falls so easily from our lips is not
+a word which any serious writer should use without precaution. The
+conception of "progress" is a useful conception in so far as it binds
+together those who are working for common ends, and stimulates that
+perpetual slight movement in which life consists. But there is no
+general progress in Nature, nor any unqualified progress; that is to
+say, that there is no progress for all groups along the line, and that
+even those groups which progress pay the price of their progress. It was
+so even when our anthropoid ancestors rose to the erect position; that
+was "progress," and it gained us the use of hands. But it lost us our
+tails, and much else that is more regrettable than we are always able to
+realize. There is no general and ever-increasing evolution towards
+perfection. "Existence is realized in its perfection under whatever
+aspect it is manifested," says Jules de Gaultier. Or, as Whitman put it,
+"There will never be any more perfection than there is now." We cannot
+expect an increased power of growth and realization in existence, as a
+whole, leading to any general perfection; we can only expect to see the
+triumph of individuals, or of groups of individuals, carrying out their
+own conceptions along special lines, every perfection so attained
+involving, on its reverse side, the acquirement of an imperfection. It
+is in this sense, and in this sense only, that progress is possible. We
+need not fear that we shall ever achieve the stagnant immobility of a
+general perfection.
+
+The problems of progress we are here concerned with are such as the
+civilized world, as represented by some of its foremost individuals or
+groups of individuals, is just now waking up to grapple with. No doubt
+other problems might be added, and the addition give a greater semblance
+of completion to this book. I have selected those which seem to me very
+essential, very fundamental. The questions of social hygiene, as here
+understood, go to the heart of life. It is the task of this hygiene not
+only to make sewers, but to re-make love, and to do both in the same
+large spirit of human fellowship, to ensure finer individual development
+and a larger social organization. At the one end social hygiene may be
+regarded as simply the extension of an elementary sanitary code; at the
+other end it seems to some to have in it the glorious freedom of a new
+religion. The majority of people, probably, will be content to admit
+that we have here a scheme of serious social reform which every man and
+woman will soon be called upon to take some share in.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+I.--INTRODUCTION
+                                                                    PAGE
+The aim of Social Hygiene--Social Reform--The Rise of Social Reform out
+of English Industrialism--The Four Stages of Social Reform--(1) The
+Stage of Sanitation--(2) Factory Legislation--(3) The Extension of the
+Scope of Education--(4) Puericulture--The Scientific Evolution
+corresponding to these Stages--Social Reform only Touched the Conditions
+of Life--Yet Social Reform Remains highly Necessary--The Question of
+Infantile Mortality and the Quality of the Race--The Better Organization
+of Life Involved by Social Hygiene--Its Insistence on the Quality rather
+than on the Conditions of Life--The Control of Reproduction--The Fall of
+the Birth-rate in Relation to the Quality of the Population--The
+Rejuvenation of a Society--The Influence of Culture and Refinement on a
+Race--Eugenics--The Regeneration of the Race--The Problem of
+Feeble-mindedness--The Methods of Eugenics--Some of the Problems which
+Face us                                                                1
+
+
+II.--THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN
+
+The Origin of the Woman Movement--Mary Wollstonecraft--George
+Sand--Robert Owen--William Thompson--John Stuart Mill--The Modern
+Growth of Social Cohesion--The Growth of Industrialism--Its Influence in
+Woman's Sphere of Work--The Education of Women--Co-education--The Woman
+Question and Sexual Selection--Significance of Economic
+Independence--The State Regulation of Marriage--The Future of
+Marriage--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Social Equality of Women--The
+Reproduction of the Race as a Function of Society--Women and the Future
+of Civilization                                                       49
+
+
+III.--THE NEW ASPECT OF THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT
+
+Eighteenth-Century France--Pioneers of the Woman's Movement--The Growth
+of the Woman's Suffrage Movement--The Militant Activities of the
+Suffragettes--Their Services and Disservices to the Cause--Advantages of
+Women's Suffrage--Sex Questions in Germany--Bebel--The Woman's Rights
+Movement in Germany--The Development of Sexual Science in Germany--The
+Movement for the Protection of Motherhood--Ellen Key--The Question of
+Illegitimacy--Eugenics--Women as Law-makers in the Home               67
+
+
+IV.--THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN IN RELATION TO ROMANTIC LOVE
+
+The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization--Marriage as a
+Duty--The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire--The Influence of
+Christianity--The Attitude of Chivalry--The Troubadours--The Courts of
+Love--The Influence of the Renaissance--Conventional Chivalry and Modern
+Civilization--The Woman Movement--The Modern Woman's Equality of Rights
+and Responsibilities excludes Chivalry--New Forms of Romantic Love still
+remain possible--Love as the Inspiration of Social Hygiene           113
+
+
+V.--THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A FALLING BIRTH-RATE
+
+The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally--In England--In
+Germany--In the United States--In Canada--In Australasia--"Crude"
+Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate--The Connection between High
+Birth-rate and High Death-rate--"Natural Increase" measured by Excess
+of Births over Deaths--The Measure of National Well-being--The
+Example of Russia--Japan--China--The Necessity of viewing the
+Question from a wide Standpoint--The Prevalence of Neo-Malthusian
+Methods--Influence of the Roman Catholic Church--Other Influences
+lowering the Birth-rate--Influence of Postponement of Marriage--Relation
+of the Birth-rate to Commercial and Industrial Activity--Illustrated
+by Russia, Hungary, and Australia--The Relation of Prosperity to
+Fertility--The Social Capillarity Theory--Divergence of the Birth-rate
+and the Marriage-rate--Marriage-rate and the Movement of
+Prices--Prosperity and Civilization--Fertility among Savages--The
+lesser fertility of Urban Populations--Effect of Urbanization on
+Physical Development--Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+Fertility--Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility--The process
+of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility--In this Respect it is
+a Continuation of Zoological Evolution--Large Families as a Stigma
+of Degeneration--The Decreased Fertility of Civilization a General
+Historical Fact--The Ideals of Civilization to-day--The East and
+the West                                                             134
+
+
+VI.--EUGENICS AND LOVE
+
+Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate--Quantity and Quality in the
+Production of Children--Eugenic Sexual Selection--The Value of
+Pedigrees--Their Scientific Significance--The Systematic Record of
+Personal Data--The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates--St. Valentine's
+Day and Sexual Selection--Love and Reason--Love Ruled by Natural
+Law--Eugenic Selection not opposed to Love--No Need for Legal
+Compulsion--Medicine in Relation to Marriage.                        193
+
+
+VII.--RELIGION AND THE CHILD
+
+Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to Psychology--The
+Psychology of the Child--The Contents of Children's Minds--The
+Imagination of Children--How far may Religion be assimilated by
+Children?--Unfortunate Results of Early Religious Instruction--Puberty
+the Age for Religious Education--Religion as an Initiation into a
+Mystery--Initiation among Savages--The Christian Sacraments--The Modern
+Tendency as regards Religious Instruction--Its Advantages--Children and
+Fairy Tales--The Bible of Childhood--Moral Training                  217
+
+
+VIII.--THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL HYGIENE
+
+The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children--The Need of
+such a Movement--Contradictions involved by the Ancient Policy of
+Silence--Errors of the New Policy--The Need of Teaching the Teacher--The
+Need of Training the Parents--And of Scientifically equipping the
+Physician--Sexual Hygiene and Society--The far-reaching Effects of
+Sexual Hygiene                                                       244
+
+
+IX.--IMMORALITY AND THE LAW
+
+Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion--The Binding Force of Custom among
+Savages--The Dissolving Influence of Civilization--The Distinction
+between Immorality and Criminality--Adultery as a Crime--The Tests of
+Criminality--National Differences in laying down the Boundary between
+Criminal and Immoral Acts--France--Germany--England--The United
+States--Police Administration--Police Methods in the United
+States--National Differences in the Regulation of the Trade in
+Alcohol--Prohibition in the United States--Origin of the American Method
+of Dealing with Immorality--Russia--Historical Fluctuations in Methods
+of Dealing with Immorality and Prostitution--Homosexuality--Holland--The
+Age of Consent--Moral Legislation in England--In the United States--The
+Raines Law--America Attempts to Suppress Prostitution--Their
+Futility--German Methods of Regulating Prostitution--The Sound Method of
+Approaching Immorality--Training in Sexual Hygiene--Education in
+Personal and Social Responsibility                                   258
+
+
+X.--THE WAR AGAINST WAR
+
+Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day--The Beneficial
+Effects of War in Barbarous Ages--Civilization renders the Ultimate
+Disappearance of War Inevitable--The Introduction of Law in disputes
+between Individuals involves the Introduction of Law in disputes between
+Nations--But there must be Force behind Law--Henry IV's Attempt to
+Confederate Europe--Every International Tribunal of Arbitration must be
+able to Enforce its decisions--The Influences making for the Abolition
+of Warfare--(1) Growth of International Opinion--(2) International
+Financial Development--(3) The Decreasing Pressure of Population--(4)
+The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit--(5) The Spread of
+Anti-military Doctrines--(6) The Over-growth of Armaments--(7) The
+Dominance of Social Reform--War Incompatible with an Advanced
+Civilization--Nations as Trustees for Humanity--The Impossibility of
+Disarmament--The Necessity of Force to ensure Peace--The Federated State
+of the Future--The Decay of War still leaves the Possibilities of Daring
+and Heroism                                                          311
+
+
+XI.--THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
+
+Early Attempts to construct an International Language--The Urgent Need
+of an Auxiliary Language To-day--Volapük--The Claims of
+Spanish--Latin--The Claims of English--Its Disadvantages--The Claims of
+French--Its Disadvantages--The Modern Growth of National Feeling opposed
+to Selection of a Natural Language--Advantages of an Artificial
+Language--Demands it must Fulfil--Esperanto--Its Threatened
+Disruption--The International Association for the Adoption of an
+Auxiliary International Language--The First Step to Take             349
+
+
+XII.--INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM
+
+Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between Socialism
+and Individualism--The Two Parties in Politics--The Relation of
+Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and Individualism--The Basis of
+Socialism--The Basis of Individualism--The seeming Opposition between
+Socialism and Individualism merely a Division of Labour--Both Socialism
+and Individualism equally Necessary--Not only Necessary, but
+Indispensable to each other--The Conflict between the Advocates of
+Environment and Heredity--A New Embodiment of the supposed Conflict
+between Socialism and Individualism--The place of Eugenics--Social
+Hygiene ultimately one with the Hygiene of the Soul--The Function of
+Utopias                                                              381
+
+
+INDEX                                                                407
+
+
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+     The Aim of Social Hygiene--Social Reform--The Rise of Social Reform
+     out of English Industrialism--The Four Stages of Social Reform--(1)
+     The Stage of Sanitation--(2) Factory Legislation--(3) The Extension
+     of the Scope of Education--(4) Puericulture--The Scientific
+     Evolution corresponding to these Stages--Social Reform only Touched
+     the Conditions of Life--Yet Social Reform Remains highly
+     Necessary--The Question of Infantile Mortality and the Quality of
+     the Race--The Better Organization of Life Involved by Social
+     Hygiene--Its Insistence on the Quality rather than on the
+     Conditions of Life--The Control of Reproduction--The Fall of the
+     Birth-rate in Relation to the Quality of the Population--The
+     Rejuvenation of a Society--The Influence of Culture and Refinement
+     on a Race--Eugenics--The Regeneration of the Race--The Problem of
+     Feeble-Mindedness--The Methods of Eugenics--Some of the Problems
+     which Face us.
+
+
+Social Hygiene, as it will be here understood, may be said to be a
+development, and even a transformation, of what was formerly known as
+Social Reform. In that transformation it has undergone two fundamental
+changes. In the first place, it is no longer merely an attempt to deal
+with the conditions under which life is lived, seeking to treat bad
+conditions as they occur, without going to their source, but it aims at
+prevention. It ceases to be simply a reforming of forms, and approaches
+in a comprehensive manner not only the conditions of life, but life
+itself. In the second place, its method is no longer haphazard, but
+organized and systematic, being based on a growing knowledge of those
+biological sciences which were scarcely in their infancy when the era of
+social reform began. Thus social hygiene is at once more radical and
+more scientific than the old conception of social reform. It is the
+inevitable method by which at a certain stage civilization is compelled
+to continue its own course, and to preserve, perhaps to elevate, the
+race.
+
+The era of social reform followed on the rise of modern industrialism,
+and, no doubt largely on this account, although an international
+movement, it first became definite and self-conscious in England. There
+were perhaps other reasons why it should have been in the first place
+specially prominent in England. When at the end of the seventeenth
+century, Muralt, a highly intelligent Swiss gentleman, visited England,
+and wrote his by no means unsympathetic _Lettres sur les Anglais_, he
+was struck by a curious contradiction in the English character. They are
+a good-natured people, he observed, very rich, so well-nourished that
+sometimes they die of obesity, and they detest cruelty so much that by
+royal proclamation it is ordained that the fish and the ducks of the
+ponds should be duly and properly fed. Yet he found that this
+good-natured, rich, cruelty-hating nation systematically allowed the
+prisoners in their gaols to die of starvation. "The great cruelty of
+the English," Muralt remarks, "lies in permitting evil rather than in
+doing it."[1] The root of the apparent contradiction lay clearly in a
+somewhat excessive independence and devotion to liberty. We give a man
+full liberty, they seem to have said, to work, to become rich, to grow
+fat. But if he will not work, let him starve. In that point of view
+there were involved certain fallacies, which became clearer during the
+course of social evolution.
+
+It was obvious, indeed, that such an attitude, while highly favourable
+to individual vigour and independence, and not incompatible with fairly
+healthy social life under the conditions which prevailed at the time,
+became disastrous in the era of industrialism. The conditions of
+industrial life tore up the individual from the roots by which he
+normally received strength, and crowded the workers together in masses,
+thus generating a confusion which no individual activity could grapple
+with. So it was that the very spirit which, under the earlier
+conditions, made for good now made for evil. To stand by and applaud the
+efforts of the individual who was perhaps slowly sinking deeper and
+deeper into a miry slough of degradation began to seem an even
+diabolical attitude. The maxim of _laissez-faire_, which had once stood
+for the whole unfettered action of natural activities in life, began to
+be viewed with horror and contempt. It was realized that there must be
+an intelligent superintendence of social conditions, humane regulation,
+systematic organization. The very intensity of the evils which the
+English spirit produced led to a reaction by which that spirit, while
+doubtless remaining the same at heart, took on a different form, and
+manifested its energy in a new direction.
+
+The modern industrial era, replacing domestic industry by collective
+work carried out by "hands" in factories, began in the eighteenth
+century. The era of social reform was delayed until the second quarter
+of the nineteenth century. It has proceeded by four successively
+progressive stages, each stage supplementing, rather than supplanting,
+the stage that preceded it. In 1842 Sir Edwin Chadwick wrote an official
+Report on the _Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great
+Britain_, in which was clearly presented for the first time a vivid,
+comprehensive, and authoritative picture of the incredibly filthy
+conditions under which the English labouring classes lived. The times
+were ripe for this Report. It attracted public attention, and exerted an
+important influence. Its appearance marks the first stage of social
+reform, which was mainly a sanitary effort to clear away the gross filth
+from our cities, to look after the cleansing, lighting, and policing of
+the streets, to create a drainage system, to improve dwellings, and in
+these ways to combat disease and to lower the very high death-rate.
+
+At an early stage, however, it began to be seen that this process of
+sanitation, necessary as it had become, was far too crude and elementary
+to achieve the ends sought. It was not enough to improve the streets, or
+even to regulate the building of dwellings. It was clearly necessary to
+regulate also the conditions of work of the people who lived in those
+streets and dwellings. Thus it was that the scheme of factory
+legislation was initiated. Rules were made as to the hours of labour,
+more especially as regards women and children, for whom, moreover,
+certain specially dangerous or unhealthy occupations were forbidden, and
+an increasingly large number of avocations were brought under Government
+inspection. This second stage of social reform encountered a much more
+strenuous opposition than the first stage. The regulation of the order
+and cleanliness of the streets was obviously necessary, and it had
+indeed been more or less enforced even in medieval times;[2] but the
+regulation of the conditions of work in the interests of the worker was
+a more novel proceeding, and it appeared to clash both with the
+interests of the employers and the ancient principles of English freedom
+and independence, behind which the employers consequently sheltered
+themselves. The early attempts to legislate on these lines were thus
+fruitless. It was not until a distinguished aristocratic philanthropist
+of great influence, the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, took up the
+question, that factory legislation began to be accepted. It continues to
+develop even to-day, ever enlarging the sphere of its action, and now
+meeting with no opposition. But, in England, at all events, its
+acceptance marks a memorable stage in the growth of the national spirit.
+It was no longer easy and natural for the Englishmen to look on at
+suffering without interference. It began to be recognized that it was
+perfectly legitimate, and even necessary, to put a curb on the freedom
+and independence which involved suffering to others.
+
+But as the era of factory legislation became established, a further
+advance was seen to be necessary. Factory legislation had forbidden the
+child to work. But the duty of the community towards the child, the
+citizen of the future, was evidently by no means covered by this purely
+negative step. The child must be prepared to take his future part in
+life, in the first place by education. The nationalization of education
+in England dates from 1870. But during the subsequent half century
+"education" has come to mean much more than mere instruction; it now
+covers a certain amount of provision for meals when necessary, the
+enforcement of cleanliness, the care of defective conditions, inborn or
+acquired, with special treatment for mentally defective children, an
+ever-increasing amount of medical inspection and supervision, while it
+is beginning to include arrangements for placing the child in work
+suited to his capacities when he leaves school.
+
+During the past ten years the movement of social reform has entered a
+fourth stage. The care of the child during his school-days was seen to
+be insufficient; it began too late, when probably the child's fate for
+life was already decided. It was necessary to push the process further
+back, to birth and even to the stage before birth, by directing social
+care to the infant, and by taking thought of the mother. This
+consideration has led to a whole series of highly important and fruitful
+measures which are only beginning to develop, although they have already
+proved very beneficial. The immediate notification to the authorities of
+a child's birth, and the institution of Health Visitors to ascertain
+what is being done for the infant's well-being, and to aid the mother
+with advice, have certainly been a large factor in the recent reduction
+in the infantile death-rate in England.[3]
+
+The care of the infant has indeed now become a new applied science, the
+science of puericulture. Professor Budin of Paris may fairly be regarded
+as the founder of puericulture by the establishment in Paris, in 1892,
+of Infant Consultations, to which mothers were encouraged to bring their
+babies to be weighed and examined, any necessary advice being given
+regarding the care of the baby. The mothers are persuaded to suckle
+their infants if possible, and if their own health permits. For the
+cases in which suckling is undesirable or impossible, Budin established
+Milk Depôts, where pure milk is supplied at a low price or freely.
+Infant Consultations and Milk Depôts are now becoming common everywhere.
+A little later than Budin, another distinguished French physician,
+Pinard, carried puericulture a step further back, but a very important
+step, by initiating a movement for the care of the pregnant woman.
+Pinard and his pupils have shown by a number of detailed investigations
+that the children born to working mothers who rest during the last three
+months of pregnancy, are to a marked extent larger and finer than the
+children of those mothers who enjoy no such period of rest, even though
+the mothers themselves may be equally robust and healthy in both cases.
+Moreover, it is found that premature birth, one of the commonest
+accidents of modern life, tends to be prevented by such rest. The
+children of mothers who rest enjoy on the average three weeks longer
+development in the womb than the children of the mothers who do not
+rest, and this prolonged ante-natal development cannot fail to be a
+benefit for the whole of the child's subsequent life. The movement
+started by Pinard, though strictly a continuation of the great movement
+for the improvement of the conditions of life, takes us as far back as
+we are able to go on these lines, and has in it the promise of an
+immense benefit to human efficiency.
+
+In connection with the movement of puericulture initiated by Budin and
+Pinard must be mentioned the institution of Schools for Mothers, for it
+is closely associated with the aims of puericulture. The School for
+Mothers arose in Belgium, a little later than the activities of Budin
+and Pinard commenced. About 1900 a young Socialist doctor of Ghent, Dr.
+Miele, started the first school of this kind, with girls of from twelve
+to sixteen years of age as students and assistants. The School
+eventually included as many as twelve different services, among these
+being dispensaries for mothers, a mothers' friendly society, milk depôts
+both for babies and nursing mothers, health talks to mothers with
+demonstrations, courses on puericulture (including anatomy, physiology,
+preparation of foods, weighing, etc.) to girls between fourteen and
+eighteen, who afterwards become eligible for appointment as paid
+assistants.[4] In 1907 Schools for Mothers were introduced into England,
+at first under the auspices of Dr. Sykes, Medical Officer of Health for
+St. Pancras, London. Such Schools are now spreading everywhere. In the
+end they will probably be considered necessary centres for any national
+system of puericulture. Every girl at the end of her school life should
+be expected to pass through a certain course of training at a School for
+Mothers. It would be the technical school for the working-class mother,
+while such a course would be invaluable for any girl, whatever her
+social class, even if she is never called to be a mother herself or to
+have the care of children.
+
+The great movement of social reform during the nineteenth century, we
+thus see, has moved in four stages, each of which has reinforced rather
+than replaced that which went before: (1) the effort to cleanse the
+gross filth of cities and to remedy obvious disorder by systematic
+attention to scavenging, drainage, the supply of water and of artificial
+light, as well as by improved policing; (2) the great system of factory
+legislation for regulating the conditions of work, and to some extent
+restraining the work of women and of children; (3) the introduction of
+national systems of education, and the gradual extension of the idea of
+education to cover far more than mere instruction; and (4), most
+fundamental of all and last to appear, the effort to guard the child
+before the school age, even at birth, even before birth, by bestowing
+due care on the future mother.[5]
+
+It may be pointed out that this movement of practical social reform has
+been accompanied, stimulated, and guided by a corresponding movement in
+the sciences which in their application are indispensable to the
+progress of civilized social reform. There has been a process of mutual
+action and reaction between science and practice. The social movement
+has stimulated the development of abstract science, and the new progress
+in science has enabled further advances to be made in social practice.
+The era of expansion in sanitation was the era of development in
+chemistry and physics, which alone enabled a sound system of sanitation
+to be developed. The fight against disease would have been impossible
+but for bacteriology. The new care for human life, and for the
+protection of its source, is associated with fresh developments of
+biological science. Sociological observations and speculation, including
+economics, are intimately connected with the efforts of social reform to
+attain a broad, sound, and truly democratic basis.[6]
+
+When we survey this movement as a whole, we have to recognize that it is
+exclusively concerned with the improvement of the conditions of life. It
+makes no attempt to influence either the quantity or the quality of
+life.[7] It may sometimes have been carried out with the assumption that
+to improve the conditions of life is, in some way or other, to improve
+the quality of life itself. But it accepted the stream of life as it
+found it, and while working to cleanse the banks of the stream it made
+no attempt to purify the stream itself.
+
+It must, however, be remembered that the arguments which, especially
+nowadays, are brought against the social reform of the condition of
+life, will not bear serious examination. It is said, for instance, or at
+all events implied, that we need bestow very little care on the
+conditions of life because such care can have no permanently beneficial
+effect on the race, since acquired characters, for the most part, are
+not transmitted to descendants. But to assume that social reform is
+unnecessary because it is not inherited is altogether absurd. The people
+who make this assumption would certainly not argue that it is useless
+for them to satisfy their own hunger and thirst, because their children
+will not thereby be safeguarded from experiencing hunger and thirst. Yet
+the needs which the movement of organized social reform seeks to satisfy
+are precisely on a level with, and indeed to some extent identical with,
+the needs of hunger and thirst. The impulse and the duty which move
+every civilized community to elaborate and gratify its own social needs
+to the utmost are altogether independent of the race, and would not
+cease to exist even in a community vowed to celibacy or the most
+absolute Neo-Malthusianism. Nor, again, must it be said that social
+reform destroys the beneficial results of natural selection.
+
+Here, indeed, we encounter a disputed point, and it may be admitted that
+the precise data for absolute demonstration in one direction or the
+other cannot yet be found. Whenever human beings breed in reckless and
+unrestrained profusion--as is the case under some conditions before a
+free and self-conscious civilization is attained--there is an immense
+infantile mortality. It is claimed, on the one hand, that this is
+beneficial, and need not be interfered with. The weak are killed off,
+it is said, and the strong survive; there is a process of natural
+survival of the fittest. That is true. But it is equally true, as has
+also been clearly seen on the other hand, that though the relatively
+strongest survive, their relative strength has been impaired by the very
+influences which have proved altogether fatal to their weaker brethren.
+There is an immense infantile mortality in Russia. Yet, notwithstanding
+any resulting "survival of the fittest," Russia is far more ravaged by
+disease than Norway, where infantile mortality is low. "A high infantile
+mortality," as George Carpenter, a great authority on the diseases of
+childhood, remarks, "denotes a far higher infantile deterioration rate";
+or, as another doctor puts it, "the dead baby is next of kin to the
+diseased baby," The protection of the weak, so frequently condemned by
+some Neo-Darwinians, is thus in reality, as Goldscheid terms it, "the
+protection of the strong from degeneration."
+
+There is, however, more to be said. Not only must an undue struggle with
+unfavourable conditions enfeeble the strong as well as kill the feeble;
+it also imposes an intolerable burden upon these enfeebled survivors.
+The process of destruction is not sudden, it is gradual. It is a
+long-drawn-out process. It involves the multiplication of the diseased,
+the maimed, the feeble-minded, of paupers and lunatics and criminals.
+Even natural selection thus includes the need for protecting the feeble,
+and so renders urgent the task of social reform, while the more
+thoroughly this task is carried out with the growth of civilization,
+the more stupendous and overwhelming the task becomes.
+
+It is thus that civilization, at a certain point in its course, renders
+inevitable the appearance of that wider and deeper organization of life
+which in the present volume we are concerned with under the name of
+Social Hygiene. That movement is far from being an abrupt or
+revolutionary manifestation in the ordinary progress of social growth.
+As we have seen, social reform during the past eighty years may be said
+to have proceeded in four successive stages, each of which has involved
+a nearer approach to the sources of life. The fourth stage, which in its
+beginnings dates only from the last years of the nineteenth century,
+takes us to the period before birth, and is concerned with the care of
+the child in the mother's womb. The next stage cannot fail to take us to
+the very source of life itself, lifting us beyond the task of purifying
+the conditions, and laying on us the further task of regulating the
+quantity and raising the quality of life at its very source. The duty of
+purifying, ordering, and consolidating the banks of the stream must
+still remain.[8] But when we are able to control the stream at its
+source we are able to some extent to prevent the contamination of that
+stream by filth, and ensure that its muddy floods shall not sweep away
+the results of our laborious work on the banks. Our sense of social
+responsibility is developing into a sense of racial responsibility, and
+that development is expressed in the nature of the tasks of Social
+Hygiene which now lie before us.
+
+It is the control of the reproduction of the race which renders possible
+the new conception of Social Hygiene. We have seen that the gradual
+process of social reform during the first three quarters of the
+nineteenth century, by successive stages of movement towards the sources
+of life, finally reached the moment of conception. The first result of
+reform at this point was that procreation became a deliberate act. Up
+till then the method of propagating the race was the same as that which
+savages have carried on during thousands of years, the chief difference
+being that whereas savages have frequently sought to compensate their
+recklessness by destroying their inferior offspring, we had accepted all
+the offspring, good, bad, and indifferent, produced by our
+indiscriminate recklessness, shielding ourselves by a false theology.
+Children "came," and their parents disclaimed all responsibility for
+their coming. The children were "sent by God," and if they all turned
+out to be idiots, the responsibility was God's. But when it became
+generally realized that it was possible to limit offspring without
+interfering with conjugal life a step of immense importance was
+achieved. It became clear to all that the Divine force works through us,
+and that we are not entitled to cast the burden of our evil actions on
+any Higher Power. Marriage no longer fatally involved an endless
+procession of children who, in so far as they survived at all, were in a
+large number of cases doomed to disease, neglect, misery, and ignorance.
+The new Social Hygiene was for the first time rendered possible.
+
+It was in France during the first half of the nineteenth century that
+the control of reproduction first began to become a social habit. In
+Sweden and in Denmark, the fall in the birth-rate, though it has been
+irregular, may be said to have begun in 1860. It was not until about the
+year 1876 that, in so far as we may judge by the arrest of the
+birth-rate, the movement began to spread to Europe generally. In England
+it is usual to associate this change with a famous prosecution which
+brought a knowledge of the means of preventing conception to the whole
+population of Great Britain. Undoubtedly this prosecution was an
+important factor in the movement, but we cannot doubt that, even if the
+prosecution had not taken place, the course of social progress must
+still have pursued the same course. It is noteworthy that it was about
+this same period, in various European countries, that the tide turned,
+and the excessively high birth-rate began to fall.[9] Recklessness was
+giving place to foresight and self-control. Such foresight and
+self-control are of the essence of civilization.[10]
+
+It cannot be disputed that the transformation by which the propagation
+of the race became deliberate and voluntary has not been established in
+social custom without a certain amount of protestation from various
+sides. No social change, however beneficial, ever is established without
+such protestation, which may, therefore, be regarded as an inevitable
+and probably a salutary part of social change. Even some would-be
+scientific persons, with a display of elaborate statistics, set forth
+various alarmistic doctrines. If, said these persons, this new movement
+goes on at the present pace, and if all other conditions remain
+unchanged, then all sorts of terrible results will ensue. But the
+alarming conclusion failed to ensue, and for a very sufficient reason.
+The assumed premises of the argument were unsound. Nothing ever goes on
+at the same pace, nor do all other conditions ever remain unchanged.
+
+The world is a living fire, as Heraclitus long ago put it. All things
+are in perpetual flux. Life is a process of perpetual movement. It is
+idle to bid the world stand still, and then to argue about the
+consequences. The world will not stand still, it is for ever revolving,
+for ever revealing some new facet that had not been allowed for in the
+neatly arranged mechanism of the statistician.
+
+It is perhaps unnecessary to dwell on a point which is now at last, one
+may hope, becoming clear to most intelligent persons. But I may perhaps
+be allowed to refer in passing to an argument that has been brought
+forward with the wearisome iteration which always marks the progress of
+those who are feeble in argument. The good stocks of upper social class
+are decreasing in fertility, it is said; the bad stocks of lower social
+class are not decreasing; therefore the bad stocks are tending to
+replace the good stocks.[11]
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that, even assuming that the facts are
+as stated; it is a hazardous assumption that the best stocks are
+necessarily the stocks of high social class. In the main no doubt this
+is so, but good stocks are nevertheless so widely spread through all
+classes--such good stocks in the lower social classes being probably the
+most resistent to adverse conditions--that we are not entitled to regard
+even a slightly greater net increase of the lower social classes as an
+unmitigated evil. It may be that, as Mercier has expressed it, "we have
+to regard a civilized community somewhat in the light of a lamp, which
+burns at the top and is replenished from the bottom."[12]
+
+The soundness of a stock, and its aptitude for performing efficiently
+the functions of its own social sphere, cannot, indeed, be accurately
+measured by any tendency to rise into a higher social sphere. On the
+whole, from generation to generation, the men of a good stock remain
+within their own social sphere, whether high or low, adequately
+performing their functions in that sphere, from generation to
+generation. They remain, we may say, in that social stratum of which the
+specific gravity is best suited for their existence.[13]
+
+Yet, undoubtedly, from time to time, there is a slight upward social
+tendency, due in most cases to the exceptional energy and ability of
+some individual who succeeds in permanently lifting his family into a
+slightly higher social stratum.[14] Such a process has always taken
+place, in the past even more conspicuously than in the present. The
+Normans who came over to England with William the Conqueror and
+constituted the proud English nobility were simply a miscellaneous set
+of adventurers, professional fighting men, of unknown, and no doubt for
+the most part undistinguished, lineage. William the Conqueror himself
+was the son of a woman of the people. The Catholic Church founded no
+families, but its democratic constitution opened a career to men of all
+classes, and the most brilliant sons of the Church were often of the
+lowliest social rank. We should not, therefore, say that the bad stocks
+are replacing the good stocks. There is not the slightest evidence for
+any such theory. All that we are entitled to say is that when in the
+upward progression of a community the vanishing point of culture and
+refinement is attained the bearers of that culture and refinement die
+off as naturally and inevitably as flowers in autumn, and from their
+roots spring up new and more vigorous shoots to replace them and to pass
+in their turn through the same stages, with that perpetual slight
+novelty in which lies the secret of life, as well as of art. An
+aristocracy which is merely an aristocracy because it is "old"--whether
+it is an aristocracy of families, or of races, or of species--has
+already ceased to be an aristocracy in any sound meaning of the term. We
+need not regret its disappearance.
+
+Do not, therefore, let us waste our time in crying over the dead roses
+of the summer that is past. There is something morbid in the perpetual
+groaning over that inevitable decay which is itself a part of all life.
+Such a perpetual narrow insistence on one aspect of life is scarcely
+sane. One suspects that these people are themselves of those stocks over
+whose fate they grieve. Let us, therefore, mercifully leave them to
+manure their dead roses in peace. They will soon be forgotten. The world
+is for ever dying. The world is also for ever bursting with life. The
+spring song of _Sursum corda_ easily overwhelms the dying autumnal wails
+of the _Dies Iræ_.
+
+It would thus appear that, even apart from any deliberate restraint from
+procreation, as a family attains the highest culture and refinement
+which civilization can yield, that family tends to die out, at all
+events in the male line.[15] This is, for instance, the result which
+Fahlbeck has reached in his valuable demographic study of the Swedish
+nobility, _Der Adel Schwedens_. "Apparently," says Fahlbeck, "the
+greater demands on nervous and intellectual force which the culture and
+refinement of the upper classes produce are chiefly responsible for
+this. For these are the two personal factors by which those classes are
+distinguished from the lower classes: high education and refinement in
+tastes and habits. The first involves predominant activity of the brain,
+the last a heightened sensitiveness in all departments of nervous life.
+In both respects, therefore, there is increased work for the nervous
+system, and this is compensated in the other vital functions, especially
+reproduction. Man cannot achieve everything; what he gains on one side
+he loses on the other." We should do well to hold these wise words in
+mind when we encounter those sciolists who in the presence of the finest
+and rarest manifestations of civilizations, can only talk of race
+"decay." A female salmon, it is estimated, lays about nine hundred eggs
+for every pound of her own weight, and she may weigh fifty pounds. The
+progeny of Shakespeare and Goethe, such as it was, disappeared in the
+very centuries in which these great men themselves died. At the present
+stage of civilization we are somewhat nearer to Shakespeare and Goethe
+than to the salmon. We must set our ideals towards a very different
+direction from that which commends itself to our Salmonidian sciolists.
+"Increase and multiply" was the legendary injunction uttered on the
+threshold of an empty world. It is singularly out of place in an age in
+which the earth and the sea, if not indeed the very air, swarm with
+countless myriads of undistinguished and indistinguishable human
+creatures, until the beauty of the world is befouled and the glory of
+the Heavens bedimmed. To stem back that tide is the task now imposed on
+our heroism, to elevate and purify and refine the race, to introduce
+the ideal of quality in place of the ideal of quantity which has run
+riot so long, with the results we see. "As the Northern Saga tells that
+Odin must sacrifice his eye to attain the higher wisdom," concludes
+Fahlbeck, "so Man also, in order to win the treasures of culture and
+refinement, must give not only his eye but his life, if not his own life
+that of his posterity."[16] The vulgar aim of reckless racial fertility
+is no longer within our reach and no longer commends itself as worthy.
+It is not consonant with the stage of civilization we are at the moment
+passing through. The higher task is now ours of the regeneration of the
+race, or, if we wish to express that betterment less questionably, the
+aggeneration of the race.[17]
+
+The control of reproduction, we see, essential as it is, cannot by
+itself carry far the betterment of the race, because it involves no
+direct selection of stocks. Yet we have to remember that though this
+control, with the limitation of offspring it involves, fails to answer
+all the demands which Social Hygiene to-day makes of us, it yet achieves
+much. It may not improve what we abstractly term the "race," but it
+immensely improves the individuals of which the race is made up. Thus
+the limitation of the family renders it possible to avoid the production
+of undesired children. That in itself is an immense social gain, because
+it tends to abolish excessive infantile mortality.[18] It means that
+adequate care will be expended upon the children that are produced, and
+that no children will be produced unless the parents are in a position
+to provide for them.[19] Even the mere spacing out of the children in a
+family, the larger interval between child-births, is a very great
+advantage. The mother is no longer exhausted by perpetually bearing,
+suckling, and tending babies, while the babies themselves are on the
+average of better quality.[20] Thus the limitation of offspring, far from
+being an egoistic measure, as some have foolishly supposed, is
+imperatively demanded in the altruistic interests of the individuals
+composing the race.
+
+But the control of reproduction, enormously beneficial as it is even in
+its most elementary shapes, mainly concerns us here because it furnishes
+the essential condition for the development of Social Hygiene. The
+control of reproduction renders possible, and leads on to, a wise
+selection in reproduction. It is only by such selection of children to
+be born that we can balance our indiscriminate care in the preservation
+of all children that are born, a care which otherwise would become an
+intolerable burden. It is only by such selection that we can work
+towards the elimination of those stocks which fail to help us in the
+tasks of our civilization to-day. It is only by such selection that we
+can hope to fortify the stocks that are fitted for these tasks. More
+than two centuries ago Steele playfully suggested that "one might wear
+any passion out of a family by culture, as skilful gardeners blot a
+colour out of a tulip that hurts its beauty."[21] The progress of
+civilization, with the self-control it involves, has made it possible to
+accept this suggestion seriously.[22] The difference is that whereas the
+flowers of our gardens are bettered only by the control of an arbitrary
+external will and intelligence, our human flowers may be bettered by an
+intelligence and will, a finer sense of responsibility, developed within
+themselves. Thus it is that human culture renders possible Social
+Hygiene.
+
+Three centuries ago an inspired monk set forth his ideal of an ennobled
+world in _The City of the Sun_. Campanella wrote that prophetic book in
+prison. But his spirit was unfettered, and his conception of human
+society, though in daring it outruns all the visions we may compare it
+with, is yet on the lines along which our civilization lies. In the City
+of the Sun not only was the nobility of work, even mechanical
+work,--which Plato rejected and More was scarcely conscious of,--for the
+first time recognized, but the supreme impulse of procreation was
+regarded as a sacred function, to be exercised in the light of
+scientific knowledge. It was a public rather than a private duty,
+because it concerned the interests of the race; only valorous and
+high-spirited men ought to procreate, and it was held that the father
+should bear the punishments inflicted on the son for faults due to his
+failure by defects in generation.[23] Moreover, while unions not for the
+end of procreation were in the City of the Sun left to the judgment of
+the individuals alone concerned, it was not so with unions for the end
+of procreation. These were arranged by the "great Master," a physician,
+aided by the chief matrons, and the public exercises of the youths and
+maidens, performed in a state of nakedness, were of assistance in
+enabling unions to be fittingly made. No eugenist under modern
+conditions of life proposes that unions should be arranged by a supreme
+medical public official, though he might possibly regard such an
+official, if divested of any compulsory powers, a kind of public trustee
+for the race, as a useful institution. But it is easy to see that the
+luminous conception of racial betterment which, since Galton rendered it
+practicable, is now inspiring social progress, was already burning
+brightly three centuries ago in the brain of this imprisoned Italian
+monk. Just as Thomas More has been called the father of modern
+Socialism, so Campanella may be said to be the prophet of modern
+Eugenics.
+
+By "Eugenics" is meant the scientific study of all the agencies by which
+the human race may be improved, and the effort to give practical effect
+to those agencies by conscious and deliberate action in favour of better
+breeding. Even among savages eugenics may be said to exist, if only in
+the crude and unscientific practice of destroying feeble, deformed, and
+abnormal infants at birth. In civilized ages elaborate and more or less
+scientific attempts are made by breeders of animals to improve the
+stocks they breed, and their efforts have been crowned with much
+success. The study of the same methods in their bearing on man proceeded
+out of the Darwinian school of biology, and is especially associated
+with the great name of Sir Francis Galton, the cousin of Darwin. Galton
+first proposed to call this study "Stirpiculture." Under that name it
+inspired Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, with the impulse to
+carry it into practice with a thoroughness and daring--indeed a
+similarity of method--which caused Oneida almost to rival the City of
+the Sun. But the scheme of Noyes, excellent as in some respects it was
+as an experiment, outran both scientific knowledge and the spirit of the
+times. It was not countenanced by Galton, who never had any wish to
+offend general sentiment, but sought to win it over to his side, and
+before 1880 the Oneida Community was brought to an end in consequence of
+the antagonism it aroused. Galton continued to develop his conceptions
+slowly and cautiously, and in 1883, in his _Inquiries into Human
+Faculty_, he abandoned the term "Stirpiculture" and devised the term
+"Eugenics," which is now generally adopted to signify Good Breeding.
+
+Galton was quite well aware that the improved breeding of men is a very
+different matter from the improved breeding of animals, requiring a
+different knowledge and a different method, so that the ridicule which
+has sometimes been ignorantly flung at Eugenics failed to touch him. It
+would be clearly undesirable to breed men, as animals are bred, for
+single points at the sacrifice of other points, even if we were in a
+position to breed men from outside. Human breeding must proceed from
+impulses that arise, voluntarily, in human brains and wills, and are
+carried out with a human sense of personal responsibility. Galton
+believed that the first need was the need of knowledge in these matters.
+He was not anxious to invoke legislation.[24] The compulsory presentation
+of certificates of health and good breeding as a preliminary to marriage
+forms no part of Eugenics, nor is compulsory sterilization a demand made
+by any reasonable eugenist. Certainly the custom of securing
+certificates of health and ability is excellent, not only as a
+preliminary to marriage, but as a general custom. Certainly, also, there
+are cases in which sterilization is desirable, if voluntarily
+accepted.[25] But neither certification nor sterilization should be
+compulsory. They only have their value if they are intelligent and
+deliberate, springing out of a widened and enlightened sense of personal
+responsibility to society and to the race.
+
+Eugenics constitutes the link between the Social Reform of the past,
+painfully struggling to improve the conditions of life, and the Social
+Hygiene of the future, which is authorized to deal adequately with the
+conditions of life because it has its hands on the sources of life. On
+this plane we are able to concentrate our energies on the finer ends of
+life, because we may reasonably expect to be no longer hampered by the
+ever-increasing burdens which were placed upon us by the failure to
+control life; while the more we succeed in our efforts to purify and
+strengthen life, the more magnificent become the tasks we may reasonably
+hope to attempt and compass.
+
+A problem which is often and justly cited as one to be settled by
+Eugenics is that presented by the existence among us of the large class
+of the feeble-minded. No doubt there are some who would regret the
+disappearance of the feeble-minded from our midst. The philosophies of
+the Bergsonian type, which to-day prevail so widely, place intuition
+above reason, and the "pure fool" has sometimes been enshrined and
+idolized. But we may remember that Eugenics can never prevent absolutely
+the occurrence of feeble-minded persons, even in the extreme degree of
+the imbecile and the idiot.[26] They come within the range of variation,
+by the same right as genius so comes. We cannot, it may be, prevent the
+occurrence of such persons, but we can prevent them from being the
+founders of families tending to resemble themselves. And in so doing, it
+will be agreed by most people, we shall be effecting a task of immense
+benefit to society and the race.
+
+Feeble-mindedness is largely handed on by heredity. It was formerly
+supposed that idiocy and feeble-mindedness are mainly due to
+environmental conditions, to the drink, depravity, general disease, or
+lack of nutrition of the parents, and there is no doubt an element of
+truth in that view. But serious and frequent as are the results of bad
+environment and acquired disease in the parentage of the feeble-minded,
+they do not form the fundamental factor in the production of the
+feeble-minded.[27]
+
+Feeble-mindedness is essentially a germinal variation, belonging to the
+same large class as all other biological variations, occurring, for the
+most part, in the first place spontaneously, but strongly tending to be
+inherited. It thus resembles congenital cataract, deaf-mutism, the
+susceptibility to tuberculous infection, etc.[28]
+
+Exact investigation is now showing that feeble-mindedness is passed on
+from parent to child to an enormous extent. Some years ago Ashby,
+speaking from a large experience in the North of England, estimated that
+at least seventy-five per cent of feeble-minded children are born with
+an inherited tendency to mental defect. More precise investigation has
+since shown that this estimate was under the mark. Tredgold, who in
+England has most carefully studied the heredity of the feeble-minded,[29]
+found that in over eighty-two per cent cases there is a bad nervous
+inheritance. In a large number of cases the bad heredity was associated
+with alcoholism or consumption in the parentage, but only in a small
+proportion of cases (about seven per cent) was it probable that
+alcoholism and consumption alone, and usually combined, had sufficed to
+produce the defective condition of the children, while environmental
+conditions only produced mental defect in ten per cent cases.[30]
+Heredity is the chief cause of feeble-mindedness, and a normal child is
+never born of two feeble-minded parents. The very thorough investigation
+of the heredity of the feeble-minded which is now being carried on at
+the institution for their care at Vineland, New Jersey, shows even more
+decisive results. By making careful pedigrees of the families to which
+the inmates at Vineland belong it is seen that in a large proportion of
+cases feeble-mindedness is handed on from generation to generation, and
+is traceable through three generations, though it sometimes skips a
+generation. In one family of three hundred and nineteen persons, one
+hundred and nineteen were known to be feeble-minded, and only forty-two
+known to be normal. The families tended to be large, sometimes very
+large, most of them in many cases dying in infancy or growing up
+weak-minded.[31]
+
+Not only is feeble-mindedness inherited, and to a much greater degree
+than has hitherto been suspected even by expert authorities, but the
+feeble-minded thus tend (though, as Davenport and Weeks have found, not
+invariably) to have a larger number of children than normal people. That
+indeed, we might expect, apart altogether from the question of any
+innate fertility. The feeble-minded have no forethought and no
+self-restraint. They are not adequately capable of resisting their own
+impulses or the solicitations of others, and they are unable to
+understand adequately the motives which guide the conduct of ordinary
+people. The average number of children of feeble-minded people seems to
+be frequently about one-third more than in normal families, and is
+sometimes much greater. Dr. Ettie Sayer, when investigating for the
+London County Council the family histories of one hundred normal
+families and one hundred families in which mentally defective children
+had been found, ascertained that the families of the latter averaged 7.6
+children, while in the normal families they averaged 5. Tredgold,
+specially investigating 150 feeble-minded cases, found that they
+belonged to families in which 1269 children had been born, that is to
+say 7.3 per family, or, counting still-born children, 8.4. Nearly
+two-thirds of these abnormally large families were mentally defective,
+many showing a tendency to disease, pauperism, criminality, or else to
+early death.[32]
+
+Here, indeed, we have a counterbalancing influence, for, in the large
+families of the feeble-minded, there is a correspondingly large
+infantile mortality. A considerable proportion of Tredgold's group of
+children were born dead, and a very large number died early. Eichholz,
+again, found that, in one group of defective families, about sixty per
+cent of the children died young. That is probably an unusually high
+proportion, and in Eichholz's cases it seems to have been associated
+with very unusually large families, but the infant mortality is always
+very high.
+
+This large early mortality of the offspring of the feeble-minded is,
+however, very far from settling the question of the disposal of the
+mentally defective, or we should not find families of them propagated
+from generation to generation. The large number who die early merely
+serves, roughly speaking, to reduce the size of the abnormal family to
+the size of a normal family, and some authorities consider that it
+scarcely suffices to do this, for we must remember that there is a
+considerable mortality even in the so-called normal family during early
+life. Even when there is no abnormal fertility in the defective family
+we may still have to recognize that, as Davenport and Weeks argue, their
+defectiveness is intensified by heredity. Moreover, we have to consider
+the social disorder and the heavy expense which accompany the large
+infantile mortality. Illegitimacy is frequently the result of
+feeble-mindedness, since feeble-minded women are peculiarly unable to
+resist temptation. A great number of such women are continually coming
+into the workhouses and giving birth to illegitimate children whom they
+are unable to support, and who often never become capable of supporting
+themselves, but in their turn tend to produce a new feeble-minded
+generation, more especially since the men who are attracted to these
+feeble-minded women are themselves--according to the generally
+recognized tendency of the abnormal to be attracted to the
+abnormal--feeble-minded or otherwise mentally defective. There is thus
+generated not only a heavy financial burden, but also a perpetual danger
+to society, and, it may well be, a serious depreciation in the quality
+of the community.[33]
+
+It is not only in themselves that the feeble-minded are a burden on the
+present generation and a menace to future generations. In large measure
+they form the reservoir from which the predatory classes are recruited.
+This is, for instance, the case as regards prostitutes. Feeble-minded
+girls, of fairly high grade, may often be said to be predestined to
+prostitution if left to themselves, not because they are vicious, but
+because they are weak and have little power of resistance. They cannot
+properly weigh their actions against the results of their actions, and
+even if they are intelligent enough to do that, they are still too weak
+to regulate their actions accordingly. Moreover, even when, as often
+happens among the high-grade feeble-minded, they are quite able and
+willing to work, after they have lost their "respectability" by having a
+child, the opportunities for work become more restricted, and they drift
+into prostitution. It has been found that of nearly 15,000 women who
+passed through Magdalen Homes in England, over 2500, or more than
+sixteen per cent--and this is probably an under-estimate--were
+definitely feeble-minded. The women belonging to this feeble-minded
+group were known to have added 1000 illegitimate children to the
+population. In Germany Bonhoeffer found among 190 prostitutes who passed
+through a prison that 102 were hereditarily degenerate and 53
+feeble-minded. This would be an over-estimate as regards average
+prostitutes, though the offences were no doubt usually trivial, but in
+any case the association between prostitution and feeble-mindedness is
+intimate. Everywhere, there can be no doubt, the ranks of prostitution
+contain a considerable proportion of women who were, at the very outset,
+in some slight degree feeble-minded, mentally and morally a little
+blunted through some taint of inheritance.[34]
+
+Criminality, again, is associated with feeble-mindedness in the most
+intimate way. Not only do criminals tend to belong to large families,
+but the families that produce feeble-minded offspring also produce
+criminals, while a certain degree of feeble-mindedness is extremely
+common among criminals, and the most hopeless and typical, though
+fortunately rare, kind of criminal, frequently termed a "moral
+imbecile," is nothing more than a feeble-minded person whose defect is
+shown not so much in his intelligence as in his feelings and his
+conduct. Sir H.B. Donkin, who speaks with authority on this matter,
+estimates that, though it is difficult to obtain the early history of
+the criminals who enter English prisons, about twenty per cent of them
+are of primarily defective mental capacity. This would mean that every
+year some 35,000 feeble-minded persons are sent to English prisons as
+"criminals." The tendency of criminals to belong to the feeble-minded
+class is indeed every day becoming more clearly recognized. At
+Pentonville, putting aside prisoners who were too mentally affected to
+be fit for prison discipline, eighteen per cent of the adult prisoners
+and forty per cent of the juvenile offenders were found to be
+feeble-minded. This includes only those whose defect is fairly obvious,
+and is not the result of methodical investigation. It is certain that
+such methodical inquiry would reveal a very large proportion of cases of
+less obvious mental defect. Thus the systematic examination of a number
+of delinquent children in an Industrial School showed that in
+seventy-five per cent cases they were defective as compared to normal
+children, and that their defectiveness was probably inborn. Even the
+possession of a considerable degree of cunning is no evidence against
+mental defect, but may rather be said to be a sign of it, for it shows
+an intelligence unable to grasp the wider relations of life, and
+concentrated on the gratification of petty and immediate desires. Thus
+it happens that the cunning of criminals is frequently associated with
+almost inconceivable stupidity.[35]
+
+Closely related to the great feeble-minded class, and from time to time
+falling into crime, are the inmates of workhouses, tramps, and the
+unemployable. The so-called "able-bodied" inmates of the workhouses are
+frequently found, on medical examination, to be, in more than fifty per
+cent cases, mentally defective, equally so whether they are men or
+women. Tramps, by nature and profession, who overlap the workhouse
+population, and are estimated to number 20,000 to 30,000 in England and
+Wales, when the genuine unemployed are eliminated, are everywhere found
+to be a very degenerate class, among whom the most mischievous kinds of
+feeble-mindedness and mental perversion prevail. Inebriates, the people
+who are chronically and helplessly given to drink, largely belong to the
+same great family, and do not so much become feeble-minded because they
+drink, but possess the tendency to drink because they have a strain of
+feeble-mindedness from birth. Branthwaite, the chief English authority
+on this question, finds that of the inebriates who come to his notice,
+putting aside altogether the group of actually insane persons, about
+sixty-three per cent are mentally defective, and scarcely more than a
+third of the whole number of average mental capacity. It is evident that
+these people, even if restored to sobriety, would still retain their
+more or less inborn defectiveness, and would remain equally, unfit to
+become the parents of the coming generation.
+
+These are the kind of people--tramps, prostitutes, paupers, criminals,
+inebriates, all tending to be born a little defective--who largely make
+up the great degenerate families whose histories are from time to time
+recorded. Such a family was that of the Jukes in America, who, in the
+course of five generations, by constantly intermarrying with bad stocks,
+produced 709 known descendants who were on the whole unfit for society,
+and have been a constant danger and burden to society.[36] A still larger
+family of the same kind, more recently studied in Germany, consisted of
+834 known persons, all descended from a drunken vagabond woman, probably
+somewhat feeble-minded but physically vigorous. The great majority of
+these descendants were prostitutes, tramps, paupers, and criminals (some
+of them murderers), and the direct cost in money to the Prussian State
+for the keep and care of this woman and her family has been a quarter of
+a million pounds. Yet another such family is that of the "Zeros." Three
+centuries ago they were highly respectable people, living in a Swiss
+valley. But they intermarried with an insane stock, and subsequently
+married other women of an unbalanced nature. In recent times 310 members
+of this family have been studied, and it is found that vagrancy,
+feeble-mindedness, mental troubles, criminality, pauperism, immorality
+are, as it may be termed, their patrimony.[37]
+
+These classes, with their tendency to weak-mindedness, their inborn
+laziness, lack of vitality, and unfitness for organized activity,
+contain the people who complain that they are starving for want of work,
+though they will never perform any work that is given them.
+Feeble-mindedness is an absolute dead-weight on the race. It is an evil
+that is unmitigated. The heavy and complicated social burdens and
+injuries it inflicts on the present generation are without compensation,
+while the unquestionable fact that in any degree it is highly
+inheritable renders it a deteriorating poison to the race; it
+depreciates the quality of a people. The task of Social Hygiene which
+lies before us cannot be attempted by this feeble folk. Not only can
+they not share it, but they impede it; their clumsy hands are for ever
+becoming entangled in the delicate mechanism of our modern civilization.
+Their very existence is itself an impediment. Apart altogether from the
+gross and obvious burden in money and social machinery which the
+protection they need, and the protection we need against them, casts
+upon the community,[38] they dilute the spiritual quality of the
+community to a degree which makes it an inapt medium for any high
+achievement. It matters little how small a city or a nation is, provided
+the spirit of its people is great. It is the smallest communities that
+have most powerfully and most immortally raised the level of
+civilization, and surrounded the human species (in its own eyes) with a
+halo of glory which belongs to no other species. Only a handful of
+people, hemmed in on every side, created the eternal radiance of Athens,
+and the fame of the little city of Florence may outlive that of the
+whole kingdom of Italy. To realize this truth in the future of
+civilization is one of the first tasks of Social Hygiene.[39]
+
+It is here that the ideals of Eugenics may be expected to work
+fruitfully. To insist upon the power of heredity was once considered to
+indicate a fatalistic pessimism. It wears a very different aspect
+nowadays, in the light of Eugenics. "To the eugenist," as Davenport
+observes, "heredity stands as the one great hope of the human race: its
+saviour from imbecility, poverty, disease, immorality."[40] We cannot,
+indeed, desire any compulsory elimination of the unfit or any centrally
+regulated breeding of the fit.[41] Such notions are idle, and even the
+mere fact that unbalanced brains may air them abroad tends to impair the
+legitimate authority of eugenic ideals. The two measures which are now
+commonly put forward for the attainment of eugenic ends--health
+certificates as a legal preliminary to marriage and the sterilization of
+the unfit--are excellent when wisely applied, but they become
+mischievous, if not ridiculous, in the hands of fanatics who would
+employ them by force. Domestic animals may be highly bred from outside,
+compulsorily. Man can only be bred upwards from within through the
+medium of his intelligence and will, working together under the control
+of a high sense of responsibility. The infinite cunning of men and women
+is fully equal to the defeat of any attempt to touch life at this
+intimate point against the wish of those to whom the creation of life is
+entrusted. The laws of marriage even among savages have often been
+complex and strenuous in the highest degree. But it has been easy to
+bear them, for they have been part of the sacred and inviolable
+traditions of the race; religion lay behind them. And Galton, who
+recognized the futility of mere legislation in the elevation of the
+race, believed that the hope of the future lies in rendering eugenics a
+part of religion. The only compulsion we can apply in eugenics is the
+compulsion that comes from within. All those in whom any fine sense of
+social and racial responsibility is developed will desire, before
+marriage, to give, and to receive, the fullest information on all the
+matters that concern ancestral inheritance, while the registration of
+such information, it is probable, will become ever simpler and more a
+matter of course.[42] And if he finds that he is not justified in aiding
+to carry on the race, the eugenist will be content to make himself, in
+the words of Jesus, "a eunuch for the kingdom of Heaven's sake,"
+whether, under modern conditions, that means abstention in marriage from
+procreation, or voluntary sterilization by operative methods.[43] For, as
+Giddings has put it, the goal of the race lies, not in the ruthless
+exaltation of a super-man, but in the evolution of a super-mankind. Such
+a goal can only be reached by resolute selection and elimination.[44]
+
+The breeding of men lies largely in the hands of women. That is why the
+question of Eugenics is to a great extent one with the woman question.
+The realization of eugenics in our social life can only be attained with
+the realization of the woman movement in its latest and completest phase
+as an enlightened culture of motherhood, in all that motherhood involves
+alike on the physical and the psychic sides. Motherhood on the eugenic
+basis is a deliberate and selective process, calling for the highest
+intelligence as well as the finest emotional and moral aptitudes, so
+that all the best energies of a long evolution of womanhood in the paths
+of modern culture here find their final outlet. The breeding of children
+further involves the training of children, and since the expansion of
+Social Hygiene renders education a far larger and more delicate task
+than it has ever been before, the responsibilities laid upon women by
+the evolution of civilization become correspondingly great.
+
+For the men who have been thus born and taught the tasks imposed by
+Social Hygiene are in no degree lighter. They demand all the best
+qualities of a selectively bred race from which the mentally and
+physically weak have, so far as possible, been bred out. The
+substitution of law for war alike in the relations of class to class,
+and of nation to nation, and the organization of international methods
+of social intercourse between peoples of different tongues and unlike
+traditions, are but two typical examples of the tasks, difficult but
+imperative, which Social Hygiene presents and the course of modern
+civilization renders insistent. Again, the adequate adjustment of the
+claims of the individual and the claims of the community, each carried
+to its farthest point, can but prove an exquisite test of the quality of
+any well-bred and well-trained race. It is exactly in that balancing of
+apparent opposites, the necessity of pushing to extremes both opposites,
+and the consequent need of cultivating that quality of temperance the
+Greeks estimated so highly, that the supreme difficulties of modern
+civilization lie. We see these difficulties again in relation to the
+extension of law. It is desirable and inevitable that the sphere of law
+should be extended, and that the disputes which are still decided by
+brutal and unreasoning force should be decided by humane and reasoning
+force, that is to say, by law. But, side by side with this extension of
+law, it is necessary to wage a constant war with the law-making
+tendency, to cherish an undying resolve to maintain unsullied those
+sacred and intimate impulses, all the finest activities of the moral
+sphere, which the generalizing hand of law can only injure and stain.
+
+It is these fascinating and impassioning problems, every day becoming of
+more urgent practical importance, which it is the task of Social Hygiene
+to solve, having first created the men and women who are fit to solve
+them. It is such problems as these that we are to-day called upon to
+illuminate, as far as we may--it may not yet be very far--by the dry
+light of science.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Muralt, _Lettres sur les Anglais_. Lettre V.
+
+[2] In the reign of Richard II (1388) an Act was passed for "the
+punishment of those which cause corruption near a city or great town to
+corrupt the air." A century later (in Henry VII's time) an Act was
+passed to prevent butchers killing beasts in walled towns, the preamble
+to this Act declaring that no noble town in Christendom should contain
+slaughter-houses lest sickness be thus engendered. In Charles II's time,
+after the great fire of London, the law provided for the better paving
+and cleansing of the streets and sewers. It was, however, in Italy, as
+Weyl points out (_Geschichte der Sozialen Hygiene im Mittelalter_, at a
+meeting of the Gesellschaft für Soziale Medizin, May 25, 1905), that the
+modern movement of organized sanitation began. In the thirteenth century
+the great Italian cities (like Florence and Pistoja) possessed _Codici
+Sanitarii_; but they were not carried out, and when the Black Death
+reached Florence in 1348, it found the city altogether unprepared. It
+was Venice which, in the same year, first initiated vigorous State
+sanitation. Disinfection was first ordained by Gian Visconti, in Milan,
+in 1399. The first quarantine station of which we hear was established
+in Venice in 1403.
+
+[3] The rate of infant mortality in England and Wales has decreased from
+149 per 1000 births in 1871-80 to 127 per 1000 births in 1910. In
+reference to this remarkable fall which has taken place _pari passu_
+with the fall in the birth-rate, Newsholme, the medical officer to the
+Local Government Board, writes: "There can be no reasonable doubt that
+much of the reduction has been caused by that 'concentration' on the
+mother and the child which has been a striking feature of the last few
+years. Had the experience of 1896-1900 held good there would have been
+45,120 more deaths of infants in 1910 than actually occurred." In some
+parts of the country, however, where the women go out to work in
+factories (as in Lancashire and parts of Staffordshire) the infantile
+mortality remains very high.
+
+[4] Mrs. Bertrand Russell, "The Ghent School for Mothers," _Nineteenth
+Century_, December, 1906.
+
+[5] It is scarcely necessary to say that other classifications of social
+reform on its more hygienic side may be put forward. Thus W.H. Allen,
+looking more narrowly at the sanitary side of the matter, but without
+confining his consideration to the nineteenth century, finds that there
+are always seven stages: (1) that of racial tutelage, when sanitation
+becomes conscious and receives the sanction of law; (2) the introduction
+of sanitary comfort, well-paved streets, public sewers, extensive
+waterworks; (3) the period of commercial sanitation, when the mercantile
+classes insist upon such measures as quarantine and street-cleaning to
+check the immense ravages of epidemics; (4) the introduction of
+legislation against nuisances and the tendency to extend the definition
+of nuisance, which for Bracton, in the fourteenth century, meant an
+obstruction, and for Blackstone, in the eighteenth, included things
+otherwise obnoxious, such as offensive trades and foul watercourses; (5)
+the stage of precaution against the dangers incidental to the slums that
+are fostered by modern conditions of industry; (6) the stage of
+philanthropy, erecting hospitals, model tenements, schools, etc.; (7)
+the stage of socialistic sanitation, when the community as a whole
+actively seeks its own sanitary welfare, and devotes public funds to
+this end. (W.H. Allen, "Sanitation and Social Progress," _American
+Journal of Sociology_, March, 1903.)
+
+[6] Dr. F. Bushee has pointed out ("Science and Social Progress,"
+_Popular Science Monthly_, September, 1911) that there is a kind of
+related progression between science and practice in this matter: "The
+natural sciences developed first, because man was first interested in
+the conquest of nature, and the simpler physical laws could be grasped
+at an early period. This period brought an increase of wealth, but it
+was wasteful of human life. The desire to save life led the way to the
+study of biology. Knowledge of the physical environment and of life,
+however, did not prevent social disease from flourishing, and did not
+greatly improve the social condition of a large part of society. To
+overcome these defects the social sciences within recent years have been
+cultivated with great seriousness. Interest in the social sciences has
+had to wait for the enlarged sympathies and the sense of solidarity
+which has appeared with the growing interdependence of dense
+populations, and these conditions have been dependent upon the advance
+of the other sciences. With the cultivation of the social sciences, the
+chain of knowledge will be complete, at least so far as the needs which
+have already appeared are concerned. For each group of sciences will
+solve one or more of the great problems which man has encountered in the
+process of development. The physical sciences will solve the problems of
+environment, the biological sciences the problems of life, and the
+social sciences the problems of society."
+
+[7] This exclusive pre-occupation with the improvement of the
+environment has been termed Euthenics by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, who has
+written a book with this title, advocating euthenics in opposition to
+eugenics.
+
+[8] Not one of the four stages of social reform already summarized can
+be neglected. On the contrary, they all need to be still further
+consolidated in a completely national organization of health. I may
+perhaps refer to the little book on _The Nationalization of Health_, in
+which, many years ago, I foreshadowed this movement, as well as to the
+recent work of Professor Benjamin Moore on the same subject. The
+gigantic efforts of Germany, and later of England, to establish National
+Insurance systems, bear noble witness to the ardour with which these two
+countries, at all events, are moving towards the desired goal.
+
+[9] In some countries, however, the decline, although traceable about
+1876, only began to be pronounced somewhat later, in Austria in 1883, in
+the German Empire, Hungary and Italy in 1885, and in Prussia in 1886.
+Most of these countries, though late in following the modern movement of
+civilization initiated by France, are rapidly making their way in the
+same direction. Thus the birth-rate in Berlin is already as low as that
+of Paris ten years ago, although the French decline began at a very
+early period. In Norway, again, the decline was not marked until 1900,
+but the birth-rate has nevertheless already fallen as low as that of
+Sweden, where the fall began very much earlier.
+
+[10] "Foresight and self-control is, and always must be, the ground and
+medium of all Moral Socialism," says Bosanquet (_The Civilization of
+Christendom_, p. 336), using the term "Socialism" in the wide and not in
+the economic sense. We see the same civilized growth of foresight and
+self-control in the decrease of drunkenness. Thus in England the number
+of convictions for drunkenness, while varying greatly in different parts
+of the country, is decreasing for the whole country at the rapid rate of
+5000 to 8000 a year, notwithstanding the constant growth of the
+population. It is incorrect to suppose that this decrease has any
+connection with decreased opportunities for drinking; thus in London
+County and in Cardiff the proportion of premises licensed for drinking
+is the same, yet while the convictions for drunkenness in 1910 were in
+London 83 per 10,000 inhabitants, in Cardiff they were under 6 per
+10,000.
+
+[11] Thus Heron finds that in London during the past fifty years there
+has been 100 per cent increase in the intensity of the relation between
+low social birth and high birth-rate, and that the high birth-rate of
+the lower social classes is not fully compensated by their high
+death-rate (D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social
+Status," _Drapers' Company Research Memoirs_, No. I, 1906). As, however,
+Newsholme and Stevenson point out (_Journal Royal Statistical Society_,
+April, 1906, p. 74), the net addition to the population made by the best
+social classes is at so very slightly lower a rate than that made by the
+poorest class that, even if we consent to let the question rest on this
+ground, there is still no urgent need for the wailings of Cassandra.
+
+[12] _Sociological Papers_ of the Sociological Society, 1904, p. 35.
+
+[13] There is a certain profit in studying one's own ancestry. It has
+been somewhat astonishing to me to find how very slight are the social
+oscillations traceable in a middle-class family and the families it
+intermarries with through several centuries. A professional family tends
+to form a caste marrying within that caste. An ambitious member of the
+family may marry a baronet's daughter, and another, less pretentious, a
+village tradesman's daughter; but the general level is maintained
+without rising or falling. Occasionally, it happens that the ambitious
+and energetic son of a prosperous master-craftsman becomes a
+professional man, marries into the professional caste, and founds a
+professional family; such a family seems to flourish for some three
+generations, and then suddenly fails and dies out in the male line,
+while the vigour of the female line is not impaired.
+
+[14] The new social adjustment of a family, it is probable, is always
+difficult, and if the change is sudden or extreme, the new environment
+may rapidly prove fatal to the family. Lorenz (_Lehrbuch der
+Genealogie_, p. 135) has shown that when a peasant family reaches an
+upper social class it dies out in a few generations.
+
+[15] See, on this point, Reibmayr, _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes
+und Genies_, Vol. I, ch. VII.
+
+[16] Fahlbeck, _op. cit._, p. 168.
+
+[17] Regeneration implies that there has been degeneration, and it cannot
+be positively affirmed that such degeneration has, on the whole,
+occurred in such a manner as to affect the race. Reibmayr (_Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_, Bd. I, p. 400) regards
+degeneration as a process setting in with urbanization and the tendency
+to diminished population; if so, it is but another name for
+civilization, and can only be condemned by condemning civilization,
+whether or not physical deterioration occurs. The Inter-departmental
+Commission on Physical Deterioration held in 1904, in London, concluded
+that there are no sufficient statistical or other data to prove that the
+physique of the people in the present, as compared with the past, has
+undergone any change; and this conclusion was confirmed by the
+Director-General of the Army Medical Service. There is certainly good
+reason to believe that urban populations (and especially industrial
+workers in factories) are inferior in height and weight and general
+development to rural populations, and less fit for military or similar
+service. The stunted development of factory workers in the East End of
+London was noted nearly a century ago, and German military experience
+distinctly shows the inferiority of the town-dweller to the
+country-dweller. (See e.g. Weyl, _Handbuch der Hygiene_, Supplement, Bd.
+IV, pp. 746 _et seq._; _Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, 1905, pp. 145
+_et seq._) The proportion of German youths fit for military service
+slowly decreases every year; in 1909 it was 53.6 per cent, in 1910 only
+53 per cent; of those born in the country and engaged in agricultural or
+forest work 58.2 were found fit; of those born in the country and
+engaged in other industries, 55.1 per cent; of those born in towns, but
+engaged in agricultural or forest work, 56.2 per cent; of those born in
+towns and engaged in other industries 47.9 per cent. It is fairly clear
+that this deterioration under urban and industrial conditions cannot
+properly be termed a racial degeneration. It is, moreover, greatly
+improved even by a few months' training, and there is an immense
+difference between the undeveloped, feeble, half-starved recruit from
+the slums and the robust, broad-shouldered veteran when he leaves the
+army. The term "aggeneration"--not beyond criticism, though it is free
+from the objection to "regeneration"--was proposed by Prof. Christian
+von Ehrenfels ("Die Aufsteigende Entwicklung des Menschen,"
+_Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, April, 1903, p. 50).
+
+[18] It is unnecessary to touch here on the question of infant mortality,
+which has already been referred to, and will again come in for
+consideration in a later chapter. It need only be said that a high
+birth-rate is inextricably combined with a high death-rate. The European
+countries with the highest birth-rates are, in descending order: Russia,
+Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, and Hungary. The European countries with the
+highest death-rates are, in descending order, almost the same: Russia,
+Hungary, Spain, Bulgaria, and Servia, It is the same outside Europe.
+Thus Chile, with a birth-rate which comes next after Roumania, has a
+death-rate that is only second to Russia.
+
+[19] Nyström (_La Vie Sexuelle_, 1910, p. 248) believes that "the time is
+coming when it will be considered the duty of municipal authorities, if
+they have found by experience or have reason to suspect that children
+will be thrown upon the parish, to instruct parents in methods of
+preventive conception."
+
+[20] The directly unfavourable influences on the child of too short an
+interval between its birth and that of the previous child has been
+shown, for instance, by Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age
+on Offspring," _Eugenics Review_, October, 1911). He has found at
+Middlesbrough that children born at an interval of less than two years
+after the birth of the previous child still show at the age of six a
+notable deficiency in height, weight, and intelligence, when compared
+with children born after a longer interval, or with first-born children.
+
+[21] _Tatler_, Vol. II, No. 175, 1709.
+
+[22] "Write Man for Primula, and the stage of the world for that of the
+greenhouse," says Professor Bateson (_Biological Fact and the Structure
+of Society_, 1912, p. 9), "and I believe that with a few generations of
+experimental breeding we should acquire the power similarly to determine
+how the varieties of men should be represented in the generations that
+succeed." But Bateson proceeds to point out that our knowledge is still
+very inadequate, and he is opposed to eugenics by Act of Parliament.
+
+[23] E. Solmi, _La Città del Sole di Campanella_, 1904, p. xxxiv.
+
+[24] Only a year before his death Galton wrote (Preface to _Essays in
+Eugenics_): "The power by which Eugenic reform must chiefly be effected
+is that of Popular Opinion, which is amply strong enough for that
+purpose whenever it shall be roused."
+
+[25] It may perhaps be necessary to remark that by sterilization is here
+meant, not castration, but, in the male vasectomy (and a corresponding
+operation in the female), a simple and harmless operation which involves
+no real mutilation and no loss of power beyond that of procreation. See
+on this and related points, Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology
+of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. XII.
+
+[26] The term "feeble-minded" may be used generally to cover all degrees
+of mental weakness. In speaking a little more precisely, however, we
+have to recognize three main degrees of congenital mental weakness:
+_feeble-mindedness_, in which with care and supervision it is possible
+to work and earn a livelihood; _imbecility_, in which the subject is
+barely able to look after himself, and sometimes only has enough
+intelligence to be mischievous (the moral imbecile); and _idiocy_, the
+lowest depth of all, in which the subject has no intelligence and no
+ability to look after himself. More elaborate classifications are
+sometimes proposed. The method of Binet and Simon renders possible a
+fairly exact measurement of feeble-mindedness.
+
+[27] Mott (_Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry_, Vol. V, 1911) accepts
+the view that in some cases feeble-mindedness is simply a form of
+congenital syphilis, but he points out that feeble-mindedness abounds in
+many rural districts where syphilis, as well as alcoholism, is very
+rare, and concludes by emphasizing the influence of heredity; the
+prevalence of feeble-mindedness in these rural districts is thus due to
+the fact that the mentally and physically fit have emigrated to the
+great industrial centres, leaving the unfit to procreate the race.
+
+[28] "Whether germinal variations," remarked Dr. R.J. Ryle at a
+Conference on Feeble-mindedness (_British Medical Journal_, October 3,
+1911), "be expressed by cleft palate, cataract, or cerebral deficiency
+of the pyramidal cells in the brain cortex, they may be produced, and,
+when once produced, they are reproduced as readily as the perfected
+structure of the face or eye or brain, if the gametes which contain
+these potentialities unite to form the ovum. But Nature is not only the
+producer. Given a fair field and no favour, natural selection would
+leave no problem of the unfit to perplex the mind of man who looks
+before and after. This we know cannot be, and we know, too, that we have
+no longer the excuse of ignorance to cover the neglect of the new duties
+which belong to the present epoch of civilization. We know now that we
+have to deal with a growing group in our community who demand permanent
+care and control as well for their own sakes as for the welfare of the
+community. All are now agreed on the general principle of segregation,
+but it is true that something more than this should be forthcoming. The
+difficulties of theory are clearing up as our wider view obtains a
+firmer grasp of our material, but the difficulties of practice are still
+before us." These remarks correspond with the general results reached by
+the Royal Commission on the Feeble-minded, which issued its voluminous
+facts and conclusions in 1908.
+
+[29] See, for instance, A.F. Tredgold, _Mental Deficiency_, 1908.
+
+[30] The investigation of Bezzola showing that the maxima in the
+conception of idiots occur at carnival time, and especially at the
+vintage, has been held (especially by Forel) to indicate that alcoholism
+of the parents at conception causes idiocy in the offspring. It may be
+so. But it may also be that the licence of these periods enables the
+defective members of the community to secure an amount of sexual
+activity which they would be debarred from under normal conditions. In
+that case the alcoholism would merely liberate, and not create, the
+idiocy-producing mechanism.
+
+[31] Godden, _Eugenics Review_, April, 1911.
+
+[32] Feeble-mindedness and the other allied variations are not always
+exactly repeated in inheritance. They may be transmuted in passing from
+father to son, an epileptic father, for instance, having a feeble-minded
+child. These relationships of feeble-mindedness have been clearly
+brought out in an important investigation by Davenport and Weeks
+(_Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, November, 1911), who have for
+the first time succeeded in obtaining a large number of really thorough
+and precise pedigrees of such cases.
+
+[33] It may be as well to point out once more that the possibility of
+such limited depreciation must not be construed into the statement that
+there has been any general "degeneration of the race." It maybe added
+that the notion that the golden age lay in the past, and that our own
+age is degenerate is not confined to a few biometricians of to-day; it
+has commended itself to uncritical minds in all ages, even the greatest,
+as far back as we can go. Montesquieu referred to this common notion
+(and attempted to explain it) in his _Pensées Diverses_: "Men have such
+a bad opinion of themselves," he adds, "that they have believed not only
+that their minds and souls were degenerate, but even their bodies, and
+that they were not so tall as the men of previous ages." It is thus
+quite logically that we arrive at the belief that when mankind first
+appeared, "there were giants on the earth in those days," and that Adam
+lived to the age of nine hundred and thirty. Evidently no syndromes of
+degenerescence there!
+
+[34] The Superintendent of a large State School for delinquent girls in
+America (as quoted in the Chicago Vice Commission's Report on _The
+Social Evil in Chicago_, p. 229) says: "The girls who come to us
+possessed of normal brain power, or not infected with venereal disease,
+we look upon as a prize indeed, and we seldom fail to make a woman worth
+while of a really normal girl, whatever her environment has been. But we
+have failed in numberless cases where the environment has been all
+right, but the girl was born wrong."
+
+[35] See e.g. Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, 4th ed., 1910, chap IV.
+
+[36] R.L. Dugdale, _The Jukes_, 4th ed., 1910. It is noteworthy that
+Dugdale, who wrote nearly forty years ago, was concerned to prove the
+influence of bad environment rather than of bad heredity. At that time
+the significance of heredity was scarcely yet conceived. It remains
+true, however, that bad heredity and bad environment constantly work
+together for evil.
+
+[37] Jörger, _Archiv für Rassen-und Gesellschafts-Biologie_, 1905, p.
+294. Criminal families are also recorded by Aubry, _La Contagion du
+Meutre_.
+
+[38] Even during school life this burden is serious. Mr. Bodey, Inspector
+of Schools, states that the defective school child costs three times as
+much as the ordinary school child.
+
+[39] I have set forth these considerations more fully in a popular form
+in _The Problem of the Regeneration of the Race_, the first of a series
+of "New Tracts for the Times," issued under the auspices of the National
+Council of Public Morals.
+
+[40] C.B. Davenport, "Euthenics and Eugenics," _Popular Science Monthly_,
+January, 1911.
+
+[41] The use of the terms "fit" and "unfit" in a eugenic sense has been
+criticized. It is said, for instance, that in a bad environment it may
+be precisely the defective classes who are most "fit" to survive. It is
+quite true that these terms are not well adapted to resist
+hyper-critical attack. The persistence with which they are employed
+seems, however, to indicate a certain "survival of the fittest." The
+terms "worthy" and "unworthy," which some would prefer to substitute,
+are unsatisfactory, for they have moral associations which are
+misleading. Galton spoke of "civic worth" in this connection, and very
+occasionally used the term "worthy" (with inverted commas), but he was
+careful to point out (_Essays in Eugenics_, p. 35) that in eugenics "we
+must leave morals as far as possible out of the discussion, not
+entangling ourselves with the almost hopeless difficulties they raise as
+to whether a character as a whole is good or bad."
+
+[42] Dr. Toulouse has devoted a whole volume to the results of a minute
+personal examination of Zola, the novelist, and another to Poincaré, the
+mathematician. Such minute investigations are at present confined to men
+of genius, but some day, perhaps, we shall consider that from the
+eugenic standpoint all men are men of genius.
+
+[43] Sterilization for social ends was introduced in Switzerland a few
+years ago, in order to enable some persons with impaired self-control to
+be set at liberty and resume work without the risk of adding to the
+population defective members who would probably be a burden on the
+community. It was performed with the consent of the subjects (in some
+cases at their urgent request) and their relations, so requiring no
+special legislation, and the results are said to be satisfactory. In
+some American States sterilization for some classes of defective persons
+has been established by statute, but it is difficult to obtain reliable
+information as regards the working and the results of such legislation.
+
+[44] When Professor Giddings speaks of the "goal of mankind," it must, of
+course, be remembered, he is using a bold metaphor in order to make his
+meaning clearer. Strictly speaking, mankind has no "goals," nor are
+there any ends in Nature which are not means to further ends.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN[45]
+
+     The Origin of the Woman Movement--Mary Wollstonecraft--George
+     Sand--Robert Owen--William Thompson--John Stuart Mill--The Modern
+     Growth of Social Cohesion--The Growth of Industrialism--Its
+     Influence in Woman's Sphere of Work--The Education of
+     Women--Co-education--The Woman Question and Sexual
+     Selection--Significance of Economic Independence--The State
+     Regulation of Marriage--The Future of Marriage--Wilhelm von
+     Humboldt--Social Equality of Women--The Reproduction of the Race as
+     a Function of Society--Women and the Future of Civilization.
+
+
+I
+
+It was in the eighteenth century, the seed-time of modern ideas, that
+our great-grandfathers became conscious of a discordant break in the
+traditional conceptions of women's status. The vague cries of Justice,
+Freedom, Equality, which were then hurled about the world, were here and
+there energetically applied to women--notably in France by
+Condorcet--and a new movement began to grow self-conscious and coherent.
+Mary Wollstonecraft, after Aphra Behn the first really noteworthy
+Englishwoman of letters, gave voice to this movement in England.
+
+The famous and little-read _Vindication of the Rights of Women_,
+careless and fragmentary as it is, and by no means so startling to us as
+to her contemporaries, shows Mary Wollstonecraft as a woman of genuine
+insight, who saw the questions of woman's social condition in their
+essential bearings. Her intuitions need little modification, even though
+a century of progress has intervened. The modern advocates of woman's
+suffrage have little to add to her brief statement. She is far, indeed,
+from the monstrous notion of Miss Cobbe, that woman's suffrage is the
+"crown and completion" of all progress so far as women's movements are
+concerned. She looks upon it rather as one of the reasonable conditions
+of progress. It is pleasant to turn from the eccentric energy of so many
+of the advocates of women's causes to-day, all engaged in crying up
+their own particular nostrum, to the genial many-sided wisdom of Mary
+Wollstonecraft, touching all subjects with equal frankness and delicacy.
+
+The most brilliant and successful exponent of the new revolutionary
+ideas--making Corinne and her prototype seem dim and ineffectual--was
+undoubtedly George Sand. The badly-dressed woman who earned her living
+by scribbling novels, and said to M. du Camp, as she sat before him in
+silence rolling her cigarette, "Je ne dis rien parceque je suis bête,"
+has exercised a profound influence throughout Europe, an influence
+which, in the Sclavonic countries especially, has helped to give impetus
+to the resolution we are now considering. And this not so much from any
+definite doctrines that underlie her work--for George Sand's views on
+such matters varied as much as her political views--as from her whole
+temper and attitude. Her large and rich nature, as sometimes happens in
+genius of a high order, was twofold; on the one hand, she possessed a
+solid serenity, a quiet sense of power, the qualities of a _bonne
+bourgeoise_, which found expression in her imperturbable calm, her
+gentle look and low voice. And with this was associated a massive,
+almost Rabelaisian temperament (one may catch glimpses of it in her
+correspondence), a sane exuberant earthliness which delighted in every
+manifestation of the actual world. On the other hand, she bore within
+her a volcanic element of revolt, an immense disgust of law and custom.
+Throughout her life George Sand developed her strong and splendid
+individuality, not perhaps as harmoniously, but as courageously and as
+sincerely as even Goethe.
+
+Robert Owen, who, like Saint-Simon in France, gave so extraordinary an
+impulse to all efforts at social reorganization, and who planted the
+seed of many modern movements, could not fail to extend his influence to
+the region of sex. A disciple of his, William Thompson, who still holds
+a distinguished position in the history of the economic doctrines of
+Socialism, wrote, under the inspiration of a woman (a Mrs. Wheeler),
+and published in 1825, an _Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women,
+against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to retain them in
+Political, and thence in Civil and Domestic Slavery_. It is a thorough
+and logical, almost eloquent, demand for the absolute social equality of
+the sexes.[46]
+
+Forty years later, Mill, also inspired by a woman, published his
+_Subjection of Women_. However partial and inadequate it may seem to us,
+this was at that day a notable book. Mill's clear vision and feminine
+sensibilities gave freshness to his observations regarding the condition
+and capacity of women, while his reputation imparted gravity and
+resonance to his utterances. Since then the signs in literature of the
+breaking up of the status of women have become far too numerous to be
+chronicled even in a volume. It is enough to have mentioned here some
+typical initiatory names. Now, the movement may be seen at work
+anywhere, from Norway to Italy, from Russia to California. The status
+which women are now entering places them, not, as in the old communism,
+in large measure practically above men, nor, as in the subsequent
+period, both practically and theoretically in subordination to men. It
+places them side by side, with like rights and like duties in relation
+to society.
+
+
+II
+
+Condorcet, Mary Wollstonecraft, George Sand, Owen, Mill--these were
+feathers on the stream. They indicated the forces that had their source
+at the centre of social life. That historical movement which produced
+mother-law probably owed its rise, as well as its fall, to demands of
+subsistence and property--that is, to economic causes. The decay of the
+subsequent family system, in which the whole power is concentrated in
+the male head, is being produced by similar causes. The early communism,
+and the modes of action and sentiment which it had produced, still
+practically persisted long after the new system had arisen. In the
+patriarchal family the woman still had a recognized sphere of work and a
+recognized right to subsistence. It was not, indeed, until the sudden
+development of the industrial system, and the purely individualistic
+economics with which it was associated, at the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, that women in England were forced to realize that
+their household industries were gone, and that they must join in that
+game of competition in which the field and the rules had alike been
+chosen with reference to men alone. The commercial and industrial
+system, and the general diffusion of education that has accompanied it,
+and which also has its roots in economic causes, has been the chief
+motive force in revolutionizing the status of women; and the epoch of
+unrestricted competition on masculine lines has been a necessary period
+of transition.[47]
+
+At the present time two great tendencies are visible in our social
+organization. On the one hand, the threads of social life are growing
+closer, and organization, as regards the simple and common means of
+subsistence, is increasing. On the other hand, as regards the things
+that most closely concern the individual person, the sphere of freedom
+is being perpetually enlarged. Instead of every man digging a well for
+his own use and at his own free pleasure, perhaps in a graveyard or a
+cesspool, we consent to the distribution of water by a central
+executive. We have carried social methods so far that, instead of
+producing our own bread and butter, we prefer to go to a common bakery
+and dairy. The same centralizing methods are extending to all those
+things of which all have equal need. On the other hand, we exercise a
+very considerable freedom of individual thought. We claim a larger and
+larger freedom of individual speech and criticism. We worship any god we
+choose, after any fashion we choose. The same individual freedom is
+beginning to invade the sexual relationships. It is extending to all
+those things in regard to which civilized men have become so variously
+differentiated that they have no equal common needs. These two
+tendencies, so far from being antagonistic, cannot even be carried out
+under modern conditions of life except together. It is only by social
+co-operation in regard to what is commonly called the physical side of
+life that it becomes possible for the individual to develop his own
+peculiar nature. The society of the future is a reasonable anarchy
+founded on a broad basis of Collectivism.
+
+It is not our object here to point out how widely these tendencies
+affect men, but it is worth while to indicate some of their bearings on
+the condition of women. While genuine productive industries have been
+taken out of the hands of women who work under the old conditions, an
+increasingly burdensome weight of unnecessary duties has been laid upon
+them. Under the old communistic system, when a large number of families
+lived together in one great house, the women combined to perform their
+household duties, the cooking being done at a common fire. They had
+grown up together from childhood, and combination could be effected
+without friction. It is the result of the later system that the woman
+has to perform all the necessary household duties in the most wasteful
+manner, with least division of labour; while she has, in addition, to
+perform a great amount of unnecessary work, in obedience to traditional
+or conventional habits, which make it impossible even to perform the
+simple act of dusting the rooms of a small house in less than perhaps an
+hour and a half. She has probably also to accomplish, if she happens to
+belong to the middle or upper classes, an idle round of so-called
+"social duties." She tries to escape, when she can afford it, by
+adopting the apparently simple expedient of paying other people to
+perform these necessary and unnecessary household duties, but this
+expedient fails; the "social duties" increase in the same ratio as the
+servants increase and the task of overseeing these latter itself proves
+formidable. It is quite impossible for any person under these conditions
+to lead a reasonable and wholesome human life. A healthy life is more
+difficult to attain for the woman of the ordinary household than for the
+worker in a mine, for he at least, when the work of his set is over, has
+two-thirds of the twenty-four hours to himself. The woman is bound by a
+thousand Lilliputian threads from which there seems no escape. She often
+makes frantic efforts to escape, but the combined strength of the
+threads generally proves too strong. There can be no doubt that the
+present household system is doomed; the higher standard of intelligence
+demanded from women, the growth of interest in the problems of domestic
+economy, the movement for association of labour, the revolt against the
+survivals of barbaric complication in living--all these, which are
+symptoms of a great economic revolution, indicate, the approach of a new
+period.
+
+The education of women is an essential part of the great movement we are
+considering. Women will shortly be voters, and women, at all events in
+England, are in a majority. We have to educate our mistresses as we once
+had to educate our masters. And the word "education" is here used by no
+means in the narrow sense. A woman may be acquainted with Greek and the
+higher mathematics, and be as uneducated in the wider relationships of
+life as a man in the like case. How much women suffer from this lack of
+education may be seen to-day even among those who are counted as
+leaders.
+
+There are extravagances in every period of transition. Undoubtedly a
+potent factor in bringing about a saner attitude will be the education
+of boys and girls together. The lack of early fellowship fosters an
+unnatural divergence of aims and ideals, and a consequent lack of
+sympathy. It makes possible those abundant foolish generalizations by
+men concerning "women," by women concerning "men." St. Augustine, at an
+early period of his ardent career, conceived with certain friends the
+notion of forming a community having goods in common; the scheme was
+almost effected when it was discovered that "those little wives, which
+some already had, and others would shortly have," objected, and so it
+fell through. Perhaps the _mulierculæ_ were right. It is simply a rather
+remote instance of a fundamental divergence amply illustrated before our
+eyes. If men and women are to understand each other, to enter into each
+other's natures with mutual sympathy, and to become capable of genuine
+comradeship, the foundation must be laid in youth. Another wholesome
+reform, promoted by co-education, is the physical education of women. In
+the case of boys special attention has generally been given to physical
+education, and the lack of it is one among several artificial causes of
+that chronic ill-health which so often handicaps women. Women must have
+the same education as men, Miss Faithfull shrewdly observes, because
+that is sure to be the best. The present education of boys cannot,
+however, be counted a model, and the gradual introduction of
+co-education will produce many wholesome reforms. If the intimate
+association of the sexes destroys what remnant may linger of the
+unhealthy ideal of chivalry--according to which a woman was treated as a
+cross between an angel and an idiot--that is matter for rejoicing.
+Wherever men and women stand in each other's presence the sexual
+instinct will always ensure an adequate ideal halo.
+
+
+III
+
+The chief question that we have to ask when we consider the changing
+status of women is: How will it affect the reproduction of the race?
+Hunger and love are the two great motor impulses, the ultimate source,
+probably, of all other impulses. Hunger--that is to say, what we call
+"economic causes"--has, because it is the more widespread and constant,
+though not necessarily the more imperious instinct, produced nearly all
+the great zoological revolutions, including, as we have seen, the rise
+and fall of that phase of human evolution dominated by mother-law. Yet
+love has, in the form of sexual selection, even before we reach the
+vertebrates, moulded races to the ideal of the female; and reproduction
+is always the chief end of nutrition which hunger waits on, the supreme
+aim of life everywhere.
+
+If we place on the one side man, as we know him during the historical
+period, and on the other, nearly every highly organized member of the
+animal family, there appears, speaking roughly and generally, a distinct
+difference in the relation which these two motor impulses bear to each
+other. Among animals generally, economics are comparatively so simple
+that it is possible to satisfy the nutritive instinct without putting
+any hard pressure on the spontaneous play of the reproductive instinct.
+And nearly everywhere it is the female who has the chief voice in the
+establishment of sexual relationships. The males compete for the favour
+of the female by the fascination of their odour, or brilliant colour, or
+song, or grace, or strength, as revealed in what are usually
+mock-combats. The female is, in these respects, comparatively
+unaccomplished and comparatively passive. With her rests the final
+decision, and only after long hesitation, influenced, it seems, by a
+vaguely felt ideal resulting from her contemplation of the rivals, she
+calls the male of her choice.[48] A dim instinct seems to warn her of the
+pains and cares of maternity, so that only the largest promises of
+pleasure can induce her to undertake the function of reproduction. In
+civilized man, on the other hand, as we know him, the situation is to
+some extent reversed; it is the woman who, by the display of her
+attractions, competes for the favour of the man. The final invitation
+does not come, as among animals generally, from the female; the decision
+rests with the man. It would be a mistake to suppose that this change
+reveals the evolution of a superior method; although it has developed
+the beauty of women, it has clearly had its origin in economic causes.
+The demands of nutrition have overridden those of reproduction; sexual
+selection has, to a large extent, given place to natural selection, a
+process clearly not for the advantage of the race. The changing status
+of women, in bestowing economic independence, will certainly tend to
+restore to sexual selection its due weight in human development.
+
+In so doing it will certainly tend also to destroy prostitution, which
+is simply one of the forms in which the merging of sexual selection in
+natural selection has shown itself. Wherever sexual selection has free
+play, unhampered by economic considerations, prostitution is
+impossible. The dominant type of marriage is, like prostitution, founded
+on economic considerations; the woman often marries chiefly to earn her
+living; here, too, we may certainly expect profound modifications. We
+have long sought to preserve our social balance by placing an
+unreasonable licence in the one scale, an equally unreasonable
+abstinence in the other; the economic independence of women, tending to
+render both extremes unnecessary, can alone place the sexual
+relationships on a sound and free basis.
+
+The State regulation of marriage has undoubtedly played a large and
+important part in the evolution of society. At the present time the
+advantages of this artificial control no longer appear so obvious
+(even when the evidence of the law courts is put aside); they will
+vanish altogether when women have attained complete economic
+independence. With the disappearance of the artificial barriers in the
+way of friendship between the sexes and of the economic motive to
+sexual relationships--perhaps the two chief forces which now tend to
+produce promiscuous sexual intercourse, whether dignified or not with
+the name of marriage--men and women will be free to engage,
+unhampered, in the search, so complicated in a highly civilized
+condition of society, for a fitting mate.[49]
+
+It is probable that this inevitable change will be brought about partly
+by the voluntary action of individuals, and in greater measure by the
+gradual and awkward method of shifting and ever freer divorce laws. The
+slow disintegration of State-regulated marriage from the latter cause
+may be observed now throughout the United States, where there is, on the
+whole, a developing tendency to frequency and facility of divorce. It
+is clear, however, that on this line marriage will not cease to be a
+concern to the State, and it may be as well to point out at once the
+important distinction between State-_regulated_ and State-_registered_
+marriage. Sexual relationships, so long as they do not result in the
+production of children, are matters in which the community has, as a
+community, little or no concern, but as soon as a sexual relationship
+results in the pregnancy of the woman the community is at once
+interested. At this point it is clearly the duty of the State to
+register the relationship.[50]
+
+It is necessary to remember that the kind of equality of the sexes
+towards which this change of status is leading, is social equality--that
+is, equality of freedom. It is not an intellectual equality, still less
+is it likeness. Men and women can only be alike mentally when they are
+alike in physical configuration and physiological function. Even
+complete economic equality is not attainable. Among animals which live
+in herds under the guidance of a leader, this leader is nearly always a
+male; there are few exceptions.[51] In woman, the long period of
+pregnancy and lactation, and the prolonged helplessness of her child,
+render her for a considerable period of her life economically dependent.
+On whom shall she be dependent? This is a question of considerable
+moment. According to the old conception of the family, all the members
+were slaves producing for the benefit of the owner, and it was natural
+that the wife should be supported by the husband when she is producing
+slaves for his service. But this conception is, as we have seen, no
+longer possible. It is clearly unfair also to compel the mother to
+depend on her own previous exertions. The reproduction of the race is a
+social function, and we are compelled to conclude that it is the duty of
+the community, as a community, to provide for the child-bearer when in
+the exercise of her social function she is unable to provide for
+herself. The woman engaged in producing a new member, who may be a
+source of incalculable profit or danger to the whole community, cannot
+fail to be a source of the liveliest solicitude to everyone in the
+community, and it was a sane and beautiful instinct that found
+expression of old in the permission accorded to a pregnant woman to
+enter gardens and orchards, and freely help herself. Whether this
+instinct will ever again be embodied in a new form, and the reproduction
+of the race be recognized as truly a social function, is a question
+which even yet lacks actuality. The care of the child-bearer and her
+child will at present continue to be a matter for individual
+arrangement. That it will be arranged much better than at present we
+may reasonably hope. On the one hand, the reckless multiplication of
+children will probably be checked; on the other hand, a large body of
+women will no longer be shut out from maternity. That the state should
+undertake the regulation of the birth-rate we can scarcely either desire
+or anticipate. Undoubtedly the community has an abstract right to limit
+the number of its members. It may be pointed out, however, that under
+rational conditions of life the process would probably be
+self-regulating; in the human races, and also among animals generally,
+fertility diminishes as the organism becomes highly developed. And,
+without falling back on any natural law, it may be said that the
+extravagant procreation of children, leading to suffering both to
+parents and offspring, carried on under existing social conditions, is
+largely the result of ignorance, largely of religious or other
+superstition. A more developed social state would not be possible at all
+unless the social instincts were strong enough to check the reckless
+multiplication of offspring. Richardson and others appear to advocate
+the special cultivation of a class of non-childbearing women. Certainly
+no woman who freely chose should be debarred from belonging to such a
+class. But reproduction is the end and aim of all life everywhere, and
+in order to live a humanly complete life, every healthy woman should
+have, not sexual relationships only, but the exercise at least once in
+her life of the supreme function of maternity, and the possession of
+those experiences which only maternity can give. That unquestionably is
+the claim of natural and reasonable living in the social state towards
+which we are moving.
+
+To deal with the social organization of the future would be to pass
+beyond the limits that I have here set myself, and to touch on matters
+of which it is impossible to speak with certainty. The new culture of
+women, in the light and the open air, will doubtless solve many matters
+which now are dark to us. Morgan supposed that it was in some measure
+the failure of the Greeks and Romans to develop their womanhood which
+brought the speedy downfall of classic civilization. The women of the
+future will help to renew art and science as well as life. They will do
+more even than this, for the destiny of the race rests with women. "I
+have sometimes thought," Whitman wrote in his _Democratic Vistas_, "that
+the sole avenue and means to a reconstructed society depended primarily
+on a new birth, elevation, expansion, invigoration of women." That
+intuition is not without a sound basis, and if a great historical
+movement called for justification here would be enough.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] This chapter was written so long ago as 1888, and published in the
+_Westminster Review_ in the following year. I have pleasure in here
+including it exactly as it was originally written, not only because it
+has its proper place in the present volume, but because it may be
+regarded as a programme which I have since elaborated in numerous
+volumes. The original first section has, however, been omitted, as it
+embodied a statement of the matriarchal theory which, in view of the
+difficulty of the subject and the wide differences of opinion about it,
+I now consider necessary to express more guardedly (see, for a more
+recent statement, Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. X). With this exception,
+and the deletion of two insignificant footnotes, no changes have been
+made. After the lapse of a quarter of a century I find nothing that I
+seriously wish to withdraw and much that I now wish to emphasize.
+
+[46] The following passage summarizes this _Appeal_: "The simple and
+modest request is, that they may be permitted equal enjoyments with men,
+_provided they can, by the free and equal development and exercise of
+their faculties, procure for themselves such enjoyments_. They ask the
+same means that men possess of acquiring every species of knowledge, of
+unfolding every one of their faculties of mind and body that can be made
+tributary to their happiness. They ask every facility of access to every
+art, occupation, profession, from the highest to the lowest, without one
+exception, to which their inclinations and talents may direct and may
+fit them to occupy. They ask the removal of _all_ restraints and
+exclusions not applicable to men of equal capacities. They ask for
+perfectly equal political, civil, and domestic rights. They ask for
+equal obligations and equal punishments from the law with men in case of
+infraction of the same law by either party. They ask for an equal system
+of morals, founded on utility instead of caprice and unreasoning
+despotism, in which the same action, attended with the same
+consequences, whether done by man or woman, should be attended with the
+same portion of approbation or disapprobation; in which every pleasure,
+accompanied or followed by no preponderant evil, should be equally
+permitted to women and to men; in which every pleasure accompanied or
+followed by preponderant evil should be equally censured in women and in
+men."
+
+[47] A period of transition not the less necessary although it is
+certainly disastrous and tends to produce an unwholesome tension between
+the sexes so long as men and women do not receive equal payment for
+equal work. "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever," as a working man in
+Blackburn lately put it, "but when the thing of beauty takes to doing
+the work for 16s. a week that you have been paid 22s. for, you do not
+feel as if you cannot live without possessing that thing of beauty all
+to yourself, or that you are willing to lay your life and your fortune
+(when you have one) at its feet." On the other hand, the working girl in
+the same town often complains that a man will not look at a girl unless
+she is a "four-loom weaver," earning, that is, perhaps, 20s. or 25s. a
+week.
+
+[48] See the very interesting work of Alfred Espinas, _Des Sociétés
+Animales_, which contains many fruitful suggestions for the student of
+human sociology.
+
+[49] The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+high civilization, and the unhappy results of their State regulation,
+was well expressed by Wilhehm von Humboldt in his _Ideen zu einen
+Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates zu bestimmen_, so long
+ago as 1792: "A union so closely allied with the very nature of the
+respective individuals must be attended with the most hurtful
+consequences when the State attempts to regulate it by law, or, through
+the force of its institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we shall
+be still more ready to admit the justice of this conclusion. It may
+reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the race only conducts to the
+same results as the highest solicitude for the most beautiful
+development of the inner man. For after careful observation it has been
+found that the uninterrupted union of one man with one woman is most
+beneficial to the race, and it is likewise undeniable that no other
+union springs from true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may
+be observed that such love leads to the same results as those very
+relations which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error
+seems to be that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould
+itself according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on
+inclination; and wherever coercion or guidance comes into collision with
+inclination, they divert it still farther from the proper path.
+Wherefore it appears to me that the State should not only loosen the
+bonds in this instance, and leave ampler freedom to the citizen, but
+that it should entirely withdraw its active solicitude from the
+institution of marriage, and both generally and in its particular
+modifications, should rather leave it wholly to the free choice of the
+individuals, and the various contracts they may enter into with respect
+to it. I should not be deterred from the adoption of this principle by
+the fear that all family relations might be disturbed, for although such
+a fear might be justified by considerations of particular circumstances
+and localities, it could not fairly be entertained in an inquiry into
+the nature of men and States in general. For experience frequently
+convinces us that just where law has imposed no fetters, morality most
+surely binds; the idea of external coercion is one entirely foreign to
+an institution which, like marriage, reposes only on inclination and an
+inward sense of duty; and the results of such coercive institutions do
+not at all correspond to the intentions in which they originate."
+
+[50] Such register should, as Bertillon rightly insisted, be of the most
+complete description--setting forth all the anthropological traits of
+the contracting parties--so that the characteristics of a human group at
+any time and place may be studied and compared. Registration of this
+kind would, beside its more obvious convenience, form an almost
+indispensable guide to the higher evolution of the race. I may here add
+that I have assumed, perhaps too rashly, that the natural tendency among
+civilized men and women is towards a monogamic and more or less
+permanent union; preceded, it may be in most individuals, by a more
+restless period of experiment. Undoubtedly, many variations will arise
+in the future, leading to more complex relationships. Such variations
+cannot be foreseen, and when they arise they will still have to prove
+their stability and their advantage to the race.
+
+[51] As among geese, and, occasionally, it is said, among elephants.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE NEW ASPECT OF THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT
+
+     Eighteenth-Century France--Pioneers of the Woman's Movement--The
+     Growth of the Woman's Suffrage Movement--The Militant Activities of
+     the Suffragettes--Their Services and Disservices to the
+     Cause--Advantages of Women's Suffrage--Sex Questions in
+     Germany--Bebel--The Woman's Rights Movement in Germany--The
+     Development of Sexual Science in Germany--the Movement for the
+     Protection of Motherhood--Ellen Key--The Question of
+     Illegitimacy--Eugenics--Women as Law-makers in the Home.
+
+
+I
+
+The modern conception of the political equality of women with men, we
+have seen, arose in France in the second half of the eighteenth century.
+Its way was prepared by the philosophic thinkers of the _Encyclopédie_,
+and the idea was definitely formulated by some of the finest minds of
+the age, notably by Condorcet,[52] as part of the great new programme of
+social and political reform which was to some small degree realized in
+the upheaval of the Revolution. The political emancipation of women
+constituted no part of the Revolution. It has indeed been maintained,
+and perhaps with reason, that the normal development of the
+revolutionary spirit would probably have ended in vanquishing the claim
+of masculine predominance if war had not diverted the movement of
+revolution by transforming it into the Terror. Even as it was, the
+rights of women were not without their champions even at this period. We
+ought specially to remember Olympe de Gouges, whose name is sometimes
+dismissed too contemptuously. With all her defects of character and
+education and literary style, Olympe de Gouges, as is now becoming
+recognized, was, in her biographer's words, "one of the loftiest and
+most generous souls of the epoch," in some respects superior to Madame
+Roland. She was the first woman to demand of the Revolution that it
+should be logical by proclaiming the rights of woman side by side with
+those of her equal, man, and in so doing she became the great pioneer of
+the feminist movement of to-day.[53] She owes the position more
+especially to her little pamphlet, issued in 1791, entitled _Déclaration
+des Droits de la Femme_. It is this _Déclaration_ which contains the
+oft-quoted (or misquoted) saying: "Women have the right to ascend the
+scaffold; they must also have the right to ascend the tribune." Two
+years later she had herself ascended the scaffold, but the other right
+she claimed is only now beginning to be granted to women. At that time
+there were too many more pressing matters to be dealt with, and the only
+women who had been taught to demand the rights of their sex were
+precisely those whom the Revolution was guillotining or exiling. Even
+had it been otherwise, we may be quite sure that Napoleon, the heir of
+the Revolution and the final arbiter of what was to be permanent in its
+achievements, would have sternly repressed any political freedom
+accorded to women. The only freedom he cared to grant to women was the
+freedom to produce food for cannon, and so far as lay in his power he
+sought to crush the political activities of women even in literature, as
+we see in his treatment of Mme de Staël.[54]
+
+An Englishwoman of genius was in Paris at the time of the Revolution,
+with as broad a conception of the place of woman side by side with man
+as Olympe de Gouges, while for the most part she was Olympe's superior.
+In 1792, a year after the _Déclaration des Droits de la Femme_, Mary
+Wollstonecraft--it is possible to some extent inspired by the brief
+_Déclaration_--published her _Vindication of the Rights of Women_. It
+was not a shrill outcry, nor an attack on men--in that indeed
+resembling the _Déclaration_--but just the book of a woman, a wise and
+sensible woman, who discusses many women's questions from a woman's
+point of view, and desires civil and political rights, not as a panacea
+for all evils, but simply because, as she argues, humanity cannot
+progress as a whole while one half of it is semi-educated and only half
+free. There can be little doubt that if the later advocates of woman's
+suffrage could have preserved more of Mary Wollstonecraft's sanity,
+moderation, and breadth of outlook, they would have diminished the
+difficulties that beset the task of convincing the community generally.
+Mary Wollstonecraft was, however, the inspired pioneer of a great
+movement which slowly gained force and volume.[55] During the long
+Victorian period the practical aims of this movement went chiefly into
+the direction of improving the education of girls so as to make it, so
+far as possible, like that of boys. In this matter an immense revolution
+was slowly accomplished, involving the entrance of women into various
+professions and employments hitherto reserved to men. That was a very
+necessary preliminary to the extension of the franchise to women. The
+suffrage propaganda could not, moreover, fail to benefit by the better
+education of women and their increased activity in public life. It was
+their activity, indeed, far more than the skill of the women who fought
+for the franchise, which made the political emancipation of women
+inevitable, and the noble and brilliant women who through the middle of
+the nineteenth century recreated the educational system for women, and
+so prepared them to play their proper part in life, were the best women
+workers the cause of women's enfranchisement ever had. There was,
+however, one distinguished friend of the emancipation of women whose
+advocacy of the cause at this period was of immense value. It is now
+nearly half a century since John Stuart Mill--inspired, like Thompson,
+by a woman--wrote his _Subjection of Women_, and it may undoubtedly be
+said that since that date no book on this subject published in any
+country--with the single exception of Bebel's _Woman_--has been so
+widely read or so influential. The support of this distinguished and
+authoritative thinker gave to the woman's movement a stamp of
+aristocratic intellectuality very valuable in a land where even the
+finest minds are apt to be afflicted by the disease of timidity, and was
+doubtless a leading cause of the cordial reception which in England the
+idea of women's political emancipation has long received among
+politicians. Bebel's book, speedily translated into English, furnished
+the plebeian complement to Mill's.
+
+The movement for the education of women and their introduction into
+careers previously monopolized by men inevitably encouraged the movement
+for extending the franchise to women. This political reform was
+remarkably successful in winning over the politicians, and not those of
+one party only. In England, since Mill published his _Subjection of
+Women_ in 1869, there have always been eminent statesmen convinced of
+the desirability of granting the franchise to women, and among the rank
+and file of Members of Parliament, irrespective of party, a very large
+proportion have pledged themselves to the same cause. The difficulty,
+therefore, in introducing woman's suffrage into England has not been
+primarily in Parliament. The one point, at which political party feeling
+has caused obstruction--and it is certainly a difficult and important
+point--is the method by which woman's suffrage should be introduced.
+Each party--Conservative, Liberal, Labour--naturally enough desires that
+this great new voting force should first be applied at a point which
+would not be likely to injure its own party interests. It is probable
+that in each party the majority of the leaders are of opinion that the
+admission of female voters is inevitable and perhaps desirable; the
+dispute is as to the extent to which the floodgates should in the first
+place be opened. In accordance with English tradition, some kind of
+compromise, however illogical, suggests itself as the safest first step,
+but the dispute remains as to the exact class of women who should be
+first admitted and the exact extent to which entrance should be granted
+to them.
+
+The dispute of the gate-keepers would, however, be easily overcome if
+the pressure behind the gate were sufficiently strong. But it is not.
+However large a proportion of the voters in Great Britain may be in
+favour of women's franchise, it is certain that only a very minute
+percentage regard this as a question having precedency over all other
+questions. And the reason why men have only taken a very temperate
+interest in woman's suffrage is that women themselves, in the mass, have
+taken an equally temperate interest in the matter when they have not
+been actually hostile to the movement. It may indeed be said, even at
+the present time, that whenever an impartial poll is taken of a large
+miscellaneous group of women, only a minority are found to be in favour
+of woman's suffrage.[56] No significant event has occurred to stimulate
+general interest in the matter, and no supremely eloquent or influential
+voice has artificially stirred it. There has been no woman of Mary
+Wollstonecraft's genius and breadth of mind who has devoted herself to
+the cause, and since Mill the men who have made up their minds on this
+side have been content to leave the matter to the women's associations
+formed for securing the success of the cause. These associations have,
+however, been led by women of a past generation, who, while of
+unquestionable intellectual power and high moral character, have viewed
+the woman question in a somewhat narrow, old-fashioned spirit, and have
+not possessed the gift of inspiring enthusiasm. Thus the growth of the
+movement, however steady it may have been, has been slow. John Stuart
+Mill's remark, in a letter to Bain in 1869, remains true to-day: "The
+most important thing women have to do is to stir up the zeal of women
+themselves."
+
+In the meanwhile in some other countries where, except in the United
+States, it was of much more recent growth, the woman's suffrage movement
+has achieved success, with no great expenditure of energy. It has been
+introduced into several American States and Territories. It is
+established throughout Australasia. It is also established in Norway. In
+Finland women may not only vote, but also sit in Parliament.
+
+It was in these conditions that the Women's Social and Political Union
+was formed in London. It was not an offshoot from any existing woman's
+suffrage society, but represented a crystallization of new elements. For
+the most part, even its leaders had not previously taken any active part
+in the movement for woman's suffrage. The suffrage movement had need of
+exactly such an infusion of fresh and ardent blood; so that the new
+society was warmly welcomed, and met with immediate success, finding
+recruits alike among the rich and the poor. Its unconventional methods,
+its eager and militant spirit, were felt to supply a lacking element,
+and the first picturesque and dashing exploits of the Union were on the
+whole well received. The obvious sincerity and earnestness of these very
+fresh recruits covered the rashness of their new and rather ignorant
+enthusiasm.
+
+But a hasty excess of ardour only befits a first uncalculated outburst
+of youthfulness. It is quite another matter when it is deliberately
+hardened into a rigid routine, and becomes an organized method of
+creating disorder for the purpose of advertising a grievance in season
+and out of season. Since, moreover, the attack was directed chiefly
+against politicians, precisely that class of the community most inclined
+to be favourable to woman's suffrage, the wrong-headedness of the
+movement becomes as striking as its offensiveness.
+
+The effect on the early friends of the new movement was inevitable.
+Some, who had hailed it with enthusiasm and proclaimed its pioneers as
+new Joans of Arc, changed their tone to expostulation and protest, and
+finally relapsed into silence. Other friends of the movement, even among
+its former leaders, were less silent. They have revealed to the world,
+too unkindly, some of the influences which slowly corrupt such a
+movement from the inside when it hardens into sectarianism: the
+narrowing of aim, the increase of conventionality, the jealousy of
+rivals, the tendency to morbid emotionalism.
+
+It is easy to exaggerate the misdeeds and the weaknesses of the
+suffragettes. It is undoubtedly true that they have alienated, in an
+increasing degree, the sympathies of the women of highest character and
+best abilities among the advocates of woman's suffrage. Nearly all
+Englishwomen to-day who stand well above the average in mental
+distinction are in favour of woman's suffrage, though they may not
+always be inclined to take an active part in securing it. Perhaps the
+only prominent exception is Mrs. Humphry Ward. Yet they rarely associate
+themselves with the methods of the suffragettes. They do not, indeed,
+protest, for they feel there would be a kind of disloyalty in fighting
+against the Extreme Left of a movement to which they themselves belong;
+but they stand aloof. The women who are chiefly attracted to the ranks
+of the suffragettes belong to three classes: (1) Those of the well-to-do
+class with no outlet for their activities, who eagerly embrace an
+exciting occupation which has become, not only highly respectable, but
+even, in a sense, fashionable; they have no natural tendency to excess,
+but are easily moved by their social environment; some of these are
+rich, and the great principle--once formulated in an unhappy moment
+concerning a rich lady interested in social reform--"We must not kill
+the goose that lays the golden eggs," has never been despised by the
+suffragette leaders; (2) the rowdy element among women which is not so
+much moved to adopt the methods for the sake of the cause as to adopt
+the cause for the sake of the methods, so that in the case of their
+special emotional temperament it may be said, reversing an ancient
+phrase, that the means justify the end; this element of noisy
+explosiveness, always found in a certain proportion of women, though
+latent under ordinary circumstances, is easily aroused by stimulation,
+and in every popular revolt the wildest excesses are the acts of women.
+(3) In this small but important group we find women of rare and
+beautiful character who, hypnotized by the enthralling influence of an
+idea, and often having no great intellectual power of their own, are
+even unconscious of the vulgarity that accompanies them, and gladly
+sacrifice themselves to a cause that seems to be sacred; these are the
+saints and martyrs of every movement.
+
+When we thus analyse the suffragette outburst we see that it is really
+compounded out of quite varied elements: a conventionally respectable
+element, a rowdy element, and an ennobling element. It is, therefore,
+equally unreasonable to denounce its vices or to idealize its virtues.
+It is more profitable to attempt to balance its services and its
+disservices to the cause of women's suffrage.
+
+Looked at dispassionately, the two main disadvantages of the suffragette
+agitation--and they certainly seem at the first glance very
+comprehensive objections--lie in its direction and in its methods. There
+are two vast bodies of people who require to be persuaded in order to
+secure woman's suffrage: first women themselves, and secondly their
+men-folk, who at present monopolize the franchise. Until the majority of
+both men and women are educated to understand the justice and
+reasonableness of this step, and until men are persuaded that the time
+has come for practical action, the most violent personal assaults on
+cabinet ministers--supposing such political methods to be otherwise
+unobjectionable--are beside the mark. They are aimed in the wrong
+direction. This is so even when we leave aside the fact that
+politicians are sufficiently converted already. The primary task of
+women suffragists is to convert their own sex. Indeed it may be said
+that that is their whole task. Whenever the majority of women are
+persuaded that they ought to possess the vote, we may be quite sure that
+they will communicate that persuasion to their men-folk who are able to
+give them the vote. The conversion of the majority of women to a belief
+in women's suffrage is essential to its attainment because it is only by
+the influence of the women who belong to him, whom he knows and loves
+and respects, that the average man is likely to realize that, as Ellen
+Key puts it, "a ballot paper in itself no more injures the delicacy of a
+woman's hand than a cooking recipe." The antics of women in the street,
+however earnest those women may be, only leave him indifferent, even
+hostile, at most, amused.
+
+It may be added that in any case it would be undesirable, even if
+possible, to bestow the suffrage on women so long as only a minority
+have the wish to exercise it. It would be contrary to sound public
+policy. It would not only discredit political rights, but it would tend
+to give the woman's vote too narrow and one-sided a character. To grant
+women the right to vote is a different matter from granting women the
+right to enter a profession. In order to give women the right to be
+doctors or lawyers it is not necessary that women generally should be
+convinced of the advantage of such a step. The matter chiefly concerns
+the very small number of women who desire the privilege. But the women
+who vote will be in some measure legislating for women generally, and it
+is therefore necessary that women generally should participate.
+
+But even if it is admitted--although, as we have seen, there is a
+twofold reason for not making such an admission--that the suffragettes
+are justified in regarding politicians as the obstacles in the way of
+their demands, there still remains the question of the disadvantage of
+their method. This method is by some euphemistically described as the
+introduction of "nagging" into politics; but even at this mild estimate
+of its character the question may still be asked whether the method is
+calculated to attain the desired end. One hears women suffragettes
+declare that this is the only kind of argument men understand. There is,
+however, in the masculine mind--and by no means least when it is
+British--an element which strongly objects to be worried and bullied
+even into a good course of action. The suffragettes have done their best
+to stimulate that element of obstinacy. Even among men who viewed the
+matter from an unprejudiced standpoint many felt that, necessary as
+woman's suffrage is, the policy of the suffragettes rendered the moment
+unfavourable for its adoption. It is a significant fact that in the
+countries which have so far granted women the franchise no methods in
+the slightest degree resembling those of the suffragettes have ever been
+practised. It is not easy to imagine Australia tolerating such methods,
+and in Finland full Parliamentary rights were freely granted, as is
+generally recognized, precisely as a mark of gratitude for women's
+helpfulness in standing side by side with their men in a great political
+struggle. The policy of obstruction adopted by the English suffragettes,
+with its "tactics" of opposing at election times the candidates of the
+very party whose leaders they are imploring to grant them the franchise,
+was so foolish that it is little wonder that many doubted whether women
+at all understand the methods of politics, or are yet fitted to take a
+responsible part in political life.
+
+The suffragette method of persuading public men seems to be, on the
+whole, futile, even if it were directed at the proper quarter, and even
+if it were in itself a justifiable method. But it would be possible to
+grant these "ifs" and still to feel that a serious injury is done to the
+cause of woman's suffrage when the method of violence is adopted by
+women. Some suffragettes have argued, in this matter, that in political
+crises men also have acted just as badly or worse. But, even if we
+assume that this is the case,[57] it has been one of the chief arguments
+hitherto for the admission of women into political life that they
+exercise an elevating and refining influence, so that their entrance
+into this field will serve to purify politics. That, no doubt, is an
+argument mostly brought forward by men, and may be regarded as, in some
+measure, an amiable masculine delusion, since most of the refining and
+elevating elements in civilization probably owe their origin not to
+women but to men. But it is not altogether a delusion. In the virtues of
+force--however humbly those virtues are to be classed--women, as a sex,
+can never be the rivals of men, and when women attempt to gain their
+ends by the demonstration of brute force they can only place themselves
+at a disadvantage. They are laying down the weapons they know best how
+to use, and adopting weapons so unsuitable that they only injure the
+users.
+
+Many women, speaking on behalf of the suffragettes, protest against the
+idea that women must always be "charming." And if "charm" is to be
+understood in so narrow and conventionalized a sense that it means
+something which is incompatible with the developed natural activities,
+whether of the soul or of the body, then such a protest is amply
+justified. But in the larger sense, "charm"--which means the power to
+effect work without employing brute force--is indispensable to women.
+Charm is a woman's strength just as strength is a man's charm. And the
+justification for women in this matter is that herein they represent the
+progress of civilization. All civilization involves the substitution in
+this respect of the woman's method for the man's. In the last resort a
+savage can only assert his rights by brute force. But with the growth of
+civilization the wronged man, instead of knocking down his opponent,
+employs "charm"; in other words he engages an advocate, who, by the
+exercise of sweet reasonableness, persuades twelve men in a box that
+his wrongs must be righted, and the matter is then finally settled, not
+by man's weapon, the fist, but by woman's weapon, the tongue. Nowadays
+the same method of "charm" is being substituted for brute force in
+international wrongs, and with the complete substitution of arbitration
+for war the woman's method of charm will have replaced the man's method
+of brute force along the whole line of legitimate human activity. If we
+realize this we can understand why it is that a group of women who, even
+in the effort to support a good cause, revert to the crude method of
+violence are committing a double wrong. They are wronging their own sex
+by proving false to its best traditions, and they are wronging
+civilization by attempting to revive methods of savagery which it is
+civilization's mission to repress. Therefore it may fairly be held that
+even if the methods of the suffragettes were really adequate to secure
+women's suffrage, the attainment of the franchise by those methods would
+be a misfortune. The ultimate loss would be greater than the gain.
+
+If we hold the foregoing considerations in mind it is difficult to avoid
+the conclusion that neither in their direction nor in their nature are
+the methods of the suffragettes fitted to attain the end desired. We
+have still, however, to consider the other side of the question.
+
+Whenever an old movement receives a strong infusion of new blood,
+whatever excesses or mistakes may arise, it is very unlikely that all
+the results will be on the same side. It is certainly not so in this
+case. Even the opposition to woman's suffrage which the suffragettes
+are responsible for, and the Anti-Suffrage societies which they have
+called into active existence, are not an unmitigated disadvantage. Every
+movement of progress requires a vigorous movement of opposition to
+stimulate its progress, and the clash of discussion can only be
+beneficial in the end to the progressive cause.
+
+But the immense advantage of the activity of the suffragettes has been
+indirect. It has enabled the great mass of ordinary sensible women who
+neither join Suffrage societies nor Anti-Suffrage societies to think for
+themselves on this question. Until a few years ago, while most educated
+women were vaguely aware of the existence of a movement for giving women
+the vote, they only knew of it as something rather unpractical and
+remote; its reality had never been brought home to them. When women
+witnessed the eruption into the streets of a band of women--most of them
+apparently women much like themselves--who were so convinced that the
+franchise must be granted to women, here and now, that they were
+prepared to face publicity, ridicule, and even imprisonment, then "votes
+for women" became to them, for the first time, a real and living issue.
+In a great many cases, certainly, they realized that they intensely
+disliked the people who behaved in this way and any cause that was so
+preached. But in a great many other cases they realized, for the first
+time definitely, that the demand of votes for women was a reasonable
+demand, and that they were themselves suffragists, though they had no
+wish to take an active part in the movement, and no real sympathy with
+its more "militant" methods. There can be no doubt that in this way the
+suffragettes have performed an immense service for the cause of women's
+suffrage. It has been for the most part an indirect and undesigned
+service, but in the end it will perhaps more than serve to
+counterbalance the disadvantages attached to their more conscious
+methods and their more deliberate aims.
+
+If, as we may trust, this service will be the main outcome of the
+suffragette phase of the women's movement, it is an outcome to be
+thankful for; we may then remember with gratitude the ardent enthusiasm
+of the suffragettes and forget the foolish and futile ways in which it
+was manifested. There has never been any doubt as to the ultimate
+adoption of women's suffrage; its gradual extension among the more
+progressive countries of the world sufficiently indicates that it will
+ultimately reach even to the most backward countries. Its accomplishment
+in England has been gradual, although it is here so long since the first
+steps were taken, not because there has been some special and malignant
+opposition to it on the part of men in general and politicians in
+particular, but simply because England is an old and conservative
+country, with a very ancient constitutional machinery which effectually
+guards against the hasty realization of any scheme of reform. This
+particular reform, however, is not an isolated or independent scheme; it
+is an essential part of a great movement in the social equalization of
+the sexes which has been going on for centuries in our civilization, a
+movement such as may be correspondingly traced in the later stages of
+the civilizations of antiquity. Such a movement we may by our efforts
+help forward, we may for a while retard, but it is a part of
+civilization, and it would be idle to imagine that we can affect the
+ultimate issue.
+
+That the issue of women's suffrage may be reached in England within a
+reasonable period is much to be desired for the sake of the woman's
+movement in the larger sense, which has nothing to do with politics, and
+is now impeded by this struggle. The enfranchisement of women, Miss
+Frances Cobbe declared thirty years ago, is "the crown and completion"
+of all progress in women's movement. "Votes for women," exclaims, more
+youthfully but not less unreasonably, Miss Christabel Pankhurst, "means
+a new Heaven and a new Earth." But women's suffrage no more means a new
+Heaven or even a new Earth than it means, as other people fear, a new
+Purgatory and a new Hell. We may see this quite plainly in Australasia.
+Women's votes aid in furthering social legislation and contribute to the
+passing of acts which have their good side, and, no doubt, like
+everything else, their bad side. As Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who devoted
+her life to the political enfranchisement of women, declared, the ballot
+is, at most, only the vestibule to women's emancipation. Man's suffrage
+has not introduced the millennium, and it is foolish to suppose that
+woman's suffrage can. It is merely an act of justice and a reasonable
+condition of social hygiene.
+
+The attainment of the suffrage, if it is a beginning and not an end,
+will thus have a real and positive value in liberating the woman's
+movement from a narrow and sterilizing phase of its course. In England,
+especially, the woman's movement has in the past largely confined itself
+to imitating men and to obtaining the same work and the same rights as
+men. Putting the matter more broadly, it may be said that it has been
+the aim of the woman's movement to secure woman's claims as a human
+being rather than as woman. But that is only half the task of the
+woman's movement, and perhaps not the most essential half. Women can
+never be like men, any more than men can be like women. It is their
+unlikeness which renders them indispensable to each other, and which
+also makes it imperative that each sex should have its due share in
+moulding the conditions of life. Woman's function in life can never be
+the same as man's, if only because women are the mothers of the race.
+That is the point, the only point, at which women have an uncontested
+supremacy over men. The most vital problem before our civilization
+to-day is the problem of motherhood, the question of creating the human
+beings best fitted for modern life, the practical realization of a sound
+eugenics. Manouvrier, the distinguished anthropologist, who carries
+feminism to its extreme point in the scientific sphere, yet recognizes
+the fundamental fact that "a woman's part is to make children." But he
+clearly perceives also that "in all its extent and all its consequences
+that part is not surpassed in importance, in difficulty, or in dignity,
+by the man's part." On the contrary it is a part which needs "an amount
+of intelligence incontestably superior, and by far, to that required by
+most masculine occupations."[58] We are here at the core of the woman's
+movement. And the full fruition of that movement means that women, by
+virtue of their supremacy in this matter, shall take their proper share
+in legislation for life, not as mere sexless human beings, but as women,
+and in accordance with the essential laws of their own nature as women.
+
+
+II
+
+There is a further question. Is it possible to discern the actual
+embodiment of this new phase of the woman movement? I think it is.
+
+To those who are accustomed to watch the emotional pulse of mankind,
+nothing has seemed so remarkable during recent years as the eruption of
+sex questions in Germany. We had always been given to understand that
+the sphere of women and the laws of marriage had been definitely
+prescribed and fixed in Germany for at least two thousand years, since
+the days of Tacitus, in fact, and with the best possible results.
+Germans assured the world in stentorian tones that only in Germany could
+young womanhood be seen in all its purity, and that in the German
+_Hausfrau_ the supreme ideal had been reached, the woman whose great
+mission is to keep alive the perennial fire of the ancient German
+hearth. Here and there, indeed, the quiet voice of science was heard in
+Germany; thus Schrader, the distinguished investigator of Teutonic
+origins, in commenting on the oft-quoted testimony of Tacitus to the
+chastity of the German women, has appositely referred to the detailed
+evidences furnished by the Committee of pastors of the Evangelical
+Church as to the extreme prevalence of unchastity among the women of
+rural Germany, and argued that these widespread customs must be very
+ancient and deep-rooted.[59] But Germans in general refused to admit that
+Tacitus had only used the idea of German virtue as a stick to beat his
+own fellow-countrywomen with.
+
+The Social-Democratic movement, which has so largely overspread
+industrial and even intellectual Germany, prepared the way for a less
+traditional and idealistic way of feeling in regard to these questions.
+The publication by Bebel of a book, _Die Frau_, in which the leader of
+the German Social-Democratic party set forth the Socialist doctrine of
+the position of women in society, marked the first stage in the new
+movement. This book exercised a wide influence, more especially on
+uncritical readers. It is, indeed, from a scientific point of view a
+worthless book--if a book in which genuine emotions are brought to the
+cause of human freedom and social righteousness may ever be so
+termed--but it struck a rude blow at the traditions of Teutonic
+sentiment. With something of the rough tone and temper of the great
+peasant who initiated the German Reformation, a man who had himself
+sprung from the people, and who knew of what he was speaking, here set
+down in downright fashion the actual facts as to the position of women
+in Germany, as well as what he conceived to be the claims of justice in
+regard to that position, slashing with equal vigour alike at the
+absurdities of conventional marriage and of prostitution, the obverse
+and the reverse, he declared, of a false society. The emotional
+renaissance with which we are here concerned seems to have no special
+and certainly no exclusive association with the Social-Democratic
+movement, but it can scarcely be doubted that the permeation of a great
+mass of the German people by the socialistic conceptions which in their
+bearing on women have been rendered so familiar by Bebel's exposition
+has furnished, as it were, a ready-made sounding-board which has given
+resonance and effect to voices which might otherwise have been quickly
+lost in vacuity.
+
+There is another movement which counts for something in the renaissance
+we are here concerned with, though for considerably less than one might
+be led to expect. What is specifically known as the "woman's rights'
+movement" is in no degree native to Germany, though Hippel is one of the
+pioneers of the woman's movement, and it is only within recent years
+that it has reached Germany. It is alien to the Teutonic feminine mind,
+because in Germany the spheres of men and women are so far apart and so
+unlike that the ideal of imitating men fails to present itself to a
+German woman's mind. The delay, moreover, in the arrival of the woman's
+movement in Germany had given time for a clearer view of that movement
+and a criticism of its defects to form even in the lands of its origin,
+so that the German woman can no longer be caught unawares by the cry for
+woman's rights. Still, however qualified a view might be taken of its
+benefits, it had to be recognized, even in Germany, that it was an
+inevitable movement, and to some extent at all events indispensable from
+the woman's point of view. The same right to education as men, the same
+rights of public meeting and discussion, the same liberty to enter the
+liberal professions, these are claims which during recent years have
+been widely made by German women and to some extent secured, while--as
+is even more significant--they are for the most part no longer very
+energetically disputed. The International Congress of Women which met in
+Berlin in 1904 was a revelation to the citizens of Berlin of the skill
+and dignity with which women could organize a congress and conduct
+business meetings. It was notable, moreover, in that, though under the
+auspices of an International Council, it showed the large number of
+German women who are already entitled to take a leading part in the
+movements for women's welfare. Both directly and indirectly, indeed,
+such a movement cannot be otherwise than specially beneficial in
+Germany. The Teutonic reverence for woman, the assertion of the "aliquid
+divinum," has sometimes been accompanied by the openly expressed
+conviction that she is a fool. Outside Germany it would not be easy to
+find the representative philosophers of a nation putting forward so
+contemptuous a view of women as is set forth by Schopenhauer or by
+Nietzsche, while even within recent years a German physician of some
+ability, the late Dr. Möbius, published a book on the "physiological
+weak-mindedness of women."
+
+The new feminine movement in Germany has received highly important
+support from the recent development of German science. The German
+intellect, exceedingly comprehensive in its outlook, ploddingly
+thorough, and imperturbably serious, has always taken the leading and
+pioneering part in the investigation of sexual problems, whether from
+the standpoint of history, biology, or pathology. Early in the
+nineteenth century, when even more courage and resolution were needed to
+face the scientific study of such questions than is now the case, German
+physicians, unsupported by any co-operation in other countries, were the
+pioneers in exploring the paths of sexual pathology.[60] From the
+antiquarian side, Bachofen, more than half a century ago, put forth his
+conception of the exalted position of the primitive mother which,
+although it has been considerably battered by subsequent research, has
+been by no means without its value, and is of special significance from
+the present standpoint, because it sprang from precisely the same view
+of life as that animating the German women who are to-day inaugurating
+the movement we are here concerned with. From the medical side the late
+Professor Krafft-Ebing of Vienna and Dr. Albert Moll of Berlin are
+recognized throughout the world as leading authorities on sexual
+pathology, and in recent times many other German physicians of the first
+authority can be named in this field; while in Austria Dr. F.S. Krauss
+and his coadjutors in the annual volumes of _Anthropophyteia_ are
+diligently exploring the rich and fruitful field of sexual folk-lore.
+The large volumes of the _Jahrbuch für Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, edited
+by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld of Berlin, have presented discussions of the
+commonest of sexual aberrations with a scientific and scholarly
+thoroughness, a practical competence, as well as admirable tone, which
+we may seek in vain in other countries. In Vienna, moreover, Professor
+Freud, with his bold and original views on the sexual causation of many
+abnormal mental and nervous conditions, and his psycho-analytic method
+of investigating and treating them, although his doctrines are by no
+means universally accepted, is yet exerting a revolutionary influence
+all over the world. During the last ten years, indeed, the amount of
+German scientific and semi-scientific literature, dealing with every
+aspect of the sexual question, and from every point of view, is
+altogether unparalleled. It need scarcely be said that much of this
+literature is superficial or worthless. But much of it is sound, and it
+would seem that on the whole it is this portion of it which is most
+popular. Thus Dr. August Forel, formerly professor of psychiatry at
+Zurich and a physician of world-wide reputation, published a few years
+ago at Munich a book on the sexual question, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, in
+which all the questions of the sexual life, biological, medical, and
+social, are seriously discussed with no undue appeal to an ignorant
+public; it had an immediate success and a large sale. Dr. Forel had not
+entered this field before; he had merely come to the conclusion that
+every man at the end of his life ought to set forth his observations and
+conclusions regarding the most vital of questions. Again, at about the
+same time, Dr. Iwan Bloch, of Berlin, published his many-sided work on
+the sexual life of our time, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, a work less
+remarkable than Forel's for the weight of the personal authority
+expressed, but more remarkable by the range of its learning and the
+sympathetic attitude it displayed towards the best movements of the day;
+this book also met with great success.[61] Still more recently (1912) Dr.
+Albert Moll, with characteristic scientific thoroughness, has edited,
+and largely himself written, a truly encyclopædic _Handbuch der
+Sexualwissenschaften_. The eminence of the writers of these books and
+the mental calibre needed to read them suffice to show that we are not
+concerned, as a careless observer might suppose, with a matter of supply
+and demand in prurient literature, but with the serious and widespread
+appreciation of serious investigations. This same appreciation is shown
+not only by several bio-sociological periodicals of high scientific
+quality, but by the existence of a journal like _Sexual-Probleme_,
+edited by Dr. Max Marcuse, a journal with many distinguished
+contributors, and undoubtedly the best periodical in this field to be
+found in any language.
+
+At the same time the new movement of German women, however it may arise
+from or be supported by political or scientific movements, is
+fundamentally emotional in its character. If we think of it, every great
+movement of the Teutonic soul has been rooted in emotion. The German
+literary renaissance of the eighteenth century was emotional in its
+origin and received its chief stimulus from the contagion of the new
+irruption of sentiment in France. Even German science is often
+influenced, and not always to its advantage, by German sentiment. The
+Reformation is an example on a huge scale of the emotional force which
+underlies German movements. Luther, for good and for evil, is the most
+typical of Germans, and the Luther who made his mark in the world--the
+shrewd, coarse, superstitious peasant who blossomed into genius--was an
+avalanche of emotion, a great mass of natural human instincts
+irresistible in their impetuosity. When we bear in mind this general
+tendency to emotional expansiveness in the manifestations of the
+Teutonic soul we need feel no surprise that the present movement among
+German women should be, to a much greater extent than the corresponding
+movements in other countries, an emotional renaissance. It is not, first
+and last, a cry for political rights, but for emotional rights, and for
+the reasonable regulation of all those social functions which are
+founded on the emotions.[62]
+
+This movement, although it may properly be said to be German, since its
+manifestations are mainly exhibited in the great German Empire, is yet
+essentially a Teutonic movement in the broader sense of the word.
+Germans of Austria, Germans of Switzerland, Dutch women, Scandinavians,
+have all been drawn into this movement. But it is in Germany proper that
+they all find the chief field of their activities.
+
+If we attempt to define in a single sentence the specific object of this
+agitation we may best describe it as based on the demands of woman the
+mother, and as directed to the end of securing for her the right to
+control and regulate the personal and social relations which spring from
+her nature as mother or possible mother. Therein we see at once both the
+intimately emotional and practical nature of this new claim and its
+decisive unlikeness to the earlier woman movement. That was definitely a
+demand for emancipation; political enfranchisement was its goal; its
+perpetual assertion was that women must be allowed to do everything
+that men do. But the new Teutonic woman's movement, so far from making
+as its ideal the imitation of men, bases itself on that which most
+essentially marks the woman as unlike the man.
+
+The basis of the movement is significantly indicated by the title,
+_Mutterschutz_--the protection of the mother--originally borne by "a
+Journal for the reform of sexual morals," established in 1905, edited by
+Dr. Helene Stöcker, of Berlin, and now called _Die Neue Generation_. All
+the questions that radiate outwards from the maternal function are here
+discussed: the ethics of love, prostitution ancient and modern, the
+position of illegitimate mothers and illegitimate children, sexual
+hygiene, the sexual instruction of the young, etc. It must not be
+supposed that these matters are dealt with from the standpoint of a
+vigilance society for combating vice. The demand throughout is for the
+regulation of life, for reform, but for reform quite as much in the
+direction of expansion as of restraint. On many matters of detail,
+indeed, there is no agreement among these writers, some of whom approach
+the problems from the social and practical side, some from the
+psychological and philosophic side, others from the medical, legal, or
+historical sides.
+
+This journal was originally the organ of the association for the
+protection of mothers, more especially unmarried mothers, called the
+_Bund für Mutterschutz_. There are many agencies for dealing with
+illegitimate children, but the founders of this association started from
+the conviction that it is only through the mother that the child can be
+adequately cared for. As nearly a tenth of the children born in Germany
+are illegitimate, and the conditions of life into which such children
+are thrown are in the highest degree unfavourable, the question has its
+actuality.[63] It is the aim of the _Bund für Mutterschutz_ to
+rehabilitate the unmarried mother, to secure for her the conditions of
+economic independence--whatever social class she may belong to--and
+ultimately to effect a change in the legal status of illegitimate
+mothers and children alike. The Bund, which is directed by a committee
+in which social, medical, and legal interests are alike represented,
+already possesses numerous branches, in addition to its head-quarters in
+Berlin, and is beginning to initiate practical measures on the lines of
+its programme, notably Homes for Mothers, of which it has established
+nearly a dozen in different parts of Germany.
+
+In 1911 the first International Congress for the Protection of Mothers
+and for Sexual Reform was held at Dresden, in connection with the great
+Exhibition of Hygiene. As a result of this Congress, an International
+Union was constituted, representing Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, and
+Holland, which may probably be taken to be the countries which have so
+far manifested greatest interest in the programme of sexual reform based
+on recognition of the supreme importance of motherhood. This movement
+may, therefore, be said to have overcome the initial difficulties, the
+antagonism, the misunderstanding, and the opprobrium, which every
+movement in the field of sexual reform inevitably encounters, and often
+succumbs to.
+
+It would be a mistake to regard this Association as a merely
+philanthropic movement. It claims to be "An Association for the Reform
+of Sexual Ethics," and _Die Neue Generation_ deals with social and
+ethical rather than with philanthropic questions. In these respects it
+reflects the present attitude of many thoughtful German women, though
+the older school of women's rights advocates still holds aloof. We may
+here, for instance, find a statement of the recent discussion
+concerning the right of the mother to destroy her offspring before
+birth. This has been boldly claimed for women by Countess Gisela von
+Streitberg, who advocates a return to the older moral view which
+prevailed not only in classic antiquity, but even, under certain
+conditions, in Christian practice, until Canon law, asserting that the
+embryo had from the first an independent life, pronounced abortion under
+all circumstances a crime. Countess von Streitberg takes the standpoint
+that as the chief risks and responsibilities must necessarily rest upon
+the woman, it is for her to decide whether she will permit the embryo
+she bears to develop. Dr. Marie Raschke, taking up the discussion from
+the legal side, is unable to agree that abortion should cease to be a
+punishable offence, though she advocates considerable modifications in
+the law on this matter. Dr. Siegfried Weinberg, summarizing this
+discussion, again from the legal standpoint, considers that there is
+considerable right on the Countess's side, because from the modern
+juridical standpoint a criminal enactment is only justified because it
+protects a right, and in law the embryo possesses no rights which can be
+injured. From the moral standpoint, also, it is argued, its destruction
+often becomes justifiable in the interests of the community.
+
+This debatable question, while instructive as an example of the radical
+manner in which German women are now beginning to face moral questions,
+deals only with an isolated point which has hardly yet reached the
+sphere of practical politics.[64] It is more interesting to consider the
+general conceptions which underlie this movement, and we can hardly do
+this better than by studying the writings of Ellen Key, who is not only
+one of its recognized leaders, but may be said to present its aims and
+ideals in a broader and more convinced manner than any other writer.
+
+Ellen Key's views are mainly contained in three books, _Love and
+Marriage_, _The Century of the Child_, and _The Women's Movement_, in
+which form they enjoy a large circulation, and are now becoming well
+known, through translations, in England and America. She carefully
+distinguishes her aims from what she regards as the American conception
+of progress in woman's movements, that is to say the tendency for women
+to seek to capture the activities which may be much more adequately
+fulfilled by the other sex, while at the same time neglecting the far
+weightier matters that concern their own sex. Man and woman are not
+natural enemies who need to waste their energies in fighting over their
+respective rights and privileges; in spiritual as in physical life they
+are only fruitful together. Women, indeed, need free scope for their
+activities--and the earlier aspirations of feminism are thus
+justified--but they need it, not to wrest away any tasks that men may be
+better fitted to perform, but to play their part in that field of
+creative life which is peculiarly their own. Ellen Key would say that
+the highest human unit is triune: father, mother, and child. Marriage,
+therefore, instead of being, as it is to-day, the last thing to be
+thought of in education, becomes the central point of life. In Ellen
+Key's conception, "those who love each other are man and wife," and by
+love she means not a temporary inclination, but "a synthesis of desire
+and friendship," just as the air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. It
+must be this for both sexes alike, and Ellen Key sees a real progress in
+what seems to her the modern tendency for men to realize that the soul
+has its erotic side, and for women to realize that the senses have. She
+has no special sympathy with the cry for purity in masculine candidates
+for marriage put forward by some women of the present day. She observes
+that many men who have painfully struggled to maintain this ideal meet
+with disillusion, for it is not the masculine lamb, but much more the
+spotted leopard, who fascinates women. The notion that women have higher
+moral instincts than men Ellen Key regards as absurd. The majority of
+Frenchwomen, she remarks, were against Dreyfus, and the majority of
+Englishwomen approved the South African war. The really fundamental
+difference between man and woman is that he can usually give his best as
+a creator, and she as a lover, that his value is according to his work
+and hers according to her love. And in love the demand for each sex
+alike must not be primarily for a mere anatomical purity, but for
+passion and for sincerity.
+
+The aim of love, as understood by Ellen Key, is always marriage and the
+child, and as soon as the child comes into question society and the
+State are concerned. Before fruition, love is a matter for the lovers
+alone, and the espionage, ceremony, and routine now permitted or
+enjoined are both ridiculous and offensive. "The flower of love belongs
+to the lovers, and should remain their secret; it is the fruit of love
+which brings them into relation to society." The dominating importance
+of the child, the parent of the race to be, alone makes the immense
+social importance of sexual union. It is not marriage which sanctifies
+generation, but generation which sanctifies marriage. From the point of
+view of "the sanctity of generation" and the welfare of the race, Ellen
+Key looks forward to a time when it will be impossible for a man and
+woman to become parents when they are unlikely to produce a healthy
+child, though she is opposed to Neo-Malthusian methods, partly on
+æsthetic grounds and partly on the more dubious grounds of doubt as to
+their practical efficiency; it is from this point of view also that she
+favours sexual equality in matters of divorce, the legal assimilation of
+legitimate and illegitimate children, the recognition of unions outside
+marriage,--a recognition already legally established under certain
+circumstances in Sweden, in such a way as to confer the rights of
+legitimacy on the child,--and she is even prepared to advise women under
+some conditions to become mothers outside marriage, though only when
+there are obstacles to legal marriage, and as the outcome of deliberate
+will and resolution. In these and many similar proposals in detail, set
+forth in her earlier books, it is clear that Ellen Key has sometimes
+gone beyond the mandate of her central conviction, that love is the
+first condition for increasing the vitality alike of the race and of the
+individuality, and that the question of love, properly considered, is
+the question of creating the future man. As she herself has elsewhere
+quite truly pointed out, practice must precede, and precede by a very
+long time, the establishment of definite rules in matters of detail.
+
+It will be noticed that a point with which Ellen Key and the leaders of
+the new German woman's movement specially concern themselves is the
+affectional needs of the "supernumerary" woman and the legitimation of
+her children. There is an excess of women over men, in Germany as in
+most other countries. That excess, it is said, is balanced by the large
+number of women who do not wish to marry. But that is too cheap a
+solution of the question. Many women may wish to remain unmarried, but
+no woman wishes to be forced to remain unmarried. Every woman, these
+advocates of the rights of women claim, has a right to motherhood, and
+in exercising the right under sound conditions she is benefiting
+society. But our marriage system, in the rigid form which it has long
+since assumed, has not now the elasticity necessary to answer these
+demands. It presents a solution which is often impossible, always
+difficult, and perhaps in a large proportion of cases undesirable. But
+for a woman who is shut out from marriage to grasp at the vital facts of
+love and motherhood which she perhaps regards, unreasonably or not, as
+the supreme things in the world, must often be under such conditions a
+disastrous step, while it is always accompanied by certain risks.
+Therefore, it is asked, why should there not be, as of old there was, a
+relationship established which while of less dignity than marriage, and
+less exclusive in its demands, should yet permit a woman to enter into
+an honourable, open, and legally recognized relationship with a man?
+Such a relationship a woman could proclaim to the whole world, if
+necessary, without reflecting any disesteem upon herself or her child,
+while it would give her a legal claim on her child's father. Such a
+relationship would be substantially the same as the ancient concubinate,
+which persisted even in Christendom up to the sixteenth century. Its
+establishment in Sweden has apparently been satisfactory, and it is now
+sought to extend it to other countries.[65]
+
+It is interesting to compare, or to contrast, the movement of which
+Ellen Key has been a conspicuous champion with the futile movement
+initiated nearly a century ago by the school of Saint-Simon and Prosper
+Enfantin, in favour of "la femme libre."[66] That earlier movement had no
+doubt its bright and ideal side, but it was not supported by a sound and
+scientific view of life; it was rooted in sand and soon withered up. The
+kind of freedom which Ellen Key advocates is not a freedom to dispense
+with law and order, but rather a freedom to recognize and follow true
+law; it is the freedom which in morals as well as in politics is
+essential for the development of real responsibility.
+
+People talk, Ellen Key remarks, as though reform in sexual morality
+meant the breaking up of a beautiful idyll, while the idyll is
+impossible as long as the only alternative offered to so many young men
+and women at the threshold of life is between becoming "the slave of
+duty or the slave of lust." In these matters we already possess licence,
+and the only sound reform lies in a kind of "freedom" which will correct
+that licence by obedience to the most fundamental natural instincts
+acting in harmony with the claims of the race, which claims, it must be
+added, cannot be out of harmony with the best traditions of the race.
+Ellen Key would agree with a great German, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+wrote more than a century ago that "a solicitude for the race conducts
+to the same results as the highest solicitude for the most beautiful
+development of the inner man." The modern revolt against fossilized laws
+is inevitable; it is already in progress, and we have to see to it that
+the laws written upon tables of stone in their inevitable decay only
+give place to the mightier laws written upon tables of flesh and blood.
+Life is far too rich and manifold, Ellen Key says again, to be confined
+in a single formula, even the best; if our ideal has its worth for
+ourselves, if we are prepared to live for it and to die for it, that is
+enough; we are not entitled to impose it on others. The conception of
+duty still remains, duty to love and duty to the race. "I believe in a
+new ethics," Ellen Key declares at the end of _The Women's Movement_,
+"which will be a synthesis growing out of the nature of man and the
+nature of woman, out of the demands of the individual and the demands
+of society, out of the pagan and the Christian points of view, out of
+the resolve to mould the future and out of piety towards the past."
+
+No reader of Ellen Key's books can fail to be impressed by the
+remarkable harmony between her sexual ethics and the conception that
+underlies Sir Francis Galton's scientific eugenics. In setting forth the
+latest aspects of his view of eugenics before the Sociological Society,
+Galton asserted that the improvement of the race, in harmony with
+scientific knowledge, would come about by a new religious movement, and
+he gave reasons to show why such an expectation is not unreasonable; in
+the past men have obeyed the most difficult marriage rules in response
+to what they believed to be supernatural commands, and there is no
+ground for supposing that the real demands of the welfare of the race,
+founded on exact knowledge, will prove less effective in calling out an
+inspiring religious emotion. Writing probably at the same time, Ellen
+Key, in her essay entitled _Love and Ethics_, set forth precisely the
+same conception, though not from the scientific but from the emotional
+standpoint. From the outset she places the sexual question on a basis
+which brings it into line with Galton's eugenics. The problem used to be
+concerned, she remarks, with the insistence of society on a rigid
+marriage form, in conflict with the demand of the individual to gratify
+his desires in any manner that seemed good to him, while now it becomes
+a question of harmonizing the claims of the improvement of the race with
+the claims of the individual to happiness in love. She points out that
+on this aspect real harmony becomes more possible. Regard for the
+ennoblement of the race serves as a bridge from a chaos of conflicting
+tendencies to a truer conception of love, and "love must become on a
+higher plane what it was in primitive days--a religion." She compares
+the growth of the conception of the vital value of love to the modern
+growth of the conception of the value of health as against the medieval
+indifference to hygiene. It is inevitable that Ellen Key, approaching
+the question from the emotional side, should lay less stress than Galton
+on the importance of scientific investigation in heredity, and insist
+mainly on the value of sound instincts, unfettered by false and
+artificial constraints, and taught to realize that the physical and the
+psychic aspects of life are alike "divine."
+
+It would obviously be premature to express either approval or
+disapproval of the conceptions of sexual morality which Ellen Key has
+developed with such fervour and insight. It scarcely seems probable that
+the methods of sexual union, put forward as an alternative to celibacy
+by some of the adherents of the new movement, are likely to become
+widely popular, even if legalized in an increasing number of countries.
+I have elsewhere given reasons to believe that the path of progress lies
+mainly in the direction of a reform of the present institution of
+marriage.[67] The need of such reform is pressing, and there are many
+signs that it is being recognized. We can scarcely doubt that the
+advocates of these alternative methods of sexual union will do good by
+stimulating the champions of marriage to increased activity in the
+reform of that institution. In such matters a certain amount of
+competition sometimes has a remarkably vivifying effect.
+
+We may be sure that women, whose interests are so much at stake in this
+matter, and who tend to look at it in a practical rather than in a legal
+and theological spirit, will exert a powerful influence when they have
+acquired the ability to enforce that influence by the vote. This is
+significantly indicated by an inquiry held in England during 1910 by the
+Women's Co-operative Guild. A number of women who had held official
+positions in the Guild were asked (among other questions) whether or not
+they were in favour of divorce by mutual consent. Of 94 representative
+women conversant with affairs who were thus consulted, as many as 82
+deliberately recorded their opinion in favour of divorce by mutual
+consent, and only 12 were against that highly important marriage reform.
+
+It is probably unnecessary to discuss the opinions of other leaders in
+this movement, though there are several, such as Frau Grete Meisel-Hess,
+whose views deserve study. It will be sufficiently clear in what way
+this Teutonic movement differs from that Anglo-Saxon woman's rights'
+movement with which we have long been familiar. These German women fully
+recognize that women are entitled to the same human rights as men, and
+that until such rights are attained "feminism" still has a proper task
+to achieve. But women must use their strength in the sphere for which
+their own nature fits them. Even though millions of women are enabled to
+do the work which men could do better the gain for mankind is nil. To
+put women to do men's work is (Ellen Key has declared) as foolish as to
+set a Beethoven or a Wagner to do engine-driving.
+
+It has probably excited surprise in the minds of some who have been
+impressed by the magnitude and vitality of this movement that it should
+have manifested itself in Germany rather than in England, which is the
+original home of movements for women's emancipation, or in America,
+where they have reached their fullest developments. This, however,
+ceases to be surprising when we realize the special qualities of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic temperaments and the special conditions under
+which the two movements arose. The Anglo-Saxon movement was a special
+application to women of the general French movement for the logical
+assertion of abstract human rights. That special application was not
+ardently taken up in France itself, though first proclaimed by French
+pioneers,[68] partly perhaps because such one-sided applications make
+little appeal to the French mind, and mainly, no doubt, because women
+throughout the eighteenth century enjoyed such high social
+consideration and exerted so much influence that they were not impelled
+to rise in any rebellious protest. But when the seed was brought over to
+England, especially in the representative form of Mary Wollstonecraft's
+_Vindication of the Rights of Women_, it fell in virgin soil which
+proved highly favourable to its development. This special application
+escaped the general condemnation which the Revolution had brought upon
+French ideas. Women in England were beginning to awaken to ideas,--as
+women in Germany are now,--and the more energetic and intelligent among
+them eagerly seized upon conceptions which furnished food for their
+activities. In large measure they have achieved their aims, and even
+woman's suffrage has been secured here and there, without producing any
+notable revolution in human affairs. The Anglo-Saxon conception of
+feminine progress--beneficial as it has undoubtedly been in many
+respects--makes little impression in Germany, partly because it fails to
+appeal to the emotional Teutonic temperament, and partly because the
+established type of German life and civilization offers very small scope
+for its development. When Miss Susan Anthony, the veteran pioneer of
+woman's movements in the United States, was presented to the German
+Empress she expressed a hope that the Emperor would soon confer the
+suffrage on German women; it is recorded that the Empress smiled, and
+probably most German women smiled with her. At the present time,
+however, there is an extraordinary amount of intellectual activity in
+Germany, a widespread and massive activity. For the first time,
+moreover, it has reached women, who are taking it up with characteristic
+Teutonic thoroughness. But they are not imitating the methods of their
+Anglo-Saxon sisters; they are going to work their own way. They are
+spending very little energy in waving the red flag before the fortresses
+of male monopoly. They are following an emotional influence which,
+strangely enough, it may seem to some, finds more support from the
+biological and medical side than the Anglo-Saxon movement has always
+been able to win. From the time of Aristophanes downwards, whenever they
+have demonstrated before the masculine citadels, women have always been
+roughly bidden to go home. And now, here in Germany, where of all
+countries that advice has been most freely and persistently given, women
+are adopting new tactics: they have gone home. "Yes, it is true," they
+say in effect, "the home is our sphere. Love and marriage, the bearing
+and the training of children--that is our world. And we intend to lay
+down the laws of our world."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] In 1787 Condorcet declared (_Lettres d'un Bourgeois de New Haven_,
+Lettre II) that women ought to have absolutely the same rights as men,
+and he repeated the same statement emphatically in 1790, in an article
+"Sur l'Admission des Femmes au Droit de Cité," published in the _Journal
+de la Société de 1789_. It must be added that Condorcet was not a
+democrat, and neither to men nor to women would he grant the vote unless
+they were proprietors.
+
+[53] Léopold Lacour has given a full and reliable account of Olympe de
+Gouges (who was born at Montauban in 1755) in his _Trois Femmes de la
+Révolution_, 1900.
+
+[54] It is noteworthy that the Empire had even a depressing effect on the
+physical activities of women. The eighteenth-century woman in France,
+although she was not athletic in the modern sense, enjoyed a free life
+in the open air and was fond of physical exercises. During the
+Directoire this tendency became very pronounced; women wore the
+scantiest of garments, were out of doors in all weathers, cultivated
+healthy appetites, and enjoyed the best of health. But with the
+establishment of the Empire these wholesome fashions were discarded, and
+women cultivated new ideals of fragile refinement indoors. (This
+evolution has been traced by Dr. Lucien Nars, _L'Hygiène_, September,
+1911.)
+
+[55] Concerning the rise and progress of this movement in England much
+information is sympathetically and vivaciously set forth in W. Lyon
+Blease's _Emancipation of English Women_ (1910), a book, however, which
+makes no claim to be judicial or impartial; the author regards
+"unregulated male egoism" as the source of the difficulties in the way
+of women's suffrage.
+
+[56] Thus, in 1911 the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage took
+an impartial poll of the women voters on the municipal register in
+several large constituencies, by sending a reply-paid postcard to ask
+whether or not they favoured the extension to women of the Parliamentary
+franchise. Only 5579 were in favour of it; 18,850 were against; 12,621
+did not take the trouble to answer, and it was claimed, probably with
+reason, that a majority of these were not in favour of the vote.
+
+[57] It must not be too hastily assumed. Unless we go back to ancient
+plots of the Guy Fawkes type (now only imitated by self-styled
+anarchists), the leaders of movements of political reform have rarely,
+if ever, organized outbursts of violence; such violence, when it
+occurred, has been the spontaneous and unpremeditated act of a mob.
+
+[58] _Revue de l'Ecole d'Anthropologie_, February, 1909, p. 50.
+
+[59] O. Schrader, _Reallexicon_, Art. "Keuschheit." He considers that
+Tacitus merely shows that German women were usually chaste after
+marriage. A few centuries later, Lea points out, Salvianus, while
+praising the barbarians generally for their chastity, makes an exception
+in the case of the Alemanni. (See also Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," pp. 382-4.)
+
+[60] Thus Kaan, anticipating Krafft-Ebing, published a _Psychopathia
+Sexualis_, in 1844, and Casper, in 1852, was the first medical authority
+to point out that sexual inversion is sometimes due to a congenital
+psychic condition.
+
+[61] Both Forel's and Bloch's books have become well known through
+translations in England and America. Dr. Bloch is also the author of an
+extremely erudite and thorough history of syphilis, which has gone far
+to demonstrate that this disease was introduced into Europe from America
+on the first discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth
+century.
+
+[62] This attitude is plainly reflected even in many books written by
+men; I may mention, for instance, Frenssen's well-known novel
+_Hilligenlei_ (_Holyland_).
+
+[63] In most countries illegitimacy is decreasing; in Germany it is
+steadily increasing, alike in rural and urban districts. Illegitimate
+births are, however, more numerous in the cities than in the country. Of
+the constituent states of the German Empire, the illegitimate birth-rate
+is lowest in Prussia, highest in Saxony and Bavaria. In Munich 27 per
+cent of the births are illegitimate. (The facts are clearly brought out
+in an article by Dr. Arthur Grünspan in the _Berliner Tagblatt_ for
+January 6, 1911, reproduced in _Die Neue Generation_, July, 1911.) Thus,
+in Prussia, while the total births between 1903 and 1908,
+notwithstanding a great increase in the population, have only increased
+2.6 per cent, the illegitimate births have increased as much as 11.1 per
+cent. The increase is marked in nearly all the German States. It is
+specially marked in Saxony; here the proportion of illegitimate births
+to the total number of births was, in 1903, 12.51 per cent, and in 1908
+it had already risen to 14.40 per cent. In Berlin it is most marked;
+here it began in 1891, when there were nearly 47,000 legitimate births;
+by 1909, however, the legitimate births had fallen to 38,000, a decrease
+of 19.4 per cent. But illegitimate births rose during the same period
+from nearly 7000 to over 9000, an increase of 35 per cent. The
+proportion of illegitimate births to the total births is now over 20 per
+cent, so that to every four legitimate children there is rather more
+than one illegitimate child. It may be said that this is merely due to
+an increasing proportion of unmarried women. That, however, is not the
+case. The marriage-rate is on the whole rising, and the average age of
+women at marriage is becoming lower rather than higher. Grünspan
+considers that this increase in illegitimacy is likely to continue, and
+he is inclined to attribute it less to economic than to
+social-psychological causes.
+
+[64] I have discussed this point in _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. XII.
+
+[65] It is remarkable that in early times in Spain the laws recognized
+concubinage (_barragania_) as almost equal to marriage, and as
+conferring equal rights on the child, even on the sons of the clergy,
+who could thus inherit from their fathers by right of the privileges
+accorded to the concubine or _barragana_. _Barragania_, however, was not
+real marriage, and in many regions it could be contracted by married men
+(R. Altamira, _Historia de España y de la Civilazacion Española_, Vol.
+I, pp. 644 et seq.).
+
+[66] "La femme libre," in quest of whom the young Saint-Simonians
+preached a crusade, must be a woman of reflection and intellect who,
+having meditated on the fate of her "sisters," knowing the wants of
+women, and having sounded those feminine capacities which man has never
+completely penetrated, shall give forth the confession of her sex,
+without restriction or reserve, in such a manner as to furnish the
+indispensable elements for formulating the rights and duties of woman.
+Saint Simon had asked Madame de Staël to undertake this rôle, but she
+failed to respond. When George Sand published her first novels, one
+Guéroult was commissioned to ascertain if the author of _Lélia_ would
+undertake this important service. He found a badly dressed woman who was
+using her talents to gain a living, but was by no means anxious to
+become the high priestess of a new religion. Even after his
+disappointment Enfantin looked eagerly forward to the publication of
+George Sand's _Histoire de ma Vie_, hoping that at last the great
+revelation was coming, and he was again disillusioned. But before this
+Emile Barrault had arisen and declared that in the East, in the solitude
+of the harem, "la femme libre" would be found in the person of some
+odalisque. The "mission of the mother" was formed, and with Barrault at
+the head it set out for Constantinople. All were dressed in white as an
+indication of the vow of chastity they had taken before leaving Paris,
+and on the road they begged in the name of the Mother. They arrived at
+Constantinople and preached the faith of Saint-Simon to the Turks in
+French. But "la femme libre" seemed as far off as ever, and they
+resolved to go to Rotourma in Oceana, there to establish the religion of
+Saint-Simon and a perfect Government which might serve as a model to the
+States of Europe. First, however, they felt it a duty to make certain
+that the Mother was not hiding somewhere in Russia, and they went
+therefore to Odessa, but the Governor, who was wanting in sympathy,
+speedily turned them out, and having realized that Rotourma was some
+distance off, the mission broke up, most of the members going to Egypt
+to rejoin Enfantin, whom the Arabs, struck by his beauty, had called
+_Abu-l-dhunieh_, the Father of the World. (This account of the movement
+is based on that given by Maxime du Camp, in his _Souvenirs
+Littéraires_)
+
+[67] _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to
+Society," chap. X.
+
+[68] It is worth noting that a Frenchwoman has been called "the mother of
+modern feminism." Marie de Gournay, who died in 1645 at the age of
+eighty, is best known as the adopted daughter of Montaigne, for whom she
+cherished an enthusiastic reverence, becoming the first editor of his
+essays. Her short essay, _Egalité des Hommes et des Femmes_, was written
+in 1622. See e.g. M. Schiff, _La Fille d'Alliance de Montaigne_.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN IN RELATION TO ROMANTIC LOVE
+
+     The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization--Marriage as a
+     Duty--The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire--The Influence
+     of Christianity--The Attitude of Chivalry--The Troubadours--The
+     Courts of Love--The Influence of the Renaissance--Conventional
+     Chivalry and Modern Civilization--The Woman Movement--The Modern
+     Woman's Equality of Rights and Responsibilities excludes
+     Chivalry--New Forms of Romantic Love still remain possible--Love as
+     the Inspiration of Social Hygiene.
+
+
+What will be the ultimate effect of the woman's movement, now slowly but
+surely taking place among us, upon romantic love? That is really a
+serious question, and it is much more complex than many of those who are
+prepared to answer it off-hand may be willing to admit.
+
+It must be remembered that romantic love has not been a constant
+accompaniment of human relationships, even in civilization. It is true
+that various peoples very low down in the scale possess romantic
+love-songs, often, it appears, written by the women. But the classic
+civilizations of Greece and Rome in their most robust and brilliant
+periods knew little or nothing of romantic love in connection with
+normal sexual relationships culminating in marriage. Classic antiquity
+reveals a high degree of conjugal devotion, and of domestic affection,
+at all events in Rome, but the right of the woman to follow the
+inspirations of her own heart, and the idealization and worship of the
+woman by the man, were not only scarcely known but, so far as they were
+known, reprehended or condemned. Ovid, in the opinion of some,
+represents a new movement in Rome. We are apt to regard Ovid as, in
+erotic matters, the representative of a set of immoral Roman
+voluptuaries. That view probably requires considerable modification.
+Ovid was not indeed a champion of morality, but there is no good reason
+to suppose that, before he appeared, the rather stern Roman mind had yet
+conceived those refinements and courtesies which he set forth in such
+charming detail. If we take a wide survey of his work, we may perhaps
+regard Ovid as the pioneer of a chivalrous attitude towards women and of
+a romantic conception of love not only new in Rome but of significance
+for Europe generally. Ovid was a powerful factor in the Renaissance
+movement, and not least in England, where his influence on Shakespeare
+and some others of the Elizabethans cannot easily be overrated.[69]
+
+For the ordinary classic mind, Greek or Roman, marriage was intended for
+the end of building up the family, and the family was consecrated to the
+State. The fulfilment of so exalted a function involved a certain
+austere dignity which excluded wayward inclination or passionate
+emotion. These might indeed occur between a man and a woman outside
+marriage, but putting aside the very limited phenomena of Athenian
+hetairism, they were too shameful to be idealized. Some trace of this
+classic attitude may be said to persist even to-day among the so-called
+Latin nations, notably in the French tradition (now dying out) of
+treating marriage as a relationship to be arranged, not by the two
+parties themselves, but by their parents and guardians; Montaigne,
+attached as he was to maxims of Roman antiquity, was not very alien from
+the ordinary French attitude of his time when he declared that, since we
+do not marry so much for our own sakes as for the sake of posterity and
+the race, marriage is too sacred a process to be mixed with amorous
+extravagance.[70] There is something to be said for that point of view
+which is nowadays too often forgotten, but it certainly fails to cover
+the whole of the ground.
+
+It is not only in the West that a contemptuous attitude towards the
+romantic and erotic side of life has prevailed at some of the most
+vigorous moments of civilization. It is also found in the East. In
+Japan, for instance, even at the present day, romantic love, as a
+reputable element of ordinary life, is unknown or disapproved; its
+existence is not recognized in the schools, and the European novels that
+celebrate it are scarcely understood.[71]
+
+The development of modern romantic love in connection with marriage
+seems to be found in the late Greek world under the Roman Empire.[72]
+That is commonly called a period of decadence. In a certain limited
+sense it was. Greece had become subjugated to Rome. Rome herself had
+lost her military spirit and was losing her political power. But the
+fighting instinct, and even the ruling spirit, are not synonymous with
+civilization. The "decline and fall" of empires by no means necessarily
+involves the decay of civilization. It is now generally realized that
+the later Roman Empire was not, as was once thought, an age of social
+and moral degeneration.[73] The State indeed was dissolving, but the
+individual was evolving. The age which produced a Plutarch--for fifteen
+hundred years one of the great inspiring forces of the world--was the
+reverse of a corrupt age. The life of the home and the life of the soul
+were alike developing. The home was becoming more complex, more
+intimate, more elevated. The soul was being turned in on itself to
+discover new and joyous secrets: the secret of the love of Nature, the
+secret of mystic religion, and, not least, the secret of romantic love.
+When Christianity finally conquered the Roman world its task very
+largely lay in taking over and developing those three secrets already
+discovered by Paganism.
+
+It was inevitable, however, that in developing these new forms of the
+emotional life, the ascetic bent of Christianity should make itself
+felt. It was not possible for Christianity to cast its halo around the
+natural sexual life, but it was possible to refine and exalt that life,
+to lift it into a spiritual sphere. Neither woman the sweetheart nor
+woman the mother were in ordinary life glorified by the Church; they
+were only tolerated. But on a higher than natural plane they were
+surrounded by a halo and raised to the highest pedestal of reverence and
+even worship. The Virgin was exalted, Bride and Bridegroom became terms
+of mystical import, and the Holy Mother received the adoring love of all
+Christendom. Even in the actual relations of men and women, quite early
+in the history of Christianity, we sometimes find men and women
+cultivating relationships which excluded that earthly union the Church
+looked down on, but yet involved the most tender and intimate physical
+affection. Many charming stories of such relationships are found in the
+lives of the saints, and sometimes they existed even within the
+marriage bond.[74] Christianity led to the use of ideas and terms
+borrowed from earthly love in a different and symbolic sense. But the
+undesigned result was that a new force and beauty were added to those
+ideas and terms, however applied, and also that many emotions were thus
+cultivated which became capable of re-inforcing earthly human love. In
+this way it happened that, though Christianity rejected the ideal of
+romantic love in its natural associations, it indirectly prepared the
+way for a loftier and deeper realization of that love.
+
+There can be no doubt that the emotional training and refining of the
+fleshly instincts by Christianity was the chief cause of the rise of
+that conception of romantic love which we associate with the institution
+of chivalry. Exalted and sanctified by contact with the central dogmas
+of religion, the emotion of love was brought down from this spiritual
+atmosphere by the knightly lover, with something of its ethereal halo
+still clinging to it, and directed towards an earthly mistress. The most
+extravagant phase of romantic love which has ever been seen was then
+brought about, and in many cases, certainly, it was a real erotomania
+which passed beyond the bounds of sanity.[75] In its extreme forms,
+however, this romantic love was a rare, localized, and short-lived
+manifestation. The dominant attitude of the chivalrous age towards
+women, as Léon Gautier has shown in his monumental work on chivalry, was
+one of indifference, or even contempt. The knight's thoughts were more
+of war than of women, and he cherished his horse more than his
+mistress.[76]
+
+But women, above all in France, reacted against this attitude, and with
+splendid success. Their husbands treated them with indifference or left
+them at home while they sought adventure in the world. The neglected
+wives proceeded to lay down the laws of society, and took upon
+themselves the part of rulers in the domain of morals. In the eleventh,
+the twelfth, the thirteenth centuries, says Méray in a charming book on
+life in the days of the Courts of Love, we find women "with infinite
+skill and an adorable refinement seizing the moral direction of French
+society." They did so, he remarks, in a spirit so Utopian, so ideally
+poetic, that historians have hesitated to take them seriously. The laws
+of the Courts of Love[77] may sometimes seem to us immoral and
+licentious, but in reality they served to restrain the worst
+immoralities and licences of the time. They banished violence, they
+allowed no venality, and they inculcated moderation in passion. The task
+of the Courts of Love was facilitated by the relative degree of peace
+which then reigned, especially by the fact that the Normans, holding
+both coasts of the Channel, formed a link between France and England.
+When the murderous activities of French kings and English kings
+destroyed that link, the Courts of Love were swept away in the general
+disorder and the progress of civilization indefinitely retarded.[78] Yet
+in some degree the ideals which had been thus embodied still persisted.
+As the Goncourts pointed out in their invaluable book, _La Femme au
+Dix-huitième Siècle_ (Chap. v), from the days of chivalry even on into
+the eighteenth century, when on the surface at all events it apparently
+disappeared, an exalted ideal of love continued to be cherished in
+France. This conception remained associated, throughout, with the great
+social influence and authority which had been enjoyed by women in France
+even from medieval times. That influence had become pronounced during
+the seventeenth century, and at that time Sir Thomas Smith in his
+_Commonwealth of England_, writing of the high position of women in
+England, remarked that they possessed "almost as much liberty as in
+France."
+
+There were at least two forms of medieval romantic love. The first arose
+in Provence and northern Italy during the twelfth century, and spread to
+Germany as _Minnedienst_. In this form the young knights directed their
+respectful and adoring devotion to a high-born married woman who chose
+one of them as her own cavalier, to do her service and reverence, the
+two vowing devotion to each other until death. It was a part of this
+amorous code that there could not be love between husband and wife, and
+it was counted a mark of low breeding for a husband to challenge his
+wife's right to her young knight's services, though sometimes we are
+told the husband risked this reproach, occasionally with tragic results.
+This mode of love, after being eloquently sung and practised by the
+troubadours--usually, it appears, younger sons of noble houses--died out
+in the place of its origin, but it had been introduced into Spain, and
+the Spaniards reintroduced it into Italy when they acquired the kingdom
+of Naples; in Italy it was conventionalized into the firmly rooted
+institution of the _cavaliere servente_. From the standpoint of a strict
+morality, the institution was obviously open to question. But we can
+scarcely fail to see that at its origin it possessed, even if
+unconsciously, a quasi-religious warrant in the worship of the Holy
+Mother, and we have to recognize that, notwithstanding its questionable
+shape, it was really an effort to attain a purer and more ideal
+relationship than was possible in a rough and warlike age which placed
+the wife in subordination to her husband. A tender devotion that
+inspired poetry, an unalloyed respect that approached reverence, vows
+that were based on equal freedom and independence on both sides--these
+were possibilities which the men and women of that age felt to be
+incompatible with marriage as they knew it.
+
+The second form of medieval romantic love was more ethereal than the
+first, and much more definitely and consciously based on a religious
+attitude. It was really the worship of the Virgin transferred to a
+young earthly maiden, yet retaining the purity and ideality of
+religious worship. To so high a degree is this the case that it is
+sometimes difficult to be sure whether we are concerned with a real
+maiden of flesh and blood or only a poetic symbol of womanhood. This
+doubt has been raised, notably by Bartoli, concerning Dante's Beatrice,
+the supreme type of this ethereal love, which arose in the thirteenth
+century, and was chiefly cultivated in Florence. The poets of this
+movement were themselves aware of the religious character of their
+devotion to the _donna angelicata_ to whom they even apply, as they
+would to the Queen of Heaven, the appellation Stella Maris. That there
+was an element of flesh and blood in these figures is believed by Remy
+de Gourmont, but when we gaze at them, he remarks, we see at first, "in
+place of a body only two eyes with angel's wings behind them, on the
+background of an azure sky sown with golden stars"; the lover is on his
+knees and his love has become a prayer.[79] This phase of romantic love
+was brief, and perhaps mostly the possession of the poets, but it
+represented a really important moment in the evolution of modern
+romantic love. It was a step towards the realization of the genuinely
+human charm of young womanhood in real human relationships, of which we
+already have a foretaste in the delicious early French story of Aucassin
+and Nicolette.
+
+The re-discovery of classic literature, the movements of Humanism and
+the Renaissance, swept away what was left of the almost religious
+idealization of the young virgin. The ethereal maiden, thin, pale,
+anæmic, disappeared alike from literature and from art, and was no
+longer an ideal in actual life. She gave place to a new woman, conscious
+of her own fully developed womanhood and all its needs, radiantly
+beautiful and finely shaped in every limb. She lacked the spirituality
+of her predecessors, but she had gained in intellect. She appears first
+in the pages of Boccaccio. After a long interval Titian immortalized her
+rich and mature beauty; she is Flora, she is Ariadne, she is alike the
+Earthly Love and the Heavenly Love. Every curve of her body was
+adoringly and minutely described by Niphus and Firenzuola.[80] She was,
+moreover, the courtesan whose imperial charm and adroitness enabled her
+to trample under foot the medieval conception of lust as sin, even in
+the courts of popes. At the great academic centre of Bologna, finally,
+she chastely taught learning and science.[81] The people of the Italian
+Renaissance placed women on the same level as men, and to call a woman a
+_virago_ implied unalloyed praise.[82]
+
+The very mixed conditions of what we have been accustomed to consider
+the modern world then began for women. They were no longer
+cloistered--whether in convents or the home--but neither were they any
+longer worshipped. They began to be treated as human beings, and when
+men idealized them in figures of romantic charm or pathos--figures like
+Shakespeare's Rosalind or Marivaux's Sylvia or Richardson's
+Clarissa--this humanity was henceforth the common ground out of which
+the vision arose. But, one notes, in nearly all the great poets and
+novelists up to the middle of the last century, it was usually in the
+weakness of humanity that the artist sought the charm and pathos of his
+feminine figures. From Shakespeare's Ophelia to Thackeray's Amelia this
+is the rule, more emphatically expressed in the literature of England
+than of any other country. There had been no actual emancipation of
+women; though now they had entered the world of men, they were not yet,
+socially and legally, of that world. Even the medieval traditions still
+lived on in subtly conventionalized forms. The "chivalrous" attitude
+towards women was, as the word itself suggests, a medieval survival. It
+belonged to a period of barbarism when brutal force ruled and when the
+man who magnanimously placed his force at the disposition of a woman was
+really doing her a service and granting her a privilege. But
+civilization means the building up of an orderly society in which
+individual rights are respected, and force no longer dominates. So that
+as civilization advances the occasions on which women require the aid
+of masculine force become ever fewer and more unimportant. The
+conventionalized chivalry of men then tends to become an offer of
+services which it would be better for women to do for themselves and a
+bestowal of privileges to which they are nowise entitled.[83] Moreover,
+this same chivalry is, under these conditions, apt to take on a
+character which is the reverse of its face value. It becomes the
+assertion of a power over women instead of a power on their behalf; and
+it carries with it a tinge of contempt in place of respect.
+Theoretically, a thousand chivalrous swords should leap from their
+scabbards to succour the distressed woman. In practice this may only
+mean that the thousand owners of these metaphorical weapons are on the
+alert to take advantage of the distressed woman.
+
+Thus the romantic emotions based on medieval ideals gradually lost their
+worth. They were not in relation to the altered facts of life; they had
+become an empty convention which could be turned to very unromantic
+uses. The movement for the emancipation of women was not consciously or
+directly a movement of revolt against an antiquated chivalry. It was
+rather a part of the development of civilization which rendered chivalry
+antique. Medieval romantic love implied in women a weakness in the soil
+of which only a spiritual force could flourish. The betterment of social
+conditions, the subordination of violence to order, the growing respect
+for individual rights, took away the reasons for consecrating weakness
+in women, and created an ever larger field in which women could freely
+seek to rival men, because it is a field in which knowledge and skill
+are of far more importance than muscular strength. The emancipation of
+women has simply been the later and more conscious phase of the process
+by which women have entered into this field and sought their share of
+its rights and its responsibilities.
+
+The woman movement of modern times, properly understood, has thus been
+the effort of women to adapt themselves to the conditions of an orderly
+and peaceful civilization. Education, under the changed conditions, can
+effect what before needed force of arms; responsibility is now demanded
+where before only tutelage was possible. A civilized society in which
+women are ignorant and irresponsible is an anachronism, and, however
+great the wrench with the past might be, it was necessary that women
+should be adjusted to the changing times. The ideal of the weak,
+ignorant, inexperienced woman--the cross between an angel and an idiot,
+as I have elsewhere described her[84]--no longer fulfilled any useful
+purpose. Civilized society furnishes the conditions under which all
+adult persons are socially equal and all are free to give to society the
+best they are capable of.
+
+It was inevitable, but unfortunate, that this movement should have
+sometimes tended to take the form of an attempt on the part of women to
+secure, not merely equality with men, but actual imitation of men. These
+women said that since men had attained mastery in life, captured all the
+best things, and adopted the most successful methods of living, it was
+necessary for women to copy them at every point. That was a specious
+plea which even had in it a certain element of truth. But the fact
+remained that women and men are different, that the difference is based
+in fundamental natural functions, and that to place one sex in exactly
+the same position as the other sex is to deform its outlines and to
+hamper its activities.
+
+From the present point of view we are only concerned with the influence
+of the woman's movement on love. On the traditional conception of
+romantic love inherited from medieval days there can be no doubt that
+this influence has been highly dissolvent. Medieval romantic love, in
+its original form, had been part of a conception of womanhood made up of
+opposites, and all the opposites balanced each other. The medieval man
+laid his homage at the feet of the great lady in the castle hall, but he
+himself lorded it over the wife who drudged in his own home. On his
+knees he gazed up in devotion at the ethereal virgin, but when she
+ceased to be a virgin, he asserted himself by cursing her as a demon
+sent from hell to seduce and torment him. All this was possible because
+the woman was outside the orbit of the man's life, never on the same
+plane, necessarily higher or lower. It became difficult if woman was
+man's equal, absurdly impossible if she was of identical nature with
+him.
+
+The medieval romantic tradition has come down to us so laden with beauty
+and mystery that we are apt to think, as we see it melt away, that human
+achievements are being permanently depreciated. That illusion occurs in
+every age of transition. It was notably so in the eighteenth century,
+which represented a highly important stage in the emancipation of women.
+To some that century seems to have been given up to empty gallantry and
+facile pleasure. Yet it was not only the age in which women for the
+first time succeeded in openly attaining their supreme social
+influence,[85] it was an age of romantic love, and the noble or poignant
+love-stories which have reached us from the records of that period
+surpass those of any other age.
+
+If we believe with Goethe that the religion of the future consists in a
+triple reverence--the reverence for what is above us, the reverence for
+what is below us, and the reverence for our equals[86]--we need not
+grieve overmuch if one form of this reverence, the first, and that which
+Goethe regarded as the earliest and crudest, has lost its exclusive
+claim. Reverence is essential to all romantic love. To bring down the
+Madonna and the Virgin from their pedestals to share with men the common
+responsibilities and duties of life is not to divest them of the claim
+to reverence. It is merely the sign of a change in the form of that
+reverence, a change which heralds a new romantic love.
+
+It would be premature to attempt to define the exact outline of the new
+forms of romantic love, or the precise lineaments of the beings who will
+most ardently evoke that love. In literature, indeed, the ideals of life
+cast their shadow before, and we may surely trace a change in the erotic
+ideals mirrored in literature. The woman whom Dickens idealized in
+_David Copperfield_ is unlike indeed to the series of women of a new
+type introduced by George Meredith, and the modern heroine generally
+exhibits more of the robust, open-eyed and spontaneous qualities of that
+later type than the blind and clinging nature of the amiable simpletons
+of the older type. That the changed conditions of civilization should
+produce new types of womanhood and of love is not surprising, if we
+realize that, even within the ancient chivalrous forms it was possible
+to produce similar robust types when the qualities of a race were
+favourable to them. Spain furnishes a notable illustration. Spanish
+literature from Cervantes and Tirso to Valera and Blasco Ibañez reflects
+a type of woman who stands on the same ground as man and is his equal
+and often his superior on that ground, alike in vigour of body and of
+spirit, acquiring all that she cares to of virility, while losing
+nothing feminine that is of worth.[87] In more than one respect the
+ideal woman of Spain is the ideal woman our civilization now renders
+necessary. The women of the future, Grete Meisel-Hess declares in her
+femininely clever and frank discussion of present-day conditions, _Die
+Sexuelle Krise_, will be full, strong, elementary natures, devoid alike
+of the impulse to destroy or the aptitude to be destroyed. She
+considers, moreover, that so far from romantic love being a thing of the
+past, "love as a form of worship is reserved for the future."[88] In the
+past it has only been found among a few rare souls; in the future world,
+fostered by the finer selection of a conscious eugenics, and a new
+reverence and care for motherhood, we may reasonably hope for a truly
+efficient humanity, the bearers and conservers of the highest human
+emotions. It is in this sense, indeed, that the voices of the greatest
+and most typical leaders of the woman's movement of emancipation to-day
+are heard. Ellen Key, in her _Love and Marriage_, seeks to conciliate
+the cultivation of a free and sacred sexual relationship with the
+worship of the child, as the embodiment of the future race, while Olive
+Schreiner proclaims in her _Woman and Labour_ that the woman of the
+future will walk side by side with man in a higher and deeper
+relationship than has ever been possible before because it will involve
+a new community in activity and insight.
+
+Nor is it alone from the feminine side that these forecasts are made.
+Certainly for the most part love has been cultivated more by women than
+by men. Primacy in the genius of intellect belongs incontestably to men,
+but in the genius of love it has doubtless oftener been achieved by
+women. They have usually understood better than men that in this matter,
+as Goethe insisted, it is the lover and not the beloved who reaps the
+chief fruits of love. "It is better to love, even violently," wrote the
+forsaken Portuguese nun, in her immortal _Letters_, "than merely to be
+loved." He who loses his life here saves it, for it is only in so far as
+he becomes a crucified god that Love wins the sacrifice of human hearts.
+Of late years, by an inevitable reaction, women have sometimes forgotten
+this eternal verity. The women of the twentieth century in their anxiety
+for self-possession and their rightful eagerness to gain positions they
+feel they have been too long excluded from, have perhaps yet failed to
+realize that the women of the eighteenth century, who exerted a sway
+over life that the women of no age before or since have possessed, were,
+above all women, great and heroic lovers, and that those two fundamental
+facts cannot be cut asunder. But this failure, temporary as it is
+doubtless destined to be, will work for good if it is the point of
+departure for a revival among men of the art of love.
+
+Men indeed have here fallen behind women. The old saying, so tediously
+often quoted, concerning love as a "thing apart" in the lives of men
+would scarcely have occurred to a medieval poet of Provence or Florence.
+It is not enough for women to proclaim a new avatar of love if men are
+not ready and eager to learn its art and to practise its discipline. In
+a profoundly suggestive fragment on love, left incomplete at his death
+by the distinguished sociologist Tarde,[89] he suggests that when
+masculine energy dies down in the fields of political ambition and
+commercial gain, as it already has in the field of warfare, the energy
+liberated by greater social organization and cohesion may find scope
+once more in love. For too long a period love, like war and politics and
+commerce, has been chiefly monopolized by the predatory type of man, in
+this field symbolized by the figure of Don Juan. In the future, Tarde
+suggests, the Don Juan type of lover may fall into disrepute, giving
+place to the Virgilian type, for whom love is not a thing apart but a
+form of life embodying its best and highest activities.
+
+When we come upon utterances of this kind we are tempted to think that
+they represent merely the poetic dreams of individuals, standing too far
+ahead of their fellows to possess any significance for men and women in
+general. But it is probable that Ovid, and certain that Dante, set forth
+erotic conceptions that were unintelligible to most of their
+contemporaries, yet they have been immensely influential over the ideas
+and emotions of men in later ages. The poets and prophets of one
+generation are engaged in moulding ideals which will be realized in the
+lives of a subsequent generation; in expressing their own most intimate
+emotions, as it has been truly said, they become the leaders in a long
+file of men and women. Whatever may yet be uncertain and undefined, we
+may assuredly believe that the emotion of love is far too deeply rooted
+in the depth of man's organism and woman's organism ever to be torn out
+or ever to be thrust into a subordinate place. And we may also believe
+that there is no measurable limit to its power of putting forth ever new
+and miraculous flowers. It is recorded that once, in James Hinton's
+presence, the conversation turned on music, and it was suggested that,
+owing to the limited number of musical combinations and the unlimited
+number of musical compositions, a time would come when all music would
+only be a repetition of exhausted harmonies. Hinton remarked that then
+would come a man so inspired by a new spirit that his feeling would be,
+not that _all_ music has been written, but that no _music_ has yet been
+written. It was a memorable saying. In every field that is the perpetual
+proclamation of genius: Behold! I create all things new. And in this
+field of love we can conceive of no age in which to the inspired seer it
+will not be possible to feel: There has yet been no _love_!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[69] See especially Sidney Lee, "Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets,"
+_Quarterly Review_, April, 1909.
+
+[70] Montaigne, _Essais_, Book III, chap. V.
+
+[71] See e.g. Mrs. Fraser, _World's Work and Play_, December, 1906.
+
+[72] A more modern feeling for love and marriage begins to emerge,
+however, at a much earlier period, with Menander and the New Comedy.
+E.F.M. Benecke, in his interesting little book on _Antimachus of
+Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek Poetry_, believes that the
+romantic idea (that is to say, the idea that a woman is a worthy object
+for a man's love, and that such love may well be the chief, if not the
+only, aim of a man's life) had originally been propounded by Antimachus
+at the end of the fifth century B.C. Antimachus, said to have been the
+friend of Plato, had been united to a woman of Lydia (where women, we
+know, occupied a very high position) and her death inspired him to write
+a long poem, _Lyde_, "the first love poem ever addressed by a Greek to
+his wife after death." Only a few lines of this poem survive. But
+Antimachus seems to have greatly influenced Philetas (whom Croiset calls
+"the first of the Alexandrians") and Asclepiades of Samos, tender and
+exquisite poets whom also we only know by a few fragments. Benecke's
+arguments, therefore, however probable, cannot be satisfactorily
+substantiated.
+
+[73] As I have elsewhere pointed out (_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. IX), most modern
+authorities--Friedländer, Dill, Donaldson, etc.--consider that there was
+no real moral decline in the later Roman Empire; we must not accept the
+pictures presented by satirists, pagan or Christian, as of general
+application.
+
+[74] I have discussed this phase of early Christianity in the sixth
+volume of _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, "Sex in Relation to
+Society," chap. V.
+
+[75] Ulrich von Lichtenstein, in the thirteenth century, is the typical
+example of this chivalrous erotomania. His account of his own adventures
+has been questioned, but Reinhold Becker (_Wahrheit und Dichtung in
+Ulrich von Lichtenstein's Frauendienst_, 1888) considers that, though
+much exaggerated, it is in substance true.
+
+[76] Léon Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, pp. 236-8, 348-50.
+
+[77] The chief source of information on these Courts is André le
+Chapelain's _De Arte Amatoria_. Boccaccio made use of this work, though
+without mentioning the author's name, in his own _Dialogo d' Amore_.
+
+[78] A. Méray, _La Vie au Temps des Cours d'Amour_, 1876.
+
+[79] Remy de Gourmont, _Dante, Béatrice et la Poésie Amoureuse_, 1907, p.
+32.
+
+[80] Niphus (born about 1473), a physician and philosopher of the Papal
+Court, wrote in his _De Pulchro_, sometimes considered the first modern
+treatise on æsthetics, a minute description of Joan of Aragon, whose
+portrait, traditionally ascribed to Raphael, is in the Louvre. The
+famous work of Firenzuola (born 1493) entitled _Dialogo delle Bellezze
+delle Donne_, was published in 1548. It has been translated into English
+by Clara Bell under the title _On the Beauty of Women_.
+
+[81] See, for example, Edith Coulson James, _Bologna: Its History,
+Antiquities and Art_, 1911.
+
+[82] See, for an interesting account of the position of women in the
+Italian Renaissance, Burckhardt, _Die Kultur der Renaissance_, Part V,
+ch. VI.
+
+[83] I may quote the following remarks from a communication I have
+received from a University man: "I am prepared to show women, and to
+expect from them, precisely the same amount of consideration as I show
+to or expect from other men, but I rather resent being expected to make
+a preferential difference. For example, in a crowded tram I see no more
+adequate reason for giving up my seat to a young and healthy girl than
+for expecting her to give up hers to me; I would do so cheerfully for an
+old person of either sex on the ground that I am probably better fit to
+stand the fatigue of 'strap-hanging,' and because I recognize that some
+respect is due to age; but if persons get into over-full vehicles they
+should not expect first-comers to turn out of their seats merely because
+they happen to be men." This writer acknowledges, indeed, that he is not
+very sensitive to the erotic attraction of women, but it is probable
+that the changing status of women will render the attitude he expresses
+more and more common among men.
+
+[84] _Ante_, p. 58.
+
+[85] "Women then were queens," as Taine writes (_L'Ancien Régime_, Vol.
+I, p. 219), and he gives references to illustrate the point.
+
+[86] Goethe, _Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_, Book II, ch. I.
+
+[87] Havelock Ellis, _The Soul of Spain_, chap. III, "The Women of
+Spain."
+
+[88] Grete Meisel-Hess, _Die Sexuelle Krise_, 1909, pp. 148, 168.
+
+[89] "La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_,
+January, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A FALLING BIRTH-RATE
+
+     The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally--In England--In
+     Germany--In the United States--In Canada--In Australasia--"Crude"
+     Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate--The Connection between High
+     Birth-rate and High Death-rate--"Natural Increase" measured by
+     Excess of Births over Deaths--The Measure of National
+     Well-being--The Example of Russia--Japan--China--The Necessity of
+     viewing the Question from a wide Standpoint--The Prevalence of
+     Neo-Malthusian Methods--Influence of the Roman Catholic
+     Church--Other Influences lowering the Birth-rate--Influence of
+     Postponement of Marriage--Relation of the Birth-rate to Commercial
+     and Industrial Activity--Illustrated by Russia, Hungary, and
+     Australia--The Relation of Prosperity to Fertility--The Social
+     Capillarity Theory--Divergence of the Birth-rate and the
+     Marriage-rate--Marriage-rate and the Movement of Prices--Prosperity
+     and Civilization--Fertility among Savages--The lesser Fertility of
+     Urban Populations--Effect of Urbanization on Physical
+     Development--Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+     Fertility--Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility--The Process
+     of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility--In this Respect it is
+     a Continuation of Zoological Evolution--Large Families as a Stigma
+     of Degeneration--The Decreased Fertility of Civilization a General
+     Historical Fact--The Ideals of Civilization to-day--The East and
+     the West.
+
+
+I
+
+One of the most interesting phenomena of the early part of the
+nineteenth century was the immense expansion of the people of the
+so-called "Anglo-Saxon" race.[90] This expansion coincided with that
+development of industrial and commercial activity which made the
+English people, who had previously impressed foreigners as somewhat lazy
+and drunken, into "a nation of shopkeepers." It also coincided with the
+end of the supremacy of France in Europe; France had succeeded to Spain
+as the leading power in Europe, and had on the whole maintained a
+supremacy which Napoleon brought to a climax, and, in doing so, crushed.
+The growing prosperity of England represented an entirely new wave of
+influence, mainly economic in character, but not less forceful than that
+of Spain and of France had been; and this prosperity was reflected in
+the growth of the nation. The greater part of the Victorian period was
+marked by this expansion of population, which reached its highest point
+in the early years of the second half of that period. While the
+population of England was thus increasing with ever greater rapidity at
+home, at the same time the English-speaking peoples overspread the whole
+of North America, and colonized the fertile fringe of Australia. It was,
+on a still larger scale, a phenomenon similar to that which had occurred
+three hundred years earlier, when Spain covered the world and founded an
+empire upon which, as Spaniards proudly boasted, the sun never set.
+
+When now, a century later, we survey the situation, not only has
+industrial and commercial activity ceased to be a special attribute of
+the Anglo-Saxons--since the Germans have here shown themselves to
+possess qualities of the highest order, and other countries are rapidly
+rivalling them--but within the limits of the English-speaking world
+itself the English have found formidable rivals in the Americans.
+Underlying, however, even these great changes there is a still more
+fundamental fact to be considered, a fact which affects all branches of
+the race; and that is, that the Anglo-Saxons have passed their great
+epoch of expansion and that their birth-rate is rapidly falling to a
+normal level, that is to say, to the average level of the world in
+general. Disregarding the extremely important point of the death-rate in
+its bearing on the birth-rate, England is seen to possess a medium
+birth-rate among European countries, not among the countries with a high
+birth-rate, like Russia, Roumania, or Bulgaria, nor among those with a
+low birth-rate, like Sweden, Belgium, and France. It was in this last
+country that the movement of decline in the European birth-rate began,
+and though the rate of decline has in France now become very gradual the
+long period through which it has extended has placed France in the
+lowest place, so far as Europe is concerned. In 1908 out of a total of
+over 11,000,000 French families, in nearly 2,000,000 there were no
+children, and in nearly 3,000,000 there was only one child.[91] The
+general decline in the European birth-rate, during the years 1901-1905,
+was only slight in Switzerland, Ireland and Spain, while it was large
+not only in France, but in Italy, Servia, England and Wales, and
+especially in Hungary (while, outside Europe, it was largest of all in
+South Australia). Since 1905 there has been a further general decline
+throughout Europe, only excepting Ireland, Bulgaria, and Roumania. In
+Prussia in 1881-1885 the birth-rate was 37.4; in 1909 it was only 31.8;
+while in the German Empire as a whole it is throughout lower than in
+Prussia, though somewhat higher than in England. In Austria and Spain
+alone of European countries during the twenty years between 1881 and
+1901 was there any tendency for the fertility of wives to increase. In
+all other countries there was a decrease, greatest in Belgium, next
+greatest in France, then in England.[92]
+
+If we consider the question, not on the basis of the crude birth-rate,
+but of the "corrected" birth-rate, with more exact reference to the
+child-producing elements in the population, as is done by Newsholme and
+Stevenson,[93] we find that the greatest decline has taken place in New
+South Wales, then in Victoria, Belgium, and Saxony, followed by New
+Zealand. But France, the German Empire generally, England, and Denmark
+all show a considerable fall; while Sweden and Norway show a fall,
+which, especially in Norway, is slight. Norway illustrates the
+difference between the "crude" and the "corrected" birth-rate; the crude
+birth-rate is lower than that of Saxony, but the corrected birth-rate is
+higher. Ireland, again, has a very low crude birth-rate, but the
+population of child-bearing age has a high birth-rate, considerably
+higher than that of England.
+
+Thus while forty years ago it was usual for both the English and the
+Germans to contemplate, perhaps with some complacency, the spectacle of
+the falling birth-rate in France as compared with the high birth-rate in
+England and Germany, we are now seen to be all marching along the same
+road. In 1876 the English birth-rate reached its maximum of 36.3 per
+thousand; while in France the birth-rate now appears almost to have
+reached its lowest level. Germany, like England, now also has a falling
+birth-rate, though it will take some time to sink to the English level.
+The birth-rate for Germany generally is still much higher than for
+England generally, but urbanization in Germany seems to have a greater
+influence than in England in lowering the birth-rate, and for many years
+past the birth-rate of Berlin has been lower than that of London. The
+birth-rate in Germany has long been steadily falling, and the increase
+in the population of Germany is due to a concomitant steady fall in the
+death-rate, a fall to which there are inevitable natural limits.[94]
+Moreover, as Flux has shown,[95] urbanization is going on at a greater
+speed in Germany than in England, and practically the entire natural
+increase of the German population for a quarter of a century has drifted
+into the towns. But the death-rate of the young in German towns is far
+higher than in English towns, and the first five years of life in
+Germany produce as much mortality as the first twenty-five years in
+England.[96] So that a thousand children born in England add far more to
+the population than a thousand children born in Germany. The average
+number of children per family in German towns is less than in English
+towns of the same size. These results, reached by Flux, suggest that in
+a few years' time the rate of increase in the German population will be
+lower than it is at present in England. In England, since 1876, the
+decline has been so rapid as to be equal to 20 per cent within a
+generation, and in some of the large towns to 40 per cent. Against this
+there has, indeed, to be set the general tendency during recent years
+for the death-rate to fall also. But this saving of life has until
+lately been effected mainly at the higher ages; there has been but
+little saving of the lives of infants, upon whom the death-rate falls
+most heavily. Accompanying this falling off in the number of children
+produced there has often been, as we might expect, a fall in the
+marriage-rate; but this has been less regular, and of late the
+marriage-rate has sometimes been high when the birth-rate was low.[97]
+There has, however, been a steady postponement of the average age at
+which marriage takes place. On the whole, the main fact that emerges is,
+that nowadays in England we marry less and have fewer children.
+
+This is now a familiar fact, and perhaps it should not excite very great
+surprise. England is an old and fairly stable country, and it may be
+said that it would be unreasonable to expect its population to retain
+indefinitely a high degree of fertility. Whether this is so or not,
+there is the further consideration to be borne in mind that, during
+nearly the whole of the Victorian period, emigration of the most
+vigorous stocks took place to a very marked extent. It is not difficult
+to see the influence of such emigration in connection with the greatly
+diminished population of Ireland, as compared with Scotland; and we may
+reasonably infer that it has had its part in the decreased fertility of
+the United Kingdom generally.
+
+But we encounter the remarkable fact that this decreased fertility of
+the Anglo-Saxon populations is not confined to the United Kingdom. It is
+even more pronounced in those very lands to which so many thousand
+shiploads of our best people have been taken. In the United States the
+question has attracted much attention, and there is little disagreement
+among careful observers as to the main facts of the situation. The
+question is, indeed, somewhat difficult for two reasons: the
+registration of births is not generally compulsory in the United States,
+and, even when general facts are ascertained, it is still necessary to
+distinguish between the different classes of the population. Our
+conclusions must therefore be based, not on the course of a general
+birth-rate, but on the most reliable calculations, based on the census
+returns and on the average size of the family at different periods, and
+among different classes of the population. A bulletin of the Census
+Bureau of the United States since 1860 was prepared a few years ago by
+Walter F. Wilcox, of Cornell University. It determines from the data in
+the census office the proportion of children to the number of women of
+child-bearing age in the country at different periods, and shows that
+there has been, on the whole, a fall from the beginning to the end of
+the last century. Children under ten years of age constituted one-third
+of the population at the beginning of the century, and at the end less
+than one-fourth of the total population. Between 1850 and 1860 the
+proportion of children to women between fifteen and forty-nine years of
+age increased, but since 1860 it has constantly decreased. In 1860 the
+number of children under five years of age to one thousand women between
+fifteen and forty-nine years of age was 634; in 1900 it was only 474.
+The proportion of children to potential mothers in 1900 was only
+three-fourths as large as in 1860. In the north and west of the United
+States the decline has been regular, while in the south the change has
+been less regular and the decline less marked. A comparison is made
+between the proportion of children in the foreign-born population and in
+the American. The former was 710 to the latter's 462. In the coloured
+population the proportion of children is greater than in the
+corresponding white population.
+
+There can be no doubt whatever that, from the eighteenth century to the
+twentieth, there has been a steady decrease in the size of the American
+family. Franklin, in the eighteenth century, estimated that the average
+number of children to a married couple was eight; genealogical records
+show that, while in the seventeenth century it was nearly seven, it was
+over six at the end of the eighteenth century. Since then, as Engelmann
+and others have shown, there has been a steady decrease in the size of
+the family; in the earlier years of the nineteenth century there were
+between four and five children to each marriage, while by the end of the
+century the number of children had fallen to between four and but little
+over one. Engelmann finds that there is but a very trifling difference
+in this respect between the upper and the lower social classes; the
+average for the labouring classes at St. Louis he finds to be about two,
+and for the higher classes a little less. It is among the foreign-born
+population, and among those of foreign parents, that the larger families
+are found; thus Kuczynski, by analysing the census, finds that in
+Massachusetts the average number of children to each married woman among
+the American-born of all social classes is 2.7, while among the
+foreign-born of all social classes it is 4.5. Moreover, sterility is
+much more frequent among American women than among foreign women in
+America. Among various groups in Boston, St. Louis, and elsewhere it
+varies between 20 and 23 per cent, and in some smaller groups is even
+considerably higher, while among the foreign-born it is only 13 per
+cent. The net result is that the general natality of the United States
+at the present day is about equal to that of France, but that, when we
+analyse the facts, the fertility of the old native-born American
+population of mainly Anglo-Saxon origin is found to be lower than that
+of France. This element, therefore, is rapidly dwindling away in the
+United States. The general level of the birth-rate is maintained by the
+foreign immigrants, who in many States (as in New York, Massachusetts,
+Michigan, and Minnesota) constitute the majority of the population, and
+altogether number considerably over ten millions. Among these immigrants
+the Anglo-Saxon element is now very small. Indeed, the whole North
+European contingent among the American immigrants, which was formerly
+nearly 90 per cent of the whole, has since 1890 steadily sunk, and the
+majority of the immigrants now belong to the Central, Southern, and
+Eastern European stocks. The racial, and, it is probable, the
+psychological characteristics of the people of the United States are
+thus beginning to undergo, not merely modification, but, it may almost
+be said, a revolution. If, as we may well believe, the influence of the
+original North-European racial elements--Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, and
+French--still continues to persist in the United States, it can only be
+the influence of a small aristocracy, maintained by intellect and
+character.
+
+When we turn to Canada, a land that is imposing, less by the actual size
+of the population than by the vast tracts it possesses for its
+development, the question has not yet been fully investigated; but such
+facts and official publications as I have been able to obtain all
+indicate that, in this matter, the English Canadians approximate to the
+native Americans. In the United States it is the European immigrants who
+maintain the general population at a productive level, and thus
+indirectly oust the Anglo-Saxon element. In Canada the chief dividing
+line is between the Anglo-Saxon element and the old French element in
+the population; and here it is the French Canadians who are gaining
+ground on the English elements in the population. Engelmann ascertained
+that an examination of one thousand families in the records of Quebec
+Life Assurance companies shows 9.2 children on the average to the French
+Canadian child-bearing woman. It is found also from the records of the
+French Canadian Society for Artisans that 500 families from town
+districts, taken at random, show 9.06 children per family, and 500
+families from country districts show 9.33 children per family.[98] It
+must be remembered that this average, which is even higher than that
+found in Russia, the most prolific of European countries, is not quite
+the same as the number of children per marriage; but it indicates very
+great fertility, while it may be noted also that sterile marriages are
+comparatively rare among French Canadians, although among English
+Canadians the proportion of childless families is found to be almost
+exactly the same (nearly 20 per cent) as among the infertile Americans
+of Massachusetts. The annual Reports of the Registrar-General of
+Ontario, a province which is predominantly of Anglo-Saxon origin, show
+that the average birth-rate during the decade 1899-1908 has been 22.3
+per 1000; it must be noted, however, that there has been a gradual rise
+from a rate of 19.4 in 1899 to one of 25.6 in 1908. The report of Mr.
+Prévost, the recorder of vital statistics for the predominantly French
+province of Quebec, shows much higher rates. The general birth-rate for
+the province for the year 1901 is high, being 35.2, much higher than
+that of England, and nearly as high as that of Germany. If, however, we
+consider the thirty-five counties of the province in which the
+population is almost exclusively French Canadian, we find that 35
+represents almost the lowest average; as many as twenty-two of these
+counties show a rate of over forty, and one (Yamaska) reached 51.52. It
+is very evident that, in order to pull down these high birth-rates to
+the general level of 35.2, we have to assume a much lower birth-rate
+among the counties in which the English element is considerable. It must
+be remembered, however, that infant mortality is high among the French
+Canadians. The French Canadian Catholic, it has been said, would shrink
+in horror from such an unnatural crime as limiting his family before
+birth, but he sees nothing repugnant to God or man in allowing the
+surplus excess of children to die after birth. In this he is at one with
+the Chinese. Dr. E.P. La Chapelle, the President of the Provincial
+Conseil d'Hygiène, wrote some years ago to Professor Davidson, in
+answer to inquiries: "I do not believe it would be correct to ascribe
+the phenomenon to any single cause, and I am convinced it is the result
+of several factors. For one, the first cause of the heavy infant
+mortality among the French Canadians is their very heavy natality, each
+family being composed of an average of twelve children, and instances of
+families of fifteen, eighteen, and even twenty-four children being not
+uncommon. The super-abundance of children renders, I think, parents less
+careful about them."[99]
+
+The net result is a slight increase on the part of the French Canadians,
+as compared with the English element in the province, as becomes clear
+when we compare the proportion of the population of English, Scotch,
+Irish, and all other nationalities with the total population of the
+province, now and thirty years ago. In 1871 it was 21 per cent; in 1901
+it was only 19 per cent. The decrease of the Anglo-Saxons may here
+appear to be small, though it must be remembered that thirty years is
+but a short period in the history of a nation; but it is significant
+when we bear in mind that the English element has here been constantly
+reinforced by immigrants (who, as the experience of the United States
+shows, are by no means an infertile class), and that such reinforcement
+cannot be expected to continue in the future.
+
+From Australia comes the same story of the decline of Anglo-Saxon
+fertility. In nearly all the Australian colonies the highest birth-rate
+was reached some twenty or thirty years ago. Since then there has been a
+more or less steady fall, accompanied by a marked decrease in the number
+of marriages, and a tendency to postpone the age of marriage. One
+colony, Western Australia, has a birth-rate which sometimes fluctuates
+above that of England; but it is the youngest of the colonies, and, at
+present, that with the smallest population, largely composed of recent
+immigrants. We may be quite sure that its comparatively high birth-rate
+is merely a temporary phenomenon. A very notable fact about the
+Australian birth-rate is the extreme rapidity with which the fall has
+taken place; thus Queensland, in 1890, had a birth-rate of 37, but by
+1899 the rate had steadily fallen to 27, and the Victorian rate during
+the same period fell from 33 to 26 per thousand. In New South Wales, the
+state of things has been carefully studied by Mr. Coghlan, formerly
+Government statistician of New South Wales, who comes to the conclusion
+that the proportion of fertile marriages is declining, and that (as in
+the United States) it is the recent European immigrants only who show a
+comparatively high birth-rate. Until 1880, Coghlan states, the
+Australasian birth-rate was about 38 per thousand, and the average
+number of children to the family about 5.4. In 1901 the birth-rate had
+already fallen to 27.6 and the size of the family to 3.6 children.[100] It
+should be added that in all the Australasian colonies the birth-rate
+reached its lowest point some years ago, and may now be regarded as in a
+state of normal equipoise with a slight tendency to rise. The case of
+New Zealand is specially interesting. New Zealand once had the highest
+birth-rate of all the Australasian colonies; it is without doubt the
+most advanced of all in social and legislative matters; a variety of
+social reforms, which other countries are struggling for, are, in New
+Zealand, firmly established. Its prosperity is shown by the fact that it
+has the lowest death-rate of any country in the world, only 10.2 per
+thousand, as against 24 in Austria and 22 in France; it cannot even be
+said that the marriage-rate is very low, for it is scarcely lower than
+that of Austria, where the birth-rate is high. Yet the birth-rate in New
+Zealand fell as the social prosperity of the country rose, reaching its
+lowest point in 1899.
+
+We thus find that from the three great Anglo-Saxon centres of the
+world--north, west, and south--the same story comes. We need not
+consider the case of South Africa, for it is well recognized that there
+the English constitute a comparatively infertile fringe, mostly confined
+to the towns, while the earlier Dutch element is far more prolific and
+firmly rooted in the soil. The position of the Dutch there is much the
+same as that of the French in Canada.
+
+Thus we find that among highly civilized races generally, and not least
+among the English-speaking peoples who were once regarded as peculiarly
+prolific, a great diminution of reproductive activity has taken place
+during the past forty years, and is in some countries still taking
+place. But before we proceed to consider its significance it may be well
+to look a little more closely at our facts.
+
+We have seen that the "crude" birth-rate is not an altogether reliable
+index of the reproductive energy of a nation. Various circumstances may
+cause an excess or a defect of persons of reproductive age in a
+community, and unless we allow for these variations, we cannot estimate
+whether that community is exercising its reproductive powers in a fairly
+normal manner. But there is another and still more important
+consideration always to be borne in mind before we can attach any
+far-reaching significance even to the corrected birth-rate. We have,
+that is, to bear in mind that a high or a low birth-rate has no meaning,
+so far as the growth of a nation is concerned, unless it is considered
+in relation to the death-rate. The natural increase of a nation is not
+the result of its birth-rate, but of its birth-rate minus its
+death-rate. A low birth-rate with a low death-rate (as in Australasia)
+produces a far greater natural increase than a low birth-rate with a
+rather high death-rate (as in France), and may even produce as great an
+increase as a very high birth-rate with a very high death-rate (as in
+Russia). Many worthy people might have been spared the utterance of
+foolish and mischievous jeremiads, if, instead of being content with a
+hasty glance at the crude birth-rate, they had paused to consider this
+fairly obvious fact.
+
+There is an intimate connection between a high birth-rate and a high
+death-rate, between a low birth-rate and a low death-rate. It may not,
+indeed, be an absolutely necessary connection, and is not the outcome of
+any mysterious "law." But it usually exists, and the reasons are fairly
+obvious. We have already encountered the statement from an official
+Canadian source that the large infantile mortality of French Canadian
+families is due to parental carelessness, consequent, no doubt, not only
+on the dimly felt consciousness that children are cheap, but much more
+on inability to cope with the manifold cares involved by a large family.
+Among the English working class every doctor knows the thinly veiled
+indifference or even repulsion with which women view the seemingly
+endless stream of babies they give birth to. Among the Berlin working
+class, also, Hamburger's important investigation has indicated how
+serious a cause of infantile mortality this may be. By taking 374
+working-class women, who had been married twenty years and conceived
+3183 times, he found that the net result in surviving children was
+relatively more than twice as great among the women who had only had one
+child when compared to the women who had had fifteen children. The women
+with only one child brought 76.47 per cent of these children to
+maturity; the women who had produced fifteen children could only bring
+30.66 of them to maturity; the intermediate groups showed a gradual fall
+to this low level, the only exception being that the mothers of three
+children were somewhat more successful than the mothers of two children.
+Among well-to-do mothers Hamburger found no such marked contrast
+between the net product of large families as compared to small
+families.[101]
+
+It we look at the matter from a wider standpoint we can have no
+difficulty in realizing that a community which is reproducing itself
+rapidly must always be in an unstable state of disorganization highly
+unfavourable to the welfare of its members, and especially of the
+new-comers; a community which is reproducing itself slowly is in a
+stable and organized condition which permits it to undertake adequately
+the guardianship of its new members. The high infantile mortality of the
+community with a high birth-rate merely means that that community is
+unconsciously making a violent and murderous effort to attain to the
+more stable and organized level of the country with a low birth-rate.
+
+The English Registrar-General in 1907 estimated the natural increase by
+excess of births over deaths as exceptionally high (higher than that of
+England) in several Australian Colonies, in the Balkan States, in
+Russia, the Netherlands, the German Empire, Denmark, and Norway, though
+in the majority of these lands the birth-rate is very low. On the other
+hand, the natural increase by excess of births over deaths is below the
+English rate in Austria, in Hungary, in Japan, in Italy, in Sweden,
+Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, and Ontario, though in the majority of
+these lands the birth-rate is high, and in some very high.[102] In most
+cases it is the high death-rate in infancy and childhood which exercises
+the counterbalancing influence against a high birth-rate; the death-rate
+in adult life may be quite moderate. And with few exceptions we find
+that a high infantile mortality accompanies a high birth-rate, while a
+low infantile mortality accompanies a low birth-rate. It is evident,
+however, that even an extremely high infantile mortality is no
+impediment to a large natural increase provided the birth-rate is
+extremely high to a more than corresponding extent. But a natural
+increase thus achieved seems to be accompanied by far more disastrous
+social conditions than when an equally large increase is achieved by a
+low infantile death-rate working in association with a low birth-rate.
+Thus in Norway on one side of the world and in Australasia on the
+opposite side we see a large natural increase effected not by a profuse
+expenditure of mostly wasted births but by an economy in deaths, and the
+increase thus effected is accompanied by highly favourable social
+conditions, and great national vigour. Norway appears to have the lowest
+infantile death-rate in Europe.[103]
+
+Rubin has suggested that the fairest measure of a country's well-being,
+as regards its actual vitality--without direct regard, of course, to the
+country's economic prosperity--is the square of the death-rate divided
+by the birth-rate.[104] Sir J.A. Baines, who accepts this test, states
+that Argentina with its high birth-rate and low death-rate stands even
+above Norway, and Australia still higher, while the climax for the world
+is attained by New Zealand, which has attained "the nearest approach to
+immortality yet on record."[105] The order of descending well-being in
+Europe is thus represented (at the year 1900) by Norway, Sweden,
+Denmark, Holland, England, Scotland, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland,
+Germany, Ireland, Portugal, Italy, Austria, France, and Spain.
+
+On the other hand, in all the countries, probably without exception, in
+which a large natural increase is effected by the efforts of an immense
+birth-rate to overcome an enormous death-rate the end is only effected
+with much friction and misery, and the process is accompanied by a
+general retardation of civilization.
+
+"The greater the number of children," as Hamburger puts it, "the greater
+the cost of each survivor to the family and to the State."
+
+Russia presents not only the most typical but the most stupendous and
+appalling example of this process. Thirty years ago the mortality of
+infants under one year was three times that of Norway, nearly double
+that of England. More recently (1896-1900) the infantile mortality in
+Russia has fallen from 313 to 261, but as that of the other countries
+has also fallen it still preserves nearly the same relative position,
+remaining the highest in Europe, while if we compare it with countries
+outside Europe we find it is considerably more than four times greater
+than that of South Australia. In one town in the government of Perm,
+some years ago if not still, the mortality of infants under one year
+regularly reached 45 per cent, and the deaths of children under five
+years constituted half the total mortality. This is abnormally high even
+for Russia, but for all Russia it was found that of the boys born in a
+single year during the second half of the last century only 50 per cent
+reached their twenty-first year, and even of these only 37.6 per cent
+were fit for military service. It is estimated that there die in Russia
+15 per thousand more individuals than among the same number in England;
+this excess mortality represents a loss of 1,650,000 lives to the State
+every year.[106]
+
+Thus Russia has the highest birth-rate and at the same time the highest
+death-rate. The large countries which, after Russia, have the highest
+infantile mortality are Austria, Hungary, Prussia, Spain, Italy, and
+Japan; all these, as we should expect, have a somewhat high birth-rate.
+
+The case of Japan is interesting as that of a vigorous young Eastern
+nation, which has assimilated Western ways and is encountering the evils
+which come of those ways. Japan is certainly worthy of all our
+admiration for the skill and vigour with which it has affirmed its young
+nationality along Western lines. But when the vital statistics of Japan
+are vaguely referred to either as a model for our imitation or as a
+threatening peril to us, we may do well to look into the matter a little
+more closely. The infantile mortality of Japan (1908) is 157, a very
+high figure, 50 per cent higher than that of England, much more than
+double that of New Zealand, or South Australia. Moreover, it has rapidly
+risen during the last ten years. The birth-rate of Japan in 1901-2 was
+high (36), though it has since fallen to the level of ten years ago. But
+the death-rate has risen concomitantly (to over 24 per 1000), and has
+continued to rise notwithstanding the slight decline in the birth-rate.
+We see here a tendency to the sinister combination of a falling
+birth-rate with a rising death-rate.[107] It is obvious that such a
+tendency, if continued, will furnish a serious problem to Japanese
+social reformers, and at the same time make it impossible for Western
+alarmists to regard the rise of Japan as a menace to the world.
+
+It is behind China that these alarmists, when driven from every other
+position, finally entrench themselves. "The ultimate future of these
+islands may be to the Chinese," incautiously exclaims Mr. Sidney Webb,
+who on many subjects, unconnected with China, speaks with authority. The
+knowledge of the vital statistics of China possessed by our alarmists is
+vague to the most extreme degree, but as the knowledge of all of us is
+scarcely less vague, they assume that their position is fairly safe.
+That, however, is an altogether questionable assumption. It seems to be
+quite true--though in the absence of exact statistics it may not be
+certain--that the birth-rate in China is very high. But it is quite
+certain that the infantile death-rate is extremely high. "Out of ten
+children born among us, three, normally the weakest three, will fail to
+grow up: out of ten children born in China these weakest three will die,
+and probably five more besides," writes Professor Ross, who is
+intimately acquainted with Chinese conditions, and has closely
+questioned thirty-three physicians practising in various parts of
+China.[108] Matignon, a French physician familiar with China, states that
+it is the custom for a woman to suckle her child for at least three
+years; should pregnancy occur during this period, it is usual, and quite
+legal, to procure abortion. Infants brought up by hand are fed on
+rice-flour and water, and consequently they nearly all die.[109]
+
+Putting aside altogether the question of infanticide, such a state of
+things is far from incredible when we remember the extremely insanitary
+state of China, the superstitions that flourish unchecked, and the
+famines, floods, and pestilences that devastate the country. It would
+appear probable that when vital statistics are introduced into China
+they will reveal a condition of things very similar to that we find in
+Russia, but in a more marked degree. No doubt it is a state of things
+which will be remedied. It is a not unreasonable assumption, supported
+by many indications, that China will follow Japan in the adoption of
+Western methods of civilization.[110] These methods, as we know, involve
+in the end a low birth-rate with a general tendency to a lower
+death-rate. Neither in the near nor in the remote future, under present
+conditions or under probable future conditions, is there any reason for
+imagining that the Chinese are likely to replace the Europeans in
+Europe.[111]
+
+This preliminary survey of the ground may enable us to realize that not
+only must we be cautious in attaching importance to the crude birth-rate
+until it is corrected, but that even as usually corrected the birth-rate
+can give us no clue at all to natural increase because there is a marked
+tendency for the birth-rate and the infantile death-rate to rise or sink
+together. Moreover, it is evident that we have also to realize that from
+the point of view of society and civilization there is a vast difference
+between the natural increase which is achieved by the effort of an
+enormously high birth-rate to overcome an almost correspondingly high
+death-rate and the natural increase which is attained by the dominance
+of a low birth-rate over a still lower death-rate.
+
+Having thus cleared the ground, we may proceed to attempt the
+interpretation of the declining birth-rate which marks civilization, and
+to discuss its significance.
+
+
+II
+
+It must be admitted that it is not usual to consider the question of the
+declining birth-rate from a broad or scientific standpoint. As we have
+seen, no attempt is usually made to correct the crude birth-rate; still
+more rarely is it pointed out that we cannot consider the significance
+of a falling birth-rate apart from the question of the death-rate, and
+that the net increase or decrease in a nation can only be judged by
+taking both these factors into account. It is scarcely necessary to add,
+in view of so superficial a way of looking at the problem, that we
+hardly ever find any attempt to deal with the more fundamental question
+of the meaning of a low birth-rate, and the problematical character of
+the advantages of rapid multiplication. The whole question is usually
+left to the ignorant preachers of the gospel of brute force, would-be
+patriots who desire their own country to increase at the cost of all
+other countries, not merely in ignorance of the fact that the crude
+birth-rate is not the index of increase, but reckless of the effect
+their desire, if fulfilled, would have upon all the higher and finer
+ends of living.
+
+When the question is thus narrowly and ignorantly considered, it is
+usual to account for the decreased birth-rate, the smaller average
+families, and the tendency to postpone the age of marriage, as due
+mainly to a love of luxury and vice, combined with a newly acquired
+acquaintance with Neo-Malthusian methods,[112] which must be combated, and
+may successfully be combated, by inculcating, as a moral and patriotic
+duty, the necessity of marrying early and procreating large families.[113]
+In France, the campaign against the religious Orders in their
+educational capacity, while doubtless largely directed against
+educational inefficiency, was also supported by the feeling that such
+education is not on the side of family life; and Arsène Dumont, one of
+the most vigorous champions of a strenuously active policy for
+increasing the birth-rate, openly protested against allowing any place
+as teachers to priests, monks, and nuns, whose direct and indirect
+influence must degrade the conception of sex and its duties while
+exalting the place of celibacy. In the United States, also, Engelmann,
+who, as a gynæcologist, was able to see this process from behind the
+scenes, urged his fellow-countrymen "to stay the dangerous and criminal
+practices which are the main determining factors of decreasing
+fecundity, and which deprive women of health, the family of its highest
+blessings, and the nation of its staunchest support."[114]
+
+We must, however, look at these phenomena a little more broadly, and
+bring them into relation with other series of phenomena. It is almost
+beyond dispute that a voluntary restriction of the number of offspring
+by Neo-Malthusian practices is at least one of the chief methods by
+which the birth-rate has been lowered. It may not indeed be--and
+probably, as we shall see, is not--the only method. It has even been
+denied that the prevalence of Neo-Malthusian practices counts at all.[115]
+Thus while Coghlan, the Government Statistician of New South Wales,
+concludes that the decline in the birth-rate in the Australian
+Commonwealth was due to "the art of applying artificial checks to
+conception," McLean, the Government Statistician of Victoria, concludes
+that it was "due mainly to natural causes." [116] He points out that when
+the birth-rate in Australia, half a century ago, was nearly 43 per 1000,
+the population consisted chiefly of men and women at the reproductive
+period of life, and that since then the proportion of persons at these
+ages has declined, leading necessarily to a decline in the crude
+birth-rate. If we compare the birth-rate of communities among women of
+the same age-periods, McLean argues, we may obtain results quite
+different from the crude birth-rate. Thus the crude birth-rate of
+Buda-Pesth is much higher than that of New South Wales, but if we
+ascertain the birth-rate of married women at different age-periods (15
+to 20, 20 to 25, etc.) the New South Wales birth-rate is higher for
+every age-period than that of Buda-Pesth. McLean considers that in young
+communities with many vigorous immigrants the population is normally
+more prolific than in older and more settled communities, and that
+hardships and financial depression still more depress the birth-rate. He
+further emphasizes the important relationship, which we must never lose
+sight of in this connection, between a high birth-rate and a high
+death-rate, especially a high infantile death-rate, and he believes,
+indeed, that "the solution of the problem of the general decline in the
+birth-rate throughout all civilized communities lies in the preservation
+of human life." The mechanism of the connection would be, he maintains,
+that prolonged suckling in the case of living children increases the
+intervals between childbearing. As we have seen, there is a tendency,
+though not a rigid and invariable necessity,[117] for a high birth-rate to
+be associated with a high infantile death-rate, and a low birth-rate
+with a low infantile death-rate. Thus in Victoria, we have the striking
+fact that while the birth-rate has declined 24 per cent the infantile
+death-rate has declined approximately to the still greater extent of 27
+per cent.
+
+No doubt the chief cause of the reduction of the birth-rate has been its
+voluntary restriction by preventive methods due to the growth of
+intelligence, knowledge, and foresight. In all the countries where a
+marked decline in the birth-rate has occurred there is good reason to
+believe that Neo-Malthusian methods are generally known and practised.
+So far as England is concerned this is certainly the case. A few years
+ago Mr. Sidney Webb made inquiries among middle-class people in all
+parts of the country, and found that in 316 marriages 242 were thus
+limited and only 74 unlimited, while for the ten years 1890-9 out of 120
+marriages 107 were limited and only 13 unlimited, but as five of these
+13 were childless there were only 8 unlimited fertile marriages out of
+120. As to the causes assigned for limiting the number of children, in
+73 out of 128 cases in which particulars were given under this head the
+poverty of the parents in relation to their standard of comfort was a
+factor; sexual ill-health--that is, generally, the disturbing effect of
+child-bearing--in 24; and other forms of ill-health of the parents in 38
+cases; in 24 cases the disinclination of the wife was a factor, and the
+death of a parent had in 8 cases terminated the marriage.[118] In the
+skilled artisan class there is also good reason to believe that the
+voluntary limitation of families is constantly becoming more usual, and
+the statistics of benefit societies show a marked decline in the
+fertility of superior working-class people during recent years; thus it
+is stated by Sidney Webb that the Hearts of Oak Friendly Society paid
+benefits on child-birth to 2472 per 10,000 members in 1880; by 1904 the
+proportion had fallen to 1165 per 10,000, a much greater fall than
+occurred in England generally.
+
+The voluntary adoption of preventive precautions may not be, however,
+the only method by which the birth-rate has declined; we may have also
+to recognize a concomitant physiological sterility, induced by delayed
+marriage and its various consequences; we have also to recognize
+pathological sterility due to the impaired vitality and greater
+liability to venereal disease of an increasingly urban life; and we may
+have to recognize that stocks differ from one another in fertility.
+
+The delay in marriage, as studied in England, is so far apparently
+slight; the mean age of marriage for all husbands in England has
+increased from 28.43 in 1896 to 28.88 in 1909, and the mean age of all
+wives from 26.21 in 1896 to 26.69 in 1909. This seems a very trifling
+rate of progression. If, however, we look at the matter in another way
+we find that there has been an extremely serious reduction in the number
+of marriages between 15 to 20, normally the most fecund of all
+age-periods. Between 1876 and 1880 (according to the Registrar-General's
+Report for 1909) the proportion of minors in 1000 marriages in England
+and Wales was 77.8 husbands and 217.0 wives. In 1909 it had fallen to
+only 39.8 husbands and 137.7 wives. It has been held that this has not
+greatly affected the decline in the birth-rate. Its tendency, however,
+must be in that direction. It is true that Engelmann argued that delayed
+marriages had no effect at all on the birth-rate. But it has been
+clearly shown that as the age of marriage increases fecundity distinctly
+diminishes.[119] This is illustrated by the specially elaborate statistics
+of Scotland for 1855;[120] the number of women having children, that is,
+the fecundity, was higher in the years 15 to 19, than at any subsequent
+age-period, except 20 to 24, and the fact that the earliest age-group is
+not absolutely highest is due to the presence of a number of immature
+women. In New South Wales, Coghlan has shown that if the average number
+of children is 3.6, then a woman marrying at 20 may expect to have five
+children, a woman marrying at 28 three children, at 32 two children, and
+at 37 one child. Newsholme and Stevenson, again, conclude that the
+general law of decline of fertility with advancing age of the mother is
+shown in various countries, and that in nearly all countries the mothers
+aged 15 to 20 have the largest number of children; the chief exception
+is in the case of some northern countries like Norway and Finland, where
+women develop late, and there it is the mothers of 20 to 25 who have the
+largest number of children.[121] The postponement in the age of marriage
+during recent years is, however, so slight that it can only account for
+a small part of the decline in the birth-rate; Coghlan calculates that
+of unborn possible children in New South Wales the loss of only about
+one-sixth is to be attributed to this cause. In London, however, Heron
+considers that the recognized connection between a low birth-rate and a
+high social standing might have been entirely accounted for sixty years
+ago by postponement of marriage, and that such postponement may still
+account for 50 per cent of it.[122]
+
+It is not enough, however, to consider the mechanism by which the
+birth-rate declines; to realize the significance of the decline we must
+consider the causes which set the mechanism in action.
+
+We begin to obtain a truer insight into the meaning of the curve of a
+country's birth-rate when we realize that it is in relation with the
+industrial and commercial activity of the country.[123] It is sometimes
+stated that a high birth-rate goes with a high degree of national
+prosperity. That, however, is scarcely the case; we have to look into
+the matter a little more closely. And, when we do so, we find that, not
+only is the statement of a supposed connection between a high birth-rate
+and a high degree of prosperity an imperfect statement; it is altogether
+misleading.
+
+If, in the first place, we attempt to consider the state of things among
+savages, we find, indeed, great variations, and the birth-rate is not
+infrequently low. But, on the whole, it would appear, the marriage-rate,
+the birth-rate, and, it may be added, the death-rate are all alike high.
+Karl Ranke has investigated the question with considerable care among
+the Trumai and Nahuqua Indians of Central Brazil.[124] These tribes are
+yet totally uncontaminated by contact with European influences;
+consumption and syphilis are alike unknown. In the two villages he
+investigated in detail, Ranke found that every man over twenty-five
+years of age was married, and that the only unmarried woman he
+discovered was feeble-minded. The average size of the families of those
+women who were over forty years of age was between five and six
+children, while, on the other hand, the mortality among children was
+great, and a relatively small proportion of the population reached old
+age. We see therefore that, among these fairly typical savages, living
+under simple natural conditions, the fertility of the women is as high
+as it is among all but the most prolific of European peoples; while, in
+striking contrast with European peoples, among whom a large percentage
+of the population never marry, and of those who do, many have no
+children, practically every man and woman both marries and produces
+children.
+
+If we leave savages out of the question and return to Europe, it is
+still instructive to find that among those peoples who live under the
+most primitive conditions much the same state of things may be found as
+among savages. This is notably the case as regards Russia. In no other
+great European country do the bulk of the women marry at so early an
+age, and in no other is the average size of the family so large. And,
+concomitantly with a very high marriage-rate and a very high birth-rate,
+we find in Russia, in an equally high degree, the prevalence among the
+masses of infantile and general mortality, disease (epidemical and
+other), starvation, misery.[125]
+
+So far we scarcely see any marked connection between high fertility and
+prosperity. It is more nearly indicated in the high birth-rate of
+Hungary--only second to that of Russia, and also accompanied by a high
+mortality--which is associated with the rapid and notable development of
+a young nationality. The case of Hungary is, indeed, typical. In so far
+as high fertility is associated with prosperity, it is with the
+prosperity of a young and unstable community, which has experienced a
+sudden increase of wealth and a sudden expansion. The case of Western
+Australia illustrates the same point. Thirty years ago the marriage-rate
+and the birth-rate of this colony were on the same level as those of the
+other Australian colonies; but a sudden industrial expansion occurred,
+both rates rose, and in 1899 the fertility of Western Australia was
+higher than that of any other English-speaking community.[126]
+
+If now we put together the facts observed in savage life and the facts
+observed in civilized life, we shall begin to see the real nature of the
+factors that operate to raise or lower the fertility of a community. It
+is far, indeed, from being prosperity which produces a high fertility,
+for the most wretched communities are the most prolific, but, on the
+other hand, it is by no means the mere absence of prosperity which
+produces fertility, for we constantly observe that the on-coming of a
+wave of prosperity elevates the birth-rate. In both cases alike it is
+the absence of social-economic restraints which conduces to high
+fertility. In the simple, primitive community of savages, serfs, or
+slaves, there is no restraint on either nutritive or reproductive
+enjoyments; there is no adequate motive for restraint; there are no
+claims of future wants to inhibit the gratification of present wants;
+there are no high standards, no ideals. Supposing, again, that such
+restraints have been established by a certain amount of forethought as
+regards the future, or a certain calculation as to social advantages to
+be gained by limiting the number of children, a check on natural
+fertility is established. But a sudden accession of prosperity--a sudden
+excess of work and wages and food--sweeps away this check by apparently
+rendering it unnecessary; the natural reproductive impulse is liberated
+by this rising wave, and we here see whatever truth there is in the
+statement that prosperity means a high birth-rate. In reality, however,
+prosperity in such a case merely increases fertility because its sudden
+affluence reduces a community to the same careless indifference in
+regard to the future, the same hasty snatching at the pleasures of the
+moment, as we find among the most hopeless and least prosperous
+communities. It is a significant fact, as shown by Beveridge, that the
+years when the people of Great Britain marry most are the years when
+they drink most. It is in the absence of social-economic restraints--the
+absence of the perception of such restraints, or the absence of the
+ability to act in accordance with such perception--that the birth-rate
+is high.
+
+Arsène Dumont seems to have been one of the first who observed this
+significance of the oscillation of the birth-rate, though he expressed
+it in a somewhat peculiar way, as the social capillarity theory. It is
+the natural and universal tendency of mankind to ascend, he declared; a
+high birth-rate and a strong ascensional impulse are mutually
+contradictory. Large families are only possible when there is no
+progress, and no expectation of it can be cherished; small families
+become possible when the way has been opened to progress. "One might
+say," Dumont puts it, "that invisible valves, like those which direct
+the circulation of the blood, have been placed by Nature to direct the
+current of human aspiration in the upward path it has prescribed." As
+the proletariat is enabled to enjoy the prospect of rising it comes
+under the action of this law of social capillarity, and the birth-rate
+falls. It is the effort towards an indefinite perfection, Dumont
+declares, which justifies Nature and Man, consoles us for our griefs,
+and constitutes our sovereign safeguard against the philosophy of
+despair.[127]
+
+When we thus interpret the crude facts of the falling birth-rate,
+viewing them widely and calmly in connection with the other social facts
+with which they are intimately related, we are able to see how foolish
+has been the outcry against a falling birth-rate, and how false the
+supposition that it is due to a new selfishness replacing an ancient
+altruism.[128] On the contrary, the excessive birth-rate of the early
+industrial period was directly stimulated by selfishness. There were no
+laws against child-labour; children were produced that they might be
+sent out, when little more than babies, to the factories and the mines
+to increase their parents' income. The fundamental instincts of men and
+women do not change, but their direction can be changed. In this field
+the change is towards a higher transformation, introducing a finer
+economy into life, diminishing death, disease, and misery, making
+possible the finer ends of living, and at the same time indirectly and
+even directly improving the quality of the future race.[129] This is now
+becoming recognized by nearly all calm and sagacious inquirers.[130] The
+wild outcry of many unbalanced persons to-day, that a falling birth-rate
+means degeneration and disaster, is so altogether removed from the
+sphere of reason that we ought perhaps to regard it as comparable to
+those manias which, in former centuries, have assumed other forms more
+attractive to the neurotic temperament of those days; fortunately, it is
+a mania which, in the nature of things, is powerless to realize itself,
+and we need not anticipate that the outcry against small families will
+have the same results as the ancient outcry against witches.[131]
+
+It may be proper at this stage to point out that while, in the foregoing
+statement, a high birth-rate and a high marriage-rate have been regarded
+as practically the same thing, we need to make a distinction. The true
+relation of the two rates may be realized when it is stated that, the
+more primitive a community is, the more closely the two rates vary
+together. As a community becomes more civilized and more complex, the
+two rates tend to diverge; the restraints on child-production are
+deeper and more complex than those on marriage, so that the removal of
+the restraint on marriage by no means removes the restraint on
+fertility. They tend to diverge in opposite directions. Farr considered
+the marriage-rate among civilized peoples as a barometer of national
+prosperity. In former years, when corn was a great national product, the
+marriage-rate in England rose regularly as the price of wheat fell. Of
+recent years it has become very difficult to estimate exactly what
+economic factors affect the marriage-rate. It is believed by some that
+the marriage-rate rises or falls with the value of exports.[132] Udny
+Yule, however, in an expertly statistical study of the matter,[133] finds
+(in agreement with Hooker) that neither exports nor imports tally with
+the marriage-rate. He concludes that the movement of prices is a
+predominant--though by no means the sole--factor in the change of
+marriage-rates, a fall in prices producing a fall in the marriage-rates
+and also in the birth-rates, though he also thinks that pressure on the
+labour market has forced both rates lower than the course of prices
+would lead one to expect. In so far as these causes are concerned, Udny
+Yule states, the fall is quite normal and pessimistic views are
+misplaced. Udny Yule, however, appears to be by no means confident that
+his explanation covers a large part of the causation, and he admits that
+he cannot understand the rationale of the connection between
+marriage-rates and prices. The curves of the marriage-rates in many
+countries indicate a maximum about or shortly before, 1875, when the
+birth-rate also tended to reach a maximum, and another rise towards
+1900, thus making the intermediate curve concave. There was, however, a
+large rise in money wages between 1860 and 1875, and the rise in the
+consuming power of the population has been continuous since 1850. Thus
+the factors favourable to a high marriage-rate must have risen from 1850
+to a maximum about 1870-1875, and since then have fallen continuously.
+This statement, which Mr. Udny Yule emphasizes, certainly seems highly
+significant from our present point of view. It falls into line with the
+view here accepted, that the first result of a sudden access of
+prosperity is to produce a general orgy, a reckless and improvident
+haste to take advantage of the new prosperity, but that, as the effects
+of the orgy wear off, it necessarily gives place to new ideals, and to
+higher standards of life which lead to caution and prudence. Mr. N.A.
+Hooker seems to have perceived this, and in the discussion which
+followed the reading of Udny Yule's paper he set forth what (though it
+was not accepted by Udny Yule) may perhaps fairly be regarded as the
+sound view of the matter. "During the great expansion of trade prior to
+1870," he remarked, "the means of satisfying the desired standard of
+comfort were increasing much more rapidly than the rise in the standard;
+hence a decreasing age of marriage and a marriage-rate above the normal.
+After about 1873, however, the means of satisfying the standard of
+comfort no longer increased with the same rapidity, and then a new
+factor, he thought, became important, viz. the increased intelligence of
+the people."[134] This seems to be precisely the same view of the matter
+as I have here sought to set forth; prosperity is not civilization, its
+first tendency is to produce a reckless abandonment to the satisfaction
+of the crudest impulses. But as prosperity develops it begins to
+engender more complex ideals and higher standards; the inevitable result
+is a greater forethought and restraint.[135]
+
+If we consider, not the marriage-rate, but the average age at marriage,
+and especially the age of the woman, which varies less than that of the
+man, the results, though harmonious, would not be quite the same. The
+general tendency as regards the age of girls at marriage is summed up by
+Ploss and Bartels, in their monumental work on Woman, in the statement:
+"It may be said in general that the age of girls at marriage is lower,
+the lower the stage of civilization is in the community to which they
+belong."[136] We thus see one reason why it is that, in an advanced stage
+of civilization, a high marriage-rate is not necessarily associated
+with a high birth-rate. A large number of women who marry late may have
+fewer children than a smaller number who marry early.
+
+We may see the real character of the restraints on fertility very well
+illustrated by the varying birth-rate of the upper and lower social
+classes belonging to the same community. If a high birth-rate were a
+mark of prosperity or of advanced civilization, we should expect to find
+it among the better social class of a community. But the reverse is the
+case; it is everywhere the least prosperous and the least cultured
+classes of a community which show the highest birth-rate. As we go from
+the very poor to the very rich quarters of a great city--whether Paris,
+Berlin, or Vienna--the average number of children to the family
+diminishes regularly. The difference is found in the country as well as
+in the towns. In Holland, for instance, whether in town or country,
+there are 5.19 children per marriage among the poor, and only 4.50 among
+the rich. In London it is notorious that the same difference appears;
+thus Charles Booth, the greatest authority on the social conditions of
+London, in the concluding volume of his vast survey, sums up the
+condition of things in the statement that "the lower the class the
+earlier the period of marriage and the greater the number of children
+born to each marriage." The same phenomenon is everywhere found, and it
+is one of great significance.
+
+The significance becomes clearer when we realize that an urban
+population must always be regarded as more "civilized" than a rural
+population, and that, in accordance with that fact, an urban population
+tends to be less prolific than a rural population. The town birth-rate
+is nearly always lower than the country birth-rate. In Germany this is
+very marked, and the rapidly growing urbanization of Germany is
+accompanied by a great fall of the birth-rate in the large cities, but
+not in the rural districts. In England the fall is more widespread, and
+though the birth-rate is much higher in the country than in the towns
+the decline in the rural birth-rate is now proceeding more rapidly than
+that in the urban birth-rate. England, which once contained a largely
+rural population, now possesses a mainly urban population. Every year it
+becomes more urban; while the town population grows, the rural
+population remains stationary; so that, at the present time, for every
+inhabitant of the country in England, there are more than three
+town-dwellers. As the country-dweller is more prolific than the
+town-dweller, this means that the rural population is constantly being
+poured into the towns. The larger our great cities grow, the more
+irresistible becomes the attraction which they exert on the children of
+the country, who are fascinated by them, as the birds are fascinated by
+the lighthouse or the moths by the candle. And the results are not
+altogether unlike those which this analogy suggests. At the present
+time, one-third of the population of London is made up of immigrants
+from the country. Yet, notwithstanding this immense and constant stream
+of new and vigorous blood, it never suffices to raise the urban
+population to the same level of physical and nervous stability which
+the rural population possesses. More alert, more vivacious, more
+intelligent, even more urbane in the finer sense, as the urban
+population becomes,--not perhaps at first, but in the end,--it
+inevitably loses its stamina, its reserves of vital energy. Dr. Cantlie
+very properly defines a Londoner as a person whose grandparents all
+belonged to London--and he could not find any. Dr. Harry Campbell has
+found a few who could claim London grandparents; they were poor
+specimens of humanity.[137] Even on the intellectual side there are no
+great Londoners. It is well known that a number of eminent men have been
+born in London; but, in the course of a somewhat elaborate study of the
+origins of British men of genius, I have not been able to find that any
+were genuinely Londoners by descent.[138] An urban life saps that calm and
+stolid strength which is necessary for all great effort and stress,
+physical or intellectual. The finest body of men in London, as a class,
+are the London police, and Charles Booth states that only 17 per cent of
+the London police are born in London, a smaller proportion than any
+other class of the London population except the army and navy. As Mr.
+N.C. Macnamara has pointed out, it is found that London men do not
+possess the necessary nervous stability and self-possession for police
+work; they are too excitable and nervous, lacking the equanimity,
+courage, and self-reliance of the rural men. Just in the same way, in
+Spain, the bull-fighters, a body of men admirable for their graceful
+strength, their modesty, courage, and skill, nearly always come from
+country districts, although it is in the towns that the enthusiasm for
+bull-fighting is centred. Therefore, it would appear that until urban
+conditions of life are greatly improved, the more largely urban a
+population becomes, the more is its standard of vital and physical
+efficiency likely to be lowered. This became clearly visible during the
+South African War; it was found at Manchester (as stated by Dr. T.P.
+Smith and confirmed by Dr. Clayton) that among 11,000 young men who
+volunteered for enlistment, scarcely more than 10 per cent could pass
+the surgeon's examination, although the standard of physique demanded
+was extremely low, while Major-General Sir F. Maurice has stated[139]
+that, even when all these rejections have been made, of those who
+actually are enlisted, at the end of two years only two effective
+soldiers are found for every five who enlist. It is not difficult to see
+a bearing of these facts on the birth-rate. The civilized world is
+becoming a world of towns, and, while the diminished birth-rate of towns
+is certainly not mainly the result of impaired vitality, these phenomena
+are correlative facts of the first importance for every country which
+is using up its rural population and becoming a land of cities.
+
+From our present point of view it is thus a very significant fact that
+the equipoise between country-dwellers and town-dwellers has been lost,
+that the towns are gaining at the expense of the country whose surplus
+population they absorb and destroy. The town population is not only
+disinclined to propagate; it is probably in some measure unfit to
+propagate.
+
+At the same time, we must not too strongly emphasize this aspect of the
+matter; such over-emphasis of a single aspect of highly complex
+phenomena constantly distorts our vision of great social processes. We
+have already seen that it is inaccurate to assert any connection between
+a high birth-rate and a high degree of national prosperity, except in so
+far as at special periods in the history of a country a sudden wave of
+prosperity may temporarily remove the restraints on natural fertility.
+Prosperity is only one of the causes that tend to remove the restraint
+on the birth-rate; and it is a cause that is never permanently
+effective.
+
+
+III
+
+To get to the bottom of the matter, we thus find it is necessary to look
+into it more closely than is usually attempted. When we ask ourselves
+why prosperity fails permanently to remove the restraints on fertility
+the answer is, that it speedily creates new restraints. Prosperity and
+civilization are far from being synonymous terms. The savage who is
+able to glut himself with the whale that has just been stranded on his
+coast, is more prosperous than he was the day before, but he is not more
+civilized, perhaps a trifle less so. The working community that is
+suddenly glutted by an afflux of work and wages is in exactly the same
+position as the savage who is suddenly enabled to fill himself with a
+rich mass of decaying blubber. It is prosperity; it is not
+civilization.[140] But, while prosperity leads at first to the reckless
+and unrestrained gratification of the simplest animal instincts of
+nutrition and reproduction, it tends, when it is prolonged, to evolve
+more complex instincts. Aspirations become less crude, the needs and
+appetites engendered by prosperity take on a more social character, and
+are sharpened by social rivalries. In place of the earlier easy and
+reckless gratification of animal impulses, a peaceful and organized
+struggle is established for securing in ever fuller degree the
+gratification of increasingly insistent and increasingly complex
+desires. Such a struggle involves a deliberate calculation and
+forethought, which, sooner or later, cannot fail to be applied to the
+question of offspring. Thus it is that affluence, in the long run,
+itself imposes a check on reproduction. Prosperity, under the stress of
+the urban conditions with which it tends to be associated, has been
+transformed into that calculated forethought, that deliberate
+self-restraint for the attainment of ever more manifold ends, which in
+its outcome we term "civilization."
+
+It is frequently assumed, as we have seen, that the process by which
+civilization is thus evolved is a selfish and immoral process. To
+procreate large families, it is said, is unselfish and moral, as well as
+a patriotic, even a religious duty. This assumption, we now find, is a
+little too hasty and is even the reverse of the truth; it is necessary
+to take into consideration the totality of the social phenomena
+accompanying a high birth-rate, more especially under the conditions of
+town life. A community in which children are born rapidly is necessarily
+in an unstable position; it is growing so quickly that there is
+insufficient time for the conditions of life to be equalized. The state
+of ill-adjustment is chronic; the pressure is lifted from off the
+natural impulse of procreation, but is increased on all the conditions
+under which the impulse is exerted. There is increased overcrowding,
+increased filth, increased disease, increased death. It can never
+happen, in modern times, that the readjustment of the conditions of life
+can be made to keep pace with a high birth-rate. It is sufficient if we
+consider the case of English towns, of London in particular, during the
+period when British prosperity was most rapidly increasing, and the
+birth-rate nearing its maximum, in the middle of the great Victorian
+epoch, of which Englishmen are, for many reasons, so proud. It was
+certainly not an age lacking in either energy or philanthropy; yet, when
+we read the memorable report which Chadwick wrote in 1842, on the
+_Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain_, or
+the minute study of Bethnal Green which Gavin published in 1848 as a
+type of the conditions prevailing in English towns, we realize that the
+magnificence of this epoch was built up over circles of Hell to which
+the imagination of Dante never attained.
+
+As reproductive activity dies down, social conditions become more
+stable, a comparatively balanced state of adjustment tends to be
+established, insanitary surroundings can be bettered, disease
+diminished, and the death-rate lowered. How much may thus be
+accomplished we realize when we compare the admirably precise and
+balanced pages in which Charles Booth, in the concluding volumes of his
+great work, has summarized his survey of London, with the picture
+presented by Chadwick and Gavin half a century earlier. Ugly and painful
+as are many of the features of this modern London, the vision which is,
+on the whole, evoked is that of a community which has attained
+self-consciousness, which is growing into some faint degree of harmony
+with its environment, and is seeking to gain the full amount of the
+satisfaction which an organized urban life can yield. Booth, who
+appears to have realized the significance of a decreased fertility in
+the attainment of this progress, hopes for a still greater fall in the
+birth-rate; and those who seek to restore the birth-rate of half a
+century ago are engaged on a task which would be criminal if it were not
+based on ignorance, and which is, in any case, fatuous.
+
+The whole course of zoological evolution reveals a constantly
+diminishing reproductive activity and a constantly increasing
+expenditure of care on the offspring thus diminished in number.[141] Fish
+spawn their ova by the million, and it is a happy chance if they become
+fertilized, a highly unlikely chance that more than a very small
+proportion will ever attain maturity. Among the mammals, however, the
+female may produce but half a dozen or fewer offspring at a time, but
+she lavishes so much care upon them that they have a very fair chance
+of all reaching maturity. In man, in so far as he refrains from
+returning to the beast and is true to the impulse which in him becomes a
+conscious process of civilization, the same movement is carried forward.
+He even seeks to decrease still further the number of his offspring by
+voluntary effort, and at the same time to increase their quality and
+magnify their importance.[142]
+
+When in human families, especially under civilized conditions, we see
+large families we are in the presence of a reversion to the tendencies
+that prevail among lower organisms. Such large families may probably be
+regarded, as Näcke suggests, as constituting a symptom of degeneration.
+It is noteworthy that they usually occur in the pathological and
+abnormal classes, among the insane, the feeble-minded, the criminal, the
+consumptive, the alcoholic, etc.[143]
+
+This tendency of the birth-rate to fall with the growth of social
+stability is thus a tendency which is of the very essence of
+civilization. It represents an impulse which, however deliberate it may
+be in the individual, may, in the community, be looked upon as an
+instinctive effort to gain more complete control of the conditions of
+life, and to grapple more efficiently with the problems of misery and
+disease and death. It is not only, as is sometimes supposed, during the
+past century that the phenomena may be studied. We have a remarkable
+example some centuries earlier, an example which very clearly
+illustrates the real nature of the phenomena. The city of Geneva,
+perhaps first of European cities, began to register its births, deaths,
+and marriages from the middle of the sixteenth century. This alone
+indicates a high degree of civilization; and at that time, and for some
+succeeding centuries, Geneva was undoubtedly a very highly civilized
+city. Its inhabitants really were the "elect," morally and
+intellectually, of French Protestantism. In many respects it was a model
+city, as Gray noted when he reached it in the course of his travels in
+the middle of the eighteenth century. These registers of Geneva show, in
+a most illuminating manner, how extreme fertility at the outset,
+gradually gave place, as civilization progressed, to a very low
+fertility, with fewer and later marriages, a very low death-rate, and a
+state of general well-being in which the births barely replaced the
+deaths.
+
+After Protestant Geneva had lost her pioneering place in civilization,
+it was in France, the land which above all others may in modern times
+claim to represent the social aspects of civilization, that the same
+tendency most conspicuously appeared. But all Europe, as well as all the
+English-speaking lands outside Europe, is now following the lead of
+France. In a paper read before the Paris Society of Anthropology a few
+years ago, Emile Macquart showed clearly, by a series of ingenious
+diagrams, that whereas, fifty years ago, the condition of the birth-rate
+in France diverged widely from that prevailing in the other chief
+countries of Europe, the other countries are now rapidly following in
+the same road along which France has for a century been proceeding
+slowly, and are constantly coming closer to her, England closest of all.
+In the past, proposals have from time to time been made in France to
+interfere with the progress of this downward movement of the
+birth-rate--proposals that were sufficiently foolish, for neither in
+France nor elsewhere will the individual allow the statistician to
+interfere officiously in a matter which he regards as purely intimate
+and private. But the real character of this tendency of the birth-rate,
+as an essential phenomenon of civilization, with which neither moralist
+nor politician can successfully hope to interfere, is beginning to be
+realized in France. Azoulay, in summing up the discussion after
+Macquart's paper[144] had been read at the Society of Anthropology,
+pointed out that "nations must inevitably follow the same course as
+social classes, and the more the mass of these social classes becomes
+civilized, the more the nation's birth-rate falls; therefore there is
+nothing to be done legally and administratively." And another member
+added: "Except to applaud."
+
+It is probably too much to hope that so sagacious a view will at once be
+universally adopted. The United States and the great English colonies,
+for instance, find it difficult to realize that they are not really new
+countries, but branches of old countries, and already nearing maturity
+when they began their separate lives. They are not at the beginning of
+two thousand years of slow development, such as we have passed through,
+but at the end of it, with us, and sometimes even a little ahead of us.
+It is therefore natural and inevitable that, in a matter in which we are
+moving rapidly, Massachusetts and Ontario and New South Wales and New
+Zealand should have moved still more rapidly, so rapidly indeed, that
+they have themselves failed to perceive that their real natural increase
+and the manner in which it is attained place them in this matter at the
+van of civilization. These things are, however, only learnt slowly. We
+may be sure that the fundamental and complex character of the phenomena
+will never be obvious to our fussy little politicians, so apt to
+advocate panaceas which have effects quite opposite to those they
+desire. But, whatever politicians may wish to do or to leave undone, it
+is well to remember that, of the various ideals the world holds, there
+are some that lie on the path of our social progress, and others that do
+not there lie. We may properly exercise such wisdom as we possess by
+utilizing the ideals which are before us, serenely neglecting many
+others which however precious they may once have seemed, no longer form
+part of the stage of civilization we are now moving towards.
+
+
+IV
+
+What are the ideals of the stage of civilization we of the Western world
+are now moving towards? We have here pushed as far as need be the
+analysis of that declining birth-rate which has caused so much anxiety
+to those amongst us who can only see narrowly and see superficially. We
+have found that, properly understood, there is nothing in it to evoke
+our pessimism. On the contrary, we have seen that, in the opinion of the
+most distinguished authorities, the energy with which we move in our
+present direction, through the exercise of an ever finer economy in
+life, may be regarded as a "measure of civilization" in the important
+sphere of vital statistics. As we now leave the question, some may ask
+themselves whether this concomitant decline in birth-rates and
+death-rates may not possibly have a still wider and more fundamental
+meaning as a measure of civilization.
+
+We have long been accustomed to regard the East as a spiritual world in
+which the finer ends of living were counted supreme, and the merely
+materialistic aspects of life, dissociated from the aims of religion and
+of art, were trodden under foot. Our own Western world we have humbly
+regarded as mainly absorbed in a feverish race for the attainment, by
+industry and war, of the satisfaction of the impulses of reproduction
+and nutrition, and the crudely material aggrandizement of which those
+impulses are the symbol. A certain outward idleness, a semi-idleness, as
+Nietzsche said, is the necessary condition for a real religious life,
+for a real æsthetic life, for any life on the spiritual plane. The
+noisy, laborious, pushing, "progressive" life we traditionally associate
+with the West is essentially alien to the higher ends of living, as has
+been intuitively recognized and acted on by all those among us who have
+sought to pursue the higher ends of living. It was so that the
+nineteenth-century philosophers of Europe, of whom Schopenhauer was in
+this matter the extreme type, viewed the matter. But when we seek to
+measure the tendency of the chief countries of the West, led by France,
+England, and Germany, and the countries of the East led by Japan, in the
+light of this strictly measurable test of vital statistics, may we not,
+perhaps, trace the approach of a revolutionary transposition? Japan,
+entering on the road we have nearly passed through, in which the
+perpetual clash of a high birth-rate and a high death-rate involves
+social disorder and misery, has flung to the winds the loftier ideals it
+once pursued so successfully and has lost its fine æsthetic perceptions,
+its insight into the most delicate secrets of the soul.[145] And while
+Japan, certainly to-day voicing the aspirations of the East, is
+concerned to become a great military and industrial power, we in the
+West are growing weary of war, and are coming to look upon commerce as a
+necessary routine no longer adequate to satisfy the best energies of
+human beings. We are here moving towards the fine quiescence involved by
+a delicate equipoise of life and of death; and this economy sets free an
+energy we are seeking to expend in a juster social organization, and in
+the realization of ideals which until now have seemed but the
+imagination of idle dreamers. Asia, as an anonymous writer has recently
+put it, is growing crude, vulgar, and materialistic; Europe, on the
+other hand, is growing to loathe its own past grossness. "London may yet
+be the spiritual capital of the world, while Asia--rich in all that gold
+can buy and guns can give, lord of lands and bodies, builder of railways
+and promulgator of police regulations, glorious in all material
+glories--postures, complacent and obtuse, before a Europe content in the
+possession of all that matters,"[146] Certainly, we are not there yet, but
+the old Earth has seen many stranger and more revolutionary changes than
+this. England, as this writer reminds us, was once a tropical forest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90] It must be understood that, from the present point of view, the term
+"Anglo-Saxon" covers the peoples of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, as
+well as of England.
+
+[91] The decline of the French birth-rate has been investigated in a
+Lyons thesis by Salvat, _La Dépopulation de la France_, 1903.
+
+[92] The latest figures are given in the Annual Reports of the
+Registrar-General for England and Wales.
+
+[93] Newsholme and Stevenson, "Decline of Human Fertility as shown by
+corrected Birth-rates," _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_,
+1906.
+
+[94] Werner Sombart, _International Magazine_, December, 1907.
+
+[95] A.W. Flux, "Urban Vital Statistics in England and Germany," _Journ.
+Statist. Soc._, March, 1910.
+
+[96] German infantile mortality, Böhmert states ("Die
+Säuglingssterblichkeit in Deutschland und ihre Ursachen," _Die Neue
+Generation_, March, 1908), is greater than in any European country,
+except Russia and Hungary, about 50 per cent greater than in England,
+France, Belgium, or Holland. The infantile mortality has increased in
+Germany, as usually happens, with the increased employment of women,
+and, largely from this cause, has nearly doubled in Berlin in the course
+of four years, states Lily Braun (_Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft I, p. 21);
+but even on this basis it is only 22 per cent in the English textile
+industries, as against 38 per cent in the German textile industries.
+
+[97] In England the marriage-rate fell rather sharply in 1875, and showed
+a slight tendency to rise about 1900 (G. Udny Yule, "On the Changes in
+the Marriage-and Birth-rates in England and Wales," _Journal of the
+Statistical Society_, March, 1906). On the whole there has been a real
+though slight decline. The decline has been widespread, and is most
+marked in Australia, especially South Australia. There has, however,
+been a rise in the marriage-rate in Ireland, France, Austria,
+Switzerland, Germany, and especially Belgium. The movement for decreased
+child-production would naturally in the first place involve decreased
+marriage, but it is easy to understand that when it is realized the
+marriage is not necessarily followed by conception this motive for
+avoiding marriage loses its force, and the marriage-rate rises.
+
+[98] _Medicine_, February, 1904.
+
+[99] Davidson, "The Growth of the French-Canadian Race," _Annals of the
+American Academy_, September, 1896.
+
+[100] T.A. Coghlan, _The Decline of the Birth-rate of New South Wales_,
+1903. The New South Wales statistics are specially valuable as the
+records contain many particulars (such as age of parents, period since
+marriage, and number of children) not given in English or most other
+records.
+
+[101] C. Hamburger, "Kinderzahl und Kindersterblichkeit," _Die Neue
+Generation_, August, 1909.
+
+[102] Looked at in another way, it may be said that if a natural increase,
+as ascertained by subtracting the death-rate from the birth-rate, of 10
+to 15 per cent be regarded as normal, then, taking so far as possible
+the figures for 1909, the natural increase of England and Scotland, of
+Germany, of Italy, of Austria and Hungary, of Belgium, is normal; the
+natural increase of New South Wales, of Victoria, of South Australia, of
+New Zealand, is abnormally high (though in new countries such increase
+may not be undesirable) while the natural increase of France, of Spain,
+and of Ireland is abnormally low. Such a method of estimation, of
+course, entirely leaves out of account the question of the social
+desirability of the process by which the normal increase is secured.
+
+[103] Johannsen, _Janus_, 1905.
+
+[104] Rubin, "A Measure of Civilization," _Journal of the Royal
+Statistical Society_, March, 1897. "The lowest stage of civilization,"
+he points out, "is to go forward blindly, which in this connection means
+to bring into the world a great number of children which must, in great
+proportion, sink into the grave. The next stage of civilization is to
+see the danger and to keep clear of it. The highest stage of
+civilization is to see the danger and overcome it." Europe in the past
+and various countries in the present illustrate the first stage; France
+illustrates the second stage; the third stage is that towards which we
+are striving to move to-day.
+
+[105] Baines, "The Recent Growth of Population in Western Europe,"
+_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, December, 1909.
+
+[106] Various facts and references are given by Havelock Ellis, _The
+Nationalization of Health_, chap. XIV.
+
+[107] These are the figures given by the chief Japanese authority,
+Professor Takano, _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, July,
+1910, p. 738.
+
+[108] E.A. Ross, "The Race Fibre of the Chinese," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, October, 1911. According to another competent and fairly
+concordant estimate, the infantile death-rate of China is 90 per cent.
+Of the female infants, probably about 1 in 10 is intentionally
+destroyed.
+
+[109] J.J. Matignon, "La Mère et l'Enfant en Chine," _Archives
+d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, October to November, 1909.
+
+[110] Arsène Dumont, for instance, points out (_Dépopulation et
+Civilization_, p. 116) that the very early marriages and the reckless
+fertility of the Chinese cannot fail to cease as soon as the people
+adopt European ways.
+
+[111] The confident estimates of the future population of the world which
+are from time to time put forward on the basis of the present birth-rate
+are quite worthless. A brilliantly insubstantial fabric of this kind, by
+B.L. Putnam Weale (_The Conflict of Colour_, 1911), has been justly
+criticized by Professor Weatherley (_Popular Science Monthly_, November,
+1911).
+
+[112] It is sometimes convenient to use the term "Neo-Malthusianism" to
+indicate the voluntary limitation of the family, but it must always be
+remembered that Malthus would not have approved of Neo-Malthusianism,
+and that Neo-Malthusian practices have nothing to do with the theory of
+Malthus. They would not be affected could that theory be conclusively
+proved or conclusively disproved.
+
+[113] We even find the demand that bachelors and spinsters shall be taxed.
+This proposal has been actually accepted (1911) by the Landtag of the
+little Principality of Reuss, which proposes to tax bachelors and
+spinsters over thirty years of age. Putting aside the arguable questions
+as to whether a State is entitled to place such pressure on its
+citizens, it must be pointed out that it is not marriage but the child
+which concerns the State. It is possible to have children without
+marriage, and marriage does not ensure the procreation of children.
+Therefore it would be more to the point to tax the childless. In that
+case, it would be necessary to remit the tax in the case of unmarried
+people with children, and to levy it in the case of married people
+without children. But it has further to be remembered that not all
+persons are fitted to have sound children, and as unsound children are a
+burden and not a benefit to the State, the State ought to reward rather
+than to fine those conscientious persons who refrain from procreation
+when they are too poor, or with too defective a heredity, to be likely
+to produce, or to bring up, sound children. Moreover, some persons are
+sterile, and thorough medical investigation would be required before
+they could fairly be taxed. As soon as we begin to analyse such a
+proposal we cannot fail to see that, even granting that the aim of such
+legislation is legitimate and desirable, the method of attaining it is
+thoroughly mischievous and unjustifiable.
+
+[114] J.G. Engelmann, "Decreasing Fecundity," _Philadelphia Medical
+Journal_, January 18, 1902.
+
+[115] It has, further, been frequently denied that Neo-Malthusian
+practices can affect Roman Catholic countries, since the Church is
+precluded from approving of them. That is true. But it is also true
+that, as Lagneau long since pointed out, the Protestants of Europe have
+increased at more than double the annual rate of the Catholics, though
+this relationship has now ceased to be exact. Dumont states
+(_Dépopulation et Civilisation_, chap. XVIII) that there is not the
+slightest reason to suppose that (apart from the question of poverty)
+the faithful have more children than the irreligious; moreover, in
+dealing with its more educated members, it is not the policy of the
+Church to make indiscreet inquiries (see Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," p. 590). A
+Catholic bishop is reported to have warned his clergy against referring
+in their Lent sermons to the voluntary restriction of conception,
+remarking that an excess of rigour in this matter would cause the Church
+to lose half her flock. The fall in the birth-rate is as marked in
+Catholic as in Protestant countries; the Catholic communities in which
+this is not the case are few, and placed in exceptional circumstances.
+It must be remembered, moreover, that the Church enjoins celibacy on its
+clergy, and that celibacy is practically a Malthusian method. It is not
+easy while preaching practical Malthusianism to the clergy to spend much
+fervour in preaching against practical Neo-Malthusianism to the laity.
+
+[116] McLean, "The Declining Birth-rate in Australia," _International
+Medical Journal of Australasia_, 1904.
+
+[117] Thus in France the low birth-rate is associated with a high
+infantile death-rate, which has not yet been appreciably influenced by
+the movement of puericulture in France. In England also, at the end of
+the last century, the declining birth-rate was accompanied by a rising
+infantile death-rate, which is now, however, declining under the
+influence of greater care of child-life.
+
+[118] Sidney Webb, _Times_, October 11 and 16, 1906; also _Popular Science
+Monthly_, 1906, p. 526.
+
+[119] It is important to remember the distinction between "fecundity" and
+"fertility." A woman who has one child has proved that she is fecund,
+but has not proved that she is fertile. A woman with six children has
+proved that she is not only fecund but fertile.
+
+[120] They have been worked out by C.J. Lewis and J. Norman Lewis,
+_Natality and Fecundity_, 1905.
+
+[121] Newsholme and Stevenson, _op. cit._; Rubin and Westergaard,
+_Statistik der Ehen_, 1890, p. 95.
+
+[122] D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status,"
+_Drapers' Company Research Memoirs_, No. 1, 1906.
+
+[123] The recognition of this relationship must not be regarded as an
+attempt unduly to narrow down the causation of changes in the
+birth-rate. The great complexity of the causes influencing the
+birth-rate is now fairly well recognized, and has, for instance, been
+pointed out by Goldscheid, _Höherentwicklung und Menschenökonomie_, Vol.
+I, 1911.
+
+[124] In a paper read at the Brunswick Meeting of the German
+Anthropological Society (_Correspondenzblatt_ of the Society, November,
+1898); a great many facts concerning the fecundity of women among
+savages in various parts of the world are brought together by Ploss and
+Bartels, _Das Weib_, Vol I, chap. XXIV.
+
+[125] The proportion of doctors to the population is very small, and the
+people still have great confidence in their quacks and witch-doctors.
+The elementary rules of sanitation are generally neglected, water
+supplies are polluted, filth is piled up in the streets and the
+courtyards, as it was in England and Western Europe generally until a
+century ago, and the framing of regulations or the incursions of the
+police have little effect on the habits of the people. Neglect of the
+ordinary precautions of cleanliness is responsible for the wide
+extension of syphilis by the use of drinking vessels, towels, etc., in
+common. Not only is typhoid prevalent in nearly every province of
+Russia, but typhus, which is peculiarly the disease of filth,
+overcrowding, and starvation, and has long been practically extinct in
+England, still flourishes and causes an immense mortality. The workers
+often have no homes and sleep in the factories amidst the machinery, men
+and women together; their food is insufficient, and the hours of labour
+may vary from twelve to fourteen. When famine occurs these conditions
+are exaggerated, and various epidemics ravage the population.
+
+[126] It must, however, be remembered that in small and unstable
+communities a considerable margin for error must be allowed, as the
+crude birth-rate is unduly raised by an afflux of immigrants at the
+reproductive age.
+
+[127] Arsène Dumont, _Dépopulation et Civilisation_, 1890, chap. VI. The
+nature of the restraint on fertility has been well set forth by Dr.
+Bushee ("The Declining Birth-rate and its Causes," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, August, 1903), mainly in the terms of Dumont's "social
+capillarity" theory.
+
+[128] Even Dr. Newsholme, usually so cautious and reliable an investigator
+in this field, has been betrayed into a reference in this connection
+(_The Declining Birth-rate_, 1911, p. 41) to the "increasing rarity of
+altruism," though in almost the next paragraph he points out that the
+large families of the past were connected with the fact that the child
+was a profitable asset, and could be sent to work when little more than
+an infant. The "altruism" which results in crushing the minds and bodies
+of others in order to increase one's own earnings is not an "altruism"
+which we need desire to perpetuate. The beneficial effect of legislation
+against child-labour in reducing an unduly high birth-rate has often
+been pointed out.
+
+[129] It may suffice to take a single point. Large families involve the
+birth of children at very short intervals. It has been clearly shown by
+Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring," _Eugenics
+Review_, October, 1911) that children born at an interval of less than
+two years after the birth of the previous child, remain, even when they
+have reached their sixth year, three inches shorter and three pounds
+lighter than first-born children.
+
+[130] For instance, Goldscheid, in _Höherentwicklung und
+Menschenökonomie_; it is also, on the whole, the conclusion of
+Newsholme, though expressed in an exceedingly temperate manner, in his
+_Declining Birth-rate_.
+
+[131] If, however, our birth-rate fanatics should hear of the results
+obtained at the experimental farm at Roseville, California, by Professor
+Silas Wentworth, who has found that by placing ewes in a field under the
+power wires of an electric wire company, the average production of lambs
+is more than doubled, we may anticipate trouble in many hitherto small
+families. Their predecessors insisted, in the cause of religion and
+morals, on burning witches; we must not be surprised if our modern
+fanatics, in the same holy cause, clamour for a law compelling all
+childless women to live under electric wires.
+
+[132] J. Holt Schooling, "The English Marriage Rate," _Fortnightly
+Review_, June, 1901.
+
+[133] G. Udny Yule, "Changes in the Marriage-and Birth-rate in England,"
+_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, March, 1906.
+
+[134] At an earlier period Hooker had investigated the same subject
+without coming to any very decisive conclusions ("Correlation of the
+Marriage-rate with Trade," _Journ. Statistical Soc._, September, 1901).
+Minor fluctuations in marriage and in trade per head, he found, tend to
+be in close correspondence, but on the whole trade has risen and the
+marriage-rate has fallen, probably, Hooker believed, as the result of
+the gradual deferment of marriage.
+
+[135] The higher standard need not be, among the mass of the population,
+of a very exalted character, although it marks a real progress.
+Newsholme and Stevenson (_op. cit._) term it a higher "standard of
+comfort." The decline of the birth-rate, they say, "is associated with a
+general raising of the standard of comfort, and is an expression of the
+determination of the people to secure this greater comfort."
+
+[136] Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, chap. XX.
+
+[137] It must not, however, be assumed that the rural immigrants are in
+the mass better suited to urban life than the urban natives. It is
+probable that, notwithstanding their energy and robustness, the
+immigrants are less suited to urban conditions than the natives.
+Consequently a process of selection takes place among the immigrants,
+and the survivors become, as it were, immunized to the poisons of urban
+life. But this immunization is by no means necessarily associated with
+any high degree of nervous vigour or general physical development.
+
+[138] Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 22, 43.
+
+[139] "National Health: a Soldier's Study," _Contemporary Review_,
+January, 1903. The Reports of the Inspector-General of Recruiting are
+said to show that the recruits are every year smaller, lighter, and
+narrower-chested.
+
+[140] This has been well illustrated during the past forty years in the
+flourishing county of Glamorgan in Wales, as is shown by Dr. R.S.
+Stewart ("The Relationship of Wages, Lunacy, and Crime in South Wales,"
+_Journal of Mental Science_, January, 1904). The staple industry here is
+coal, 17 per cent of the population being directly employed in
+coal-mining, and wages are determined by the sliding scale as it is
+called, according to which the selling price of coal regulates the
+wages. This leads to many fluctuations and sudden accesses of
+prosperity. It is found that whenever wages rise there is a concomitant
+increase of insanity and at the same time a diminished output of coal
+due to slacking of work when earnings are greater; there is also an
+increase of drunkenness and of crime. Stewart concludes that it is
+doubtful whether increased material prosperity is conducive to
+improvement in physical and mental status. It must, however, be pointed
+out that it is a sudden and unstable prosperity, not necessarily a
+gradual and stable prosperity, which is hereby shown to be pernicious.
+
+[141] The relationship is sometimes expressed by saying that the more
+highly differentiated the organism the fewer the offspring. According to
+Plate we ought to say that, the greater the capacity for parental care
+the fewer the offspring. This, however, comes to the same thing, since
+it is the higher organisms which possess the increased capacity for
+parental care. Putting it in the most generalized zoological way,
+diminished offspring is the response to improved environment. Thus in
+Man the decline of the birth-rate, as Professor Benjamin Moore remarks
+(_British Medical Journal_, August 20, 1910, p. 454), is "the simple
+biological reply to good economic conditions. It is a well-known
+biological law that even a micro-organism, when placed in unfavourable
+conditions as to food and environment, passes into a reproductive phase,
+and by sporulation or some special type produces new individuals very
+rapidly. The same condition of affairs in the human race was shown even
+by the fact that one-half of the births come from the least favourably
+situated one-quarter of the population. Hence, over-rapid birth-rate
+indicates unfavourable conditions of life, so that (so long as the
+population was on the increase) a lower birth-rate was a valuable
+indication of a better social condition of affairs, and a matter on
+which we should congratulate the country rather than proceed to
+condolences."
+
+[142] "The accumulations of racial experience tend to show," remarks Woods
+Hutchinson ("Animal Marriage," _Contemporary Review_, October, 1904),
+"that by the production of a smaller and smaller number of offspring,
+and the expenditure upon those of a greater amount of parental care,
+better results can be obtained in efficiency and capacity for survival."
+
+[143] Toulouse, _Causes de la Folie_, p. 91; Magri, _Archivio di
+Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. vi-vii; Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British
+Genius_, pp. 106 et seq.
+
+[144] Emile Macquart, "Mortalité, Natalité, Dépopulation," _Bulletin de la
+Société d'Anthropologie_, 1902.
+
+[145] It is interesting to observe how Lafcadio Hearn, during the last
+years of his life, was compelled, however unwillingly, to recognize this
+change. See e.g. his _Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation_, 1904, ch.
+XXI, on "Industrial Dangers." The Japanese themselves have recognized
+it, and it is the feeling of the decay of their ancient ideals which has
+given so great an impetus to new ethical movements, such as that,
+described as a kind of elevated materialism, established by Yukichi
+Fukuzawa (see _Open Court_, June, 1907).
+
+[146] _Athenæum_, October 7, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+EUGENICS AND LOVE
+
+     Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate--Quantity and Quality in
+     the Production of Children--Eugenic Sexual Selection--The Value of
+     Pedigrees--Their Scientific Significance--The Systematic Record of
+     Personal Data--The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates--St.
+     Valentine's Day and Sexual Selection--Love and Reason--Love Ruled
+     by Natural Law--Eugenic Selection not opposed to Love--No Need for
+     Legal Compulsion--Medicine in Relation to Marriage
+
+
+I
+
+During recent years the question of the future of the human race has
+been brought before us in a way it has never been brought before. The
+great expansive movement in civilized countries is over. Whereas, fifty
+years ago, France seemed to present a striking contrast to other
+countries in her low and gradually falling birth-rate, to-day, though
+she has herself now almost reached a stationary position, France is seen
+merely to have been the leader in a movement which is common to all the
+more highly civilized nations. They are all now moving rapidly in the
+direction in which she moved slowly. It was inevitable that this
+movement, world-wide as it is, should call forth energetic protests, for
+there is no condition of things so bad but it finds some to advocate its
+perpetuation. There has, therefore, been much vigorous preaching against
+"race suicide" by people who were deaf to the small voice of reason,
+who failed to understand that this matter could not be settled by mere
+consideration of the crude birth-rates, and that, even if it could, we
+should have still to realize that, as an economist remarks, it is to the
+decline of the birth-rate only that we probably owe it that the modern
+civilized world has been saved from economic disaster.[147]
+
+But whatever the causes of the declining birth-rate it is certain that
+even when they are within our control they are of far too intimate a
+character for the public moralist to be permitted to touch them, even
+though we consider them to be in a disastrous state. It has to be
+recognized that we are here in the presence, not of a merely local or
+temporary tendency which might be shaken off with an effort, but of a
+great fundamental law of civilization; and the fact that we encounter it
+in our own race merely means that we are reaching a fairly high stage of
+civilization. It is far from the first time, in the history of the
+world, that the same phenomenon has been witnessed. It was seen in
+Imperial Rome; it was seen, again, in the "Protestant Rome," Geneva.
+Wherever are gathered together an exceedingly fine race of people, the
+flower of the race, individuals of the highest mental and moral
+distinction, there the birth-rate falls steadily. Vice or virtue alike
+avails nothing in this field; with high civilization fertility
+inevitably diminishes.
+
+
+II
+
+Under these circumstances it was to be expected that a new ideal should
+begin to flash before men's eyes. If the ideal of _quantity_ is lost to
+us, why not seek the ideal of _quality_? We know that the old rule:
+"Increase and multiply" meant a vast amount of infant mortality, of
+starvation, of chronic disease, of widespread misery. In abandoning that
+rule, as we have been forced to do, are we not left free to seek that
+our children, though few, should be at all events fit, the finest, alike
+in physical and psychical constitution, that the world has seen?
+
+Thus has come about the recent expansion of that conception of
+_Eugenics_, or the science and art of Good Breeding in the human race,
+which a group of workers, pioneered by Francis Galton[148]--at first in
+England and later in America, Germany and elsewhere--have been
+developing for some years past. Eugenics is beginning to be felt to
+possess a living actuality which it failed to possess before. Instead of
+being a benevolent scientific fad it begins to present itself as the
+goal to which we are inevitably moving.
+
+The cause of Eugenics has sometimes been prejudiced in the public mind
+by a comparison with the artificial breeding of domestic animals. In
+reality the two things are altogether different. In breeding animals a
+higher race of beings manipulates a lower race with the object of
+securing definite points that are of no use whatever to the animals
+themselves, but of considerable value to the breeders. In our own race,
+on the other hand, the problem of breeding is presented in an entirely
+different shape. There is as yet no race of super-men who are prepared
+to breed man for their own special ends. As things are, even if we had
+the ability and the power, we should surely hesitate before we bred men
+and women as we breed dogs or fowls. We may, therefore, quite put aside
+all discussion of eugenics as a sort of higher cattle-breeding. It would
+be undesirable, even if it were not impracticable.
+
+But there is another aspect of Eugenics. Human eugenics need not be, and
+is not likely to be, a cold-blooded selection of partners by some
+outside scientific authority. But it may be, and is very likely to be, a
+slowly growing conviction--first among the more intelligent members of
+the community and then by imitation and fashion among the less
+intelligent members--that our children, the future race, the
+torch-bearers of civilization for succeeding ages, are not the mere
+result of chance or Providence, but that, in a very real sense, it is
+within our power to mould them, that the salvation or damnation of many
+future generations lies in our hands since it depends on our wise and
+sane choice of a mate. The results of the breeding of those persons who
+ought never to be parents is well known; the notorious case of the Jukes
+family is but one among many instances. We could scarcely expect in any
+community that individuals like the Jukes would take the initiative in
+movements for the eugenic development of the race, but it makes much
+difference whether such families exist in an environment like our own
+which is indifferent to the future of the race, or whether they are
+surrounded by influences of a more wholesome character which can
+scarcely fail to some extent to affect, and even to control, the
+reckless and anti-social elements in the community.
+
+In considering this question, therefore, we are justified in putting
+aside not only any kind of human breeding resembling the artificial
+breeding of animals, but also, at all events for the present, every
+compulsory prohibition on marriage or procreation. We must be content to
+concern ourselves with ideals, and with the endeavour to exert our
+personal influence in the realization of these ideals.
+
+
+III
+
+Such ideals cannot, however, be left in the air; if they depend on
+individual caprice nothing but fruitless confusion can come of them.
+They must be firmly grounded on a scientific basis of ascertained fact.
+This was always emphasized by Galton. He not only initiated schemes for
+obtaining, but actually to some extent obtained, a large amount of
+scientific knowledge concerning the special characteristics and
+aptitudes of families, and his efforts in this direction have since been
+largely extended and elaborated.[149] The feverish activities of modern
+life, and the constant vicissitudes and accidents that overtake families
+to-day, have led to an extraordinary indifference to family history and
+tradition. Our forefathers, from generation to generation, carefully
+entered births, baptisms, marriages, and deaths in the fly-leaf of the
+Family Bible. It is largely owing to these precious entries that many
+are able to carry their family history several centuries further back
+than they otherwise could. But nowadays the Family Bible has for the
+most part ceased to exist, and nothing else has taken its place. If a
+man wishes to know what sort of stocks he has come from, unless he is
+himself an antiquarian, or in a position to employ an antiquarian to
+assist him, he can learn little, and in the most favourable position he
+is helpless without clues; though with such clues he might often learn
+much that would be of the greatest interest to him. The entries in the
+Family Bible, however, whatever their value as clues and even as actual
+data, do not furnish adequate information to serve as a guide to the
+different qualities of stocks; we need far more detailed and varied
+information in order to realize the respective values of families from
+the point of view of eugenics. Here, again, Galton had already realized
+the need for supplying a great defect in our knowledge, and his
+Life-history Albums showed how the necessary information may be
+conveniently registered.
+
+The accumulated histories of individual families, it is evident, will in
+time furnish a foundation on which to base scientific generalizations,
+and eventually, perhaps, to justify practical action. Moreover, a vast
+amount of valuable information on which it is possible to build up a
+knowledge of the correlated characteristics of families, already lies at
+present unused in the great insurance offices and elsewhere. When it is
+possible to obtain a large collection of accurate pedigrees for
+scientific purposes, and to throw them into a properly tabulated form,
+we shall certainly be in a position to know more of the qualities of
+stocks, of their good and bad characteristics, and of the degree in
+which they are correlated.[150]
+
+In this way we shall, in time, be able to obtain a clear picture of the
+probable results on the offspring of unions between any kind of people.
+From personal and ancestral data we shall be able to reckon the probable
+quality of the offspring of a married couple. Given a man and woman of
+known personal qualities and of known ancestors, what are likely to be
+the personal qualities, physical, mental and moral, of the children?
+That is a question of immense importance both for the beings themselves
+whom we bring into the world, for the community generally, and for the
+future race.
+
+Eventually, it seems evident, a general system, whether private or
+public, whereby all personal facts, biological and mental, normal and
+morbid, are duly and systematically registered, must become inevitable
+if we are to have a real guide as to those persons who are most fit, or
+most unfit, to carry on the race.[151] Unless they are full and frank such
+records are useless. But it is obvious that for a long time to come such
+a system of registration must be private. According to the belief which
+is still deeply rooted in most of us, we regard as most private those
+facts of our lives which are most intimately connected with the life of
+the race, and most fateful for the future of humanity. The feeling is no
+doubt inevitable; it has a certain rightness and justification. As,
+however, our knowledge increases we shall learn that we are, on the one
+hand, a little more responsible for future generations than we are
+accustomed to think, and, on the other hand, a little less responsible
+for our own good or bad qualities. Our fiat makes the future man, but,
+in the same way, we are ourselves made by a choice and a will not our
+own. A man may indeed, within limits, mould himself, but the materials
+he can alone use were handed on to him by his parents, and whether he
+becomes a man of genius, a criminal, a drunkard, an epileptic, or an
+ordinarily healthy, well-conducted, and intelligent citizen, must depend
+at least as much on his parents as on his own effort or lack of effort,
+since even the aptitude for effective effort is largely inborn. As we
+learn to look on the facts from the only sound standpoint of heredity,
+our anger or contempt for a failing and erring individual has to give
+way to the kindly but firm control of a weakling. If the children's
+teeth have been set on edge it is because the parents have eaten sour
+grapes.
+
+If, however, we certainly cannot bring legal or even moral force to
+compel everyone to maintain such detailed registers of himself, his
+ancestral stocks, and his offspring--to say nothing of inducing him to
+make them public--there is something that we can do. We can make it to
+his interest to keep such a record.[152] If it became an advantage in
+life to a man to possess good ancestors, and to be himself a good
+specimen of humanity in mind, character, and physique, we may be sure
+that those who are above the average in these matters will be glad to
+make use of that superiority. Insurance offices already make an
+inquisition into these matters, to which no one objects, because a man
+only submits to it for his own advantage; while for military and some
+other services similar inquiries are compulsory. Eugenic certificates,
+according to Galton's proposal, would be issued by a suitably
+constituted authority to those candidates who chose to apply for them
+and were able to pass the necessary tests. Such certificates would imply
+an inquiry and examination into the ancestry of the candidate as well as
+into his own constitution, health, intelligence and character; and the
+possession of such a certificate would involve a superiority to the
+average in all these respects. No one would be compelled to offer
+himself for such examination, just as no one is compelled to seek a
+university degree. But its possession would often be an advantage. There
+is nothing to prevent the establishment of a board of examiners of this
+kind to-morrow, and we may be sure that, once established, many
+candidates would hasten to present themselves.[153] There are obviously
+many positions in life wherein a certificate of this kind of superiority
+would be helpful. But its chief distinction would be that its possession
+would be a kind of patent of natural nobility; the man or woman who held
+it would be one of Nature's aristocrats, to whom the future of the race
+might be safely left without further question.
+
+
+IV
+
+By happy inspiration, or by chance, Galton made public his programme of
+eugenic research, in a paper read before the Sociological Society, on
+February 14, the festival of St. Valentine. Although the ancient
+observances of that day have now died out, St. Valentine was for many
+centuries the patron saint of sexual selection, more especially in
+England. It can scarcely be said that any credit in this matter belongs
+to the venerable saint himself; it was by an accident that he achieved
+his conspicuous position in the world. He was simply a pious Christian
+who was beheaded for his faith in Rome under Claudius. But it so
+happened that his festival fell at that period in early spring when
+birds were believed to pair, and when youths and maidens were accustomed
+to select partners for themselves or for others. This custom--which has
+been studied together with many allied primitive practices by
+Mannhardt[154]--was not always carried out on February 14, sometimes it
+took place a little later. In England, where it was strictly associated
+with St. Valentine's Day, the custom was referred to by Lydgate, and by
+Charles of Orleans in the rondeaus and ballades he wrote during his long
+imprisonment in England. The name Valentins or Valentines was also
+introduced into France (where the custom had long existed) to designate
+the young couples thus constituted. This method of sexual selection,
+half playful, half serious, flourished especially in the region between
+England, the Moselle, and the Tyrol. The essential part of the custom
+lay in the public choice of a fitting mate for marriageable girls.
+Sometimes the question of fitness resolved itself into one of good
+looks; occasionally the matter was settled by lot. There was no
+compulsion about these unions; they were often little more than a game,
+though at times they involved a degree of immorality which caused the
+authorities to oppose them. But very frequently the sexual selection
+thus exerted led to weddings, and these playful Valentine unions were
+held to be a specially favourable prelude to a happy marriage.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to show how the ancient customs associated with
+St. Valentine's Day are taken up again and placed on a higher plane by
+the great movement which is now beginning to shape itself among us. The
+old Valentine unions were made by a process of caprice tempered more or
+less by sound instincts and good sense. In the sexual selection of the
+future the same results will be attained by more or less deliberate and
+conscious recognition of the great laws and tendencies which
+investigation is slowly bringing to light. The new St. Valentine will be
+a saint of science rather than of folk-lore.
+
+Whenever such statements as these are made it is always retorted that
+love laughs at science, and that the winds of passion blow where they
+list.[155] That, however, is by no means altogether true, and in any case
+it is far from covering the whole of the ground. It is hard to fight
+against human nature, but human nature itself is opposed to
+indiscriminate choice of mates. It is not true that any one tends to
+love anybody, and that mutual attraction is entirely a matter of chance.
+The investigations which have lately been carried out show that there
+are certain definite tendencies in this matter, that certain kinds of
+people tend to be attracted to certain kinds, especially that like are
+attracted to like rather than unlike to unlike, and that, again, while
+some kinds of people tend to be married with special frequency other
+kinds tend to be left unmarried.[156] Sexual selection, even when left to
+random influences, is still not left to chance; it follows definite and
+ascertainable laws. In that way the play of love, however free it may
+appear, is really limited in a number of directions. People do not tend
+to fall in love with those who are in racial respects a contrast to
+themselves; they do not tend to fall in love with foreigners; they do
+not tend to be attracted to the ugly, the diseased, the deformed. All
+these things may happen, but they are the exception and not the rule.
+These limitations to the roving impulses of love, while very real, to
+some extent vary at different periods in accordance with the ideals
+which happen to be fashionable. In more remote ages they have been still
+more profoundly modified by religious and social ideas; polygamy and
+polyandry, the custom of marrying only inside one's own caste, or only
+outside it, all these various and contradictory plans have been easily
+accepted at some place and some time, and have offered no more conscious
+obstacle to the free play of love than among ourselves is offered by the
+prohibition against marriage between near relations.
+
+Those simple-minded people who talk about the blind and irresistible
+force of passion are themselves blind to very ordinary psychological
+facts. Passion--when it occurs--requires in normal persons cumulative
+and prolonged forces to impart to it full momentum.[157] In its early
+stages it is under the control of many influences, including influences
+of reason. If it were not so there could be no sexual selection, nor any
+social organization.[158]
+
+The eugenic ideal which is now developing is thus not an artificial
+product, but the reasoned manifestation of a natural instinct, which has
+often been far more severely strained by the arbitrary prohibitions of
+the past than it is ever likely to be by any eugenic ideals of the
+future. The new ideal will be absorbed into the conscience of the
+community, whether or not like a kind of new religion,[159] and will
+instinctively and unconsciously influence the impulses of men and women.
+It will do all this the more surely since, unlike the taboos of savage
+societies, the eugenic ideal will lead men and women to reject as
+partners only the men and women who are naturally unfit--the diseased,
+the abnormal, the weaklings--and conscience will thus be on the side of
+impulse.
+
+It may indeed be pointed out that those who advocate a higher and more
+scientific conscience in matters of mating are by no means plotting
+against love, which is for the most part on their side, but rather
+against the influences that do violence to love: on the one hand, the
+reckless and thoughtless yielding to mere momentary desire, and, on the
+other hand, the still more fatal influences of wealth and position and
+worldly convenience which give a factitious value to persons who would
+never appear attractive partners in life were love and eugenic ideals
+left to go hand in hand. It is such unions, and not those inspired by
+the wholesome instincts of wholesome lovers, which lead, if not to the
+abstract "deterioration of the race," at all events in numberless cases
+to the abiding unhappiness of persons who choose a mate without
+realizing how that mate is likely to develop, nor what sort of children
+may probably be expected from the union. The eugenic ideal will have to
+struggle with the criminal and still more resolutely with the rich; it
+will have few serious quarrels with normal and well constituted lovers.
+
+It will now perhaps be clear how it is that the eugenic conception of
+the improvement of the race embodies a new ideal. We are familiar with
+legislative projects for compulsory certificates as a condition of
+marriage. But even apart from all the other considerations which make
+such schemes both illusory and undesirable, these externally imposed
+regulations fail to go to the root of the matter. If they are voluntary,
+if they spring out of a fine eugenic aspiration, it is another matter.
+Under these conditions the method may be carried out at once. Professor
+Grasset has pointed out one way in which this may be effected. We
+cannot, he remarks, follow the procedure of a military _conseil de
+revision_ and compulsorily reject the candidate for a definite defect.
+But it would be possible for the two families concerned to call a
+conference of their two family doctors, after examination of the
+would-be bride and bridegroom, permitting the doctors to discuss freely
+the medical aspects of the proposed union, and undertaking to accept
+their decision, without asking for the revelation of any secrets, the
+families thus remaining ignorant of the defect which prevented this
+union but might not prevent another union, for the chief danger in many
+cases comes from the conjunction of convergent morbid tendencies.[160] In
+France, where much power remains with the respective families, this
+method might be operative, provided complete confidence was felt in the
+doctors concerned. In some countries, such as England, the prospective
+couple might prefer to take the matter into their own hands, to discuss
+it frankly, and to seek medical advice on their own account; this is now
+much more frequently done than was formerly the case. But all compulsory
+projects of this kind, and indeed any mere legislation, cannot go to the
+root of the matter. For in the first place, what we need is a great body
+of facts, and a careful attention to the record and registration and
+statistical tabulation of personal and family histories. In the second
+place, we need that sound ideals and a high sense of responsibility
+should permeate the whole community, first its finer and more
+distinguished members and then, by the usual contagion that rules in
+such matters, the whole body of its members.[161] In time, no doubt, this
+would lead to concerted social action. We may reasonably expect that a
+time will come when if, for instance, an epileptic woman conceals her
+condition from the man she is marrying it would generally be felt that
+an offence has been committed serious enough to invalidate the marriage.
+We must not suppose that lovers would be either willing or competent to
+investigate each other's family and medical histories. But it would be
+at least as easy and as simple to choose a partner from those persons
+who had successfully passed the eugenic test--more especially since such
+persons would certainly be the most attractive group in the
+community--as it is for an Australian aborigine to select a conjugal
+partner from one social group rather than from any other.[162] It is a
+matter of accepting an ideal and of exerting our personal and social
+influence in the direction of that ideal. If we really seek to raise the
+level of humanity we may in this way begin to do so to-day.
+
+NOTE ON THE LIFE-HISTORY RECORD
+
+The extreme interest of a Life-History Record is obvious, even apart
+from its eventual scientific value. Most of us would have reason to
+congratulate ourselves had such records been customary when we were
+ourselves children. It is probable that this is becoming more generally
+realized, though until recently only the pioneers have here been active.
+"I started a Life-History Album for each of my children," writes Mr.
+F.H. Perrycoste in a private letter, "as soon as they were born; and by
+the time they arrive at man's and woman's estate they will have valuable
+records of their own physical, mental, and moral development, which
+should be of great service to them when they come to have children of
+their own, whilst the physical--in which are included, of course,
+medical--records may at any time be of great value to their own medical
+advisers in later life. I have reason to regret that some such Albums
+were not kept for my wife and myself, for they would have afforded the
+necessary data by which to 'size up' the abilities and conduct of our
+children. I know, for instance, pretty well what was my own Galtonian
+rank as a schoolboy, and I am constantly asking myself whether my boy
+will do as well, better, or worse. Now fortunately I do happen to
+remember roughly what stages I had reached at one or two transition
+periods of school-life; but if only such an Album had been kept for me,
+I could turn it up and check my boy against myself in each subject at
+each yearly stage. You will gather from this that I consider it of great
+importance that ample details of school-work and intellectual
+development should be entered in the Album. I find the space at my
+disposal for these entries insufficient, and consequently I summarize in
+the Album and insert a reference to sheets of fuller details which I
+keep; but it might be well, when another edition of the Album comes to
+be published, to agitate for the insertion of extra blank pages after
+the age of eight or nine, in order to allow of the transcription of full
+school-reports. However, the great thing is to induce people to keep an
+Album that will form the nucleus round which any number of fuller
+records can cluster."
+
+It is not necessary that the Galtonian type of Album should be rigidly
+preserved, and I am indebted to "Henry Hamill," the author of _The Truth
+We Owe to Youth_, for the following suggestions as to the way in which
+such a record may be carried out:
+
+"The book should not be a mere dry rigmarole, but include a certain
+appeal to sentiment. The subject should begin to make the entries
+himself when old enough to do so properly, i.e. so that the book will
+not be disfigured--though indeed the naivity of juvenile phrasing, etc.,
+may be of a particular interest. From a graphological point of view, the
+evolution of the handwriting will be of interest; and if for no other
+reason, specimens of handwriting ought to appear in it from year to
+year, while the parent is still writing the other entries. There may now
+be a certain sacramental character in the life-history. The subject
+should be led to regard the book as a witness, and to perceive in it an
+additional reason for avoiding every act the mention of which would be a
+disfigurement of the history. At the same time, the nature of the
+witness may be made to correct the wrong notions prevailing as to the
+worthiness of acts, and to sanctify certain of them that have been
+foolishly degraded. Thus there may be left several leaves blank before
+the pages of forms for filling in anthropometric and physiological data,
+and the headings may be made to suggest a worthier way of viewing these
+things. For instance, there may be the indication 'Place and time of
+conception,' and a specimen entry may be of service to lead commonplace
+minds into a more reverent and poetical view than is now usual--such as
+the one I culled from the life-history of an American child: 'Our
+second child M---- was conceived on Midsummer Day, under the shade of a
+friendly sycamore, beneath the cloudless blue of Southern California.'
+Or, instead of restricting the reference to the particular episode, it
+may refer to the whole chapter of Love which that episode adorned, more
+especially in the case of a first child, when a poetical history of the
+mating of the parents may precede. The presence of the idea that the
+book would some day be read by others than the intimate circle, would
+restrain the tendency of some persons to inordinate self-revelation and
+'gush.' Such books as these would form the dearest heirlooms of a
+family, helping to knit its bonds firmer, and giving an insight into
+individual character which would supplement the more tangible data for
+the pedigree in a most valuable way. The photographs taken every three
+months or so ought to be as largely as possible nude. The gradual
+transition from childhood would help to prevent an abrupt feeling
+arising, and the practice would be a valuable aid to the rehabilitation
+of the nude, and of genuineness in our daily life, no matter in what
+respect. This leads to the difficult question of how far moral aspects
+should be entertained. 'To-day Johnnie told his first fib; we pretended
+to disbelieve everything else he said, and he began to see that lying
+was bad policy.' 'Chastised Johnnie for the first time for pulling the
+wings off a fly; he wanted to know why we might kill flies outright, but
+not mutilate them,' and so on. For in this way parents would train
+themselves in the psychology of education and character-building, though
+books by specially gifted parents would soon appear for their guidance.
+
+"Of course, whatever relevant circumstances were available about the
+ante-natal period or the mother's condition would be noted (but who
+would expect a mother to note that she laced tight up to such and such a
+month? Perhaps the keeping of a log like this might act as a deterrent).
+Similarly, under diet and regimen, year by year, the assumption of
+breast-feeding--provision of columns for the various incidents of
+it--weight before and after feeding, etc., would have a great suggestive
+value.
+
+"The provision under diet and regimen of columns for 'drug habits, if
+any'--tea, coffee, alcohol, nicotine, morphia, etc.--would have a
+suggestive value and operate in the direction of the simple life and a
+reverence for the body. Some good aphorisms might be strewed in, such
+as:
+
+"'If anything is sacred, the human body is sacred' (Whitman).
+
+"As young people circulate their 'Books of Likes and Dislikes,' etc.,
+and thus in an entertaining way provide each other with insight into
+mutual character, so the Life-History need not be an _arcanum_--at least
+where people have nothing to be ashamed of. It would be a very trying
+ordeal, no doubt, to admit even intimate friends to this confidence.
+_But as eugenics spread, concealment of taint will become almost
+impracticable_, and the facts may as well be confessed. But even then
+there will be limitations. There might be an esoteric book for the
+individual's own account of himself. Such important items as the
+incidence of puberty (though notorious in some communities) could not
+well be included in a book open even to the family circle, for
+generations to come. The quiescence of the genital sense, the sedatives
+naturally occurring, important as these are, and occupying the
+consciousness in so large a degree, would find no place; nevertheless, a
+private journal of the facts would help to steady the individual, and
+prove a check against disrespect to his body.
+
+"As the facts of individual evolution would be noted, so likewise would
+those of dissolution. The first signs of decay--the teeth, the
+elasticity of body and mind--would provide a valuable sphere for all who
+are disposed to the diary-habit. The journals of individuals with a gift
+for introspection would furnish valuable material for psychologists in
+the future. Life would be cleansed in many ways. Journals would not have
+to be bowdlerized, like Marie Bashkirtseff's, for the morbidity that
+gloats on the forbidden would have a lesser scope, much that is now
+regarded as disgraceful being then accepted as natural and right.
+
+"The book might have several volumes, and that for the periods of
+infancy and childhood might need to be less private than the one for
+puberty. More, in his _Utopia_, demands that lovers shall learn to know
+each other as they really are, i.e. naked. That is now the most Utopian
+thing in More's _Utopia_. But the lovers might communicate their
+life-histories to each other as a preliminary.
+
+"The whole plan would, of course, finally have to be over-hauled by the
+so-called 'man of the world.'"
+
+Not everyone may agree with this conception of the Life-History Album
+and its uses. Some will prefer a severely dry and bald record of
+measurements. At the present time, however, there is room for very
+various types of such documents. The important point is to realize that,
+in some form or another, a record of this kind from birth or earlier is
+practicable, and constitutes a record which is highly desirable alike on
+personal, social, and scientific grounds.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[147] Dr. Scott Nearing, "Race Suicide _versus_ Over-Population," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, January, 1911. And from the biological side Professor
+Bateson concludes (_Biological Fact and the Structure of Society_, p.
+23) that "it is in a decline in the birth-rate that the most promising
+omen exists for the happiness of future generations."
+
+[148] Galton himself, the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, and the half-cousin
+of Charles Darwin, may be said to furnish a noble illustration of an
+unconscious process of eugenics. (He has set forth his ancestry in
+_Memories of My Life_.) On his death, the editor of the _Popular Science
+Monthly_ wrote, referring to the fact that Galton was nominated to
+succeed William James in the honorary membership of an Academy of
+Science: "These two men are the greatest whom he has known. James
+possessed the more complicated personality; but they had certain common
+traits--a combination of perfect aristocracy with complete democracy,
+directness, kindliness, generosity, and nobility beyond all measure. It
+has been said that eugenics is futile because it cannot define its end.
+The answer is simple--we want men like William James and Francis Galton"
+(_Popular Science Monthly_, _March_, 1911.) Probably most of those who
+were brought, however slightly, in contact with these two fine
+personalities will subscribe to this conclusion.
+
+[149] Galton chiefly studied the families to which men of intellectual
+ability belong, especially in his _Hereditary Genius_ and _English Men
+of Science_; various kinds of pathological families have since been
+investigated by Karl Pearson and his co-workers (see the series of
+_Biometrika_); the pedigrees of the defective classes (especially the
+feeble-minded and epileptic) are now being accurately worked out, as by
+Godden, at Vineland, New Jersey, and Davenport, in New York (see e.g.
+_Eugenics Review_, April, 1911, and _Journal of Nervous and Mental
+Disease_, November, 1911).
+
+[150] "When once more the importance of good birth comes to be recognized
+in a new sense," wrote W.C.D. Whetham and Mrs. Whetham (in _The Family
+and the Nation_, p. 222), "when the innate physical and mental qualities
+of different families are recorded in the central sociological
+department or scientifically reformed College of Arms, the pedigrees of
+all will be known to be of supreme interest. It would be understood to
+be more important to marry into a family with a good hereditary record
+of physical and mental and moral qualities than it ever has been
+considered to be allied to one with sixteen quarterings."
+
+[151] The importance of such biographical records of aptitude and
+character are so great that some, like Schallmayer (_Vererbung und
+Auslese_, 2nd ed., 1910, p. 389) believe that they must be made
+universally obligatory. This proposal, however, seems premature.
+
+[152] In many undesigned and unforeseen ways these registers may be of
+immense value. They may even prove the means of overthrowing our
+pernicious and destructive system of so-called "education." A step in
+this direction has been suggested by Mr. R.T. Bodey, Inspector of
+Elementary Schools, at a meeting of the Liverpool branch of the Eugenics
+Education Society: "Education facilities should be carefully distributed
+with regard to the scientific likelihood of their utilization to the
+maximum of national advantage, and this not for economic reasons only,
+but because it was cruel to drag children from their own to a different
+sphere of life, and cruel to the class they deserted. Since the
+activities of the nation and the powers of the children were alike
+varied in kind and degree, the most natural plan would be to sort them
+both out, and then design a school system expressly in order to fit one
+to the other. At present there was no fixed purpose, but a perpetual
+riot of changes, resulting in distraction of mind, discontinuity of
+purpose, and increase of cost, while happiness decayed because desires
+grew faster than possessions or the sense of achievement. The only
+really scientific basis for a national system of education would be a
+full knowledge of the family history of each child. With more perfect
+classification of family talent the need of scholarships of
+transplantation would become less, for each of them was the confession
+of an initial error in placing the child. Then there would be more money
+to be spared for industrial research, travelling and art studentships,
+and other aids to those who had the rare gift of original thought"
+(_British Medical Journal_, November 18, 1911).
+
+[153] I should add that there is one obstacle, viz. expense. When the
+present chapter was first published in its preliminary form as an
+article in the _Nineteenth Century and After_ (May, 1906), Galton,
+always alive to everything bearing on the study of Eugenics, wrote to me
+that he had been impressed by the generally sympathetic reception my
+paper had received, and that he felt encouraged to consider whether it
+was possible to begin giving such certificates at once. He asked for my
+views, among others, as to the ground which should be covered by such
+certificates. The programme I set forth was somewhat extensive, as I
+considered that the applicant must not only bring evidence of a sound
+ancestry, but also submit to anthropological, psychological, and medical
+examination. Galton eventually came to the conclusion that the expenses
+involved by the scheme rendered it for the present impracticable. My
+opinion was, and is, that though the charge for such a certificate might
+in the first place be prohibitive for most people, a few persons might
+find it desirable to seek, and advantageous to possess, such
+certificates, and that it is worth while at all events to make a
+beginning.
+
+[154] Mannhardt, _Wald-und Feldkulte_, 1875, Vol. I, pp. 422 _et seq._ I
+have discussed seasonal erotic festivals in a study of "The Phenomena of
+Sexual Periodicity," _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. I.
+
+[155] Thus we read in a small popular periodical: "I am prepared to back
+human nature against all the cranks in Christendom. Human nature will
+endure a faddist so long as he does not interfere with things it prizes.
+One of these things is the right to select its partner for life. If a
+man loves a girl he is not going to give her up because she happens to
+have an aunt in a lunatic asylum or an uncle who has epileptic fits,"
+etc. In the same way it may be said that a man will allow nothing to
+interfere with his right to eat such food as he chooses, and is not
+going to give up a dish he likes because it happens to be peppered with
+arsenic. It may be so, let us grant, among savages. The growth of
+civilization lies in ever-extended self-control guided by foresight.
+
+[156] I have summarized some of the evidence on these points, especially
+that showing that sexual attraction tends to be towards like persons and
+not, as was formerly supposed, towards the unlike, in _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. IV, "Sexual Selection in Man."
+
+[157] In other words, the process of tumescence is gradual and complex.
+See Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. III, "The
+Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[158] As Roswell Johnson remarks ("The Evolution of Man and its Control,"
+_Popular Science Monthly_, January, 1910): "While it is undeniable that
+love when once established defies rational considerations, yet we must
+remark that sexual selection proceeds usually through two stages, the
+first being one of mere mutual attraction and interest. It is in this
+stage that the will and reason are operative, and here alone that any
+considerable elevation of standard may be effective."
+
+[159] Galton looked upon eugenics as fitted to become a factor in religion
+(_Essays in Eugenics_, p. 68). It may, however, be questioned whether
+this consummation is either probable or desirable. The same religious
+claim has been made for socialism. But, as Dr. Eden Paul remarks in a
+recent pamphlet on _Socialism and Eugenics_, "Whereas both Socialism and
+Eugenics are concerned solely with the application of the knowledge
+gained by experience to the amelioration of the human lot, it seems
+preferable to dispense with religious terminology, and to regard the two
+doctrines as complementary parts of the great modern movement known by
+the name of Humanism." Personally, I do not consider that either
+Socialism or Eugenics can be regarded as coming within the legitimate
+sphere of religion, which I have elsewhere attempted to define
+(Conclusion to _The New Spirit_).
+
+[160] J. Grasset, in Dr. A. Marie's _Traité International de Psychologie
+Pathologique_, 1910, Vol. I, p. 25. Grasset proceeds to discuss the
+principles which must guide the physician in such consultations.
+
+[161] This has been clearly realized by the German Society of Eugenics or
+"Racial Hygiene," as it is usually termed in Germany (Internationale
+Gesellschaft für Rassen-Hygiene), founded by Dr. Alfred Ploetz, with the
+co-operation of many distinguished physicians and men of science, "to
+further the theory and practice of racial hygiene." It is a chief aim of
+this Society to encourage the registration by the members of the
+biological and other physical and psychic characteristics of themselves
+and their families, in order to obtain a body of data on which
+conclusions may eventually be based; the members undertake not to enter
+on a marriage except they are assured by medical investigation of both
+parties that the union is not likely to cause disaster to either partner
+or to the offspring. The Society also admits associates who only occupy
+themselves with the scientific aspects of its work and with propaganda.
+In England the Eugenics Education Society (with its organ the _Eugenics
+Review_) has done much to stimulate an intelligent interest in
+eugenics.
+
+[162] How influential public opinion may be in the selection of mates is
+indicated by the influence it already exerts--in less than a century--in
+the limitation of offspring. This is well marked in some parts of
+France. Thus, concerning a rural district near the Garonne, Dr. Belbèze,
+who knows it thoroughly, writes (_La Neurasthénie Rurale_, 1911):
+"Public opinion does not at present approve of multiple procreation.
+Large families, there can be no doubt, are treated with contempt.
+Couples who produce a numerous progeny are looked on, with a wink, as
+'maladroits,' which in this region is perhaps the supreme term of
+abuse.... Public opinion is all-powerful, and alone suffices to produce
+restraint, when foresight is not adequate for this purpose."
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+RELIGION AND THE CHILD
+
+     Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to
+     Psychology--The Psychology of the Child--The Contents of Children's
+     Minds--The Imagination of Children--How far may Religion be
+     assimilated by Children?--Unfortunate Results of Early Religious
+     Instruction--Puberty the Age for Religious Education--Religion as
+     an Initiation into a Mystery--Initiation among Savages--The
+     Christian Sacraments--The Modern Tendency as regards Religious
+     Instruction--Its Advantages--Children and Fairy Tales--The Bible of
+     Childhood--Moral Training.
+
+
+It is a fact as strange as it is unfortunate that the much-debated
+question of the religious education of children is almost exclusively
+considered from the points of view of the sectarian and the secularist.
+In a discussion of this question we are almost certain to be invited to
+take part in an unedifying wrangle between Church and Chapel, between
+religion and secularism. That is the strange part of it, that it should
+seem impossible to get away from this sectarian dispute as to the
+abstract claims of varying religious bodies. The unfortunate part of it
+is that in this quarrel the interests of the community, the interests of
+the child, even the interests of religion are alike disregarded.
+
+If we really desire to reach a sound conclusion on a matter which is
+unquestionably of great moment, both for the child and for the community
+of which he will one day become a citizen, we must resolutely put into
+the background, as of secondary importance, the cries of contending
+sects, religious or irreligious. The first place here belongs to the
+psychologist, who is building up the already extensive edifice of
+knowledge concerning the real nature of the child and the contents and
+growth of the youthful mind, and to the practical teacher who is in
+touch with that knowledge and can bring it to the test of actual
+experience. Before considering what drugs are to be administered we must
+consider the nature of the organism they are to be thrust into.
+
+The mind of the child is at once logical and extravagant, matter-of-fact
+and poetic or rather mytho-poeic. This combination of apparent
+opposites, though it often seems almost incomprehensible to the adult,
+is the inevitable outcome of the fact that the child's dawning
+intelligence is working, as it were, in a vacuum. In other words, the
+child has not acquired the two endowments which chiefly give character
+to the whole body of the adult's beliefs and feelings. He is without the
+pubertal expansion which fills out the mind with new personal and
+altruistic impulses and transforms it with emotion that is often
+dazzling and sometimes distorting; and he has not yet absorbed, or even
+gained the power of absorbing, all those beliefs, opinions, and mental
+attitudes which the race has slowly acquired and transmitted as the
+traditional outcome of its experiences.
+
+The intellectual processes of children, the attitude and contents of the
+child's mind, have been explored during recent years with a care and
+detail that have never been brought to that study before. This is not a
+matter of which the adult can be said to possess any instinctive or
+matter-of-course knowledge. Adults usually have a strange aptitude to
+forget entirely the facts of their lives as children, and children are
+usually, like peoples of primitive race, very cautious in the deliberate
+communication of their mental operations, their emotions, and their
+ideas. That is to say that the child is equally without the internally
+acquired complex emotional nature which has its kernel in the sexual
+impulse, and without the externally acquired mental equipment which may
+be summed up in the word tradition. But he possesses the vivid
+activities founded on the exercise of his senses and appetites, and he
+is able to reason with a relentless severity from which the
+traditionalized and complexly emotional adult shrinks back with horror.
+The child creates the world for himself, and he creates it in his own
+image and the images of the persons he is familiar with. Nothing is
+sacred to him, and he pushes to the most daring extremities--as it seems
+to the adult--the arguments derived from his own personal experiences.
+He is unable to see any distinction between the natural and the
+supernatural, and he is justified in this conviction because, as a
+matter of fact, he himself lives in what for most adults would be a
+supernatural atmosphere; most children see visions with closed and
+sometimes with open eyes;[163] they are not infrequently subject to
+colour-hearing and other synæsthetic sensations; and they occasionally
+hear hallucinatory voices. It is possible, indeed, that this is the case
+with all children in some slight degree, although the faculty dies out
+early and is easily forgotten because its extraordinary character was
+never recognized.
+
+Of 48 Boston children, says Stanley Hall,[164] 20 believed the sun, moon,
+and stars to live, 16 thought flowers could feel, and 15 that dolls
+would feel pain if burnt. The sky was found the chief field in which the
+children exercise their philosophic minds. About three-quarters of them
+thought the world a plain with the sky like a bowl turned over it,
+sometimes believing that it was of such thin texture that one could
+easily break through, though so large that much floor-sweeping was
+necessary in Heaven. The sun may enter the ground when it sets, but half
+the children thought that at night it rolls or flies away, or is blown
+or walks, or God pulls it higher up out of sight, taking it up into
+Heaven, according to some putting it to bed, and even taking off its
+clothes and putting them on again in the morning, or again, it is
+believed to lie under the trees at night and the angels mind it. God, of
+whom the children always hear so much, plays a very large part in these
+conceptions, and is made directly responsible for all cosmic phenomena.
+Thus thunder to these American children was God groaning or kicking or
+rolling barrels about, or turning a big handle, or grinding snow, or
+breaking something, or rattling a big hammer; while the lightning is due
+to God putting his finger out, or turning the gas on quick, or striking
+matches, or setting paper on fire. According to Boston children, God is
+a big, perhaps a blue, man, to be seen in the sky, on the clouds, in
+church, or even in the streets. They declare that God comes to see them
+sometimes, and they have seen him enter the gate. He makes lamps,
+babies, dogs, trees, money, etc., and the angels work for him. He looks
+like a priest, or a teacher, or papa, and the children like to look at
+him; a few would themselves like to be God. His house in the sky may be
+made of stone or brick; birds, children, and Santa Claus live with God.
+
+Birds and beasts, their food and their furniture, as Burnham points out,
+all talk to children; when the dew is on the grass "the grass is
+crying," the stars are candles or lamps, perhaps cinders from God's
+stove, butterflies are flying pansies, icicles are Christmas candy.
+Children have imaginary play-brothers and sisters and friends, with whom
+they talk. Sometimes God talks with them. Even the prosiest things are
+vivified; the tracks of dirty feet on the floor are flowers; a creaking
+chair talks; the shoemaker's nails are children whom he is driving to
+school; a pedlar is Santa Claus.
+
+Miss Miriam Levy once investigated the opinions of 560 children, boys
+and girls, between the ages of 4 and 14, as to how the man in the moon
+got there. Only 5 were unable to offer a serious explanation; 48 thought
+there was no man there at all; 50 offered a scientific explanation of
+the phenomena; but all the rest, the great majority, presented
+imaginative solutions which could be grouped into seventeen different
+classes.
+
+Such facts as these--which can easily be multiplied and are indeed
+familiar to all, though their significance is not usually
+realized--indicate the special tendencies of the child in the religious
+sphere. He is unable to follow the distinctions which the adult is
+pleased to make between "real," "spiritual" and "imaginary" beings. To
+him such distinctions do not exist. He may, if he so pleases, adopt the
+names or such characteristics as he chooses, of the beings he is told
+about, but he puts them into his own world, on a footing of more or less
+equality, and he decides himself what their fate is to be. The adult's
+supreme beings by no means always survive in the struggle for existence
+which takes place in the child's imaginative world. It was found among
+many thousand children entering the city schools of Berlin that Red
+Riding Hood was better known than God, and Cinderella than Christ. That
+is the result of the child's freedom from the burden of tradition.
+
+Yet at the same time the opposite though allied peculiarity of
+childhood--the absence of the emotional developments of puberty which
+deepen and often cloud the mind a few years later--is also making itself
+felt. Extravagant as his beliefs may appear, the child is an
+uncompromising rationalist and realist. His supposed imaginativeness is
+indeed merely the result of his logical insistence that all the new
+phenomena presented to him shall be thought of in terms of himself and
+his own environment. His wildest notions are based on precise, concrete,
+and personal facts of his own experience. That is why he is so keen a
+questioner of grown-up people's ideas, and a critic who may sometimes be
+as dangerous and destructive as Bishop Colenso's Zulus. Most children
+before the age of thirteen, as Earl Barnes states, are inquirers, if not
+sceptics.
+
+If we clearly realize these characteristics of the childish mind, we
+cannot fail to understand the impression made on it by religious
+instruction. The statements and stories that are repeated to him are
+easily accepted by the child in so far, and in so far only, as they
+answer to his needs; and when accepted they are assimilated, which means
+that they are compelled to obey the laws of his own mental world. In so
+far as the statements and stories presented to him are not acceptable or
+cannot be assimilated, it happens either that they pass by him
+unnoticed, or else that he subjects them to a cold and matter-of-fact
+logic which exerts a dissolving influence upon them.
+
+Now a few of the ideas of religion are assimilable by the child, and
+notably the idea of a God as the direct agent in cosmic phenomena; some
+of the childish notions I have quoted illustrate the facility with which
+the child adopts this idea. He adopts, that is, what may be called the
+hard precise skeleton of the idea, and imagines a colossal magician, of
+anthropomorphic (if not paidomorphic) nature, whose operations are
+curious, though they altogether fail to arouse any mysterious reverence
+or awe for the agent. Even this is not very satisfactory, and Stanley
+Hall, in the spirit of Froebel, considers that the best result is
+attained when the child knows no God but his own mother.[165] But for the
+most part the ideas of religion cannot be accepted or assimilated by
+children at all; they were not made by children or for children, but
+represent the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of men, and sometimes
+even of very exceptional and abnormal men. "The child," it has been
+said, "no doubt has the psychical elements out of which the religious
+experience is evolved, just as the seed has the promise of the fruit
+which will come in the fullness of time. But to say, therefore, that the
+average child is religious, or capable of receiving the usual advanced
+religious instruction, is equivalent to saying that the seed is the
+fruit or capable of being converted into fruit before the fullness of
+time."[166] The child who grows devout and becomes anxious about the state
+of his soul is a morbid and unwholesome child; if he prefers praying for
+the conversion of his play-fellows to joining them in their games he is
+not so much an example of piety as a pathological case whose future must
+be viewed with anxiety; and to preach religious duties to children is
+exactly the same, it has been well said, as to exhort them to imagine
+themselves married people and to inculcate on them the duties of that
+relation. Fortunately the normal child is usually able to resist these
+influences. It is the healthy child's impulse either to let them fall
+with indifference or to apply to them the instrument of his unmerciful
+logic.
+
+Naturally, the adult, in self-defence, is compelled to react against
+this indifferent or aggressive attitude of the child. He may be no match
+for the child in logic, and even unspeakably shocked by his daring
+inquiries, like an amiable old clergyman I knew when a Public School
+teacher in Australia; he went to a school to give Bible lessons, and was
+one day explaining how King David was a man after God's own heart, when
+a small voice was heard making inquiries about Uriah's wife; the small
+boy was hushed down by the shocked clergyman, and the cause of religion
+was not furthered in that school. But the adult knows that he has on his
+side tradition which has not yet been acquired by the child, and the
+inner emotional expansion which still remains unliberated in the child.
+The adult, therefore, fortified by this superiority, feels justified in
+falling back on the weapon of authority: "You may not _want_ to believe
+this and to learn it, but you've _got_ to."
+
+It is in this way that the adult wins the battle of religious education.
+In the deeper and more far-seeing sense he has lost it. Religion has
+become, not a charming privilege, but a lesson, a lesson about
+unbelievable things, a meaningless task to be learnt by heart, a
+drudgery. It may be said that even if that is so, religious lessons
+merely share the inevitable fate of all subjects which become school
+tasks. But that is not the case. Every other subject which is likely to
+become a school task is apt to become intelligible and attractive to
+some considerable section of the scholars because it is within the range
+of childish intelligence. But, for the two very definite reasons I have
+pointed out, this is only to an extremely limited degree true as regards
+the subject of religion, because the young organism is an instrument not
+as yet fitted with the notes which religion is most apt to strike.
+
+Of all the school subjects religion thus tends to be the least
+attractive. Lobsien, at Kiel, found a few years since, in the course of
+a psychological investigation, that when five hundred children (boys and
+girls in equal numbers), between the ages of nine and fourteen, were
+asked which was their favourite lesson hour, only twelve (ten girls and
+two boys) named the religious lesson.[167] In other words, nearly 98 per
+cent children (and nearly all the boys) find that religion is either an
+indifferent or a repugnant subject. I have no reports at hand as regards
+English children, but there is little reason to suppose that the result
+would be widely different.[168] Here and there a specially skilful
+teacher might bring about a result more favourable to religious
+teaching, but that could only be done by depriving the subject of its
+most characteristic elements.
+
+This is, however, not by any means the whole of the mischief which, from
+the religious point of view, is thus perpetrated. It might, on _a
+priori_ grounds, be plausibly argued that even if there is among healthy
+young children a certain amount of indifference or even repugnance to
+religious instruction, that is of very little consequence: they cannot
+be too early grounded in the principles of the faith they will later be
+called on to profess; and however incapable they may now be of
+understanding the teaching that is being inculcated in the school, they
+will realize its importance when their knowledge and experience
+increase. But however plausible this may seem, practically it is not
+what usually happens. The usual effect of constantly imparting to
+children an instruction they are not yet ready to receive is to deaden
+their sensibilities to the whole subject of religion.[169] The premature
+familiarity with religious influences--putting aside the rare cases
+where it leads to a morbid pre-occupation with religion--induces a
+reaction of routine which becomes so habitual that it successfully
+withstands the later influences which on more virgin soil would have
+evoked vigorous and living response. So far from preparing the way for a
+more genuine development of religious impulse later on, this precocious
+scriptural instruction is just adequate to act as an inoculation against
+deeper and more serious religious interests. The commonplace child in
+later life accepts the religion it has been inured to so early as part
+of the conventional routine of life. The more vigorous and original
+child for the same reason shakes it off, perhaps for ever.
+
+Luther, feeling the need to gain converts to Protestantism as early as
+possible, was a strong advocate for the religious training of children,
+and has doubtless had much influence in this matter on the Protestant
+churches. "The study of religion, of the Bible and the Catechism," says
+Fiedler, "of course comes first and foremost in his scheme of
+instruction." He was also quite prepared to adapt it to the childish
+mind. "Let children be taught," he writes, "that our dear Lord sits in
+Heaven on a golden throne, that He has a long grey beard and a crown of
+gold." But Luther quite failed to realize the inevitable psychological
+reaction in later life against such fairy-tales.
+
+At a later date, Rousseau, who, like Luther, was on the side of
+religion, realized, as Luther failed to realize, the disastrous results
+of attempting to teach it to children. In _La Nouvelle Héloïse_,
+Saint-Preux writes that Julie had explained to him how she sought to
+surround her children with good influences without forcing any religious
+instruction on them: "As to the Catechism, they don't so much as know
+what it is." "What! Julie, your children don't learn their Catechism?"
+"No, my friend, my children don't learn their Catechism." "So pious a
+mother!" I exclaimed; "I can't understand. And why don't your children
+learn their Catechism?" "In order that they may one day believe it. I
+wish to make Christians of them."[170]
+
+Since Rousseau's day this may be said to be the general attitude of
+nearly all thinkers who have given attention to the question, even
+though they may not have viewed it psychologically. It is an attitude by
+no means confined to those who are anxious that children should grow up
+to be genuine Christians, but is common to all who consider that the
+main point is that children should grow up to be, at all events, genuine
+men and women. "I do not think," writes John Stuart Mill, in 1868,
+"there should be any _authoritative_ teaching at all on such subjects. I
+think parents ought to point out to their children, when the children
+begin to question them or to make observations of their own, the various
+opinions on such subjects, and what the parents themselves think the
+most powerful reasons for and against. Then, if the parents show a
+strong feeling of the importance of truth, and also of the difficulty of
+attaining it, it seems to me that young people's minds will be
+sufficiently prepared to regard popular opinion or the opinion of those
+about them with respectful tolerance, and may be safely left to form
+definite conclusions in the course of mature life."[171]
+
+There are few among us who have not suffered from too early familiarity
+with the Bible and the conceptions of religion. Even for a man of really
+strong and independent intellect it may be many years before the
+precociously dulled feelings become fresh again, before the fetters of
+routine fall off, and he is enabled at last to approach the Bible with
+fresh receptivity and to realize, for the first time in his life, the
+treasures of art and beauty and divine wisdom it contains. But for most
+that moment never comes round. For the majority the religious education
+of the school as effectually seals the Bible for life as the classical
+education of the college seals the great authors of Greece and Rome for
+life; no man opens his school books again when he has once left school.
+Those who read Greek and Latin for love have not usually come out of
+universities, and there is surely a certain significance in the fact
+that the children of one's secularist friends are so often found to
+become devout church-goers, while, according to the frequent
+observation, devout parents often have most irreligious offspring, just
+as the bad boys at school and college are frequently sons of the clergy.
+
+At puberty and during adolescence everything begins to be changed. The
+change, it is important to remember, is a natural change, and tends to
+come about spontaneously; "where no set forms have been urged, the
+religious emotion," as Lancaster puts it, "comes forth as naturally as
+the sun rises."[172] That period, really and psychologically, marks a "new
+birth." Emotions which are of fundamental importance, not only for the
+individual's personal life but for his social and even cosmic
+relationships, are for the first time born. Not only is the child's body
+remoulded in the form of a man or a woman, but the child-soul becomes a
+man-soul or a woman-soul, and nothing can possibly be as it has been
+before. The daringly sceptical logician has gone, and so has the
+imaginative dreamer for whom the world was the automatic magnifying
+mirror of his own childish form and environment. It has been revealed to
+him that there are independent personal and impersonal forces outside
+himself, forces with which he may come into a conscious and
+fascinatingly exciting relationship. It is a revelation of supreme
+importance, and with it comes not only the complexly emotional and
+intellectual realization of personality, but the aptitude to enter into
+and assimilate the traditions of the race.
+
+It cannot be too strongly emphasized that this is the moment, and the
+earliest moment, when it becomes desirable to initiate the boy or girl
+into the mysteries of religion. That it is the best moment is indicated
+by the well-recognized fact that the immediately post-pubertal period of
+adolescence is the period during which, even spontaneously, the most
+marked religious phenomena tend to occur.[173] Stanley Hall seems to think
+that twelve is the age at which the cultivation of the religious
+consciousness may begin; "the age, signalized by the ancient Greeks as
+that at which the study of what was comprehensively called music should
+begin, the age at which Roman guardianship ended, at which boys are
+confirmed in the modern Greek, Catholic, Lutheran and Episcopal
+Churches, and at which the Child Jesus entered the Temple, is as early
+as any child ought consciously to go about his Heavenly Father's
+business."[174] But I doubt whether we can fix the age definitely by
+years, nor is it indeed quite accurate to assert that so early an age as
+twelve is generally accepted as the age of initiation; the Anglican
+Church, for example, usually confirms at the age of fifteen. It is not
+age with which we ought to be concerned, but a biological epoch of
+psychic evolution. It is unwise to insist on any particular age, because
+development takes place within a considerably wide limit of years.
+
+I have spoken of the introduction to religion at puberty as the
+initiation into a mystery. The phrase was deliberately chosen, for it
+seems to me to be not a metaphor, but the expression of a truth which
+has always been understood whenever religion has been a reality and not
+a mere convention. Among savages in nearly all parts of the world the
+boy or girl at puberty is initiated into the mystery of manhood or of
+womanhood, into the duties and the privileges of the adult members of
+the tribe. The youth is taken into a solitary place, for a month or
+more, he is made to suffer pain and hardship, to learn self-restraint,
+he is taught the lore of the tribe as well as the elementary rules of
+morality and justice; he is shown the secret things of the tribe and
+their meaning and significance, which no stranger may know. He is, in
+short, enabled to find his soul, and he emerges from this discipline a
+trained and responsible member of his tribe. The girl receives a
+corresponding training, suited to her sex, also in solitude, at the
+hands of the older women. A clear and full description of a typical
+savage initiation into manhood at puberty is presented by Dr. Haddon in
+the fifth volume of the _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits_, and Dr. Haddon makes the comment: "It is
+not easy to conceive of more effectual means for a rapid training."
+
+The ideas of remote savages concerning the proper manner of initiating
+youth in the religious and other mysteries of life may seem of little
+personal assistance to superiorly civilized people like ourselves. But
+let us turn, therefore, to the Greeks. They also had preserved the idea
+and the practice of initiation into sacred mysteries, though in a
+somewhat modified form because religion had ceased to be so intimately
+blended with all the activities of life. The Eleusinian and other
+mysteries were initiations into sacred knowledge and insight which, as
+is now recognized, involved no revelation of obscure secrets, but were
+mysteries in the sense that all intimate experiences of the soul, the
+experiences of love quite as much as those of religion, are mysteries,
+not to be lightly or publicly spoken of. In that feeling the Greek was
+at one with the Papuan, and it is interesting to observe that the
+procedure of initiation into the Greek mysteries, as described by Theon
+of Smyrna and other writers, followed the same course as the pubertal
+initiations of savages; there was the same preliminary purification by
+water, the same element of doctrinal teaching, the same ceremonial and
+symbolic rubbing with sand or charcoal or clay, the same conclusion in a
+joyous feast, even the same custom of wearing wreaths.
+
+In how far the Christian sacraments were consciously moulded after the
+model of the Greek mysteries is still a disputed point;[175] but the first
+Christians were seeking the same spiritual initiation, and they
+necessarily adopted, consciously or unconsciously, methods of procedure
+which, in essentials, were fundamentally the same as those they were
+already familiar with. The early Christian Church adopted the rite of
+Baptism not merely as a symbol of initiation, but as an actual component
+part of a process of initiation; the purifying ceremony was preceded by
+long preparation, and when at last completed the baptized were sometimes
+crowned with garlands. When at a later period in the history of the
+Church the physical part of the initiation was divorced from the
+spiritual part, and baptism was performed in infancy and confirmation at
+puberty, a fatal mistake was made, and each part of the rite largely
+lost its real significance.
+
+But it still remains true that Christianity embodied in its practical
+system the ancient custom of initiating the young at puberty, and that
+the custom exists in an attenuated form in all the more ancient
+Christian Churches. The rite of Confirmation has, however, been
+devitalized, and its immense significance has been almost wholly lost.
+Instead of being regarded as a real initiation into the privileges and
+the responsibilities of a religious communion, of an active fellowship
+for the realization of a divine life on earth, it has become a mere
+mechanical corollary of the precedent rite of baptism, a formal
+condition of participation in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The
+splendid and many-sided discipline by which the child of the savage was
+initiated into the secrets of his own emotional nature and the sacred
+tradition of his people has been degraded into the learning of a
+catechism and a few hours' perfunctory instruction in the schoolroom or
+in the parlour of the curate's lodgings. The vital kernel of the rite is
+decayed and only the dead shell is left, while some of the Christian
+Churches have lost even the shell.
+
+It is extremely probable that in no remote future the State in England
+will reject as insoluble the problem of imparting religious instruction
+to the young in its schools, in accordance with a movement of opinion
+which is taking place in all civilized countries.[176] The support which
+the Secular Education League has found in the most various quarters is
+without doubt a fact of impressive significance.[177] It is well known
+also that the working classes--the people chiefly concerned in the
+matter--are distinctly opposed to religious teaching in State schools.
+There can be little doubt that before many years have passed, in England
+as elsewhere, the Churches will have to face the question of the best
+methods of themselves undertaking that task of religious training which
+they have sought to foist upon the State. If they are to fulfil this
+duty in a wise and effectual manner they must follow the guidance of
+biological psychology at the point where it is at one with the teaching
+of their own most ancient traditions, and develop the merely formal rite
+of confirmation into a true initiation of the new-born soul at puberty
+into the deepest secrets of life and the highest mysteries of religion.
+
+It must, of course, be remembered that, so far as England is concerned,
+we live in an empire in which there are 337 millions of people who are
+not even nominally Christians,[178] and that even among the comparatively
+small proportion (about 14 per cent) who call themselves "Christians," a
+very large proportion are practically Secularists, and a considerable
+number avowedly so. If, however, we assume the Secularist's position,
+the considerations here brought forward still retain their validity. In
+the first place, the undoubtedly frequent hostility of the Freethinker
+to Christianity is not so much directed against vital religion as
+against a dead Church. The Freethinker is prepared to respect the
+Christian who by free choice and the exercise of thought has attained
+the position of a Christian, but he resents the so-called Christian who
+is merely in the Church because he finds himself there, without any
+effort of his will or his intelligence. The convinced secularist feels
+respect for the sincere Christian, even though it may only be in the
+sense that the real saint feels tenderness for the hopeless sinner. And
+in the second place, as I have sought to point out, the facts we are
+here concerned with are far too fundamental to concern the Christian
+alone. They equally concern the secularist, who also is called upon to
+satisfy the spiritual hunger of the adolescent youth, to furnish him
+with a discipline for his entry into life, and a satisfying vision of
+the universe. And if secularists have not always grasped this necessity,
+we may perhaps find therein one main reason why secularism has not met
+with so enormous and enthusiastic a reception as the languor and
+formalism of the churches seemed to render possible.
+
+If the view here set forth is sound,--a view more and more widely held
+by educationists and by psychologists trained in biology,--the first
+twelve years must be left untouched by all conceptions of life and the
+world which transcend immediate experience, for the child whose
+spiritual virginity has been prematurely tainted will never be able to
+awake afresh to the full significance of those conceptions when the age
+of religion at last arrives. But are we, it may be asked, to leave the
+child's restless, inquisitive, imaginative brain without any food during
+all those early years? By no means. Even admitting that, as it has been
+said, at the early stage religious training is the supreme art of
+standing out of Nature's way, it is still not hard to find what, in this
+matter, the way of Nature is. The life of the individual recapitulates
+the life of the race, and there can be no better imaginative food for
+the child than that which was found good in the childhood of the race.
+The child who is deprived of fairy tales invents them for himself,--for
+he must have them for the needs of his psychic growth just as there is
+reason to believe he must have sugar for his metabolic growth,--but he
+usually invents them badly.[179] The savage sees the world almost exactly
+as the civilized child sees it, as the magnified image of himself and
+his own environment; but he sees it with an added poetic charm, a
+delightful and accomplished inventiveness which the child is incapable
+of. The myths and legends of primitive peoples--for instance, those of
+the British Columbian Indians, so carefully reproduced by Boas in German
+and Hill Tout in English--are one in their precision and their
+extravagance with the stories of children, but with a finer
+inventiveness. It was, I believe, many years ago pointed out by Ziller
+that fairy-tales ought to play a very important part in the education of
+young children, and since then B. Hartmann, Stanley Hall and many others
+of the most conspicuous educational authorities have emphasized the same
+point. Fairy tales are but the final and transformed versions of
+primitive myths, creative legends, stories of old gods. In purer and
+less transformed versions the myths and legends of primitive peoples are
+often scarcely less adapted to the child's mind. Julia Gayley argues
+that the legends of early Greek civilization, the most perfect of all
+dreams, should above all be revealed to children; the early traditions
+of the East and of America yield material that is scarcely less fitted
+for the child's imaginative uses. Portions of the Bible, especially of
+Genesis, are in the strict sense fairy tales, that is legends of early
+gods and their deeds which have become stories. In the opinion of many
+these portions of the Bible may suitably be given to children (though it
+is curious to observe that a Welsh Education Committee a few years ago
+prohibited the reading in schools of precisely the most legendary part
+of Genesis); but it must always be remembered, from the Christian point
+of view, that nothing should be given at this early age which is to be
+regarded as essential at a later age, for the youth turns against the
+tales of his childhood as he turns against its milk-foods. Some day,
+perhaps, it may be thought worth while to compile a Bible for childhood,
+not a mere miscellaneous assortment of stories, but a collection of
+books as various in origin and nature as are the books of the
+Hebraic-Christian Bible, so that every kind of child in all his moods
+and stages of growth might here find fit pasture. Children would not
+then be left wholly to the mercy of the thin and frothy literature which
+the contemporary press pours upon them so copiously; they would possess
+at least one great and essential book which, however fantastic and
+extravagant it might often be, would yet have sprung from the deepest
+instincts of the primitive soul, and furnish answers to the most
+insistent demands of primitive hearts. Such a book, even when finally
+dropped from the youth's or girl's hands, would still leave its vague
+perfume behind.
+
+It may be pointed out, finally, that the fact that it is impossible to
+teach children even the elements of adult religion and philosophy, as
+well as unwise to attempt it, by no means proves that all serious
+teaching is impossible in childhood. On the imaginative and spiritual
+side, it is true, the child is re-born and transformed during
+adolescence, but on the practical and concrete side his life and thought
+are for the most part but the regular and orderly development of the
+habits he has already acquired. The elements of ethics on the one hand,
+as well as of natural science on the other, may alike be taught to
+children, and indeed they become a necessary part of early education, if
+the imaginative side of training is to be duly balanced and
+complemented. The child as much as the adult can be taught, and is
+indeed apt to learn, the meaning and value of truth and honesty, of
+justice and pity, of kindness and courtesy; we have wrangled and worried
+for so long concerning the teaching of religion in schools that we have
+failed altogether to realize that these fundamental notions of morality
+are a far more essential part of school training. It must, however,
+always be remembered that they cannot be adequately treated merely as an
+isolated subject of instruction, and possibly ought not to be so treated
+at all. As Harriet Finlay-Johnson wisely says in her _Dramatic Method of
+Instruction_: "It is impossible to shut away moral teaching into a
+compartment of the mind. It should be firmly and openly diffused
+throughout the thoughts, to 'leaven the whole of the lump.'" She adds
+the fruitful suggestion: "There is real need for some lessons in which
+the emotions shall not be ignored. Nature study, properly treated, can
+touch both senses and emotions."[180]
+
+The child is indeed quite apt to acquire a precise knowledge of the
+natural objects around him, of flowers and plants and to some extent of
+animals, objects which to the savage also are of absorbing interest. In
+this way, under wise guidance, the caprices of his imagination may be
+indirectly restrained and the lessons of life taught, while at the same
+time he is thus being directly prepared for the serious studies which
+must occupy so much of his later youth.
+
+The child, we thus have to realize, is, from the educational point of
+view of social hygiene, a being of dual nature, who needs ministering to
+on both sides. On the one hand he demands the key to an imaginative
+paradise which one day he must leave, bearing away with him, at the
+best, only a dim and haunting memory of its beauty. On the other hand he
+possesses eager aptitudes on which may be built up concrete knowledge
+and the sense of human relationships, to serve as a firm foundation when
+the period of adolescent development and discipline at length arrives.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[163] De Quincey in his _Confessions of an Opium Eater_ referred to the
+power that many, perhaps most, children possess of seeing visions in the
+dark. The phenomenon has been carefully studied by G.L. Partridge
+(_Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1898) in over 800 children. He found
+that 58.5 of them aged between thirteen and sixteen could see visions or
+images at night with closed eyes before falling asleep; of those aged
+six the proportion was higher. There seemed to be a maximum at the age
+of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier age. Among adults
+this tendency is rudimentary, and only found in a marked form in
+neurasthenic subjects or at moments of nervous exhaustion. See also
+Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_, chap. II.
+
+[164] G. Stanley Hall, "The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering
+School," _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891.
+
+[165] "The mother's face and voice are the first conscious objects as the
+infant soul unfolds, and she soon comes to stand in the very place of
+God to her child. All the religion of which the child is capable during
+this by no means brief stage of its development consists of these
+sentiments--gratitude, trust, dependence, love, etc.--now felt only for
+her, which are later directed towards God. The less these are now
+cultivated towards the mother, who is now their only fitting if not
+their only possible object, the more feebly they will later be felt
+towards God. This, too, adds greatly to the sacredness of the
+responsibilities of motherhood." (G. Stanley Hall, _Pedagogical
+Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 199).
+
+[166] J. Morse, _American Journal of Religious Psychology_, 1911, p. 247.
+
+[167] Lobsien, "Kinderideale," _Zeitschrift für Päd. Psychologie_, 1903.
+
+[168] Mr. Edmond Holmes, formerly Chief Inspector of Elementary Education
+in England, has an instructive remark bearing on this point in his
+suggestive book, _What Is and What Might be_ (1911, p. 88): "The first
+forty minutes of the morning session are given in almost every
+elementary school to what is called _Religious Instruction_. This goes
+on, morning after morning, and week after week. The fact that the
+English parent, who must himself have attended from 1500 to 2000
+Scripture lessons in his schooldays, is not under any circumstance to be
+trusted to give religious instruction to his own children, shows that
+those who control the religious education of the youthful 'masses' have
+but little confidence in the effects of their system on the religious
+life and faith of the English people." Miss Harriet Finlay-Johnson, a
+highly original and successful elementary school teacher, speaks (_The
+Dramatic Method of Teaching_, 1911, p. 170) with equal disapproval of
+the notion that any moral value attaches to the ordinary school
+examinations in "Scripture."
+
+[169] If it were not so, England, after sixty years of National Schools,
+ought to be a devout nation of good Church people. Most of the criminals
+and outcasts have been taught in Church Schools. A clergyman, who points
+this out to me, adds: "I am heartily thankful that religion was never
+forced on me as a child. I do not think I had any religion, in the
+ethical sense, until puberty, or any conscious realization of religion,
+indeed, until nineteen." "The boy," remarks Holmes (_op. cit._, p. 100),
+"who, having attended two thousand Scripture lessons, says to himself
+when he leaves school: 'If this is religion I will have no more of it,'
+is acting in obedience to a healthy instinct. He is to be honoured
+rather than blamed for having realized at last that the chaff on which
+he has so long been fed is not the life-giving grain which, unknown to
+himself, his inmost soul demands."
+
+[170] _La Nouvelle Héloïse_, Part V, Letter 3. In more recent times Ellen
+Key remarks in a suggestive chapter on "Religions Education" in her
+_Century of the Child_: "Nothing better shows how deeply rooted religion
+is in human nature than the fact that 'religious education' has not been
+able to tear it out."
+
+[171] J.S. Mill, _Letters_, Vol. II, p. 135.
+
+[172] Lancaster found ("The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence,"
+_Pedagogical Seminary_, July, 1897) that among 598 individuals of both
+sexes in the United States, as many as 518 experienced new religious
+emotions between the ages of 12 and 20, only 80 having no such emotions
+at this period, so that more than 5 out of 6 have this experience; it is
+really even more frequent, for it has no necessary tendency to fall into
+conventional religious moulds.
+
+[173] Professor Starbuck, in his _Psychology of Religion_, has well
+brought together and clearly presented much of the evidence showing this
+intimate association between adolescence and religious manifestations.
+He finds (Chap. III) that in females there are two tidal waves of
+religious awakening, one at about 13, the other at 16, with a less
+significant period at 18; for males, after a wavelet at 12, the great
+tidal wave is at 16, followed by another at 18 or 19. Ruediger's results
+are fairly concordant ("The Period of Mental Reconstruction," _American
+Journal of Psychology_, July, 1907); he finds that in women the average
+age of conversion is 14, in men it is at 13 or 14, and again at 18.
+
+[174] G. Stanley Hall, "The Moral and Religious Training of Children and
+Adolescents," _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 207. From the more
+narrowly religious side the undesirability of attempting to teach
+religion to children is well set forth by Florence Hayllar (_Independent
+Review_, Oct., 1906). She considers that thirteen is quite early enough
+to begin teaching children the lessons of the Gospels, for a child who
+acted in accordance with the Gospels would be "aggravating," and would
+generally be regarded as "an insufferable prig." Moreover, she points
+out, it is dangerous to teach young children the Christian virtues of
+charity, humility, and self-denial. It is far better that they should
+first be taught the virtues of justice and courage and self-mastery, and
+the more Christian virtues later. She also believes that in the case of
+the clergy who are brought in contact with children a preliminary course
+of child-study, with the necessary physiology and psychology, should be
+compulsory.
+
+[175] The varying opinions on this point have been fairly and clearly
+presented by Cheetham in his Hulsean lectures on the _Mysteries Pagan
+and Christian_.
+
+[176] Thus at the first Congress of Italian Women held at Rome in 1908--a
+very representative Congress, by no means made up of "feminists" or
+anti-clericals, and marked by great moderation and good sense--a
+resolution was passed against religious teaching in primary schools,
+though a subsequent resolution declared by a very large majority in
+favour of teaching the history of religions in secondary schools. These
+resolutions caused much surprise at the time to those persons who still
+cherish the superstition that in matters of religion women are blindly
+prejudiced and unable to think for themselves.
+
+[177] See e.g. an article by Halley Stewart, President of the Secular
+Education League, on "The Policy of Secular Education," _Nineteenth
+Century_, April, 1911.
+
+[178] So far as numbers go, the dominant religion of the British Empire,
+the religion of the majority, is Hinduism; Mohammedanism comes next.
+
+[179] "Not long ago," says Dr. L. Guthrie (_Clinical Journal_, 7th
+June, 1899), "I heard of a lady who, in her desire that her children
+should learn nothing but what was true, banished fairy tales from her
+nursery. But the children evolved from their own imagination fictions
+which were so appalling that she was glad to divert them with
+Jack-the-Giant-Killer."
+
+[180] In his interesting study of comparative education (_The Making of
+Citizens_, 1902, p. 194), Mr. R.E. Hughes, a school inspector, after
+discussing the methods of settling the difficulties of religious
+education in England, America, Germany, and France, reasonably
+concludes: "The solution of the religious problem of the schools of
+these four peoples lies in the future, but we believe it will be found
+not to be beyond human ingenuity to devise a scheme of moral and ethical
+training for little children which will be suitable. It is the moral
+principles underlying all conduct which the school should teach. Indeed,
+the school, to justify its existence, dare not neglect them. It will
+teach them, not dogmatically or by precept, but by example, and by the
+creation of a noble atmosphere around the child." Holmes also (_op.
+cit._, p. 276) insists that the teaching of patriotism and citizenship
+must be informal and indirect.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL HYGIENE
+
+     The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children--The
+     Need of such a Movement--Contradictions involved by the Ancient
+     Policy of Silence--Errors of the New Policy--The Need of Teaching
+     the Teacher--The Need of Training the Parents--And of
+     Scientifically equipping the Physician--Sexual Hygiene and
+     Society--The far-reaching Effects of Sexual Hygiene.
+
+
+It is impossible to doubt the vitality and the vigour of the new
+movement of sexual hygiene, especially that branch of it concerned with
+the instruction of children in the essential facts of life.[181] In the
+eighteenth century the great educationist, Basedow, was almost alone
+when, by practice and by precept, he sought to establish this branch of
+instruction in schools.[182] A few years ago, when the German Dürer Bund
+offered prizes for the best essays on the training of the young in
+matters of sex, as many as five hundred papers were sent in.[183] We may
+say that during the past ten years more has been done to influence
+popular feeling on this question than during the whole of the preceding
+century.
+
+Whenever we witness a sudden impulse of zeal and enthusiasm to rush into
+a new channel, however admirable the impulse may be, we must be prepared
+for many risks and perhaps even a certain amount of damage. This is,
+indeed, especially the case when we are concerned with a new activity in
+the sphere of sex. The sexual relationships of life are so ancient and
+so wide, their roots ramify so complexly and run so deep, that any
+sudden disturbance in this soil, however well-intentioned, is certain to
+have many results which were not anticipated by those responsible for
+it. Any movement here runs the risk of defeating its own ends, or else,
+in gaining them, to render impossible other ends which are of not less
+value.
+
+In this matter of sexual hygiene we are faced at the outset by the fact
+that the very recognition of any such branch of knowledge as "sexual
+hygiene" involves not merely a new departure, but the reversal of a
+policy which has been accepted, almost without question, for centuries.
+Among many primitive peoples, indeed, we know that the boy and girl at
+puberty are initiated with solemnity, and even a not unwholesome
+hardship, into the responsibilities of adult life, including those which
+have reference to the duties and privileges of sex.[184] But in our own
+traditions scarcely even a relic of any such custom is preserved. On the
+contrary, we tacitly maintain a custom, and even a policy, of silent
+obscurantism. Parents and teachers have considered it a duty to say
+nothing and have felt justified in telling lies, or "fairy tales," in
+order to maintain their attitude. The oncoming of puberty, with its
+alarming manifestations, especially in the girl, has often left them
+unmoved and still silent. They have taken care that our elementary
+textbooks of anatomy and physiology, even when written by so independent
+and fearless a pioneer as Huxley, should describe the human body
+absolutely as though the organs and functions of reproduction had no
+existence. The instinct was not thus suppressed; all the inevitable
+stimulations which life furnishes to the youthful sexual impulse have
+continued in operation.[185] Sexual activities were just as liable to
+break out. They were all the more liable to break out, indeed, because
+fostered by ignorance, often unconscious of themselves, and not held in
+check by the restraints which knowledge and teaching might have
+furnished. This, however, has seemed a matter of no concern to the
+guardians of youth. They have congratulated themselves if they could
+pilot the youths, and especially the maidens, under their guardianship
+into the haven of matrimony not only in apparent chastity, but in
+ignorance of nearly everything that marriage signifies and involves,
+alike for the individual and the coming race.
+
+This policy has been so firmly established that the theory of it has
+never been clearly argued out. So far as it exists at all, it is a
+theory that walks on two feet pointing opposite ways: sex things must
+not be talked about because they are "dirty"; sex things must not be
+talked about because they are "sacred." We must leave sex things alone,
+they say, because God will see to it that they manifest themselves
+aright and work for good; we must leave sex things alone, they also say,
+because there is no department in life in which the activity of the
+Devil is so specially exhibited. The very same person may be guilty of
+this contradiction, when varying circumstances render it convenient.
+Such a confusion is, indeed, a fate liable to befall all ancient and
+deeply rooted _tabus_; we see it in the _tabus_ against certain animals
+as foods (as the Mosaic prohibition of pork); at first the animal was
+too sacred to eat, but in time people came to think that it is too
+disgusting to eat. They begin the practice for one reason, they continue
+it for a totally opposed reason. Reasons are such a superficial part of
+our lives!
+
+Thus every movement of sexual hygiene necessarily clashes against an
+established convention which is itself an inharmonious clash of
+contradictory notions. This is especially the case if sexual hygiene is
+introduced by way of the school. It is very widely held by many who
+accept the arguments so ably set forth by Frau Maria Lischnewska, that
+the school is not only the best way of introducing sexual hygiene, but
+the only possible way, since through this channel alone is it possible
+to employ an antidote to the evil influences of the home and the
+world.[186] Yet to teach children what some of their parents consider as
+too sacred to be taught, and others as too disgusting, and to begin this
+teaching at an age when the children, having already imbibed these
+parental notions, are old enough to be morbidly curious and prurient, is
+to open the way to a complicated series of social reactions which demand
+great skill to adjust.
+
+Largely, no doubt, from anxiety to counterbalance these dangers, there
+has been a tendency to emphasize, or rather to over-emphasize, the moral
+aspects of sexual hygiene. Rightly considered, indeed, it is not easy to
+over-value its moral significance. But in the actual teaching of such
+hygiene it is quite easy, and the error is often found, to make
+statements and to affirm doctrines--all in the interests of good morals
+and with the object of exhibiting to the utmost the beneficial
+tendencies of this teaching--which are dubious at the best and often at
+variance with actual experience. In such cases we seem to see that the
+sexual hygienist has indeed broken with the conventional conspiracy of
+silence in these matters, but he has not broken with the conventional
+morality which grew out of that ignorant silence. With the best
+intention in the world he sets forth, dogmatically and without
+qualification, ancient half-truths which to become truly moral need to
+be squarely faced with their complementary half-truths. The inevitable
+danger is that the pupil sooner or later grasps the one-sided
+exaggeration of this teaching, and the credit of the sexual hygienist is
+gone. Life is an art, and love, which lies at the heart of life, is an
+art; they are not science; they cannot be converted into clear-cut
+formulæ and taught as the multiplication table is taught. Example here
+counts for more than precept, and practice teaches more than either,
+provided it is carried on in the light of precept and example. The rash
+and unqualified statements concerning the immense benefits of
+continence, or the awful results of self-abuse, etc., frequently found
+in books for young people will occur to every one. Stated with wise
+moderation they would have been helpful. Pushed to harsh extravagance
+they are not only useless to aid the young in their practical
+difficulties, but become mischievous by the injury they inflict on
+over-sensitive consciences, fearful of falling short of high-strung
+ideals. This consideration brings us, indeed, to what is perhaps the
+chief danger in the introduction of any teaching of sexual hygiene: the
+fact that our teachers are themselves untaught. Sexual hygiene in the
+full sense--in so far as it concerns individual action and not the
+regulative or legislative action of communities--is the art of imparting
+such knowledge as is needed at successive stages by the child, the youth
+and maiden, the young man and woman, in order to enable them to deal
+rightly, and so far as possible without injury either to themselves or
+to others, with all those sexual events to which every one is naturally
+liable. To fulfil his functions adequately the master in the art of
+teaching sexual hygiene must answer to three requirements: (1) he must
+have a sufficing knowledge of the facts of sexual psychology, sexual
+physiology, and sexual pathology, knowledge which, in many important
+respects, hardly existed at all until recently, and is only now
+beginning to become generally accessible; (2) he must have a wise and
+broad moral outlook, with a sane idealism which refrains from demanding
+impossibilities, and resolutely thrusts aside not only the vulgar
+platitudes of worldliness, but the equally mischievous platitudes of an
+outworn and insincere asceticism, for the wise sexual hygienist knows,
+with Pascal, that "he who tries to be an angel becomes a beast," and is
+less anxious to make his pupils ineffective angels than effective men
+and women, content to say with Browning, "I may put forth angels'
+pinions, once unmanned, but not before"; (3) in addition to sound
+knowledge and a wise moral outlook, the sexual hygienist must possess,
+finally, a genuine sympathy with the young, an insight into their
+sensitive shyness, a comprehension of their personal difficulties, and
+the skill to speak to them simply, frankly, and humanly. If we ask
+ourselves how many of the apostles of sexual hygiene combine these
+three essential qualities, we shall probably not be able to name many,
+while we may suspect that some do not even possess one of the three
+qualifications. If we further consider that the work of sexual hygiene,
+to be carried out on a really national scale, demands the more or less
+active co-operation of parents, teachers, and doctors, and that parents,
+teachers, and doctors are in these matters at present all alike
+untrained, and usually prejudiced, we shall realize some of the dangers
+through which sexual hygiene must at first pass.
+
+It is, I hope, unnecessary for me to say that, in thus pointing out some
+of the difficulties and the risks which must assail every attempt to
+introduce an element of effective sexual hygiene into life, I am far
+from wishing to argue that it is better to leave things as they are.
+That is impossible, not only because we are realizing that our system of
+incomplete silence is mischievous, but because it is based on a
+confusion which contains within itself the elements of disruption. We
+have to remember, however, that the creation of a new tradition cannot
+be effected in a day. Before we begin to teach sexual hygiene the
+teachers must themselves be taught.
+
+There are many who have insisted, and not without reason, on the right
+of the parent to control the education of the child. Sexual hygiene
+introduces us to another right, the right of the child to control the
+education of the parents. For few parents to-day are fitted to exercise
+the duty of training and guiding the child in the difficult field of sex
+without preliminary education, and such education, to be real and
+effective, must begin at an early age in the parents' life.[187]
+
+The school teacher, again, on whom so many rely for the initial stage in
+sexual hygiene, is at present often in almost exactly the same stage of
+ignorance or prejudice in these matters as his or her pupils. The
+teacher has seldom been trained to impart even the most elementary
+scientific knowledge of the facts of sex, of reproduction, and of sexual
+hygiene, and is more often than not without that personal experience of
+life in its various aspects which is required in order to teach wisely
+in such a difficult field as that of sex, even if the principle is
+admitted that the teacher in class, equally whether addressing one sex
+or both sexes, is not called upon to go beyond the scientific, abstract,
+and objective aspects of sex.
+
+This difficulty of the lack of suitable teachers is not, indeed,
+insuperable. It would be largely settled, no doubt, if a wise and
+thorough course of sexual hygiene and puericulture formed part of the
+training of all school teachers, as, in France, Pinard has proposed for
+the Normal schools for young women. Dr. W.O. Henry, in a paper read
+before the Nebraska State Medical Association in May, 1911, put forward
+the proposal: "Let each State have one or more competent physicians
+whose duty it shall be to teach these things to the children in all the
+public schools of the State from the time they are eight years of age.
+The boys and girls should be given the instruction separately by means
+of charts, pictures, and stereopticon views, beginning with the lower
+forms of life, flowers, plants, and then closing with the organs in man.
+These lectures and illustrations should be given every year to all the
+boys and girls separately, having those from eight to ten together at
+one time, and those from ten to twelve, and those from over twelve to
+sixteen." Dr. Henry was evidently not aware that the principle of a
+special teacher appointed by Government to give special instruction in
+matters of sex in all State schools had already been adopted in Canada,
+in the province of Ontario; the teacher thus appointed goes from school
+to school and teaches the elements of sexual physiology and anatomy, and
+the duty of treating sexual matters with reverence, to classes of boys
+and of girls from the age of ten. The course is not compulsory, but any
+School Board may call upon the special teacher to deliver the lectures.
+This appointment has met with so much approval that it is proposed to
+appoint further teachers on the same lines, women as well as men.
+
+It is not necessary that the school teacher of sex should be a
+physician. For personal and particular advice on the concrete
+difficulties of sex, however, as well as for the more special and
+detailed hygiene of the sexual relationship and the precautions demanded
+by eugenics, we must call in the physician. Yet none of these things so
+far enter the curriculum through which the physician passes to reach
+his profession; he is often only a layman in relation to them. Even if
+we are assured that these subjects form part of his scientific
+equipment, that fact by no means guarantees his tact, sympathy, and
+insight in addressing the young, whether by general lectures or
+individual interviews, both these being forms of imparting sexual
+hygiene for which we may properly call upon the physician, especially
+towards the end of the school or college course, and at the outset of
+any career in the world.[188]
+
+Undoubtedly we have amongst us many mothers, teachers, and physicians
+who are admirably equipped to fulfil their respective parts--elementary,
+secondary, and advanced--in the work of sexual hygiene. But so long as
+they are few and far apart their influence is negatived, if it is not
+even rendered harmful.
+
+It must often be useless for a mother to instil into her little boy
+respect for his own body, reverence for the channel of motherhood
+through which he entered the world, any sense of the purity of natural
+functions or the beauty of natural organs, if outside his home the
+little boy finds that all other little boys and girls regard these
+things as only an occasion for sniggering. It is idle for the teacher to
+describe plainly the scientific facts of sex as a marvellous culmination
+in the natural unfolding of the world if, outside the schoolroom, the
+pupil finds that, in the newspapers and in the general conversation of
+adults, this sacred temple is treated as a common sewer, too filthy to
+be spoken of, and that the books which contain even the most necessary
+descriptions of it are liable to be condemned as "obscene" in the law
+courts.[189] It is vain for the physician to explain to young men and
+women the subtle and terrible nature of venereal poisons, to declare the
+right and the duty of both partners in marriage to know, authoritatively
+and beforehand, the state of each other's health, or to warn them that a
+proper sense of responsibility towards the race must prevent some
+ill-born persons from marrying, or at all events from procreating, if
+the young man and woman find, on leaving the physician, that their
+acquaintances are prepared to accept all these risks, light-heartedly,
+in the dark, in a heedless dream from which they somehow hope there will
+be no awful awakening.
+
+The moral to which these observations point is fairly clear. Sex
+penetrates the whole of life. It is not a branch of mathematics, or a
+period of ancient history, which we can elect to teach, or not to teach,
+as may seem best to us, which if we teach we may teach as we choose, and
+if we neglect to teach it will never trouble us. Love and Hunger are the
+foundations of life, and the impulse of sex is just as fundamental as
+the impulse of nutrition. It will not remain absent because we refuse to
+call for its presence, it will not depart because we find its presence
+inconvenient. At the most it will only change its shape, and mock at us
+from beneath masks so degraded, and sometimes so exalted, that we are no
+longer able to recognize it.
+
+"People are always writing about education," said Chamfort more than a
+century ago, "and their writings have led to some valuable methods. But
+what is the use, unless side by side with the introduction of such
+methods, corresponding reforms are not introduced in legislation, in
+religion, in public opinion? The only object of education is to conform
+the child's reason to that of the community. But if there is no
+corresponding reform in the community, by training the child to reason
+you are merely training him to see the absurdity of opinions and customs
+consecrated by the seal of sacred authority, public or legislative, and
+you are inspiring him with contempt of them."[190] We cannot too often
+meditate on these wise words.
+
+It is useless to attempt to introduce sexual hygiene as a subject apart,
+and in some respects it may be dangerous. When we touch sex we are
+touching sensitive fibres which thrill through the whole of our social
+organism, just as the touch of love thrills through the whole of the
+bodily organism. Any vital reform here, any true introduction of sexual
+hygiene to replace our traditional policy of confused silence, affects
+the whole of life or it affects nothing. It will modify our social
+conventions, enter our family life, transform our moral outlook, perhaps
+re-inspire our religion and our philosophy.
+
+That conclusion need by no means render us pessimistic concerning the
+future of sexual hygiene, nor unduly anxious to cling to the policy of
+the past. But it may induce us to be content to move slowly, to prepare
+our movements widely and firmly, and not to expect too much at the
+outset. By introducing sexual hygiene we are breaking with the tradition
+of the past which professed to leave the process by which the race is
+carried on to Nature, to God, especially to the devil. We are claiming
+that it is a matter for individual personal responsibility, deliberately
+exercised in the light of precise knowledge which every young man and
+woman has a right, or rather a duty, to possess. That conception of
+personal responsibility thus extended to the sphere of sex in the
+reproduction of the race may well transform life and alter the course of
+civilization. It is not merely a reform in the class-room, it is a
+reform in the home, in the church, in the law courts, in the
+legislature. If sexual hygiene means that, it means something great,
+though something which can only come slowly, with difficulty, with much
+searching of hearts. If, on the other hand, sexual hygiene means nothing
+but the introduction of a new formal catechism, and an occasional
+goody-goody perfunctory exhortation, it may be introduced at once, quite
+easily, without hurting anyone's feelings. But, really, it will not be
+worth worrying about, one way or the other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[181] For a full discussion of the movement, see Havelock Ellis, _Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chaps.
+II and III.
+
+[182] Basedow (born at Hamburg 1723, died 1790) set forth his views on
+sexual education--which will seem to many somewhat radical and advanced
+even to-day--in his great treatise Elementarwerk (1774). His practical
+educational work is dealt with by Pinloche, _La Réforme de l'Education
+en Allemagne au Dix-huitième Siècle_.
+
+[183] The best of these papers have been printed in a volume entitled _Am
+Lebensquell_.
+
+[184] The elaborate and admirable initiation of boys among the natives of
+Torres Straits furnishes a good example of this education, and has been
+fully described by Dr. A.C. Haddon, _Reports of the Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits_, Vol. V, chaps. VII and XII.
+
+[185] Moll in his wise and comprehensive work, _The Sexual Life of the
+Child_ (German ed., p. 225), lays it down emphatically that "_we must
+clearly realize at the outset that the complete exclusion of sexual
+stimuli in the education of children is impossible_." He adds that the
+demands made by some "fanatics of hygiene" would be dangerous even if
+they were practicable. Games and physical exercises induce in many cases
+a considerable degree of sexual stimulation. But this need not cause us
+undue alarm, nor must we thereby be persuaded to change our policy of
+recommending such games and exercises.
+
+[186] See Frau Maria Lischnewska's excellent pamphlet, _Geschlechtliche
+Belehrung der Kinder_, first published in _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 4
+and 5. This is perhaps the ablest statement of the argument in favour of
+giving the chief place in sexual hygiene to the teacher. Frau
+Lischnewska recognizes three factors in the movement for freeing the
+sexual activities from degradation: (1) medical, (2) economic, and (3)
+rational. But it is the last--in the broadest sense as a comprehensive
+process of enlightenment--which she regards as the chief. "The views and
+sentiments of people must be changed," she says. "The civilized man must
+learn to gaze at this piece of Nature with pure eyes; reverence towards
+it must early sink into his soul. In the absence of this fundamental
+renovation, medical and social measures will merely produce refined
+animals."
+
+[187] "We parents of to-day," as Henriette Fürth truly says ("Erotik und
+Elternpflicht," _Am Lebensquell_, p. 11), "have not yet attained that
+beautiful naturalness out of which in these matters simplicity and
+freedom grow. And however willing we may be to learn afresh, most of us
+have so far lost our inward freedom from prejudice--the standpoint of
+the pure to whom all things are pure--that we cannot acquire it again.
+We parents of to-day have been altogether wrongly brought up. The
+inoculated feeling of shame still remains even after we have recognized
+that shame in this connection is false."
+
+[188] The method of imparting a knowledge of sexual hygiene (especially in
+relation to venereal diseases) at the outset of adult life has most
+actively been carried out in Germany and the United States. In Germany
+lectures by doctors to students and others on these matters are
+frequently given. In the United States information and advice are spread
+abroad chiefly by the aid of societies. The American Society of Sanitary
+and Moral Prophylaxis, with which the name of Dr. Morrow is specially
+connected, was organized in 1905. The Chicago Society of Social Hygiene
+was established in 1906. Since then many other similar societies have
+sprung up under medical auspices in various American cities and states.
+
+[189] Many flagrant cases in point are set forth from the legal point of
+view by Theodore Schroeder, _"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional
+Law_, New York, 1911, chap. IV.
+
+[190] Chamfort, _OEuvres Choisies_, ed. by Lescure, Vol. I, p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+IMMORALITY AND THE LAW
+
+     Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion--The Binding Force of Custom
+     among Savages--The Dissolving Influence of Civilization--The
+     Distinction between Immorality and Criminality--Adultery as a
+     Crime--The Tests of Criminality--National Differences in laying
+     down the Boundary between Criminal and Immoral
+     Acts--France--Germany--England--The United States--Police
+     Administration--Police Methods in the United States--National
+     Differences in the Regulation of the Trade in Alcohol--Prohibition
+     in the United States--Origin of the American Method of Dealing with
+     Immorality--Russia--Historical Fluctuations in Methods of dealing
+     with Immorality and Prostitution--Homosexuality--Holland--The Age
+     of Consent--Moral Legislation in England--In the United States--The
+     Raines Law--American Attempts to Suppress Prostitution--Their
+     Futility--German Methods of Regulating Prostitution--The Sound
+     Method of Approaching Immorality--Training in Sexual
+     Hygiene--Education in Personal and Social Responsibility.
+
+
+The modern development of Social Hygiene in matters of Eugenics has
+already sufficed to show that there are certain people in the community,
+anxious to take quick cuts to the millennium, who think that Eugenics
+can be promoted by hasty legislation. That method of attempting to
+further social progress is not new. It has been practised with signal
+lack of success for several thousand years. Therefore, if Social Hygiene
+is really to progress among us on sane and fundamental lines, it is
+necessary for us to realize clearly the mistakes of the past. Again and
+again the blind haste of over-zealous reformers has led not to
+progress, but to retrogression. The excellent intentions of such social
+reformers have been defeated, not so much by the evils they have sought
+to overcome, as by their own excesses of ignorant zeal. As our knowledge
+of history and of psychology increases, we learn that, in dealing with
+human nature, what seems the longest way round is sometimes the shortest
+way home.
+
+Among savages, and no doubt in primitive societies generally, the social
+reaction against injurious or even unusual acts on the part of
+individuals is regulated by the binding force of custom. The ruling
+opinion is the opinion of all, the ruling custom is the duty for all.
+The dictates of custom, even of ritual and etiquette, are stringent
+dictates of morality binding upon all, and the breach of any is
+equivalent to what we should consider a crime. The savage man is held in
+the path of duty by a much more united force of public opinion than is
+the civilized man. But, as Westermarck points out, in a suggestive
+chapter on customs and laws as the expression of moral ideas, "custom
+never covers the whole field of morality, and the uncovered space grows
+larger in proportion as the moral consciousness develops.... The rule of
+custom is the rule of duty at early stages of development. Only progress
+in culture lessens its sway."[191] As a community increases in size and in
+cultivation, growing more heterogeneous, it adheres rigidly to
+fundamental conceptions of right and wrong, but in less fundamental
+matters its moral ideas become both more subjective and more various. If
+a man kills another man out of love to that man's wife, all civilized
+society is of opinion that the homicide is a "crime" to be severely
+punished; but if the man should make love to the wife without killing
+the husband, then, although in some savage societies the act would still
+have been a "crime," in a civilized society it would usually be regarded
+as more properly a case for civil action, not for criminal action; while
+should it come to be known that the wife had from the first been in love
+with the man, and was married by compulsion to a husband who had
+brutally ill-used her, then a very considerable section of the civilized
+community would actually transfer their sympathies to the offending
+couple and look upon the husband as the real offender.
+
+This is why the vestigial relics of the ancient ecclesiastical view of
+adultery as a "crime" are no longer supported by public opinion;[192] they
+are no longer enforced, or else the penalty is reduced to ridiculous
+dimensions (as in France, where a fine of a few francs may be imposed),
+and there is a general inclination to abolish them altogether. Penalties
+for adultery are not nowadays enacted afresh, except in the United
+States, where medieval regulations are enabled to survive through the
+strength of the Puritan tradition. Thus in the State of New York a law
+was passed in 1907 rendering any person guilty of adultery punishable by
+six months' imprisonment, or a heavy fine, or both. The law was largely
+due to agitation by the National Christian League for the Promotion of
+Purity; it was supposed the law would act to prevent adultery. Less than
+three months after the Act became law, lawyers reached the conclusion
+that it was a dead letter. During the two years after its enactment,
+notwithstanding the large number of divorces, only three persons were
+sent to prison, for a few days, under this Act, and only four fined a
+small sum. The Committee of Fourteen state that it is "of practically no
+effect," and add: "The preventive values of this statute cannot be
+determined, but, judging from the prosecutions, it has proved an
+ineffective weapon against immorality, and has practically no effect
+upon commercialized vice."[193] When such laws remain on the Statute Book
+as relics of practically medieval days they deserve a certain respect,
+even if it is impossible to enforce them; to re-enact them in modern
+times is a gratuitous method of bringing law into contempt.
+
+It is clear that all such cases affecting morals are not only altered by
+circumstances, and by consideration of the psychic state of the
+individual, but that in regard to them different sections of the
+community hold widely different views. The sanctions of the criminal law
+to be firm and unshakeable must be capable of literal interpretation
+and of unfailing execution, and in that interpretation and execution be
+accepted as just by the whole community. But as soon as law enters the
+sphere of morals this becomes impossible; law loses all its certainty
+and all the reverence that rightly belongs to it. It no longer voices
+the conscience of the whole community; it tends to be merely an
+expression of the feelings of a small upper-class social circle; the
+feelings and the habits and the necessities of the mass of the
+population are altogether ignored.[194] Nor are such legislative
+incursions into the sphere of morals any more satisfactory from the
+point of view of the class which is responsible for them. It very soon
+begins to be felt that, as Hagen puts it, "the formulas of penal law are
+stiff and clumsy instruments which can only in the rarest instance serve
+to disentangle the delicate and manifoldly interwoven threads of the
+human soul, and decide what is just and what unjust. Formulas are
+adopted for simple, uncomplicated, rough everyday cases. Only in such
+cases do they achieve the conquest of justice over injustice."
+
+It is true that no sharp line divides criminal acts from merely immoral
+acts, and the latter tend to be indirectly, even when not directly,
+anti-social. It would be highly convenient if we could draw a sharp
+distinction between major anti-social acts, which may properly be
+described as "crime," and justly be pursued with the full rigour of the
+law, and minor anti-social acts, which may be left to the varying
+reaction of the social environments since they cannot properly be
+visited by the criminal law.[195] Such a distinction exists, but it cannot
+be made sharply because there are a large number of intermediate
+anti-social acts which some sections of the community regard as major,
+while others regard them as minor, or even, in some cases, as not
+anti-social at all. The only convenient test we can apply is the
+strength of the social reaction--provided we are dealing with an act
+which is definitely anti-social, injuring recognized rights, and not
+merely an unusual or disgusting act.[196] When an anti-social act meets
+with a reaction of social indignation which is fairly universal and
+permanent, it may be regarded as a crime coming under the jurisdiction
+of the law. If opinion varies, if a considerable section of the
+community revolt against the punishment of the alleged anti-social act,
+then we are not entitled to dignify it with the appellation of "crime."
+This is not an altogether sure or satisfactory criterion because there
+are frequently times and places, especially under the stimulation of
+some particular occurrence evoking an outburst of increased public
+emotion, when a section of the community succeeds by its noisy vigour in
+creating the impression that it voices the universal will. But, on the
+whole, it works out justly. Ethical standards differ in different places
+at different times. They are, indeed, always changing. Therefore, in
+regard to all matters which belong to the sphere of what we commonly
+call morals, there are in every community some who approve of a given
+act, others who disapprove of it, yet others who regard it with
+indifference. In such a shifting sphere we cannot legislate with the
+certainty of carrying the whole community with us, nor can we properly
+introduce the word "crime," which ought to indicate only an action of so
+gravely anti-social nature that there can be no possibility of doubt
+about it.
+
+It is, however, important to understand the marked national differences
+in the reaction to these slightly or dubiously anti-social acts, for
+such differences rest on ancient tradition, and are to some extent the
+expression of the genius of a people, though they are not the absolutely
+immutable product of racial constitution, and, within limits, they
+undergo transformation. It thus happens that acts which in some
+countries are pursued by the law and punished as crime, are in other
+countries untouched by the law, and left to the social reaction of the
+community. It becomes, therefore, of some importance to compare national
+differences in the attitude towards immorality, to find out whether the
+attempt to repress it directly, by law, is more effective, or less
+effective, than the method of leaving it to social reaction.
+
+In many respects France and Germany present a remarkable contrast in
+their respective methods of dealing with immorality. The contrast has
+only existed since the sweeping legal reforms which followed the
+Revolution in France. In old France the laws against sexual and
+religious offences were extremely severe, involving in some cases death
+at the stake, and even during the eighteenth century this extreme
+penalty of the law was sometimes carried out. The police were active,
+their methods of investigation elaborate and thorough, yet the rigour of
+the law and the energy of the police signally failed to suppress
+irreligion and immorality in eighteenth-century France. The Revolution,
+by popularizing the opinions of the more enlightened men of the time,
+and by giving to the popular voice an authority it had never possessed
+before, remoulded the antiquated ecclesiastical laws in accordance with
+the ideas of the average modern man. In 1791 nearly all the ancient laws
+against immorality, which had proved so ineffectual, were flung away,
+and when in 1810 Napoleon established the great penal code which bears
+his name, he was careful to limit to a minimum the moral offences of
+which the law was empowered to take cognisances, and--acting certainly
+in accordance with deeply rooted instincts of the French people--he
+avoided any useless or dangerous interference with private life and the
+freedom of the individual. The penal code in France remains
+substantially the same to-day, while the other countries which have
+constructed their codes on the French model have shown similar
+tendencies.
+
+In Germany, and more especially in Prussia, which now dominates German
+opinion, a very different tendency prevails. The German feels nothing of
+that sensitive jealousy with which the French seek to guard private life
+and the rights of the individual. He tolerates a police system which, as
+Fuld has pointed out, is the most military police system in the world,
+and he makes little complaint of the indiscriminating thoroughness, even
+harshness, with which it exercises its functions. "The North German," as
+a German lawyer puts it, "gazes with sacred respect on every State
+authority, and on every official, especially on executive and police
+functionaries; he complacently accepts police inquisition into his
+private life, and the regulation of his behaviour by law and police
+affects his impulse of freedom in a relatively slight manner. Hence the
+law-maker's interference with his private life seems to him a customary
+and not too injurious encroachment on his individuality."[197] It thus
+comes about that a great many acts, of for the most part unquestioned
+immoral character--such as incest, the procuring of women for immoral
+purposes, and acts of a homosexual character--which, when adults are
+alone concerned, the French leave to be dealt with by the social
+reaction, are in Germany directly dealt with by the law. These things
+and the like are viewed in France with fully as much detestation as in
+Germany, but while the German considers that that detestation is itself
+a reason for inflicting a legal penalty on the detested act, the
+Frenchman considers that to inflict a punishment upon such acts by law
+is an inadmissible interference of the State in private affairs, and an
+unnecessary interference since the social reaction is quite adequate. In
+Germany, Dr. Wilhelm points out, a man who allows his daughter's
+_fiancé_ to stay overnight in his house with her is liable to be dragged
+before the police court and sent to prison for procuring immorality;[198]
+to a Frenchman this is a shocking and inconceivable insult to private
+rights.[199] So also with the German legal attitude towards sexual
+inversion. The German method of dragging private scandals into the
+glare of day and investigating them at interminable length in the law
+courts is a perpetual source of astonishment to Frenchmen. They point
+out that not only does this method defeat its own end by concentrating
+attention on the abnormal practices it attacks, but it adds dignity to
+them; a certain small section of the community justifies and upholds
+these practices, but while in France this section has no reason to come
+prominently before the public since it has no grievances demanding
+redress, in Germany the existence of a cause to advocate in the name of
+justice has produced a serious and imposing body of literature which has
+no parallel in France.[200] Thus, as Wilhelm points out, we find exactly
+opposite methods adopted in Germany and France to obtain the same ends:
+"In Germany, punishment on account of alleged injury to general
+interests; in France absence of punishment in order to avoid injury to
+general interests; in Germany the police baton is called for in order to
+ward off threatened injury, while in France it is feared that the use of
+the police baton will itself cause the injury."
+
+The question naturally arises: Which method is the more effective?
+Wilhelm finds that these differences in national attitude towards
+immorality have not by any means rendered immorality more prevalent in
+France than in Germany; on the contrary, though extra-conjugal
+intercourse is in Germany almost a crime, sexual offences against
+children are far more prevalent than in France, while family life is at
+least as stable in France as in Germany, and more intimate. "The freer
+way of regarding sexual matters and its results in legislation have, as
+compared to Germany, in no respect led to more immoral conditions,
+while, on the other hand, it has been the reason why the vigorous
+agitation which we find in Germany for certain legal reforms in respect
+to sexuality are quite unknown."
+
+It is forgotten, in Germany and in some other countries, sometimes even
+in France, that to bring immorality within reach of the arm of the law
+is not necessarily by any means to make the actual penalty, in the
+largest sense of the term, more severe. So long as he retains the good
+opinion of his fellows, imprisonment is no injury to a man; it has
+happened to some of our most distinguished and respected public men. The
+bad opinion of his fellows, even when the law is powerless to touch him,
+is often an irretrievable injury to a man. We do not fortify the social
+reaction, in most matters, when we attempt to give it a legal sanction;
+we do not even need to fortify it, for it is sometimes harsher and more
+severe than the law, overlooking or not knowing all the extenuating
+circumstances. In France, as in England, the force of social opinion,
+independently of the law, is exceedingly and perhaps excessively
+strong.
+
+In England, however, we see an attitude towards immorality which differs
+alike from the French attitude and the German attitude, though it has
+points of contact with both. The distinctive feature of the Englishman's
+attitude is his spirit of extreme individualism (which distinguishes him
+from the German) combined with the religious nature of his moral fervour
+(which distinguishes him from the Frenchman), both being veiled by a shy
+prudery (which distinguishes him alike from the Frenchman and the
+German). The Englishman's reverence for the individual's rights goes
+beyond the Frenchman's, for in France there is a tendency to subordinate
+the individual to the family, and in England the interests of the
+individual predominate. But while in France the laws have been
+re-moulded to the national temperament, this has not been the case to
+anything like the same extent in England, where in modern times no great
+revolution has occurred to shake off laws which still by their
+antiquity, rather than by their reasonableness, retain the reverence of
+the people. Thus it comes about that, on the legal side the English
+attitude towards immorality in many respects resembles the German
+attitude. Yet undoubtedly the most fundamental element in the English
+attitude is the instinct for personal freedom, and even the religious
+fervour of the moral impulse has strengthened the individualistic
+element.[201] We see this clearly in the fact that England has even gone
+beyond France in rejecting the control of prostitutes. The French are
+striving to abolish such control, but in England where it was never
+extensively established it has long been abolished, leaving only a few
+faint traces behind. It is abhorrent to the English mind that even the
+most degraded specimens of humanity should be compulsorily deprived of
+rights over their own persons, even when it is claimed that the
+deprivation of such rights might be for the benefit of the community. In
+no country, perhaps, is the prostitute so free to parade the streets in
+the exercise of her profession as in England, and in no country is
+public opinion so intolerant of even the suspicion of a mistake by the
+police in the exercise of that very limited control over prostitutes
+which they possess. The freedom of the prostitute in England is further
+guaranteed by the very fervour of English religious feeling; for active
+interference with prostitutes involves regulation of prostitution, and
+that implies a national recognition of prostitution which to a very
+large section of the English people would be altogether repellant. Thus
+English love of freedom and English love of God combine to protect the
+prostitute. It has to be added that this result is by no means, as some
+have imagined, hostile to morality. It is the opinion of many foreign
+observers that in this matter London, for all its freedom, compares
+favourably with many other large cities where prostitution is severely
+regulated by the police and so far as possible concealed. For the police
+can never become the agents of any morality of the heart, and all the
+repression in the world can only touch the surface of life.
+
+The English attitude, again, is characteristically seen in the method of
+dealing with homosexual practices and other similar sexual aberrations.
+Here, legally, England is closer to Germany than to modern France. No
+country in the world, it is often said, has preserved by tradition and
+even maintained by recent accretion such severe penalties against
+homosexual offences as England. Yet, unlike the Germans, the English do
+not actively prosecute in these cases and are usually content to leave
+the law in abeyance, so long as public order and decency are reasonably
+maintained. English people, like the French people, are by no means
+impressed by the advantages of the German system by which purely private
+scandals are made public scandals, to be set forth day after day in all
+their details before the court, and discussed excitedly by the whole
+population. Yet the English law in this matter is still very widely
+upheld. There are very many English people who think that the fact that
+homosexuality is disgusting to most people is a reason for punishing it
+with extreme severity. Yet disgust is a matter of taste, we cannot
+properly impart it into our laws; a disgusting person is not necessarily
+a criminal person, or we shall have to enact that many inmates of our
+hospitals and lunatic asylums be hanged. There is thus a fundamental
+inconsistency in the English method of dealing with immorality; it is
+made up of opposite views, some of them extreme in contrary directions.
+But by virtue of the national tendency to compromise, these conflicting
+tendencies work in a fairly harmonious manner. The result is that the
+general state of English morality--notwithstanding, and perhaps partly
+by reason of, its prudish anxiety to leave unpleasant matters alone--is
+at least as satisfactory as that of countries where much more logical
+and thorough methods are in favour.
+
+In the United States we see yet another attitude towards immorality. It
+is, indeed, related to the English attitude, necessarily so, since the
+most ancient and fundamental element of it was carried over to America
+by the English Puritans, who cherished in the extreme form alike the
+English passion for individualism and the English fervour of religious
+idealism. These germs have been too potent for destruction even under
+all the new influences of American life. But they are not altogether in
+harmony with those influences, and the result has been that the American
+attitude towards immorality has sometimes looked rather like a
+caricature of the English method. The influx of a vast and racially
+confused population with the over-rapid development of urbanization
+which has necessarily followed, opens an immense field for idealistic
+individualism to attempt reforms. But this individualism has not been
+held in check by the English spirit of compromise, which is not a part
+of Puritanism, and it has thus tended alike to excess and to impotence.
+This result is brought about partly by facilities for individualistic
+legislation not voicing the tendencies of the whole population, and
+therefore fatally condemned to sterility, and partly by the fact that in
+a new and rapidly developed civilization it is impossible to secure an
+army of functionaries who may be trusted to deal with the regulation of
+delicate and complex moral questions in regard to which the community
+is not really agreed. The American police are generally admitted to be
+open with special frequency to the charge of ineffectiveness and
+venality. It is not so often realized that these defects are fostered by
+the impossible nature of the tasks which are imposed on the American
+police.
+
+This aspect of the matter has been very clearly set forth by Dr. Fuld,
+of Columbia University, in his able and thorough book on police
+administration.[202] He shows that, though the American police system as a
+system has defects which need to be remedied, it is not true that the
+individual members of the American police forces are inferior to those
+of other countries; on the contrary, they are, in some respects,
+superior; it is not a large proportion which sells the right to break
+the law.[203] Their most serious defects are due to the impracticable laws
+and regulations made by inexperienced legislators. These laws and
+ordinances in many cases cannot possibly be enforced, and the weak
+police officers accept money from the citizen for not enforcing rules
+which in any case they could not enforce. "The American police forces,"
+says Fuld, "have been corrupted almost solely by the statutes.... The
+real blame attaches not to the policeman who accepts a bribe temptingly
+offered him, nor to the bribe-giver who seeks by giving a bribe to make
+the best possible business arrangement, but rather to the law, which by
+giving the police a large and uncontrolled discretion in the enforcement
+of the law places a premium upon bribe-giving and bribe-taking." This
+state of things is rendered possible by the fact that the duties of the
+police are not confined to matters affecting crime and public
+order--matters which the whole community consider essential, and in
+regard to which any police negligence is counted a serious charge--but
+are extended to unessential matters which a considerable section of the
+community, including many of the police themselves, view with complete
+indifference. It is impossible to regard seriously a conspiracy to
+defeat laws which a large proportion of citizens regard as unnecessary
+or even foolish. It thus unfortunately comes about that the charge
+brought against the American police that "it sells the right to break
+the law" has not the same grave significance which it would have in most
+countries, for the rights purchased in America may in most countries be
+obtained without purchase. "An act ought to be made criminal," as Fuld
+rightly lays down, "only when it is socially expedient to punish its
+criminality.... The American people, or at least the American
+legislators, do not make this clear distinction between vice and crime.
+There seems to be a feeling in America that unless a vice is made a
+crime, the State countenances the vice and becomes a party to its
+commission. There are unfortunately a large number of men in the
+community who believe that they have satisfied the demands made upon
+them to lead a virtuous life by incorporating into some statute the
+condemnation of a particular vicious act as a crime."[204] This special
+characteristic of American laws, with its failure to distinguish between
+vice and crime, is clearly a legacy of the early Puritans. The Puritans
+carried over to New England independent autonomous laws of morality, and
+were contemptuous of external law. The sturdy pioneers of the first
+generation were faithful to that attitude, and were not even guilty of
+punishing witches. But, when the opportunity came, their descendants
+could not resist the temptation to erect an external law of morals, and,
+like the Calvinists of Geneva, they set up an inquisition backed by the
+secular arm. It was not until the days of Emerson that American
+Puritanism regained autonomous freedom and moved in the same air as
+Milton. But in the meantime the mischief had been done. Even to-day an
+inquisition of the mails has been established in the United States. It
+is said to be unconstitutional, and one can well believe that that is
+so, but none the less it flourishes under the protection of what a
+famous American has called "the never-ending audacity of elected
+persons." But to allow subordinate officials to masquerade in the Postal
+Department as familiars of the inquisition, in the supposed interests of
+public morals, is a dangerous policy.[205] Its deadening influence on
+national life cannot fail sooner or later to be realized by Americans.
+To moralize by statute is idle and unsatisfactory enough; but it is
+worse to attempt to moralize by the arbitrary dicta of minor government
+officials.
+
+It is interesting to observe the methods which find favour in some parts
+of the United States for dealing with the trade in alcoholic liquors.
+Alcohol is, on the one hand, a poison; on the other hand, it is the
+basis of the national drinks of every civilized country. Every state has
+felt called upon to regulate its sale to more or less extent, in such a
+way that (1) in the interests of public health alcohol may not be too
+easily or too cheaply obtainable, that (2) the restraints on its sale
+may be a source of revenue to the State, and that (3) at the same time
+this regulation of the sale may not be a vexatious and useless attempt
+to interfere unduly with national customs. States have sought to attain
+these ends in various ways. The sale of alcohol may be made a State
+monopoly, as in Russia, or, again, it may be carried on under
+disinterested municipal or other control, as by the Gothenburg system of
+Sweden or the Samlag system of Norway.[206] In England the easier and more
+usual plan is adopted of heavily taxing the sale, with, in addition,
+various minor methods for restraining the sale of alcoholic drinks and
+attempting to improve the conditions under which they are sold.
+
+In France an ingenious method of influencing the sale of alcohol has
+lately been adopted, in the interests of public health, which has proved
+completely successful. The French national drink is light wine, which
+may be procured in abundance, of excellent and wholesome quality and
+very cheaply, provided it is not heavily taxed. But of recent years
+there has been a tendency in France to consume in large quantity the
+heavy alcoholic spirits, often of a specially deleterious kind. The plan
+has been adopted of placing a very high duty on distilled beverages and
+reducing the duty on the light wines, as well as beer, so that a
+wholesome and genuine wine can be supplied to the consumer at as low a
+price as beer. As a result the French consumer has shown a preference
+for the cheap and wholesome wine which is really his national drink, and
+there is an enormous fall in the consumption of spirits. Whereas
+formerly the consumption of brandy in French towns amounted to seven or
+eight litres of absolute alcohol per head, it has now fallen in the
+large towns to 4.23 litres.[207]
+
+In America, however, there is a tendency to deal with the sale of
+alcohol totally opposed to that which nearly everywhere prevails in
+Europe. When in Europe a man abandons the use of alcohol he makes no
+demand on his fellow men to follow his example, or, if he does, he is
+usually content to employ moral suasion to gain this end. But in the
+United States, where there is no single national drink, a large number
+of people have abandoned the use of alcohol, and have persuaded
+themselves that its use by other people is a vice, for it is not
+universally recognized that--"Selfishness is not living as one wishes to
+live, it is asking others to live as one wishes to live." Moreover, as
+in the United States the medieval confusion between vice and crime still
+subsists among a section of the population, being a part of the national
+tradition, it became easy to regard the drinking of alcohol as a crime
+and to make it punishable. Hence we have "Prohibition," which has
+prevailed in various States of the Union and is especially associated
+with Maine, where it was established in a crude form so long ago as 1846
+and (except for a brief interval between 1856 and 1858) has prevailed
+until to-day. The law has never been effective. It has been made more
+and more stringent; the wildest excuses of arbitrary administration have
+been committed; scandals have constantly occurred; officials of iron
+will and determination have perished in the faith that if only they put
+enough energy into the task the law might, after all, be at last
+enforced. It was all in vain. It has always been easy in the cities of
+Maine for those to obtain alcohol who wished to obtain it. Finally, in
+1911, by a direct Referendum, the majority by which the people of Maine
+are maintaining Prohibition has been brought down to 700 in a total poll
+of 120,000, while all the large towns have voted for the repeal of
+Prohibition by enormous majorities. The people of Maine are evidently
+becoming dimly conscious that it is worse than useless to make laws
+which no human power can enforce. "The result of the vote," writes Mr.
+Arthur Sherwell, an English social Reformer, not himself opposed to
+temperance legislation, "from every point of view, and not least from
+the point of view of temperance, is eminently unsatisfactory, and it
+unquestionably creates a position of great difficulty and embarrassment
+for the authorities. A majority of 700 in a total poll of 120,000 is
+clearly not a sufficient mandate for a drastic law which previous
+experience has conclusively shown cannot be enforced successfully in the
+urban districts of the State." Successful enforcement of prohibition on
+a State basis would appear to be hopeless. The history of Prohibition in
+Maine will for ever form an eloquent proof of the mischief which comes
+when the ancient ecclesiastical failure to distinguish between the
+sphere of morals and the sphere of law is perpetuated under the
+conditions of modern life. The attempt to force men to render unto Cæsar
+the things which are God's must always end thus.
+
+In these matters we witness in America the survival of an ancient
+tradition. The early Puritans were individualists, it is true, but their
+individualism took a theocratic form, and, in the name of God, they
+looked upon crimes and vices equally and indistinguishably as sins. We
+see exactly the same point of view in the Penitentials of the ninth
+century, which were ecclesiastical codes dealing, exactly in the same
+spirit and in the same way, with crime and with vice, recognizing
+nothing but a certain difference in degree between murder and
+masturbation. In the ninth century, and even much later, in Calvin's
+Geneva and Cotton Mather's New England, it was possible to carry into
+practice this theocratic conception of the unity of vices and crimes and
+the punishment as sins of both alike, for the community generally
+accepted that point of view. But that is very far from being the case in
+the United States of to-day. The result is that in America in this
+respect we find a condition of things analogous to that which existed in
+France, before the Revolution remoulded the laws in accordance with the
+temperament of the nation. Laws and regulations of the medieval kind,
+for the moral ordering of the smallest details of life, are still
+enacted in America, but they are regarded with growing contempt by the
+community and even by the administrators of the laws. It is realized
+that such minute inquisition into the citizen's private life can only be
+effectively carried out where the citizen himself recognizes the divine
+right of the inquisitor. But the theocratic conception of life no longer
+corresponds to American ideas or American customs; this minute moral
+legislation rests on a basis which in the course of centuries has become
+rotten. Thus it has come about that nowhere in the world is there so
+great an anxiety to place the moral regulation of social affairs in the
+hands of the police; nowhere are the police more incapable of carrying
+out such regulation.
+
+When we thus bear in mind the historical aspect of the matter we can
+understand how it has come about that the individualistic idealist in
+America has been much more resolute than in England to effect reforms,
+much more determined that they shall be very thorough and extreme
+reforms, and, especially, much more eager to embody his moral
+aspirations in legal statutes. But his tasks are bigger than in England,
+because of the vast, unstable, heterogeneous and crude population he has
+to deal with, and because, at the same time, he has no firmly
+established centralized and reliable police instrument whereby to effect
+his reforms. The fiery American moral idealist is determined to set out
+for the Kingdom of Heaven at once, but every steed he mounts proves
+broken-winded, and speedily drops down by the wayside. Don Quixote sets
+the lance at rest and digs his spurs into Rosinante's flanks, but he
+fails to realize that, in our modern world, he will never bear him
+anywhere near the foe.
+
+If we wish to see a totally different national method of regarding
+immorality we may turn to Russia. Here also we find idealism at work,
+but it is not the same kind of idealism, since, far from desiring to
+express itself by force, its essential basis is an absolute disbelief in
+force. Russia, like France, has inherited from an ancient ecclesiastical
+domination an extremely severe code of regulations against immorality
+and all sexual aberrations, but, unlike France, it has not cast them off
+in order to mould the laws in accordance with national temperament. The
+essence of the Russian attitude in these matters is a sympathy with the
+individual which is stronger than any antipathy aroused by his immoral
+acts; his act is a misfortune rather than a sin or a crime. We may
+observe this attitude in the kindly and helpful fashion in which the
+Russian assists along the streets his fellow-man who has drunk too much
+vodka, and, on a higher plane, we see the same spirit of forgiving human
+tenderness in the Russian novelists, most clearly in the greatest and
+most typically national, in Dostoieffsky and in Tolstoy. The harsh
+rigidity of the old Russian laws had not the slightest influence, either
+in changing this national attitude or in diminishing the prevalence, at
+the very least as great as elsewhere, of sexual laxity or sexual
+aberration. Nowadays, as Russia attains national self-consciousness,
+these laws against immorality are being slowly remoulded in accordance
+with the national temperament, and in some respects--as in its attitude
+towards homosexuality and the introduction in 1907 of what is
+practically divorce by mutual consent--they allow a freedom and latitude
+scarcely equalled in any other country.[208]
+
+Undoubtedly there is, within certain limits, mutual action and reaction
+in these matters among nations. Thus the influence of France has led to
+the abolition of the penalty against homosexual practices in many
+countries, notably Holland, Spain, Portugal, and, more recently, Italy,
+while even in Germany there is a strong and influential party, among
+legal as well as medical authorities, in favour of taking the same step.
+On the other hand, France has in some matters of detail departed from
+her general principle in these matters, and has, for instance--without
+doubt in an altogether justifiable manner--taken part in the
+international movement against what is called the white slave trade.
+This mutual reaction of nations is well recognized by the more alert and
+progressive minds in every country, jealous of any undue interference
+with liberty. When, for instance, a Bill is introduced in the English
+Parliament for promoting inquisitorial and vexatious interference with
+matters that are not within the sphere of legislation it is eagerly
+discussed in Germany before even its existence is known to most people
+in England, not so much out of interest in English Affairs as from a
+sensitive dread that English example may affect German legislation.[209]
+
+Not only, indeed, have we to recognize the existence of these clearly
+marked and profound differences in legislative reaction to immorality.
+We have also to realize that at different periods there are general
+movements, to some extent overpassing national bounds, of rise and of
+fall in this reaction.
+
+A sudden impulse seizes on a community, and spreads to other
+communities, to attempt to suppress some form of immorality by law. Such
+attempts, as we know, have always ended in failure or worse than
+failure, for laws against immorality are either not carried out, or, if
+they are carried out, it is at once realized that new evils are created
+worse than the original evils, and the laws speedily fall into abeyance
+or are repealed. That has been repeatedly seen, and is well illustrated
+by the history of prostitution, a sexual manifestation which for two
+thousand years all sorts of persons in authority have sought to suppress
+off-hand by law or by administrative fiat. From the time when
+Christianity gained full political power, prostitution has again and
+again been prohibited, under the severest penalties, but always in vain.
+The mightiest emperors--Theodosius, Valentinian, Justinian, Karl the
+Great, St. Louis, Frederick Barbarossa--all had occasion to discover
+that might was here in vain, and worse than in vain, that they could not
+always obey their own moral ordinances, still less coerce their subjects
+into doing so, and that even so far as, on the surface, they were
+successful they produced results more pernicious than the evils they
+sought to suppress. The best known and one of the most vigorous of these
+attempts was that of the Empress Maria Theresa in Vienna; but all the
+cruelty and injustice of that energetic effort, and all the stringent,
+ridiculous, and brutal regulations it involved--its prohibition of short
+dresses, its inspection of billiard-rooms, its handcuffing of
+waitresses, its whippings and its tortures--proved useless and worse
+than useless, and were soon quietly dropped.[210] No more fortunate were
+more recent municipal attempts in England and America (Portsmouth,
+Pittsburgh, New York, etc.) to suppress prostitution off-hand; for the
+most part they collapsed even in a few days.
+
+The history of the legal attempts to suppress homosexuality shows the
+same results. It may even be said to show more, for when the laws
+against homosexuality are relaxed or abolished, homosexuality becomes,
+not perhaps less prevalent (in so far as it is a congenital anomaly we
+cannot expect its prevalence to be influenced by law), but certainly
+less conspicuous and ostentatious. In France, under the Bourbons, the
+sexual invert was a sacrilegious criminal who could legally be burnt at
+the stake, but homosexuality flourished openly in the highest circles,
+and some of the kings were themselves notoriously inverted. Since the
+Code Napoléon was introduced homosexual acts, _per se_, have never been
+an offence, yet instead of flourishing more vigorously, homosexuality
+has so far receded into the background that some observers regard it as
+very rare in France. In Germany and England, on the other hand, where
+the antiquated laws against this perversion still prevail, homosexuality
+is extremely prominent, and its right to exist is vigorously championed.
+The law cannot suppress these impulses and passions; it can only sting
+them into active rebellion.[211]
+
+But although it has invariably been seen that all attempts to make men
+moral by law are doomed to disappointment, spasmodic attempts to do so
+are continually being made afresh. No doubt those who make these
+attempts are but a small minority, people whose good intentions are not
+accompanied by knowledge either of history or of the world. But though a
+minority they can often gain a free field for their activities. The
+reason is plain. No public man likes to take up a position which his
+enemies may interpret as favourable to vice and probably due to an
+anxiety to secure legal opportunities for his own enjoyment of vice.
+This consideration especially applies to professional politicians. A
+Member of Parliament, who must cultivate an immaculately pure
+reputation, feels that he is also bound to record by his vote how
+anxious he is to suppress other people's immorality. Thus the philistine
+and the hypocrite join hands with the simple-minded idealist. Very few
+are left to point out that, however desirable it is to prevent
+immorality, that end can never be attained by law.
+
+During the past ten years one of these waves of enthusiasm for the
+moralization of the public by law has been sweeping across Europe and
+America. Its energy is scarcely yet exhausted, and it may therefore be
+worthwhile to call attention to it. The movement has shown special
+activity in Germany, in Holland, in England, in the United States, and
+is traceable in a minor degree in many other countries. In Germany the
+Lex Heintze in 1900 was an indication of the appearance of this
+movement, while various scandals have had the result of attracting an
+exaggerated amount of attention to questions of immorality and of
+tightening the rigour of the law, though as Germany already holds moral
+matters in a very complex web of regulations it can scarcely be said
+that the new movement has here found any large field of activity. In
+Holland it is different. Holland is one of the traditional lands of
+freedom; it was the home of independent intellect, of free religion, of
+autonomous morals, when every other country in Europe was closed to
+these manifestations of the spirit, and something of the same tradition
+has always inspired its habits of thought, even when they have been
+largely Puritanic. So that there was here a clear field for the movement
+to work in, and it has found expression, of a very thorough character
+indeed, in the new so-called "Morals Law" which was passed in 1911 after
+several weeks' discussion. Undoubtedly this law contains excellent
+features; thus the agents of the "white slave trade," who have hitherto
+been especially active in Holland, are now threatened with five years'
+imprisonment. Here we are concerned with what may fairly be regarded as
+crime and rightly punishable as such. But excellent provisions like
+these are lost to sight in a great number of other paragraphs which are
+at best useless and ridiculous, and at worst vexatious and mischievous
+in their attempts to limit the free play of civilization. Thus we find
+that a year's imprisonment, or a heavy fine, threatens any one who
+exposes any object or writing which "offends decency," a provision which
+enabled a policeman to enter an art-pottery shop in Amsterdam and remove
+a piece of porcelain on which he detected an insufficiently clothed
+human figure. Yet this paragraph of the law had been passed with
+scarcely any opposition. Another provision of this law deals extensively
+with the difficult and complicated question of the "age of consent" for
+girls, which it raises to the age of twenty-one, making intercourse with
+a girl under twenty-one an offence punishable by four years'
+imprisonment. It is generally regarded as desirable that chastity should
+be preserved until adult age is well established. But as soon as sexual
+maturity is attained--which is long before what we conventionally regard
+as the adult age, and earlier in girls than in boys--it is impossible to
+dismiss the question of personal responsibility. A girl over sixteen,
+and still more when she is over twenty, is a developed human being on
+the sexual side; she is capable of seducing as well as of being seduced;
+she is often more mature than the youth of corresponding age; to
+instruct her in sexual hygiene, to train her to responsibility, is the
+proper task of morals. But to treat her as an irresponsible child, and
+to regard the act of interfering with her chastity when her consent has
+been given, as on a level with an assault on an innocent child merely
+introduces confusion. It must often be unjust to the male partner in the
+act; it is always demoralizing and degrading to the girl whom it aims at
+"protecting"; above all, it reduces what ought to be an extremely
+serious crime to the level of a merely nominal offence when it punishes
+one of two practically mature persons for engaging with full knowledge
+and deliberation in an act which, however undesirable, is altogether
+according to Nature. There is here a fatal confusion between a crime and
+an action which is at the worst morally reprehensible and only properly
+combated by moral methods.
+
+These objections are not of a purely abstract or theoretical character.
+They are based on the practical outcome of such enactments. Thus in the
+State of New York the "age of consent" was in former days thirteen
+years. It was advanced to fourteen and afterwards to sixteen. This is
+the extreme limit to which it may prudently be raised, and the New York
+Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which had taken the
+chief part in obtaining these changes in the law, was content to stop at
+this point. But without seeking the approval of this Society, another
+body, the White Cross and Social Purity League, took the matter in hand,
+and succeeded in passing an amendment to the law which raised the age of
+consent to eighteen. What has been the result? The Committee of
+Fourteen, who are not witnesses hostile to moral legislation, state that
+"since the amendment went into effect making the age of consent eighteen
+years there have been few successful prosecutions. The laws are
+practically inoperative so far as the age clause is concerned." Juries
+naturally require clear evidence that a rape has been committed when the
+case concerns a grown-up girl in the full possession of her faculties,
+possibly even a clandestine prostitute. Moreover, as rape in the first
+degree involves the punishment of imprisonment for twenty years, there
+is a disinclination to convict a man unless the case is a very bad one.
+One judge, indeed, has asserted that he will not give any man the full
+penalty under the present law, so long as he is on the bench. The
+natural result of stretching the law to undue limits is to weaken it.
+Instead of being, as it should be, an extremely serious crime, rape
+loses in a large proportion of cases the opprobrium which rightly
+belongs to it. It is, therefore, a matter for regret that in some
+English dominions there is a tendency to raise the "age of consent" to
+an unduly high limit. In New South Wales the Girls' Protection Act has
+placed the age of consent at sixteen, and in the case of offences by
+guardians, schoolmasters, or employers at seventeen years,
+notwithstanding the vigorous opposition of a distinguished medical
+member of the Legislative Council (the Hon. J.M. Creed), who presented
+the arguments against so high an age. Not a single prosecution has so
+far occurred under this Act.
+
+In England the force of the moral legislation wave has been felt, but it
+has been largely broken against the conservative traditions of the
+country, which make all legislation, good or bad, very difficult. A
+lengthy, elaborate and high-strung Prevention of Immorality Bill was
+introduced in the House of Commons by a group of Nonconformists mainly
+on the Liberal side. This Bill was very largely on the lines of the
+Dutch law already mentioned; it proposed to raise the age of consent to
+nineteen; making intercourse with a girl under that age felony,
+punishable by five years' penal servitude, and any attempt at such
+intercourse by two years' imprisonment. Such a measure would be, it may
+be noted, peculiarly illogical and inconsistent in England and Scotland,
+in both of which countries (though their laws in these matters are
+independent) even a girl of twelve is legally regarded as sufficiently
+mature and responsible to take to herself a husband. At one moment the
+Bill seemed to have a chance of becoming law, but a group of enlightened
+and independent Liberals, realizing that such a measure would introduce
+intolerable social conditions, organized resistance and prevented the
+acceptance of the Bill.
+
+The chief organization in England at the present time for the promotion
+of public morality is the National Council of Public Morals, which is a
+very influential body, with many able and distinguished supporters.
+Law-enforced morality, however, constitutes but a very small part of the
+reforms advocated by this organization, which is far more concerned with
+the home, the school, the Church, and the influences which operate in
+those spheres. It has lately to a considerable extent joined hands with
+the workers in the eugenic movement, advocating sexual hygiene and
+racial betterment, thus allying itself with one of the most hopeful
+movements of our day. Certainly there may be some amount of zeal not
+according to knowledge in the activities of the National Council of
+Public Morals, but there is also very much that is genuinely
+enlightened, and the very fact that the Council includes representatives
+from so many fields of action and so many schools of thought largely
+saves it from running into practical excesses. Its influence on the
+whole is beneficial, because, although it may not be altogether averse
+to moral legislation, it recognizes that the policeman is a very feeble
+guide in these matters, and that the fundamental and essential way of
+bettering the public morality is by enlightening the private conscience.
+
+In the United States conditions have been very favourable, as we have
+seen, for the attempt to achieve social reform by moral legislation, and
+nowhere else in the world has it been so clearly demonstrated that such
+attempts not only fail to cure the evils they are aimed at, but tend to
+further evils far worse than those aimed at. A famous example is
+furnished by the so-called "Raines Law" of New York. This Act was passed
+in 1896, and was intended to regulate the sale of alcoholic liquor in
+all its phases throughout the State. The grounds for bringing it forward
+were that the number of drinking saloons was excessive, that there was
+no fixed licensing fee, that too much discretionary power was allowed to
+the local commissioner; while, above all, the would-be Puritanic
+legislators wished so far as possible to suppress the drinking of
+alcoholic liquors on Sunday. To achieve these objects the licensing fee
+was raised to four times its usual amount previously to this enactment;
+heavy penalties, including the forfeiture of a large surety-bond, were
+established, and more surely to prevent Sunday drinking only hotels, not
+ordinary drinking bars, were allowed, with many stringent restrictions,
+to sell drink on that day. In order that there should be no mistake, it
+was set forth in the Act that the hotel must be a real hotel with at
+least ten properly furnished bedrooms. The legislators clearly thought
+that they had done a fine piece of work. "Seldom," wrote the Committee
+of Fourteen, who are by no means out of sympathy with the aims of this
+legislation, "has a law intended to regulate one evil resulted in so
+aggravated a phase of another evil directly traceable to its
+provisions."[212]
+
+In the first place, the passing of this law alarmed the saloon keepers;
+they realized that it had them in a very tight grip, and they suspected
+that it might be strictly enforced. They came to the conclusion,
+therefore, that their best policy would be to accept the law and to
+conform themselves to its provisions by converting their drinking bars
+into real hotels, with ten properly furnished bedrooms, kitchen, and
+dining-room. The immediate result was the preparation of ten thousand
+bedrooms, for which there was of course no real demand, and by 1905
+there were 1407 certificated hotels in Manhattan and the Bronx alone,
+about 1150 of these hotels having probably been created by the Raines
+Law.
+
+But something had to be done with all these bedrooms, properly furnished
+according to law, for it was necessary to meet the heavy expenses
+incurred under the new conditions created by the law. The remedy was
+fairly obvious. These bedrooms were excellently adapted to serve as
+places of assignation and houses of prostitution. Many hotel proprietors
+became practically brothel keepers, the women in some cases becoming
+boarders in the hotels; and saloons and hotels have entered into a kind
+of alliance for their mutual benefit, and are sometimes indeed under the
+same management. When a hotel is thus run in the interests of
+prostitution it has what may be regarded as a staff of women in the
+neighbouring streets. In some districts of New York it is found that
+practically all the prostitutes on the street are connected with some
+Raines Law hotel. These wise moral legislators of New York thought they
+were placing a penalty on Sunday drinking; what they have really done
+is to place a premium on prostitution[213].
+
+An attempt of a different kind to strike a blow at once at alcohol and
+at prostitution has been made in Chicago, with equally unsatisfactory
+results. Drink and prostitution are connected, so intimately connected,
+indeed, that no attempt to separate them can ever be more than
+superficially successful even with the most minute inquisition by the
+police, least of all by police officers, who, in Chicago, we are
+officially told, are themselves sometimes found, when in uniform and on
+duty, drinking among prostitutes in "saloons." On May 1, 1910, the
+Chicago General Superintendent of Police made a rule prohibiting the
+sale of liquor in houses of prostitution. On the surface this rule has
+in most cases been observed (though only on the surface, as the
+field-workers of the Chicago Vice Commission easily discovered), and a
+blow was thus dealt to those houses which derive a large profit from the
+sale of drinks on account of the high price at which they retail them.
+Yet even so far as the rule has been obeyed, and not evaded, has it
+effected any good? On this point we may trust the evidence of the Vice
+Commissioners of Chicago, a municipal body appointed by the Mayor and
+City Council, and not anxious to discredit the actions of their Police
+Superintendent. "As to the benefits derived from this order, either to
+the inmates or the public, opinions differ," they write. "It is
+undoubtedly true that the result of the order has been to scatter the
+prostitutes over a wide territory and to transfer the sale of liquor
+carried on heretofore in houses to the near-by saloon-keepers, and to
+flats and residential sections, but it is an open question whether it
+has resulted in the lessening of either of the two evils of prostitution
+and drink."[214] That is a mild statement of the results. It may be noted
+that there are over seven thousand drinking saloons in Chicago, so that
+the transfer is not difficult, while the migration to flats--of which an
+enormous number have been taken for purposes of prostitution (five
+hundred in one district alone) since this rule came into force--may
+indeed enable the prostitute to live a freer and more humanizing life,
+but in no faintest degree diminishes the prevalence of prostitution.
+From the narrow police standpoint, indeed, the change is a disadvantage,
+for it shelters the prostitute from observation, and involves an
+entirely new readjustment to new conditions.
+
+It cannot be said that either the State of New York or the city of
+Chicago has been in any degree more fortunate in its attempts at moral
+legislation against prostitution than against drinking. As we should
+expect, the laws of New York regard prostitution and the prostitute with
+an eye of extreme severity. Every prostitute in New York, by virtue of
+the mere fact that she is a prostitute, is technically termed a
+"vagrant." As such she is liable to be committed to the workhouse for a
+term not exceeding six months; the owner of houses where she lives may
+be heavily fined, as she herself may be for living in them, and the
+keeper of a disorderly house may be imprisoned and the disorderly house
+suppressed. It is not clear that the large number of prostitutes in New
+York have been diminished by so much as a single unit, but from time to
+time attempts are made in some district or another by an unusually
+energetic official to put the laws into execution, and it is then
+possible to study the results. When disorderly houses are suppressed on
+a large scale, there are naturally a great number of prostitutes who
+have to find homes elsewhere in order to carry on their business. On one
+occasion, under the auspices of District-Attorney Jerome, it is stated
+by the Committee of Fourteen that eight hundred women were reported to
+be turned out into the street in a single night. For many there are the
+Raines Law hotels. A great many others take refuge in tenement houses.
+Such houses in congested districts are crowded with families, and with
+these the prostitute is necessarily brought into close contact.
+Consequently the seeds of physical and mental disorder which she may
+bear about her are disseminated in a much more fruitful soil than they
+were before. Moreover, she is compelled by the laws to exert very great
+energy in the pursuit of her profession. As it is an offence to harbour
+her she has to pay twice as high a rent as other people would have to
+pay for the same rooms. She may have to pay the police to refrain from
+molesting her, as well as others to protect her from molestation. She is
+surrounded by people whom the law encourages to prey upon her. She is
+compelled to exert her energies at highest tension to earn the very
+large sums which are necessary, not to gain profits for herself, but to
+feed all the sharks who are eager to grab what is given to her. The
+blind or perverse zeal of the moral legislators not only intensifies the
+evils it aims at curing, but it introduces a whole crop of new evils.
+
+How large these sums are we may estimate by the investigation made by
+the Vice Commissioners of Chicago. They conclude after careful inquiry
+that the annual profits of prostitution in the city of Chicago alone
+amount to between fifteen to sixteen million dollars, and they regard
+this as "an ultra-conservative estimate." It is true that not all this
+actually passes through the women's hands and it includes the sales of
+drinks. If we confine ourselves strictly to the earnings of the girls
+themselves it is found to work out at an average for each girl of
+thirteen hundred dollars per annum. This is more than four times as much
+as the ordinary shop-girl can earn in Chicago by her brains, virtue, and
+other good qualities. But it is not too much for the prostitute's needs;
+she is compelled to earn so large an income because the active hostility
+of society, the law, and the police facilitates the task of all those
+persons--and they are many--who desire to prey upon her. Thus society,
+the law, and the police gain nothing for morals by their hostility to
+the prostitute. On the contrary, they give strength and stability to
+the very vice they nominally profess to fight against. This is shown in
+the vital matter of the high rents which it is possible to obtain where
+prostitution is concerned. These high rents are the direct result of
+legal and police enactments against the prostitute. Remove these
+enactments and the rents would automatically fall. The enactments
+maintain the high rents and so ensure that the mighty protection of
+capital is on the side of prostitution; the property brings in an
+exorbitant rate of interest on the capital invested, and all the forces
+of sound business are concerned in maintaining rents. So gross is the
+ignorance of the would-be moral legislators--or, some may think, so
+skilful their duplicity--that the methods by which they profess to fight
+against immorality are the surest methods for enabling immorality not
+merely to exist--which it would in any case--but to flourish. A vigorous
+campaign is initiated against immorality. On the surface it is
+successful. Morality triumphs. But, it may be, in the end we are
+reminded of the saying of M. Desmaisons in one of Remy de Gourmont's
+witty and profound _Dialogues des Amateurs_: "Quand la morale triomphe
+il se passe des choses très vilaines."
+
+The reason why the "triumphs" of legislative and administrative morality
+are really such ignominious failures must now be clear, but may again be
+repeated. It is because on matters of morals there is no unanimity of
+opinion as there is in regard to crime. There is always a large section
+of the community which feels tolerant towards, and even practises, acts
+which another section, it may be quite reasonably, stigmatizes as
+"immoral." Such conditions are highly favourable for the exercise of
+moral influence; they are quite unsuitable for legislative action, which
+cannot possibly be brought to bear against a large minority, perhaps
+even majority, of otherwise law-abiding citizens. In the matter of
+prostitution, for instance, the Vice Commissioners of Chicago state
+emphatically the need for "constant and persistent repression" leading
+on to "absolute annihilation of prostitution." They recommend the
+appointment of a "Morals Commission" to suppress disorderly houses, and
+to prosecute their keepers, their inmates, and their patrons; they
+further recommend the establishment of a "Morals Court" of vaguely large
+scope. Among the other recommendations of the Commissioners--and there
+are ninety-seven such recommendations--we find the establishment of a
+municipal farm, to which prostitutes can be "committed on an
+indeterminate sentence"; a "special morals police squad"; instructions
+to the police to send home all unattended boys and girls under sixteen
+at 9 p.m.; no seats in the parks to be in shade; searchlights to be set
+up at night to enable the police to see what the public are doing, and
+so on. The scheme, it will be seen, combines the methods of Calvin in
+Geneva with those of Maria Theresa in Vienna.[215]
+
+The reason why any such high-handed repression of immorality by force is
+as impracticable in Chicago as elsewhere is revealed in the excellent
+picture of the conditions furnished by the Vice Commissioners
+themselves. They estimate that the prostitutes in disorderly houses
+known to the police--leaving out of account all prostitutes in flats,
+rooms, hotels and houses of assignation, and also taking no note of
+clandestine prostitutes--receive 15,180 visits from men daily, or
+5,540,700 per annum. They consider further that the men in question may
+be one-fourth of the adult male population (800,000 in the city itself,
+leaving the surrounding district out of the reckoning), and they rightly
+insist that this estimate cannot possibly cover all the facts. Yet it
+never occurs to the Vice Commissioners that in thus proposing to brand
+one-third or even only one quarter of the adult male population as
+criminals, and as such to prosecute them actively, is to propose an
+absurd impossibility.
+
+It is not by any means only in the United States that an object lesson
+in the foolishness of attempting to make people moral by force is set up
+before the world. It has often been set up before, and at the present
+day it is illustrated in exactly the same way in Germany. Unlike as are
+the police systems and the national temperaments of Germany and the
+United States, in this matter social reformers tell exactly the same
+story. They report that the German laws and ordinances against
+immorality increase and support the very evil they profess to attack.
+Thus by making it criminal to shelter, even though not for purposes of
+gain, unmarried lovers, even when they intend to marry, the respectable
+girl is forced into the position of the prostitute, and as such she
+becomes subject to an endless amount of police regulation and police
+control. Landlords are encouraged to live on her activities, charging
+very high rates to indemnify themselves for the risks they run by
+harbouring her. She, in her turn, to meet the exorbitant demands which
+the law and the police encourage the whole environment to make upon her,
+is forced to exercise her profession with the greatest activity, and to
+acquire the maximum of profit. Law and the police have forged the same
+vicious circle.[216]
+
+The illustrations thus furnished by Germany, Holland, England, and the
+United States, will probably suffice to show that there really is at the
+present time a wave of feeling in favour of the notion that it is
+possible to promote public morals by force of law. It only remains to
+observe that the recognition of the futility of such attempts by no
+means necessarily involves a pessimistic conservatism. To point out that
+prostitution never has been, and never can be, abolished by law, is by
+no means to affirm that it is an evil which must endure for ever and
+that no influence can affect it. But we have to realize, in the first
+place, that prostitution belongs to that sphere of human impulses in
+which mere external police ordinances count for comparatively little,
+and that, in the second place, even in the more potent field of true
+morals, which has nothing to do with moral legislation, prostitution is
+so subtly and deeply rooted that it can only be affected by influences
+which bear on all our methods of thought and feeling and all our social
+custom. It is far from being an isolated manifestation; it is, for
+instance, closely related to marriage; any reforms in prostitution,
+therefore, can only follow a reform in our marriage system. But
+prostitution is also related to economics, and when it is realized how
+much has to be altogether changed in our whole social system to secure
+even an approximate abolition of prostitution it becomes doubtful
+whether many people are willing to pay the price of removing the "social
+evil" they find it so easy to deplore. They are prepared to appoint
+Commissions; they have no objection to offer up a prayer; they are
+willing to pass laws and issue police regulations which are known to be
+useless. At that point their ardour ends.
+
+If it is impossible to guard the community by statute against the
+central evil of prostitution, still more hopeless is it to attempt the
+legal suppression of all the multitudinous minor provocations of the
+sexual impulse offered by civilization. Let it be assumed that only by
+such suppression, and not by frankly meeting and fighting temptations,
+can character be formed, yet it would be absolutely impossible to
+suppress more than a fraction of the things that would need to be
+suppressed. "There is almost no feature, article of dress, attitude,
+act," Dr. Stanley Hall has truly remarked, "or even animal, or perhaps
+object in nature, that may not have to some morbid soul specialized
+erogenic and erethic power." If, therefore, we wish to suppress the
+sexually suggestive and the possibly obscene we are bound to suppress
+the whole world, beginning with the human race, for if we once enter on
+that path there is no definite point at which we can logically stop. The
+truth is, as Mr. Theodore Schroeder has so repeatedly insisted,[217] that
+"obscenity" is subjective; it cannot reside in an object, but only in
+the impure mind which is influenced by the object. In this matter Mr.
+Schroeder is simply the follower, at an interval, of St. Paul. We must
+work not on the object, but on the impure mind affected by the object.
+If the impure heart is not suppressed it is useless to suppress the
+impure object, while if the heart is renewed the whole task is achieved.
+Certainly there are books, pictures, and other things in life so unclean
+that they can never be pure even to the purest, but these things by
+their loathsomeness are harmless to all healthy minds; they can only
+corrupt minds which are corrupt already. Unfortunately, when ignorant
+police officials and custom-house officers are entrusted with the task
+of searching for the obscene, it is not to these things that their
+attention is exclusively directed. Such persons, it seems, cannot
+distinguish between these things and the noblest productions of human
+art and intellect, and the law has proved powerless to set them right;
+in all civilized countries the list is indeed formidable of the splendid
+and inspiring productions, from the Bible downwards, which officials or
+the law courts have been pleased to declare "obscene." So that while the
+task of moralizing the community by force must absolutely fail of its
+object, it may at the same time suffice to effect much mischief.
+
+It is one of the ironies of history that the passion for extinguishing
+immorality by law and administration should have arisen in what used to
+be called Christendom. For Christianity is precisely the most brilliant
+proof the world has ever seen of the truth that immorality cannot so be
+suppressed. From the standpoint of classic Rome Christianity was an
+aggressive attack on Roman morality from every side. It was not so only
+in appearance, but in reality, as modern historians fully recognize.[218]
+Merely as a new religion Christianity would have been received with calm
+indifference, even with a certain welcome, as other new religions were
+received. But Christianity denied the supremacy of the State, carried on
+an anti-military propaganda in the army, openly flouted established
+social conventions, loosened family life, preached and practised
+asceticism to an age that was already painfully aware that, above all
+things, it needed men. The fatal though doubtless inevitable step was
+taken of attempting to suppress the potent poison of this manifold
+immorality by force. The triumph of Christianity was largely due to the
+fine qualities which were brought out by that annealing process, and the
+splendid prestige which the process itself assured. Yet the method of
+warfare which it had so brilliantly proved to be worthless was speedily
+adopted by Christianity itself, and is even yet, at intervals,
+spasmodically applied.
+
+That these attempts should have such results as we see is not surprising
+when we remember that even movements, at the outset, mainly inspired by
+moral energy, rather than by faith in moral legislation, when that
+energy becomes reckless, violent and intolerant, lead in the end to
+results altogether opposed to the aims of those who initiated them. It
+was thus that Luther has permanently fortified the position of the Popes
+whom he assailed, and that the Reformation produced the
+Counter-Reformation, a movement as formidable and as enduring as that
+which it countered. When Luther appeared all that was rigid and inhuman
+in the Church was slowly dissolving, certainly not without an inevitable
+sediment of immorality, yet the solution was in the highest degree
+favourable to the development of the freer and larger conceptions of
+life, the expansion of science and art and philosophy, which at that
+moment was pre-eminently necessary for the progress of civilisation,
+and, indirectly, therefore, for the progress of morals.[219] The violence
+of the Reformation not only resulted in a new tyranny for its own
+adherents--calling in turn for fresh reformations by Puritans, Quakers,
+Deists, and Freethinkers--but it re-established, and even to-day
+continues to support, that very tyranny of the old Church against which
+it was a protest.
+
+When we try to regulate the morals of men on the same uniform pattern we
+have to remember that we are touching the most subtle, intimate, and
+incalculable springs of action. It is useless to apply the crude methods
+of "suppression" and "annihilation" to these complex and indestructible
+forces. When Charles V retired in weariness from the greatest throne in
+the world to the solitude of the monastery at Yuste, he occupied his
+leisure for some weeks in trying to regulate two clocks. It proved very
+difficult. One day, it is recorded, he turned to his assistant and said:
+"To think that I attempted to force the reason and conscience of
+thousands of men into one mould, and I cannot make two clocks agree!"
+Wisdom comes to the rulers of men, sometimes, usually when they have
+ceased to be rulers. It comes to the moral legislators not otherwise
+than it comes to the immoral persons they legislate against. "I act
+first," the French thief said; "then I think."
+
+It seems to some people almost a paradox to assert that immorality
+should not be encountered by physical force. The same people would
+willingly admit that it is hopeless to rout a modern army with bows and
+arrows, even with the support of a fanfare of trumpets. Yet that
+metaphor, as we have seen, altogether fails to represent the inadequacy
+of law in the face of immorality. We are concerned with a method of
+fighting which is not merely inadequate, but, as has been demonstrated
+many times during the last two thousand years, actually fortifies and
+even dignifies the foe it professes to attack. But the failure of
+physical force to suppress the spiritual evil of immorality by no means
+indicates that a like failure would attend the more rational tactics of
+opposing a spiritual force by spiritual force. The virility of our
+morals is not proved by any weak attempt to call in the aid of the
+secular arm of law or the ecclesiastical arm of theology. If a morality
+cannot by its own proper virtue hold its opposing immorality in check
+then there is something wrong with that morality. It runs the risk of
+encountering a fresh and more vigorous movement of morality. Men begin
+to think that, if not the whole truth, there is yet a real element of
+truth in the assertion of Nietzsche: "We believe that severity,
+violence, slavery, danger in the street and in the heart, secrecy,
+stoicism, tempter's art and devilry of every kind, everything wicked,
+tyrannical, predatory and serpentine in man, serves as well for the
+elevation of the human species as its opposite."[220] To ignore altogether
+the affirmation of that opposing morality, it may be, would be to breed
+a race of weaklings, fatally doomed to succumb helplessly to the first
+breath of temptation.
+
+Although we are passing through a wave of moral legislation, there are
+yet indications that a sounder movement is coming into action. The
+demand for the teaching of sexual hygiene which parents, teachers, and
+physicians in Germany, the United States and elsewhere, are now striving
+to formulate and to supply will, if it is wisely carried out, effect far
+more for public morals than all the legislation in the world.
+Inconsistently enough, some of those who clamour for moral legislation
+also advocate the teaching of sexual hygiene. But there is no room for
+compromise or combination here. A training in sexual hygiene has no
+meaning if it is not a training, for men and women alike, in personal
+and social responsibility, in the right to know and to discriminate,
+and in so doing to attain self-conquest. A generation thus trained to
+self-respect and to respect for others has no use for a web of official
+regulations to protect its feeble and cloistered virtues from possible
+visions of evil, and an army of police to conduct it homewards at 9 p.m.
+Nor, on the other hand, can any reliable sense of social responsibility
+ever be developed in such an unwholesome atmosphere of petty moral
+officialdom. The two methods of moralization are radically antagonistic.
+There can be no doubt which of them we ought to pursue if we really
+desire to breed a firmly-fibred, clean-minded, and self-reliant race of
+manly men and womanly women.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[191] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Vol. I, p.
+160; see also chapter on sexual morality in Havelock Ellis, _Studies in
+the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. IX.
+
+[192] It must be remembered that in medieval days not only adultery but
+the smallest infraction of what the Church regarded as morality could be
+punished in the Archdeacon's court; this continued to be the case in
+England even after the Reformation. See Archdeacon W.W. Hales'
+interesting work, _Precedents and Proceedings in Criminal Causes_
+(1847), which is, as the author states, "a History of the Moral Police
+of the Church."
+
+[193] _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 100.
+
+[194] This has been emphasized in an able and lucid discussion of this
+question by Dr. Hans Hagen, "Sittliche Werturteile," _Mutterschutz_,
+Heft I and II, 1906. Such recognition of popular morals, he justly
+remarks, is needed not only for the sake of the people, but for the sake
+of law itself.
+
+[195] Grabowsky, in criticizing Hiller's book, _Das Recht über sich Selbst_
+(_Archiv für Kriminalanthropologie und Kriminalistik_, Bd. 36, 1809),
+argues that in some cases immorality injures rights which need legal
+protection, but he admits it is difficult to decide when this is the
+case. He does not think that the law should interfere with homosexuality
+in adults, but he does consider it should interfere with incest, on the
+ground that in-breeding is not good for the race. But it is the view of
+most authorities nowadays that in-breeding is only injurious to the race
+in the case of an unsound stock, when the defect being in both partners
+of the same kind would probably be intensified by heredity.
+
+[196] The occurrence of, for instance, incestuous, bestial, and homosexual
+acts--which are generally abhorrent, but not necessarily
+anti-social--makes it necessary to exercise some caution here.
+
+[197] I quote from a valuable and interesting study by Dr. Eugen Wilhelm,
+"Die Volkspsychologischen Unterschiede in der französischen und
+deustchen Sittlichkeits-Gesetzgebung und Rechtsprechung,"
+_Sexual-Probleme_, October, 1911. It may be added that in Switzerland,
+also, the tyranny of the police is carried to an extreme. Edith Sellers
+gives some extraordinary examples, _Cornhill_, August, 1910.
+
+[198] The absurdities and injustice of the German law, and its
+interference with purely private interests in these matters, have often
+been pointed out, as by Dr. Kurt Hiller ("Ist Kuppelei Strafwürdig?"
+_Die Neue Generation_, November, 1910). As to what is possible under
+German law by judicial decision since 1882, Hagen takes the case of a
+widow who has living with her a daughter, aged twenty-five or thirty,
+engaged to marry an artisan now living at a distance for the sake of his
+work; he comes to see her when he can; she is already pregnant; they
+will marry soon; one evening, with the consent of the widow, who looks
+on the couple as practically married, he stays over-night, sharing his
+betrothed's room, the only room available. Result: the old woman becomes
+liable to four years' penal servitude, a fine of six thousand marks,
+loss of civil rights, and police supervision.
+
+[199] In another respect the French code carries private rights to an
+excess by forbidding the unmarried mother to make any claim on the
+father of her child. In most countries such a prohibition is regarded as
+unreasonable and unjust. There is even a tendency (as by a recent Dutch
+law) to compel the father to provide for his illegitimate child not on
+the scale of the mother's social position but on the scale of his own
+social position. This is, possibly, an undue assertion of the
+superiority of man.
+
+[200] The same point has lately been illustrated in Holland, where a
+recent modification in the law is held to press harshly on homosexual
+persons. At once a vigorous propaganda on behalf of the homosexual has
+sprung into existence. We see here the difference between moral
+enactments and criminal enactments. Supposing that a change in the law
+had placed, for instance, increased difficulties in the way of burglary.
+We should not witness any outburst of literary activity on behalf of
+burglars, because the community, as a whole, is thoroughly convinced
+that burglary ought to be penalized.
+
+[201] Apart from the attitude towards immorality, we have an illustration
+of the peculiarly English tendency to unite religious fervour with
+individualism in Quakerism. In no other European country has any similar
+movement--that is, a popular movement of individualistic mysticism--ever
+appeared on the same scale.
+
+[202] E.F. Fuld, Ph.D., _Police Administration_, 1909.
+
+[203] Ex-Police Commissioner Bingham, of New York, estimated (_Hampton's
+Magazine_, September, 1909) that "fifteen per cent. or from 1500 to 2000
+members of the police force are unscrupulous 'grafters' whose hands are
+always out for easy money." See also Report of the Committee of Fourteen
+on _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 34.
+
+[204] Fuld, _op. cit._, pp. 373 _et seq._ This last opinion by no means
+stands alone. Thus it is asserted by the Committee of Fourteen in their
+Report on The _Social Evil in New York City_ (1910, p. xxxiv) that "some
+laws exist to-day because an unintelligent, cowardly public puts
+unenforceable statutes on the book, being content with registering their
+hypocrisy."
+
+[205] It is also a blundering policy. Its blind anathema is as likely as
+not to fall on its own allies. Thus the Report of the municipally
+appointed and municipally financed Vice Commission of Chicago is not
+only an official but a highly moral document, advocating increased
+suppression of immoral literature, and erring, if it errs, on the side
+of over-severity. It has been suppressed by the United States Post
+Office!
+
+[206] This system applies only to spirits, not to beer and wine, but it
+has proved very effective in diminishing drunkenness, as is admitted by
+those who are opposed to the system. A somewhat similar system exists in
+England under the name of the Trust system, but its extension appears
+unfortunately to be much impeded by English laws and customs.
+
+[207] Jacques Bertillon, in a paper read to the Académie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques, 30th September, 1911.
+
+[208] During the present century a great wave of immorality and sexual
+crime has been passing over Russia. This is not attributable to the
+laws, old or new, but is due in part to the Russo-Japanese War, and in
+part to the relaxed tension consequent on the collapse of the movement
+for political reform. (See an article by Professor Asnurof, "La Crise
+Sexuelle en Russie," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, April,
+1911.)
+
+[209] It was by this indirect influence that I was induced to write the
+present chapter. The editor of a prominent German review wrote to me for
+my opinion regarding a Bill dealing with the prevention of immorality
+which had been introduced into the English Parliament and had aroused
+much interest and anxiety in Germany, where it had been discussed in all
+its details. But I had never so much as heard of the Bill, nor could I
+find any one else who had heard of it, until I consulted a Member of
+Parliament who happened to have been instrumental in causing its
+rejection.
+
+[210] J. Schrank, _Die Prostitution in Wien_, Bd. I, pp. 152-206.
+
+[211] The history of this movement in Germany may be followed in the
+_Vierteljahrsberichte des Wissenschaftlich-humanitären Komitees_, edited
+by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, a great authority on the matter.
+
+[212] Report on _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 38; see also Rev
+Dr. J.P. Peters, "Suppression of the 'Raines Law Hotels,'" _American
+Academy of Political and Social Science_, November, 1908.
+
+[213] It is probably needless to add that the specific object of the
+Act--the Puritanic observance of Sunday--was by no means attained. On
+Sunday, the 8th December, 1907, the police made a desperate attempt to
+enforce the law; every place of amusement was shut up; lectures,
+religious concerts, even the social meetings of the Young Men's
+Christian Association, were rigorously put a stop to. There was, of
+course, great popular indignation and uproar, and the impromptu
+performances got up in the streets, while the police looked on
+sympathetically, are said to have been far more outrageous than any
+entertainment indoors could possibly have been.
+
+[214] _The Social Evil in Chicago_, p. 112.
+
+[215] The methods of Maria Theresa never had any success; the methods of
+Calvin at Geneva had, however, a certain superficial success, because
+the right conditions existed for their exercise. That is to say, that a
+theocratic basis of society was generally accepted, and that the
+suppression of immorality was regarded by the great mass of the
+population, including in most cases, no doubt, even the offenders
+themselves, as a religious duty. It is, however, interesting to note
+that, even at Geneva, these "triumphs of morality" have met the usual
+fate. At the present day, it appears (Edith Sellers, _Cornhill_, August,
+1910), there are more disorderly houses in Geneva, in proportion to the
+population, than in any other town in Europe.
+
+[216] See e.g. P. Hausmeister, "Zur Analyse der Prostitution," _Geschlect
+und Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 294.
+
+[217] Theodore Schroeder, _"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional Law_,
+New York, 1911.
+
+[218] Thus Sir Samuel Dill (_Roman Society_, p. 11) calls attention to the
+letter of St. Paulinus who, when the Empire was threatened by
+barbarians, wrote to a Roman soldier that Christianity is incompatible
+with family life, with citizenship, with patriotism, and that soldiers
+are doomed to eternal torment. Christians frequently showed no respect
+for law or its representatives. "Many Christian confessors," says Sir
+W.M. Ramsay (_The Church in the Roman Empire_, chap. xv), "went to
+extremes in showing their contempt and hatred for their judges. Their
+answers to plain questions were evasive and indirect; they lectured
+Roman dignitaries as if the latter were the criminals and they
+themselves the judges; and they even used violent reproaches and coarse,
+insulting gestures." Bouché-Leclercq (_L'Intolérance Religieuse et le
+Politique_, 1911, especially chap. X) shows how the early Christians
+insisted on being persecuted. We see much the same attitude to-day among
+anarchists of the lower class (and also, it may be added, sometimes
+among suffragettes), who may be regarded as the modern analogues of the
+early Christians.
+
+[219] It may well be, indeed, that in all ages the actual sum of
+immorality, broadly considered--in public and in private, in thought and
+in act--undergoes but slight oscillations. But in the nature of its
+manifestations and in the nature of the manifestations that accompany
+it, there may be immense fluctuations. Tarde, the distinguished thinker,
+referring to the "delicious Catholicism" of the days before Luther,
+asks: "If that amiable Christian evolution had peacefully continued to
+our days, should we be still more immoral than we are? It is doubtful,
+but in all probability we should be enjoying the most æsthetic and the
+least vexatious religion in the world, in which all our science, all our
+civilization, would have been free to progress" (Tarde, _La Logique
+Sociale_, p. 198). As has often been pointed out, it was along the lines
+indicated by Erasmus, rather than along the lines pursued by Luther,
+that the progress of civilization lay.
+
+[220] Nietzsche, _Beyond Good and Evil_, chap. II. A century earlier
+Godwin had written in his _Political Justice_ (Book VII, chap. VIII):
+"Men are weak at present because they have always been told they are
+weak and must not be trusted with themselves. Take them out of their
+shackles, bid them enquire, reason, and judge, and you will soon find
+them very different beings. Tell them that they have passions, are
+occasionally hasty, intemperate, and injurious, but that they must be
+trusted with themselves. Tell them that the mountains of parchment in
+which they have been hitherto entrenched, are fit only to impose upon
+ages of superstition and ignorance, that henceforth we will have no
+dependence but upon their spontaneous justice; that, if their passions
+be gigantic, they must rise with gigantic energy to subdue them; that if
+their decrees be iniquitous, the iniquity shall be all their own."
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE WAR AGAINST WAR
+
+     Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day--The Beneficial
+     Effects of War in Barbarous Ages--Civilization renders the Ultimate
+     Disappearance of War Inevitable--The Introduction of Law in
+     disputes between Individuals involves the Introduction of Law in
+     disputes between Nations--But there must be Force behind Law--Henry
+     IV's Attempt to Confederate Europe--Every International Tribunal of
+     Arbitration must be able to enforce its Decisions--The Influences
+     making for the Abolition of Warfare--(1) Growth of International
+     Opinion--(2) International Financial Development--(3) The
+     Decreasing Pressure of Population--(4) The Natural Exhaustion of
+     the Warlike Spirit--(5) The Spread of Anti-military Doctrines--(6)
+     The overgrowth of Armaments--(7) The Dominance of Social
+     Reform--War Incompatible with an Advanced Civilization--Nations as
+     Trustees for Humanity--The Impossibility of Disarmament--The
+     Necessity of Force to ensure Peace--The Federated State of the
+     Future--The Decay of War still leaves the Possibilities of Daring
+     and Heroism.
+
+
+There are, no doubt, special reasons why at the present time war and the
+armaments of war should appear an intolerable burden which must be
+thrown off as soon as possible if the task of social hygiene is not to
+be seriously impeded. But the abolition of the ancient method of
+settling international disputes by warfare is not a problem which
+depends for its solution on the conditions of the moment. It is implicit
+in the natural development of the process of civilization. At one stage,
+no doubt, warfare plays an important part in constituting states and so,
+indirectly, in promoting civilization. But civilization tends slowly
+but surely to substitute for war in the later stages of this process the
+methods of law, or, in any case, methods which, while not always
+unobjectionable, avoid the necessity for any breach of the peace.[221] As
+soon, indeed, as in primitive society two individuals engage in a
+dispute which they are compelled to settle not by physical force but by
+a resort to an impartial tribunal, the thin end of the wedge is
+introduced, and the ultimate destruction of war becomes merely a matter
+of time. If it is unreasonable for two individuals to fight it is
+unreasonable for two groups of individuals to fight.[222]
+
+The difficulty has been that while it is quite easy for an ordered
+society to compel two individuals to settle their differences before a
+tribunal, in accordance with abstractly determined principles of law and
+reason, it is a vastly more difficult matter to compel two groups of
+individuals so to settle their differences. A large part of the history
+of all the great European countries has consisted in the progressive
+conquest and pacification of small but often bellicose states outside,
+and even inside, their own borders.[223] This is the case even within a
+community. Hobbes, writing in the midst of a civil war, went so far as
+to lay down that the "final cause" of a commonwealth is nothing else but
+the abolition of "that miserable condition of war which is necessarily
+consequent to the natural passions of men when there is no visible power
+to keep them in awe." Yet we see to-day that even within our highly
+civilized communities there is not always any adequately awful power to
+prevent employers and employed from engaging in what is little better
+than a civil war, nor even to bind them to accept the decision of an
+impartial tribunal they may have been persuaded to appeal to. The
+smallest state can compel its individual citizens to keep the peace; a
+large state can compel a small state to do so; but hitherto there has
+been no guarantee possible that large states, or even large compact
+groups within the state, should themselves keep the peace. They commit
+what injustice they please, for there is no visible power to keep them
+in awe. We have attained a condition in which a state is able to enforce
+a legal and peaceful attitude in its own individual citizens towards
+each other. The state is the guardian of its citizens' peace, but the
+old problem recurs: _Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?_
+
+It is obvious that this difficulty increases as the size of states
+increases. To compel a small state to keep the peace by absorbing it if
+it fails to do so is always an easy and even tempting process to a
+neighbouring larger state. This process was once carried out on a
+complete scale, when practically the whole known world was brought under
+the sway of Rome. "War has ceased," Plutarch was able to declare in the
+days of the Roman Empire, and, though himself an enthusiastic Greek, he
+was unbounded in his admiration of the beneficence of the majestic _Pax
+Romana_, and never tempted by any narrow spirit of patriotism to desire
+the restoration of his own country's glories. But the Roman organization
+broke up, and no single state will ever be strong enough to restore it.
+
+Any attempt to establish orderly legal relationships between states
+must, therefore, be carried out by the harmonious co-operation of those
+states. At the end of the sixteenth century a great French statesman,
+Sully, inspired Henry IV with a scheme of a Council of Confederated
+European Christian States; each of these states, fifteen in number, was
+to send four representatives to the Council, which was to sit at Metz or
+Cologne and regulate the differences between the constituent states of
+the Confederation. The army of the Confederation was to be maintained in
+common, and used chiefly to keep the peace, to prevent one sovereign
+from interfering with any other, and also, if necessary, to repel
+invasion of barbarians from without. The scheme was arranged in concert
+with Queen Elizabeth, and twelve of the fifteen Powers had already
+promised their active co-operation when the assassination of Henry
+destroyed the whole plan. Such a Confederation was easier to arrange
+then than it is now, but probably it was more difficult to maintain, and
+it can scarcely be said that at that date the times were ripe for so
+advanced a scheme.[224]
+
+To-day the interests of small states are so closely identified with
+peace that it is seldom difficult to exert pressure on them to maintain
+it. It is quite another matter with the large states. The fact that
+during the past half century so much has been done by the larger states
+to aid the cause of international arbitration, and to submit disputes to
+international tribunals, shows how powerful the motives for avoiding war
+are nowadays becoming. But the fact, also, that no country hitherto has
+abandoned its liberty of withdrawing from peaceful arbitration any
+question involving "national honour" shows that there is no constituted
+power strong enough to control large states. For the reservation of
+questions of national honour from the sphere of law is as absurd as
+would be any corresponding limitation by individuals of their liability
+for their acts before the law; it is as though a man were to say: "If I
+commit a theft I am willing to appear before the court, and will
+probably pay the penalty demanded; but if it is a question of murder,
+then my vital interests are at stake, and I deny altogether the right of
+the court to intervene." It is a reservation fatal to peace, and could
+not be accepted if pleaded at the bar of any international tribunal with
+the power to enforce its decisions. "Imagine," says Edward Jenks, in his
+_History of Politics_, "a modern judge 'persuading' Mr. William Sikes to
+'make it up' with the relatives of his victim, and, on his remaining
+obdurate, leaving the two families to fight the matter out." Yet that is
+what was in some degree done in England until medieval times as regards
+individual crimes, and it is what is still done as regards national
+crimes, in so far as the appeal to arbitration is limited and voluntary.
+The proposals, therefore--though not yet accepted by any
+Government--lately mooted in the United States, in England, and in
+France, to submit international disputes, without reservation, to an
+impartial tribunal represent an advance of peculiar significance.
+
+The abolition of collective fighting is so desirable an extension of the
+abolition of individual fighting, and its introduction has waited so
+long the establishment of some high compelling power--for the influence
+of the Religion of Peace has in this matter been less than nil--that it
+is evident that only the coincidence of very powerful and peculiar
+factors could have brought the question into the region of practical
+politics in our own time. There are several such factors, most of which
+have been developing during a long period, but none have been clearly
+recognized until recent years. It may be worth while to indicate the
+great forces now warring against war.
+
+(1) _Growth of International Opinion._ There can be no doubt whatever
+that during recent years, and especially in the more democratic
+countries, an international consensus of public opinion has gradually
+grown up, making itself the voice, like a Greek chorus, of an abstract
+justice. It is quite true that of this justice, as of justice generally,
+it may be said that it has wide limits. Renan declared once, in a famous
+allocution, that "what is called indulgence is, most often, only
+justice," and, at the other extreme, Remy de Gourmont has said that
+"injustice is sometimes a part of justice;" in other words, there are
+varying circumstances in which justice may properly be tempered either
+with mercy or with severity. In any case, and however it may be
+qualified; a popular international voice generously pronouncing itself
+in favour of justice, and resonantly condemning any Government which
+clashes against justice, is now a factor of the international situation.
+It is, moreover, tending to become a factor having a certain influence
+on affairs. This was the case during the South African War, when
+England, by offending this international sense of justice, fell into a
+discredit which had many actual unpleasant results and narrowly escaped,
+there is some reason to believe, proving still more serious. The same
+voice was heard with dramatically sudden and startling effect when
+Ferrer was shot at Barcelona. Ferrer was a person absolutely unknown to
+the man in the street; he was indeed little more than a name even to
+those who knew Spain; few could be sure, except by a kind of intuition,
+that he was the innocent victim of a judicial murder, for it is only now
+that the fact is being slowly placed beyond dispute. Yet immediately
+after Ferrer was shot within the walls of Monjuich a great shout of
+indignation was raised, with almost magical suddenness and harmony,
+throughout the civilized world, from Italy to Belgium, from England to
+Argentina. Moreover, this voice was so decisive and so loud that it
+acted like those legendary trumpet-blasts which shattered the walls of
+Jericho; in a few days the Spanish Government, with a powerful minister
+at its head, had fallen. The significance of this event we cannot easily
+overestimate. For the first time in history, the voice of international
+public opinion, unsupported by pressure, political, social, or
+diplomatic, proved potent enough to avenge an act of injustice by
+destroying a Government. A new force has appeared in the world, and it
+tends to operate against those countries which are guilty of injustice,
+whether that injustice is exerted against a State or even only against a
+single obscure individual. The modern developments of telegraphy and the
+Press--unfavourable as the Press is in many respects to the cause of
+international harmony--have placed in the hands of peace this new weapon
+against war.
+
+(2) _International Financial Development._ There is another
+international force which expresses itself in the same sense. The voice
+of abstract justice raised against war is fortified by the voice of
+concrete self-interest. The interests of the propertied classes, and
+therefore of the masses dependent upon them, are to-day so widely
+distributed throughout the world that whenever any country is plunged
+into a disastrous war there arises in every other country, especially in
+rich and prosperous lands with most at stake, a voice of self-interest
+in harmony with the voice of justice. It is sometimes said that wars are
+in the interest of capital, and of capital alone, and that they are
+engineered by capitalists masquerading under imposing humanitarian
+disguises. That is doubtless true to the extent that every war cannot
+fail to benefit some section of the capitalistic world, which will
+therefore favour it, but it is true to that extent only. The old notion
+that war and the acquisition of territories encouraged trade by opening
+up new markets has proved fallacious. The extension of trade is a matter
+of tariffs rather than of war, and in any case the trade of a country
+with its own acquisitions by conquest is a comparatively insignificant
+portion of its total trade. But even if the financial advantages of war
+were much greater than they are, they would be more than compensated by
+the disadvantages which nowadays attend war. International financial
+relationships have come to constitute a network of interests so vast, so
+complicated, so sensitive, that the whole thrills responsively to any
+disturbing touch, and no one can say beforehand what widespread damage
+may not be done by shock even at a single point. When a country is at
+war its commerce is at once disorganized, that is to say that its
+shipping, and the shipping of all the countries that carry its freights,
+is thrown out of gear to a degree that often cannot fail to be
+internationally disastrous. Foreign countries cannot send in the imports
+that lie on their wharves for the belligerent country, nor can they get
+out of it the exports they need for their own maintenance or luxury.
+Moreover, all the foreign money invested in the belligerent country is
+depreciated and imperilled. The international voice of trade and finance
+is, therefore, to-day mainly on the side of peace.
+
+It must be added that this voice is not, as it might seem, a selfish
+voice only. It is justifiable not only in immediate international
+interests, but even in the ultimate interests of the belligerent
+country, and not less so if that country should prove victorious. So far
+as business and money are concerned, a country gains nothing by a
+successful war, even though that war involves the acquisition of immense
+new provinces; after a great war a conquered country may possess more
+financial stability than its conqueror, and both may stand lower in this
+respect than some other country which is internationally guaranteed
+against war. Such points as these have of late been ably argued by
+Norman Angell in his remarkable book, _The Great Illusion_, and for the
+most part convincingly illustrated.[225] As was long since said, the
+ancients cried, _Væ victis_! We have learnt to cry, _Væ victoribus_!
+
+It may, indeed, be added that the general tendency of war--putting aside
+peoples altogether lacking in stamina--is to moralize the conquered and
+to demoralise the conquerors. This effect is seen alike on the material
+and the spiritual sides. Conquest brings self-conceit and intolerance,
+the reckless inflation and dissipation of energies. Defeat brings
+prudence and concentration; it ennobles and fortifies. All the glorious
+victories of the first Napoleon achieved less for France than the
+crushing defeat of the third Napoleon. The triumphs left enfeeblement;
+the defeat acted as a strong tonic which is still working beneficently
+to-day. The corresponding reverse process has been at work in Germany:
+the German soil that Napoleon ploughed yielded a Moltke and a
+Bismarck,[226] while to-day, however mistakenly, the German Press is
+crying out that only another war--it ought in honesty to say an
+unsuccessful war--can restore the nation's flaccid muscle. It is yet
+too early to see the results of the Russo-Japanese War, but already
+there are signs that by industrial overstrain and the repression of
+individual thought Japan is threatening to enfeeble the physique and to
+destroy the high spirit of the indomitable men to whom she owed her
+triumph.
+
+(3) _The Decreasing Pressure of Population._ It was at one time commonly
+said, and is still sometimes repeated, that the pressure of
+over-population is the chief cause of wars. That is a statement which
+requires a very great deal of qualification. It is, indeed, possible
+that the great hordes of warlike barbarians from the North and the East
+which invaded Europe in early times, sometimes more or less overwhelming
+the civilized world, were the result of a rise in the birth-rate and an
+excess of population beyond the means of subsistence. But this is far
+from certain, for we know absolutely nothing concerning the birth-rate
+of these invading peoples either before or during the period of their
+incursions. Again, it is certain that, in modern times, a high and
+rising birth-rate presents a favourable condition for war. A war
+distracts attention from the domestic disturbances and economic
+wretchedness which a too rapid growth of population necessarily
+produces, while at the same time tending to draw away and destroy the
+surplus population which causes this disturbance and wretchedness. Yet
+there are other ways of meeting this over-population beside the crude
+method of war. Social reform and emigration furnish equally effective
+and much more humane methods of counteracting such pressure. No doubt
+the over-population resulting from an excessively high birth-rate, when
+not met, as it tends to be, by a correspondingly high death-rate from
+disease, may be regarded as a predisposing cause of war, but to assert
+that it is the pre-eminent cause is to go far beyond the evidence at
+present available.
+
+To whatever degree, however, it may have been potent in causing war in
+the past, it is certain that the pressure of population as a cause of
+war will be eliminated in the future. The only nations nowadays that can
+afford to make war on the grand scale are the wealthy and civilized
+nations. But civilization excludes a high birth-rate: there has never
+been any exception to that law, nor can we conceive any exceptions, for
+it is more than a social law; it is a biological law. Russia, a still
+imperfectly civilized country, stands apart in having a very high
+birth-rate, but it also has a very high death-rate, and even should it
+happen that in Russia improved social conditions lower the death-rate
+before affecting the birth-rate, there is still ample room within
+Russian territory for the consequent increase of population. Among all
+the other nations which are considered to threaten the world's peace,
+the birth-rate is rapidly falling. This is so, for instance, as regards
+England and Germany. Germany, especially, it was once thought--though in
+actual fact Germany has not fought for over forty years--had an interest
+in going to war in order to find an outlet for her surplus population,
+compelled, in the absence of suitable German colonies, to sacrifice its
+patriotism and lose its nationality by emigrating to foreign countries.
+But the German birth-rate is falling, German emigration is decreasing,
+and the immense growth of German industry is easily able to absorb the
+new generation. Thus the declining birth-rate of civilized lands will
+alone largely serve in the end to eliminate warfare, partly by removing
+one of its causes, partly because the increased value of human life will
+make war too costly.
+
+(4) _The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit._ It is a remarkable
+tendency of the warlike spirit--frequently emphasized in recent years by
+the distinguished zoologist, President D.S. Jordan, who here follows
+Novikov[227]--that it tends to exterminate itself. Fighting stocks, and
+peoples largely made up of fighting stocks, are naturally killed out,
+and the field is left to the unwarlike. It is only the prudent, those
+who fight and run away, who live to fight another day; and they transmit
+their prudence to their offspring. Great Britain is a conspicuous
+example of a land which, being an island, was necessarily peopled by
+predatory and piratical invaders. A long series of warlike and
+adventurous peoples--Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Normans--built
+up England and imparted to it their spirit. The English were, it was
+said, "a people for whom pain and death are nothing, and who only fear
+hunger and boredom." But for over eight hundred years they have never
+been reinforced by new invaders, and the inevitable consequences have
+followed. There has been a gradual killing out of the warlike stocks, a
+process immensely accelerated during the nineteenth century by a vast
+emigration of the more adventurous elements in the population, pressed
+out of the overcrowded country by the reckless and unchecked increase of
+the population which occurred during the first three-quarters of that
+century. The result is that the English (except sometimes when they
+happen to be journalists) cannot now be described as a warlike people.
+Old legends tell of British heroes who, when their legs were hacked
+away, still fought upon the stumps. Modern poets feel that to picture a
+British warrior of to-day in this attitude would be somewhat
+far-fetched. The historian of the South African War points out, again
+and again, that the British leaders showed a singular lack of the
+fighting spirit. During that war English generals seldom cared to engage
+the enemy's forces except when their own forces greatly outnumbered
+them, and on many occasions they surrendered immediately they realized
+that they were themselves outnumbered. Those reckless Englishmen who
+boldly sailed out from their little island to face the Spanish Armada
+were long ago exterminated; an admirably prudent and cautious race has
+been left alive.
+
+It is the same story elsewhere. The French long cherished the tradition
+of military glory, and no country has fought so much. We see the result
+to-day. In no country is the attitude of the intellectual classes so
+calm and so reasonable on the subject of war, and nowhere is the popular
+hostility to war so strongly marked.[228] Spain furnishes another instance
+which is even still more decisive. The Spanish were of old a
+pre-eminently warlike people, capable of enduring all hardships, never
+fearing to face death. Their aggressively warlike and adventurous spirit
+sent them to death all over the world. It cannot be said, even to-day,
+that the Spaniards have lost their old tenacity and hardness of fibre,
+but their passion for war and adventure was killed out three centuries
+ago.
+
+In all these and the like cases there has been a process of selective
+breeding, eliminating the soldierly stocks and leaving the others to
+breed the race. The men who so loved fighting that they fought till they
+died had few chances of propagating their own warlike impulses. The men
+who fought and ran away, the men who never fought at all, were the men
+who created the new generation and transmitted to it their own
+traditions.
+
+This selective process, moreover, has not merely acted automatically; it
+has been furthered by social opinion and social pressure, sometimes very
+drastically expressed. Thus in the England of the Plantagenets there
+grew up a class called "gentlemen"--not, as has sometimes been
+supposed, a definitely defined class, though they were originally of
+good birth--whose chief characteristic was that they were good fighting
+men, and sought fortune by fighting. The "premier gentleman" of England,
+according to Sir George Sitwell, and an entirely typical representative
+of his class, was a certain glorious hero who fought with Talbot at
+Agincourt, and also, as the unearthing of obscure documents shows, at
+other times indulged in housebreaking, and in wounding with intent to
+kill, and in "procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, who was cut to
+pieces while on his knees begging for his life." There, evidently, was a
+state of society highly favourable to the warlike man, highly
+unfavourable to the unwarlike man whom he slew in his wrath. Nowadays,
+however, there has been a revaluation of these old values. The cowardly
+and no doubt plebeian Thomas Page, multiplied by the million, has
+succeeded in hoisting himself into the saddle, and he revenges himself
+by discrediting, hunting into the slums, and finally hanging, every
+descendant he can find of the premier gentleman of Agincourt.
+
+It must be added that the advocates of the advantages of war are not
+entitled to claim this process of selective breeding as one of the
+advantages of war. It is quite true that war is incompatible with a high
+civilization, and must in the end be superseded. But this method of
+suppressing it is too thorough. It involves not merely the extermination
+of the fighting spirit, but of many excellent qualities, physical and
+moral, which are associated with the fighting spirit. Benjamin Franklin
+seems to have been the first to point out that "a standing army
+diminishes the size and breed of the human species." Almost in
+Franklin's lifetime that was demonstrated on a wholesale scale, for
+there seems little reason to doubt that the size and stature of the
+French nation have been permanently diminished by the constant levies of
+young recruits, the flower of the population, whom Napoleon sent out to
+death in their first manhood and still childless. Fine physical breed
+involves also fine qualities of virility and daring which are needed for
+other purposes than fighting. In so far as the selective breeding of war
+kills these out, its results are imperfect, and could be better attained
+by less radical methods.
+
+(5) _The Growth of the Anti-Military Spirit._ The decay of the warlike
+spirit by the breeding out of fighting stocks has in recent years been
+reinforced by a more acute influence of which in the near future we
+shall certainly hear more. This is the spirit of anti-militarism. This
+spirit is an inevitable result of the decay of the fighting spirit. In a
+certain sense it is also complementary to it. The survival of
+non-fighting stocks by the destruction of the fighting stocks works most
+effectually in countries having a professional army. The anti-military
+spirit, on the contrary, works effectually in countries having a
+national army in which it is compulsory for all young citizens to serve,
+for it is only in such countries that the anti-militarist can, by
+refusing to serve, take an influential position as a martyr in the cause
+of peace.
+
+Among the leading nations, it is in France that the spirit of
+anti-militarism has taken the deepest hold of the people, though in
+some smaller lands, notably among the obstinately peaceable inhabitants
+of Holland, the same spirit also flourishes. Hervé, who is a leader of
+the insurrectional socialists, as they are commonly called in opposition
+to the purely parliamentary socialists led by Jaurès,--though the
+insurrectional socialists also use parliamentary methods,--may be
+regarded as the most conspicuous champion of anti-militarism, and many
+of his followers have suffered imprisonment as the penalty of their
+convictions. In France the peasant proprietors in the country and the
+organized workers in the town are alike sympathetic to anti-militarism.
+The syndicalists, or labour unionists with the Confédération Générale du
+Travail as their central organization, are not usually anxious to
+imitate what they consider the unduly timid methods of English trade
+unionists;[229] they tend to be revolutionary and anti-military. The
+Congress of delegates of French Trade Unions, held at Toulouse in 1910,
+passed the significant resolution that "a declaration of war should be
+followed by the declaration of a general revolutionary strike." The same
+tendency, though in a less radical form, is becoming international, and
+the great International Socialist Congress at Copenhagen has passed a
+resolution instructing the International Bureau to "take the opinion of
+the organized workers of the world on the utility of a general strike
+in preventing war."[230] Even the English working classes are slowly
+coming into line. At a Conference of Labour Delegates, held at Leicester
+in 1911, to consider the Copenhagen resolution, the policy of the
+anti-military general strike was defeated by only a narrow majority, on
+the ground that it required further consideration, and might be
+detrimental to political action; but as most of the leaders are in
+favour of the strike policy there can be no doubt that this method of
+combating war will shortly be the accepted policy of the English Labour
+movement. In carrying out such a policy the Labour Party expects much
+help from the growing social and political power of women. The most
+influential literary advocate of the Peace movement, and one of the
+earliest, has been a woman, the Baroness Bertha von Suttner, and it is
+held to be incredible that the wives and mothers of the people will use
+their power to support an institution which represents the most brutal
+method of destroying their husbands and sons. "The cause of woman," says
+Novikov, "is the cause of peace." "We pay the first cost on all human
+life," says Olive Schreiner.[231]
+
+The anti-militarist, as things are at present, exposes himself not only
+to the penalty of imprisonment, but also to obloquy. He has virtually
+refused to take up arms in defence of his country; he has sinned against
+patriotism. This accusation has led to a counter-accusation directed
+against the very idea of patriotism. Here the writings of Tolstoy, with
+their poignant and searching appeals for the cause of humanity as
+against the cause of patriotism, have undoubtedly served the
+anti-militarists well, and wherever the war against war is being urged,
+even so far as Japan, Tolstoy has furnished some of its keenest weapons.
+Moreover, in so far as anti-militarism is advocated by the workers, they
+claim that international interests have already effaced and superseded
+the narrower interests of patriotism. In refusing to fight, the workers
+of a country are simply declaring their loyalty to fellow-workers on the
+other side of the frontier, a loyalty which has stronger claims on them,
+they hold, than any patriotism which simply means loyalty to
+capitalists; geographical frontiers are giving place to economic
+frontiers, which now alone serve to separate enemies. And if, as seems
+probable, when the next attempt is made at a great European war, the
+order for mobilization is immediately followed in both countries by the
+declaration of a general strike, there will be nothing to say against
+such a declaration even from the standpoint of the narrowest patriotism,
+although there may be much to say on other grounds against the policy of
+the general strike.[232]
+
+If we realize what is going on around us, it is easy to see that the
+anti-militarist movement is rapidly reaching a stage when it will be
+easily able, even unaided, to paralyse any war immediately and
+automatically. The pioneers in the movement have played the same part as
+was played in the seventeenth century by the Quakers. In the name of the
+Bible and their own consciences, the Quakers refused to recognize the
+right of any secular authority to compel them to worship or to fight;
+they gained what they struggled for, and now all men honour their
+memories. In the name of justice and human fraternity, the
+anti-militarists are to-day taking the like course and suffering the
+like penalties. To-morrow, they also will be revered as heroes and
+martyrs.
+
+(6) _The Over-growth of Armaments._ The hostile forces so far enumerated
+have converged slowly on to war from such various directions that they
+may be said to have surrounded and isolated it; its ultimate surrender
+can only be a matter of time. Of late, however, a new factor has
+appeared, of so urgent a character that it is fast rendering the
+question of the abolition of war acute: the over-growth of armaments.
+This is, practically, a modern factor in the situation, and while it is,
+on the surface, a luxury due to the large surplus of wealth in great
+modern states, it is also, if we look a little deeper, intimately
+connected with that decay of the warlike spirit due to selective
+breeding. It is the weak and timid woman who looks nervously under the
+bed for the burglar who is the last person she really desires to meet,
+and it is old, rich, and unwarlike nations which take the lead in
+laboriously protecting themselves against enemies of whom there is no
+sign in any quarter. Within the last half-century only have the nations
+of the world begun to compete with each other in this timorous and
+costly rivalry. In the warlike days of old, armaments in time of peace
+consisted in little more than solid walls for defence, a supply of
+weapons stored away here and there, sometimes in a room attached to the
+parish church, and occasional martial exercises with the sword or the
+bow, which were little more than an amusement. The true fighting man
+trusted to his own strong right arm rather than to armaments, and
+considered that he was himself a match for any half-dozen of the enemy.
+Even in actual time of war it was often difficult to find either zeal or
+money to supply the munitions of war. The _Diary_ of the industrious
+Pepys, who achieved so much for the English navy, shows that the care of
+the country's ships mainly depended on a few unimportant officials who
+had the greatest trouble in the world to secure attention to the most
+urgent and immediate needs.
+
+A very difficult state of things prevails to-day. The existence of a
+party having for its watchword the cry for retrenchment and economy is
+scarcely possible in a modern state. All the leading political parties
+in every great state--if we leave aside the party of Labour--are equally
+eager to pile up the expenditure on armaments. It is the boast of each
+party, not that it spends less, but more, than its rivals on this source
+of expenditure, now the chief in every large state. Moreover, every new
+step in expenditure involves a still further step; each new improvement
+in attack or defence must immediately be answered by corresponding or
+better improvements on the part of rival powers, if they are not to be
+outclassed. Every year these moves and counter-moves necessarily become
+more extensive, more complex, more costly; while each counter-move
+involves the obsolescence of the improvements achieved by the previous
+move, so that the waste of energy and money keeps pace with the
+expenditure. It is well recognized that there is absolutely no possible
+limit to this process and its constantly increasing acceleration.
+
+There is no need to illustrate this point, for it is familiar to all.
+Any newspaper will furnish facts and figures vividly exemplifying some
+aspect of the matter. For while only a handful of persons in any country
+are sincerely anxious under present conditions to reduce the colossal
+sums every year wasted on the unproductive work of armament; an
+increasing interest in the matter testifies to a vague alarm and anxiety
+concerning the ultimate issue. For it is felt that an inevitable crisis
+lies at the end of the path down which the nations are now moving.
+
+Thus, from this point of view, the end of war is being attained by a
+process radically opposite to that by which in the social as well as in
+the physical organism ancient structures and functions are outgrown. The
+usual process is a gradual recession to a merely vestigial state. But
+here what may perhaps be the same ultimate result is being reached by
+the more alarming method of over-inflation and threatening collapse. It
+is an alarming process because those huge and heavily armed monsters of
+primeval days who furnish the zoological types corresponding to our
+modern over-armed states, themselves died out from the world when their
+unwieldy armament had reached its final point of expansion. Will our own
+modern states, one wonders, more fortunately succeed in escaping from
+the tough hides that ever more closely constrict them, and finally save
+their souls alive?
+
+(7) _The Dominance of Social Reform._ The final factor in the situation
+is the growing dominance of the process of social reform. On the one
+hand, the increasing complexity of social organisation renders necessary
+a correspondingly increasing expenditure of money in diminishing its
+friction and aiding its elaboration; on the other hand, the still more
+rapidly increasing demands of armament render it ever more difficult to
+devote money to such social purposes. Everywhere even the most
+elementary provision for the finer breeding and higher well-being of a
+country's citizens is postponed to the clamour for ever new armaments.
+The situation thus created is rapidly becoming intolerable.
+
+It is not alone the future of civilization which is for ever menaced by
+the possibility of war; the past of civilization, with all the precious
+embodiments of its traditions, is even more fatally imperilled. As the
+world grows older and the ages recede, the richer, the more precious,
+the more fragile, become the ancient heirlooms of humanity. They
+constitute the final symbols of human glory; they cannot be too
+carefully guarded, too highly valued. But all the other dangers that
+threaten their integrity and safety, if put together, do not equal war.
+No land that has ever been a cradle of civilization but bears witness to
+this sad truth. All the sacred citadels, the glories of
+humanity,--Jerusalem and Athens, Rome and Constantinople,--have been
+ravaged by war, and, in every case, their ruin has been a disaster that
+can never be repaired. If we turn to the minor glories of more modern
+ages, the special treasure of England has been its parish churches, a
+treasure of unique charm in the world and the embodiment of the
+people's spirit: to-day in their battered and irreparable condition they
+are the monuments of a Civil War waged all over the country with
+ruthless religious ferocity. Spain, again, was a land which had stored
+up, during long centuries, nearly the whole of its accumulated
+possessions in every art, sacred and secular, of fabulous value, within
+the walls of its great fortress-like cathedrals; Napoleon's soldiers
+over-ran the land, and brought with them rapine and destruction; so that
+in many a shrine, as at Montserrat, we still can see how in a few days
+they turned a Paradise into a desert. It is not only the West that has
+suffered. In China the rarest and loveliest wares and fabrics that the
+hand of man has wrought were stored in the Imperial Palace of Pekin; the
+savage military hordes of the West broke in less than a century ago and
+recklessly trampled down and fired all that they could not loot. In
+every such case the loss is final; the exquisite incarnation of some
+stage in the soul of man that is for ever gone is permanently
+diminished, deformed, or annihilated.
+
+At the present time all civilized countries are becoming keenly aware of
+the value of their embodied artistic possessions. This is shown, in the
+most decisive manner possible, by the enormous prices placed upon them.
+Their pecuniary value enables even the stupidest and most unimaginative
+to realize the crime that is committed when they are ruthlessly and
+wantonly destroyed. Nor is it only the products of ancient art which
+have to-day become so peculiarly valuable. The products of modern
+science are only less valuable. So highly complex and elaborate is the
+mechanism now required to ensure progress in some of the sciences that
+enormous sums of money, the most delicate skill, long periods of time,
+are necessary to produce it. Galileo could replace his telescope with
+but little trouble; the destruction of a single modern observatory would
+be almost a calamity to the human race.
+
+Such considerations as these are, indeed, at last recognized in all
+civilized countries. The engines of destruction now placed at the
+service of war are vastly more potent than any used in the wars of the
+past. On the other hand, the value of the products they can destroy is
+raised in a correspondingly high degree. But a third factor is now
+intervening. And if the museums of Paris or the laboratories of Berlin
+were threatened by a hostile army it would certainly be felt that an
+international power, if it existed, should be empowered to intervene, at
+whatever cost to national susceptibilities, in order to keep the peace.
+Civilization, we now realize, is wrought out of inspirations and
+discoveries which are for ever passed and repassed from land to land; it
+cannot be claimed by any individual land. A nation's art-products and
+its scientific activities are not mere national property; they are
+international possessions, for the joy and service of the whole world.
+The nations hold them in trust for humanity. The international force
+which will inspire respect for that truth it is our business to create.
+
+The only question that remains--and it is a question the future alone
+will solve--is the particular point at which this ancient and overgrown
+stronghold of war, now being invested so vigorously from so many sides,
+will finally be overthrown, whether from within or from without, whether
+by its own inherent weakness, by the persuasive reasonableness of
+developing civilization, by the self-interest of the commercial and
+financial classes, or by the ruthless indignation of the proletariat.
+That is a problem still insoluble, but it is not impossible that some
+already living may witness its solution.
+
+Two centuries ago the Abbé de Saint-Pierre set forth his scheme for a
+federation of the States of Europe, which meant, at that time, a
+federation of all the civilised states of the world. It was the age of
+great ideas, scattered abroad to germinate in more practical ages to
+come. The amiable Abbé enjoyed all the credit of his large and
+philanthropic conceptions. But no one dreamed of realizing them, and the
+forces which alone could realize them had not yet appeared above the
+horizon.[233] In this matter, at all events, the world has progressed,
+and a federation of the States of the world is no longer the mere
+conception of a philosophic dreamer. The first step will be taken when
+two of the leading countries of the world--and it would be most
+reasonable for the states having the closest community of origin and
+language to take the initiative--resolve to submit all their differences
+without reserve to arbitration. As soon as a third power of magnitude
+joined this federation the nucleus would be constituted of a world
+state. Such a state would be able to impose peace on even the most
+recalcitrant outside states, for it would furnish that "visible power to
+keep them in awe," which Hobbes rightly declared to be indispensable; it
+could even, in the last resort, if necessary, enforce peace by war. Thus
+there might still be war in the world. But there would be no wars that
+were not Holy Wars. There are other methods than war of enforcing peace,
+and these such a federation of great states would be easily able to
+bring to bear on even the most warlike of states, but the necessity of a
+mighty armed international force would remain for a long time to come.
+To suppose, as some seem to suppose, that the establishment of
+arbitration in place of war means immediate disarmament is an idle
+dream. At Conferences of the English Labour Party on this question, the
+most active opposition to the proposed strike method for rendering war
+impossible comes from the delegates representing the workers in arsenals
+and dockyards. But there is no likelihood of arsenals and dockyards
+closing in the lifetime of the present workers, and though the
+establishment of peaceful methods of settling international disputes
+cannot fail to diminish the number of the workers who live by armament,
+it will be long before they can be dispensed with altogether.
+
+[1] The Abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), a churchman without vocation,
+was a Norman of noble family, and first published his _Mémoires pour
+rendre la Paix Perpetuelle à l'Europe_ in 1722. As Siégler-Pascal well
+shows (_Les Projets de l'Abbé dé Saint-Pierre_, 1900) he was not a mere
+visionary Utopian, but an acute and far-seeing thinker, practical in his
+methods, a close observer, an experimentalist, and one of the first to
+attempt the employment of statistics. He was secretary to the French
+plenipotentiaries who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht, and was thus
+probably put on the track of his scheme. He proposed that the various
+European states should name plenipotentiaries to form a permanent
+tribunal of compulsory arbitration for the settlement of all
+differences. If any state took up arms against one of the allies, the
+whole confederation would conjointly enter the field, at their conjoint
+expense, against the offending state. He was opposed to absolute
+disarmament, an army being necessary to ensure peace, but it must be a
+joint army composed of contingents from each Power in the confederation.
+Saint-Pierre, it will be seen, had clearly grasped the essential facts
+of the situation as we see them to-day. "The author of _The Project of
+Perpetual Peace_" concludes Prof. Pierre Robert in a sympathetic summary
+of his career (Petit de Julleville, _Histoire de la Langue et de la
+Littérature Française_, Vol. VI), "is the precursor of the twentieth
+century." His statue, we cannot doubt, will be a conspicuous object,
+beside Sully's, on the future Palace of any international tribunal.
+
+It is, indeed, so common to regard the person who points out the
+inevitable bankruptcy of war under highly civilized conditions as a mere
+Utopian dreamer, that it becomes necessary to repeat, with all the
+emphasis necessary, that the settlement of international disputes by law
+cannot be achieved by disarmament, or by any method not involving force.
+All law, even the law that settles the disputes of individuals, has
+force behind it, and the law that is to settle the disputes between
+nations cannot possibly be effective unless it has behind it a mighty
+force. I have assumed this from the outset in quoting the dictum of
+Hobbes, but the point seems to be so easily overlooked by the loose
+thinker that it is necessary to reiterate it. The necessity of force
+behind the law ordering international relations has, indeed, never been
+disputed by any sagacious person who has occupied himself with the
+matter. Even William Penn, who, though a Quaker, was a practical man of
+affairs, when in 1693 he put forward his _Essay Towards the Present and
+Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of a European Diet,
+Parliament or Estate_, proposed that if any imperial state refused to
+submit its pretensions to the sovereign assembly and to abide by its
+decisions, or took up arms on its own behalf, "all the other
+sovereignties, united as one strength, shall compel the submission and
+performance of the sentence, with damages to the suffering party, and
+charges to the sovereignties that obliged their submission." In
+repudiating some injudicious and hazardous pacificist considerations put
+forth by Novikov, the distinguished French philosopher, Jules de
+Gaultier, points out that law has no rights against war save in force,
+on which war itself bases its rights. "Force _in abstracto_ creates
+right. It is quite unimaginable that a right should exist which has not
+been affirmed at some moment as a reality, that is to say a force....
+What we glorify under the name of right is only a more intense and
+habitual state of force which we oppose to a less frequent form of
+force."[234] The old Quaker and the modern philosopher are thus at one
+with the practical man in rejecting any form of pacification which rests
+on a mere appeal to reason and justice.
+
+[1] Jules de Gaultier, "Comment Naissent les Dogmes," _Mercure de
+France_, 1st Sept., 1911. Jules de Gaultier also observes that "conflict
+is the law and condition of all existence." That may be admitted, but it
+ceases to be true if we assume, as the same thinker assumes, that
+"conflict" necessarily involves "war." The establishment of law to
+regulate the disputes between individuals by no means suppresses
+conflict, but it suppresses fighting, and it ensures that if any
+fighting occur the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression. In the
+same way the existence of a tribunal to regulate the disputes between
+national communities of individuals can by no means suppress conflict;
+but unless it suppresses fighting, and unless it ensures that if
+fighting occurs the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression, it
+will have effected nothing.
+
+It cannot be said that the progress of civilization has so far had any
+tendency to render unnecessary the point of view adopted by Penn and
+Jules de Gaultier. The acts of states to-day are apt to be just as
+wantonly aggressive as they ever were, as reckless of reason and of
+justice. There is no country, however high it may stand in the comity of
+nations, which is not sometimes carried away by the blind fever of war.
+France, the land of reason, echoed, only forty years ago, with the mad
+cry, "À Berlin!" England, the friend of the small nationalities,
+jubilantly, with even an air of heroism, crushed under foot the little
+South African Republics, and hounded down every Englishman who withstood
+the madness of the crowd. The great, free intelligent people of the
+United States went to war against Spain with a childlike faith in the
+preposterous legend of the blowing up of the _Maine_. There is no
+country which has not some such shameful page in its history, the record
+of some moment when its moral and intellectual prestige was besmirched
+in the eyes of the whole world. It pays for its momentary madness, it
+may valiantly strive to atone for its injustice, but the damaging record
+remains. The supersession of war is needed not merely in the interests
+of the victims of aggression; it is needed fully as much in the
+interests of the aggressors, driven by their own momentary passions, or
+by the ambitious follies of their rulers, towards crimes for which a
+terrible penalty is exacted. There has never been any country at every
+moment so virtuous and so wise that it has not sometimes needed to be
+saved from itself. For every country has sometimes gone mad, while
+every other country has looked on its madness with the mocking calm of
+clear-sighted intelligence, and perhaps with a pharisaical air of
+virtuous indignation.
+
+During the single year of 1911 the process was unrolled in its most
+complete form. The first bad move--though it was a relatively small and
+inoffensive move--was made by France. The Powers, after much
+deliberation, had come to certain conclusions concerning Morocco, and
+while giving France a predominant influence in that country, had
+carefully limited her power of action. But France, anxious to increase
+her hold on the land, sent out, with the usual pretexts, an unnecessary
+expedition to Fez. Had an international tribunal with an adequate force
+behind it been in existence, France would have been called upon to
+justify her action, and whether she succeeded or failed in such
+justification, no further evils would have occurred. But there was no
+force able or willing to call France to account, and the other Powers
+found it a simpler plan to follow her example than to check it. In
+pursuance of this policy, Germany sent a warship to the Moroccan port of
+Agadir, using the same pretext as the French, with even less
+justification. When the supreme military power of the world wags even a
+finger the whole world is thrown into a state of consternation. That
+happened on the present occasion, though, as a matter of fact, giants
+are not given to reckless violence, and Germany, far from intending to
+break the world's peace, merely used her power to take advantage of
+France's bad move. She agreed to condone France's mistake, and to resign
+to her the Moroccan rights to which neither country had the slightest
+legitimate claim, in return for an enormous tract of land in another
+part of Africa. Now, so far, the game had been played in accordance with
+rules which, though by no means those of abstract justice, were fairly
+in accordance with the recognized practices of nations. But now another
+Power was moved to far more openly unscrupulous action. It has long been
+recognized that if there must be a partition of North Africa, Italy's
+share is certainly Tripoli. The action of France and of Germany stirred
+up in Italy the feeling that now or never was the moment for action, and
+with brutal recklessness, and the usual pretexts, now flimsier than
+ever, Italy made war on Turkey, without offer of mediation, in flagrant
+violation of her own undertakings at the Hague Peace Convention of 1899.
+There was now only one Mohammedan country left to attack, and it was
+Russia's turn to make the attack. Northern Persia--the most civilized
+and fruitful half of Persia--had been placed under the protection of
+Russia, and Russia, after cynically doing her best to make good
+government in Persia impossible, seized on the pretext of the bad
+government to invade the country. If the Powers of Europe had wished to
+demonstrate the necessity for a great international tribunal, with a
+mighty force behind it to ensure the observance of its decisions, they
+could not have devised a more effective demonstration.
+
+Thus it is that there can be no question of disarmament at present, and
+that there can be no effective international tribunal unless it has
+behind it an effective army. A great army must continue to exist apart
+altogether from the question as to whether the army in itself is a
+school of virtue or of vice. Both these views of its influence have been
+held in extreme forms, and both seem to be without any great
+justification. On this point we may perhaps accept the conclusion of
+Professor Guérard, who can view the matter from a fairly impartial
+standpoint, having served in the French army, closely studied the life
+of the people in London, and occupied a professorial chair in
+California. He denies that an army is a school of all the vices, but he
+is also unable to see that it exercises an elevating influence on any
+but the lowest: "A regiment is not much worse than a big factory.
+Factory life in Europe is bad enough; military service extends its evils
+to agricultural labourers, and also to men who would otherwise have
+escaped these lowering influences. As for traces of moral uplift in the
+army, I have totally failed to notice any. War may be a stern school of
+virtue; barrack life is not. Honour, duty, patriotism, are feelings
+instilled at school; they do not develop, but often deteriorate, during
+the term of compulsory service."[235]
+
+But, as we have seen, and as Guérard admits, it is probable that wars
+will be abolished generations before armies are suppressed. The question
+arises what we are to do with our armies. There seem to be at least two
+ways in which armies may be utilized, as we may already see in France,
+and perhaps to some slight extent in England. In the first place, the
+army may be made a great educational agency, an academy of arts and
+sciences, a school of citizenship. In the second place, armies are
+tending to become, as William James pointed out, the reserve force of
+peace, great organized unemployed bodies of men which can be brought
+into use during sudden emergencies and national disasters. Thus the
+French army performed admirable service during the great Seine floods a
+few years ago, and both in France and in England the army has been
+called upon to help to carry on public duties indispensable to the
+welfare of the nation during great strikes, though here it would be
+unfortunate if the army came to be regarded as a mere strike-breaking
+corps. Along these main lines, however, there are, as Guérard has
+pointed out, signs of a transformation which, while preserving armies
+for international use, yet point to a compromise between the army and
+modern democracy.
+
+It is feared by some that the reign of universal peace will deprive them
+of the opportunity of exhibiting daring and heroism. Without inquiring
+too carefully what use has been made of their present opportunities by
+those who express this fear, it must be said that such a fear is
+altogether groundless. There are an infinite number of positions in life
+in which courage is needed, as much as on a battlefield, though, for the
+most part, with less risk of that total annihilation which in the past
+has done so much to breed out the courageous stocks. Moreover, the
+certain establishment of peace will immensely enlarge the scope for
+daring and adventure in the social sphere. There are departments in the
+higher breeding and social evolution of the race--some perhaps even
+involving questions of life and death--where the highest courage is
+needed. It would be premature to discuss them, for they can scarcely
+enter the field of practical politics until war has been abolished. But
+those persons who are burning to display heroism may rest assured that
+the course of social evolution will offer them every opportunity.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[221] The respective parts of war and law in the constitution of states
+are clearly and concisely set forth by Edward Jenks in his little
+primer, _A History of Politics_. Steinmetz, who argues in favour of the
+preservation of the method of war, in his book _Die Philosophie des
+Krieges_ (p. 303) states that "not a single element of the warlike
+spirit, not one of the psychic conditions of war, is lacking to the
+civilized European peoples of to-day." That may well be, although there
+is much reason to believe that they have all very considerably
+diminished. Such warlike spirit as exists to-day must be considerably
+discounted by the fact that those who manifest it are not usually the
+people who would actually have to do the fighting. It is more important
+to point out (as is done in a historical sketch of warfare by A.
+Sutherland, _Nineteenth Century_, April, 1899) that, as a matter of
+fact, war is becoming both less frequent and less ferocious. In England,
+for instance, where at one period the population spent a great part of
+their time in fighting, there has practically been no war for two and a
+half centuries. When the ancient Germans swept through Spain (as
+Procopius, who was an eye-witness, tells) they slew every human being
+they met, including women and children, until millions had perished. The
+laws of war, though not always observed, are constantly growing more
+humane, and Sutherland estimates that warfare is now less than
+one-hundredth part as destructive as it was in the early Middle Ages.
+
+[222] This inevitable extension of the sphere of law from the settlement
+of disputes between individuals to disputes between individual states
+has been pointed out before, and is fairly obvious. Thus
+Mougins-Roquefort, a French lawyer, in his book _De la Solution
+Juridique des Conflits Internationaux_ (1889), observes that in the
+days of the Roman Empire, when there was only one civilized state, any
+system of international relationships was impossible, but that as soon
+as we have a number of states forming units of international society
+there at once arises the necessity for a system of international
+relationships, just as some system of social order is necessary to
+regulate the relations of any community of individuals.
+
+[223] In England, a small and compact country, this process was completed
+at a comparatively early date. In France it was not until the days of
+Louis XV (in 1756) that the "last feudal brigand," as Taine calls the
+Marquis de Pleumartin in Poitou, was captured and beheaded.
+
+[224] France, notwithstanding her military aptitude, has always taken the
+pioneering part in the pacific movement of civilization. Even at the
+beginning of the fourteenth century France produced an advocate of
+international arbitration, Pierre Dubois (Petrus de Bosco), the Norman
+lawyer, a pupil of Thomas Aquinas. In the seventeenth century Emeric
+Crucé proposed, for the first time, to admit all peoples, without
+distinction of colour or religion, to be represented at some central
+city where every state would have its perpetual ambassador, these
+representatives forming an assembly to adjudicate on international
+differences (Dubois and Crucé have lately been studied by Prof.
+Vesnitch, _Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique_, January, 1911). The history
+of the various peace projects generally has been summarily related by
+Lagorgette in _Le Rôle de la Guerre_, 1906, Part IV, chap. VI.
+
+[225] The same points had previously been brought forward by others,
+although not so vigorously enforced. Thus the well-known Belgian
+economist and publicist, Emile de Laveleye, pointed out (_Pall Mall
+Gazette_, 4th August, 1888) that "the happiest countries are
+incontestably the smallest: Switzerland, Norway, Luxembourg, and still
+more the Republics of San Marino and Val d'Andorre"; and that "countries
+in general, even when victorious, do not profit by their conquests."
+
+[226] Bismarck himself declared that without the deep shame of the German
+defeat at Jena in 1806 the revival of German national feeling would have
+been impossible.
+
+[227] D. Starr Jordan, The Human Harvest, 1907; J. Novikov, La Guerre et
+ses Prétendus Bienfaits, 1894, chap. IV; Novikov here argued that the
+selection of war eliminates not the feeble but the strong, and tends to
+produce, therefore, a survival of the unfittest.
+
+[228] "The most demoralizing features in French military life," says
+Professor Guérard, a highly intelligent observer, "are due to an
+incontestable progress in the French mind--its gradual loss of faith and
+interest in military glory. Henceforth the army is considered as
+useless, dangerous, a burden without a compensation. Authors of school
+books may be censured for daring to print such opinions, but the great
+majority of the French hold them in their hearts. Nay, there is a
+prevailing suspicion among working men that the military establishment
+is kept up for the sole benefit of the capitalists, and the reckless use
+of troops in case of labour conflicts gives colour to the contention."
+It has often happened that what the French think to-day the world
+generally thinks to-morrow. There is probably a world-wide significance
+in the fact that French experience is held to show that progress in
+intelligence means the demoralization of the army.
+
+[229] The influence of Syndicalism has, however, already reached the
+English Labour Movement, and an ill-advised prosecution by the English
+Government must have immensely aided in extending and fortifying that
+influence.
+
+[230] Some small beginnings have already been made. "The greatest gain
+ever yet won for the cause of peace," writes Mr. H.W. Nevinson, the
+well-known war correspondent (_Peace and War in the Balance_, p. 47),
+"was the refusal of the Catalonian reservists to serve in the war
+against the Riff mountaineers of Morocco in July, 1909.... So Barcelona
+flared to heaven, and for nearly a week the people held the vast city. I
+have seen many noble, as well as many terrible, events, but none more
+noble or of finer promise than the sudden uprising of the Catalan
+working people against a dastardly and inglorious war, waged for the
+benefit of a few speculators in Paris and Madrid."
+
+[231] J. Novikov, _Le Fédération de l'Europe_, chap. iv. Olive Schreiner,
+_Woman and Labour_, chap. IV. While this is the fundamental fact, we
+must remember that we cannot generalize about the ideas or the feelings
+of a whole sex, and that the biological traditions of women have been
+associated with a primitive period when they were the delighted
+spectators of combats. "Woman," thought Nietzsche, "is essentially
+unpeaceable, like the cat, however well she may have assumed the
+peaceable demeanour." Steinmetz (_Philosophie des Krieges_, p. 314),
+remarking that women are opposed to war in the abstract, adds: "In
+practice, however, it happens that women regard a particular war--and
+all wars are particular wars--with special favour"; he remarks that the
+majority of Englishwomen fully shared the war fever against the Boers,
+and that, on the other side, he knew Dutch ladies in Holland, very
+opposed to war, who would yet have danced with joy at that time on the
+news of a declaration of war against England.
+
+[232] The general strike, which has been especially developed by the
+syndicalist Labour movement, and is now tending to spread to various
+countries, is a highly powerful weapon, so powerful that its results are
+not less serious than those of war. To use it against war seems to be to
+cast out Beelzebub by Beelzebub. Even in Labour disputes the modern
+strike threatens to become as serious and, indeed, almost as sanguinary
+as the civil wars of ancient times. The tendency is, therefore, in
+progressive countries, as we see in Australia, to supersede strikes by
+conciliation and arbitration, just as war is tending to be superseded by
+international tribunals. These two aims are, however, absolutely
+distinct, and the introduction of law into the disputes between nations
+can have no direct effect on the disputes between social classes. It is
+quite possible, however, that it may have an indirect effect, and that
+when disputes between nations are settled in an orderly manner, social
+feeling will forbid disputes between classes to be settled in a
+disorderly manner.
+
+[233] The Abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), a churchman without vocation,
+was a Norman of noble family, and first published his Mémoires pour
+rendre la Paix Perpetuelle à l'Europe in 1722. As Siégler-Pascal well
+shows (Les Projets de l'Abbé dé Saint-Pierre, 1900) he was not a mere
+visionary Utopian, but an acute and far-seeing thinker, practical in his
+methods, a close observer, an experimentalist, and one of the first to
+attempt the employment of statistics. He was secretary to the French
+plenipotentiaries who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht, and was thus
+probably put on the track of his scheme. He proposed that the various
+European states should name plenipotentiaries to form a permanent
+tribunal of compulsory arbitration for the settlement of all
+differences. If any state took up arms against one of the allies, the
+whole confederation would conjointly enter the field, at their conjoint
+expense, against the offending state. He was opposed to absolute
+disarmament, an army being necessary to ensure peace, but it must be a
+joint army composed of contingents from each Power in the confederation.
+Saint-Pierre, it will be seen, had clearly grasped the essential facts
+of the situation as we see them to-day. "The author of The Project of
+Perpetual Peace" concludes Prof. Pierre Robert in a sympathetic summary
+of his career (Petit de Julleville, Histoire de la Langue et de la
+Littérature Française, Vol. VI), "is the precursor of the twentieth
+century." His statue, we cannot doubt, will be a conspicuous object,
+beside Sully's, on the future Palace of any international tribunal.
+
+[234] Jules de Gaultier, "Comment Naissent les Dogmes," Mercure de
+France, 1st Sept., 1911. Jules de Gaultier also observes that "conflict
+is the law and condition of all existence." That may be admitted, but it
+ceases to be true if we assume, as the same thinker assumes, that
+"conflict" necessarily involves "war." The establishment of law to
+regulate the disputes between individuals by no means suppresses
+conflict, but it suppresses fighting, and it ensures that if any
+fighting occur the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression. In the
+same way the existence of a tribunal to regulate the disputes between
+national communities of individuals can by no means suppress conflict;
+but unless it suppresses fighting, and unless it ensures that if
+fighting occurs the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression, it
+will have effected nothing.
+
+[235] A.L. Guérard, "Impressions of Military Life in France," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, April, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
+
+     Early Attempts to Construct an International Language--The Urgent
+     Need of an Auxiliary Language To-day--Volapük--The Claims of
+     Spanish--Latin--The Claims of English--Its Disadvantages--The
+     Claims of French--Its Disadvantages--The Modern Growth of National
+     Feeling opposed to Selection of a Natural Language--Advantages of
+     an Artificial Language--Demands it must fulfil--Esperanto--Its
+     Threatened Disruption--The International Association for the
+     adoption of an Auxiliary International Language--The First Step to
+     Take.
+
+
+Ever since the decay of Latin as the universal language of educated
+people, there have been attempts to replace it by some other medium of
+international communication. That decay was inevitable; it was the
+outward manifestation of a movement of individualism which developed
+national languages and national literatures, and burst through the
+restraining envelope of an authoritarian system expounded in an official
+language. This individualism has had the freest play, and we are not
+likely to lose all that it has given us. Yet as soon as it was achieved
+the more distinguished spirits in every country began to feel the need
+of counterbalancing it. The history of the movement may be said to begin
+with Descartes, who in 1629 wrote to his friend Mersenne that it would
+be possible to construct an artificial language which could be used as
+an international medium of communication. Leibnitz, though he had solved
+the question for himself, writing some of his works in Latin and others
+in French, was yet all his life more or less occupied with the question
+of a universal language. Other men of the highest distinction--Pascal,
+Condillac, Voltaire, Diderot, Ampère, Jacob Grimm--have sought or
+desired a solution to this problem.[236] None of these great men, however,
+succeeded even in beginning an attempt to solve the problem they were
+concerned with.
+
+Some forty years ago, however, the difficulty began again to be felt,
+this time much more keenly and more widely than before. The spread of
+commerce, the facility of travel, the ramifications of the postal
+service, the development of new nationalities and new literatures, have
+laid upon civilized peoples a sense of burden and restriction which
+could never have been felt by their forefathers in the previous century.
+Added to this, a new sense of solidarity had been growing up in the
+world; the financial and commercial solidarity, by which any disaster or
+disturbance in one country causes a wave of disaster or disturbance to
+pass over the whole civilized globe, was being supplemented by a sense
+of spiritual solidarity. Men began to realize that the tasks of
+civilization cannot be carried out except by mutual understanding and
+mutual sympathy among the more civilized nations, that every nation has
+something to learn from other nations, and that the bonds of
+international intercourse must thus be drawn closer. This feeling of the
+need of an international language led in America to several serious
+attempts to obtain a consensus of opinion among scientific men regarding
+an international language. Thus in 1888 the Philosophical Society of
+Philadelphia, the oldest of American learned societies, unanimously
+resolved, on the initiative of Brinton, to address a letter to learned
+societies throughout the world, asking for their co-operation in
+perfecting a language for commercial and learned purposes, based on the
+Aryan vocabulary and grammar in their simplest forms, and to that end
+proposing an international congress, the first meeting of which should
+be held in Paris or London. In the same year Horatio Hale read a paper
+on the same subject before the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science. A little later, in 1890, it was again proposed at a meeting
+of the same Association that, in order to consider the question of the
+construction and adoption of a symmetrical and scientific language, a
+congress should be held, delegates being in proportion to the number of
+persons speaking each language.
+
+These excellent proposals seem, however, to have borne little fruit. It
+is always an exceedingly difficult matter to produce combined action
+among scientific societies even of the same nation. Thus the way has
+been left open for individuals to adopt the easier but far less decisive
+or satisfactory method of inventing a new language by their own unaided
+exertions. Certainly over a hundred such languages have been proposed
+during the past century. The most famous of these was undoubtedly
+Volapük, which was invented in 1880 by Schleyer, a German-Swiss priest
+who knew many languages and had long pondered over this problem, but who
+was not a scientific philologist; the actual inception of the language
+occurred in a dream. Volapük was almost the first real attempt at an
+organic language capable of being used for the oral transmission of
+thought. On this account, no doubt, it met with great and widespread
+success; it was actively taken up by a professor at Paris, societies
+were formed for its propagation, journals and hundreds of books were
+published in it; its adherents were estimated at a million. But its
+success, though brilliant, was short-lived. In 1889, when the third
+Volapük Congress was held, it was at the height of its success, but
+thereafter dissension arose, and its reputation suddenly collapsed. No
+one now speaks Volapük; it is regarded as a hideous monstrosity, even by
+those who have the most lively faith in artificial languages. Its
+inventor has outlived his language, and, like it, has been forgotten by
+the world, though his achievement was a real step towards the solution
+of the problem.
+
+The collapse of Volapük discouraged thoughtful persons from expecting
+any solution of the problem in an artificial language. It seemed
+extremely improbable that any invented language, least of all the
+unaided product of a single mind, could ever be generally accepted, or
+be worthy of general acceptance, as an international mode of
+communication. Such a language failed to carry the prestige necessary to
+overcome the immense inertia which any attempt to adopt it would meet
+with. Invented languages, the visionary schemes of idealists, apparently
+received no support from practical men of affairs. It seemed to be among
+actual languages, living or dead, that we might most reasonably expect
+to find a medium of communication likely to receive wide support. The
+difficulty then lay in deciding which language should be selected.
+
+Russian had sometimes been advocated as the universal language for
+international purposes, and it is possible to point to the enormous
+territory of Russia, its growing power and the fact that Russian is the
+real or official language of a larger number of people than any other
+language except English. But Russian is so unlike the Latin and Teutonic
+tongues, used by the majority of European peoples; it is so complicated,
+so difficult to acquire, and, moreover, so lacking in concision that it
+has never had many enthusiastic advocates.
+
+The virtues and defects of Spanish, which has found many enthusiastic
+supporters, are of an opposite character. It is an admirably vigorous
+and euphonious language, on a sound phonetic basis, every letter always
+standing for a definite sound; the grammar is simple and exceptionally
+free from irregularities, and it is the key to a great literature.
+Billroth, the distinguished Austrian surgeon, advocated the adoption of
+Spanish; he regarded English as really more suitable, but, he pointed
+out, it is so difficult for the Latin races to speak non-Latin tongues
+that a Romance language is essential, and Spanish is the simplest and
+most logical of the Romance tongues.[237] It is, moreover, spoken by a
+vast number of people in South America and elsewhere.
+
+A few enthusiasts have advocated Greek, and have supported their claim
+with the argument that it is still a living language. But although Greek
+is the key to a small but precious literature, and is one of the sources
+of latter-day speech and scientific terminology, it is difficult, it is
+without special adaptation to modern uses, and there are no adequate
+reasons why it should be made an international language.
+
+Latin cannot be dismissed quite so hastily. It has in its favour the
+powerful argument that it has once already been found adequate to serve
+as the universal language. There is a widespread opinion to-day among
+the medical profession--the profession most actively interested in the
+establishment of a universal language--that Latin should be adopted, and
+before the International Medical Congress at Rome in 1894, a petition to
+this effect was presented by some eight hundred doctors in India.[238] It
+is undoubtedly an admirable language, expressive, concentrated, precise.
+But the objections are serious. The relative importance of Latin to-day
+is very far from what it was a thousand years ago, for conditions have
+wholly changed. There is now no great influence, such as the Catholic
+Church was of old, to enforce Latin, even if it possessed greater
+advantages. And the advantages are very mixed. Latin is a wholly dead
+tongue, and except in a degenerate form not by any means an easy one to
+learn, for its genius is wholly opposed to the genius even of those
+modern languages which are most closely allied to it. The world never
+returns on its own path. Although the prestige of Latin is still
+enormous, a language could only be brought from death to life by some
+widespread motor force; such a force no longer exists behind Latin.
+
+There remain English and French, and these are undoubtedly the two
+natural languages most often put forward--even outside England and
+France--as possessing the best claims for adoption as auxiliary
+international mediums of communication.
+
+English, especially, was claimed by many, some twenty years ago, to be
+not merely the auxiliary language of the future, but the universal
+language which must spread all over the world and supersede and drive
+out all others by a kind of survival of the fittest. This notion of a
+universal language is now everywhere regarded as a delusion, but at that
+time there was still thought by many to be a kind of special procreative
+activity in the communities of Anglo-Saxon origin which would naturally
+tend to replace all other peoples, both the people and the language
+being regarded as the fittest to survive.[239] English was, however,
+rightly felt to be a language with very great force behind it, being
+spoken by vast communities possessing a peculiarly energetic and
+progressive temperament, and with much power of peaceful penetration in
+other lands. It is generally acknowledged also that English fully
+deserves to be ranked as one of the first of languages by its fine
+aptitude for powerful expression, while at the same time it is equally
+fitted for routine commercial purposes. The wide extension of English
+and its fine qualities have often been emphasized, and it is unnecessary
+to dwell on them here. The decision of the scientific societies of the
+world to use English for bibliographical purposes is not entirely a
+tribute to English energy in organization, but to the quality of the
+language. One finds, indeed, that these facts are widely recognized
+abroad, in France and elsewhere, though I have noted that those who
+foretell the conquest of English, even when they are men of intellectual
+distinction and able to read English, are often quite unable to speak it
+or to understand it when spoken.
+
+That brings us to a point which is overlooked by those who triumphantly
+pointed to the natural settlement of this question by the swamping of
+other tongues in the overflowing tide of English speech. English is the
+most concise and laconic of the great languages. Greek, French and
+German are all more expansive, more syllabically copious. Latin alone
+may be said to equal, or surpass English in concentration, because,
+although Latin words are longer on the average, by their greater
+inflection they cover a larger number of English words. This power of
+English to attain expression with a minimum expenditure of energy in
+written speech is one of its chief claims to succeed Latin as the
+auxiliary international language. But it furnishes no claim to
+preference for actual speaking, in which this economy of energy ceases
+to be a supreme virtue, since here we have also to admit the virtues of
+easy intelligibility and of persuasiveness. Greek largely owed its
+admirable fitness for speech to the natural richness and prolongation of
+its euphonious words, which allowed the speaker to attain the legitimate
+utterance of his thought without pauses or superfluous repetition.
+French, again, while by no means inapt for concentration, as the
+_pensée_ writers show, most easily lends itself to effects that are
+meant for speech, as in Bossuet, or that recall speech, as in Mme de
+Sevigné in one order of literature, or Renan in another. But at Rome, we
+feel, the spoken tongue had a difficulty to overcome, and the
+mellifluously prolonged rhetoric of Cicero, delightful as it may be,
+scarcely seems to reveal to us the genius of the Latin tongue. The
+inaptitude of English for the purposes of speech is even more
+conspicuous, and is again well illustrated in our oratory. Gladstone was
+an orator of acknowledged eloquence, but the extreme looseness and
+redundancy into which his language was apt to fall in the effort to
+attain the verbose richness required for the ends of spoken speech,
+reveals too clearly the poverty of English from this point of view. The
+same tendency is also illustrated by the vain re-iterations of ordinary
+speakers. The English intellect, with all its fine qualities, is not
+sufficiently nimble for either speaker or hearer to keep up with the
+swift brevity of the English tongue. It is a curious fact that Great
+Britain takes the lead in Europe in the prevalence of stuttering; the
+language is probably a factor in this evil pre-eminence, for it appears
+that the Chinese, whose language is powerfully rhythmic, never stutter.
+One authority has declared that "no nation in the civilized world speaks
+its language so abominably as the English." We can scarcely admit that
+this English difficulty of speech is the result of some organic defect
+in English nervous systems; the language itself must be a factor in the
+matter. I have found, when discussing the point with scientific men and
+others abroad, that the opinion prevails that it is usually difficult to
+follow a speaker in English. This experience may, indeed, be considered
+general. While an admirably strong and concise language, English is by
+no means so adequate in actual speech; it is not one of the languages
+which can be heard at a long distance, and, moreover, it lends itself in
+speaking to so many contractions that are not used in writing--so many
+"can'ts" and "won'ts" and "don'ts," which suit English taciturnity, but
+slur and ruin English speech--that English, as spoken, is almost a
+different language from that which excites admiration when written. So
+that the exclusive use of English for international purposes would not
+be the survival of the fittest so far as a language for speaking
+purposes is concerned.
+
+Moreover, it must be remembered that English is not a democratic
+language. It is not, like the chief Romance languages and the chief
+Teutonic languages, practically homogeneous, made out of one block. It
+is formed by the mixture of two utterly unlike elements, one
+aristocratic, the other plebeian. Ever since the Norman lord came over
+to England a profound social inequality has become rooted in the very
+language. In French, _boeuf_ and _mouton_ and _veau_ and _porc_ have
+always been the same for master and for man, in the field and on the
+table; the animal has never changed its plebeian name for an
+aristocratic name as it passed through the cook's hands. That example is
+typical of the curious mark which the Norman Conquest left on our
+speech, rendering it so much more difficult for us than for the French
+to attain equality of social intercourse. Inequality is stamped
+indelibly into our language as into no other great language. Of course,
+from the literary point of view, that is all gain, and has been of
+incomparable aid to our poets in helping them to reach their most
+magnificent effects, as we may see conspicuously in Shakespeare's
+enormous vocabulary. But from the point of view of equal social
+intercourse, this wealth of language is worse than lost, it is
+disastrous. The old feudal distinctions are still perpetuated; the "man"
+still speaks his "plain Anglo-Saxon," and the "gentleman" still speaks
+his refined Latinized speech. In every language, it is true, there are
+social distinctions in speech, and every language has its slang. But in
+English these distinctions are perpetuated in the very structure of the
+language. Elsewhere the working-class speak--with a little difference in
+the quality--a language needing no substantial transformation to become
+the language of society, which differs from it in quality rather than in
+kind. But the English working man feels the need to translate his common
+Anglo-Saxon speech into foreign words of Latin origin. It is difficult
+for the educated person in England to understand the struggle which the
+uneducated person goes through to speak the language of the educated,
+although the unsatisfactory result is sufficiently conspicuous. But we
+can trace the operation of a similar cause in the hesitancy of the
+educated man himself when he attempts to speak in public and is
+embarrassed by the search for the set of words most suited for dignified
+purposes.
+
+Most of those who regarded English as the coming world-language admitted
+that it would require improvement for general use. The extensive and
+fundamental character of the necessary changes is not, however,
+realized. The difficulties of English are of four kinds: (1) its special
+sounds, very troublesome for foreigners to learn to pronounce, and the
+uncertainty of its accentuation; (2) its illogical and chaotic spelling,
+inevitably leading to confusions in pronunciation; (3) the grammatical
+irregularities in its verbs and plural nouns; and (4) the great number
+of widely different words which are almost or quite similar in
+pronunciation. A vast number of absurd pitfalls are thus prepared for
+the unwary user of English. He must remember that the plural of "mouse"
+is "mice," but that the plural of "house" is not "hice," that he may
+speak of his two "sons," but not of his two "childs"; he will
+indistinguishably refer to "sheeps" and "ships"; and like the preacher a
+little unfamiliar with English who had chosen a well-known text to
+preach on, he will not remember whether "plough" is pronounced "pluff"
+or "plo,"[240] and even a phonetic spelling system would render still more
+confusing the confusion between such a series of words as "hair,"
+"hare," "heir," "are," "ere" and "eyre." Many of these irregularities
+are deeply rooted in the structure of the language; it would be an
+extremely difficult as well as extensive task to remove them, and when
+the task was achieved the language would have lost much of its character
+and savour; it would clash painfully with literary English.
+
+Thus even if we admitted that English ought to be the international
+language of the future, the result is not so satisfactory from a British
+point of view as is usually taken for granted. All other civilized
+nations would be bilingual; they would possess the key not only to their
+own literature, but to a great foreign literature with all the new
+horizons that a foreign literature opens out. The English-speaking
+countries alone would be furnished with only one language, and would
+have no stimulus to acquire any other language, for no other language
+would be of any practical use to them. All foreigners would be in a
+position to bring to the English-speaking man whatever information they
+considered good for him. At first sight this seems a gain for the
+English-speaking peoples, because they would thus be spared a certain
+expenditure of energy; but a very little reflection shows that such a
+saving of energy is like that effected by the intestinal parasitic worm
+who has digested food brought ready to his mouth. It leads to
+degeneracy. Not the people whose language is learnt, but the people who
+learn a language reap the benefit, spiritual and material. It is now
+admitted in the commercial world that the ardour of the Germans in
+learning English has brought more advantage to the Germans than to the
+English. Moreover, the high intellectual level of small nations at the
+present time is due largely to the fact that all their educated members
+must be familiar with one or two languages besides their own. The great
+defect of the English mind is insularity; the virtue of its boisterous
+energy is accompanied by lack of insight into the differing virtues of
+other peoples. If the natural course of events led to the exclusive use
+of English for international communication, this defect would be still
+more accentuated. The immense value of becoming acquainted with a
+foreign language is that we are thereby led into a new world of
+tradition and thought and feeling. Before we know a new language truly,
+we have to realize that the words which at first seem equivalent to
+words in our own language often have a totally different atmosphere, a
+different rank or dignity from that which they occupy in our own
+language. It is in learning this difference in the moral connotation of
+a language and its expression in literature that we reap the real
+benefit of knowing a foreign tongue. There is no other way--not even
+residence in a foreign land if we are ignorant of the language--to take
+us out of the customary circle of our own traditions. It imparts a
+mental flexibility and emotional sympathy which no other discipline can
+yield. To ordain that all non-English-speaking peoples should learn
+English in addition to their mother tongue, and to render it practically
+unnecessary for English-speakers (except the small class of students) to
+learn any other language, would be to confer an immense boon on the
+first group of peoples, doubling their mental and emotional capacity; it
+is to render the second group hidebound.
+
+When we take a broad and impartial survey of the question we thus see
+that there is reason to believe that, while English is an admirable
+literary language (this is the ground that its eulogists always take),
+and sufficiently concise for commercial purposes, it is by no means an
+adequate international tongue, especially for purposes of oral speech,
+and, moreover, its exclusive use for this purpose would be a misfortune
+for the nations already using it, since they would be deprived of that
+mental flexibility and emotional sympathy which no discipline can give
+so well as knowledge of a living foreign tongue.
+
+Many who realized these difficulties put forward French as the auxiliary
+international language. It is quite true that the power behind French is
+now relatively less than it was two centuries ago.[241] At that time
+France by its relatively large population, the tradition of its military
+greatness, and its influential political position, was able to exert an
+immense influence; French was the language of intellect and society in
+Germany, in England, in Russia, everywhere in fact. During the
+eighteenth century internal maladministration, the cataclysm of the
+Revolution, and finally the fatal influence of Napoleon alienated
+foreign sympathy, and France lost her commanding position. Yet it was
+reasonably felt that, if a natural language is to be used for
+international purposes, after English there is no practicable
+alternative to French.
+
+French is the language not indeed in any special sense of science or of
+commerce, but of the finest human culture. It is a well-organized
+tongue, capable of the finest shades of expression, and it is the key to
+a great literature. In most respects it is the best favoured child of
+Latin; it commends itself to all who speak Romance languages, and, as
+Alphonse de Candolle has remarked, a Spaniard and an Italian know
+three-quarters of French beforehand, and every one who has learnt Latin
+knows half of French already. It is more admirably adapted for speaking
+purposes than perhaps any other language which has any claim to be used
+for international purposes, as we should expect of the tongue spoken by
+a people who have excelled in oratory, who possess such widely diffused
+dramatic ability, and who have carried the arts of social intercourse to
+the highest point.
+
+Paris remains for most people the intellectual capital of Europe; French
+is still very generally used for purposes of intercommunication
+throughout Europe, while the difficulty experienced by all but Germans
+and Russians in learning English is well known. Li Hung Chang is
+reported to have said that, while for commercial reasons English is far
+more widely used in China than French, the Chinese find French a much
+easier language to learn to speak, and the preferences of the Chinese
+may one day count for a good deal--in one direction or another--in the
+world's progress. One frequently hears that the use of French for
+international purposes is decaying; this is a delusion probably due to
+the relatively slow growth of the French-speaking races and to various
+temporary political causes. It is only necessary to look at the large
+International Medical Congresses. Thus at one such Congress at Rome, at
+which I was present, over six thousand members came from forty-two
+countries of the globe, and over two thousand of them took part in the
+proceedings. Four languages (Italian, French, German and English) were
+used at this Congress. Going over the seven large volumes of
+Transactions, I find that fifty-nine communications were presented in
+English, one hundred and seventy-one in German, three hundred and one
+in French, the rest in Italian. The proportion of English communications
+to German is thus a little more than one to three, and the proportion of
+English to French less than one to six. Moreover, the English-speaking
+members invariably (I believe) used their own language, so that these
+fifty-nine communications represent the whole contribution of the
+English-speaking world. And they represent nothing more than that;
+notwithstanding the enormous spread of English, of which we hear so
+much, not a single non-English speaker seems to have used English. It
+might be supposed that this preponderance of French was due to a
+preponderance of the French element, but this was by no means the case;
+the members of English-speaking race greatly exceeded those of
+French-speaking race. But, while the English communications represented
+the English-speaking countries only, and the German communications were
+chiefly by German speakers, French was spoken not only by members
+belonging to the smaller nations of Europe, from the north and from the
+south, by the Russians, by most of the Turkish and Asiatic members, but
+also by all the Mexicans and South Americans. These figures may not be
+absolutely free from fallacy, due to temporary causes of fluctuation.
+But that they are fairly exact is shown by the results of the following
+Congress, held at Moscow. If I take up the programme for the department
+of psychiatry and nervous disease, in which I was myself chiefly
+interested, I find that of 131 communications, 80 were in French, 37 in
+German and 14 in English. This shows that French, German and English
+bear almost exactly the same relation to one another as at Rome. In
+other words, 61 per cent of the speakers used French, 28 per cent
+German, and only 11 per cent English.
+
+If we come down to one of the most recent International Medical
+Congresses, that of Lisbon in 1906, we find that the supremacy of
+French, far from weakening, is more emphatically affirmed. The language
+of the country in which the Congress was held was ruled out, and I find
+that of 666 contributions to the proceedings of the Congress, over 84
+per cent were in French, scarcely more than 8 per cent in English, and
+less than 7 per cent in German. At the subsequent Congress at Budapesth
+in 1909, the French contributions were to the English as three to one.
+Similar results are shown by other International Congresses. Thus at the
+third International Congress of Psychology, held at Munich, there were
+four official languages, and on grounds of locality the majority of
+communications were in German; French followed with 29, Italian with 12,
+and English brought up the rear with 11. Dr. Westermarck, who is the
+stock example of the spread of English for international purposes, spoke
+in German. It is clearly futile to point to figures showing the prolific
+qualities of English races; the moral quality of a race and its language
+counts, as well as mere physical capacity for breeding, and the moral
+influence of French to-day is immensely greater than that of English.
+That is, indeed, scarcely a fair statement of the matter in view of the
+typical cases just quoted; one should rather say that, as a means of
+spoken international communication for other than commercial purposes,
+English is nowhere.
+
+There is one other point which serves to give prestige to French: its
+literary supremacy in the modern world. While some would claim for the
+English the supreme poetic literature, there can be no doubt that the
+French own the supreme prose literature of modern Europe. It was felt by
+those who advocated the adoption of English or French that it would
+surely be a gain for human progress if the auxiliary international
+languages of the future should be one, if not both, of two that possess
+great literatures, and which embody cultures in some respects allied,
+but in most respects admirably supplementing each other.[242]
+
+The collapse of Volapük stimulated the energy of those who believed that
+the solution of the question lay in the adoption of a natural language.
+To-day, however, there are few persons who, after carefully considering
+the matter, regard this solution as probable or practicable.[243]
+
+Considerations of two orders seem now to be decisive in rejecting the
+claims of English and French, or, indeed, any other natural language, to
+be accepted as an international language: (1) The vast number of
+peculiarities, difficulties, and irregularities, rendering necessary so
+revolutionary a change for international purposes that the language
+would be almost transformed into an artificial language, and perhaps not
+even then an entirely satisfactory one. (2) The extraordinary
+development during recent years of the minor national languages, and the
+jealousy of foreign languages which this revival has caused. This latter
+factor is probably alone fatal to the adoption of any living language.
+It can scarcely be disputed that neither English nor French occupies
+to-day so relatively influential a position as it once occupied. The
+movement against the use of French in Roumania, as detrimental to the
+national language, is significant of a widespread feeling, while, as
+regards English, the introduction by the Germans into commerce of the
+method of approaching customers in their own tongue, has rendered
+impossible the previous English custom of treating English as the
+general language of commerce.
+
+The natural languages, it became realized, fail to answer to the
+requirements which must be made of an auxiliary international language.
+The conditions which have to be fulfilled are thus formulated by Anna
+Roberts:[244]
+
+"_First_, a vocabulary having a maximum of internationality in its
+root-words for at least the Indo-European races, living or bordering on
+the confines of the old Roman Empire, whose vocabularies are already
+saturated with Greek and Latin roots, absorbed during the long centuries
+of contact with Greek and Roman civilization. As the centre of gravity
+of the world's civilization now stands, this seems the most rational
+beginning. Such a language shall then have:
+
+"_Second_, a grammatical structure stripped of all the irregularities
+found in every existing tongue, and that shall be simpler than any of
+them. It shall have:
+
+"_Third_, a single, unalterable sound for each letter, no silent
+letters, no difficult, complex, shaded sounds, but simple primary
+sounds, capable of being combined into harmonious words, which latter
+shall have but a single stress accent that never shifts.
+
+"_Fourth_, mobility of structure, aptness for the expression of complex
+ideas, but in ways that are grammatically simple, and by means of words
+that can easily be analysed without a dictionary.
+
+"_Fifth_, it must be capable of being, not merely a literary
+language,[245] but a spoken tongue, having a pronunciation that can be
+perfectly mastered by adults through the use of manuals, and in the
+absence of oral teachers.
+
+"_Finally_, and as a necessary corollary and complement to all of the
+above, this international auxiliary language must, to be of general
+utility, be exceedingly easy of acquisition by persons of but moderate
+education, and hitherto conversant with no language but their own."
+
+Thus the way was prepared for the favourable reception of a new
+artificial language, which had in the meanwhile been elaborated. Dr.
+Zamenhof, a Russian physician living at Warsaw, had been from youth
+occupied with the project of an international language, and in 1887 he
+put forth in French his scheme for a new language to be called
+Esperanto. The scheme attracted little notice; Volapük was then at the
+zenith of its career, and when it fell, its fall discredited all
+attempts at an artificial language. But, like Volapük, Esperanto found
+its great apostle in France. M. Louis de Beaufront brought his high
+ability and immense enthusiasm to the work of propaganda, and the
+success of Esperanto in the world is attributed in large measure to him.
+The extension of Esperanto is now threatening to rival that of Volapük.
+Many years ago Max Müller, and subsequently Skeat, notwithstanding the
+philologist's prejudice in favour of natural languages, expressed their
+approval of Esperanto, and many persons of distinction, moving in such
+widely remote spheres as Tolstoy and Sir William Ramsay, have since
+signified their acceptance and their sympathy. Esperanto Congresses are
+regularly held, Esperanto Societies and Esperanto Consulates are
+established in many parts of the world, a great number of books and
+journals are published in Esperanto, and some of the world's classics
+have been translated into it.
+
+It is generally recognized that Esperanto represents a great advance on
+Volapük. Yet there are already signs that Esperanto is approaching the
+climax of its reputation, and that possibly its inventor may share the
+fate of the inventor of Volapük and outlive his own language. The most
+serious attack on Esperanto has come from within. The most intelligent
+Esperantists have realized the weakness and defects of their language
+(in some measure due to the inevitable Slavonic prepossessions of its
+inventor) and demand radical reforms, which the conservative party
+resist. Even M. de Beaufront, to whom its success was largely due, has
+abandoned primitive Esperanto, and various scientific men of high
+distinction in several countries now advocate the supersession of
+Esperanto by an improved language based upon it and called Ido.
+Professor Lorenz, who is among the advocates of Ido, admits that
+Esperanto has shown the possibility of a synthetic language, but states
+definitely that "according to the concordant testimony of all unbiased
+opinions" Esperanto in no wise represents the final solution of the
+problem. This new movement is embodied in the Délégation pour l'Adoption
+d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, founded in Paris during the
+International Exhibition in 1900 by various eminent literary and
+scientific men, and having its head-quarters in Paris. The Délégation
+consider that the problem demands a purely scientific and technical
+solution, and it is claimed that 40 per cent of the stems of Ido are
+common to six languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian and
+Spanish. The Délégation appear to have approached the question with a
+fairly open mind, and it was only after study of the subject that they
+finally reached the conclusion that Esperanto contained a sufficient
+number of good qualities to furnish a basis on which to work.[246]
+
+The general programme of the Délégation is that (1) an auxiliary
+international language is required, adapted to written and oral language
+between persons of different mother tongues; (2) such language must be
+capable of serving the needs of science, daily life, commerce, and
+general intercourse, and must be of such a character that it may easily
+be learnt by persons of average elementary education, especially those
+of civilized European nationality; (3) the decision to rest with the
+International Association of Academies, and, in case of their refusal,
+with the Committee of the Délégation.[247]
+
+The Délégation is seeking to bring about an official international
+Congress which would either itself or through properly appointed experts
+establish an internationally and officially recognized auxiliary
+language. The chief step made in this direction has been the formation
+at Berne in 1911 of an international association whose object is to take
+immediate steps towards bringing the question before the Governments of
+Europe. The Association is pledged to observe a strict neutrality in
+regard to the language to be chosen.
+
+The whole question seems thus to have been placed on a sounder basis
+than hitherto. The international language of the future cannot be, and
+ought not to be, settled by a single individual seeking to impose his
+own invention on the world. This is not a matter for zealous propaganda
+of an almost religious character. The hasty and premature adoption of
+some privately invented language merely retards progress. No individual
+can settle the question by himself. What we need is calm study and
+deliberation between the nations and the classes chiefly concerned,
+acting through the accredited representatives of their Governments and
+other professional bodies. Nothing effective can be done until the
+pressure of popular opinion has awakened Governments and scientific
+societies to the need for action. The question of international
+arbitration has become practical; the question of the international
+language ought to go hand in hand with that of international
+arbitration. They are closely allied and both equally necessary.
+
+While the educational, commercial, and official advantages of an
+auxiliary international language are obvious, it seems to me that from
+the standpoint of social hygiene there are at least three interests
+which are especially and deeply concerned in the settlement of this
+question.
+
+The first and chief is that of international democracy in its efforts to
+attain an understanding on labour questions. There can be no solution of
+this question until a simpler mode of personal communication has become
+widely prevalent. This matter has from time to time already been brought
+before international labour congresses, and those who attend such
+congresses have doubtless had occasion to realize how essential it is.
+Perhaps it is a chief factor in the comparative failure of such
+congresses hitherto.
+
+Science represents the second great interest which has shown an active
+concern in the settlement of this question. To follow up any line of
+scientific research is already a sufficiently gigantic work, on account
+of the absence of proper bibliographical organization; it becomes almost
+overwhelming now that the search has to extend over at least half a
+dozen languages, and still leaves the searcher a stranger to the
+important investigations which are appearing in Russian and in Japanese,
+and will before long appear in other languages. Sir Michael Foster once
+drew a humorous picture of the woes of the physiologist owing to these
+causes. In other fields--especially in the numerous branches of
+anthropological research, as I can myself bear witness--the worker is
+even worse off than the physiologist. Just now science is concentrating
+its energies on the organization of bibliography, but much attention has
+been given to this question of an international language from time to
+time, and it is likely before long to come pressingly to the front.
+
+The medical profession is also practically concerned in this question;
+hitherto it has, indeed, taken a more lively interest in the effort to
+secure an international language than has pure science. It is of the
+first importance that new discoveries and methods in medicine and
+hygiene should be rendered immediately accessible; while the now
+enormously extended domain of medicine is full of great questions which
+can only be solved by international co-operation on an international
+basis. The responsibility of advocating a number of measures affecting
+the well-being of communities lies, in the first place, with the medical
+profession; but no general agreement is possible without full facilities
+for discussion in international session. This has been generally
+recognized; hence the numerous attempts to urge a single language on the
+organizers of the international medical congresses. I have already
+observed how large and active these congresses were. Yet it cannot be
+said that any results are achieved commensurate with the world-wide
+character of such congresses. Partly this is due to the fact that the
+organizers of international congresses have not yet learnt what should
+be the scope of such conferences, and what they may legitimately hope to
+perform; but very largely because there is no international method of
+communication; and, except for a few seasoned cosmopolitans, no truly
+international exchange of opinions takes place. This can only be
+possible when we have a really common and familiar method of
+intercommunication.
+
+These three interests--democratic, scientific, medical--seem at present
+those chiefly concerned in the task of putting this matter on a definite
+basis, and it is much to be desired that they should come to some common
+agreement. They represent three immensely important modes of social and
+intellectual activity, and the progress of every nation is bound up with
+an international progress of which they are now the natural pioneers. It
+cannot be too often repeated that the day has gone by when any progress
+worthy of the name can be purely national. All the most vital questions
+of national progress tend to merge themselves into international
+questions. But before any question of international progress can result
+in anything but noisy confusion, we need a recognized mode of
+international intelligence and communication. That is why the question
+of the auxiliary international language is of actual and vital interest
+to all who are concerned with the tasks of social hygiene.
+
+
+THE QUESTION ON INTERNATIONAL COINAGE
+
+It must be remembered that the international auxiliary language is an
+organic part of a larger internationalization which must inevitably be
+effected, and is indeed already coming into being. Two related measures
+of intercommunication are an international system of postage stamps, and
+an international coinage, to which may be added an international system
+of weights and measures, which seems to be already in course of
+settlement by the increasingly general adoption of the metric system.
+The introduction of the exchangeable international stamp coupon
+represents the beginning of a truly international postal system; but it
+is only a beginning. If a completely developed international postal
+system were incidentally to deliver some nations, and especially the
+English, from the depressingly ugly postage stamps they are now
+condemned to use, this reform would possess a further advantage almost
+as great as its practical utility. An international coinage is, again, a
+prime necessity, which would possess immense commercial advantages in
+addition to the great saving of trouble it would effect. The progress of
+civilization is already working towards an international coinage. In an
+interesting paper on this subject ("International Coinage," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, March, 1910) T.F. van Wagenen writes; "Each in its
+way, the great commercial nations of the day are unconsciously engaged
+in the task. The English shilling is working northwards from the Cape
+of Good Hope, has already come in touch with the German mark and the
+Portuguese peseta which have been introduced on both the east and west
+sides of the Continent, and will in due time meet the French franc and
+Italian lira coming south from the shores of the Mediterranean. In Asia,
+the Indian rupee, the Russian rouble, the Japanese yen, and the
+American-Philippine coins are already competing for the patronage of the
+Malay and the Chinaman. In South America neither American nor European
+coins have any foot-hold, the Latin-American nations being well supplied
+by systems of their own, all related more or less closely to the coinage
+of Mexico or Portugal. Thus the plainly evolutionary task of pushing
+civilization into the uneducated parts of the world through commerce is
+as badly hampered by the different coins offered to the barbarian as are
+the efforts of the evangelists to introduce Christianity by the
+existence of the various denominations and creeds. The Church is
+beginning to appreciate the wastage in its efforts, and is trying to
+minimize it by combinations among the denominations having for their
+object to standardize Christianity, so to speak, by reducing tenet and
+dogma to the lowest possible terms. Commerce must do the same. The white
+man's coins must be standardized and simplified.... The international
+coin will come in a comparatively short time, just as will arrive the
+international postage stamp, which, by the way, is very badly needed.
+For the upper classes of all countries, the people who travel, and have
+to stand the nuisance and loss of changing their money at every
+frontier, the bankers and international merchants who have to cumber
+their accounts with the fluctuating item of exchange between commercial
+centres will insist upon it. All the European nations, with the
+exception of Russia and Turkey, are ready for the change, and when these
+reach the stage of real constitutionalism in their progress upward,
+they will be compelled to follow, being already deeply in debt to the
+French, English, and Germans. Japan may be counted upon to acquiesce
+instantly in any unit agreed upon by the rest of the civilized world."
+
+This writer points out that the opening out of the uncivilized parts of
+the world to commerce will alone serve to make an international coinage
+absolutely indispensable.
+
+Without, however, introducing a really new system, an auxiliary
+international money system (corresponding to an auxiliary international
+language) could be introduced as a medium of exchange without
+interfering with the existing coinages of the various nations. Réné de
+Saussure (writing in the _Journal de Genève_, in 1907) has insisted on
+the immense benefit such a system of "monnaie de compte" would be in
+removing the burden imposed upon all international financial relations
+by the diversity of money values. He argues that the best point of union
+would be a gold piece of eight grammes--almost exactly equivalent to one
+pound, twenty marks, five dollars, and twenty-five francs--being, in
+fact, but one-third of a penny different from the value of a pound
+sterling. For the subdivisions the point of union must be decimally
+divided, and M. de Saussure would give the name of speso to a
+ten-thousandth part of the gold coin.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236] The history of the efforts to attain a universal language has been
+written by Couturat and Leau, _Histoire de la Langue Universelle_, 1903.
+
+[237] The distinguished French physician, Dr. Sollier, also, in an address
+to the Lisbon International Medical Congress, on "La Question de la
+Langue Auxiliaire Internationale," in 1906, advocating the adoption of
+one of the existing Romance tongues, said: "Spanish is the simplest of
+all and the easiest, and if it were chosen for this purpose I should be
+the first to accept it."
+
+[238] It has even been stated by a distinguished English man of science
+that Latin is sometimes easier for the English to use than is their own
+language. "I have known Englishmen who could be trusted to write a more
+intelligible treatise, possibly even to make a more lucid speech, in
+Latin than in English," says Dr. Miers, the Principal of London
+University (_Lancet_, 7th October, 1911), and he adds: "Quite seriously,
+I think some part of the cause is to be sought in the difficulty of our
+language, and many educated persons get lost in its intricacies, just as
+they get lost in its spelling." Without questioning the fact, however, I
+would venture to question this explanation of it.
+
+[239] Thus in one article on the growing extension of the English language
+throughout the world (_Macmillan's Magazine_, March, 1892) we read:
+"English is practically certain to become the language of the world....
+The speech of Shakespeare and Milton, of Dryden and Swift, of Byron and
+Wordsworth, will be, in a sense in which no other language has been, the
+speech of the whole world." We do not nowadays meet with these wild
+statements.
+
+[240] The stumbling-stones for the foreigner presented by English words in
+"ough" have often been referred to, and are clearly set forth in the
+verses in which Mr. C.B. Loomis has sought to represent a French
+learner's experiences--and the same time to show the criminal impulses
+which these irregularities arouse in the pupil.
+
+    "I'm taught p-l-o-u-g-h
+      Shall be pronouncèd 'plow,'
+    'Zat's easy when you know,' I say,
+      'Mon Anglais I'll get through.'
+
+    "My teacher say zat in zat case
+      O-u-g-h is 'oo,'
+    And zen I laugh and say to him
+      'Zees Anglais make me cough.'
+
+    "He say, 'Not coo, but in zat word
+      O-u-g-h is "off,"'
+    Oh, _sacre bleu_! such varied sounds
+      Of words make me hiccough!
+
+    "He say, 'Again, mon friend ees wrong!
+      O-u-g-h is "up,"
+    In hiccough,' Zen I cry, 'No more,
+      You make my throat feel rough,'
+
+    "'Non! non!' he cry, 'you are not right--
+      O-u-g-h is "uff."'
+    I say, 'I try to speak your words,
+      I can't prononz zem though,'
+
+    "'In time you'll learn, but now you're wrong,
+      O-u-g-h is "owe."'
+    'I'll try no more. I sall go mad,
+      I'll drown me in ze lough!'
+
+    "'But ere you drown yourself,' said he,
+      'O-u-g-h is "ock."'
+    He taught no more! I held him fast,
+      And killed him wiz a rough!"
+
+[241] It is interesting to remember that at one period in European
+history, French seemed likely to absorb English, and thus to acquire, in
+addition to its own motor force, all the motor force which now lies
+behind English. When the Normans--a vigorous people of Scandinavian
+origin, speaking a Romance tongue, and therefore well fitted to
+accomplish a harmonizing task of this kind--occupied both sides of the
+English Channel, it seemed probable that they would dominate the speech
+of England as well as of France. "At that time," says Méray (_La Vie aux
+Temps des Cours d'Amour_, p. 367), who puts forward this view, "the
+people of the two coasts of the Channel were closer in customs and in
+speech than were for a long time the French on the opposite banks of the
+Loire.... The influential part of the English nation and all the people
+of its southern regions spoke the _Romance_ of the north of France. In
+the Crusades the Knights of the two peoples often mixed, and were
+greeted as Franks wherever their adventurous spirit led them. If Edward
+III, with the object of envenoming an antagonism which served his own
+ends, had not broken this link of language, the two peoples would
+perhaps have been united to-day in the same efforts of progress and of
+liberty.... Of what a fine instrument of culture and of progress has not
+that fatal decree of Edward III deprived civilization!"
+
+[242] I was at one time (_Progressive Review_, April, 1897) inclined to
+think that the adoption of both English and French, as joint auxiliary
+international languages--the first for writing and the second for
+speaking--might solve the problem. I have since recognized that such a
+solution, however advantageous it might be for human culture, would
+present many difficulties, and is quite impracticable.
+
+[243] I may refer to three able papers which have appeared in recent years
+in the _Popular Science Monthly_: Anna Monsch Roberts, "The Problem of
+International Speech" (February, 1908); Ivy Kellerman, "The Necessity
+for an International Language," (September, 1909); Albert Léon Guérard,
+"English as an International Language" (October, 1911). All these
+writers reject as impracticable the adoption of either English or French
+as the auxiliary international language, and view with more favour the
+adoption of an artificial language such as Esperanto.
+
+[244] A.M. Roberts, _op. cit._
+
+[245] It should be added, however, that the auxiliary language need not
+be used as a medium for literary art, and it is a mistake, as Pfaundler
+points out, to translate poems into such a language.
+
+[246] See _International Language and Science_, 1910, by Couturat,
+Jespersen, Lorenz, Ostwald, Pfaundler, and Donnan, five professors
+living in five different countries.
+
+[247] The progress of the movement is recorded in its official journal,
+_Progreso_, edited by Couturat, and in De Beaufront's journal, _La
+Langue Auxiliaire_.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM
+
+     Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between
+     Socialism and Individualism--The Two Parties in Politics--The
+     Relation of Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and
+     Individualism--The Basis of Socialism--The Basis of
+     Individualism--The seeming Opposition between Socialism and
+     Individualism merely a Division of Labour--Both Socialism and
+     Individualism equally Necessary--Not only Necessary but
+     Indispensable to each other--The Conflict between the Advocates of
+     Environment and Heredity--A New Embodiment of the supposed Conflict
+     between Socialism and Individualism--The Place of Eugenics--Social
+     Hygiene ultimately one with the Hygiene of the Soul--The Function
+     of Utopias.
+
+
+The controversy between Individualism and Socialism, the claim of the
+personal unit as against the claim of the collective community, is of
+ancient date. Yet it is ever new and constantly presented afresh. It
+even seems to become more acute as civilization progresses. Every scheme
+of social reform, every powerful manifestation of individual energy,
+raise anew a problem that is never out of date.
+
+It is inevitable, indeed, that with the development of social hygiene
+during the past hundred years there should also develop a radical
+opposition of opinion as to the methods by which such hygiene ought to
+be accomplished. There has always been this opposition in the political
+sphere; it is natural to find it also in the social sphere. The very
+fact that old-fashioned politics are becoming more and more transformed
+into questions of social hygiene itself ensures the continuance of such
+an opposition.
+
+In politics, and especially in the politics of constitutional countries
+of which England is the type, there are normally two parties. There is
+the party that holds by tradition, by established order and solidarity,
+the maintenance of the ancient hierarchical constitution of society, and
+in general distinguishes itself by a preference for the old over the
+new. There is, on the other side, the party that insists on progress, on
+freedom, on the reasonable demands of the individual, on the adaptation
+of the accepted order to changing conditions, and in general
+distinguishes itself by a preference for the new over the old. The first
+may be called the party of structure, and the second the party of
+function. In England we know the adherents of one party as Conservatives
+and those of the other party as Liberals or Radicals.
+
+In time, it is true, these normal distinctions between the party of
+structure and the party of function tend to become somewhat confused;
+and it is precisely the transition of politics into the social sphere
+which tends to introduce confusion. With a political system which
+proceeds ultimately out of a society with a feudalistic basis, the
+normal attitude of political parties is long maintained. The party of
+structure, the Conservative party, holds by the ancient feudalistic
+ideals which are really, in the large sense, socialistic, though a
+socialism based on a foundation of established inequality, and so
+altogether unlike the democratic socialism promulgated to-day. The
+party of function, the Liberal party, insists on the break-up of this
+structural socialism to meet the new needs of progressive civilization.
+But when feudalism has been left far behind, and many of the changes
+introduced by Liberalism have become part of the social structure, they
+fall under the protection of Conservatives who are fighting against new
+Liberal innovations. Thus the lines of delimitation tend to become
+indistinct.
+
+In the politics of social hygiene there are the same two factors: the
+party of structure and the party of function. In their nature and in
+their opposition to each other they correspond to the two parties in the
+old political field. But they have changed their character and their
+names: the party of structure is here Socialism or Collectivism,[248] the
+party of function is Individualism.[249] And while the Tory, the
+Conservative of early days, was allied to Collectivism, and the Whig,
+the Liberal of early days, to Individualism, that correspondence has
+ceased to be invariable owing to the confused manner in which the old
+political parties have nowadays shifted their ground. We may thus see a
+Liberal who is a Collectivist when a Collectivist measure may involve
+that innovation to secure adjustment to new needs which is of the
+essence of Liberalism, and we may see a Conservative who is an
+Individualist when Individualism involves that maintenance of the
+existing order which is of the essence of Conservatism. Whether a man is
+a Conservative or a Liberal, he may incline either to Socialism or to
+Individualism without breaking with his political tradition. It is,
+therefore, impossible to import any political animus into the
+fundamental antagonism between Individualism and Socialism, which
+prevails in the sphere of social hygiene.
+
+We cannot hope to see clearly the grave problems involved by the
+fundamental antagonism between Socialism and Individualism unless we
+understand what each is founded on and what it is aiming at.
+
+When we seek to inquire how it is that the Socialist ideal exerts so
+powerful an attraction on the human mind, and why it is ever seeking new
+modes of practical realization, we cannot fail to perceive that it
+ultimately proceeds from the primitive need of mutual help, a need which
+was felt long before the appearance of humanity.[250] If, however, we keep
+strictly to our immediate mammalian traditions it may be said that the
+earliest socialist community is the family, with its trinity of father,
+mother, and child. The primitive family constitutes a group which is
+conditioned by the needs of each member. Each individual is subordinated
+to the whole. The infant needs the mother and the mother needs the
+infant; they both need the father and the father needs both for the
+complete satisfaction of his own activities. Socially and economically
+this primitive group is a unit, and if broken up into its individual
+parts these would be liable to perish.
+
+However we may multiply our social unit, however we may enlarge and
+elaborate it, however we may juggle with the results, we cannot disguise
+the essential fact. At the centre of every social agglomeration, however
+vast, however small, lies the social unit of the family of which each
+individual is by himself either unable to live or unable to reproduce,
+unable, that is to say, to gratify the two fundamental needs of hunger
+and love.
+
+There are many people who, while willing to admit that the family is, in
+a sense, a composite social unit to which each part has need of the
+other parts, so that all are mutually bound together, seek to draw a
+firm line of distinction between the family and society. Family life,
+they declare, is not irreconcilable with individualism; it is merely _un
+égoïsme à trois_. It is, however, difficult to see how such a
+distinction can be maintained, whether we look at the matter
+theoretically or practically. In a small country like Great Britain, for
+instance, every Englishman (excluding new immigrants) is related by
+blood to every other Englishman, as would become clearer if every man
+possessed his pedigree for a thousand years back. When we remember,
+further, also, that every nation has been overlaid by invasions, warlike
+or peaceful, from neighbouring lands, and has, indeed, been originally
+formed in this way since no people has sprung up out of the soil of its
+own land, we must further admit that the nations themselves form one
+family related by blood.
+
+Our genealogical relation to our fellows is too remote and extensive to
+concern us much practically and sentimentally, though it is well that we
+should realize it. If we put it aside, we have still to remember that
+our actual need of our fellows is not definitely to be distinguished
+from the mutual needs of the members of the smallest social unit, the
+family.
+
+In practice the individual is helpless. Of all animals, indeed, man is
+the most helpless when left to himself. He must be cared for by others
+at every moment during his long infancy. He is dependent on the
+exertions of others for shelter and clothes, while others are occupied
+in preparing his food and conveying it from the ends of the world. Even
+if we confine ourselves to the most elementary needs of a moderately
+civilized existence, or even if our requirements are only those of an
+idiot in an asylum, yet, for every one of us, there are literally
+millions of people spending the best of their lives from morning to
+night and perhaps receiving but little in return. The very elementary
+need of the individual in an urban civilization for pure water to drink
+can only be attained by organized social effort. The gigantic aqueducts
+constructed by the Romans are early monuments of social activity typical
+of all the rest. The primary needs of the individual can only be
+supplied by an immense and highly organized social effort. The more
+complex civilization becomes, and the more numerous individual needs
+become, so much the more elaborate and highly organized becomes the
+social response to those needs. The individual is so dependent on
+society that he needs not only the active work of others, but even their
+mere passive good opinion, and if he loses that he is a failure,
+bankrupt, a pauper, a lunatic, a criminal, and the social reaction
+against him may suffice to isolate him, even to put him out of life
+altogether. So dependent indeed on society is the individual that there
+has always been a certain plausibility in the old idea of the Stoics,
+countenanced by St. Paul, and so often revived in later days (as by
+Schäffle, Lilienfeld, and René Worms), that society is an organism in
+which the individuals are merely cells depending for their significance
+on the whole to which they belong. Just as the animal is, as Hegel, the
+metaphysician, called it, a "nation," and Dareste, the physiologist, a
+"city," made up of cells which are individuals having a common ancestor,
+so the actual nation, the real city, is an animal made up of individuals
+which are cells having a common ancestor, or, as Oken long ago put it,
+individuals are the organs of the whole.[251] Man is a social animal in
+constant action and reaction with all his fellows of the same group--a
+group which becomes ever greater as civilization advances--and socialism
+is merely the formal statement of this ultimate social fact.[252]
+
+There is a divinity that hedges certain words. A sacred terror warns the
+profane off them as off something that might blast the beholder's sight.
+In fact it is so, and even a clear-sighted person may be blinded by such
+a word. Of these words none is more typical than the word "socialism."
+Not so very long ago a prominent public man, of high intelligence, but
+evidently susceptible to the terror-striking influence of words, went to
+Glasgow to deliver an address on Social Reform. He warned his hearers
+against Socialism, and told them that, though so much talked about, it
+had not made one inch of progress; of practical Socialism or
+Collectivism there were no signs at all. Yet, as some of his hearers
+pointed out, he gave his address in a municipally owned hall,
+illuminated by municipal lights, to an audience which had largely
+arrived in municipal tramcars travelling through streets owned,
+maintained, and guarded by the municipality. This audience was largely
+educated in State schools, in which their children nowadays can receive
+not only free education and free books, but, if necessary, free food and
+free medical inspection and treatment. Moreover, the members of this
+same audience thus assured of the non-existence of Socialism, are
+entitled to free treatment in the municipal hospital, should an
+infective disease overtake them; the municipality provides them freely
+with concerts and picture galleries, golf courses and swimming ponds;
+and in old age, finally, if duly qualified, they receive a State
+pension. Now all these measures are socialistic, and Socialism is
+nothing more or less than a complicated web of such measures; the
+socialistic State, as some have put it, is simply a great national
+co-operative association of which the Government is the board of
+managers.
+
+It is said by some who disclaim any tendency to Socialism, that what
+they desire is not the State-ownership of the means of production, but
+State-regulation. Let the State, in the interests of the community, keep
+a firm control over the individualistic exploitation of capital, let it
+tax capital as far as may be desirable in the interests of the
+community. But beyond this, capital, as well as land, is sacred. The
+distinction thus assumed is not, however, valid. The very people who
+make this distinction are often enthusiastic advocates of an enlarged
+navy and a more powerful army. Yet these can only be provided by
+taxation, and every tax in a democratic State is a socialistic measure,
+and involves collective ownership of the proceeds, whether they are
+applied to making guns or swimming-baths. Every step in the regulation
+of industry assumes the rights of society over individualistic
+production, and is therefore socialistic. It is a question of less or
+more, but except along those two lines, there is no socialism at all to
+be reckoned with in the practical affairs of the world. That
+revolutionary socialism of the dogmatically systematic school of Karl
+Marx which desired to transfer society at a single stroke by taking over
+and centralizing all the means of production may now be regarded as a
+dream. It never at any time took root in the English-speaking lands,
+though it was advocated with unwearying patience by men of such force of
+intellect and of character as Mr. Hyndman and William Morris. Even in
+Germany, the land of its origin, nearly all its old irreconcilable
+leaders are dead, and it is now slowly but steadily losing influence, to
+give place to a more modern and practical socialism.
+
+As we are concerned with it to-day and in the future, Socialism is not a
+rigid economic theory, nor is it the creed of a narrow sect. In its wide
+sense it is a name that covers all the activities--first instinctive,
+then organized--which arise out of the fundamental fact that man is a
+social animal. In its more precise sense it indicates the various
+orderly measures that are taken by groups of individuals--whether States
+or municipalities--to provide collectively for the definite needs of the
+individuals composing the group. So much for Socialism.
+
+The individualist has a very different story to tell. From the point of
+view of Individualism, however elaborate the structure of the society
+you erect, it can only, after all, be built up of individuals, and its
+whole worth must depend on the quality of those individuals. If they are
+not fully developed and finely tempered by high responsibilities and
+perpetual struggles, all social effort is fruitless, it will merely
+degrade the individual to the helpless position of a parasite. The
+individual is born alone; he must die alone; his deepest passions, his
+most exquisite tastes, are personal; in this world, or in any other
+world, all the activities of society cannot suffice to save his soul.
+Thus it is that the individual must bear his own burdens, for it is
+only in so doing that the muscles of his body grow strong and that the
+energies of his spirit become keen. It is by the qualities of the
+individual alone that work is sound and that initiative is possible. All
+trade and commerce, every practical affair of life, depend for success
+on the personal ability of individuals.[253] It is not only so in the
+everyday affairs of life, it is even more so on the highest planes of
+intellectual and spiritual life. The supreme great men of the race were
+termed by Carlyle its "heroes," by Emerson its "representative men,"
+but, equally by the less and by the more democratic term, they are
+always individuals standing apart from society, often in violent
+opposition to it, though they have always conquered in the end. When any
+great person has stood alone against the world it has always been the
+world that lost. The strongest man, as Ibsen argued in his _Enemy of the
+People_, is the man who stands most alone. "He will be the greatest,"
+says Nietzsche in _Beyond Good and Evil_, "who can be the most solitary,
+the most concealed, the most divergent." Every great and vitally
+organized person is hostile to the rigid and narrow routine of social
+conventions, whether established by law or by opinion; they must ever be
+broken to suit his vital needs. Therefore the more we multiply these
+social routines, the more strands we weave into the social web, the more
+closely we draw them, by so much the more we are discouraging the
+production of great and vitally organized persons, and by so much the
+more we are exposing society to destruction at the hands of such
+persons.
+
+Beneath Socialism lies the assertion that society came first and that
+individuals are indefinitely apt for education into their place in
+society. Socialism has inherited the maxim, which Rousseau, the
+uncompromising Individualist, placed at the front of his _Social
+Contract_: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." There is
+nothing to be done but to strike off the chains and organize society on
+a social basis. Men are not this or that; they are what they have been
+made. Make the social conditions right, says the thorough-going
+Socialist, and individuals will be all that we could desire them to be.
+Not poverty alone, but disease, lunacy, prostitution, criminality are
+all the results of bad social and economic conditions. Create the right
+environment and you have done all that is necessary. To some extent that
+is clearly true. But the individualist insists that there are definite
+limits to its truth. Even in the most favourable environment nearly
+every ill that the Socialist seeks to remove is found. Inevitably, the
+Individualist declares, because we do not spring out of our environment,
+but out of our ancestral stocks. Against the stress on environment, the
+Individualist lays the stress on the ascertained facts of heredity. It
+is the individual that counts, and for good or for ill the individual
+brought his fate with him at birth. Ensure the production of sound
+individuals, and you may set at naught the environment. You will,
+indeed, secure results incomparably better than even the most anxious
+care expended on environment alone can ever hope to secure.
+
+Such are the respective attitudes of Socialism and Individualism. So far
+as I can see, they are both absolutely right. Nor is it even clear that
+they are really opposed; for, as happens in every field, while the
+affirmations of each are sound, their denials are unsound. Certainly,
+along each line we may be carried to absurdity. The Individualism of Max
+Stirner is not far from the ultimate frontier of sanity, and possibly
+even on the other side of it;[254] while the Socialism of the Oneida
+Community involved a self-subordination which it would be idle to expect
+from the majority of men and women. But there is a perfect division of
+labour between Socialism and Individualism. We cannot have too much of
+either of them. We have only to remember that the field of each is
+distinct. No one needs Individualism in his water supply, and no one
+needs Socialism in his religion. All human affairs sort themselves out
+as coming within the province of Socialism or of Individualism, and each
+may be pushed to its furthest extreme.[255]
+
+It so happens, however, that the capacity of the human brain is limited,
+and a single brain is not made to hold together the idea of Socialism
+and the idea of Individualism. Ordinary people have, it is true, no
+practical difficulty whatever in acting concurrently in accordance with
+the ideas of Socialism and of Individualism. But it is different with
+the men of ideas; they must either be Socialists or Individualists; they
+cannot be both. The tendency in one or the other direction is probably
+inborn in these men of ideas.
+
+We need not regret this inevitable division of labour. On the contrary,
+it is difficult to see how the right result could otherwise be brought
+about. People without ideas experience no difficulty in harmonizing the
+two tendencies. But if the ideas of Socialism and Individualism tended
+to appear in the same brain they would neutralize each other or lead
+action into an unprofitable _via media_. The separate initiative and
+promulgation of the two tendencies encourages a much more effective
+action, and best promotes that final harmony of the two extremes which
+the finest human development needs.
+
+There is more to be said. Not only are both alike indispensable, and
+both too profoundly rooted in human nature to be abolished or abridged,
+but each is indispensable to the other. There can be no Socialism
+without Individualism; there can be no Individualism without Socialism.
+Only a very fine development of personal character and individual
+responsibility can bear up any highly elaborated social organization,
+which is why small Socialist communities have only attained success by
+enlisting finely selected persons; only a highly organized social
+structure can afford scope for the play of individuality. The
+enlightened Socialist nowadays often realizes something of the
+relationship of Socialism to Individualism, and the Individualist--if he
+were not in recent times, for all his excellent qualities, sometimes
+lacking in mental flexibility and alertness--would be prepared to admit
+his own relationship to Socialism. "The organization of the whole is
+dominated by the necessities of cellular life," as Dareste says. That
+truth is well recognized by the physiologists since the days of Claude
+Bernard. It is absolutely true of the physiology of society. Social
+organization is not for the purpose of subordinating the individual to
+society; it is as much for the purpose of subordinating society to the
+individual.
+
+Between individuals, even the greatest, and society there is perpetual
+action and reaction. While the individual powerfully acts on society, he
+can only so act in so far as he is himself the instrument and organ of
+society. The individual leads society, but only in that direction
+whither society wishes to go. Every man of science merely carries
+knowledge or invention one further step, a needed and desired step,
+beyond the stage reached by his immediate predecessors. Every poet and
+artist is only giving expression to the secret feelings and impulses of
+his fellows. He has the courage to utter for the first time the intimate
+emotion and aspiration which he finds in the depth of his own soul, and
+he has the skill to express them in forms of radiant beauty. But all
+these secret feelings and desires are in the hearts of other men, who
+have not the boldness to tell them nor the ability to embody them
+exquisitely. In the life of man, as in nature generally, there is a
+perpetual process of exfoliation, as Edward Carpenter calls it, whereby
+a latent but striving desire is revealed, and the man of genius is the
+stimulus and the incarnation of this exfoliating movement. That is why
+every great poet and artist when once his message becomes intelligible,
+is acclaimed and adored by the crowd for whom he would only have been an
+object of idle wonderment if he had not expressed and glorified
+themselves. When the man of genius is too far ahead of his time, he is
+rejected, however great his genius may be, because he represents the
+individual out of vital relation to his time. A Roger Bacon, for all his
+stupendous intellect, is deprived of pen and paper and shut up in a
+monastery, because he is undertaking to answer questions which will not
+be asked until five centuries after his death. Perhaps the supreme man
+of genius is he who, like Virgil, Leonardo, or Shakespeare, has a
+message for his own time and a message for all times, a message which is
+for ever renewed for every new generation.
+
+The need for insisting on the intimate relations between Socialism and
+Individualism has become the more urgent to-day because we are reaching
+a stage of civilization in which each tendency is inevitably so pushed
+to its full development that a clash is only prevented by the
+realization that here we have truly a harmony. Sometimes a matter that
+belongs to one sphere is so closely intertwined with a matter that
+belongs to the other that it is a very difficult problem how to hold
+them separate and allow each its due value.[256]
+
+At times, indeed, it is really very difficult to determine to which
+sphere a particular kind of human activity belongs. This is notably the
+case as regards education. "Render unto Cæsar the things that be
+Cæsar's, and unto God the things that be God's." But is education among
+the things that belong to Cæsar, to social organization, or among the
+things that belong to God, to the province of the individual's soul?
+There is much to be said on both sides. Of late the Socialist tendency
+prevails here, and there is a disposition to standardize rigidly an
+education so superficial, so platitudinous, so uniform, so
+unprofitable--so fatally oblivious of what even the word _education_
+means[257]--that some day, perhaps, the revolted Individualist spirit will
+arise in irresistible might to sweep away the whole worthless structure
+from top to bottom, with even such possibilities of good as it may
+conceal. The educationalists of to-day may do well to remember that it
+is wise to be generous to your enemies even in the interests of your own
+preservation.
+
+In every age the question of Individualism and Socialism takes on a
+different form. In our own age it has become acute under the form of a
+conflict between the advocates of good heredity and the advocates of
+good environment. On the one hand there is the desire to breed the
+individual to a high degree of efficiency by eugenic selection,
+favouring good stocks and making the procreation of bad stocks more
+difficult. On the other hand there is the effort so to organize the
+environment by collectivist methods that life for all may become easy
+and wholesome. As usual, those who insist on the importance of good
+environment are inclined to consider that the question of heredity may
+be left to itself, and those who insist on the importance of good
+heredity are indifferent to environment. As usual, also, there is a real
+underlying harmony of those two demands. There is, however, here more
+than this. In this most modern of their embodiments, Socialism and
+Individualism are not merely harmonious, each is the key to the other,
+which remains unattainable without it. However carefully we improve our
+breed, however anxiously we guard the entrance to life, our labour will
+be in vain if we neglect to adapt the environment to the fine race we
+are breeding. The best individuals are not the toughest, any more than
+the highest species are the toughest, but rather, indeed, the reverse,
+and no creature needs so much and so prolonged an environing care as
+man, to ensure his survival. On the other hand, an elaborate attention
+to the environment, combined with a reckless inattention to the quality
+of the individuals born to live in that environment can only lead to an
+overburdened social organization which will speedily fall by its own
+weight.
+
+During the past century the Socialists of the school for bettering the
+environment have for the most part had the game in their own hands. They
+founded themselves on the very reasonable basis of sympathy, a basis
+which the eighteenth-century moralists had prepared, which Schopenhauer
+had formulated, which George Eliot had passionately preached, which had
+around its operations the immense prestige of the gospel of Jesus. The
+environmental Socialists--always quite reasonably--set themselves to
+improve the conditions of labour; they provided local relief for the
+poor; they built hospitals for the free treatment of the sick. They are
+proceeding to feed school children, to segregate and protect the
+feeble-minded, to insure the unemployed, to give State pensions to the
+aged, and they are even asked to guarantee work for all. Now these
+things, and the likes of them, are not only in accordance with natural
+human impulses, but for the most part they are reasonable, and in
+protecting the weak the strong are, in a certain sense, protecting
+themselves. No one nowadays wants the hungry to hunger or the suffering
+to suffer. Indeed, in that sense, there never has been any
+_laissez-faire_ school.[258]
+
+But as the movement of environmental Socialism realizes itself, it
+becomes increasingly clear that it is itself multiplying the work which
+it sets itself to do. In enabling the weak, the incompetent, and the
+defective to live and to live comfortably, it makes it easier for those
+on the borderland of these classes to fall into them, and it furnishes
+the conditions which enable them to propagate their like, and to do
+this, moreover, without that prudent limitation which is now becoming
+universal in all classes above those of the weak, the incompetent, and
+the defective. Thus unchecked environmental Socialism, obeying natural
+impulses and seeking legitimate ends, would be drawn into courses at the
+end of which only social enfeeblement, perhaps even dissolution, could
+be seen.
+
+The key to the situation, it is now beginning to be more and more widely
+felt, is to be found in the counterbalancing tendency of Individualism,
+and the eugenic guardianship of the race. Not, rightly understood, as a
+method of arresting environmental Socialism, nor even as a counterblast
+to its gospel of sympathy. Nietzsche, indeed, has made a famous assault
+on sympathy, as he has on conventional morality generally, but his
+"immoralism" in general and his "hardness" in particular are but new and
+finer manifestations of those faded virtues he was really seeking to
+revive. The superficially sympathetic man flings a coin to the beggar;
+the more deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so that he
+need no longer beg; but perhaps the most radically sympathetic of all is
+the man who arranges that the beggar shall not be born.
+
+So it is that the question of breed, the production of fine individuals,
+the elevation of the ideal of quality in human production over that of
+mere quantity, begins to be seen, not merely as a noble ideal in itself,
+but as the only method by which Socialism can be enabled to continue on
+its present path. If the entry into life is conceded more freely to the
+weak, the incompetent, and the defective than to the strong, the
+efficient, and the sane, then a Sisyphean task is imposed on society;
+for every burden lifted two more burdens appear. But as individual
+responsibility becomes developed, as we approach the time to which
+Galton looked forward, when the eugenic care for the race may become a
+religion, then social control over the facts of life becomes possible.
+Through the slow growth of knowledge concerning hereditary conditions,
+by voluntary self-restraint, by the final disappearance of the lingering
+prejudice against the control of procreation, by sterilization in
+special cases, by methods of pressure which need not amount to actual
+compulsion,[259] it will be possible to attain an increasingly firm grip
+on the evil elements of heredity. Not until such measures as these,
+under the controlling influence of a sense of personal responsibility
+extending to every member of the community, have long been put into
+practice, can we hope to see man on the earth risen to his full stature,
+healthy in body, noble in spirit, beautiful in both alike, moving
+spaciously and harmoniously among his fellows in the great world of
+Nature, to which he is so subtly adapted because he has himself sprung
+out of it and is its most exquisite flower. At this final point social
+hygiene becomes one with the hygiene of the soul.[260]
+
+Poets and prophets, from Jesus and Paul to Novalis and Whitman, have
+seen the divine possibilities of Man. There is no temple in the world,
+they seem to say, so great as the human body; he comes in contact with
+Heaven, they declare, who touches a human person. But these human
+things, made to be gods, have spawned like frogs over all the earth.
+Everywhere they have beslimed its purity and befouled its beauty,
+darkening the very sunshine. Heaped upon one another in evil masses,
+preying upon one another as no other creature has ever preyed upon its
+kind, they have become a festering heap which all the oceans in vain
+lave with their antiseptic waters, and all the winds of heaven cannot
+purify. It is only in the unextinguished spark of reason within him that
+salvation for man may ever be found, in the realization that he is his
+own star, and carries in his hands his own fate. The impulses of
+Individualism and of Socialism alike prompt us to gain self-control and
+to learn the vast extent of our responsibility. The whole of humanity is
+working for each of us; each of us must live worthy of that great
+responsibility to humanity. By how fine a flash of insight Jesus
+declared that few could enter the Kingdom of Heaven! Not until the earth
+is purified of untold millions of its population will it ever become the
+Heaven of old dreamers, in which the elect walk spaciously and nobly,
+loving one another. Only in such spacious and pure air is it possible
+for the individual to perfect himself, as a rose becomes perfect,
+according to Dante's beautiful simile,[261] in order that he may spread
+abroad for others the fragrance that has been generated within him. If
+one thinks of it, that seems a truism, yet, even in this twentieth
+century, how few, how very few, there are who know it!
+
+This is why we cannot have too much Individualism, we cannot have too
+much Socialism. They play into each other's hands. To strengthen one is
+to give force to the other. The greater the vigour of both, the more
+vitally a society is progressing. "I can no more call myself an
+Individualist or a Socialist," said Henry George, "than one who
+considers the forces by which the planets are held to their orbits could
+call himself a centrifugalist or a centripetalist." To attain a society
+in which Individualism and Socialism are each carried to its extreme
+point would be to attain to the society that lived in the Abbey of
+Thelema, in the City of the Sun, in Utopia, in the land of Zarathustra,
+in the Garden of Eden, in the Kingdom of Heaven. It is a kingdom, no
+doubt, that is, as Diderot expressed it, "diablement idéal." But to-day
+we hold in our hands more certainly than ever before the clues that were
+imperfectly foreshadowed by Plato, and what our fathers sought
+ignorantly we may attempt by methods according to knowledge. No Utopia
+was ever realized; and the ideal is a mirage that must ever elude us or
+it would cease to be ideal. Yet all our progress, if progress there be,
+can only lie in setting our faces towards that goal to which Utopias and
+ideals point.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[248] In the narrow sense Socialism is identical with the definite
+economic doctrine of the Collectivistic organization of the productive
+and distributive work of society. It also possesses, as Bosanquet
+remarks (in an essay on "Individualism and Socialism," in _The
+Civilization of Christendom_), "a deeper meaning as a name for a human
+tendency that is operative throughout history." Every Collectivist is a
+Socialist, but not every Socialist would admit that he is a
+Collectivist. "Moral Socialism," however, though not identical with
+"Economic Socialism," tends to involve it.
+
+[249] The term "Individualism," like the term "Socialism," is used in
+varying senses, and is not, therefore, satisfactory to everyone. Thus
+E.F.B. Fell (_The Foundations of Liberty_, 1908), regarding
+"Individualism," as a merely negative term, prefers the term
+"Personalism," to denote a more positive ideal. There is, however, by no
+means as any necessity to consider "Individualism," a more negative term
+than "Socialism."
+
+[250] The inspiring appeal of Socialism to ardent minds is no doubt
+ethical. "The ethics of Socialism," says Kirkup, "are closely akin to
+the ethics of Christianity, if not identical with them." That, perhaps,
+is why Socialism is so attractive to some minds, so repugnant to others.
+
+[251] This idea was elaborated by Eimer in an appendix to his _Organic
+Evolution_ on the idea of the individual in the animal kingdom.
+
+[252] The term "socialism" is said to date from about the year 1835.
+Leroux claimed that he invented it, in opposition to the term
+"individualism," but at that period it had become so necessary and so
+obvious a term that it is difficult to say positively by whom it was
+first used.
+
+[253] An important point which the Individualist may fairly bring forward
+in this connection is the tendency of Socialism to repress the energy of
+the best worker among its officials at the expense of the public. Alike
+in government offices at Whitehall and in municipal offices in the town
+halls there is a certain proportion of workers who find pleasure in
+putting forth their best energies at high pressure. But the majority
+take care that work shall be carried on at low pressure, and that the
+output shall not exceed a certain understood minimum. They ensure this
+by making things uncomfortable for the workers who exceed that minimum.
+The gravity of this evil is scarcely yet realized. It could probably be
+counteracted by so organizing promotion that the higher posts really
+went to the officials distinguished by the quantity and the quality of
+their work. Pensions should also be affected by the same consideration.
+In any case, the evil is serious, and is becoming more so since the
+number of public officials is constantly increasing. The Council of the
+Law Society found some years ago that the cost of civil administration
+in England had increased between the years 1894 and 1904 from 19
+millions to 25 millions, and, excluding the Revenue Departments, it is
+now said to have gone up to 42 millions. It is an evil that will have to
+be dealt with sooner or later.
+
+[254] Max Stirner wrote his work, _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_ (_The
+Ego and His Own_, in the English translation of Byington), in 1845. His
+life has been written by John Henry Mackay (_Max Stirner: Sein Leben und
+Sein Werk_), and an interesting study of Max Stirner (whose real name
+was Schmidt) will be found in James Huneker's _Egoists_.
+
+[255] In the introduction to my earliest book, _The New Spirit_ (1889), I
+set forth this position, from which I have never departed: "While we are
+socializing all those things of which all have equal common need, we are
+more and more tending to leave to the individual the control of those
+things which in our complex civilization constitute individuality. We
+socialize what we call our physical life in order that we may attain
+greater freedom for what we call our spiritual life." No doubt such a
+point of view was implicit in Ruskin and other previous writers, just as
+it has subsequently been set forth by Ellen Key and others, while from
+the economic side it has been well formulated by Mr. J.A. Hobson in his
+_Evolution of Capital_: "The _very raison d'être_ of increased social
+cohesiveness is to economize and enrich the individual life, and to
+enable the play of individual energy to assume higher forms out of which
+more individual satisfaction may accrue." "Socialism will be of value,"
+thought Oscar Wilde in his _Soul of Man_, "simply because it will lead
+to Individualism." "Socialism denies economic Individualism for any,"
+says Karl Nötzel ("Zur Ethischen Begrundung des Sozialismus,"
+_Sozialistische Monatshefte_, 1910, Heft 23), "in order to make moral
+intellectual Individualism possible for all." And as it has been seen
+that Socialism leads to Individualism, so it has also been seen that
+Individualism, even on the ethical plane, leads to Socialism. "You must
+let the individual make his will a reality in the conduct of his life,"
+Bosanquet remarks in an essay already quoted, "in order that it may be
+possible for him consciously to entertain the social purpose as a
+constituent of his will. Without these conditions there is no social
+organism and no moral Socialism.... Each unit of the social organism has
+to embody his relations with the whole in his own particular work and
+will; and in order to do this the individual must have a strength and
+depth in himself proportional to and consisting of the relations which
+he has to embody." Grant Allen long since clearly set forth the harmony
+between Individualism and Socialism in an article published in the
+_Contemporary Review_ in 1879.
+
+[256] An instructive illustration is furnished by the question of the
+relation of the sexes, and elsewhere (_Studies in the Psychology of
+Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society") I have sought to show that
+we must distinguish between marriage, which is directly the affair of
+the individuals primarily concerned, and procreation, which is mainly
+the concern of society.
+
+[257] See, for instance, the opinion of the former Chief Inspector of
+Elementary Schools in England, Mr. Edmond Holmes, _What Is and What
+Might Be_ (1911). He points out that true education must be
+"self-realization," and that the present system of "education" is
+entirely opposed to self-realization. Sir John Gorst, again, has
+repeatedly attacked the errors of the English State system of
+education.
+
+[258] The phrase _Laissez faire_ is sometimes used as though it were the
+watchword of a party which graciously accorded a free hand to the Devil
+to do his worst. As a matter of fact, it was simply a phrase adopted by
+the French economists of the eighteenth century to summarize the
+conclusion of their arguments against the antiquated restrictions which
+were then stifling the trade and commerce of France (see G. Weuleresse,
+_Le Mouvement Physiocratique en France_, 1910, Vol. II, p. 17). Properly
+understood, it is not a maxim which any party need be ashamed to own.
+
+[259] I would again repeat that I do not regard legislation as a channel
+of true eugenic reform. As Bateson well says (_op. cit._ p. 15); "It is
+not the tyrannical and capricious interference of a half-informed
+majority which can safely mould or purify a population, but rather that
+simplification of instinct for which we ever hope, which fuller
+knowledge alone can make possible." Even the subsidising of
+unexceptionable parents, as the same writer remarks, cannot be viewed
+with enthusiasm. "If we picture to ourselves the kind of persons who
+would infallibly be chosen as examples of 'civic worth' the prospect is
+not very attractive."
+
+[260] "Aristotle, herein the organ and exponent of the Greek national
+mind," remarks Gomperz, "understood by the hygiene of the soul the
+avoidance of all extremes, the equilibrium of the powers, the harmonious
+development of aptitudes, none of which is allowed to starve or paralyse
+the others." Gomperz points out that this individual morality
+corresponded to the characteristics of the Greek national religion--its
+inclusiveness and spaciousness, its freedom and serenity, its
+ennoblement alike of energetic action and passive enjoyment (Gomperz,
+_Greek Thinkers_, Eng. Trans., Vol. III, p. 13).
+
+[261] _Convito_, IV, 27.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+(_Names of Authors quoted are italicized._)
+
+
+Abortion, facultative, 99
+
+Age of consent, 288 _et seq._
+
+Aggeneration, 24
+
+Alcohol, legislative control of, 277 _et seq._, 295 _et seq._
+
+Alcoholism, 33, 41
+
+_Allen, Grant_, 394
+
+_Allen, W.H._, 11
+
+Ancestry, the study of, 2
+
+_Angell, Norman_, 321
+
+_Anthony, Susan_, 111
+
+Antimachus of Colophon, 117
+
+Anti-militarism, 328
+
+_Aristotle_, 403
+
+_Ashby_, 33
+
+_Asnurof_, 283
+
+_Aubry_, 42
+
+_Augustine_, St., 5
+
+Australia, birth-rate in, 146 _et seq._, 162;
+  moral legislation in, 291
+
+_Azoulay_, 188
+
+
+Bachofen, 91
+
+_Baines, Sir J.A._, 153
+
+_Barnes, Earl_, 223
+
+_Basedow_, 244
+
+_Bateson_, 27, 194, 402
+
+Beatrice, Dante's, 122
+
+Beaufront, L. de, 372, 373
+
+Bebel, 71, 88
+
+_Becker, R._, 118
+
+_Belbèze_, 211
+
+_Benecke, E.F.M._, 117
+
+Bergsonian philosophy, 31
+
+_Bertillon, G._, 63
+
+_Bertillon, J._, 278
+
+_Beveridge_, 171
+
+Bible in religious education, 230, 240
+
+_Billroth_, 353
+
+_Bingham_, 274
+
+Birth-rate, in France, 17, 136, 188;
+  in England, 17, 137;
+  in Germany, 17, 138;
+  in Russia, 25;
+  in United States, 141;
+  in Canada, 144;
+  in Australasia, 146, 162;
+  in Japan, 155;
+  in China, 156;
+  among savages, 167;
+  significance of a falling, 134 _et seq._;
+  in relation to death-rate, 7, 150
+
+_Blease, W. Lyon_, 70
+
+_Bloch, Iwan_, 93
+
+_Boccaccio_, 119, 123
+
+_Bodey_, 43, 201
+
+_Böhmert_, 138
+
+_Bonhoeffer_, 38
+
+_Booth, C._, 177, 184
+
+_Bosanquet_, 18, 383, 394
+
+_Bouché-Leclercq_, 306
+
+_Branthwaite_, 41
+
+_Braun, Lily_, 139
+
+_Brinton_, 351
+
+Budin, 8
+
+Bund für Mutterschutz, 96
+
+_Burckhardt_, 123
+
+_Burnham_, 221
+
+_Bushee, F._, 11, 171
+
+_Byington_, 393
+
+
+Camp, Maxime du, 50
+
+Campanella, 27
+
+Campbell, Harry, 179
+
+Canada, birth-rate in, 144 _et seq._;
+  sexual hygiene in, 253
+
+_Cantlie_, 179
+
+_Carpenter, Edward_, 397
+
+_Casper_, 91
+
+Certificates, eugenic, 30, 44, 202
+
+_Chadwick, Sir E._, 4, 184
+
+_Chamfort_, 256
+
+Chastity of German women, 88
+
+_Cheetham_, 235
+
+Chicago Vice Commission, 277, 295, 300
+
+Child, psychology of, 218
+
+Children, religious education of, 217
+
+China, birth-rate in, 156
+
+Christianity in relation to romantic love, 117
+
+Chivalrous attitude towards women, 124
+
+Civilization, what it consists in, 18
+
+_Clayton_, 180
+
+_Cobbe, F.P._, 50
+
+Co-education, 58
+
+_Coghlan, T.A._, 147, 161, 165, 166
+
+Coinage, international, 378
+
+Concubinage, legalized, 104
+
+_Condorcet_, 50, 67
+
+Confirmation, rite of, 236
+
+Consent, age of, 288 _et seq._
+
+Courts of Love, 119
+
+_Couturat_, 350, 374
+
+_Creed, J.M._, 291
+
+Criminality and feeble-mindedness, 38
+
+Crucé, Emeric, 315
+
+
+_Dante_, 122, 132
+
+_Dareste_, 387, 396
+
+_Davenport_, 35, 36, 44, 198
+
+Death-rate in relation to birth-rate, 7, 150
+
+Degenerate families, 41 _et seq._
+
+Degeneration of race, alleged, 19 _et seq._, 37
+
+_De Quincey_, 219
+
+Descartes, 349
+
+_Dickens_, 129
+
+_Dill, Sir S._, 305
+
+Disinfection, origin of, 5
+
+Divorce, 62, 109
+
+_Donkin, Sir H.B._, 39
+
+_Donnan_, 374
+
+Drunkenness, decrease of, 18
+
+Dubois, P., 315
+
+_Dugdale_, 42
+
+_Dumont, Arsène_, 157, 160, 171
+
+
+Economic aspect of woman's movement, 52, 63 _et seq._
+
+Education, 6, 47, 57, 71, 201, 217 _et seq._, 398
+
+_Ehrenfels_, 25
+
+_Eichholz_, 36
+
+_Eimer_, 387
+
+_Ellis, Havelock_, 15, 31, 40, 44, 49, 88, 100, 108,
+  118, 130, 154, 161, 179, 186, 204, 206, 207, 220, 244,
+  259, 369, 394
+
+Enfantin, Prosper, 104
+
+_Engelmann_, 142, 160, 165
+
+English, characteristics of the, 2;
+  attitude towards immorality, 270;
+  language for international purposes, 355 _et seq._
+
+Esperanto, 372
+
+_Espinas_, 60
+
+Eugenics, 12, 26 _et seq._, 107, 195 _et seq._, 399 _et seq._
+
+Euthenics, 12
+
+_Ewart, R.J._, 26, 172
+
+
+Factory legislation, 5
+
+_Fahlbeck_, 22
+
+Fairy tales in education, 239
+
+Family, limitation of, 16, 26
+
+Family in relation to degeneracy, 41;
+  size of, 35
+
+Feeble-minded, problem of the, 31 _et seq._
+
+_Fell, E.F.B._, 383
+
+Ferrer, 318
+
+Fertility in relation to prosperity, 169 _et seq._
+
+_Fiedler_, 229
+
+_Finlay-Johnson, H._, 227, 242
+
+_Firenzuola_, 123
+
+"Fit," the term, 44
+
+_Flux_, 138
+
+_Forel_, 93
+
+France, birth-rate in, 17, 136, 188;
+  women and love in, 119;
+  legal attitude towards immorality in, 265;
+  regulation of alcohol in, 278
+
+_Franklin, B._, 142, 327
+
+_Fraser, Mrs._, 115
+
+French language for international purposes, 364 _et seq._
+
+Frenssen, 95
+
+_Freud_, S., 92
+
+_Fuld, E.F._, 274, 276
+
+_Fürch, Henriette_, 252
+
+
+_Galton, Sir F._, 28, 29, 44, 45, 107, 195, 197, 198, 200, 203, 208, 402
+
+_Gaultier, J. de_, 342
+
+_Gautier, Léon_, 119
+
+_Gavin, H._, 184
+
+_Gayley, Julia_, 420
+
+Germany, sex questions in, 87 _et seq._;
+  illegitimacy in, 97;
+  sexual hygiene in, 94;
+  legal attitude towards immorality in, 265, 301
+
+_Giddings_, 46
+
+_Godden_, 35, 198
+
+_Godwin, W._, 309
+
+_Goethe_, 128, 131
+
+_Goldscheid_, 167, 173
+
+_Gomperz_, 403
+
+_Goncourt_, 120
+
+Gouges, Olympe de, 68
+
+_Gourmont, Remy de_, 122, 299, 317
+
+_Gournay, Marie de_, 110
+
+_Grabowsky_, 263
+
+_Grasset_, 209
+
+_Grünspan_, 97
+
+_Guérard_, 325, 346, 369
+
+_Guthrie, L._, 239
+
+
+_Haddon, A.C._, 234, 245
+
+_Hagen_, 262
+
+_Hale, Horatio_, 351
+
+_Hales, W.W._, 260
+
+_Hall, G. Stanley_, 220, 224, 232, 233, 303
+
+_Hamburger, C._, 151
+
+_Hamill, Henry_, 213
+
+_Hausmeister, P._, 302
+
+_Hayllar, F._, 233
+
+Health, nationalization of, 15
+
+Health visitors, 7
+
+_Hearn, Lafcadio_, 191
+
+_Henry, W.O._, 252
+
+Heredity of feeble-mindedness, 34;
+  as the hope of the race, 44;
+  study of, 198
+
+_Heron_, 19, 166
+
+_Hervé_, 329
+
+_Hiller_, 263, 267
+
+_Hinton, James_, 133
+
+_Hirschfeld, Magnus_, 92, 286
+
+_Hobbes_, 313
+
+Holland, moral legislation in, 291
+
+_Holmes, Edmond_, 227, 228
+
+Homosexuality and the law, 283, 286
+
+_Hookey, N.A._, 174
+
+_Hughes, R.E._, 242
+
+_Humboldt, W. von_, 61, 106
+
+_Huneker_, 393
+
+Hungary, birth-rate and death-rate in, 169
+
+_Hutchinson, Woods_, 186
+
+Hygiene, in medieval and modern times, 5;
+  of sex, 244 _et seq._
+
+
+Idiocy, 32 _et seq._
+
+Ido, 373
+
+Illegitimacy, and feeble-mindedness, 37;
+  in Germany, 97
+
+Imbecility, 32 _et seq._
+
+Individualism, 3, 381 _et seq._
+
+Industrialism, modern, 2
+
+Inebriety and feeble-mindedness, 41
+
+Infant consultations, 8
+
+Infantile mortality, 7, 13, 25, 138, 150 _et seq._
+
+Initiation of youth, 234
+
+Insurance, national, 15
+
+International language of the future, 349 _et seq._
+
+
+_James, E.C._, 123
+
+James, William, 195
+
+Japan, romantic love in, 115;
+  birth-rate and death-rate in, 155;
+  changed conditions in, 191, 322
+
+_Jenks, E._, 312, 316
+
+_Johannsen_, 152
+
+_Johnson, Roswell_, 207
+
+_Jordan, D.S._, 324
+
+_Jörger_, 42
+
+Jukes family, 41
+
+
+_Kaan_, 91
+
+_Kellerman, Ivy_, 369
+
+_Key, Ellen_, 100 _et seq._, 130, 229, 394
+
+_Kirkup_, 384
+
+_Krafft-Ebing_, 92
+
+_Krauss, F.S._, 92
+
+_Kuczynski_, 142
+
+
+Labour movement and war, 329
+
+_La Chapelle, E.P._, 145
+
+_Lacour, L._, 68
+
+_Lagorgette_, 315
+
+Laissez-faire, the maxim of, 3, 400
+
+_Lancaster_, 231
+
+Language, international, 349 _et seq._
+
+Latin as an international language, 354
+
+_Lavelege, E. de_, 321
+
+Law, in relation to eugenics, 30, 45;
+  to morals, 48;
+  the sphere of, 312
+
+_Lea_, 88
+
+_Leau_, 350
+
+_Leibnitz_, 350
+
+_Levy, Miriam_, 221
+
+_Lewis, C.J. and J.N._, 165
+
+Lichtenstein, Ulrich von, 118
+
+Life-history albums, 199, 212 _et seq._
+
+_Lischnewska, Maria_, 248
+
+_Lobsien_, 226
+
+_Loomis, C.B._, 361
+
+_Lorenz_, 21, 373
+
+Love, and the woman's question, 59, 101, 113 _et seq._;
+  and eugenics, 203 _et seq._
+
+Luther, 94, 228, 306
+
+
+Mackay, J.H., 393
+
+_Macnamara, N.C._, 179
+
+_Macquart_, 188
+
+Maine, prohibition in, 279
+
+_Mannhardt_, 204
+
+_Manouvrier_, 86
+
+_Marcuse, Max_, 94
+
+Marriage, certificates for, 30, 44, 45, 209;
+  economics and, 61;
+  natural selection and, 204;
+  State regulation of, 61 _et seq._;
+  the ideal of, 101;
+  in classic times, 114
+
+Marriage-rate, 139, 164, 173
+
+_Matignon_, 156
+
+Matriarchal theory, 49
+
+_Maurice, Sir F._, 180
+
+_McLean_, 161
+
+_Meisel-Hess, Grete_, 109, 130
+
+_Méray_, 119, 365
+
+_Mercier_, C., 20
+
+Meredith, George, 129
+
+Miele, 9
+
+_Miers_, 354
+
+Milk Depôts, 8
+
+_Mill_, J.S., 52, 71
+
+_Moll_, 92, 93, 246
+
+_Montaigne_, 115
+
+_Montesquieu_, 37
+
+_Moore, B._, 15, 185
+
+Morals in relation to law, 48, 258 _et seq._
+
+More, Sir T., 29
+
+_Morgan, L._, 66
+
+_Morse, J._, 224
+
+Mortality of infants, 7, 13, 25, 138, 150 _et seq._
+
+Motherhood in relation to eugenics, 46
+
+Mothers, schools for, 9
+
+_Mougins-Roquefort_, 312
+
+Municipal authorities to instruct in limitation of offspring, duty of, 26
+
+_Muralt_, 2
+
+Mysteries, Pagan and Christian, 235
+
+
+_Näcke_, 186
+
+Napoleon, 69, 265
+
+_Nars, L._, 69
+
+National Insurance, 15
+
+Nationalization of health, 15
+
+Natural selection and social reform, 13
+
+_Nearing, Scott_, 194
+
+Neo-Malthusianism, 16, 26, 102, 159 _et seq._
+
+_Nevinson, H.W._, 330
+
+_Newsholme_, 7, 19, 137, 166, 172
+
+New Zealand, birth-rate in, 148
+
+_Nietzsche_, 190, 309, 334, 392
+
+_Niphus_, 123
+
+Norway, infantile mortality in, 14
+
+_Nötzel_, R., 394
+
+_Novikov_, 324, 330, 342
+
+Noys, H., 29
+
+_Nyström_, 26
+
+
+Obscenity, 255, 304
+
+Oneida, 29
+
+Ovid, 114, 132
+
+Owen, Robert, 51
+
+
+Pankhurst, Mrs., 85
+
+_Partridge, G.L._, 219
+
+_Paul, Eden_, 208
+
+_Pearson, Karl_, 198
+
+_Penn, W._, 341
+
+_Perrycoste, F.H._, 212
+
+_Peters, J.P._, 293
+
+_Pfaundler_, 371
+
+Pinard, J., 252
+
+_Pinloche_, 244
+
+_Plate_, 185
+
+_Ploetz_, 210
+
+_Ploss_, 167, 176
+
+Police systems, 274
+
+Post Office, inquisition at the, 276
+
+Prohibition of alcohol in Maine, 279
+
+Prosperity in relation to fertility, 169 _et seq._
+
+Prostitution, and feeble-mindedness, 38;
+  and sexual selection, 60;
+  varying legal attitude towards, 285, 296
+
+Puberty, psychic influence of, 231 _et seq._
+
+Puericulture, 7
+
+
+Quakers, 270
+
+Quarantine, origin of, 5
+
+
+Race, alleged degeneration of, 19 _et seq._, 37
+
+Raines Law hotels, 293 _et seq._
+
+_Ramsay, Sir W.M._, 305
+
+_Ranke, Karl_, 169
+
+_Raschke, Marie_, 99
+
+Reform, Social hygiene as distinct from sexual, 1;
+  four stages of social, 4 _et seq._
+
+_Reibmayr_, 22
+
+Religion, and eugenics, 208;
+  and the child, 217 _et seq._
+
+Reproduction, control of, 17
+
+_Richards, Ellen_, 12
+
+_Richardson, Sir B.W._, 65
+
+_Robert, P._, 340
+
+_Roberts, A.M._, 369, 370
+
+Roman Catholics and Neo-Malthusianism, 161
+
+Roseville, 173
+
+_Ross, E.A._, 156
+
+_Rousseau_, 229
+
+_Rubin_, 153, 166
+
+_Ruediger_, 232
+
+Rural life, influence of, 177 _et seq._
+
+_Russell, Mrs. B._, 9
+
+Russia, infantile mortality in, 14, 154, 168;
+  moral legislation in, 282
+
+_Ryle, R.J._, 33
+
+
+Sacraments, origin of Christian, 235
+
+Saint-Pierre, Abbé de, 339
+
+Saint-Simon, 51, 104
+
+St. Valentine and eugenics, 203
+
+Sand, George, 50, 105
+
+Sanitation as an element of social reform, 4
+
+_Saussure, R. de_, 380
+
+_Sayer, E._, 35
+
+_Schallmayer_, 200
+
+_Schiff, M._, 110
+
+Schleyer, 352
+
+_Schooling, J.H._, 174
+
+Schools for mothers, 9
+
+_Schrader, O._, 88
+
+_Schreiner, Olive_, 130, 330
+
+_Schroeder, T._, 255, 304
+
+Science and social reform, 11
+
+_Sellers, E._, 266, 301
+
+Sex questions in Germany, 87 _et seq._
+
+Sexual hygiene, 244 _et seq._, 309
+
+Sexual selection, 59, 203 _et seq._
+
+Shaftesbury, Earl of, 6
+
+_Sherwell, A._, 280
+
+_Shrank, J._, 285
+
+_Siégler-Pascal_, 339
+
+_Sitwell, Sir G._, 327
+
+_Smith, Sir T._, 120
+
+_Smith, T.P._, 180
+
+Social reform as distinct from social hygiene, 1;
+  its four stages, 4 _et seq._
+
+Socialism, 18, 208, 381 _et seq._
+
+Society of the future, 55
+
+_Sollier_, 354
+
+_Solmi_, 28
+
+_Sombart_, 138
+
+Spain, legalized concubinage in, 104;
+  women in, 129
+
+Spanish as an international language, 353
+
+_Stanton, E.C._, 85
+
+_Starbuck_, 232
+
+_Steinmetz_, 312, 331
+
+_Steele_, 27
+
+Sterilization, 30, 44, 46
+
+Sterility and the birth-rate, 164
+
+_Stevenson_, 19
+
+_Stewart, A._, 237
+
+_Stewart, R.S._, 182
+
+_Stirner, Max_, 393
+
+Stirpiculture, 29
+
+_Stöcker, H._, 96
+
+_Streitberg, Countess von_, 99
+
+Suffrage, woman's, 50, 57, 71 _et seq._
+
+Sully, 315, 340
+
+Sun, City of the, 27
+
+_Sutherland, A._, 312
+
+_Sykes_, 9
+
+Syndicalism, 329
+
+Syphilis, 32
+
+
+_Taine_, 128, 313
+
+_Takano_, 155
+
+_Tarde_, 132, 307
+
+_Thompson, W._, 51
+
+_Toulouse_, 45, 186
+
+Tramps and feeble-mindedness, 41
+
+_Tredgold_, 34
+
+
+United States, birth-rate in, 140 _et seq._;
+  sexual hygiene in, 254;
+  attitude towards immorality in, 273 _et seq._
+
+Urban life, influence of, 177 _et seq._
+
+
+Vasectomy, 31
+
+Venereal disease and sexual hygiene, 254
+
+_Vesnitch_, 315
+
+Vineland, 34
+
+Volapük, 352
+
+
+_Wagenen, W.F. van_, 378
+
+War against war, 311 _et seq._
+
+Ward, Mrs. Humphry, 76
+
+_Weale, B.L. Putnam_, 157
+
+_Weatherby_, 157
+
+_Webb, Sidney_, 156, 163
+
+_Weeks_, 35, 36
+
+_Weinberg, S._, 99
+
+_Wentworth, S._, 173
+
+_Westergaard_, 166
+
+_Westermarck_, 559
+
+_Weuleresse_, 400
+
+Wheeler, Mrs., 52
+
+White slave trade, 288
+
+_Whetham, W.C.D. and Mrs._, 199
+
+_Whitman, Walt_, 66, 403
+
+_Wilcox, W.F._, 141
+
+_Wilde, O._, 394
+
+_Wilhelm, C._, 266
+
+_Wollstonecraft, Mary_, 50, 69, 70, 111
+
+Woman, and eugenics, 46;
+  movement, 49 _et seq._;
+  economics, 63 _et seq._;
+  eighteenth century, 69, 128;
+  and the suffrage, 50, 57, 71 _et seq._;
+  of the Italian Renaissance, 123;
+  in Spanish literature, 129;
+  and war, 330
+
+
+_Yule, G. Udny_, 139, 174
+
+
+Zamenhof, 372
+
+Zero family, 42
+
+_Ziller_, 240
+
+
+  WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.
+  PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+   With the following exceptions spelling and punctuation of the
+   original text have been maintained:
+
+   1. Obvious typographical errors and punctuation inconsistencies.
+   2. Chapter V, Par 16 "high death-rate" has been changed to
+     "high birth-rate".
+   3. Chapter VII Par 16 "precocious sexual" has been changed to "precocious
+     scriptural".
+   4. Ligatured words "mytho-poeic", "OEuvres", and "boef" have been left
+     unligatured.
+   5. Italicized words have been surrounded with underline "_".
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 22090-8.txt or 22090-8.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/2/0/9/22090
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Task of Social Hygiene, by Havelock Ellis</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Task of Social Hygiene</p>
+<p>Author: Havelock Ellis</p>
+<p>Release Date: July 17, 2007  [eBook #22090]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Ross Wilburn,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE</h1>
+
+
+<h4>BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+<br /><br />
+STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY
+OF SEX. <span class="smcap">Six Vols</span>.
+<br />
+THE NEW SPIRIT
+<br />
+AFFIRMATIONS
+<br />
+MAN AND WOMAN
+<br />
+THE CRIMINAL
+<br />
+THE WORLD OF DREAMS
+<br />
+THE SOUL OF SPAIN
+<br />
+IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS
+<br />
+ESSAYS IN WAR-TIME. <span class="smcap">Etc</span>.</h4>
+
+
+<h1>THE TASK OF
+SOCIAL HYGIENE</h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3>HAVELOCK ELLIS</h3>
+
+<h4>AUTHOR OF<br />
+"THE SOUL OF SPAIN"; "THE WORLD OF DREAMS"; ETC.</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 151px;">
+<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="151" height="192" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<h4>BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br />
+HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br />
+1916</h4>
+
+
+<h4><i>Printed in Great Britain.</i></h4>
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The study of social hygiene means the study of
+those things which concern the welfare of human
+beings living in societies. There can, therefore,
+be no study more widely important or more generally interesting.
+I fear, however, that by many persons social
+hygiene is vaguely regarded either as a mere extension
+of sanitary science, or else as an effort to set up an intolerable
+bureaucracy to oversee every action of our
+lives, and perhaps even to breed us as cattle are bred.</p>
+
+<p>That is certainly not the point of view from which this
+book has been written. Plato and Rabelais, Campanella
+and More, have been among those who announced
+the principles of social hygiene here set forth. There
+must be a social order, all these great pioneers recognized,
+but the health of society, like the health of the body,
+is marked by expansion as much as by restriction, and,
+the striving for order is only justified because without
+order there can be no freedom. If it were not the mission
+of social hygiene to bring a new joy and a new freedom
+into life I should not have concerned myself with the
+writing of this book.</p>
+
+<p>When we thus contemplate the process of social
+hygiene, we are no longer in danger of looking upon it as
+an artificial interference with Nature. It is in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+Book of Nature, as Campanella put it, that the laws of
+life and of government are to be read. Or, as Quesnel
+said two centuries ago, more precisely for our present
+purpose, "Nature is universal hygiene." All animals are
+scrupulous in hygiene; the elaboration of hygiene moves
+<i>pari passu</i> with the rank of a species in intelligence.
+Even the cockroach, which lives on what we call filth,
+spends the greater part of its time in the cultivation of
+personal cleanliness. And all social hygiene, in its fullest
+sense, is but an increasingly complex and extended
+method of purification&mdash;the purification of the conditions
+of life by sound legislation, the purification of our own
+minds by better knowledge, the purification of our
+hearts by a growing sense of responsibility, the purification
+of the race itself by an enlightened eugenics, consciously
+aiding Nature in her manifest effort to embody
+new ideals of life. It was not Man, but Nature, who
+realized the daring and splendid idea&mdash;risky as it was&mdash;of
+placing the higher anthropoids on their hind limbs
+and so liberating their fore-limbs in the service of their
+nimble and aspiring brains. We may humbly follow
+in the same path, liberating latent forces of life and
+suppressing those which no longer serve the present ends
+of life. For, as Shakespeare said, when in <i>The Winter's
+Tale</i> he set forth a luminous philosophy of social hygiene
+and applied it to eugenics,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Nature is made better by no mean</span>
+<span class="i0">But Nature makes that mean ...</span>
+<span class="i12">This is an art</span>
+<span class="i0">Which does mend Nature, change it rather, but</span>
+<span class="i0">The art itself is Nature."</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+In whatever way it may be understood, however,
+social hygiene is now very much to the front of people's
+minds. The present volume, I wish to make clear,
+has not been hastily written to meet any real or supposed
+demand. It has slowly grown during a period of nearly
+twenty-five years, and it expresses an attitude which is
+implicit or explicit in the whole of my work. By some
+readers, doubtless, it will be seen to constitute an extension
+in various directions of the arguments developed in
+the larger work on "Sex in Relation to Society," which
+is the final volume of my <i>Studies in the Psychology of
+Sex</i>. The book I now bring forward may, however,
+be more properly regarded as a presentation of the wider
+scheme of social reform out of which the more special
+sex studies have developed. We are faced to-day by the
+need for vast and complex changes in social organization.
+In these changes the welfare of individuals and the
+welfare of communities are alike concerned. Moreover,
+they are matters which are not confined to the affairs
+of this nation or of that nation, but of the whole family
+of nations participating in the fraternity of modern
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>The word "progress," indeed, which falls so easily
+from our lips is not a word which any serious writer
+should use without precaution. The conception of
+"progress" is a useful conception in so far as it binds
+together those who are working for common ends, and
+stimulates that perpetual slight movement in which life
+consists. But there is no general progress in Nature,
+nor any unqualified progress; that is to say, that there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+is no progress for all groups along the line, and that even
+those groups which progress pay the price of their
+progress. It was so even when our anthropoid ancestors
+rose to the erect position; that was "progress," and it
+gained us the use of hands. But it lost us our tails,
+and much else that is more regrettable than we are
+always able to realize. There is no general and ever-increasing
+evolution towards perfection. "Existence
+is realized in its perfection under whatever aspect it is
+manifested," says Jules de Gaultier. Or, as Whitman
+put it, "There will never be any more perfection than
+there is now." We cannot expect an increased power of
+growth and realization in existence, as a whole, leading
+to any general perfection; we can only expect to see
+the triumph of individuals, or of groups of individuals,
+carrying out their own conceptions along special lines,
+every perfection so attained involving, on its reverse side,
+the acquirement of an imperfection. It is in this sense,
+and in this sense only, that progress is possible. We need
+not fear that we shall ever achieve the stagnant immobility
+of a general perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The problems of progress we are here concerned with
+are such as the civilized world, as represented by some
+of its foremost individuals or groups of individuals, is
+just now waking up to grapple with. No doubt other
+problems might be added, and the addition give a greater
+semblance of completion to this book. I have selected
+those which seem to me very essential, very fundamental.
+The questions of social hygiene, as here understood, go
+to the heart of life. It is the task of this hygiene not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+only to make sewers, but to re-make love, and to do both
+in the same large spirit of human fellowship, to ensure
+finer individual development and a larger social organization.
+At the one end social hygiene may be regarded
+as simply the extension of an elementary sanitary code;
+at the other end it seems to some to have in it the glorious
+freedom of a new religion. The majority of people,
+probably, will be content to admit that we have here a
+scheme of serious social reform which every man and
+woman will soon be called upon to take some share in.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Havelock Ellis</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#Introduction">I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The aim of Social Hygiene&mdash;Social Reform&mdash;The Rise of Social
+Reform out of English Industrialism&mdash;The Four Stages of Social
+Reform&mdash;(1) The Stage of Sanitation&mdash;(2) Factory Legislation&mdash;(3)
+The Extension of the Scope of Education&mdash;(4) Puericulture&mdash;The
+Scientific Evolution corresponding to these Stages&mdash;Social
+Reform only Touched the Conditions of Life&mdash;Yet Social Reform
+Remains highly Necessary&mdash;The Question of Infantile
+Mortality and the Quality of the Race&mdash;The Better Organization
+of Life Involved by Social Hygiene&mdash;Its Insistence on the
+Quality rather than on the Conditions of Life&mdash;The Control of
+Reproduction&mdash;The Fall of the Birth-rate in Relation to the
+Quality of the Population&mdash;The Rejuvenation of a Society&mdash;The
+Influence of Culture and Refinement on a Race&mdash;Eugenics&mdash;The
+Regeneration of the Race&mdash;The Problem of Feeble-mindedness&mdash;The
+Methods of Eugenics&mdash;Some of the Problems
+which Face us</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">1</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPII">II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Changing Status of Women</span></a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Origin of the Woman Movement&mdash;Mary Wollstonecraft&mdash;George
+Sand&mdash;Robert Owen&mdash;William Thompson&mdash;John Stuart
+Mill&mdash;The Modern Growth of Social Cohesion&mdash;The Growth of
+Industrialism&mdash;Its Influence in Woman's Sphere of Work&mdash;The
+Education of Women&mdash;Co-education&mdash;The Woman Question
+and Sexual Selection&mdash;Significance of Economic Independence&mdash;The
+State Regulation of Marriage&mdash;The Future of Marriage&mdash;Wilhelm
+von Humboldt&mdash;Social Equality of Women&mdash;The
+Reproduction of the Race as a Function of Society&mdash;Women
+and the Future of Civilization</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">49</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPIII">III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The New Aspect of the Woman's Movement</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Eighteenth-Century France&mdash;Pioneers of the Woman's Movement&mdash;The
+Growth of the Woman's Suffrage Movement&mdash;The Militant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
+Activities of the Suffragettes&mdash;Their Services and Disservices
+to the Cause&mdash;Advantages of Women's Suffrage&mdash;Sex
+Questions in Germany&mdash;Bebel&mdash;The Woman's Rights Movement
+in Germany&mdash;The Development of Sexual Science in Germany&mdash;The
+Movement for the Protection of Motherhood&mdash;Ellen
+Key&mdash;The Question of Illegitimacy&mdash;Eugenics&mdash;Women as Law-makers
+in the Home</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">67</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPIV">IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Emancipation of Women in Relation
+to Romantic Love</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization&mdash;Marriage as
+a Duty&mdash;The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire&mdash;The
+Influence of Christianity&mdash;The Attitude of Chivalry&mdash;The
+Troubadours&mdash;The Courts of Love&mdash;The Influence of the Renaissance&mdash;Conventional
+Chivalry and Modern Civilization&mdash;The
+Woman Movement&mdash;The Modern Woman's Equality of
+Rights and Responsibilities excludes Chivalry&mdash;New Forms of
+Romantic Love still remain possible&mdash;Love as the Inspiration
+of Social Hygiene</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">113</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPV">V.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Significance of a Falling Birth-rate</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally&mdash;In England&mdash;In
+Germany&mdash;In the United States&mdash;In Canada&mdash;In Australasia&mdash;"Crude"
+Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate&mdash;The Connection
+between High Birth-rate and High Death-rate&mdash;"Natural
+Increase" measured by Excess of Births over Deaths&mdash;The
+Measure of National Well-being&mdash;The Example of
+Russia&mdash;Japan&mdash;China&mdash;The Necessity of viewing the Question
+from a wide Standpoint&mdash;The Prevalence of Neo-Malthusian
+Methods&mdash;Influence of the Roman Catholic Church&mdash;Other
+Influences lowering the Birth-rate&mdash;Influence of Postponement
+of Marriage&mdash;Relation of the Birth-rate to Commercial and
+Industrial Activity&mdash;Illustrated by Russia, Hungary, and Australia&mdash;The
+Relation of Prosperity to Fertility&mdash;The Social
+Capillarity Theory&mdash;Divergence of the Birth-rate and the Marriage-rate&mdash;Marriage-rate
+and the Movement of Prices&mdash;Prosperity
+and Civilization&mdash;Fertility among Savages&mdash;The lesser
+fertility of Urban Populations&mdash;Effect of Urbanization on Physical
+Development&mdash;Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+Fertility&mdash;Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility&mdash;The process
+of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility&mdash;In this Respect
+it is a Continuation of Zoological Evolution&mdash;Large Families as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>
+a Stigma of Degeneration&mdash;The Decreased Fertility of Civilization
+a General Historical Fact&mdash;The Ideals of Civilization to-day&mdash;The
+East and the West</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">134</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPVI">VI.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Eugenics and Love</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate&mdash;Quantity and Quality
+in the Production of Children&mdash;Eugenic Sexual Selection&mdash;The
+Value of Pedigrees&mdash;Their Scientific Significance&mdash;The Systematic
+Record of Personal Data&mdash;The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates&mdash;St.
+Valentine's Day and Sexual Selection&mdash;Love and
+Reason&mdash;Love Ruled by Natural Law&mdash;Eugenic Selection not
+opposed to Love&mdash;No Need for Legal Compulsion&mdash;Medicine in
+Relation to Marriage.</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">193</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPVII">VII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Religion and the Child</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to Psychology&mdash;The
+Psychology of the Child&mdash;The Contents of
+Children's Minds&mdash;The Imagination of Children&mdash;How far may
+Religion be assimilated by Children?&mdash;Unfortunate Results of
+Early Religious Instruction&mdash;Puberty the Age for Religious
+Education&mdash;Religion as an Initiation into a Mystery&mdash;Initiation
+among Savages&mdash;The Christian Sacraments&mdash;The Modern
+Tendency as regards Religious Instruction&mdash;Its Advantages&mdash;Children
+and Fairy Tales&mdash;The Bible of Childhood&mdash;Moral
+Training</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">217</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPVIII">VIII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The Problem of Sexual Hygiene</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children&mdash;The
+Need of such a Movement&mdash;Contradictions involved by the
+Ancient Policy of Silence&mdash;Errors of the New Policy&mdash;The Need
+of Teaching the Teacher&mdash;The Need of Training the Parents&mdash;And
+of Scientifically equipping the Physician&mdash;Sexual Hygiene
+and Society&mdash;The far-reaching Effects of Sexual Hygiene</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">244</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPIX">IX.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Immorality and the Law</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion&mdash;The Binding Force of
+Custom among Savages&mdash;The Dissolving Influence of Civilization&mdash;The
+Distinction between Immorality and Criminality&mdash;Adultery
+as a Crime&mdash;The Tests of Criminality&mdash;National
+Differences in laying down the Boundary between Criminal
+and Immoral Acts&mdash;France&mdash;Germany&mdash;England&mdash;The United
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>
+States&mdash;Police Administration&mdash;Police Methods in the United
+States&mdash;National Differences in the Regulation of the Trade in
+Alcohol&mdash;Prohibition in the United States&mdash;Origin of the American
+Method of Dealing with Immorality&mdash;Russia&mdash;Historical
+Fluctuations in Methods of Dealing with Immorality and Prostitution&mdash;Homosexuality&mdash;Holland&mdash;The
+Age of Consent&mdash;Moral
+Legislation in England&mdash;In the United States&mdash;The Raines Law&mdash;America
+Attempts to Suppress Prostitution&mdash;Their Futility&mdash;German
+Methods of Regulating Prostitution&mdash;The Sound
+Method of Approaching Immorality&mdash;Training in Sexual
+Hygiene&mdash;Education in Personal and Social Responsibility</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">258</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPX">X.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The War against War</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day&mdash;The Beneficial
+Effects of War in Barbarous Ages&mdash;Civilization renders
+the Ultimate Disappearance of War Inevitable&mdash;The Introduction
+of Law in disputes between Individuals involves the Introduction
+of Law in disputes between Nations&mdash;But there must be
+Force behind Law&mdash;Henry IV's Attempt to Confederate Europe&mdash;Every
+International Tribunal of Arbitration must be able to
+Enforce its decisions&mdash;The Influences making for the Abolition
+of Warfare&mdash;(1) Growth of International Opinion&mdash;(2) International
+Financial Development&mdash;(3) The Decreasing Pressure
+of Population&mdash;(4) The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit&mdash;(5)
+The Spread of Anti-military Doctrines&mdash;(6) The Over-growth
+of Armaments&mdash;(7) The Dominance of Social Reform&mdash;War
+Incompatible with an Advanced Civilization&mdash;Nations as
+Trustees for Humanity&mdash;The Impossibility of Disarmament&mdash;The
+Necessity of Force to ensure Peace&mdash;The Federated State
+of the Future&mdash;The Decay of War still leaves the Possibilities
+of Daring and Heroism</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">311</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPXI">XI.&mdash;<span class="smcap">
+The Problem of an International Language</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Early Attempts to construct an International Language&mdash;The
+Urgent Need of an Auxiliary Language To-day&mdash;Volap&uuml;k&mdash;The
+Claims of Spanish&mdash;Latin&mdash;The Claims of English&mdash;Its Disadvantages&mdash;The
+Claims of French&mdash;Its Disadvantages&mdash;The
+Modern Growth of National Feeling opposed to Selection of a
+Natural Language&mdash;Advantages of an Artificial Language&mdash;Demands
+it must Fulfil&mdash;Esperanto&mdash;Its Threatened Disruption&mdash;The
+International Association for the Adoption of an Auxiliary
+International Language&mdash;The First Step to Take</p></blockquote></td><td align='right' valign="bottom">349</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='center'><a href="#CHAPXII">XII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Individualism and Socialism</span></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between
+Socialism and Individualism&mdash;The Two Parties in Politics&mdash;The
+Relation of Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism
+and Individualism&mdash;The Basis of Socialism&mdash;The Basis of Individualism&mdash;The
+seeming Opposition between Socialism and
+Individualism merely a Division of Labour&mdash;Both Socialism and
+Individualism equally Necessary&mdash;Not only Necessary, but
+Indispensable to each other&mdash;The Conflict between the Advocates
+of Environment and Heredity&mdash;A New Embodiment
+of the supposed Conflict between Socialism and Individualism&mdash;The
+place of Eugenics&mdash;Social Hygiene ultimately one with
+the Hygiene of the Soul&mdash;The Function of Utopias</p></blockquote></td><td align="right" valign="bottom">381</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td><td align='right'>407</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>THE TASK
+OF SOCIAL HYGIENE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<h3><a name="Introduction" id="Introduction"></a>INTRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Aim of Social Hygiene&mdash;Social Reform&mdash;The Rise of Social Reform
+out of English Industrialism&mdash;The Four Stages of Social Reform&mdash;(1)
+The Stage of Sanitation&mdash;(2) Factory Legislation&mdash;(3) The Extension
+of the Scope of Education&mdash;(4) Puericulture&mdash;The Scientific
+Evolution corresponding to these Stages&mdash;Social Reform only
+Touched the Conditions of Life&mdash;Yet Social Reform Remains highly
+Necessary&mdash;The Question of Infantile Mortality and the Quality of the
+Race&mdash;The Better Organization of Life Involved by Social Hygiene&mdash;Its
+Insistence on the Quality rather than on the Conditions of
+Life&mdash;The Control of Reproduction&mdash;The Fall of the Birth-rate in
+Relation to the Quality of the Population&mdash;The Rejuvenation of
+a Society&mdash;The Influence of Culture and Refinement on a
+Race&mdash;Eugenics&mdash;The Regeneration of the Race&mdash;The Problem of
+Feeble-Mindedness&mdash;The Methods of Eugenics&mdash;Some of the Problems
+which Face us.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Social Hygiene, as it will be here understood,
+may be said to be a development, and even a
+transformation, of what was formerly known as
+Social Reform. In that transformation it has undergone
+two fundamental changes. In the first place, it is
+no longer merely an attempt to deal with the conditions
+under which life is lived, seeking to treat bad conditions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+as they occur, without going to their source, but
+it aims at prevention. It ceases to be simply a reforming
+of forms, and approaches in a comprehensive
+manner not only the conditions of life, but life itself. In
+the second place, its method is no longer haphazard,
+but organized and systematic, being based on a growing
+knowledge of those biological sciences which were
+scarcely in their infancy when the era of social reform
+began. Thus social hygiene is at once more radical and
+more scientific than the old conception of social reform.
+It is the inevitable method by which at a certain stage
+civilization is compelled to continue its own course, and
+to preserve, perhaps to elevate, the race.</p>
+
+<p>The era of social reform followed on the rise of modern
+industrialism, and, no doubt largely on this account,
+although an international movement, it first became
+definite and self-conscious in England. There were
+perhaps other reasons why it should have been in the
+first place specially prominent in England. When at
+the end of the seventeenth century, Muralt, a highly
+intelligent Swiss gentleman, visited England, and wrote
+his by no means unsympathetic <i>Lettres sur les Anglais</i>,
+he was struck by a curious contradiction in the English
+character. They are a good-natured people, he observed,
+very rich, so well-nourished that sometimes
+they die of obesity, and they detest cruelty so much
+that by royal proclamation it is ordained that the fish
+and the ducks of the ponds should be duly and properly
+fed. Yet he found that this good-natured, rich,
+cruelty-hating nation systematically allowed the prisoners
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+in their gaols to die of starvation. "The great cruelty
+of the English," Muralt remarks, "lies in permitting
+evil rather than in doing it."<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The root of the apparent
+contradiction lay clearly in a somewhat excessive independence
+and devotion to liberty. We give a man
+full liberty, they seem to have said, to work, to become
+rich, to grow fat. But if he will not work, let him starve.
+In that point of view there were involved certain fallacies,
+which became clearer during the course of social evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It was obvious, indeed, that such an attitude, while
+highly favourable to individual vigour and independence,
+and not incompatible with fairly healthy social life
+under the conditions which prevailed at the time, became
+disastrous in the era of industrialism. The conditions
+of industrial life tore up the individual from the
+roots by which he normally received strength, and
+crowded the workers together in masses, thus generating
+a confusion which no individual activity could grapple
+with. So it was that the very spirit which, under the
+earlier conditions, made for good now made for evil.
+To stand by and applaud the efforts of the individual
+who was perhaps slowly sinking deeper and deeper into
+a miry slough of degradation began to seem an even
+diabolical attitude. The maxim of <i>laissez-faire</i>, which
+had once stood for the whole unfettered action of natural
+activities in life, began to be viewed with horror and
+contempt. It was realized that there must be an intelligent
+superintendence of social conditions, humane
+regulation, systematic organization. The very intensity
+of the evils which the English spirit produced led to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+a reaction by which that spirit, while doubtless remaining
+the same at heart, took on a different form, and manifested
+its energy in a new direction.</p>
+
+<p>The modern industrial era, replacing domestic industry
+by collective work carried out by "hands" in
+factories, began in the eighteenth century. The era
+of social reform was delayed until the second quarter
+of the nineteenth century. It has proceeded by four
+successively progressive stages, each stage supplementing,
+rather than supplanting, the stage that preceded it.
+In 1842 Sir Edwin Chadwick wrote an official Report
+on the <i>Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population
+of Great Britain</i>, in which was clearly presented for the
+first time a vivid, comprehensive, and authoritative
+picture of the incredibly filthy conditions under which
+the English labouring classes lived. The times were
+ripe for this Report. It attracted public attention,
+and exerted an important influence. Its appearance
+marks the first stage of social reform, which was mainly
+a sanitary effort to clear away the gross filth from our
+cities, to look after the cleansing, lighting, and policing
+of the streets, to create a drainage system, to improve
+dwellings, and in these ways to combat disease and to
+lower the very high death-rate.</p>
+
+<p>At an early stage, however, it began to be seen that
+this process of sanitation, necessary as it had become,
+was far too crude and elementary to achieve the ends
+sought. It was not enough to improve the streets,
+or even to regulate the building of dwellings. It was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+clearly necessary to regulate also the conditions of
+work of the people who lived in those streets and dwellings.
+Thus it was that the scheme of factory legislation was
+initiated. Rules were made as to the hours of labour,
+more especially as regards women and children, for whom,
+moreover, certain specially dangerous or unhealthy
+occupations were forbidden, and an increasingly large
+number of avocations were brought under Government
+inspection. This second stage of social reform encountered
+a much more strenuous opposition than
+the first stage. The regulation of the order and cleanliness
+of the streets was obviously necessary, and it had
+indeed been more or less enforced even in medieval
+times;<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> but the regulation of the conditions of work
+in the interests of the worker was a more novel proceeding,
+and it appeared to clash both with the interests of the
+employers and the ancient principles of English freedom
+and independence, behind which the employers consequently
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+sheltered themselves. The early attempts
+to legislate on these lines were thus fruitless. It was
+not until a distinguished aristocratic philanthropist
+of great influence, the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury,
+took up the question, that factory legislation began to
+be accepted. It continues to develop even to-day,
+ever enlarging the sphere of its action, and now meeting
+with no opposition. But, in England, at all events,
+its acceptance marks a memorable stage in the growth
+of the national spirit. It was no longer easy and natural
+for the Englishmen to look on at suffering without
+interference. It began to be recognized that it was
+perfectly legitimate, and even necessary, to put a curb
+on the freedom and independence which involved suffering
+to others.</p>
+
+<p>But as the era of factory legislation became established,
+a further advance was seen to be necessary. Factory
+legislation had forbidden the child to work. But the
+duty of the community towards the child, the citizen of
+the future, was evidently by no means covered by this
+purely negative step. The child must be prepared to
+take his future part in life, in the first place by education.
+The nationalization of education in England dates from
+1870. But during the subsequent half century "education"
+has come to mean much more than mere instruction;
+it now covers a certain amount of provision for meals when
+necessary, the enforcement of cleanliness, the care of
+defective conditions, inborn or acquired, with special
+treatment for mentally defective children, an ever-increasing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+amount of medical inspection and supervision,
+while it is beginning to include arrangements for placing
+the child in work suited to his capacities when he leaves
+school.</p>
+
+<p>During the past ten years the movement of social
+reform has entered a fourth stage. The care of the
+child during his school-days was seen to be insufficient;
+it began too late, when probably the child's fate for
+life was already decided. It was necessary to push the
+process further back, to birth and even to the stage
+before birth, by directing social care to the infant,
+and by taking thought of the mother. This consideration
+has led to a whole series of highly important and fruitful
+measures which are only beginning to develop, although
+they have already proved very beneficial. The immediate
+notification to the authorities of a child's birth, and the
+institution of Health Visitors to ascertain what is being
+done for the infant's well-being, and to aid the mother
+with advice, have certainly been a large factor in the
+recent reduction in the infantile death-rate in England.
+<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>The care of the infant has indeed now become a new
+applied science, the science of puericulture. Professor
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+Budin of Paris may fairly be regarded as the founder
+of puericulture by the establishment in Paris, in 1892,
+of Infant Consultations, to which mothers were encouraged
+to bring their babies to be weighed and examined,
+any necessary advice being given regarding
+the care of the baby. The mothers are persuaded to
+suckle their infants if possible, and if their own health
+permits. For the cases in which suckling is undesirable
+or impossible, Budin established Milk Dep&ocirc;ts, where
+pure milk is supplied at a low price or freely. Infant
+Consultations and Milk Dep&ocirc;ts are now becoming common
+everywhere. A little later than Budin, another distinguished
+French physician, Pinard, carried puericulture
+a step further back, but a very important step,
+by initiating a movement for the care of the pregnant
+woman. Pinard and his pupils have shown by a number
+of detailed investigations that the children born to
+working mothers who rest during the last three months
+of pregnancy, are to a marked extent larger and finer
+than the children of those mothers who enjoy no such
+period of rest, even though the mothers themselves
+may be equally robust and healthy in both cases. Moreover,
+it is found that premature birth, one of the
+commonest accidents of modern life, tends to be prevented
+by such rest. The children of mothers who
+rest enjoy on the average three weeks longer development
+in the womb than the children of the mothers
+who do not rest, and this prolonged ante-natal development
+cannot fail to be a benefit for the whole of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+child's subsequent life. The movement started by
+Pinard, though strictly a continuation of the great
+movement for the improvement of the conditions of
+life, takes us as far back as we are able to go on these
+lines, and has in it the promise of an immense benefit
+to human efficiency.</p>
+<p>In connection with the movement of puericulture
+initiated by Budin and Pinard must be mentioned
+the institution of Schools for Mothers, for it is closely
+associated with the aims of puericulture. The School
+for Mothers arose in Belgium, a little later than the
+activities of Budin and Pinard commenced. About
+1900 a young Socialist doctor of Ghent, Dr. Miele,
+started the first school of this kind, with girls of from
+twelve to sixteen years of age as students and assistants.
+The School eventually included as many as twelve
+different services, among these being dispensaries for
+mothers, a mothers' friendly society, milk dep&ocirc;ts both
+for babies and nursing mothers, health talks to mothers
+with demonstrations, courses on puericulture (including
+anatomy, physiology, preparation of foods, weighing,
+etc.) to girls between fourteen and eighteen, who afterwards
+become eligible for appointment as paid assistants.
+<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+In 1907 Schools for Mothers were introduced into England,
+at first under the auspices of Dr. Sykes, Medical Officer
+of Health for St. Pancras, London. Such Schools are
+now spreading everywhere. In the end they will probably
+be considered necessary centres for any national system
+of puericulture. Every girl at the end of her school life
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+should be expected to pass through a certain course of
+training at a School for Mothers. It would be the technical
+school for the working-class mother, while such a course
+would be invaluable for any girl, whatever her social
+class, even if she is never called to be a mother herself
+or to have the care of children.
+</p>
+
+<p>The great movement of social reform during the
+nineteenth century, we thus see, has moved in four
+stages, each of which has reinforced rather than replaced
+that which went before: (1) the effort to cleanse
+the gross filth of cities and to remedy obvious disorder
+by systematic attention to scavenging, drainage, the
+supply of water and of artificial light, as well as by
+improved policing; (2) the great system of factory
+legislation for regulating the conditions of work, and
+to some extent restraining the work of women and
+of children; (3) the introduction of national systems of
+education, and the gradual extension of the idea of
+education to cover far more than mere instruction;
+and (4), most fundamental of all and last to appear,
+the effort to guard the child before the school age, even
+at birth, even before birth, by bestowing due care on
+the future mother.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+It may be pointed out that this movement of practical
+social reform has been accompanied, stimulated, and
+guided by a corresponding movement in the sciences
+which in their application are indispensable to the
+progress of civilized social reform. There has been
+a process of mutual action and reaction between science
+and practice. The social movement has stimulated the
+development of abstract science, and the new progress in
+science has enabled further advances to be made in
+social practice. The era of expansion in sanitation
+was the era of development in chemistry and physics,
+which alone enabled a sound system of sanitation to be
+developed. The fight against disease would have been
+impossible but for bacteriology. The new care for
+human life, and for the protection of its source, is associated
+with fresh developments of biological science.
+Sociological observations and speculation, including
+economics, are intimately connected with the efforts of
+social reform to attain a broad, sound, and truly democratic
+basis.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+When we survey this movement as a whole, we have
+to recognize that it is exclusively concerned with the
+improvement of the conditions of life. It makes no
+attempt to influence either the quantity or the quality
+of life.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+It may sometimes have been carried out with
+the assumption that to improve the conditions of life
+is, in some way or other, to improve the quality of life
+itself. But it accepted the stream of life as it found
+it, and while working to cleanse the banks of the stream
+it made no attempt to purify the stream itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+It must, however, be remembered that the arguments
+which, especially nowadays, are brought against the
+social reform of the condition of life, will not bear serious
+examination. It is said, for instance, or at all events
+implied, that we need bestow very little care on the
+conditions of life because such care can have no permanently
+beneficial effect on the race, since acquired characters,
+for the most part, are not transmitted to descendants.
+But to assume that social reform is unnecessary because
+it is not inherited is altogether absurd. The people
+who make this assumption would certainly not argue
+that it is useless for them to satisfy their own hunger
+and thirst, because their children will not thereby be
+safeguarded from experiencing hunger and thirst. Yet
+the needs which the movement of organized social reform
+seeks to satisfy are precisely on a level with, and indeed
+to some extent identical with, the needs of hunger and
+thirst. The impulse and the duty which move every
+civilized community to elaborate and gratify its own
+social needs to the utmost are altogether independent
+of the race, and would not cease to exist even in a community
+vowed to celibacy or the most absolute Neo-Malthusianism.
+Nor, again, must it be said that social
+reform destroys the beneficial results of natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>Here, indeed, we encounter a disputed point, and
+it may be admitted that the precise data for absolute
+demonstration in one direction or the other cannot
+yet be found. Whenever human beings breed in reckless
+and unrestrained profusion&mdash;as is the case under some
+conditions before a free and self-conscious civilization
+is attained&mdash;there is an immense infantile mortality.
+It is claimed, on the one hand, that this is beneficial,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+and need not be interfered with. The weak are killed
+off, it is said, and the strong survive; there is a process
+of natural survival of the fittest. That is true. But
+it is equally true, as has also been clearly seen on the
+other hand, that though the relatively strongest survive,
+their relative strength has been impaired by the very
+influences which have proved altogether fatal to their
+weaker brethren. There is an immense infantile mortality
+in Russia. Yet, notwithstanding any resulting "survival
+of the fittest," Russia is far more ravaged by disease
+than Norway, where infantile mortality is low. "A high
+infantile mortality," as George Carpenter, a great
+authority on the diseases of childhood, remarks, "denotes
+a far higher infantile deterioration rate"; or,
+as another doctor puts it, "the dead baby is next of
+kin to the diseased baby," The protection of the weak,
+so frequently condemned by some Neo-Darwinians,
+is thus in reality, as Goldscheid terms it, "the protection
+of the strong from degeneration."</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, more to be said. Not only must
+an undue struggle with unfavourable conditions enfeeble
+the strong as well as kill the feeble; it also imposes
+an intolerable burden upon these enfeebled survivors.
+The process of destruction is not sudden, it is gradual.
+It is a long-drawn-out process. It involves the multiplication
+of the diseased, the maimed, the feeble-minded,
+of paupers and lunatics and criminals. Even natural
+selection thus includes the need for protecting the feeble,
+and so renders urgent the task of social reform, while
+the more thoroughly this task is carried out with the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+growth of civilization, the more stupendous and overwhelming
+the task becomes.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus that civilization, at a certain point in its
+course, renders inevitable the appearance of that wider
+and deeper organization of life which in the present
+volume we are concerned with under the name of Social
+Hygiene. That movement is far from being an abrupt
+or revolutionary manifestation in the ordinary progress
+of social growth. As we have seen, social reform during
+the past eighty years may be said to have proceeded
+in four successive stages, each of which has involved
+a nearer approach to the sources of life. The fourth
+stage, which in its beginnings dates only from the last
+years of the nineteenth century, takes us to the period
+before birth, and is concerned with the care of the child
+in the mother's womb. The next stage cannot fail
+to take us to the very source of life itself, lifting us
+beyond the task of purifying the conditions, and laying
+on us the further task of regulating the quantity and
+raising the quality of life at its very source. The duty
+of purifying, ordering, and consolidating the banks of the
+stream must still remain.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> But when we are able to
+control the stream at its source we are able to some
+extent to prevent the contamination of that stream by
+filth, and ensure that its muddy floods shall not sweep away
+the results of our laborious work on the banks. Our sense
+of social responsibility is developing into a sense of racial
+responsibility, and that development is expressed in the
+nature of the tasks of Social Hygiene which now lie before us.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+It is the control of the reproduction of the race which
+renders possible the new conception of Social Hygiene.
+We have seen that the gradual process of social reform
+during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century,
+by successive stages of movement towards the sources
+of life, finally reached the moment of conception. The
+first result of reform at this point was that procreation
+became a deliberate act. Up till then the method of
+propagating the race was the same as that which savages
+have carried on during thousands of years, the chief
+difference being that whereas savages have frequently
+sought to compensate their recklessness by destroying
+their inferior offspring, we had accepted all the offspring,
+good, bad, and indifferent, produced by our indiscriminate
+recklessness, shielding ourselves by a false theology.
+Children "came," and their parents disclaimed all
+responsibility for their coming. The children were
+"sent by God," and if they all turned out to be idiots,
+the responsibility was God's. But when it became
+generally realized that it was possible to limit offspring
+without interfering with conjugal life a step of immense
+importance was achieved. It became clear to all that
+the Divine force works through us, and that we are not
+entitled to cast the burden of our evil actions on any
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+Higher Power. Marriage no longer fatally involved
+an endless procession of children who, in so far as they
+survived at all, were in a large number of cases doomed
+to disease, neglect, misery, and ignorance. The new
+Social Hygiene was for the first time rendered possible.</p>
+
+<p>It was in France during the first half of the nineteenth
+century that the control of reproduction first began to
+become a social habit. In Sweden and in Denmark,
+the fall in the birth-rate, though it has been irregular,
+may be said to have begun in 1860. It was not until
+about the year 1876 that, in so far as we may judge by
+the arrest of the birth-rate, the movement began to
+spread to Europe generally. In England it is usual
+to associate this change with a famous prosecution
+which brought a knowledge of the means of preventing
+conception to the whole population of Great Britain.
+Undoubtedly this prosecution was an important factor
+in the movement, but we cannot doubt that, even if the
+prosecution had not taken place, the course of social
+progress must still have pursued the same course. It
+is noteworthy that it was about this same period, in
+various European countries, that the tide turned, and
+the excessively high birth-rate began to fall.
+<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Recklessness
+was giving place to foresight and self-control.
+Such foresight and self-control are of the essence of
+civilization.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+It cannot be disputed that the transformation by
+which the propagation of the race became deliberate
+and voluntary has not been established in social custom
+without a certain amount of protestation from various
+sides. No social change, however beneficial, ever is
+established without such protestation, which may,
+therefore, be regarded as an inevitable and probably
+a salutary part of social change. Even some would-be
+scientific persons, with a display of elaborate statistics,
+set forth various alarmistic doctrines. If, said these
+persons, this new movement goes on at the present
+pace, and if all other conditions remain unchanged,
+then all sorts of terrible results will ensue. But the
+alarming conclusion failed to ensue, and for a very
+sufficient reason. The assumed premises of the argument
+were unsound. Nothing ever goes on at the same pace,
+nor do all other conditions ever remain unchanged.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+The world is a living fire, as Heraclitus long ago put it.
+All things are in perpetual flux. Life is a process of
+perpetual movement. It is idle to bid the world stand
+still, and then to argue about the consequences. The
+world will not stand still, it is for ever revolving, for
+ever revealing some new facet that had not been allowed
+for in the neatly arranged mechanism of the statistician.</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps unnecessary to dwell on a point which
+is now at last, one may hope, becoming clear to most
+intelligent persons. But I may perhaps be allowed
+to refer in passing to an argument that has been brought
+forward with the wearisome iteration which always
+marks the progress of those who are feeble in argument.
+The good stocks of upper social class are decreasing in
+fertility, it is said; the bad stocks of lower social class
+are not decreasing; therefore the bad stocks are tending
+to replace the good stocks.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+It must, however, be pointed out that, even assuming
+that the facts are as stated; it is a hazardous assumption
+that the best stocks are necessarily the stocks of high
+social class. In the main no doubt this is so, but good
+stocks are nevertheless so widely spread through all
+classes&mdash;such good stocks in the lower social classes
+being probably the most resistent to adverse conditions&mdash;that
+we are not entitled to regard even a slightly greater
+net increase of the lower social classes as an unmitigated
+evil. It may be that, as Mercier has expressed it, "we
+have to regard a civilized community somewhat in the
+light of a lamp, which burns at the top and is replenished
+from the bottom."<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>The soundness of a stock, and its aptitude for performing
+efficiently the functions of its own social sphere,
+cannot, indeed, be accurately measured by any tendency
+to rise into a higher social sphere. On the whole, from
+generation to generation, the men of a good stock remain
+within their own social sphere, whether high or low,
+adequately performing their functions in that sphere,
+from generation to generation. They remain, we may
+say, in that social stratum of which the specific gravity
+is best suited for their existence.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+Yet, undoubtedly, from time to time, there is a slight
+upward social tendency, due in most cases to the exceptional
+energy and ability of some individual who
+succeeds in permanently lifting his family into a slightly
+higher social stratum.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Such a process has always
+taken place, in the past even more conspicuously than
+in the present. The Normans who came over to England
+with William the Conqueror and constituted the proud
+English nobility were simply a miscellaneous set of
+adventurers, professional fighting men, of unknown,
+and no doubt for the most part undistinguished, lineage.
+William the Conqueror himself was the son of a woman
+of the people. The Catholic Church founded no families,
+but its democratic constitution opened a career to men of
+all classes, and the most brilliant sons of the Church
+were often of the lowliest social rank. We should not,
+therefore, say that the bad stocks are replacing the good
+stocks. There is not the slightest evidence for any such
+theory. All that we are entitled to say is that when
+in the upward progression of a community the vanishing
+point of culture and refinement is attained the bearers
+of that culture and refinement die off as naturally and
+inevitably as flowers in autumn, and from their roots
+spring up new and more vigorous shoots to replace
+them and to pass in their turn through the same stages,
+with that perpetual slight novelty in which lies the secret
+of life, as well as of art. An aristocracy which is merely
+an aristocracy because it is "old"&mdash;whether it is an
+aristocracy of families, or of races, or of species&mdash;has
+already ceased to be an aristocracy in any sound meaning
+of the term. We need not regret its disappearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+Do not, therefore, let us waste our time in crying
+over the dead roses of the summer that is past. There
+is something morbid in the perpetual groaning over
+that inevitable decay which is itself a part of all life.
+Such a perpetual narrow insistence on one aspect of
+life is scarcely sane. One suspects that these people
+are themselves of those stocks over whose fate they
+grieve. Let us, therefore, mercifully leave them to
+manure their dead roses in peace. They will soon be
+forgotten. The world is for ever dying. The world is
+also for ever bursting with life. The spring song of <i>Sursum
+corda</i> easily overwhelms the dying autumnal wails of
+the <i>Dies Ir&aelig;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It would thus appear that, even apart from any
+deliberate restraint from procreation, as a family attains
+the highest culture and refinement which civilization
+can yield, that family tends to die out, at all events
+in the male line.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+This is, for instance, the result which
+Fahlbeck has reached in his valuable demographic
+study of the Swedish nobility, <i>Der Adel Schwedens</i>.
+"Apparently," says Fahlbeck, "the greater demands
+on nervous and intellectual force which the culture and
+refinement of the upper classes produce are chiefly
+responsible for this. For these are the two personal
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+factors by which those classes are distinguished from the
+lower classes: high education and refinement in tastes
+and habits. The first involves predominant activity
+of the brain, the last a heightened sensitiveness in all
+departments of nervous life. In both respects, therefore,
+there is increased work for the nervous system,
+and this is compensated in the other vital functions,
+especially reproduction. Man cannot achieve everything;
+what he gains on one side he loses on the other." We
+should do well to hold these wise words in mind when
+we encounter those sciolists who in the presence of the
+finest and rarest manifestations of civilizations, can
+only talk of race "decay." A female salmon, it is
+estimated, lays about nine hundred eggs for every pound
+of her own weight, and she may weigh fifty pounds.
+The progeny of Shakespeare and Goethe, such as it was,
+disappeared in the very centuries in which these great
+men themselves died. At the present stage of civilization
+we are somewhat nearer to Shakespeare and Goethe than
+to the salmon. We must set our ideals towards a very
+different direction from that which commends itself to
+our Salmonidian sciolists. "Increase and multiply"
+was the legendary injunction uttered on the threshold
+of an empty world. It is singularly out of place in an
+age in which the earth and the sea, if not indeed
+the very air, swarm with countless myriads of undistinguished
+and indistinguishable human creatures, until
+the beauty of the world is befouled and the glory of the
+Heavens bedimmed. To stem back that tide is the task
+now imposed on our heroism, to elevate and purify and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+refine the race, to introduce the ideal of quality in place
+of the ideal of quantity which has run riot so long,
+with the results we see. "As the Northern Saga tells
+that Odin must sacrifice his eye to attain the higher
+wisdom," concludes Fahlbeck, "so Man also, in order
+to win the treasures of culture and refinement, must
+give not only his eye but his life, if not his own life that
+of his posterity."<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+The vulgar aim of reckless racial
+fertility is no longer within our reach and no longer
+commends itself as worthy. It is not consonant with
+the stage of civilization we are at the moment passing
+through. The higher task is now ours of the regeneration
+of the race, or, if we wish to express that betterment
+less questionably, the aggeneration of the race.
+<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+The control of reproduction, we see, essential as it
+is, cannot by itself carry far the betterment of the race,
+because it involves no direct selection of stocks. Yet
+we have to remember that though this control, with
+the limitation of offspring it involves, fails to answer
+all the demands which Social Hygiene to-day makes
+of us, it yet achieves much. It may not improve what
+we abstractly term the "race," but it immensely improves
+the individuals of which the race is made up.
+Thus the limitation of the family renders it possible
+to avoid the production of undesired children. That
+in itself is an immense social gain, because it tends to
+abolish excessive infantile mortality.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> It means that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+adequate care will be expended upon the children that
+are produced, and that no children will be produced
+unless the parents are in a position to provide for them.
+<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+Even the mere spacing out of the children in a family,
+the larger interval between child-births, is a very great
+advantage. The mother is no longer exhausted by
+perpetually bearing, suckling, and tending babies, while
+the babies themselves are on the average of better
+quality.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+Thus the limitation of offspring, far from being
+an egoistic measure, as some have foolishly supposed,
+is imperatively demanded in the altruistic interests of
+the individuals composing the race.</p>
+
+<p>But the control of reproduction, enormously beneficial
+as it is even in its most elementary shapes, mainly concerns
+us here because it furnishes the essential condition
+for the development of Social Hygiene. The control
+of reproduction renders possible, and leads on to, a wise
+selection in reproduction. It is only by such selection
+of children to be born that we can balance our indiscriminate
+care in the preservation of all children that are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+born, a care which otherwise would become an intolerable
+burden. It is only by such selection that we can work
+towards the elimination of those stocks which fail to
+help us in the tasks of our civilization to-day. It is
+only by such selection that we can hope to fortify the
+stocks that are fitted for these tasks. More than two
+centuries ago Steele playfully suggested that "one might
+wear any passion out of a family by culture, as skilful
+gardeners blot a colour out of a tulip that hurts its
+beauty."<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+The progress of civilization, with the self-control
+it involves, has made it possible to accept this
+suggestion seriously.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+The difference is that whereas
+the flowers of our gardens are bettered only by the
+control of an arbitrary external will and intelligence,
+our human flowers may be bettered by an intelligence
+and will, a finer sense of responsibility, developed within
+themselves. Thus it is that human culture renders
+possible Social Hygiene.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Three centuries ago an inspired monk set forth his
+ideal of an ennobled world in <i>The City of the Sun</i>. Campanella
+wrote that prophetic book in prison. But his
+spirit was unfettered, and his conception of human
+society, though in daring it outruns all the visions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+we may compare it with, is yet on the lines along which
+our civilization lies. In the City of the Sun not only
+was the nobility of work, even mechanical work,&mdash;which
+Plato rejected and More was scarcely conscious of,&mdash;for
+the first time recognized, but the supreme impulse
+of procreation was regarded as a sacred function, to be
+exercised in the light of scientific knowledge. It was a
+public rather than a private duty, because it concerned
+the interests of the race; only valorous and high-spirited
+men ought to procreate, and it was held that the father
+should bear the punishments inflicted on the son for
+faults due to his failure by defects in generation.
+<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Moreover,
+while unions not for the end of procreation were
+in the City of the Sun left to the judgment of the individuals
+alone concerned, it was not so with unions
+for the end of procreation. These were arranged by
+the "great Master," a physician, aided by the chief
+matrons, and the public exercises of the youths and
+maidens, performed in a state of nakedness, were of
+assistance in enabling unions to be fittingly made. No
+eugenist under modern conditions of life proposes that
+unions should be arranged by a supreme medical public
+official, though he might possibly regard such an official,
+if divested of any compulsory powers, a kind of public
+trustee for the race, as a useful institution. But it is
+easy to see that the luminous conception of racial
+betterment which, since Galton rendered it practicable,
+is now inspiring social progress, was already burning
+brightly three centuries ago in the brain of this imprisoned
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Italian monk. Just as Thomas More has been called
+the father of modern Socialism, so Campanella may be
+said to be the prophet of modern Eugenics.</p>
+
+<p>By "Eugenics" is meant the scientific study of
+all the agencies by which the human race may be improved,
+and the effort to give practical effect to
+those agencies by conscious and deliberate action in
+favour of better breeding. Even among savages eugenics
+may be said to exist, if only in the crude and unscientific
+practice of destroying feeble, deformed, and abnormal
+infants at birth. In civilized ages elaborate and more
+or less scientific attempts are made by breeders of animals
+to improve the stocks they breed, and their efforts have
+been crowned with much success. The study of the
+same methods in their bearing on man proceeded out
+of the Darwinian school of biology, and is especially
+associated with the great name of Sir Francis Galton,
+the cousin of Darwin. Galton first proposed to call
+this study "Stirpiculture." Under that name it inspired
+Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community,
+with the impulse to carry it into practice with a thoroughness
+and daring&mdash;indeed a similarity of method&mdash;which
+caused Oneida almost to rival the City of the Sun.
+But the scheme of Noyes, excellent as in some respects it
+was as an experiment, outran both scientific knowledge
+and the spirit of the times. It was not countenanced
+by Galton, who never had any wish to offend general
+sentiment, but sought to win it over to his side, and
+before 1880 the Oneida Community was brought to
+an end in consequence of the antagonism it aroused.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+Galton continued to develop his conceptions slowly
+and cautiously, and in 1883, in his <i>Inquiries into Human
+Faculty</i>, he abandoned the term "Stirpiculture" and
+devised the term "Eugenics," which is now generally
+adopted to signify Good Breeding.</p>
+
+<p>Galton was quite well aware that the improved breeding
+of men is a very different matter from the improved
+breeding of animals, requiring a different knowledge
+and a different method, so that the ridicule which has
+sometimes been ignorantly flung at Eugenics failed to
+touch him. It would be clearly undesirable to breed
+men, as animals are bred, for single points at the sacrifice
+of other points, even if we were in a position to breed
+men from outside. Human breeding must proceed from
+impulses that arise, voluntarily, in human brains and
+wills, and are carried out with a human sense of personal
+responsibility. Galton believed that the first need was the
+need of knowledge in these matters. He was not anxious
+to invoke legislation.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The compulsory presentation of
+certificates of health and good breeding as a preliminary
+to marriage forms no part of Eugenics, nor is compulsory
+sterilization a demand made by any reasonable eugenist.
+Certainly the custom of securing certificates of health
+and ability is excellent, not only as a preliminary to
+marriage, but as a general custom. Certainly, also,
+there are cases in which sterilization is desirable, if
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+voluntarily accepted.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+But neither certification nor
+sterilization should be compulsory. They only have
+their value if they are intelligent and deliberate, springing
+out of a widened and enlightened sense of personal
+responsibility to society and to the race.</p>
+
+<p>Eugenics constitutes the link between the Social
+Reform of the past, painfully struggling to improve the
+conditions of life, and the Social Hygiene of the future,
+which is authorized to deal adequately with the conditions
+of life because it has its hands on the sources
+of life. On this plane we are able to concentrate our
+energies on the finer ends of life, because we may reasonably
+expect to be no longer hampered by the ever-increasing
+burdens which were placed upon us by the
+failure to control life; while the more we succeed in
+our efforts to purify and strengthen life, the more magnificent
+become the tasks we may reasonably hope to
+attempt and compass.</p>
+
+<p>A problem which is often and justly cited as one to
+be settled by Eugenics is that presented by the existence
+among us of the large class of the feeble-minded. No
+doubt there are some who would regret the disappearance
+of the feeble-minded from our midst. The philosophies
+of the Bergsonian type, which to-day prevail so widely,
+place intuition above reason, and the "pure fool" has
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+sometimes been enshrined and idolized. But we may
+remember that Eugenics can never prevent absolutely
+the occurrence of feeble-minded persons, even in the
+extreme degree of the imbecile and the idiot.
+<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> They
+come within the range of variation, by the same right
+as genius so comes. We cannot, it may be, prevent the
+occurrence of such persons, but we can prevent them
+from being the founders of families tending to resemble
+themselves. And in so doing, it will be agreed by most
+people, we shall be effecting a task of immense benefit
+to society and the race.</p>
+
+<p>Feeble-mindedness is largely handed on by heredity.
+It was formerly supposed that idiocy and feeble-mindedness
+are mainly due to environmental conditions, to
+the drink, depravity, general disease, or lack of nutrition
+of the parents, and there is no doubt an element of truth
+in that view. But serious and frequent as are the results
+of bad environment and acquired disease in the parentage
+of the feeble-minded, they do not form the fundamental
+factor in the production of the feeble-minded.
+<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+Feeble-mindedness is essentially a germinal variation,
+belonging to the same large class as all other biological
+variations, occurring, for the most part, in the first
+place spontaneously, but strongly tending to be inherited.
+It thus resembles congenital cataract, deaf-mutism,
+the susceptibility to tuberculous infection, etc.
+<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>Exact investigation is now showing that feeble-mindedness
+is passed on from parent to child to an
+enormous extent. Some years ago Ashby, speaking
+from a large experience in the North of England, estimated
+that at least seventy-five per cent of feeble-minded
+children are born with an inherited tendency
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+to mental defect. More precise investigation has since
+shown that this estimate was under the mark. Tredgold,
+who in England has most carefully studied the
+heredity of the feeble-minded,
+<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+found that in over
+eighty-two per cent cases there is a bad nervous inheritance.
+In a large number of cases the bad heredity
+was associated with alcoholism or consumption in the
+parentage, but only in a small proportion of cases (about
+seven per cent) was it probable that alcoholism and
+consumption alone, and usually combined, had sufficed
+to produce the defective condition of the children,
+while environmental conditions only produced mental
+defect in ten per cent cases.
+<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+Heredity is the chief
+cause of feeble-mindedness, and a normal child is never
+born of two feeble-minded parents. The very thorough
+investigation of the heredity of the feeble-minded which
+is now being carried on at the institution for their care
+at Vineland, New Jersey, shows even more decisive
+results. By making careful pedigrees of the families
+to which the inmates at Vineland belong it is seen that
+in a large proportion of cases feeble-mindedness is handed
+on from generation to generation, and is traceable
+through three generations, though it sometimes skips
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+a generation. In one family of three hundred and nineteen
+persons, one hundred and nineteen were known to
+be feeble-minded, and only forty-two known to be normal.
+The families tended to be large, sometimes very large,
+most of them in many cases dying in infancy or growing
+up weak-minded.
+<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>Not only is feeble-mindedness inherited, and to a
+much greater degree than has hitherto been suspected
+even by expert authorities, but the feeble-minded
+thus tend (though, as Davenport and Weeks have found,
+not invariably) to have a larger number of children than
+normal people. That indeed, we might expect, apart
+altogether from the question of any innate fertility. The
+feeble-minded have no forethought and no self-restraint.
+They are not adequately capable of resisting their
+own impulses or the solicitations of others, and they are
+unable to understand adequately the motives which guide
+the conduct of ordinary people. The average number
+of children of feeble-minded people seems to be frequently
+about one-third more than in normal families, and is
+sometimes much greater. Dr. Ettie Sayer, when investigating
+for the London County Council the family
+histories of one hundred normal families and one hundred
+families in which mentally defective children had been
+found, ascertained that the families of the latter averaged
+7.6 children, while in the normal families they averaged 5.
+Tredgold, specially investigating 150 feeble-minded cases,
+found that they belonged to families in which 1269
+children had been born, that is to say 7.3 per family,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+or, counting still-born children, 8.4. Nearly two-thirds
+of these abnormally large families were mentally defective,
+many showing a tendency to disease, pauperism, criminality,
+or else to early death.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>Here, indeed, we have a counterbalancing influence,
+for, in the large families of the feeble-minded, there is a
+correspondingly large infantile mortality. A considerable
+proportion of Tredgold's group of children were born dead,
+and a very large number died early. Eichholz, again,
+found that, in one group of defective families, about
+sixty per cent of the children died young. That is
+probably an unusually high proportion, and in Eichholz's
+cases it seems to have been associated with very unusually
+large families, but the infant mortality is always
+very high.</p>
+
+<p>This large early mortality of the offspring of the
+feeble-minded is, however, very far from settling the
+question of the disposal of the mentally defective, or
+we should not find families of them propagated from
+generation to generation. The large number who die
+early merely serves, roughly speaking, to reduce the
+size of the abnormal family to the size of a normal
+family, and some authorities consider that it scarcely
+suffices to do this, for we must remember that there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+is a considerable mortality even in the so-called
+normal family during early life. Even when there
+is no abnormal fertility in the defective family
+we may still have to recognize that, as Davenport
+and Weeks argue, their defectiveness is intensified by
+heredity. Moreover, we have to consider the social
+disorder and the heavy expense which accompany
+the large infantile mortality. Illegitimacy is frequently
+the result of feeble-mindedness, since feeble-minded
+women are peculiarly unable to resist temptation. A
+great number of such women are continually coming
+into the workhouses and giving birth to illegitimate
+children whom they are unable to support, and who
+often never become capable of supporting themselves,
+but in their turn tend to produce a new feeble-minded
+generation, more especially since the men who are
+attracted to these feeble-minded women are themselves&mdash;according
+to the generally recognized tendency of the
+abnormal to be attracted to the abnormal&mdash;feeble-minded
+or otherwise mentally defective. There is thus
+generated not only a heavy financial burden, but also
+a perpetual danger to society, and, it may well be, a
+serious depreciation in the quality of the community.
+<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is not only in themselves that the feeble-minded
+are a burden on the present generation and a menace
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+to future generations. In large measure they form
+the reservoir from which the predatory classes are
+recruited. This is, for instance, the case as regards
+prostitutes. Feeble-minded girls, of fairly high grade,
+may often be said to be predestined to prostitution
+if left to themselves, not because they are vicious, but
+because they are weak and have little power of resistance.
+They cannot properly weigh their actions against the
+results of their actions, and even if they are intelligent
+enough to do that, they are still too weak to regulate
+their actions accordingly. Moreover, even when, as
+often happens among the high-grade feeble-minded,
+they are quite able and willing to work, after they have
+lost their "respectability" by having a child, the opportunities
+for work become more restricted, and they drift
+into prostitution. It has been found that of nearly
+15,000 women who passed through Magdalen Homes
+in England, over 2500, or more than sixteen per cent&mdash;and
+this is probably an under-estimate&mdash;were definitely
+feeble-minded. The women belonging to this feeble-minded
+group were known to have added 1000 illegitimate
+children to the population. In Germany Bonhoeffer
+found among 190 prostitutes who passed through a
+prison that 102 were hereditarily degenerate and 53
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+feeble-minded. This would be an over-estimate as
+regards average prostitutes, though the offences were
+no doubt usually trivial, but in any case the association
+between prostitution and feeble-mindedness is intimate.
+Everywhere, there can be no doubt, the ranks of prostitution
+contain a considerable proportion of women who
+were, at the very outset, in some slight degree feeble-minded,
+mentally and morally a little blunted through
+some taint of inheritance.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Criminality, again, is associated with feeble-mindedness
+in the most intimate way. Not only do criminals
+tend to belong to large families, but the families that
+produce feeble-minded offspring also produce criminals,
+while a certain degree of feeble-mindedness is extremely
+common among criminals, and the most hopeless and
+typical, though fortunately rare, kind of criminal,
+frequently termed a "moral imbecile," is nothing more
+than a feeble-minded person whose defect is shown not
+so much in his intelligence as in his feelings and his
+conduct. Sir H.B. Donkin, who speaks with authority
+on this matter, estimates that, though it is difficult
+to obtain the early history of the criminals who enter
+English prisons, about twenty per cent of them are
+of primarily defective mental capacity. This would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+mean that every year some 35,000 feeble-minded persons
+are sent to English prisons as "criminals." The tendency
+of criminals to belong to the feeble-minded class is
+indeed every day becoming more clearly recognized.
+At Pentonville, putting aside prisoners who were too
+mentally affected to be fit for prison discipline, eighteen
+per cent of the adult prisoners and forty per cent of the
+juvenile offenders were found to be feeble-minded. This
+includes only those whose defect is fairly obvious, and
+is not the result of methodical investigation. It is
+certain that such methodical inquiry would reveal
+a very large proportion of cases of less obvious mental
+defect. Thus the systematic examination of a number
+of delinquent children in an Industrial School showed
+that in seventy-five per cent cases they were defective
+as compared to normal children, and that their defectiveness
+was probably inborn. Even the possession of a
+considerable degree of cunning is no evidence against
+mental defect, but may rather be said to be a sign of it,
+for it shows an intelligence unable to grasp the wider
+relations of life, and concentrated on the gratification
+of petty and immediate desires. Thus it happens that
+the cunning of criminals is frequently associated with
+almost inconceivable stupidity.
+<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Closely related to the great feeble-minded class,
+and from time to time falling into crime, are the inmates
+of workhouses, tramps, and the unemployable. The
+so-called "able-bodied" inmates of the workhouses
+are frequently found, on medical examination, to be,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+in more than fifty per cent cases, mentally defective,
+equally so whether they are men or women. Tramps,
+by nature and profession, who overlap the workhouse
+population, and are estimated to number 20,000 to 30,000
+in England and Wales, when the genuine unemployed
+are eliminated, are everywhere found to be a very degenerate
+class, among whom the most mischievous kinds
+of feeble-mindedness and mental perversion prevail.
+Inebriates, the people who are chronically and helplessly
+given to drink, largely belong to the same great family,
+and do not so much become feeble-minded because
+they drink, but possess the tendency to drink because
+they have a strain of feeble-mindedness from birth.
+Branthwaite, the chief English authority on this question,
+finds that of the inebriates who come to his notice,
+putting aside altogether the group of actually insane
+persons, about sixty-three per cent are mentally defective,
+and scarcely more than a third of the whole number of
+average mental capacity. It is evident that these people,
+even if restored to sobriety, would still retain their more
+or less inborn defectiveness, and would remain equally,
+unfit to become the parents of the coming generation.</p>
+
+<p>These are the kind of people&mdash;tramps, prostitutes,
+paupers, criminals, inebriates, all tending to be born
+a little defective&mdash;who largely make up the great degenerate
+families whose histories are from time to time
+recorded. Such a family was that of the Jukes in America,
+who, in the course of five generations, by constantly
+intermarrying with bad stocks, produced 709 known
+descendants who were on the whole unfit for society,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+and have been a constant danger and burden to society.
+<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+A still larger family of the same kind, more recently
+studied in Germany, consisted of 834 known persons,
+all descended from a drunken vagabond woman, probably
+somewhat feeble-minded but physically vigorous. The
+great majority of these descendants were prostitutes,
+tramps, paupers, and criminals (some of them murderers),
+and the direct cost in money to the Prussian State
+for the keep and care of this woman and her family
+has been a quarter of a million pounds. Yet another
+such family is that of the "Zeros." Three centuries
+ago they were highly respectable people, living in a
+Swiss valley. But they intermarried with an insane
+stock, and subsequently married other women of an
+unbalanced nature. In recent times 310 members of
+this family have been studied, and it is found that
+vagrancy, feeble-mindedness, mental troubles, criminality,
+pauperism, immorality are, as it may be termed, their
+patrimony.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>These classes, with their tendency to weak-mindedness,
+their inborn laziness, lack of vitality, and unfitness
+for organized activity, contain the people who
+complain that they are starving for want of work, though
+they will never perform any work that is given them.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+Feeble-mindedness is an absolute dead-weight on the
+race. It is an evil that is unmitigated. The heavy
+and complicated social burdens and injuries it inflicts
+on the present generation are without compensation,
+while the unquestionable fact that in any degree it is
+highly inheritable renders it a deteriorating poison
+to the race; it depreciates the quality of a people.
+The task of Social Hygiene which lies before us cannot
+be attempted by this feeble folk. Not only can they
+not share it, but they impede it; their clumsy hands
+are for ever becoming entangled in the delicate mechanism
+of our modern civilization. Their very existence is
+itself an impediment. Apart altogether from the gross
+and obvious burden in money and social machinery
+which the protection they need, and the protection we
+need against them, casts upon the community,
+<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> they
+dilute the spiritual quality of the community to a degree
+which makes it an inapt medium for any high achievement.
+It matters little how small a city or a nation
+is, provided the spirit of its people is great. It is the
+smallest communities that have most powerfully and
+most immortally raised the level of civilization, and
+surrounded the human species (in its own eyes) with
+a halo of glory which belongs to no other species. Only
+a handful of people, hemmed in on every side, created
+the eternal radiance of Athens, and the fame of the
+little city of Florence may outlive that of the whole
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+kingdom of Italy. To realize this truth in the future
+of civilization is one of the first tasks of Social Hygiene.
+<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is here that the ideals of Eugenics may be expected
+to work fruitfully. To insist upon the power of heredity
+was once considered to indicate a fatalistic pessimism.
+It wears a very different aspect nowadays, in the light
+of Eugenics. "To the eugenist," as Davenport observes,
+"heredity stands as the one great hope of the human
+race: its saviour from imbecility, poverty, disease, immorality."
+<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+We cannot, indeed, desire any compulsory
+elimination of the unfit or any centrally regulated breeding
+of the fit.<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+Such notions are idle, and even the mere fact
+that unbalanced brains may air them abroad tends to
+impair the legitimate authority of eugenic ideals. The
+two measures which are now commonly put forward
+for the attainment of eugenic ends&mdash;health certificates
+as a legal preliminary to marriage and the sterilization
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+of the unfit&mdash;are excellent when wisely
+applied, but they become mischievous, if not ridiculous,
+in the hands of fanatics who would employ them by
+force. Domestic animals may be highly bred from outside,
+compulsorily. Man can only be bred upwards from
+within through the medium of his intelligence and will,
+working together under the control of a high sense of
+responsibility. The infinite cunning of men and women
+is fully equal to the defeat of any attempt to touch life
+at this intimate point against the wish of those to whom
+the creation of life is entrusted. The laws of marriage
+even among savages have often been complex and
+strenuous in the highest degree. But it has been easy
+to bear them, for they have been part of the sacred
+and inviolable traditions of the race; religion lay behind
+them. And Galton, who recognized the futility of mere
+legislation in the elevation of the race, believed that the
+hope of the future lies in rendering eugenics a part of
+religion. The only compulsion we can apply in eugenics
+is the compulsion that comes from within. All those in
+whom any fine sense of social and racial responsibility
+is developed will desire, before marriage, to give, and to
+receive, the fullest information on all the matters that
+concern ancestral inheritance, while the registration
+of such information, it is probable, will become ever
+simpler and more a matter of course.
+<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> And if he finds
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+that he is not justified in aiding to carry on the race,
+the eugenist will be content to make himself, in the
+words of Jesus, "a eunuch for the kingdom of Heaven's
+sake," whether, under modern conditions, that means
+abstention in marriage from procreation, or voluntary
+sterilization by operative methods.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> For, as Giddings
+has put it, the goal of the race lies, not in the ruthless
+exaltation of a super-man, but in the evolution of a super-mankind.
+Such a goal can only be reached by resolute
+selection and elimination.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>The breeding of men lies largely in the hands of women.
+That is why the question of Eugenics is to a great extent
+one with the woman question. The realization of eugenics
+in our social life can only be attained with the realization
+of the woman movement in its latest and completest
+phase as an enlightened culture of motherhood, in all
+that motherhood involves alike on the physical and the
+psychic sides. Motherhood on the eugenic basis is a
+deliberate and selective process, calling for the highest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+intelligence as well as the finest emotional and moral
+aptitudes, so that all the best energies of a long evolution
+of womanhood in the paths of modern culture here find
+their final outlet. The breeding of children further
+involves the training of children, and since the expansion
+of Social Hygiene renders education a far larger and
+more delicate task than it has ever been before, the
+responsibilities laid upon women by the evolution of
+civilization become correspondingly great.</p>
+
+<p>For the men who have been thus born and taught
+the tasks imposed by Social Hygiene are in no degree
+lighter. They demand all the best qualities of a selectively
+bred race from which the mentally and physically weak
+have, so far as possible, been bred out. The substitution
+of law for war alike in the relations of class to class,
+and of nation to nation, and the organization of international
+methods of social intercourse between peoples
+of different tongues and unlike traditions, are but two
+typical examples of the tasks, difficult but imperative,
+which Social Hygiene presents and the course of modern
+civilization renders insistent. Again, the adequate
+adjustment of the claims of the individual and the
+claims of the community, each carried to its farthest
+point, can but prove an exquisite test of the quality
+of any well-bred and well-trained race. It is exactly
+in that balancing of apparent opposites, the necessity of
+pushing to extremes both opposites, and the consequent
+need of cultivating that quality of temperance the Greeks
+estimated so highly, that the supreme difficulties of
+modern civilization lie. We see these difficulties again
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+in relation to the extension of law. It is desirable and
+inevitable that the sphere of law should be extended,
+and that the disputes which are still decided by brutal
+and unreasoning force should be decided by humane
+and reasoning force, that is to say, by law. But, side
+by side with this extension of law, it is necessary to wage
+a constant war with the law-making tendency, to cherish
+an undying resolve to maintain unsullied those sacred
+and intimate impulses, all the finest activities of the
+moral sphere, which the generalizing hand of law can
+only injure and stain.</p>
+
+<p>It is these fascinating and impassioning problems,
+every day becoming of more urgent practical importance,
+which it is the task of Social Hygiene to solve, having
+first created the men and women who are fit to solve
+them. It is such problems as these that we are to-day
+called upon to illuminate, as far as we may&mdash;it may
+not yet be very far&mdash;by the dry light of science.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+ Muralt, <i>Lettres sur les Anglais</i>. Lettre V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+In the reign of Richard II (1388) an Act was passed for "the
+punishment of those which cause corruption near a city or great town
+to corrupt the air." A century later (in Henry VII's time) an Act was
+passed to prevent butchers killing beasts in walled towns, the preamble
+to this Act declaring that no noble town in Christendom should contain
+slaughter-houses lest sickness be thus engendered. In Charles II's
+time, after the great fire of London, the law provided for the better
+paving and cleansing of the streets and sewers. It was, however, in
+Italy, as Weyl points out (<i>Geschichte der Sozialen Hygiene im Mittelalter</i>,
+at a meeting of the Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Soziale Medizin, May 25, 1905),
+that the modern movement of organized sanitation began. In the
+thirteenth century the great Italian cities (like Florence and Pistoja)
+possessed <i>Codici Sanitarii</i>; but they were not carried out, and when
+the Black Death reached Florence in 1348, it found the city altogether
+unprepared. It was Venice which, in the same year, first initiated
+vigorous State sanitation. Disinfection was first ordained by Gian
+Visconti, in Milan, in 1399. The first quarantine station of which we
+hear was established in Venice in 1403.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+The rate of infant mortality in England and Wales has decreased
+from 149 per 1000 births in 1871-80 to 127 per 1000 births in 1910.
+In reference to this remarkable fall which has taken place <i>pari passu</i>
+with the fall in the birth-rate, Newsholme, the medical officer to the
+Local Government Board, writes: "There can be no reasonable doubt
+that much of the reduction has been caused by that 'concentration'
+on the mother and the child which has been a striking feature of the
+last few years. Had the experience of 1896-1900 held good there would
+have been 45,120 more deaths of infants in 1910 than actually occurred."
+In some parts of the country, however, where the women go out to
+work in factories (as in Lancashire and parts of Staffordshire) the infantile
+mortality remains very high.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+Mrs. Bertrand Russell, "The Ghent School for Mothers," <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, December, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+It is scarcely necessary to say that other classifications of social
+reform on its more hygienic side may be put forward. Thus W.H.
+Allen, looking more narrowly at the sanitary side of the matter, but
+without confining his consideration to the nineteenth century, finds
+that there are always seven stages: (1) that of racial tutelage, when
+sanitation becomes conscious and receives the sanction of law; (2) the
+introduction of sanitary comfort, well-paved streets, public sewers,
+extensive waterworks; (3) the period of commercial sanitation,
+when the mercantile classes insist upon such measures as quarantine
+and street-cleaning to check the immense ravages of epidemics; (4) the
+introduction of legislation against nuisances and the tendency to
+extend the definition of nuisance, which for Bracton, in the fourteenth
+century, meant an obstruction, and for Blackstone, in the eighteenth,
+included things otherwise obnoxious, such as offensive trades and foul
+watercourses; (5) the stage of precaution against the dangers incidental
+to the slums that are fostered by modern conditions of industry;
+(6) the stage of philanthropy, erecting hospitals, model tenements,
+schools, etc.; (7) the stage of socialistic sanitation, when the community
+as a whole actively seeks its own sanitary welfare, and devotes public
+funds to this end.<br /> (W.H. Allen, "Sanitation and Social Progress,"
+<i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, March, 1903.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+Dr. F. Bushee has pointed out ("Science and Social Progress,"
+<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, September, 1911) that there is a kind of related
+progression between science and practice in this matter: "The natural
+sciences developed first, because man was first interested in the conquest
+of nature, and the simpler physical laws could be grasped at
+an early period. This period brought an increase of wealth, but it
+was wasteful of human life. The desire to save life led the way
+to the study of biology. Knowledge of the physical environment
+and of life, however, did not prevent social disease from flourishing,
+and did not greatly improve the social condition of a large part of
+society. To overcome these defects the social sciences within recent
+years have been cultivated with great seriousness. Interest in the
+social sciences has had to wait for the enlarged sympathies and the
+sense of solidarity which has appeared with the growing interdependence
+of dense populations, and these conditions have been dependent
+upon the advance of the other sciences. With the cultivation of the
+social sciences, the chain of knowledge will be complete, at least so
+far as the needs which have already appeared are concerned. For
+each group of sciences will solve one or more of the great problems
+which man has encountered in the process of development. The
+physical sciences will solve the problems of environment, the biological
+sciences the problems of life, and the social sciences the problems of
+society."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+This exclusive pre-occupation with the improvement of the environment
+has been termed Euthenics by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, who has
+written a book with this title, advocating euthenics in opposition to
+eugenics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+Not one of the four stages of social reform already summarized
+can be neglected. On the contrary, they all need to be still further
+consolidated in a completely national organization of health. I may
+perhaps refer to the little book on <i>The Nationalization of Health</i>, in
+which, many years ago, I foreshadowed this movement, as well
+as to the recent work of Professor Benjamin Moore on the same
+subject. The gigantic efforts of Germany, and later of England, to
+establish National Insurance systems, bear noble witness to the ardour
+with which these two countries, at all events, are moving towards the
+desired goal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+In some countries, however, the decline, although traceable about
+1876, only began to be pronounced somewhat later, in Austria in 1883,
+in the German Empire, Hungary and Italy in 1885, and in Prussia
+in 1886. Most of these countries, though late in following the
+modern movement of civilization initiated by France, are rapidly
+making their way in the same direction. Thus the birth-rate in Berlin
+is already as low as that of Paris ten years ago, although the French
+decline began at a very early period. In Norway, again, the decline
+was not marked until 1900, but the birth-rate has nevertheless already
+fallen as low as that of Sweden, where the fall began very much earlier.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+"Foresight and self-control is, and always must be, the ground
+and medium of all Moral Socialism," says Bosanquet (<i>The Civilization
+of Christendom</i>, p. 336), using the term "Socialism" in the wide and not
+in the economic sense. We see the same civilized growth of foresight
+and self-control in the decrease of drunkenness. Thus in England the
+number of convictions for drunkenness, while varying greatly in different
+parts of the country, is decreasing for the whole country at the
+rapid rate of 5000 to 8000 a year, notwithstanding the constant growth
+of the population. It is incorrect to suppose that this decrease has any
+connection with decreased opportunities for drinking; thus in London
+County and in Cardiff the proportion of premises licensed for drinking
+is the same, yet while the convictions for drunkenness in 1910 were
+in London 83 per 10,000 inhabitants, in Cardiff they were under 6
+per 10,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+Thus Heron finds that in London during the past fifty years there
+has been 100 per cent increase in the intensity of the relation between
+low social birth and high birth-rate, and that the high birth-rate of
+the lower social classes is not fully compensated by their high death-rate
+(D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social
+Status," <i>Drapers' Company Research Memoirs</i>, No. I, 1906). As,
+however, Newsholme and Stevenson point out (<i>Journal Royal Statistical
+Society</i>, April, 1906, p. 74), the net addition to the population
+made by the best social classes is at so very slightly lower a rate than
+that made by the poorest class that, even if we consent to let the
+question rest on this ground, there is still no urgent need for the
+wailings of Cassandra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>
+Sociological Papers</i> of the Sociological Society, 1904, p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+There is a certain profit in studying one's own ancestry. It has
+been somewhat astonishing to me to find how very slight are the social
+oscillations traceable in a middle-class family and the families it
+intermarries with through several centuries. A professional family
+tends to form a caste marrying within that caste. An ambitious member
+of the family may marry a baronet's daughter, and another, less
+pretentious, a village tradesman's daughter; but the general level is
+maintained without rising or falling. Occasionally, it happens that the
+ambitious and energetic son of a prosperous master-craftsman becomes
+a professional man, marries into the professional caste, and
+founds a professional family; such a family seems to flourish for some
+three generations, and then suddenly fails and dies out in the male
+line, while the vigour of the female line is not impaired.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+The new social adjustment of a family, it is probable, is always
+difficult, and if the change is sudden or extreme, the new environment
+may rapidly prove fatal to the family. Lorenz (<i>Lehrbuch der Genealogie</i>,
+p. 135) has shown that when a peasant family reaches an upper social
+class it dies out in a few generations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+See, on this point, Reibmayr, <i>Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes
+und Genies</i>, Vol. I, ch. <span class="smcap">vii</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+Fahlbeck, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+Regeneration implies that there has been degeneration, and it
+cannot be positively affirmed that such degeneration has, on the whole,
+occurred in such a manner as to affect the race. Reibmayr (<i>Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies</i>, Bd. I, p. 400) regards
+degeneration as a process setting in with urbanization and the tendency
+to diminished population; if so, it is but another name for civilization,
+and can only be condemned by condemning civilization, whether or
+not physical deterioration occurs. The Inter-departmental Commission
+on Physical Deterioration held in 1904, in London, concluded that
+there are no sufficient statistical or other data to prove that the physique
+of the people in the present, as compared with the past, has undergone
+any change; and this conclusion was confirmed by the Director-General
+of the Army Medical Service. There is certainly good reason
+to believe that urban populations (and especially industrial workers in
+factories) are inferior in height and weight and general development
+to rural populations, and less fit for military or similar service. The
+stunted development of factory workers in the East End of London
+was noted nearly a century ago, and German military experience
+distinctly shows the inferiority of the town-dweller to the country-dweller.
+(See e.g. Weyl, <i>Handbuch der Hygiene</i>, Supplement, Bd. IV,
+pp. 746 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>Politisch-Anthropologische Revue</i>,
+1905, pp. 145 <i>et seq.</i>)
+The proportion of German youths fit for military service slowly decreases
+every year; in 1909 it was 53.6 per cent, in 1910 only 53 per
+cent; of those born in the country and engaged in agricultural or
+forest work 58.2 were found fit; of those born in the country and
+engaged in other industries, 55.1 per cent; of those born in towns,
+but engaged in agricultural or forest work, 56.2 per cent; of those
+born in towns and engaged in other industries 47.9 per cent. It is
+fairly clear that this deterioration under urban and industrial conditions
+cannot properly be termed a racial degeneration. It is, moreover,
+greatly improved even by a few months' training, and there is an immense
+difference between the undeveloped, feeble, half-starved
+recruit from the slums and the robust, broad-shouldered veteran when
+he leaves the army. The term "aggeneration"&mdash;not beyond criticism,
+though it is free from the objection to "regeneration"&mdash;was proposed
+by Prof. Christian von Ehrenfels ("Die Aufsteigende Entwicklung
+des Menschen," <i>Politisch-Anthropologische Revue</i>, April, 1903, p. 50).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+It is unnecessary to touch here on the question of infant mortality,
+which has already been referred to, and will again come in for consideration
+in a later chapter. It need only be said that a high birth-rate
+is inextricably combined with a high death-rate. The European countries
+with the highest birth-rates are, in descending order: Russia,
+Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, and Hungary. The European countries
+with the highest death-rates are, in descending order, almost the same:
+Russia, Hungary, Spain, Bulgaria, and Servia, It is the same outside
+Europe. Thus Chile, with a birth-rate which comes next after Roumania,
+has a death-rate that is only second to Russia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+Nystr&ouml;m (<i>La Vie Sexuelle</i>, 1910, p. 248) believes that "the time
+is coming when it will be considered the duty of municipal authorities,
+if they have found by experience or have reason to suspect that children
+will be thrown upon the parish, to instruct parents in methods of
+preventive conception."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+The directly unfavourable influences on the child of too short an
+interval between its birth and that of the previous child has been shown,
+for instance, by Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age on
+Offspring," <i>Eugenics Review</i>, October, 1911). He has found at Middlesbrough
+that children born at an interval of less than two years after
+the birth of the previous child still show at the age of six a notable
+deficiency in height, weight, and intelligence, when compared with
+children born after a longer interval, or with first-born children.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+<i>Tatler</i>, Vol. II, No. 175, 1709.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+"Write Man for Primula, and the stage of the world for that
+of the greenhouse," says Professor Bateson (<i>Biological Fact and the
+Structure of Society</i>, 1912, p. 9), "and I believe that with a few generations
+of experimental breeding we should acquire the power similarly
+to determine how the varieties of men should be represented in the
+generations that succeed." But Bateson proceeds to point out that our
+knowledge is still very inadequate, and he is opposed to eugenics
+by Act of Parliament.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+E. Solmi, <i>La Citt&agrave; del Sole di Campanella</i>, 1904, p. xxxiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+Only a year before his death Galton wrote (Preface to <i>Essays in
+Eugenics</i>): "The power by which Eugenic reform must chiefly be
+effected is that of Popular Opinion, which is amply strong enough for
+that purpose whenever it shall be roused."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+It may perhaps be necessary to remark that by sterilization is here
+meant, not castration, but, in the male vasectomy (and a corresponding
+operation in the female), a simple and harmless operation which involves
+no real mutilation and no loss of power beyond that of
+procreation. See on this and related points, Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies in
+the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap.
+<span class="smcap">xii</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+ The term "feeble-minded" may be used generally to cover all
+degrees of mental weakness. In speaking a little more precisely, however,
+we have to recognize three main degrees of congenital mental
+weakness: <i>feeble-mindedness</i>, in which with care and supervision it is
+possible to work and earn a livelihood; <i>imbecility</i>, in which the subject
+is barely able to look after himself, and sometimes only has enough
+intelligence to be mischievous (the moral imbecile); and <i>idiocy</i>, the
+lowest depth of all, in which the subject has no intelligence and no
+ability to look after himself. More elaborate classifications are sometimes
+proposed. The method of Binet and Simon renders possible
+a fairly exact measurement of feeble-mindedness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+Mott (<i>Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry</i>, Vol. V, 1911) accepts
+the view that in some cases feeble-mindedness is simply a form of
+congenital syphilis, but he points out that feeble-mindedness abounds
+in many rural districts where syphilis, as well as alcoholism, is very
+rare, and concludes by emphasizing the influence of heredity; the
+prevalence of feeble-mindedness in these rural districts is thus due
+to the fact that the mentally and physically fit have emigrated to the
+great industrial centres, leaving the unfit to procreate the race.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+"Whether germinal variations," remarked Dr. R.J. Ryle at a
+Conference on Feeble-mindedness (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, October 3,
+1911), "be expressed by cleft palate, cataract, or cerebral deficiency of
+the pyramidal cells in the brain cortex, they may be produced, and,
+when once produced, they are reproduced as readily as the perfected
+structure of the face or eye or brain, if the gametes which contain these
+potentialities unite to form the ovum. But Nature is not only the
+producer. Given a fair field and no favour, natural selection would
+leave no problem of the unfit to perplex the mind of man who looks
+before and after. This we know cannot be, and we know, too, that
+we have no longer the excuse of ignorance to cover the neglect of the
+new duties which belong to the present epoch of civilization. We know
+now that we have to deal with a growing group in our community
+who demand permanent care and control as well for their own sakes
+as for the welfare of the community. All are now agreed on the general
+principle of segregation, but it is true that something more than this
+should be forthcoming. The difficulties of theory are clearing up as
+our wider view obtains a firmer grasp of our material, but the difficulties
+of practice are still before us." These remarks correspond with the
+general results reached by the Royal Commission on the Feeble-minded,
+which issued its voluminous facts and conclusions in 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_29">
+<span class="label">[29]</span></a> See, for instance, A.F. Tredgold,
+<i>Mental Deficiency</i>, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+The investigation of Bezzola showing that the maxima in the conception
+of idiots occur at carnival time, and especially at the vintage,
+has been held (especially by Forel) to indicate that alcoholism of the
+parents at conception causes idiocy in the offspring. It may be so.
+But it may also be that the licence of these periods enables the defective
+members of the community to secure an amount of sexual activity
+which they would be debarred from under normal conditions. In that
+case the alcoholism would merely liberate, and not create, the idiocy-producing
+mechanism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Godden,
+<i>Eugenics Review</i>, April, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+Feeble-mindedness and the other allied variations are not always
+exactly repeated in inheritance. They may be transmuted in passing
+from father to son, an epileptic father, for instance, having a feeble-minded
+child. These relationships of feeble-mindedness have been
+clearly brought out in an important investigation by Davenport and
+Weeks (<i>Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>, November, 1911),
+who have for the first time succeeded in obtaining a large number
+of really thorough and precise pedigrees of such cases.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
+It may be as well to point out once more that the possibility of such
+limited depreciation must not be construed into the statement that there
+has been any general "degeneration of the race." It maybe added that
+the notion that the golden age lay in the past, and that our own age is degenerate
+is not confined to a few biometricians of to-day; it has commended
+itself to uncritical minds in all ages, even the greatest, as far back
+as we can go. Montesquieu referred to this common notion (and attempted
+to explain it) in his <i>Pens&eacute;es Diverses</i>: "Men have such a bad opinion
+of themselves," he adds, "that they have believed not only that their
+minds and souls were degenerate, but even their bodies, and that they
+were not so tall as the men of previous ages." It is thus quite logically
+that we arrive at the belief that when mankind first appeared, "there
+were giants on the earth in those days," and that Adam lived to the
+age of nine hundred and thirty. Evidently no syndromes of degenerescence
+there!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
+The Superintendent of a large State School for delinquent girls in
+America (as quoted in the Chicago Vice Commission's Report on <i>The
+Social Evil in Chicago</i>, p. 229) says: "The girls who come to us possessed
+of normal brain power, or not infected with venereal disease,
+we look upon as a prize indeed, and we seldom fail to make a woman
+worth while of a really normal girl, whatever her environment has been.
+But we have failed in numberless cases where the environment has been
+all right, but the girl was born wrong."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+See e.g. Havelock Ellis, <i>The Criminal</i>, 4th ed., 1910, chap
+<span class="smcap">IV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
+R.L. Dugdale, <i>The Jukes</i>, 4th ed., 1910. It is noteworthy that
+Dugdale, who wrote nearly forty years ago, was concerned to prove
+the influence of bad environment rather than of bad heredity. At that
+time the significance of heredity was scarcely yet conceived. It remains
+true, however, that bad heredity and bad environment constantly
+work together for evil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
+ J&ouml;rger, <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Rassen-und Gesellschafts-Biologie</i>, 1905, p. 294.
+Criminal families are also recorded by Aubry,
+<i>La Contagion du Meutre</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
+ Even during school life this burden is serious. Mr. Bodey, Inspector
+of Schools, states that the defective school child costs three
+times as much as the ordinary school child.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>
+I have set forth these considerations more fully in a popular form in
+<i>The Problem of the Regeneration of the Race</i>, the first of a series of "New
+Tracts for the Times," issued under the auspices of the National Council
+of Public Morals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
+C.B. Davenport, "Euthenics and Eugenics," <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>, January, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
+The use of the terms "fit" and "unfit" in a eugenic sense has
+been criticized. It is said, for instance, that in a bad environment
+it may be precisely the defective classes who are most "fit" to survive.
+It is quite true that these terms are not well adapted to resist hyper-critical
+attack. The persistence with which they are employed seems,
+however, to indicate a certain "survival of the fittest." The terms
+"worthy" and "unworthy," which some would prefer to substitute,
+are unsatisfactory, for they have moral associations which are misleading.
+Galton spoke of "civic worth" in this connection, and very
+occasionally used the term "worthy" (with inverted commas), but
+he was careful to point out (<i>Essays in Eugenics</i>, p. 35) that in eugenics
+"we must leave morals as far as possible out of the discussion, not
+entangling ourselves with the almost hopeless difficulties they raise
+as to whether a character as a whole is good or bad."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>
+Dr. Toulouse has devoted a whole volume to the results of a minute
+personal examination of Zola, the novelist, and another to Poincar&eacute;, the
+mathematician. Such minute investigations are at present confined
+to men of genius, but some day, perhaps, we shall consider that from
+the eugenic standpoint all men are men of genius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>
+Sterilization for social ends was introduced in Switzerland a few
+years ago, in order to enable some persons with impaired self-control
+to be set at liberty and resume work without the risk of adding to the
+population defective members who would probably be a burden on the
+community. It was performed with the consent of the subjects (in
+some cases at their urgent request) and their relations, so requiring
+no special legislation, and the results are said to be satisfactory. In
+some American States sterilization for some classes of defective persons
+has been established by statute, but it is difficult to obtain reliable
+information as regards the working and the results of such legislation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>
+When Professor Giddings speaks of the "goal of mankind," it
+must, of course, be remembered, he is using a bold metaphor in order
+to make his meaning clearer. Strictly speaking, mankind has no
+"goals," nor are there any ends in Nature which are not means to
+further ends.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPII" id="CHAPII">II</a></h3>
+
+<h3>THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN
+<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Origin of the Woman Movement&mdash;Mary Wollstonecraft&mdash;George
+Sand&mdash;Robert Owen&mdash;William Thompson&mdash;John Stuart Mill&mdash;The
+Modern Growth of Social Cohesion&mdash;The Growth of Industrialism&mdash;Its
+Influence in Woman's Sphere of Work&mdash;The Education of
+Women&mdash;Co-education&mdash;The Woman Question and Sexual Selection&mdash;Significance
+of Economic Independence&mdash;The State Regulation of
+Marriage&mdash;The Future of Marriage&mdash;Wilhelm von Humboldt&mdash;Social
+Equality of Women&mdash;The Reproduction of the Race as a
+Function of Society&mdash;Women and the Future of Civilization.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>It was in the eighteenth century, the seed-time of
+modern ideas, that our great-grandfathers became
+conscious of a discordant break in the traditional
+conceptions of women's status. The vague cries of
+Justice, Freedom, Equality, which were then hurled
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+about the world, were here and there energetically
+applied to women&mdash;notably in France by Condorcet&mdash;and
+a new movement began to grow self-conscious
+and coherent. Mary Wollstonecraft, after Aphra Behn
+the first really noteworthy Englishwoman of letters,
+gave voice to this movement in England.</p>
+
+<p>The famous and little-read <i>Vindication of the Rights
+of Women</i>, careless and fragmentary as it is, and by no
+means so startling to us as to her contemporaries, shows
+Mary Wollstonecraft as a woman of genuine insight,
+who saw the questions of woman's social condition
+in their essential bearings. Her intuitions need little
+modification, even though a century of progress has
+intervened. The modern advocates of woman's suffrage
+have little to add to her brief statement. She is far,
+indeed, from the monstrous notion of Miss Cobbe, that
+woman's suffrage is the "crown and completion" of
+all progress so far as women's movements are concerned.
+She looks upon it rather as one of the reasonable conditions
+of progress. It is pleasant to turn from the
+eccentric energy of so many of the advocates of women's
+causes to-day, all engaged in crying up their own particular
+nostrum, to the genial many-sided wisdom of
+Mary Wollstonecraft, touching all subjects with equal
+frankness and delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>The most brilliant and successful exponent of the
+new revolutionary ideas&mdash;making Corinne and her
+prototype seem dim and ineffectual&mdash;was undoubtedly
+George Sand. The badly-dressed woman who earned
+her living by scribbling novels, and said to M. du Camp,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+as she sat before him in silence rolling her cigarette,
+"Je ne dis rien parceque je suis b&ecirc;te," has exercised
+a profound influence throughout Europe, an influence
+which, in the Sclavonic countries especially, has helped
+to give impetus to the resolution we are now considering.
+And this not so much from any definite doctrines that
+underlie her work&mdash;for George Sand's views on such
+matters varied as much as her political views&mdash;as from
+her whole temper and attitude. Her large and rich
+nature, as sometimes happens in genius of a high order,
+was twofold; on the one hand, she possessed a solid
+serenity, a quiet sense of power, the qualities of a <i>bonne
+bourgeoise</i>, which found expression in her imperturbable
+calm, her gentle look and low voice. And with this was
+associated a massive, almost Rabelaisian temperament
+(one may catch glimpses of it in her correspondence),
+a sane exuberant earthliness which delighted in every
+manifestation of the actual world. On the other hand,
+she bore within her a volcanic element of revolt, an
+immense disgust of law and custom. Throughout her
+life George Sand developed her strong and splendid
+individuality, not perhaps as harmoniously, but as
+courageously and as sincerely as even Goethe.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Owen, who, like Saint-Simon in France,
+gave so extraordinary an impulse to all efforts at social
+reorganization, and who planted the seed of many
+modern movements, could not fail to extend his influence
+to the region of sex. A disciple of his, William
+Thompson, who still holds a distinguished position in
+the history of the economic doctrines of Socialism,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+wrote, under the inspiration of a woman (a Mrs. Wheeler),
+and published in 1825, an <i>Appeal of One Half of the Human
+Race, Women, against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men,
+to retain them in Political, and thence in Civil and Domestic
+Slavery</i>. It is a thorough and logical, almost eloquent,
+demand for the absolute social equality of the sexes.
+<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Forty years later, Mill, also inspired by a woman,
+published his <i>Subjection of Women</i>. However partial
+and inadequate it may seem to us, this was at that
+day a notable book. Mill's clear vision and feminine
+sensibilities gave freshness to his observations regarding
+the condition and capacity of women, while his reputation
+imparted gravity and resonance to his utterances.
+Since then the signs in literature of the breaking up of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the status of women have become far too numerous
+to be chronicled even in a volume. It is enough to have
+mentioned here some typical initiatory names. Now,
+the movement may be seen at work anywhere, from
+Norway to Italy, from Russia to California. The status
+which women are now entering places them, not, as in
+the old communism, in large measure practically above
+men, nor, as in the subsequent period, both practically
+and theoretically in subordination to men. It places
+them side by side, with like rights and like duties in relation
+to society.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>Condorcet, Mary Wollstonecraft, George Sand, Owen,
+Mill&mdash;these were feathers on the stream. They indicated
+the forces that had their source at the centre of social
+life. That historical movement which produced mother-law
+probably owed its rise, as well as its fall, to demands
+of subsistence and property&mdash;that is, to economic causes.
+The decay of the subsequent family system, in which
+the whole power is concentrated in the male head,
+is being produced by similar causes. The early
+communism, and the modes of action and sentiment
+which it had produced, still practically persisted long
+after the new system had arisen. In the patriarchal
+family the woman still had a recognized sphere of work
+and a recognized right to subsistence. It was not,
+indeed, until the sudden development of the industrial
+system, and the purely individualistic economics with
+which it was associated, at the beginning of the nineteenth
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+century, that women in England were forced to realize
+that their household industries were gone, and that they
+must join in that game of competition in which the field
+and the rules had alike been chosen with reference to
+men alone. The commercial and industrial system,
+and the general diffusion of education that has
+accompanied it, and which also has its roots in economic
+causes, has been the chief motive force in revolutionizing
+the status of women; and the epoch of unrestricted
+competition on masculine lines has been a necessary
+period of transition.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>At the present time two great tendencies are visible
+in our social organization. On the one hand, the threads
+of social life are growing closer, and organization, as
+regards the simple and common means of subsistence,
+is increasing. On the other hand, as regards the things
+that most closely concern the individual person, the
+sphere of freedom is being perpetually enlarged. Instead
+of every man digging a well for his own use and at his
+own free pleasure, perhaps in a graveyard or a cesspool,
+we consent to the distribution of water by a central
+executive. We have carried social methods so far that,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+instead of producing our own bread and butter, we
+prefer to go to a common bakery and dairy. The same
+centralizing methods are extending to all those things
+of which all have equal need. On the other hand, we
+exercise a very considerable freedom of individual
+thought. We claim a larger and larger freedom of
+individual speech and criticism. We worship any god
+we choose, after any fashion we choose. The same
+individual freedom is beginning to invade the sexual
+relationships. It is extending to all those things in
+regard to which civilized men have become so variously
+differentiated that they have no equal common needs.
+These two tendencies, so far from being antagonistic,
+cannot even be carried out under modern conditions
+of life except together. It is only by social co-operation
+in regard to what is commonly called the physical side
+of life that it becomes possible for the individual to
+develop his own peculiar nature. The society of the
+future is a reasonable anarchy founded on a broad basis
+of Collectivism.</p>
+
+<p>It is not our object here to point out how widely
+these tendencies affect men, but it is worth while to
+indicate some of their bearings on the condition of
+women. While genuine productive industries have
+been taken out of the hands of women who work under
+the old conditions, an increasingly burdensome weight
+of unnecessary duties has been laid upon them. Under
+the old communistic system, when a large number of
+families lived together in one great house, the women
+combined to perform their household duties, the cooking
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+being done at a common fire. They had grown up together
+from childhood, and combination could be effected
+without friction. It is the result of the later system
+that the woman has to perform all the necessary household
+duties in the most wasteful manner, with least
+division of labour; while she has, in addition, to perform
+a great amount of unnecessary work, in obedience to
+traditional or conventional habits, which make it impossible
+even to perform the simple act of dusting the
+rooms of a small house in less than perhaps an hour
+and a half. She has probably also to accomplish, if
+she happens to belong to the middle or upper classes,
+an idle round of so-called "social duties." She tries
+to escape, when she can afford it, by adopting the apparently
+simple expedient of paying other people to
+perform these necessary and unnecessary household
+duties, but this expedient fails; the "social duties"
+increase in the same ratio as the servants increase
+and the task of overseeing these latter itself proves
+formidable. It is quite impossible for any person under
+these conditions to lead a reasonable and wholesome
+human life. A healthy life is more difficult to attain
+for the woman of the ordinary household than for the
+worker in a mine, for he at least, when the work of his
+set is over, has two-thirds of the twenty-four hours
+to himself. The woman is bound by a thousand Lilliputian
+threads from which there seems no escape. She
+often makes frantic efforts to escape, but the combined
+strength of the threads generally proves too strong.
+There can be no doubt that the present household
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+system is doomed; the higher standard of intelligence
+demanded from women, the growth of interest in the
+problems of domestic economy, the movement for
+association of labour, the revolt against the survivals
+of barbaric complication in living&mdash;all these, which
+are symptoms of a great economic revolution, indicate,
+the approach of a new period.</p>
+
+<p>The education of women is an essential part of the
+great movement we are considering. Women will shortly
+be voters, and women, at all events in England, are
+in a majority. We have to educate our mistresses
+as we once had to educate our masters. And the word
+"education" is here used by no means in the narrow
+sense. A woman may be acquainted with Greek and the
+higher mathematics, and be as uneducated in the wider
+relationships of life as a man in the like case. How
+much women suffer from this lack of education may be
+seen to-day even among those who are counted as leaders.</p>
+
+<p>There are extravagances in every period of transition.
+Undoubtedly a potent factor in bringing about a saner
+attitude will be the education of boys and girls together.
+The lack of early fellowship fosters an unnatural divergence
+of aims and ideals, and a consequent lack of
+sympathy. It makes possible those abundant foolish
+generalizations by men concerning "women," by women
+concerning "men." St. Augustine, at an early period
+of his ardent career, conceived with certain friends
+the notion of forming a community having goods in
+common; the scheme was almost effected when it
+was discovered that "those little wives, which some
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[48]</a></span>
+already had, and others would shortly have," objected,
+and so it fell through. Perhaps the <i>muliercul&aelig;</i> were
+right. It is simply a rather remote instance of a fundamental
+divergence amply illustrated before our eyes.
+If men and women are to understand each other, to enter
+into each other's natures with mutual sympathy, and
+to become capable of genuine comradeship, the foundation
+must be laid in youth. Another wholesome reform,
+promoted by co-education, is the physical education
+of women. In the case of boys special attention has
+generally been given to physical education, and the lack
+of it is one among several artificial causes of that chronic
+ill-health which so often handicaps women. Women
+must have the same education as men, Miss Faithfull
+shrewdly observes, because that is sure to be the best.
+The present education of boys cannot, however, be
+counted a model, and the gradual introduction of co-education
+will produce many wholesome reforms. If
+the intimate association of the sexes destroys what
+remnant may linger of the unhealthy ideal of chivalry&mdash;according
+to which a woman was treated as a cross between
+an angel and an idiot&mdash;that is matter for rejoicing.
+Wherever men and women stand in each other's presence
+the sexual instinct will always ensure an adequate ideal
+halo.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<p>The chief question that we have to ask when we
+consider the changing status of women is: How will
+it affect the reproduction of the race? Hunger and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+love are the two great motor impulses, the ultimate
+source, probably, of all other impulses. Hunger&mdash;that
+is to say, what we call "economic causes"&mdash;has, because
+it is the more widespread and constant, though
+not necessarily the more imperious instinct, produced
+nearly all the great zoological revolutions, including,
+as we have seen, the rise and fall of that phase of human
+evolution dominated by mother-law. Yet love has,
+in the form of sexual selection, even before we reach
+the vertebrates, moulded races to the ideal of the female;
+and reproduction is always the chief end of nutrition
+which hunger waits on, the supreme aim of life everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>If we place on the one side man, as we know him
+during the historical period, and on the other, nearly
+every highly organized member of the animal family,
+there appears, speaking roughly and generally, a distinct
+difference in the relation which these two motor impulses
+bear to each other. Among animals generally,
+economics are comparatively so simple that it is possible
+to satisfy the nutritive instinct without putting any
+hard pressure on the spontaneous play of the reproductive
+instinct. And nearly everywhere it is the female
+who has the chief voice in the establishment of sexual
+relationships. The males compete for the favour of
+the female by the fascination of their odour, or brilliant
+colour, or song, or grace, or strength, as revealed in what
+are usually mock-combats. The female is, in these
+respects, comparatively unaccomplished and comparatively
+passive. With her rests the final decision, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+only after long hesitation, influenced, it seems, by a
+vaguely felt ideal resulting from her contemplation
+of the rivals, she calls the male of her choice.
+<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> A dim
+instinct seems to warn her of the pains and cares of
+maternity, so that only the largest promises of pleasure
+can induce her to undertake the function of reproduction.
+In civilized man, on the other hand, as we know him,
+the situation is to some extent reversed; it is the woman
+who, by the display of her attractions, competes for the
+favour of the man. The final invitation does not come,
+as among animals generally, from the female; the decision
+rests with the man. It would be a mistake to
+suppose that this change reveals the evolution of a
+superior method; although it has developed the beauty
+of women, it has clearly had its origin in economic
+causes. The demands of nutrition have overridden
+those of reproduction; sexual selection has, to a large
+extent, given place to natural selection, a process clearly
+not for the advantage of the race. The changing status
+of women, in bestowing economic independence, will
+certainly tend to restore to sexual selection its due weight
+in human development.</p>
+
+<p>In so doing it will certainly tend also to destroy
+prostitution, which is simply one of the forms in which
+the merging of sexual selection in natural selection
+has shown itself. Wherever sexual selection has free
+play, unhampered by economic considerations, prostitution
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+is impossible. The dominant type of marriage
+is, like prostitution, founded on economic considerations;
+the woman often marries chiefly to earn her living;
+here, too, we may certainly expect profound modifications.
+We have long sought to preserve our social
+balance by placing an unreasonable licence in the one
+scale, an equally unreasonable abstinence in the other;
+the economic independence of women, tending to render
+both extremes unnecessary, can alone place the sexual
+relationships on a sound and free basis.</p>
+
+<p>The State regulation of marriage has undoubtedly
+played a large and important part in the evolution of
+society. At the present time the advantages of this
+artificial control no longer appear so obvious (even
+when the evidence of the law courts is put aside); they
+will vanish altogether when women have attained
+complete economic independence. With the disappearance
+of the artificial barriers in the way of friendship
+between the sexes and of the economic motive to sexual
+relationships&mdash;perhaps the two chief forces which now
+tend to produce promiscuous sexual intercourse, whether
+dignified or not with the name of marriage&mdash;men and
+women will be free to engage, unhampered, in the search,
+so complicated in a highly civilized condition of society,
+for a fitting mate.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+It is probable that this inevitable change will be
+brought about partly by the voluntary action of individuals,
+and in greater measure by the gradual and
+awkward method of shifting and ever freer divorce
+laws. The slow disintegration of State-regulated marriage
+from the latter cause may be observed now throughout the
+United States, where there is, on the whole, a developing
+tendency to frequency and facility of divorce. It is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+clear, however, that on this line marriage will not cease
+to be a concern to the State, and it may be as well to
+point out at once the important distinction between
+State-<i>regulated</i> and State-<i>registered</i> marriage. Sexual
+relationships, so long as they do not result in the production
+of children, are matters in which the community
+has, as a community, little or no concern, but as soon
+as a sexual relationship results in the pregnancy of the
+woman the community is at once interested. At this
+point it is clearly the duty of the State to register the
+relationship.<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remember that the kind of equality
+of the sexes towards which this change of status is leading,
+is social equality&mdash;that is, equality of freedom.
+It is not an intellectual equality, still less is it likeness.
+Men and women can only be alike mentally when they
+are alike in physical configuration and physiological
+function. Even complete economic equality is not
+attainable. Among animals which live in herds under
+the guidance of a leader, this leader is nearly always
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+a male; there are few exceptions.<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In woman, the long
+period of pregnancy and lactation, and the prolonged
+helplessness of her child, render her for a considerable
+period of her life economically dependent. On whom
+shall she be dependent? This is a question of considerable
+moment. According to the old conception of the
+family, all the members were slaves producing for the
+benefit of the owner, and it was natural that the wife
+should be supported by the husband when she is producing
+slaves for his service. But this conception is,
+as we have seen, no longer possible. It is clearly unfair
+also to compel the mother to depend on her own previous
+exertions. The reproduction of the race is a social
+function, and we are compelled to conclude that it is
+the duty of the community, as a community, to provide
+for the child-bearer when in the exercise of her social
+function she is unable to provide for herself. The woman
+engaged in producing a new member, who may be a
+source of incalculable profit or danger to the whole
+community, cannot fail to be a source of the liveliest
+solicitude to everyone in the community, and it was
+a sane and beautiful instinct that found expression
+of old in the permission accorded to a pregnant woman
+to enter gardens and orchards, and freely help herself.
+Whether this instinct will ever again be embodied in
+a new form, and the reproduction of the race be recognized
+as truly a social function, is a question which even yet
+lacks actuality. The care of the child-bearer and her
+child will at present continue to be a matter for individual
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+arrangement. That it will be arranged much better
+than at present we may reasonably hope. On the one
+hand, the reckless multiplication of children will probably
+be checked; on the other hand, a large body of women
+will no longer be shut out from maternity. That the
+state should undertake the regulation of the birth-rate
+we can scarcely either desire or anticipate. Undoubtedly
+the community has an abstract right to limit the number
+of its members. It may be pointed out, however, that
+under rational conditions of life the process would probably
+be self-regulating; in the human races, and also
+among animals generally, fertility diminishes as the
+organism becomes highly developed. And, without
+falling back on any natural law, it may be said that
+the extravagant procreation of children, leading to
+suffering both to parents and offspring, carried on under
+existing social conditions, is largely the result of ignorance,
+largely of religious or other superstition. A more developed
+social state would not be possible at all unless
+the social instincts were strong enough to check the
+reckless multiplication of offspring. Richardson and
+others appear to advocate the special cultivation of
+a class of non-childbearing women. Certainly no woman
+who freely chose should be debarred from belonging to
+such a class. But reproduction is the end and aim of all
+life everywhere, and in order to live a humanly complete
+life, every healthy woman should have, not sexual
+relationships only, but the exercise at least once in her
+life of the supreme function of maternity, and the
+possession of those experiences which only maternity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+can give. That unquestionably is the claim of natural
+and reasonable living in the social state towards which
+we are moving.</p>
+
+<p>To deal with the social organization of the future
+would be to pass beyond the limits that I have here
+set myself, and to touch on matters of which it is impossible
+to speak with certainty. The new culture
+of women, in the light and the open air, will doubtless
+solve many matters which now are dark to us. Morgan
+supposed that it was in some measure the failure of the
+Greeks and Romans to develop their womanhood which
+brought the speedy downfall of classic civilization.
+The women of the future will help to renew art and
+science as well as life. They will do more even than this,
+for the destiny of the race rests with women. "I have
+sometimes thought," Whitman wrote in his <i>Democratic
+Vistas</i>, "that the sole avenue and means to a reconstructed
+society depended primarily on a new birth,
+elevation, expansion, invigoration of women." That
+intuition is not without a sound basis, and if a great
+historical movement called for justification here would
+be enough.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>
+This chapter was written so long ago as 1888, and published in the
+<i>Westminster Review</i> in the following year. I have pleasure in here
+including it exactly as it was originally written, not only because it
+has its proper place in the present volume, but because it may be
+regarded as a programme which I have since elaborated in numerous
+volumes. The original first section has, however, been omitted, as it
+embodied a statement of the matriarchal theory which, in view of the
+difficulty of the subject and the wide differences of opinion about it, I
+now consider necessary to express more guardedly (see, for a more recent
+statement, Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI,
+"Sex in Relation to Society," chap. <span class="smcap">x</span>).
+With this exception, and the deletion of two insignificant footnotes, no
+changes have been made. After the lapse of a quarter of a century I find
+nothing that I seriously wish to withdraw and much that I now wish to
+emphasize.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a>
+The following passage summarizes this <i>Appeal</i>: "The simple
+and modest request is, that they may be permitted equal enjoyments
+with men, <i>provided they can, by the free and equal development and
+exercise of their faculties, procure for themselves such enjoyments</i>. They
+ask the same means that men possess of acquiring every species of
+knowledge, of unfolding every one of their faculties of mind and body
+that can be made tributary to their happiness. They ask every facility
+of access to every art, occupation, profession, from the highest to the
+lowest, without one exception, to which their inclinations and talents
+may direct and may fit them to occupy. They ask the removal of <i>all</i>
+restraints and exclusions not applicable to men of equal capacities.
+They ask for perfectly equal political, civil, and domestic rights. They
+ask for equal obligations and equal punishments from the law with men
+in case of infraction of the same law by either party. They ask for
+an equal system of morals, founded on utility instead of caprice and
+unreasoning despotism, in which the same action, attended with the
+same consequences, whether done by man or woman, should be attended
+with the same portion of approbation or disapprobation; in which
+every pleasure, accompanied or followed by no preponderant evil,
+should be equally permitted to women and to men; in which every
+pleasure accompanied or followed by preponderant evil should be
+equally censured in women and in men."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a>
+A period of transition not the less necessary although it is certainly
+disastrous and tends to produce an unwholesome tension between the
+sexes so long as men and women do not receive equal payment for equal
+work. "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever," as a working man in
+Blackburn lately put it, "but when the thing of beauty takes to doing
+the work for 16s. a week that you have been paid 22s. for, you do not
+feel as if you cannot live without possessing that thing of beauty all to
+yourself, or that you are willing to lay your life and your fortune
+(when you have one) at its feet." On the other hand, the working girl
+in the same town often complains that a man will not look at a girl
+unless she is a "four-loom weaver," earning, that is, perhaps, 20s. or
+25s. a week.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>
+See the very interesting work of Alfred Espinas, <i>Des Soci&eacute;t&eacute;s
+Animales</i>, which contains many fruitful suggestions for the student of
+human sociology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>
+The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+high civilization, and the unhappy results of their State regulation,
+was well expressed by Wilhehm von Humboldt in his <i>Ideen zu einen
+Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates zu bestimmen</i>, so long
+ago as 1792: "A union so closely allied with the very nature of the
+respective individuals must be attended with the most hurtful consequences
+when the State attempts to regulate it by law, or, through
+the force of its institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we shall
+be still more ready to admit the justice of this conclusion. It may
+reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the race only conducts to the
+same results as the highest solicitude for the most beautiful development
+of the inner man. For after careful observation it has been found
+that the uninterrupted union of one man with one woman is most
+beneficial to the race, and it is likewise undeniable that no other union
+springs from true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may be
+observed that such love leads to the same results as those very relations
+which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error seems to be
+that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould itself
+according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on inclination;
+and wherever coercion or guidance comes into collision with inclination,
+they divert it still farther from the proper path. Wherefore it appears
+to me that the State should not only loosen the bonds in this instance,
+and leave ampler freedom to the citizen, but that it should entirely
+withdraw its active solicitude from the institution of marriage, and both
+generally and in its particular modifications, should rather leave it
+wholly to the free choice of the individuals, and the various contracts
+they may enter into with respect to it. I should not be deterred from
+the adoption of this principle by the fear that all family relations
+might be disturbed, for although such a fear might be justified by
+considerations of particular circumstances and localities, it could not
+fairly be entertained in an inquiry into the nature of men and States
+in general. For experience frequently convinces us that just where
+law has imposed no fetters, morality most surely binds; the idea of
+external coercion is one entirely foreign to an institution which, like
+marriage, reposes only on inclination and an inward sense of duty; and
+the results of such coercive institutions do not at all correspond to
+the intentions in which they originate."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>
+Such register should, as Bertillon rightly insisted, be of the most
+complete description&mdash;setting forth all the anthropological traits of
+the contracting parties&mdash;so that the characteristics of a human group
+at any time and place may be studied and compared. Registration
+of this kind would, beside its more obvious convenience, form an almost
+indispensable guide to the higher evolution of the race. I may here add
+that I have assumed, perhaps too rashly, that the natural tendency
+among civilized men and women is towards a monogamic and more or
+less permanent union; preceded, it may be in most individuals, by a
+more restless period of experiment. Undoubtedly, many variations
+will arise in the future, leading to more complex relationships. Such
+variations cannot be foreseen, and when they arise they will still have
+to prove their stability and their advantage to the race.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a>
+As among geese, and, occasionally, it is said, among elephants.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+<a name="CHAPIII" id="CHAPIII"></a></p><h3>III</h3>
+
+<h3>THE NEW ASPECT OF THE WOMAN'S
+MOVEMENT</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Eighteenth-Century France&mdash;Pioneers of the Woman's Movement&mdash;The
+Growth of the Woman's Suffrage Movement&mdash;The Militant
+Activities of the Suffragettes&mdash;Their Services and Disservices to
+the Cause&mdash;Advantages of Women's Suffrage&mdash;Sex Questions in
+Germany&mdash;Bebel&mdash;The Woman's Rights Movement in Germany&mdash;The
+Development of Sexual Science in Germany&mdash;the Movement for
+the Protection of Motherhood&mdash;Ellen Key&mdash;The Question of
+Illegitimacy&mdash;Eugenics&mdash;Women as Law-makers in the Home.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>The modern conception of the political equality
+of women with men, we have seen, arose in
+France in the second half of the eighteenth
+century. Its way was prepared by the philosophic
+thinkers of the <i>Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, and the idea was definitely
+formulated by some of the finest minds of the age,
+notably by Condorcet,<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> as part of the great new programme
+of social and political reform which was to
+some small degree realized in the upheaval of the Revolution.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+The political emancipation of women constituted
+no part of the Revolution. It has indeed been
+maintained, and perhaps with reason, that the normal
+development of the revolutionary spirit would probably
+have ended in vanquishing the claim of masculine predominance
+if war had not diverted the movement of
+revolution by transforming it into the Terror. Even
+as it was, the rights of women were not without their
+champions even at this period. We ought specially
+to remember Olympe de Gouges, whose name is sometimes
+dismissed too contemptuously. With all her
+defects of character and education and literary style,
+Olympe de Gouges, as is now becoming recognized,
+was, in her biographer's words, "one of the loftiest and
+most generous souls of the epoch," in some respects
+superior to Madame Roland. She was the first woman
+to demand of the Revolution that it should be logical
+by proclaiming the rights of woman side by side with
+those of her equal, man, and in so doing she became the
+great pioneer of the feminist movement of to-day.
+<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> She
+owes the position more especially to her little pamphlet,
+issued in 1791, entitled <i>D&eacute;claration des Droits de la Femme</i>.
+It is this <i>D&eacute;claration</i> which contains the oft-quoted
+(or misquoted) saying: "Women have the right to ascend
+the scaffold; they must also have the right to ascend
+the tribune." Two years later she had herself ascended
+the scaffold, but the other right she claimed is only now
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+beginning to be granted to women. At that time there
+were too many more pressing matters to be dealt with,
+and the only women who had been taught to demand
+the rights of their sex were precisely those whom the
+Revolution was guillotining or exiling. Even had it
+been otherwise, we may be quite sure that Napoleon,
+the heir of the Revolution and the final arbiter of what
+was to be permanent in its achievements, would have
+sternly repressed any political freedom accorded to
+women. The only freedom he cared to grant to women
+was the freedom to produce food for cannon, and so
+far as lay in his power he sought to crush the political
+activities of women even in literature, as we see in his
+treatment of Mme de Sta&euml;l.<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>An Englishwoman of genius was in Paris at the time
+of the Revolution, with as broad a conception of the
+place of woman side by side with man as Olympe de
+Gouges, while for the most part she was Olympe's superior.
+In 1792, a year after the <i>D&eacute;claration des Droits de la
+Femme</i>, Mary Wollstonecraft&mdash;it is possible to some extent
+inspired by the brief <i>D&eacute;claration</i>&mdash;published her <i>Vindication
+of the Rights of Women</i>. It was not a shrill outcry,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+nor an attack on men&mdash;in that indeed resembling
+the <i>D&eacute;claration</i>&mdash;but just the book of a woman, a wise
+and sensible woman, who discusses many women's
+questions from a woman's point of view, and desires
+civil and political rights, not as a panacea for all evils,
+but simply because, as she argues, humanity cannot
+progress as a whole while one half of it is semi-educated
+and only half free. There can be little doubt that if
+the later advocates of woman's suffrage could have
+preserved more of Mary Wollstonecraft's sanity, moderation,
+and breadth of outlook, they would have diminished
+the difficulties that beset the task of convincing the
+community generally. Mary Wollstonecraft was, however,
+the inspired pioneer of a great movement which
+slowly gained force and volume.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> During the long
+Victorian period the practical aims of this movement
+went chiefly into the direction of improving
+the education of girls so as to make it, so far as possible,
+like that of boys. In this matter an immense revolution
+was slowly accomplished, involving the entrance of
+women into various professions and employments hitherto
+reserved to men. That was a very necessary preliminary
+to the extension of the franchise to women. The suffrage
+propaganda could not, moreover, fail to benefit by
+the better education of women and their increased
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+activity in public life. It was their activity, indeed,
+far more than the skill of the women who fought
+for the franchise, which made the political emancipation
+of women inevitable, and the noble and brilliant women
+who through the middle of the nineteenth century recreated
+the educational system for women, and so prepared
+them to play their proper part in life, were the
+best women workers the cause of women's enfranchisement
+ever had. There was, however, one distinguished
+friend of the emancipation of women whose advocacy
+of the cause at this period was of immense value. It
+is now nearly half a century since John Stuart Mill&mdash;inspired,
+like Thompson, by a woman&mdash;wrote his <i>Subjection
+of Women</i>, and it may undoubtedly be said
+that since that date no book on this subject published
+in any country&mdash;with the single exception of Bebel's
+<i>Woman</i>&mdash;has been so widely read or so influential.
+The support of this distinguished and authoritative
+thinker gave to the woman's movement a stamp of
+aristocratic intellectuality very valuable in a land
+where even the finest minds are apt to be afflicted by
+the disease of timidity, and was doubtless a leading
+cause of the cordial reception which in England the
+idea of women's political emancipation has long received
+among politicians. Bebel's book, speedily translated
+into English, furnished the plebeian complement
+to Mill's.</p>
+
+<p>The movement for the education of women and their
+introduction into careers previously monopolized by
+men inevitably encouraged the movement for extending
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+the franchise to women. This political reform was remarkably
+successful in winning over the politicians, and
+not those of one party only. In England, since Mill published
+his <i>Subjection of Women</i> in 1869, there have always
+been eminent statesmen convinced of the desirability of
+granting the franchise to women, and among the rank
+and file of Members of Parliament, irrespective of party,
+a very large proportion have pledged themselves to
+the same cause. The difficulty, therefore, in introducing
+woman's suffrage into England has not been primarily
+in Parliament. The one point, at which political party
+feeling has caused obstruction&mdash;and it is certainly a
+difficult and important point&mdash;is the method by which
+woman's suffrage should be introduced. Each party&mdash;Conservative,
+Liberal, Labour&mdash;naturally enough desires
+that this great new voting force should first be
+applied at a point which would not be likely to injure
+its own party interests. It is probable that in each
+party the majority of the leaders are of opinion that
+the admission of female voters is inevitable and perhaps
+desirable; the dispute is as to the extent to which the
+floodgates should in the first place be opened. In accordance
+with English tradition, some kind of compromise,
+however illogical, suggests itself as the safest first step,
+but the dispute remains as to the exact class of women
+who should be first admitted and the exact extent to
+which entrance should be granted to them.</p>
+
+<p>The dispute of the gate-keepers would, however,
+be easily overcome if the pressure behind the gate were
+sufficiently strong. But it is not. However large a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+proportion of the voters in Great Britain may be in
+favour of women's franchise, it is certain that only
+a very minute percentage regard this as a question
+having precedency over all other questions. And the
+reason why men have only taken a very temperate
+interest in woman's suffrage is that women themselves,
+in the mass, have taken an equally temperate interest
+in the matter when they have not been actually hostile
+to the movement. It may indeed be said, even at the
+present time, that whenever an impartial poll is taken
+of a large miscellaneous group of women, only a minority
+are found to be in favour of woman's suffrage.
+<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> No
+significant event has occurred to stimulate general
+interest in the matter, and no supremely eloquent or
+influential voice has artificially stirred it. There has
+been no woman of Mary Wollstonecraft's genius and
+breadth of mind who has devoted herself to the cause,
+and since Mill the men who have made up their minds
+on this side have been content to leave the matter to
+the women's associations formed for securing the success
+of the cause. These associations have, however, been
+led by women of a past generation, who, while of unquestionable
+intellectual power and high moral character,
+have viewed the woman question in a somewhat narrow,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+old-fashioned spirit, and have not possessed the gift
+of inspiring enthusiasm. Thus the growth of the movement,
+however steady it may have been, has been slow.
+John Stuart Mill's remark, in a letter to Bain in 1869,
+remains true to-day: "The most important thing
+women have to do is to stir up the zeal of women themselves."</p>
+
+<p>In the meanwhile in some other countries where,
+except in the United States, it was of much more recent
+growth, the woman's suffrage movement has achieved
+success, with no great expenditure of energy. It has
+been introduced into several American States and Territories.
+It is established throughout Australasia. It
+is also established in Norway. In Finland women may
+not only vote, but also sit in Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>It was in these conditions that the Women's Social
+and Political Union was formed in London. It was
+not an offshoot from any existing woman's suffrage
+society, but represented a crystallization of new elements.
+For the most part, even its leaders had not previously
+taken any active part in the movement for woman's
+suffrage. The suffrage movement had need of exactly
+such an infusion of fresh and ardent blood; so that the
+new society was warmly welcomed, and met with immediate
+success, finding recruits alike among the rich
+and the poor. Its unconventional methods, its eager
+and militant spirit, were felt to supply a lacking element,
+and the first picturesque and dashing exploits of the
+Union were on the whole well received. The obvious
+sincerity and earnestness of these very fresh recruits
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+covered the rashness of their new and rather ignorant
+enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>But a hasty excess of ardour only befits a first uncalculated
+outburst of youthfulness. It is quite another
+matter when it is deliberately hardened into a rigid
+routine, and becomes an organized method of creating
+disorder for the purpose of advertising a grievance
+in season and out of season. Since, moreover, the attack
+was directed chiefly against politicians, precisely that
+class of the community most inclined to be favourable to
+woman's suffrage, the wrong-headedness of the movement
+becomes as striking as its offensiveness.</p>
+
+<p>The effect on the early friends of the new movement
+was inevitable. Some, who had hailed it with enthusiasm
+and proclaimed its pioneers as new Joans of Arc, changed
+their tone to expostulation and protest, and finally
+relapsed into silence. Other friends of the movement,
+even among its former leaders, were less silent. They
+have revealed to the world, too unkindly, some of the
+influences which slowly corrupt such a movement from
+the inside when it hardens into sectarianism: the narrowing
+of aim, the increase of conventionality, the jealousy
+of rivals, the tendency to morbid emotionalism.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to exaggerate the misdeeds and the weaknesses
+of the suffragettes. It is undoubtedly true that
+they have alienated, in an increasing degree, the sympathies
+of the women of highest character and best
+abilities among the advocates of woman's suffrage.
+Nearly all Englishwomen to-day who stand well above
+the average in mental distinction are in favour of woman's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+suffrage, though they may not always be inclined to
+take an active part in securing it. Perhaps the only
+prominent exception is Mrs. Humphry Ward. Yet
+they rarely associate themselves with the methods
+of the suffragettes. They do not, indeed, protest, for
+they feel there would be a kind of disloyalty in fighting
+against the Extreme Left of a movement to which they
+themselves belong; but they stand aloof. The women
+who are chiefly attracted to the ranks of the suffragettes
+belong to three classes: (1) Those of the well-to-do
+class with no outlet for their activities, who eagerly
+embrace an exciting occupation which has become,
+not only highly respectable, but even, in a sense, fashionable;
+they have no natural tendency to excess, but are
+easily moved by their social environment; some of
+these are rich, and the great principle&mdash;once formulated
+in an unhappy moment concerning a rich lady interested
+in social reform&mdash;"We must not kill the goose that
+lays the golden eggs," has never been despised by the
+suffragette leaders; (2) the rowdy element among women
+which is not so much moved to adopt the methods for
+the sake of the cause as to adopt the cause for the sake
+of the methods, so that in the case of their special
+emotional temperament it may be said, reversing an
+ancient phrase, that the means justify the end; this
+element of noisy explosiveness, always found in a certain
+proportion of women, though latent under ordinary
+circumstances, is easily aroused by stimulation, and in
+every popular revolt the wildest excesses are the acts
+of women. (3) In this small but important group we find
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+women of rare and beautiful character who, hypnotized
+by the enthralling influence of an idea, and often having
+no great intellectual power of their own, are even unconscious
+of the vulgarity that accompanies them,
+and gladly sacrifice themselves to a cause that seems
+to be sacred; these are the saints and martyrs of every
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>When we thus analyse the suffragette outburst we
+see that it is really compounded out of quite varied
+elements: a conventionally respectable element, a
+rowdy element, and an ennobling element. It is, therefore,
+equally unreasonable to denounce its vices or to
+idealize its virtues. It is more profitable to attempt
+to balance its services and its disservices to the cause
+of women's suffrage.</p>
+
+<p>Looked at dispassionately, the two main disadvantages
+of the suffragette agitation&mdash;and they certainly seem
+at the first glance very comprehensive objections&mdash;lie
+in its direction and in its methods. There are two
+vast bodies of people who require to be persuaded in
+order to secure woman's suffrage: first women themselves,
+and secondly their men-folk, who at present
+monopolize the franchise. Until the majority of both
+men and women are educated to understand the justice
+and reasonableness of this step, and until men are persuaded
+that the time has come for practical action,
+the most violent personal assaults on cabinet ministers&mdash;supposing
+such political methods to be otherwise
+unobjectionable&mdash;are beside the mark. They are aimed
+in the wrong direction. This is so even when we leave
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+aside the fact that politicians are sufficiently converted
+already. The primary task of women suffragists is
+to convert their own sex. Indeed it may be said that
+that is their whole task. Whenever the majority of
+women are persuaded that they ought to possess the
+vote, we may be quite sure that they will communicate
+that persuasion to their men-folk who are able to give
+them the vote. The conversion of the majority of women
+to a belief in women's suffrage is essential to its attainment
+because it is only by the influence of the women
+who belong to him, whom he knows and loves and respects,
+that the average man is likely to realize that,
+as Ellen Key puts it, "a ballot paper in itself no more
+injures the delicacy of a woman's hand than a cooking
+recipe." The antics of women in the street, however
+earnest those women may be, only leave him indifferent,
+even hostile, at most, amused.</p>
+
+<p>It may be added that in any case it would be undesirable,
+even if possible, to bestow the suffrage on
+women so long as only a minority have the wish to exercise
+it. It would be contrary to sound public policy.
+It would not only discredit political rights, but it would
+tend to give the woman's vote too narrow and one-sided
+a character. To grant women the right to vote
+is a different matter from granting women the right to
+enter a profession. In order to give women the right
+to be doctors or lawyers it is not necessary that women
+generally should be convinced of the advantage of such
+a step. The matter chiefly concerns the very small
+number of women who desire the privilege. But the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+women who vote will be in some measure legislating
+for women generally, and it is therefore necessary that
+women generally should participate.</p>
+
+<p>But even if it is admitted&mdash;although, as we have
+seen, there is a twofold reason for not making such
+an admission&mdash;that the suffragettes are justified in
+regarding politicians as the obstacles in the way of
+their demands, there still remains the question of the
+disadvantage of their method. This method is by
+some euphemistically described as the introduction
+of "nagging" into politics; but even at this mild estimate
+of its character the question may still be asked
+whether the method is calculated to attain the desired
+end. One hears women suffragettes declare that this
+is the only kind of argument men understand. There
+is, however, in the masculine mind&mdash;and by no means
+least when it is British&mdash;an element which strongly
+objects to be worried and bullied even into a good course
+of action. The suffragettes have done their best to
+stimulate that element of obstinacy. Even among
+men who viewed the matter from an unprejudiced
+standpoint many felt that, necessary as woman's suffrage
+is, the policy of the suffragettes rendered the moment
+unfavourable for its adoption. It is a significant fact
+that in the countries which have so far granted women
+the franchise no methods in the slightest degree resembling
+those of the suffragettes have ever been practised.
+It is not easy to imagine Australia tolerating such
+methods, and in Finland full Parliamentary rights
+were freely granted, as is generally recognized, precisely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+as a mark of gratitude for women's helpfulness
+in standing side by side with their men in a great political
+struggle. The policy of obstruction adopted by the
+English suffragettes, with its "tactics" of opposing at
+election times the candidates of the very party whose
+leaders they are imploring to grant them the franchise,
+was so foolish that it is little wonder that many doubted
+whether women at all understand the methods of politics,
+or are yet fitted to take a responsible part in political
+life.</p>
+
+<p>The suffragette method of persuading public men
+seems to be, on the whole, futile, even if it were directed
+at the proper quarter, and even if it were in itself a
+justifiable method. But it would be possible to grant
+these "ifs" and still to feel that a serious injury is done
+to the cause of woman's suffrage when the method of
+violence is adopted by women. Some suffragettes
+have argued, in this matter, that in political crises
+men also have acted just as badly or worse. But,
+even if we assume that this is the case,
+<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> it has
+been one of the chief arguments hitherto for the
+admission of women into political life that they exercise
+an elevating and refining influence, so that their entrance
+into this field will serve to purify politics. That, no
+doubt, is an argument mostly brought forward by men,
+and may be regarded as, in some measure, an amiable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+masculine delusion, since most of the refining and
+elevating elements in civilization probably owe their origin
+not to women but to men. But it is not altogether a
+delusion. In the virtues of force&mdash;however humbly
+those virtues are to be classed&mdash;women, as a sex, can
+never be the rivals of men, and when women attempt
+to gain their ends by the demonstration of brute force
+they can only place themselves at a disadvantage.
+They are laying down the weapons they know best
+how to use, and adopting weapons so unsuitable that
+they only injure the users.</p>
+
+<p>Many women, speaking on behalf of the suffragettes,
+protest against the idea that women must always be
+"charming." And if "charm" is to be understood
+in so narrow and conventionalized a sense that it means
+something which is incompatible with the developed
+natural activities, whether of the soul or of the body,
+then such a protest is amply justified. But in the larger
+sense, "charm"&mdash;which means the power to effect
+work without employing brute force&mdash;is indispensable
+to women. Charm is a woman's strength just as strength
+is a man's charm. And the justification for women in
+this matter is that herein they represent the progress
+of civilization. All civilization involves the substitution
+in this respect of the woman's method for the man's.
+In the last resort a savage can only assert his rights
+by brute force. But with the growth of civilization
+the wronged man, instead of knocking down his opponent,
+employs "charm"; in other words he engages an
+advocate, who, by the exercise of sweet reasonableness,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+persuades twelve men in a box that his wrongs must
+be righted, and the matter is then finally settled, not
+by man's weapon, the fist, but by woman's weapon,
+the tongue. Nowadays the same method of "charm"
+is being substituted for brute force in international
+wrongs, and with the complete substitution of arbitration
+for war the woman's method of charm will have
+replaced the man's method of brute force along the
+whole line of legitimate human activity. If we realize
+this we can understand why it is that a group of women
+who, even in the effort to support a good cause, revert
+to the crude method of violence are committing a double
+wrong. They are wronging their own sex by proving
+false to its best traditions, and they are wronging civilization
+by attempting to revive methods of savagery
+which it is civilization's mission to repress. Therefore
+it may fairly be held that even if the methods of
+the suffragettes were really adequate to secure women's
+suffrage, the attainment of the franchise by those
+methods would be a misfortune. The ultimate loss
+would be greater than the gain.</p>
+
+<p>If we hold the foregoing considerations in mind it
+is difficult to avoid the conclusion that neither in their
+direction nor in their nature are the methods of the
+suffragettes fitted to attain the end desired. We have
+still, however, to consider the other side of the question.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever an old movement receives a strong infusion
+of new blood, whatever excesses or mistakes
+may arise, it is very unlikely that all the results will
+be on the same side. It is certainly not so in this case.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+Even the opposition to woman's suffrage which the
+suffragettes are responsible for, and the Anti-Suffrage
+societies which they have called into active existence,
+are not an unmitigated disadvantage. Every movement
+of progress requires a vigorous movement of opposition
+to stimulate its progress, and the clash of discussion
+can only be beneficial in the end to the progressive
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>But the immense advantage of the activity of the
+suffragettes has been indirect. It has enabled the great
+mass of ordinary sensible women who neither join
+Suffrage societies nor Anti-Suffrage societies to think
+for themselves on this question. Until a few years ago,
+while most educated women were vaguely aware of
+the existence of a movement for giving women the
+vote, they only knew of it as something rather unpractical
+and remote; its reality had never been brought
+home to them. When women witnessed the eruption
+into the streets of a band of women&mdash;most of them
+apparently women much like themselves&mdash;who were
+so convinced that the franchise must be granted to women,
+here and now, that they were prepared to face publicity,
+ridicule, and even imprisonment, then "votes for women"
+became to them, for the first time, a real and living issue.
+In a great many cases, certainly, they realized that
+they intensely disliked the people who behaved in this
+way and any cause that was so preached. But in a
+great many other cases they realized, for the first time
+definitely, that the demand of votes for women was
+a reasonable demand, and that they were themselves
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+suffragists, though they had no wish to take an active
+part in the movement, and no real sympathy with its
+more "militant" methods. There can be no doubt
+that in this way the suffragettes have performed an
+immense service for the cause of women's suffrage.
+It has been for the most part an indirect and undesigned
+service, but in the end it will perhaps more than serve
+to counterbalance the disadvantages attached to their
+more conscious methods and their more deliberate
+aims.</p>
+
+<p>If, as we may trust, this service will be the main outcome
+of the suffragette phase of the women's movement,
+it is an outcome to be thankful for; we may then remember
+with gratitude the ardent enthusiasm of the
+suffragettes and forget the foolish and futile ways in
+which it was manifested. There has never been any
+doubt as to the ultimate adoption of women's suffrage;
+its gradual extension among the more progressive
+countries of the world sufficiently indicates that it will
+ultimately reach even to the most backward countries.
+Its accomplishment in England has been gradual,
+although it is here so long since the first steps were taken,
+not because there has been some special and malignant
+opposition to it on the part of men in general and
+politicians in particular, but simply because England
+is an old and conservative country, with a very ancient
+constitutional machinery which effectually guards against
+the hasty realization of any scheme of reform. This
+particular reform, however, is not an isolated or
+independent scheme; it is an essential part of a great
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+movement in the social equalization of the sexes which
+has been going on for centuries in our civilization, a
+movement such as may be correspondingly traced
+in the later stages of the civilizations of antiquity.
+Such a movement we may by our efforts help forward,
+we may for a while retard, but it is a part of civilization,
+and it would be idle to imagine that we can affect the
+ultimate issue.</p>
+
+<p>That the issue of women's suffrage may be reached
+in England within a reasonable period is much to be
+desired for the sake of the woman's movement in the
+larger sense, which has nothing to do with politics,
+and is now impeded by this struggle. The enfranchisement
+of women, Miss Frances Cobbe declared thirty
+years ago, is "the crown and completion" of all progress
+in women's movement. "Votes for women,"
+exclaims, more youthfully but not less unreasonably,
+Miss Christabel Pankhurst, "means a new Heaven and
+a new Earth." But women's suffrage no more means
+a new Heaven or even a new Earth than it means,
+as other people fear, a new Purgatory and a new Hell.
+We may see this quite plainly in Australasia. Women's
+votes aid in furthering social legislation and contribute
+to the passing of acts which have their good side, and,
+no doubt, like everything else, their bad side. As Elizabeth
+Cady Stanton, who devoted her life to the political
+enfranchisement of women, declared, the ballot is,
+at most, only the vestibule to women's emancipation.
+Man's suffrage has not introduced the millennium,
+and it is foolish to suppose that woman's suffrage can.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+It is merely an act of justice and a reasonable condition
+of social hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>The attainment of the suffrage, if it is a beginning
+and not an end, will thus have a real and positive value
+in liberating the woman's movement from a narrow and
+sterilizing phase of its course. In England, especially,
+the woman's movement has in the past largely confined
+itself to imitating men and to obtaining the same work
+and the same rights as men. Putting the matter more
+broadly, it may be said that it has been the aim of the
+woman's movement to secure woman's claims as a
+human being rather than as woman. But that is only
+half the task of the woman's movement, and perhaps
+not the most essential half. Women can never be like
+men, any more than men can be like women. It is
+their unlikeness which renders them indispensable to
+each other, and which also makes it imperative that
+each sex should have its due share in moulding the
+conditions of life. Woman's function in life can never
+be the same as man's, if only because women are the
+mothers of the race. That is the point, the only point,
+at which women have an uncontested supremacy over
+men. The most vital problem before our civilization
+to-day is the problem of motherhood, the question
+of creating the human beings best fitted for modern
+life, the practical realization of a sound eugenics. Manouvrier,
+the distinguished anthropologist, who carries
+feminism to its extreme point in the scientific sphere,
+yet recognizes the fundamental fact that "a woman's
+part is to make children." But he clearly perceives
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+also that "in all its extent and all its consequences
+that part is not surpassed in importance, in difficulty,
+or in dignity, by the man's part." On the contrary
+it is a part which needs "an amount of intelligence
+incontestably superior, and by far, to that required by
+most masculine occupations."<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> We are here at the core
+of the woman's movement. And the full fruition of
+that movement means that women, by virtue of their
+supremacy in this matter, shall take their proper share
+in legislation for life, not as mere sexless human beings,
+but as women, and in accordance with the essential
+laws of their own nature as women.</p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>There is a further question. Is it possible to discern
+the actual embodiment of this new phase of the woman
+movement? I think it is.</p>
+
+<p>To those who are accustomed to watch the emotional
+pulse of mankind, nothing has seemed so remarkable
+during recent years as the eruption of sex questions
+in Germany. We had always been given to understand
+that the sphere of women and the laws of marriage
+had been definitely prescribed and fixed in Germany
+for at least two thousand years, since the days of Tacitus,
+in fact, and with the best possible results. Germans
+assured the world in stentorian tones that only in Germany
+could young womanhood be seen in all its purity,
+and that in the German <i>Hausfrau</i> the supreme ideal
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+had been reached, the woman whose great mission is
+to keep alive the perennial fire of the ancient German
+hearth. Here and there, indeed, the quiet voice of science
+was heard in Germany; thus Schrader, the distinguished
+investigator of Teutonic origins, in commenting on the
+oft-quoted testimony of Tacitus to the chastity of the
+German women, has appositely referred to the detailed
+evidences furnished by the Committee of pastors of
+the Evangelical Church as to the extreme prevalence
+of unchastity among the women of rural Germany,
+and argued that these widespread customs must be
+very ancient and deep-rooted.<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> But Germans in general
+refused to admit that Tacitus had only used the idea
+of German virtue as a stick to beat his own fellow-countrywomen
+with.</p>
+
+<p>The Social-Democratic movement, which has so largely
+overspread industrial and even intellectual Germany,
+prepared the way for a less traditional and idealistic
+way of feeling in regard to these questions. The publication
+by Bebel of a book, <i>Die Frau</i>, in which the leader
+of the German Social-Democratic party set forth the
+Socialist doctrine of the position of women in society,
+marked the first stage in the new movement. This
+book exercised a wide influence, more especially on
+uncritical readers. It is, indeed, from a scientific point
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+of view a worthless book&mdash;if a book in which genuine
+emotions are brought to the cause of human freedom
+and social righteousness may ever be so termed&mdash;but
+it struck a rude blow at the traditions of Teutonic sentiment.
+With something of the rough tone and temper
+of the great peasant who initiated the German Reformation,
+a man who had himself sprung from the people,
+and who knew of what he was speaking, here set down
+in downright fashion the actual facts as to the position
+of women in Germany, as well as what he conceived
+to be the claims of justice in regard to that position,
+slashing with equal vigour alike at the absurdities of
+conventional marriage and of prostitution, the obverse
+and the reverse, he declared, of a false society. The
+emotional renaissance with which we are here concerned
+seems to have no special and certainly no exclusive
+association with the Social-Democratic movement,
+but it can scarcely be doubted that the permeation
+of a great mass of the German people by the socialistic
+conceptions which in their bearing on women have been
+rendered so familiar by Bebel's exposition has furnished,
+as it were, a ready-made sounding-board which has
+given resonance and effect to voices which might otherwise
+have been quickly lost in vacuity.</p>
+
+<p>There is another movement which counts for something
+in the renaissance we are here concerned with,
+though for considerably less than one might be led to
+expect. What is specifically known as the "woman's
+rights' movement" is in no degree native to Germany,
+though Hippel is one of the pioneers of the woman's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+movement, and it is only within recent years that it
+has reached Germany. It is alien to the Teutonic feminine
+mind, because in Germany the spheres of men and women
+are so far apart and so unlike that the ideal of imitating
+men fails to present itself to a German woman's mind.
+The delay, moreover, in the arrival of the woman's
+movement in Germany had given time for a clearer
+view of that movement and a criticism of its defects to
+form even in the lands of its origin, so that the German
+woman can no longer be caught unawares by the cry
+for woman's rights. Still, however qualified a view
+might be taken of its benefits, it had to be recognized,
+even in Germany, that it was an inevitable movement,
+and to some extent at all events indispensable from the
+woman's point of view. The same right to education
+as men, the same rights of public meeting and discussion,
+the same liberty to enter the liberal professions, these
+are claims which during recent years have been widely
+made by German women and to some extent secured,
+while&mdash;as is even more significant&mdash;they are for the
+most part no longer very energetically disputed. The
+International Congress of Women which met in Berlin
+in 1904 was a revelation to the citizens of Berlin of the
+skill and dignity with which women could organize
+a congress and conduct business meetings. It was
+notable, moreover, in that, though under the auspices
+of an International Council, it showed the large number
+of German women who are already entitled to take a
+leading part in the movements for women's welfare.
+Both directly and indirectly, indeed, such a movement
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+cannot be otherwise than specially beneficial in Germany.
+The Teutonic reverence for woman, the assertion of
+the "aliquid divinum," has sometimes been accompanied
+by the openly expressed conviction that she is a fool.
+Outside Germany it would not be easy to find the representative
+philosophers of a nation putting forward
+so contemptuous a view of women as is set forth by
+Schopenhauer or by Nietzsche, while even within recent
+years a German physician of some ability, the late
+Dr. M&ouml;bius, published a book on the "physiological
+weak-mindedness of women."</p>
+
+<p>The new feminine movement in Germany has received
+highly important support from the recent development
+of German science. The German intellect, exceedingly
+comprehensive in its outlook, ploddingly thorough,
+and imperturbably serious, has always taken the leading
+and pioneering part in the investigation of sexual
+problems, whether from the standpoint of history,
+biology, or pathology. Early in the nineteenth century,
+when even more courage and resolution were needed
+to face the scientific study of such questions than is
+now the case, German physicians, unsupported by any
+co-operation in other countries, were the pioneers in
+exploring the paths of sexual pathology.
+<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> From the
+antiquarian side, Bachofen, more than half a century
+ago, put forth his conception of the exalted position
+of the primitive mother which, although it has been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+considerably battered by subsequent research, has
+been by no means without its value, and is of special
+significance from the present standpoint, because it
+sprang from precisely the same view of life as that
+animating the German women who are to-day inaugurating
+the movement we are here concerned with.
+From the medical side the late Professor Krafft-Ebing
+of Vienna and Dr. Albert Moll of Berlin are recognized
+throughout the world as leading authorities on sexual
+pathology, and in recent times many other German
+physicians of the first authority can be named in this
+field; while in Austria Dr. F.S. Krauss and his coadjutors
+in the annual volumes of <i>Anthropophyteia</i> are diligently
+exploring the rich and fruitful field of sexual folk-lore.
+The large volumes of the <i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Sexuelle Zwischenstufen</i>,
+edited by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld of Berlin, have
+presented discussions of the commonest of sexual aberrations
+with a scientific and scholarly thoroughness,
+a practical competence, as well as admirable tone, which
+we may seek in vain in other countries. In Vienna,
+moreover, Professor Freud, with his bold and original
+views on the sexual causation of many abnormal mental
+and nervous conditions, and his psycho-analytic method
+of investigating and treating them, although his doctrines
+are by no means universally accepted, is yet exerting
+a revolutionary influence all over the world. During
+the last ten years, indeed, the amount of German scientific
+and semi-scientific literature, dealing with every aspect
+of the sexual question, and from every point of view,
+is altogether unparalleled. It need scarcely be said
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+that much of this literature is superficial or worthless.
+But much of it is sound, and it would seem that on the
+whole it is this portion of it which is most popular.
+Thus Dr. August Forel, formerly professor of psychiatry
+at Zurich and a physician of world-wide reputation,
+published a few years ago at Munich a book on the
+sexual question, <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, in which all the
+questions of the sexual life, biological, medical, and social,
+are seriously discussed with no undue appeal to an
+ignorant public; it had an immediate success and a large
+sale. Dr. Forel had not entered this field before; he
+had merely come to the conclusion that every man
+at the end of his life ought to set forth his observations
+and conclusions regarding the most vital of questions.
+Again, at about the same time, Dr. Iwan Bloch, of Berlin,
+published his many-sided work on the sexual life of
+our time, <i>Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit</i>, a work less remarkable
+than Forel's for the weight of the personal
+authority expressed, but more remarkable by the range
+of its learning and the sympathetic attitude it displayed
+towards the best movements of the day; this book
+also met with great success.<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Still more recently (1912)
+Dr. Albert Moll, with characteristic scientific thoroughness,
+has edited, and largely himself written, a truly encyclop&aelig;dic
+<i>Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften</i>. The eminence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+of the writers of these books and the mental calibre
+needed to read them suffice to show that we are not
+concerned, as a careless observer might suppose, with
+a matter of supply and demand in prurient literature,
+but with the serious and widespread appreciation of
+serious investigations. This same appreciation is shown
+not only by several bio-sociological periodicals of high
+scientific quality, but by the existence of a journal like
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, edited by Dr. Max Marcuse, a journal
+with many distinguished contributors, and undoubtedly
+the best periodical in this field to be found in any language.</p>
+
+
+<p>At the same time the new movement of German
+women, however it may arise from or be supported
+by political or scientific movements, is fundamentally
+emotional in its character. If we think of it, every great
+movement of the Teutonic soul has been rooted in emotion.
+The German literary renaissance of the eighteenth
+century was emotional in its origin and received its
+chief stimulus from the contagion of the new irruption
+of sentiment in France. Even German science is often
+influenced, and not always to its advantage, by German
+sentiment. The Reformation is an example on a huge
+scale of the emotional force which underlies German
+movements. Luther, for good and for evil, is the most
+typical of Germans, and the Luther who made his mark
+in the world&mdash;the shrewd, coarse, superstitious peasant
+who blossomed into genius&mdash;was an avalanche of emotion,
+a great mass of natural human instincts irresistible in
+their impetuosity. When we bear in mind this general
+tendency to emotional expansiveness in the manifestations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+of the Teutonic soul we need feel no surprise that the
+present movement among German women should be,
+to a much greater extent than the corresponding movements
+in other countries, an emotional renaissance.
+It is not, first and last, a cry for political rights, but
+for emotional rights, and for the reasonable regulation
+of all those social functions which are founded on the
+emotions.<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>This movement, although it may properly be said
+to be German, since its manifestations are mainly exhibited
+in the great German Empire, is yet essentially
+a Teutonic movement in the broader sense of the word.
+Germans of Austria, Germans of Switzerland, Dutch
+women, Scandinavians, have all been drawn into this
+movement. But it is in Germany proper that they all
+find the chief field of their activities.</p>
+
+<p>If we attempt to define in a single sentence the specific
+object of this agitation we may best describe it as based
+on the demands of woman the mother, and as directed
+to the end of securing for her the right to control and
+regulate the personal and social relations which spring
+from her nature as mother or possible mother. Therein
+we see at once both the intimately emotional and practical
+nature of this new claim and its decisive unlikeness to
+the earlier woman movement. That was definitely
+a demand for emancipation; political enfranchisement
+was its goal; its perpetual assertion was that women
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+must be allowed to do everything that men do. But
+the new Teutonic woman's movement, so far from making
+as its ideal the imitation of men, bases itself on that
+which most essentially marks the woman as unlike the
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The basis of the movement is significantly indicated
+by the title, <i>Mutterschutz</i>&mdash;the protection of the mother&mdash;originally
+borne by "a Journal for the reform of sexual
+morals," established in 1905, edited by Dr. Helene
+St&ouml;cker, of Berlin, and now called <i>Die Neue Generation</i>.
+All the questions that radiate outwards from the maternal
+function are here discussed: the ethics of love, prostitution
+ancient and modern, the position of illegitimate
+mothers and illegitimate children, sexual hygiene, the
+sexual instruction of the young, etc. It must not be
+supposed that these matters are dealt with from the
+standpoint of a vigilance society for combating vice.
+The demand throughout is for the regulation of life, for
+reform, but for reform quite as much in the direction
+of expansion as of restraint. On many matters of detail,
+indeed, there is no agreement among these writers,
+some of whom approach the problems from the social
+and practical side, some from the psychological and
+philosophic side, others from the medical, legal, or historical
+sides.</p>
+
+<p>This journal was originally the organ of the association
+for the protection of mothers, more especially unmarried
+mothers, called the <i>Bund f&uuml;r Mutterschutz</i>. There are
+many agencies for dealing with illegitimate children,
+but the founders of this association started from the conviction
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+that it is only through the mother that the
+child can be adequately cared for. As nearly a tenth
+of the children born in Germany are illegitimate, and the
+conditions of life into which such children are thrown
+are in the highest degree unfavourable, the question
+has its actuality.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+It is the aim of the <i>Bund f&uuml;r Mutterschutz</i>
+to rehabilitate the unmarried mother, to secure
+for her the conditions of economic independence&mdash;whatever
+social class she may belong to&mdash;and ultimately
+to effect a change in the legal status of illegitimate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+mothers and children alike. The Bund, which is directed
+by a committee in which social, medical, and legal
+interests are alike represented, already possesses numerous
+branches, in addition to its head-quarters in Berlin,
+and is beginning to initiate practical measures on the
+lines of its programme, notably Homes for Mothers,
+of which it has established nearly a dozen in different
+parts of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In 1911 the first International Congress for the Protection
+of Mothers and for Sexual Reform was held
+at Dresden, in connection with the great Exhibition
+of Hygiene. As a result of this Congress, an International
+Union was constituted, representing Germany, Austria,
+Italy, Sweden, and Holland, which may probably be
+taken to be the countries which have so far manifested
+greatest interest in the programme of sexual reform
+based on recognition of the supreme importance of
+motherhood. This movement may, therefore, be said
+to have overcome the initial difficulties, the antagonism,
+the misunderstanding, and the opprobrium, which every
+movement in the field of sexual reform inevitably encounters,
+and often succumbs to.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a mistake to regard this Association as
+a merely philanthropic movement. It claims to be
+"An Association for the Reform of Sexual Ethics,"
+and <i>Die Neue Generation</i> deals with social and ethical
+rather than with philanthropic questions. In these
+respects it reflects the present attitude of many thoughtful
+German women, though the older school of women's
+rights advocates still holds aloof. We may here, for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+instance, find a statement of the recent discussion
+concerning the right of the mother to destroy her offspring
+before birth. This has been boldly claimed for
+women by Countess Gisela von Streitberg, who advocates
+a return to the older moral view which prevailed not
+only in classic antiquity, but even, under certain conditions,
+in Christian practice, until Canon law, asserting
+that the embryo had from the first an independent life,
+pronounced abortion under all circumstances a crime.
+Countess von Streitberg takes the standpoint that
+as the chief risks and responsibilities must necessarily
+rest upon the woman, it is for her to decide whether
+she will permit the embryo she bears to develop. Dr.
+Marie Raschke, taking up the discussion from the legal
+side, is unable to agree that abortion should cease to
+be a punishable offence, though she advocates considerable
+modifications in the law on this matter. Dr. Siegfried
+Weinberg, summarizing this discussion, again from
+the legal standpoint, considers that there is considerable
+right on the Countess's side, because from the modern
+juridical standpoint a criminal enactment is only justified
+because it protects a right, and in law the embryo
+possesses no rights which can be injured. From the
+moral standpoint, also, it is argued, its destruction
+often becomes justifiable in the interests of the community.</p>
+
+<p>This debatable question, while instructive as an
+example of the radical manner in which German women
+are now beginning to face moral questions, deals only
+with an isolated point which has hardly yet reached
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+the sphere of practical politics.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> It is more interesting
+to consider the general conceptions which underlie
+this movement, and we can hardly do this better than by
+studying the writings of Ellen Key, who is not only one
+of its recognized leaders, but may be said to present
+its aims and ideals in a broader and more convinced
+manner than any other writer.</p>
+
+<p>Ellen Key's views are mainly contained in three
+books, <i>Love and Marriage</i>, <i>The Century of the Child</i>, and
+<i>The Women's Movement</i>, in which form they enjoy a large
+circulation, and are now becoming well known, through
+translations, in England and America. She carefully
+distinguishes her aims from what she regards as the
+American conception of progress in woman's movements,
+that is to say the tendency for women to seek to capture
+the activities which may be much more adequately
+fulfilled by the other sex, while at the same time
+neglecting the far weightier matters that concern
+their own sex. Man and woman are not natural
+enemies who need to waste their energies in fighting
+over their respective rights and privileges; in spiritual as
+in physical life they are only fruitful together. Women,
+indeed, need free scope for their activities&mdash;and the earlier
+aspirations of feminism are thus justified&mdash;but they
+need it, not to wrest away any tasks that men may be
+better fitted to perform, but to play their part in that
+field of creative life which is peculiarly their own. Ellen
+Key would say that the highest human unit is triune:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+father, mother, and child. Marriage, therefore, instead
+of being, as it is to-day, the last thing to be thought of
+in education, becomes the central point of life. In
+Ellen Key's conception, "those who love each other
+are man and wife," and by love she means not a temporary
+inclination, but "a synthesis of desire and friendship,"
+just as the air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. It
+must be this for both sexes alike, and Ellen Key sees a
+real progress in what seems to her the modern tendency
+for men to realize that the soul has its erotic side, and
+for women to realize that the senses have. She has no
+special sympathy with the cry for purity in masculine
+candidates for marriage put forward by some women
+of the present day. She observes that many men who
+have painfully struggled to maintain this ideal meet
+with disillusion, for it is not the masculine lamb, but
+much more the spotted leopard, who fascinates women.
+The notion that women have higher moral instincts
+than men Ellen Key regards as absurd. The majority
+of Frenchwomen, she remarks, were against Dreyfus,
+and the majority of Englishwomen approved the South
+African war. The really fundamental difference between
+man and woman is that he can usually give his best as
+a creator, and she as a lover, that his value is according
+to his work and hers according to her love. And in love
+the demand for each sex alike must not be primarily
+for a mere anatomical purity, but for passion and for
+sincerity.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of love, as understood by Ellen Key, is always
+marriage and the child, and as soon as the child comes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+into question society and the State are concerned. Before
+fruition, love is a matter for the lovers alone, and the
+espionage, ceremony, and routine now permitted or
+enjoined are both ridiculous and offensive. "The
+flower of love belongs to the lovers, and should remain
+their secret; it is the fruit of love which brings them
+into relation to society." The dominating importance
+of the child, the parent of the race to be, alone makes
+the immense social importance of sexual union. It
+is not marriage which sanctifies generation, but generation
+which sanctifies marriage. From the point of view of
+"the sanctity of generation" and the welfare of the
+race, Ellen Key looks forward to a time when it will
+be impossible for a man and woman to become parents
+when they are unlikely to produce a healthy child,
+though she is opposed to Neo-Malthusian methods,
+partly on &aelig;sthetic grounds and partly on the more
+dubious grounds of doubt as to their practical efficiency;
+it is from this point of view also that she favours sexual
+equality in matters of divorce, the legal assimilation
+of legitimate and illegitimate children, the recognition
+of unions outside marriage,&mdash;a recognition already legally
+established under certain circumstances in Sweden,
+in such a way as to confer the rights of legitimacy on
+the child,&mdash;and she is even prepared to advise women
+under some conditions to become mothers outside
+marriage, though only when there are obstacles to legal
+marriage, and as the outcome of deliberate will and
+resolution. In these and many similar proposals in
+detail, set forth in her earlier books, it is clear that Ellen
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+Key has sometimes gone beyond the mandate of her
+central conviction, that love is the first condition for
+increasing the vitality alike of the race and of the individuality,
+and that the question of love, properly considered,
+is the question of creating the future man.
+As she herself has elsewhere quite truly pointed out,
+practice must precede, and precede by a very long time,
+the establishment of definite rules in matters of detail.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that a point with which Ellen Key
+and the leaders of the new German woman's movement
+specially concern themselves is the affectional needs
+of the "supernumerary" woman and the legitimation
+of her children. There is an excess of women over men,
+in Germany as in most other countries. That excess,
+it is said, is balanced by the large number of women
+who do not wish to marry. But that is too cheap a
+solution of the question. Many women may wish to
+remain unmarried, but no woman wishes to be forced
+to remain unmarried. Every woman, these advocates
+of the rights of women claim, has a right to motherhood,
+and in exercising the right under sound conditions
+she is benefiting society. But our marriage system,
+in the rigid form which it has long since assumed, has
+not now the elasticity necessary to answer these demands.
+It presents a solution which is often impossible, always
+difficult, and perhaps in a large proportion of cases
+undesirable. But for a woman who is shut out from
+marriage to grasp at the vital facts of love and motherhood
+which she perhaps regards, unreasonably or not,
+as the supreme things in the world, must often be under
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+such conditions a disastrous step, while it is always
+accompanied by certain risks. Therefore, it is asked,
+why should there not be, as of old there was, a relationship
+established which while of less dignity than marriage,
+and less exclusive in its demands, should yet permit a
+woman to enter into an honourable, open, and legally
+recognized relationship with a man? Such a relationship
+a woman could proclaim to the whole world, if
+necessary, without reflecting any disesteem upon herself
+or her child, while it would give her a legal claim on her
+child's father. Such a relationship would be substantially
+the same as the ancient concubinate, which persisted
+even in Christendom up to the sixteenth century. Its
+establishment in Sweden has apparently been satisfactory,
+and it is now sought to extend it to other
+countries.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to compare, or to contrast, the movement
+of which Ellen Key has been a conspicuous champion
+with the futile movement initiated nearly a century ago
+by the school of Saint-Simon and Prosper Enfantin,
+in favour of "la femme libre."<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> That earlier movement
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+had no doubt its bright and ideal side, but
+it was not supported by a sound and scientific
+view of life; it was rooted in sand and soon withered
+up. The kind of freedom which Ellen Key advocates
+is not a freedom to dispense with law and order, but
+rather a freedom to recognize and follow true law;
+it is the freedom which in morals as well as in politics
+is essential for the development of real responsibility.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+People talk, Ellen Key remarks, as though reform in
+sexual morality meant the breaking up of a beautiful
+idyll, while the idyll is impossible as long as the only
+alternative offered to so many young men and women
+at the threshold of life is between becoming "the slave
+of duty or the slave of lust." In these matters we already
+possess licence, and the only sound reform lies in a kind
+of "freedom" which will correct that licence by obedience
+to the most fundamental natural instincts acting in
+harmony with the claims of the race, which claims,
+it must be added, cannot be out of harmony with the
+best traditions of the race. Ellen Key would agree
+with a great German, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+wrote more than a century ago that "a solicitude for
+the race conducts to the same results as the highest
+solicitude for the most beautiful development of the
+inner man." The modern revolt against fossilized
+laws is inevitable; it is already in progress, and we
+have to see to it that the laws written upon tables of
+stone in their inevitable decay only give place to the
+mightier laws written upon tables of flesh and blood.
+Life is far too rich and manifold, Ellen Key says again,
+to be confined in a single formula, even the best; if
+our ideal has its worth for ourselves, if we are prepared
+to live for it and to die for it, that is enough; we are
+not entitled to impose it on others. The conception
+of duty still remains, duty to love and duty to the race.
+"I believe in a new ethics," Ellen Key declares at
+the end of <i>The Women's Movement</i>, "which will be a
+synthesis growing out of the nature of man and the nature
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+of woman, out of the demands of the individual and the
+demands of society, out of the pagan and the Christian
+points of view, out of the resolve to mould the future
+and out of piety towards the past."</p>
+
+<p>No reader of Ellen Key's books can fail to be impressed
+by the remarkable harmony between her sexual ethics
+and the conception that underlies Sir Francis Galton's
+scientific eugenics. In setting forth the latest aspects
+of his view of eugenics before the Sociological Society,
+Galton asserted that the improvement of the race,
+in harmony with scientific knowledge, would come about
+by a new religious movement, and he gave reasons to
+show why such an expectation is not unreasonable;
+in the past men have obeyed the most difficult marriage
+rules in response to what they believed to be supernatural
+commands, and there is no ground for supposing that
+the real demands of the welfare of the race, founded on
+exact knowledge, will prove less effective in calling out
+an inspiring religious emotion. Writing probably at
+the same time, Ellen Key, in her essay entitled <i>Love
+and Ethics</i>, set forth precisely the same conception,
+though not from the scientific but from the emotional
+standpoint. From the outset she places the sexual
+question on a basis which brings it into line with Galton's
+eugenics. The problem used to be concerned, she remarks,
+with the insistence of society on a rigid marriage form,
+in conflict with the demand of the individual to gratify
+his desires in any manner that seemed good to him,
+while now it becomes a question of harmonizing the
+claims of the improvement of the race with the claims
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+of the individual to happiness in love. She points
+out that on this aspect real harmony becomes more
+possible. Regard for the ennoblement of the race serves
+as a bridge from a chaos of conflicting tendencies to a
+truer conception of love, and "love must become on
+a higher plane what it was in primitive days&mdash;a religion."
+She compares the growth of the conception of the vital
+value of love to the modern growth of the conception
+of the value of health as against the medieval indifference
+to hygiene. It is inevitable that Ellen Key, approaching
+the question from the emotional side, should lay less
+stress than Galton on the importance of scientific investigation
+in heredity, and insist mainly on the value
+of sound instincts, unfettered by false and artificial
+constraints, and taught to realize that the physical and
+the psychic aspects of life are alike "divine."</p>
+
+<p>It would obviously be premature to express either
+approval or disapproval of the conceptions of sexual
+morality which Ellen Key has developed with such
+fervour and insight. It scarcely seems probable that
+the methods of sexual union, put forward as an alternative
+to celibacy by some of the adherents of the new movement,
+are likely to become widely popular, even if
+legalized in an increasing number of countries. I have
+elsewhere given reasons to believe that the path of progress
+lies mainly in the direction of a reform of the
+present institution of marriage.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> The need of such reform
+is pressing, and there are many signs that it is being
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+recognized. We can scarcely doubt that the advocates
+of these alternative methods of sexual union will do
+good by stimulating the champions of marriage to increased
+activity in the reform of that institution. In
+such matters a certain amount of competition sometimes
+has a remarkably vivifying effect.</p>
+
+
+<p>We may be sure that women, whose interests are
+so much at stake in this matter, and who tend to look
+at it in a practical rather than in a legal and theological
+spirit, will exert a powerful influence when they have
+acquired the ability to enforce that influence by the
+vote. This is significantly indicated by an inquiry
+held in England during 1910 by the Women's Co-operative
+Guild. A number of women who had held official positions
+in the Guild were asked (among other questions) whether
+or not they were in favour of divorce by mutual consent.
+Of 94 representative women conversant with affairs
+who were thus consulted, as many as 82 deliberately
+recorded their opinion in favour of divorce by mutual
+consent, and only 12 were against that highly important
+marriage reform.</p>
+
+<p>It is probably unnecessary to discuss the opinions
+of other leaders in this movement, though there are
+several, such as Frau Grete Meisel-Hess, whose views
+deserve study. It will be sufficiently clear in what
+way this Teutonic movement differs from that Anglo-Saxon
+woman's rights' movement with which we have
+long been familiar. These German women fully recognize
+that women are entitled to the same human rights
+as men, and that until such rights are attained
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+"feminism" still has a proper task to achieve. But
+women must use their strength in the sphere for which
+their own nature fits them. Even though millions of
+women are enabled to do the work which men could do
+better the gain for mankind is nil. To put women to
+do men's work is (Ellen Key has declared) as foolish
+as to set a Beethoven or a Wagner to do engine-driving.</p>
+
+<p>It has probably excited surprise in the minds of some
+who have been impressed by the magnitude and vitality
+of this movement that it should have manifested itself
+in Germany rather than in England, which is the original
+home of movements for women's emancipation, or in
+America, where they have reached their fullest developments.
+This, however, ceases to be surprising when we
+realize the special qualities of the Anglo-Saxon and
+Teutonic temperaments and the special conditions
+under which the two movements arose. The Anglo-Saxon
+movement was a special application to women
+of the general French movement for the logical assertion
+of abstract human rights. That special application
+was not ardently taken up in France itself, though first
+proclaimed by French pioneers,<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> partly perhaps because
+such one-sided applications make little appeal to the
+French mind, and mainly, no doubt, because women
+throughout the eighteenth century enjoyed such high
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+social consideration and exerted so much influence
+that they were not impelled to rise in any rebellious
+protest. But when the seed was brought over to England,
+especially in the representative form of Mary Wollstonecraft's
+<i>Vindication of the Rights of Women</i>, it fell in virgin
+soil which proved highly favourable to its development.
+This special application escaped the general condemnation
+which the Revolution had brought upon French ideas.
+Women in England were beginning to awaken to ideas,&mdash;as
+women in Germany are now,&mdash;and the more energetic
+and intelligent among them eagerly seized upon conceptions
+which furnished food for their activities. In
+large measure they have achieved their aims, and even
+woman's suffrage has been secured here and there,
+without producing any notable revolution in human
+affairs. The Anglo-Saxon conception of feminine progress&mdash;beneficial
+as it has undoubtedly been in many
+respects&mdash;makes little impression in Germany, partly
+because it fails to appeal to the emotional Teutonic
+temperament, and partly because the established type
+of German life and civilization offers very small scope
+for its development. When Miss Susan Anthony, the
+veteran pioneer of woman's movements in the United
+States, was presented to the German Empress she expressed
+a hope that the Emperor would soon confer
+the suffrage on German women; it is recorded that the
+Empress smiled, and probably most German women
+smiled with her. At the present time, however, there is
+an extraordinary amount of intellectual activity in
+Germany, a widespread and massive activity. For the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+first time, moreover, it has reached women, who are
+taking it up with characteristic Teutonic thoroughness.
+But they are not imitating the methods of their Anglo-Saxon
+sisters; they are going to work their own way.
+They are spending very little energy in waving the red
+flag before the fortresses of male monopoly. They are
+following an emotional influence which, strangely enough,
+it may seem to some, finds more support from the biological
+and medical side than the Anglo-Saxon movement
+has always been able to win. From the time of Aristophanes
+downwards, whenever they have demonstrated
+before the masculine citadels, women have always been
+roughly bidden to go home. And now, here in Germany,
+where of all countries that advice has been most freely
+and persistently given, women are adopting new tactics:
+they have gone home. "Yes, it is true," they say in
+effect, "the home is our sphere. Love and marriage, the
+bearing and the training of children&mdash;that is our world.
+And we intend to lay down the laws of our world."</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+In 1787 Condorcet declared (<i>Lettres d'un Bourgeois de New Haven</i>,
+Lettre II) that women ought to have absolutely the same rights as men,
+and he repeated the same statement emphatically in 1790, in an article
+"Sur l'Admission des Femmes au Droit de Cit&eacute;," published in the
+<i>Journal de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de 1789</i>. It must be added that Condorcet was
+not a democrat, and neither to men nor to women would he grant the
+vote unless they were proprietors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>
+L&eacute;opold Lacour has given a full and reliable account of Olympe de
+Gouges (who was born at Montauban in 1755) in his <i>Trois Femmes de la
+R&eacute;volution</i>, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>
+It is noteworthy that the Empire had even a depressing effect
+on the physical activities of women. The eighteenth-century woman
+in France, although she was not athletic in the modern sense, enjoyed
+a free life in the open air and was fond of physical exercises. During
+the Directoire this tendency became very pronounced; women wore
+the scantiest of garments, were out of doors in all weathers, cultivated
+healthy appetites, and enjoyed the best of health. But with the establishment
+of the Empire these wholesome fashions were discarded,
+and women cultivated new ideals of fragile refinement indoors. (This
+evolution has been traced by Dr. Lucien Nars, <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne</i>, September,
+1911.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>
+Concerning the rise and progress of this movement in England
+much information is sympathetically and vivaciously set forth in
+W. Lyon Blease's <i>Emancipation of English Women</i> (1910), a book,
+however, which makes no claim to be judicial or impartial; the author
+regards "unregulated male egoism" as the source of the difficulties
+in the way of women's suffrage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>
+Thus, in 1911 the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage
+took an impartial poll of the women voters on the municipal register in
+several large constituencies, by sending a reply-paid postcard to ask
+whether or not they favoured the extension to women of the Parliamentary
+franchise. Only 5579 were in favour of it; 18,850 were
+against; 12,621 did not take the trouble to answer, and it was claimed,
+probably with reason, that a majority of these were not in favour of
+the vote.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>
+It must not be too hastily assumed. Unless we go back to
+ancient plots of the Guy Fawkes type (now only imitated by self-styled
+anarchists), the leaders of movements of political reform have rarely,
+if ever, organized outbursts of violence; such violence, when it
+occurred, has been the spontaneous and unpremeditated act of a mob.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
+<i>Revue de l'Ecole d'Anthropologie</i>, February, 1909, p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
+O. Schrader, <i>Reallexicon</i>, Art. "Keuschheit." He considers that
+Tacitus merely shows that German women were usually chaste after
+marriage. A few centuries later, Lea points out, Salvianus, while
+praising the barbarians generally for their chastity, makes an exception
+in the case of the Alemanni. (See also Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," pp. 382-4.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
+Thus Kaan, anticipating Krafft-Ebing, published a <i>Psychopathia
+Sexualis</i>, in 1844, and Casper, in 1852, was the first medical authority
+to point out that sexual inversion is sometimes due to a congenital
+psychic condition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
+Both Forel's and Bloch's books have become well known through
+translations in England and America. Dr. Bloch is also the author of
+an extremely erudite and thorough history of syphilis, which has gone
+far to demonstrate that this disease was introduced into Europe from
+America on the first discovery of the New World at the end of the
+fifteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
+This attitude is plainly reflected even in many books written by
+men; I may mention, for instance, Frenssen's well-known novel
+<i>Hilligenlei</i> (<i>Holyland</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
+In most countries illegitimacy is decreasing; in Germany it is
+steadily increasing, alike in rural and urban districts. Illegitimate births
+are, however, more numerous in the cities than in the country. Of the
+constituent states of the German Empire, the illegitimate birth-rate
+is lowest in Prussia, highest in Saxony and Bavaria. In Munich 27 per
+cent of the births are illegitimate. (The facts are clearly brought
+out in an article by Dr. Arthur Gr&uuml;nspan in the <i>Berliner Tagblatt</i>
+for January 6, 1911, reproduced in <i>Die Neue Generation</i>, July, 1911.)
+Thus, in Prussia, while the total births between 1903 and 1908,
+notwithstanding a great increase in the population, have only increased
+2.6 per cent, the illegitimate births have increased as much
+as 11.1 per cent. The increase is marked in nearly all the German
+States. It is specially marked in Saxony; here the proportion of
+illegitimate births to the total number of births was, in 1903, 12.51 per
+cent, and in 1908 it had already risen to 14.40 per cent. In Berlin
+it is most marked; here it began in 1891, when there were nearly
+47,000 legitimate births; by 1909, however, the legitimate births had
+fallen to 38,000, a decrease of 19.4 per cent. But illegitimate births rose
+during the same period from nearly 7000 to over 9000, an increase of
+35 per cent. The proportion of illegitimate births to the total births is
+now over 20 per cent, so that to every four legitimate children there
+is rather more than one illegitimate child. It may be said that this is
+merely due to an increasing proportion of unmarried women. That,
+however, is not the case. The marriage-rate is on the whole rising,
+and the average age of women at marriage is becoming lower rather
+than higher. Gr&uuml;nspan considers that this increase in illegitimacy
+is likely to continue, and he is inclined to attribute it less to economic
+than to social-psychological causes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
+I have discussed this point in <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap.
+<span class="smcap">xii</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>
+It is remarkable that in early times in Spain the laws recognized
+concubinage (<i>barragania</i>) as almost equal to marriage, and as conferring
+equal rights on the child, even on the sons of the clergy, who could thus
+inherit from their fathers by right of the privileges accorded to the
+concubine or <i>barragana</i>. <i>Barragania</i>, however, was not real marriage,
+and in many regions it could be contracted by married men (R. Altamira,
+<i>Historia de Espa&ntilde;a y de la Civilazacion Espa&ntilde;ola</i>, Vol. I, pp. 644
+et seq.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
+"La femme libre," in quest of whom the young Saint-Simonians
+preached a crusade, must be a woman of reflection and intellect who,
+having meditated on the fate of her "sisters," knowing the wants of
+women, and having sounded those feminine capacities which man has
+never completely penetrated, shall give forth the confession of her sex,
+without restriction or reserve, in such a manner as to furnish the indispensable
+elements for formulating the rights and duties of woman.
+Saint Simon had asked Madame de Sta&euml;l to undertake this r&ocirc;le, but she
+failed to respond. When George Sand published her first novels, one
+Gu&eacute;roult was commissioned to ascertain if the author of <i>L&eacute;lia</i> would
+undertake this important service. He found a badly dressed woman
+who was using her talents to gain a living, but was by no means anxious
+to become the high priestess of a new religion. Even after his disappointment
+Enfantin looked eagerly forward to the publication of
+George Sand's <i>Histoire de ma Vie</i>, hoping that at last the great revelation
+was coming, and he was again disillusioned. But before this
+Emile Barrault had arisen and declared that in the East, in the solitude
+of the harem, "la femme libre" would be found in the person of some
+odalisque. The "mission of the mother" was formed, and with
+Barrault at the head it set out for Constantinople. All were dressed
+in white as an indication of the vow of chastity they had taken before
+leaving Paris, and on the road they begged in the name of the Mother.
+They arrived at Constantinople and preached the faith of Saint-Simon
+to the Turks in French. But "la femme libre" seemed as far off as
+ever, and they resolved to go to Rotourma in Oceana, there to establish
+the religion of Saint-Simon and a perfect Government which might serve
+as a model to the States of Europe. First, however, they felt it a duty
+to make certain that the Mother was not hiding somewhere in Russia,
+and they went therefore to Odessa, but the Governor, who was wanting
+in sympathy, speedily turned them out, and having realized that
+Rotourma was some distance off, the mission broke up, most of the
+members going to Egypt to rejoin Enfantin, whom the Arabs, struck
+by his beauty, had called <i>Abu-l-dhunieh</i>, the Father of the World.
+(This account of the movement is based on that given by Maxime du
+Camp, in his <i>Souvenirs Litt&eacute;raires</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
+<i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to
+Society," chap. <span class="smcap">x</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
+It is worth noting that a Frenchwoman has been called "the
+mother of modern feminism." Marie de Gournay, who died in 1645 at
+the age of eighty, is best known as the adopted daughter of Montaigne,
+for whom she cherished an enthusiastic reverence, becoming the first
+editor of his essays. Her short essay, <i>Egalit&eacute;
+des Hommes et des Femmes</i>, was written in 1622. See e.g. M. Schiff,
+<i>La Fille d'Alliance de Montaigne</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+<a name="CHAPIV" id="CHAPIV"></a></p><h3>IV</h3>
+
+<h3>THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN IN RELATION
+TO ROMANTIC LOVE</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization&mdash;Marriage as
+a Duty&mdash;The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire&mdash;The
+Influence of Christianity&mdash;The Attitude of Chivalry&mdash;The Troubadours&mdash;The
+Courts of Love&mdash;The Influence of the Renaissance&mdash;Conventional
+Chivalry and Modern Civilization&mdash;The Woman
+Movement&mdash;The Modern Woman's Equality of Rights and Responsibilities
+excludes Chivalry&mdash;New Forms of Romantic Love
+still remain possible&mdash;Love as the Inspiration of Social Hygiene.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>What will be the ultimate effect of the woman's
+movement, now slowly but surely taking
+place among us, upon romantic love?
+That is really a serious question, and it is much more
+complex than many of those who are prepared to answer
+it off-hand may be willing to admit.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that romantic love has not
+been a constant accompaniment of human relationships,
+even in civilization. It is true that various peoples
+very low down in the scale possess romantic love-songs,
+often, it appears, written by the women. But the classic
+civilizations of Greece and Rome in their most robust
+and brilliant periods knew little or nothing of romantic
+love in connection with normal sexual relationships
+culminating in marriage. Classic antiquity reveals
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+a high degree of conjugal devotion, and of domestic
+affection, at all events in Rome, but the right of the
+woman to follow the inspirations of her own heart,
+and the idealization and worship of the woman by the
+man, were not only scarcely known but, so far as they
+were known, reprehended or condemned. Ovid, in
+the opinion of some, represents a new movement in
+Rome. We are apt to regard Ovid as, in erotic matters,
+the representative of a set of immoral Roman voluptuaries.
+That view probably requires considerable
+modification. Ovid was not indeed a champion of
+morality, but there is no good reason to suppose that,
+before he appeared, the rather stern Roman mind had
+yet conceived those refinements and courtesies which
+he set forth in such charming detail. If we take a wide
+survey of his work, we may perhaps regard Ovid as the
+pioneer of a chivalrous attitude towards women and of
+a romantic conception of love not only new in Rome
+but of significance for Europe generally. Ovid was
+a powerful factor in the Renaissance movement, and
+not least in England, where his influence on Shakespeare
+and some others of the Elizabethans cannot easily be
+overrated.<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the ordinary classic mind, Greek or Roman,
+marriage was intended for the end of building up the
+family, and the family was consecrated to the State.
+The fulfilment of so exalted a function involved a certain
+austere dignity which excluded wayward inclination
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+or passionate emotion. These might indeed occur
+between a man and a woman outside marriage, but
+putting aside the very limited phenomena of Athenian
+hetairism, they were too shameful to be idealized.
+Some trace of this classic attitude may be said to persist
+even to-day among the so-called Latin nations, notably
+in the French tradition (now dying out) of treating
+marriage as a relationship to be arranged, not by the
+two parties themselves, but by their parents and
+guardians; Montaigne, attached as he was to maxims
+of Roman antiquity, was not very alien from the ordinary
+French attitude of his time when he declared that,
+since we do not marry so much for our own sakes as for
+the sake of posterity and the race, marriage is too sacred
+a process to be mixed with amorous extravagance.
+<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>
+There is something to be said for that point of view
+which is nowadays too often forgotten, but it certainly
+fails to cover the whole of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>It is not only in the West that a contemptuous attitude
+towards the romantic and erotic side of life has prevailed
+at some of the most vigorous moments of civilization.
+It is also found in the East. In Japan, for instance,
+even at the present day, romantic love, as a reputable
+element of ordinary life, is unknown or disapproved;
+its existence is not recognized in the schools, and the
+European novels that celebrate it are scarcely understood.
+<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>The development of modern romantic love in connection
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+with marriage seems to be found in the late
+Greek world under the Roman Empire.<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> That is commonly
+called a period of decadence. In a certain limited
+sense it was. Greece had become subjugated to Rome.
+Rome herself had lost her military spirit and was losing
+her political power. But the fighting instinct, and even
+the ruling spirit, are not synonymous with civilization.
+The "decline and fall" of empires by no means necessarily
+involves the decay of civilization. It is now generally
+realized that the later Roman Empire was not,
+as was once thought, an age of social and moral degeneration.
+<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>
+The State indeed was dissolving, but the
+individual was evolving. The age which produced
+a Plutarch&mdash;for fifteen hundred years one of the great
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+inspiring forces of the world&mdash;was the reverse of a corrupt
+age. The life of the home and the life of the soul were
+alike developing. The home was becoming more complex,
+more intimate, more elevated. The soul was being turned
+in on itself to discover new and joyous secrets: the secret
+of the love of Nature, the secret of mystic religion, and,
+not least, the secret of romantic love. When Christianity
+finally conquered the Roman world its task very largely
+lay in taking over and developing those three secrets
+already discovered by Paganism.</p>
+
+<p>It was inevitable, however, that in developing these
+new forms of the emotional life, the ascetic bent of
+Christianity should make itself felt. It was not possible
+for Christianity to cast its halo around the natural
+sexual life, but it was possible to refine and exalt that
+life, to lift it into a spiritual sphere. Neither woman
+the sweetheart nor woman the mother were in ordinary
+life glorified by the Church; they were only tolerated.
+But on a higher than natural plane they were surrounded
+by a halo and raised to the highest pedestal of reverence
+and even worship. The Virgin was exalted, Bride and
+Bridegroom became terms of mystical import, and the
+Holy Mother received the adoring love of all Christendom.
+Even in the actual relations of men and women, quite
+early in the history of Christianity, we sometimes find
+men and women cultivating relationships which excluded
+that earthly union the Church looked down on, but yet
+involved the most tender and intimate physical affection.
+Many charming stories of such relationships are found
+in the lives of the saints, and sometimes they existed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+even within the marriage bond.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Christianity led to
+the use of ideas and terms borrowed from earthly love
+in a different and symbolic sense. But the undesigned
+result was that a new force and beauty were added
+to those ideas and terms, however applied, and also
+that many emotions were thus cultivated which became
+capable of re-inforcing earthly human love. In this way
+it happened that, though Christianity rejected the ideal
+of romantic love in its natural associations, it indirectly
+prepared the way for a loftier and deeper realization of
+that love.</p>
+
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the emotional training
+and refining of the fleshly instincts by Christianity
+was the chief cause of the rise of that conception of
+romantic love which we associate with the institution
+of chivalry. Exalted and sanctified by contact with
+the central dogmas of religion, the emotion of love was
+brought down from this spiritual atmosphere by the
+knightly lover, with something of its ethereal halo
+still clinging to it, and directed towards an earthly
+mistress. The most extravagant phase of romantic
+love which has ever been seen was then brought about,
+and in many cases, certainly, it was a real erotomania
+which passed beyond the bounds of sanity.
+<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> In its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+extreme forms, however, this romantic love was a rare,
+localized, and short-lived manifestation. The dominant
+attitude of the chivalrous age towards women, as L&eacute;on
+Gautier has shown in his monumental work on chivalry,
+was one of indifference, or even contempt. The knight's
+thoughts were more of war than of women, and he
+cherished his horse more than his mistress.
+<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>But women, above all in France, reacted against
+this attitude, and with splendid success. Their husbands
+treated them with indifference or left them at home
+while they sought adventure in the world. The neglected
+wives proceeded to lay down the laws of society, and
+took upon themselves the part of rulers in the domain of
+morals. In the eleventh, the twelfth, the thirteenth
+centuries, says M&eacute;ray in a charming book on life in the
+days of the Courts of Love, we find women "with infinite
+skill and an adorable refinement seizing the moral direction
+of French society." They did so, he remarks, in a
+spirit so Utopian, so ideally poetic, that historians have
+hesitated to take them seriously. The laws of the Courts
+of Love<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
+may sometimes seem to us immoral and licentious,
+but in reality they served to restrain the worst immoralities
+and licences of the time. They banished violence, they
+allowed no venality, and they inculcated moderation
+in passion. The task of the Courts of Love was facilitated
+by the relative degree of peace which then reigned,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+especially by the fact that the Normans, holding both
+coasts of the Channel, formed a link between France
+and England. When the murderous activities of French
+kings and English kings destroyed that link, the Courts
+of Love were swept away in the general disorder and
+the progress of civilization indefinitely retarded.
+<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Yet
+in some degree the ideals which had been thus embodied
+still persisted. As the Goncourts pointed out in their
+invaluable book, <i>La Femme au Dix-huiti&egrave;me Si&egrave;cle</i> (Chap.
+v), from the days of chivalry even on into the eighteenth
+century, when on the surface at all events it apparently
+disappeared, an exalted ideal of love continued to be
+cherished in France. This conception remained associated,
+throughout, with the great social influence and authority
+which had been enjoyed by women in France even from
+medieval times. That influence had become pronounced
+during the seventeenth century, and at that time Sir
+Thomas Smith in his <i>Commonwealth of England</i>, writing
+of the high position of women in England, remarked that
+they possessed "almost as much liberty as in France."</p>
+
+<p>There were at least two forms of medieval romantic
+love. The first arose in Provence and northern Italy
+during the twelfth century, and spread to Germany
+as <i>Minnedienst</i>. In this form the young knights directed
+their respectful and adoring devotion to a high-born
+married woman who chose one of them as her own cavalier,
+to do her service and reverence, the two vowing devotion
+to each other until death. It was a part of this amorous
+code that there could not be love between husband and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+wife, and it was counted a mark of low breeding for a
+husband to challenge his wife's right to her young knight's
+services, though sometimes we are told the husband
+risked this reproach, occasionally with tragic results.
+This mode of love, after being eloquently sung and
+practised by the troubadours&mdash;usually, it appears,
+younger sons of noble houses&mdash;died out in the place of
+its origin, but it had been introduced into Spain, and
+the Spaniards reintroduced it into Italy when they
+acquired the kingdom of Naples; in Italy it was conventionalized
+into the firmly rooted institution of the
+<i>cavaliere servente</i>. From the standpoint of a strict
+morality, the institution was obviously open to question.
+But we can scarcely fail to see that at its origin it possessed,
+even if unconsciously, a quasi-religious warrant in the
+worship of the Holy Mother, and we have to recognize
+that, notwithstanding its questionable shape, it was
+really an effort to attain a purer and more ideal relationship
+than was possible in a rough and warlike age which
+placed the wife in subordination to her husband. A
+tender devotion that inspired poetry, an unalloyed
+respect that approached reverence, vows that were
+based on equal freedom and independence on both sides&mdash;these
+were possibilities which the men and women of
+that age felt to be incompatible with marriage as they
+knew it.</p>
+
+<p>The second form of medieval romantic love was
+more ethereal than the first, and much more definitely
+and consciously based on a religious attitude. It was
+really the worship of the Virgin transferred to a young
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+earthly maiden, yet retaining the purity and ideality
+of religious worship. To so high a degree is this the case
+that it is sometimes difficult to be sure whether we are
+concerned with a real maiden of flesh and blood or only
+a poetic symbol of womanhood. This doubt has been
+raised, notably by Bartoli, concerning Dante's Beatrice,
+the supreme type of this ethereal love, which arose
+in the thirteenth century, and was chiefly cultivated
+in Florence. The poets of this movement were themselves
+aware of the religious character of their devotion
+to the <i>donna angelicata</i> to whom they even apply, as they
+would to the Queen of Heaven, the appellation Stella
+Maris. That there was an element of flesh and blood
+in these figures is believed by Remy de Gourmont,
+but when we gaze at them, he remarks, we see at first,
+"in place of a body only two eyes with angel's wings
+behind them, on the background of an azure sky sown
+with golden stars"; the lover is on his knees and his
+love has become a prayer.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> This phase of romantic
+love was brief, and perhaps mostly the possession of the
+poets, but it represented a really important moment
+in the evolution of modern romantic love. It was a step
+towards the realization of the genuinely human charm
+of young womanhood in real human relationships, of
+which we already have a foretaste in the delicious early
+French story of Aucassin and Nicolette.</p>
+
+
+<p>The re-discovery of classic literature, the movements
+of Humanism and the Renaissance, swept away what
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+was left of the almost religious idealization of the young
+virgin. The ethereal maiden, thin, pale, an&aelig;mic,
+disappeared alike from literature and from art, and was
+no longer an ideal in actual life. She gave place to a
+new woman, conscious of her own fully developed womanhood
+and all its needs, radiantly beautiful and finely
+shaped in every limb. She lacked the spirituality of her
+predecessors, but she had gained in intellect. She
+appears first in the pages of Boccaccio. After a long
+interval Titian immortalized her rich and mature beauty;
+she is Flora, she is Ariadne, she is alike the Earthly
+Love and the Heavenly Love. Every curve of her body
+was adoringly and minutely described by Niphus and
+Firenzuola.<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> She was, moreover, the courtesan whose
+imperial charm and adroitness enabled her to trample
+under foot the medieval conception of lust as sin,
+even in the courts of popes. At the great academic
+centre of Bologna, finally, she chastely taught learning
+and science.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> The people of the Italian Renaissance
+placed women on the same level as men, and to call
+a woman a <i>virago</i> implied unalloyed praise.
+<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+The very mixed conditions of what we have been
+accustomed to consider the modern world then began
+for women. They were no longer cloistered&mdash;whether
+in convents or the home&mdash;but neither were they
+any longer worshipped. They began to be treated
+as human beings, and when men idealized them in figures
+of romantic charm or pathos&mdash;figures like Shakespeare's
+Rosalind or Marivaux's Sylvia or Richardson's Clarissa&mdash;this
+humanity was henceforth the common ground
+out of which the vision arose. But, one notes, in nearly
+all the great poets and novelists up to the middle of
+the last century, it was usually in the weakness of
+humanity that the artist sought the charm and pathos
+of his feminine figures. From Shakespeare's Ophelia
+to Thackeray's Amelia this is the rule, more emphatically
+expressed in the literature of England than of any
+other country. There had been no actual emancipation
+of women; though now they had entered the world of
+men, they were not yet, socially and legally, of that
+world. Even the medieval traditions still lived on
+in subtly conventionalized forms. The "chivalrous"
+attitude towards women was, as the word itself suggests,
+a medieval survival. It belonged to a period of barbarism
+when brutal force ruled and when the man who magnanimously
+placed his force at the disposition of a woman
+was really doing her a service and granting her a privilege.
+But civilization means the building up of an orderly
+society in which individual rights are respected, and
+force no longer dominates. So that as civilization
+advances the occasions on which women require the aid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+of masculine force become ever fewer and more unimportant.
+The conventionalized chivalry of men then
+tends to become an offer of services which it would be
+better for women to do for themselves and a bestowal
+of privileges to which they are nowise entitled.
+<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> Moreover,
+this same chivalry is, under these conditions,
+apt to take on a character which is the reverse of its
+face value. It becomes the assertion of a power over
+women instead of a power on their behalf; and it carries
+with it a tinge of contempt in place of respect. Theoretically,
+a thousand chivalrous swords should leap
+from their scabbards to succour the distressed woman.
+In practice this may only mean that the thousand
+owners of these metaphorical weapons are on the alert
+to take advantage of the distressed woman.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the romantic emotions based on medieval
+ideals gradually lost their worth. They were not in
+relation to the altered facts of life; they had become
+an empty convention which could be turned to very
+unromantic uses. The movement for the emancipation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+of women was not consciously or directly a movement
+of revolt against an antiquated chivalry. It was rather
+a part of the development of civilization which rendered
+chivalry antique. Medieval romantic love implied in
+women a weakness in the soil of which only a spiritual
+force could flourish. The betterment of social conditions,
+the subordination of violence to order, the growing
+respect for individual rights, took away the reasons for
+consecrating weakness in women, and created an ever
+larger field in which women could freely seek to rival
+men, because it is a field in which knowledge and skill
+are of far more importance than muscular strength.
+The emancipation of women has simply been the later
+and more conscious phase of the process by which women
+have entered into this field and sought their share of its
+rights and its responsibilities.</p>
+
+<p>The woman movement of modern times, properly
+understood, has thus been the effort of women to adapt
+themselves to the conditions of an orderly and peaceful
+civilization. Education, under the changed conditions,
+can effect what before needed force of arms; responsibility
+is now demanded where before only tutelage
+was possible. A civilized society in which women are
+ignorant and irresponsible is an anachronism, and,
+however great the wrench with the past might be,
+it was necessary that women should be adjusted to the
+changing times. The ideal of the weak, ignorant, inexperienced
+woman&mdash;the cross between an angel and
+an idiot, as I have elsewhere described her
+<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>&mdash;no longer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+fulfilled any useful purpose. Civilized society furnishes
+the conditions under which all adult persons are socially
+equal and all are free to give to society the best they are
+capable of.</p>
+
+
+<p>It was inevitable, but unfortunate, that this movement
+should have sometimes tended to take the form of an
+attempt on the part of women to secure, not merely
+equality with men, but actual imitation of men. These
+women said that since men had attained mastery in life,
+captured all the best things, and adopted the most
+successful methods of living, it was necessary for women
+to copy them at every point. That was a specious
+plea which even had in it a certain element of truth.
+But the fact remained that women and men are different,
+that the difference is based in fundamental natural
+functions, and that to place one sex in exactly the same
+position as the other sex is to deform its outlines and to
+hamper its activities.</p>
+
+<p>From the present point of view we are only concerned
+with the influence of the woman's movement on love.
+On the traditional conception of romantic love inherited
+from medieval days there can be no doubt that this
+influence has been highly dissolvent. Medieval romantic
+love, in its original form, had been part of a conception
+of womanhood made up of opposites, and all the opposites
+balanced each other. The medieval man laid his homage
+at the feet of the great lady in the castle hall, but he
+himself lorded it over the wife who drudged in his own
+home. On his knees he gazed up in devotion at the
+ethereal virgin, but when she ceased to be a virgin, he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+asserted himself by cursing her as a demon sent from
+hell to seduce and torment him. All this was possible
+because the woman was outside the orbit of the man's
+life, never on the same plane, necessarily higher or
+lower. It became difficult if woman was man's equal,
+absurdly impossible if she was of identical nature with
+him.</p>
+
+<p>The medieval romantic tradition has come down to
+us so laden with beauty and mystery that we are apt to
+think, as we see it melt away, that human achievements
+are being permanently depreciated. That illusion occurs
+in every age of transition. It was notably so in the
+eighteenth century, which represented a highly important
+stage in the emancipation of women. To some that
+century seems to have been given up to empty gallantry
+and facile pleasure. Yet it was not only the age in which
+women for the first time succeeded in openly attaining
+their supreme social influence,<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> it was an age of romantic
+love, and the noble or poignant love-stories which have
+reached us from the records of that period surpass those
+of any other age.</p>
+
+<p>If we believe with Goethe that the religion of the
+future consists in a triple reverence&mdash;the reverence for
+what is above us, the reverence for what is below us,
+and the reverence for our equals<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>&mdash;we need not grieve
+overmuch if one form of this reverence, the first, and
+that which Goethe regarded as the earliest and crudest,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+has lost its exclusive claim. Reverence is essential
+to all romantic love. To bring down the Madonna and
+the Virgin from their pedestals to share with men the
+common responsibilities and duties of life is not to divest
+them of the claim to reverence. It is merely the sign of
+a change in the form of that reverence, a change which
+heralds a new romantic love.</p>
+
+<p>It would be premature to attempt to define the exact
+outline of the new forms of romantic love, or the precise
+lineaments of the beings who will most ardently evoke
+that love. In literature, indeed, the ideals of life cast
+their shadow before, and we may surely trace a change
+in the erotic ideals mirrored in literature. The woman
+whom Dickens idealized in <i>David Copperfield</i> is unlike
+indeed to the series of women of a new type introduced
+by George Meredith, and the modern heroine generally
+exhibits more of the robust, open-eyed and spontaneous
+qualities of that later type than the blind and clinging
+nature of the amiable simpletons of the older type.
+That the changed conditions of civilization should produce
+new types of womanhood and of love is not surprising,
+if we realize that, even within the ancient chivalrous
+forms it was possible to produce similar robust types
+when the qualities of a race were favourable to them.
+Spain furnishes a notable illustration. Spanish literature
+from Cervantes and Tirso to Valera and Blasco Iba&ntilde;ez
+reflects a type of woman who stands on the same ground
+as man and is his equal and often his superior on that
+ground, alike in vigour of body and of spirit, acquiring
+all that she cares to of virility, while losing nothing feminine
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+that is of worth.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> In more than one respect the
+ideal woman of Spain is the ideal woman our civilization
+now renders necessary. The women of the future, Grete
+Meisel-Hess declares in her femininely clever and frank
+discussion of present-day conditions, <i>Die Sexuelle Krise</i>,
+will be full, strong, elementary natures, devoid alike
+of the impulse to destroy or the aptitude to be destroyed.
+She considers, moreover, that so far from romantic
+love being a thing of the past, "love as a form of worship
+is reserved for the future."<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> In the past it has only been
+found among a few rare souls; in the future world,
+fostered by the finer selection of a conscious eugenics,
+and a new reverence and care for motherhood, we may
+reasonably hope for a truly efficient humanity, the
+bearers and conservers of the highest human emotions.
+It is in this sense, indeed, that the voices of the greatest
+and most typical leaders of the woman's movement
+of emancipation to-day are heard. Ellen Key, in her
+<i>Love and Marriage</i>, seeks to conciliate the cultivation
+of a free and sacred sexual relationship with the worship
+of the child, as the embodiment of the future race,
+while Olive Schreiner proclaims in her <i>Woman and Labour</i>
+that the woman of the future will walk side by side with
+man in a higher and deeper relationship than has ever
+been possible before because it will involve a new community
+in activity and insight.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is it alone from the feminine side that these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+forecasts are made. Certainly for the most part love
+has been cultivated more by women than by men.
+Primacy in the genius of intellect belongs incontestably
+to men, but in the genius of love it has doubtless oftener
+been achieved by women. They have usually understood
+better than men that in this matter, as Goethe insisted,
+it is the lover and not the beloved who reaps the chief
+fruits of love. "It is better to love, even violently,"
+wrote the forsaken Portuguese nun, in her immortal
+<i>Letters</i>, "than merely to be loved." He who loses his
+life here saves it, for it is only in so far as he becomes
+a crucified god that Love wins the sacrifice of human
+hearts. Of late years, by an inevitable reaction, women
+have sometimes forgotten this eternal verity. The women
+of the twentieth century in their anxiety for self-possession
+and their rightful eagerness to gain positions they feel
+they have been too long excluded from, have perhaps
+yet failed to realize that the women of the eighteenth
+century, who exerted a sway over life that the women
+of no age before or since have possessed, were, above
+all women, great and heroic lovers, and that those two
+fundamental facts cannot be cut asunder. But this
+failure, temporary as it is doubtless destined to be,
+will work for good if it is the point of departure for a
+revival among men of the art of love.</p>
+
+<p>Men indeed have here fallen behind women. The
+old saying, so tediously often quoted, concerning love
+as a "thing apart" in the lives of men would scarcely
+have occurred to a medieval poet of Provence or Florence.
+It is not enough for women to proclaim a new avatar
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+of love if men are not ready and eager to learn its art
+and to practise its discipline. In a profoundly suggestive
+fragment on love, left incomplete at his death by the
+distinguished sociologist Tarde,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> he suggests that when
+masculine energy dies down in the fields of political
+ambition and commercial gain, as it already has in the
+field of warfare, the energy liberated by greater social
+organization and cohesion may find scope once more in
+love. For too long a period love, like war and politics
+and commerce, has been chiefly monopolized by the
+predatory type of man, in this field symbolized by the
+figure of Don Juan. In the future, Tarde suggests,
+the Don Juan type of lover may fall into disrepute,
+giving place to the Virgilian type, for whom love is not
+a thing apart but a form of life embodying its best
+and highest activities.</p>
+
+<p>When we come upon utterances of this kind we are
+tempted to think that they represent merely the poetic
+dreams of individuals, standing too far ahead of their
+fellows to possess any significance for men and women
+in general. But it is probable that Ovid, and certain
+that Dante, set forth erotic conceptions that were unintelligible
+to most of their contemporaries, yet they have
+been immensely influential over the ideas and emotions
+of men in later ages. The poets and prophets of one
+generation are engaged in moulding ideals which will
+be realized in the lives of a subsequent generation;
+in expressing their own most intimate emotions, as it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+has been truly said, they become the leaders in a long
+file of men and women. Whatever may yet be uncertain
+and undefined, we may assuredly believe that the emotion
+of love is far too deeply rooted in the depth of man's
+organism and woman's organism ever to be torn out or
+ever to be thrust into a subordinate place. And we may
+also believe that there is no measurable limit to its power
+of putting forth ever new and miraculous flowers. It
+is recorded that once, in James Hinton's presence, the
+conversation turned on music, and it was suggested
+that, owing to the limited number of musical combinations
+and the unlimited number of musical compositions,
+a time would come when all music would only be a
+repetition of exhausted harmonies. Hinton remarked
+that then would come a man so inspired by a new spirit
+that his feeling would be, not that <i>all</i> music has been
+written, but that no <i>music</i> has yet been written. It
+was a memorable saying. In every field that is the
+perpetual proclamation of genius: Behold! I create
+all things new. And in this field of love we can conceive
+of no age in which to the inspired seer it will not be
+possible to feel: There has yet been no <i>love</i>!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
+See especially Sidney Lee, "Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets,"
+<i>Quarterly Review</i>, April, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
+Montaigne, <i>Essais</i>, Book III, chap. <span class="smcap">V</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
+See e.g. Mrs. Fraser, <i>World's Work and Play</i>, December, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
+A more modern feeling for love and marriage begins to emerge,
+however, at a much earlier period, with Menander and the New Comedy.
+E.F.M. Benecke, in his interesting little book on <i>Antimachus of
+Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek Poetry</i>, believes that the
+romantic idea (that is to say, the idea that a woman is a worthy object
+for a man's love, and that such love may well be the chief, if not the
+only, aim of a man's life) had originally been propounded by Antimachus
+at the end of the fifth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> Antimachus, said to have
+been the friend of Plato, had been united to a woman of Lydia (where
+women, we know, occupied a very high position) and her death inspired
+him to write a long poem, <i>Lyde</i>, "the first love poem ever addressed
+by a Greek to his wife after death." Only a few lines of this poem
+survive. But Antimachus seems to have greatly influenced Philetas
+(whom Croiset calls "the first of the Alexandrians") and Asclepiades
+of Samos, tender and exquisite poets whom also we only know by a few
+fragments. Benecke's arguments, therefore, however probable, cannot
+be satisfactorily substantiated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a>
+As I have elsewhere pointed out (<i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. <span class="smcap">ix</span>), most modern
+authorities&mdash;Friedl&auml;nder, Dill, Donaldson, etc.&mdash;consider that there was
+no real moral decline in the later Roman Empire; we must not accept
+the pictures presented by satirists, pagan or Christian, as of general application.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a>
+I have discussed this phase of early Christianity in the sixth volume
+of <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, "Sex in Relation to Society,"
+chap. <span class="smcap">V</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a>
+Ulrich von Lichtenstein, in the thirteenth century, is the typical
+example of this chivalrous erotomania. His account of his own adventures
+has been questioned, but Reinhold Becker (<i>Wahrheit und Dichtung
+in Ulrich von Lichtenstein's Frauendienst</i>, 1888) considers that, though
+much exaggerated, it is in substance true.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a>
+L&eacute;on Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i>, pp. 236-8, 348-50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a>
+The chief source of information on these Courts is Andr&eacute; le
+Chapelain's <i>De Arte Amatoria</i>. Boccaccio made use of this work,
+though without mentioning the author's name, in his own <i>Dialogo
+d' Amore</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a>
+A. M&eacute;ray, <i>La Vie au Temps des Cours d'Amour</i>, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a>
+Remy de Gourmont, <i>Dante, B&eacute;atrice et la Po&eacute;sie Amoureuse</i>, 1907,
+p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a>
+ Niphus (born about 1473), a physician and philosopher of the Papal
+Court, wrote in his <i>De Pulchro</i>, sometimes considered the first modern
+treatise on &aelig;sthetics, a minute description of Joan of Aragon, whose
+portrait, traditionally ascribed to Raphael, is in the Louvre. The
+famous work of Firenzuola (born 1493) entitled <i>Dialogo delle Bellezze
+delle Donne</i>, was published in 1548. It has been translated into English
+by Clara Bell under the title <i>On the Beauty of Women</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a>
+See, for example, Edith Coulson James, <i>Bologna: Its History,
+Antiquities and Art</i>, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a>
+See, for an interesting account of the position of women in the
+Italian Renaissance, Burckhardt, <i>Die Kultur der Renaissance</i>, Part V,
+ch. <span class="smcap">vi</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a>
+I may quote the following remarks from a communication I have
+received from a University man: "I am prepared to show women,
+and to expect from them, precisely the same amount of consideration as
+I show to or expect from other men, but I rather resent being expected
+to make a preferential difference. For example, in a crowded tram I see
+no more adequate reason for giving up my seat to a young and healthy
+girl than for expecting her to give up hers to me; I would do so cheerfully
+for an old person of either sex on the ground that I am probably
+better fit to stand the fatigue of 'strap-hanging,' and because I recognize
+that some respect is due to age; but if persons get into over-full
+vehicles they should not expect first-comers to turn out of their seats
+merely because they happen to be men." This writer acknowledges,
+indeed, that he is not very sensitive to the erotic attraction of women,
+but it is probable that the changing status of women will render the
+attitude he expresses more and more common among men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a>
+<i>Ante</i>, p. 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a>
+"Women then were queens," as Taine writes (<i>L'Ancien R&eacute;gime</i>,
+Vol. I, p. 219), and he gives references to illustrate the point.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a>
+Goethe, <i>Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre</i>, Book II, ch.
+<span class="smcap">i</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a>
+Havelock Ellis, <i>The Soul of Spain</i>, chap.
+<span class="smcap">III</span>, "The Women of Spain."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a>
+Grete Meisel-Hess, <i>Die Sexuelle Krise</i>, 1909, pp. 148, 168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a>
+"La Morale Sexuelle," <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, January,
+1907.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+<a name="CHAPV" id="CHAPV"></a></p><h3>V</h3>
+
+<h3>THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A FALLING
+BIRTH-RATE</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally&mdash;In England&mdash;In
+Germany&mdash;In the United States&mdash;In Canada&mdash;In Australasia&mdash;"Crude"
+Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate&mdash;The Connection
+between High Birth-rate and High Death-rate&mdash;"Natural Increase"
+measured by Excess of Births over Deaths&mdash;The Measure of
+National Well-being&mdash;The Example of Russia&mdash;Japan&mdash;China&mdash;The
+Necessity of viewing the Question from a wide Standpoint&mdash;The
+Prevalence of Neo-Malthusian Methods&mdash;Influence of the Roman
+Catholic Church&mdash;Other Influences lowering the Birth-rate&mdash;Influence
+of Postponement of Marriage&mdash;Relation of the Birth-rate
+to Commercial and Industrial Activity&mdash;Illustrated by Russia,
+Hungary, and Australia&mdash;The Relation of Prosperity to Fertility&mdash;The
+Social Capillarity Theory&mdash;Divergence of the Birth-rate and
+the Marriage-rate&mdash;Marriage-rate and the Movement of Prices&mdash;Prosperity
+and Civilization&mdash;Fertility among Savages&mdash;The lesser
+Fertility of Urban Populations&mdash;Effect of Urbanization on Physical
+Development&mdash;Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+Fertility&mdash;Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility&mdash;The Process
+of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility&mdash;In this Respect it is
+a Continuation of Zoological Evolution&mdash;Large Families as a Stigma
+of Degeneration&mdash;The Decreased Fertility of Civilization a General
+Historical Fact&mdash;The Ideals of Civilization to-day&mdash;The East and
+the West.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting phenomena of the
+early part of the nineteenth century was the
+immense expansion of the people of the so-called
+"Anglo-Saxon" race.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> This expansion coincided with
+that development of industrial and commercial activity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+which made the English people, who had previously impressed
+foreigners as somewhat lazy and drunken, into
+"a nation of shopkeepers." It also coincided with the
+end of the supremacy of France in Europe; France had
+succeeded to Spain as the leading power in Europe, and
+had on the whole maintained a supremacy which Napoleon
+brought to a climax, and, in doing so, crushed. The
+growing prosperity of England represented an entirely
+new wave of influence, mainly economic in character,
+but not less forceful than that of Spain and of France
+had been; and this prosperity was reflected in the
+growth of the nation. The greater part of the Victorian
+period was marked by this expansion of population,
+which reached its highest point in the early years of the
+second half of that period. While the population of
+England was thus increasing with ever greater rapidity
+at home, at the same time the English-speaking peoples
+overspread the whole of North America, and colonized
+the fertile fringe of Australia. It was, on a still larger
+scale, a phenomenon similar to that which had occurred
+three hundred years earlier, when Spain covered the
+world and founded an empire upon which, as Spaniards
+proudly boasted, the sun never set.</p>
+
+
+<p>When now, a century later, we survey the situation,
+not only has industrial and commercial activity ceased
+to be a special attribute of the Anglo-Saxons&mdash;since the
+Germans have here shown themselves to possess qualities
+of the highest order, and other countries are rapidly
+rivalling them&mdash;but within the limits of the English-speaking
+world itself the English have found formidable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+rivals in the Americans. Underlying, however, even these
+great changes there is a still more fundamental fact to
+be considered, a fact which affects all branches of the
+race; and that is, that the Anglo-Saxons have passed
+their great epoch of expansion and that their birth-rate
+is rapidly falling to a normal level, that is to say, to the
+average level of the world in general. Disregarding the
+extremely important point of the death-rate in its bearing
+on the birth-rate, England is seen to possess a medium
+birth-rate among European countries, not among the
+countries with a high birth-rate, like Russia, Roumania,
+or Bulgaria, nor among those with a low birth-rate, like
+Sweden, Belgium, and France. It was in this last country
+that the movement of decline in the European birth-rate
+began, and though the rate of decline has in France now
+become very gradual the long period through which it
+has extended has placed France in the lowest place, so
+far as Europe is concerned. In 1908 out of a total of
+over 11,000,000 French families, in nearly 2,000,000
+there were no children, and in nearly 3,000,000 there was
+only one child.<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+The general decline in the European
+birth-rate, during the years 1901-1905, was only slight
+in Switzerland, Ireland and Spain, while it was large not
+only in France, but in Italy, Servia, England and Wales,
+and especially in Hungary (while, outside Europe, it was
+largest of all in South Australia). Since 1905 there has
+been a further general decline throughout Europe, only
+excepting Ireland, Bulgaria, and Roumania. In Prussia
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+in 1881-1885 the birth-rate was 37.4; in 1909 it was
+only 31.8; while in the German Empire as a whole it
+is throughout lower than in Prussia, though somewhat
+higher than in England. In Austria and Spain alone of
+European countries during the twenty years between
+1881 and 1901 was there any tendency for the fertility
+of wives to increase. In all other countries there was a
+decrease, greatest in Belgium, next greatest in France,
+then in England.<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we consider the question, not on the basis of the
+crude birth-rate, but of the "corrected" birth-rate, with
+more exact reference to the child-producing elements in
+the population, as is done by Newsholme and Stevenson,
+<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+we find that the greatest decline has taken place in New
+South Wales, then in Victoria, Belgium, and Saxony,
+followed by New Zealand. But France, the German
+Empire generally, England, and Denmark all show a
+considerable fall; while Sweden and Norway show a
+fall, which, especially in Norway, is slight. Norway
+illustrates the difference between the "crude" and the
+"corrected" birth-rate; the crude birth-rate is lower
+than that of Saxony, but the corrected birth-rate is
+higher. Ireland, again, has a very low crude birth-rate,
+but the population of child-bearing age has a high birth-rate,
+considerably higher than that of England.</p>
+
+
+<p>Thus while forty years ago it was usual for both the
+English and the Germans to contemplate, perhaps with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+some complacency, the spectacle of the falling birth-rate
+in France as compared with the high birth-rate in England
+and Germany, we are now seen to be all marching along
+the same road. In 1876 the English birth-rate reached
+its maximum of 36.3 per thousand; while in France the
+birth-rate now appears almost to have reached its lowest
+level. Germany, like England, now also has a falling
+birth-rate, though it will take some time to sink to the
+English level. The birth-rate for Germany generally is
+still much higher than for England generally, but urbanization
+in Germany seems to have a greater influence
+than in England in lowering the birth-rate, and for many
+years past the birth-rate of Berlin has been lower than
+that of London. The birth-rate in Germany has long
+been steadily falling, and the increase in the population
+of Germany is due to a concomitant steady fall in the
+death-rate, a fall to which there are inevitable natural
+limits.<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Moreover, as Flux has shown,
+<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> urbanization is
+going on at a greater speed in Germany than in England,
+and practically the entire natural increase of the German
+population for a quarter of a century has drifted into the
+towns. But the death-rate of the young in German
+towns is far higher than in English towns, and the first
+five years of life in Germany produce as much mortality
+as the first twenty-five years in England.
+<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> So that a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+thousand children born in England add far more to the
+population than a thousand children born in Germany.
+The average number of children per family in German
+towns is less than in English towns of the same size.
+These results, reached by Flux, suggest that in a few
+years' time the rate of increase in the German population
+will be lower than it is at present in England. In England,
+since 1876, the decline has been so rapid as to be equal
+to 20 per cent within a generation, and in some of
+the large towns to 40 per cent. Against this there has,
+indeed, to be set the general tendency during recent years
+for the death-rate to fall also. But this saving of life
+has until lately been effected mainly at the higher ages;
+there has been but little saving of the lives of infants,
+upon whom the death-rate falls most heavily. Accompanying
+this falling off in the number of children produced
+there has often been, as we might expect, a fall
+in the marriage-rate; but this has been less regular, and
+of late the marriage-rate has sometimes been high when
+the birth-rate was low.<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> There has, however, been a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+steady postponement of the average age at which marriage
+takes place. On the whole, the main fact that
+emerges is, that nowadays in England we marry less and
+have fewer children.</p>
+
+<p>This is now a familiar fact, and perhaps it should not
+excite very great surprise. England is an old and fairly
+stable country, and it may be said that it would be unreasonable
+to expect its population to retain indefinitely
+a high degree of fertility. Whether this is so or not,
+there is the further consideration to be borne in mind
+that, during nearly the whole of the Victorian period,
+emigration of the most vigorous stocks took place to a
+very marked extent. It is not difficult to see the influence
+of such emigration in connection with the greatly
+diminished population of Ireland, as compared with
+Scotland; and we may reasonably infer that it has had
+its part in the decreased fertility of the United Kingdom
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>But we encounter the remarkable fact that this decreased
+fertility of the Anglo-Saxon populations is not
+confined to the United Kingdom. It is even more pronounced
+in those very lands to which so many thousand
+shiploads of our best people have been taken. In the
+United States the question has attracted much attention,
+and there is little disagreement among careful observers
+as to the main facts of the situation. The question is,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+indeed, somewhat difficult for two reasons: the registration
+of births is not generally compulsory in the
+United States, and, even when general facts are ascertained,
+it is still necessary to distinguish between the
+different classes of the population. Our conclusions must
+therefore be based, not on the course of a general birth-rate,
+but on the most reliable calculations, based on the
+census returns and on the average size of the family at
+different periods, and among different classes of the
+population. A bulletin of the Census Bureau of the
+United States since 1860 was prepared a few years ago
+by Walter F. Wilcox, of Cornell University. It determines
+from the data in the census office the proportion
+of children to the number of women of child-bearing age
+in the country at different periods, and shows that there
+has been, on the whole, a fall from the beginning to the
+end of the last century. Children under ten years of age
+constituted one-third of the population at the beginning
+of the century, and at the end less than one-fourth of the
+total population. Between 1850 and 1860 the proportion
+of children to women between fifteen and forty-nine
+years of age increased, but since 1860 it has constantly
+decreased. In 1860 the number of children under five
+years of age to one thousand women between fifteen and
+forty-nine years of age was 634; in 1900 it was only 474.
+The proportion of children to potential mothers in 1900
+was only three-fourths as large as in 1860. In the north
+and west of the United States the decline has been
+regular, while in the south the change has been less
+regular and the decline less marked. A comparison is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+made between the proportion of children in the foreign-born
+population and in the American. The former was
+710 to the latter's 462. In the coloured population the
+proportion of children is greater than in the corresponding
+white population.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt whatever that, from the eighteenth
+century to the twentieth, there has been a steady
+decrease in the size of the American family. Franklin,
+in the eighteenth century, estimated that the average
+number of children to a married couple was eight; genealogical
+records show that, while in the seventeenth century
+it was nearly seven, it was over six at the end of the
+eighteenth century. Since then, as Engelmann and others
+have shown, there has been a steady decrease in the size
+of the family; in the earlier years of the nineteenth
+century there were between four and five children to
+each marriage, while by the end of the century the
+number of children had fallen to between four and but
+little over one. Engelmann finds that there is but a very
+trifling difference in this respect between the upper and
+the lower social classes; the average for the labouring
+classes at St. Louis he finds to be about two, and for the
+higher classes a little less. It is among the foreign-born
+population, and among those of foreign parents, that the
+larger families are found; thus Kuczynski, by analysing
+the census, finds that in Massachusetts the average
+number of children to each married woman among the
+American-born of all social classes is 2.7, while among
+the foreign-born of all social classes it is 4.5. Moreover,
+sterility is much more frequent among American women
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+than among foreign women in America. Among various
+groups in Boston, St. Louis, and elsewhere it varies between
+20 and 23 per cent, and in some smaller groups
+is even considerably higher, while among the foreign-born
+it is only 13 per cent. The net result is that the
+general natality of the United States at the present day
+is about equal to that of France, but that, when we
+analyse the facts, the fertility of the old native-born
+American population of mainly Anglo-Saxon origin is
+found to be lower than that of France. This element,
+therefore, is rapidly dwindling away in the United States.
+The general level of the birth-rate is maintained by the
+foreign immigrants, who in many States (as in New York,
+Massachusetts, Michigan, and Minnesota) constitute the
+majority of the population, and altogether number considerably
+over ten millions. Among these immigrants
+the Anglo-Saxon element is now very small. Indeed, the
+whole North European contingent among the American
+immigrants, which was formerly nearly 90 per cent of the
+whole, has since 1890 steadily sunk, and the majority
+of the immigrants now belong to the Central, Southern,
+and Eastern European stocks. The racial, and, it is
+probable, the psychological characteristics of the people
+of the United States are thus beginning to undergo, not
+merely modification, but, it may almost be said, a revolution.
+If, as we may well believe, the influence of the
+original North-European racial elements&mdash;Anglo-Saxon,
+Dutch, and French&mdash;still continues to persist in the
+United States, it can only be the influence of a small
+aristocracy, maintained by intellect and character.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+When we turn to Canada, a land that is imposing, less
+by the actual size of the population than by the vast
+tracts it possesses for its development, the question has
+not yet been fully investigated; but such facts and official
+publications as I have been able to obtain all indicate
+that, in this matter, the English Canadians approximate
+to the native Americans. In the United States it is the
+European immigrants who maintain the general population
+at a productive level, and thus indirectly oust the
+Anglo-Saxon element. In Canada the chief dividing line
+is between the Anglo-Saxon element and the old French
+element in the population; and here it is the French
+Canadians who are gaining ground on the English elements
+in the population. Engelmann ascertained that
+an examination of one thousand families in the records
+of Quebec Life Assurance companies shows 9.2 children
+on the average to the French Canadian child-bearing
+woman. It is found also from the records of the French
+Canadian Society for Artisans that 500 families from
+town districts, taken at random, show 9.06 children per
+family, and 500 families from country districts show
+9.33 children per family.<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> It must be remembered that
+this average, which is even higher than that found in
+Russia, the most prolific of European countries, is not
+quite the same as the number of children per marriage;
+but it indicates very great fertility, while it may be
+noted also that sterile marriages are comparatively rare
+among French Canadians, although among English
+Canadians the proportion of childless families is found
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+to be almost exactly the same (nearly 20 per cent) as
+among the infertile Americans of Massachusetts. The
+annual Reports of the Registrar-General of Ontario, a
+province which is predominantly of Anglo-Saxon origin,
+show that the average birth-rate during the decade 1899-1908
+has been 22.3 per 1000; it must be noted, however,
+that there has been a gradual rise from a rate of
+19.4 in 1899 to one of 25.6 in 1908. The report of Mr.
+Pr&eacute;vost, the recorder of vital statistics for the predominantly
+French province of Quebec, shows much higher
+rates. The general birth-rate for the province for the
+year 1901 is high, being 35.2, much higher than that of
+England, and nearly as high as that of Germany. If,
+however, we consider the thirty-five counties of the
+province in which the population is almost exclusively
+French Canadian, we find that 35 represents almost the
+lowest average; as many as twenty-two of these counties
+show a rate of over forty, and one (Yamaska) reached
+51.52. It is very evident that, in order to pull down these
+high birth-rates to the general level of 35.2, we have to
+assume a much lower birth-rate among the counties in
+which the English element is considerable. It must be
+remembered, however, that infant mortality is high
+among the French Canadians. The French Canadian
+Catholic, it has been said, would shrink in horror from
+such an unnatural crime as limiting his family before
+birth, but he sees nothing repugnant to God or man in
+allowing the surplus excess of children to die after birth.
+In this he is at one with the Chinese. Dr. E.P. La Chapelle,
+the President of the Provincial Conseil d'Hygi&egrave;ne,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+wrote some years ago to Professor Davidson, in answer
+to inquiries: "I do not believe it would be correct to
+ascribe the phenomenon to any single cause, and I am
+convinced it is the result of several factors. For one, the
+first cause of the heavy infant mortality among the
+French Canadians is their very heavy natality, each
+family being composed of an average of twelve children,
+and instances of families of fifteen, eighteen, and even
+twenty-four children being not uncommon. The super-abundance
+of children renders, I think, parents less
+careful about them."<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>The net result is a slight increase on the part of the
+French Canadians, as compared with the English element
+in the province, as becomes clear when we compare the
+proportion of the population of English, Scotch, Irish,
+and all other nationalities with the total population of the
+province, now and thirty years ago. In 1871 it was
+21 per cent; in 1901 it was only 19 per cent. The decrease
+of the Anglo-Saxons may here appear to be small,
+though it must be remembered that thirty years is but a
+short period in the history of a nation; but it is significant
+when we bear in mind that the English element has
+here been constantly reinforced by immigrants (who, as
+the experience of the United States shows, are by no
+means an infertile class), and that such reinforcement
+cannot be expected to continue in the future.</p>
+
+<p>From Australia comes the same story of the decline of
+Anglo-Saxon fertility. In nearly all the Australian colonies
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+the highest birth-rate was reached some twenty or
+thirty years ago. Since then there has been a more or
+less steady fall, accompanied by a marked decrease in
+the number of marriages, and a tendency to postpone
+the age of marriage. One colony, Western Australia, has
+a birth-rate which sometimes fluctuates above that of
+England; but it is the youngest of the colonies, and, at
+present, that with the smallest population, largely composed
+of recent immigrants. We may be quite sure that
+its comparatively high birth-rate is merely a temporary
+phenomenon. A very notable fact about the Australian
+birth-rate is the extreme rapidity with which the fall has
+taken place; thus Queensland, in 1890, had a birth-rate
+of 37, but by 1899 the rate had steadily fallen to 27, and
+the Victorian rate during the same period fell from 33 to
+26 per thousand. In New South Wales, the state of things
+has been carefully studied by Mr. Coghlan, formerly
+Government statistician of New South Wales, who comes
+to the conclusion that the proportion of fertile marriages
+is declining, and that (as in the United States) it is
+the recent European immigrants only who show a comparatively
+high birth-rate. Until 1880, Coghlan states, the
+Australasian birth-rate was about 38 per thousand, and
+the average number of children to the family about 5.4.
+In 1901 the birth-rate had already fallen to 27.6 and the
+size of the family to 3.6 children.
+<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> It should be added
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+that in all the Australasian colonies the birth-rate
+reached its lowest point some years ago, and may now
+be regarded as in a state of normal equipoise with a
+slight tendency to rise. The case of New Zealand is
+specially interesting. New Zealand once had the highest
+birth-rate of all the Australasian colonies; it is without
+doubt the most advanced of all in social and legislative
+matters; a variety of social reforms, which other countries
+are struggling for, are, in New Zealand, firmly
+established. Its prosperity is shown by the fact that it
+has the lowest death-rate of any country in the world,
+only 10.2 per thousand, as against 24 in Austria and 22
+in France; it cannot even be said that the marriage-rate
+is very low, for it is scarcely lower than that of Austria,
+where the birth-rate is high. Yet the birth-rate in New
+Zealand fell as the social prosperity of the country rose,
+reaching its lowest point in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>We thus find that from the three great Anglo-Saxon
+centres of the world&mdash;north, west, and south&mdash;the
+same story comes. We need not consider the case of
+South Africa, for it is well recognized that there the
+English constitute a comparatively infertile fringe,
+mostly confined to the towns, while the earlier Dutch
+element is far more prolific and firmly rooted in the soil.
+The position of the Dutch there is much the same as
+that of the French in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we find that among highly civilized races
+generally, and not least among the English-speaking
+peoples who were once regarded as peculiarly prolific,
+a great diminution of reproductive activity has taken
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+place during the past forty years, and is in some countries
+still taking place. But before we proceed to consider
+its significance it may be well to look a little more closely
+at our facts.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the "crude" birth-rate is not
+an altogether reliable index of the reproductive energy
+of a nation. Various circumstances may cause an excess
+or a defect of persons of reproductive age in a community,
+and unless we allow for these variations, we cannot
+estimate whether that community is exercising its
+reproductive powers in a fairly normal manner. But
+there is another and still more important consideration
+always to be borne in mind before we can attach any
+far-reaching significance even to the corrected birth-rate.
+We have, that is, to bear in mind that a high or a
+low birth-rate has no meaning, so far as the growth of
+a nation is concerned, unless it is considered in relation
+to the death-rate. The natural increase of a nation
+is not the result of its birth-rate, but of its birth-rate
+minus its death-rate. A low birth-rate with a low death-rate
+(as in Australasia) produces a far greater natural
+increase than a low birth-rate with a rather high death-rate
+(as in France), and may even produce as great an
+increase as a very high birth-rate with a very high death-rate
+(as in Russia). Many worthy people might have
+been spared the utterance of foolish and mischievous
+jeremiads, if, instead of being content with a hasty
+glance at the crude birth-rate, they had paused to consider
+this fairly obvious fact.</p>
+
+<p>There is an intimate connection between a high birth-rate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+and a high death-rate, between a low birth-rate
+and a low death-rate. It may not, indeed, be an absolutely
+necessary connection, and is not the outcome of
+any mysterious "law." But it usually exists, and the
+reasons are fairly obvious. We have already encountered
+the statement from an official Canadian source that
+the large infantile mortality of French Canadian families
+is due to parental carelessness, consequent, no doubt,
+not only on the dimly felt consciousness that children
+are cheap, but much more on inability to cope with the
+manifold cares involved by a large family. Among
+the English working class every doctor knows the
+thinly veiled indifference or even repulsion with which
+women view the seemingly endless stream of babies
+they give birth to. Among the Berlin working class,
+also, Hamburger's important investigation has indicated
+how serious a cause of infantile mortality this may be.
+By taking 374 working-class women, who had been
+married twenty years and conceived 3183 times, he
+found that the net result in surviving children was
+relatively more than twice as great among the women
+who had only had one child when compared to the women
+who had had fifteen children. The women with only
+one child brought 76.47 per cent of these children to
+maturity; the women who had produced fifteen children
+could only bring 30.66 of them to maturity; the intermediate
+groups showed a gradual fall to this low level,
+the only exception being that the mothers of three
+children were somewhat more successful than the mothers
+of two children. Among well-to-do mothers Hamburger
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+found no such marked contrast between the
+net product of large families as compared to small
+families.<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p>It we look at the matter from a wider standpoint
+we can have no difficulty in realizing that a community
+which is reproducing itself rapidly must always be in
+an unstable state of disorganization highly unfavourable
+to the welfare of its members, and especially of the new-comers;
+a community which is reproducing itself slowly
+is in a stable and organized condition which permits
+it to undertake adequately the guardianship of its new
+members. The high infantile mortality of the community
+with a high birth-rate merely means that that community
+is unconsciously making a violent and murderous effort
+to attain to the more stable and organized level of the
+country with a low birth-rate.</p>
+
+<p>The English Registrar-General in 1907 estimated
+the natural increase by excess of births over deaths as
+exceptionally high (higher than that of England) in
+several Australian Colonies, in the Balkan States, in
+Russia, the Netherlands, the German Empire, Denmark,
+and Norway, though in the majority of these
+lands the birth-rate is very low. On the other hand,
+the natural increase by excess of births over deaths
+is below the English rate in Austria, in Hungary,
+in Japan, in Italy, in Sweden, Switzerland, Spain,
+Belgium, and Ontario, though in the majority of
+these lands the birth-rate is high, and in some very
+high.<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+In most cases it is the high death-rate in infancy and
+childhood which exercises the counterbalancing influence
+against a high birth-rate; the death-rate in adult life may
+be quite moderate. And with few exceptions we find
+that a high infantile mortality accompanies a high
+birth-rate, while a low infantile mortality accompanies a
+low birth-rate. It is evident, however, that even an
+extremely high infantile mortality is no impediment
+to a large natural increase provided the birth-rate is
+extremely high to a more than corresponding extent.
+But a natural increase thus achieved seems to be accompanied
+by far more disastrous social conditions
+than when an equally large increase is achieved by
+a low infantile death-rate working in association with
+a low birth-rate. Thus in Norway on one side of the
+world and in Australasia on the opposite side we see
+a large natural increase effected not by a profuse expenditure
+of mostly wasted births but by an economy
+in deaths, and the increase thus effected is accompanied
+by highly favourable social conditions, and great national
+vigour. Norway appears to have the lowest infantile
+death-rate in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+Rubin has suggested that the fairest measure of
+a country's well-being, as regards its actual vitality&mdash;without
+direct regard, of course, to the country's economic
+prosperity&mdash;is the square of the death-rate divided by
+the birth-rate.<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Sir J.A. Baines, who accepts this test,
+states that Argentina with its high birth-rate and low
+death-rate stands even above Norway, and Australia
+still higher, while the climax for the world is attained
+by New Zealand, which has attained "the nearest
+approach to immortality yet on record."
+<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> The order
+of descending well-being in Europe is thus represented
+(at the year 1900) by Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
+Holland, England, Scotland, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland,
+Germany, Ireland, Portugal, Italy, Austria, France,
+and Spain.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, in all the countries, probably
+without exception, in which a large natural increase
+is effected by the efforts of an immense birth-rate to
+overcome an enormous death-rate the end is only effected
+with much friction and misery, and the process is accompanied
+by a general retardation of civilization.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+"The greater the number of children," as Hamburger
+puts it, "the greater the cost of each survivor to the
+family and to the State."</p>
+
+<p>Russia presents not only the most typical but the
+most stupendous and appalling example of this process.
+Thirty years ago the mortality of infants under one
+year was three times that of Norway, nearly double
+that of England. More recently (1896-1900) the infantile
+mortality in Russia has fallen from 313 to 261,
+but as that of the other countries has also fallen it still
+preserves nearly the same relative position, remaining
+the highest in Europe, while if we compare it with
+countries outside Europe we find it is considerably
+more than four times greater than that of South Australia.
+In one town in the government of Perm, some years
+ago if not still, the mortality of infants under one year
+regularly reached 45 per cent, and the deaths of children
+under five years constituted half the total mortality.
+This is abnormally high even for Russia, but for all
+Russia it was found that of the boys born in a single
+year during the second half of the last century only
+50 per cent reached their twenty-first year, and even of
+these only 37.6 per cent were fit for military service.
+It is estimated that there die in Russia 15 per thousand
+more individuals than among the same number
+in England; this excess mortality represents a loss of
+1,650,000 lives to the State every year.
+<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus Russia has the highest birth-rate and at the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+same time the highest death-rate. The large countries
+which, after Russia, have the highest infantile mortality
+are Austria, Hungary, Prussia, Spain, Italy, and Japan;
+all these, as we should expect, have a somewhat high
+birth-rate.</p>
+
+<p>The case of Japan is interesting as that of a vigorous
+young Eastern nation, which has assimilated Western
+ways and is encountering the evils which come of those
+ways. Japan is certainly worthy of all our admiration
+for the skill and vigour with which it has affirmed its
+young nationality along Western lines. But when
+the vital statistics of Japan are vaguely referred to
+either as a model for our imitation or as a threatening
+peril to us, we may do well to look into the matter a
+little more closely. The infantile mortality of Japan
+(1908) is 157, a very high figure, 50 per cent higher
+than that of England, much more than double that
+of New Zealand, or South Australia. Moreover, it has
+rapidly risen during the last ten years. The birth-rate
+of Japan in 1901-2 was high (36), though it has
+since fallen to the level of ten years ago. But the death-rate
+has risen concomitantly (to over 24 per 1000), and
+has continued to rise notwithstanding the slight decline
+in the birth-rate. We see here a tendency to the sinister
+combination of a falling birth-rate with a rising death-rate.
+<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>
+It is obvious that such a tendency, if continued,
+will furnish a serious problem to Japanese social reformers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+and at the same time make it impossible for Western
+alarmists to regard the rise of Japan as a menace to the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>It is behind China that these alarmists, when driven
+from every other position, finally entrench themselves.
+"The ultimate future of these islands may be to the
+Chinese," incautiously exclaims Mr. Sidney Webb,
+who on many subjects, unconnected with China, speaks
+with authority. The knowledge of the vital statistics
+of China possessed by our alarmists is vague to the
+most extreme degree, but as the knowledge of all of
+us is scarcely less vague, they assume that their position
+is fairly safe. That, however, is an altogether questionable
+assumption. It seems to be quite true&mdash;though
+in the absence of exact statistics it may not be certain&mdash;that
+the birth-rate in China is very high. But it is
+quite certain that the infantile death-rate is extremely
+high. "Out of ten children born among us, three,
+normally the weakest three, will fail to grow up: out
+of ten children born in China these weakest three will
+die, and probably five more besides," writes Professor
+Ross, who is intimately acquainted with Chinese conditions,
+and has closely questioned thirty-three physicians
+practising in various parts of China.
+<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Matignon, a French
+physician familiar with China, states that it is the custom
+for a woman to suckle her child for at least three years;
+should pregnancy occur during this period, it is usual,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+and quite legal, to procure abortion. Infants brought
+up by hand are fed on rice-flour and water, and consequently
+they nearly all die.<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>Putting aside altogether the question of infanticide,
+such a state of things is far from incredible when we
+remember the extremely insanitary state of China,
+the superstitions that flourish unchecked, and the famines,
+floods, and pestilences that devastate the country.
+It would appear probable that when vital statistics are
+introduced into China they will reveal a condition of
+things very similar to that we find in Russia, but in
+a more marked degree. No doubt it is a state of things
+which will be remedied. It is a not unreasonable assumption,
+supported by many indications, that China
+will follow Japan in the adoption of Western methods
+of civilization.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> These methods, as we know, involve
+in the end a low birth-rate with a general tendency to
+a lower death-rate. Neither in the near nor in the remote
+future, under present conditions or under probable
+future conditions, is there any reason for imagining
+that the Chinese are likely to replace the Europeans
+in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+This preliminary survey of the ground may enable
+us to realize that not only must we be cautious in attaching
+importance to the crude birth-rate until it is corrected,
+but that even as usually corrected the birth-rate
+can give us no clue at all to natural increase because
+there is a marked tendency for the birth-rate and the
+infantile death-rate to rise or sink together. Moreover,
+it is evident that we have also to realize that from the
+point of view of society and civilization there is a vast
+difference between the natural increase which is achieved
+by the effort of an enormously high birth-rate to overcome
+an almost correspondingly high death-rate and
+the natural increase which is attained by the dominance
+of a low birth-rate over a still lower death-rate.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus cleared the ground, we may proceed to
+attempt the interpretation of the declining birth-rate
+which marks civilization, and to discuss its significance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>It must be admitted that it is not usual to consider
+the question of the declining birth-rate from a broad
+or scientific standpoint. As we have seen, no attempt
+is usually made to correct the crude birth-rate; still
+more rarely is it pointed out that we cannot consider
+the significance of a falling birth-rate apart from the
+question of the death-rate, and that the net increase
+or decrease in a nation can only be judged by taking
+both these factors into account. It is scarcely necessary
+to add, in view of so superficial a way of looking at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+the problem, that we hardly ever find any attempt to
+deal with the more fundamental question of the meaning
+of a low birth-rate, and the problematical character
+of the advantages of rapid multiplication. The whole
+question is usually left to the ignorant preachers of the
+gospel of brute force, would-be patriots who desire
+their own country to increase at the cost of all other
+countries, not merely in ignorance of the fact that the
+crude birth-rate is not the index of increase, but reckless
+of the effect their desire, if fulfilled, would have upon
+all the higher and finer ends of living.</p>
+
+<p>When the question is thus narrowly and ignorantly
+considered, it is usual to account for the decreased
+birth-rate, the smaller average families, and the tendency
+to postpone the age of marriage, as due mainly
+to a love of luxury and vice, combined with a newly
+acquired acquaintance with Neo-Malthusian methods,
+<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>
+which must be combated, and may successfully be
+combated, by inculcating, as a moral and patriotic
+duty, the necessity of marrying early and procreating
+large families.<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>
+In France, the campaign against the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+religious Orders in their educational capacity, while
+doubtless largely directed against educational inefficiency,
+was also supported by the feeling that such education
+is not on the side of family life; and Ars&egrave;ne Dumont,
+one of the most vigorous champions of a strenuously
+active policy for increasing the birth-rate, openly protested
+against allowing any place as teachers to priests,
+monks, and nuns, whose direct and indirect influence
+must degrade the conception of sex and its
+duties while exalting the place of celibacy. In the
+United States, also, Engelmann, who, as a gyn&aelig;cologist,
+was able to see this process from behind the scenes,
+urged his fellow-countrymen "to stay the dangerous
+and criminal practices which are the main determining
+factors of decreasing fecundity, and which deprive
+women of health, the family of its highest blessings,
+and the nation of its staunchest support."
+<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+We must, however, look at these phenomena a little
+more broadly, and bring them into relation with other
+series of phenomena. It is almost beyond dispute that
+a voluntary restriction of the number of offspring by
+Neo-Malthusian practices is at least one of the chief
+methods by which the birth-rate has been lowered.
+It may not indeed be&mdash;and probably, as we shall see,
+is not&mdash;the only method. It has even been denied
+that the prevalence of Neo-Malthusian practices counts
+at all.<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>
+Thus while Coghlan, the Government Statistician
+of New South Wales, concludes that the decline in the
+birth-rate in the Australian Commonwealth was due
+to "the art of applying artificial checks to conception,"
+McLean, the Government Statistician of Victoria, concludes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+that it was "due mainly to natural causes."
+<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>
+He points out that when the birth-rate in Australia,
+half a century ago, was nearly 43 per 1000, the population
+consisted chiefly of men and women at the reproductive
+period of life, and that since then the proportion
+of persons at these ages has declined, leading
+necessarily to a decline in the crude birth-rate. If we
+compare the birth-rate of communities among women
+of the same age-periods, McLean argues, we may obtain
+results quite different from the crude birth-rate. Thus
+the crude birth-rate of Buda-Pesth is much higher
+than that of New South Wales, but if we ascertain the
+birth-rate of married women at different age-periods
+(15 to 20, 20 to 25, etc.) the New South Wales birth-rate
+is higher for every age-period than that of Buda-Pesth.
+McLean considers that in young communities with many
+vigorous immigrants the population is normally more
+prolific than in older and more settled communities,
+and that hardships and financial depression still more
+depress the birth-rate. He further emphasizes the
+important relationship, which we must never lose sight
+of in this connection, between a high birth-rate and a
+high death-rate, especially a high infantile death-rate,
+and he believes, indeed, that "the solution of the problem
+of the general decline in the birth-rate throughout
+all civilized communities lies in the preservation of
+human life." The mechanism of the connection would
+be, he maintains, that prolonged suckling in the case
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+of living children increases the intervals between childbearing.
+As we have seen, there is a tendency, though
+not a rigid and invariable necessity,
+<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> for a high birth-rate
+to be associated with a high infantile death-rate, and
+a low birth-rate with a low infantile death-rate. Thus
+in Victoria, we have the striking fact that while the birth-rate
+has declined 24 per cent the infantile death-rate
+has declined approximately to the still greater extent
+of 27 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt the chief cause of the reduction of the
+birth-rate has been its voluntary restriction by preventive
+methods due to the growth of intelligence,
+knowledge, and foresight. In all the countries where
+a marked decline in the birth-rate has occurred there
+is good reason to believe that Neo-Malthusian methods
+are generally known and practised. So far as England
+is concerned this is certainly the case. A few years
+ago Mr. Sidney Webb made inquiries among middle-class
+people in all parts of the country, and found that
+in 316 marriages 242 were thus limited and only 74
+unlimited, while for the ten years 1890-9 out of 120
+marriages 107 were limited and only 13 unlimited,
+but as five of these 13 were childless there were only
+8 unlimited fertile marriages out of 120. As to the
+causes assigned for limiting the number of children, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+73 out of 128 cases in which particulars were given
+under this head the poverty of the parents in relation
+to their standard of comfort was a factor; sexual ill-health&mdash;that
+is, generally, the disturbing effect of child-bearing&mdash;in
+24; and other forms of ill-health of the parents
+in 38 cases; in 24 cases the disinclination of the wife
+was a factor, and the death of a parent had in 8 cases
+terminated the marriage.<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> In the skilled artisan class
+there is also good reason to believe that the voluntary
+limitation of families is constantly becoming more
+usual, and the statistics of benefit societies show a marked
+decline in the fertility of superior working-class people
+during recent years; thus it is stated by Sidney Webb
+that the Hearts of Oak Friendly Society paid benefits
+on child-birth to 2472 per 10,000 members in 1880;
+by 1904 the proportion had fallen to 1165 per 10,000,
+a much greater fall than occurred in England generally.</p>
+
+<p>The voluntary adoption of preventive precautions
+may not be, however, the only method by which the
+birth-rate has declined; we may have also to recognize
+a concomitant physiological sterility, induced by delayed
+marriage and its various consequences; we have
+also to recognize pathological sterility due to the impaired
+vitality and greater liability to venereal disease of
+an increasingly urban life; and we may have to recognize
+that stocks differ from one another in fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The delay in marriage, as studied in England, is so
+far apparently slight; the mean age of marriage for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+all husbands in England has increased from 28.43 in
+1896 to 28.88 in 1909, and the mean age of all wives
+from 26.21 in 1896 to 26.69 in 1909. This seems a very
+trifling rate of progression. If, however, we look at
+the matter in another way we find that there has been
+an extremely serious reduction in the number of marriages
+between 15 to 20, normally the most fecund of all age-periods.
+Between 1876 and 1880 (according to the
+Registrar-General's Report for 1909) the proportion
+of minors in 1000 marriages in England and Wales
+was 77.8 husbands and 217.0 wives. In 1909 it had fallen
+to only 39.8 husbands and 137.7 wives. It has been
+held that this has not greatly affected the decline in
+the birth-rate. Its tendency, however, must be in
+that direction. It is true that Engelmann argued that
+delayed marriages had no effect at all on the birth-rate.
+But it has been clearly shown that as the age of marriage
+increases fecundity distinctly diminishes.
+<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> This is
+illustrated by the specially elaborate statistics of Scotland
+for 1855;<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>
+the number of women having children,
+that is, the fecundity, was higher in the years 15 to 19,
+than at any subsequent age-period, except 20 to 24,
+and the fact that the earliest age-group is not absolutely
+highest is due to the presence of a number of immature
+women. In New South Wales, Coghlan has shown that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+if the average number of children is 3.6, then a woman
+marrying at 20 may expect to have five children, a woman
+marrying at 28 three children, at 32 two children, and at
+37 one child. Newsholme and Stevenson, again, conclude
+that the general law of decline of fertility with
+advancing age of the mother is shown in various countries,
+and that in nearly all countries the mothers aged
+15 to 20 have the largest number of children; the chief
+exception is in the case of some northern countries like
+Norway and Finland, where women develop late, and
+there it is the mothers of 20 to 25 who have the largest
+number of children.<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a>
+The postponement in the age of
+marriage during recent years is, however, so slight that
+it can only account for a small part of the decline in the
+birth-rate; Coghlan calculates that of unborn possible
+children in New South Wales the loss of only about one-sixth
+is to be attributed to this cause. In London, however,
+Heron considers that the recognized connection between
+a low birth-rate and a high social standing might
+have been entirely accounted for sixty years ago by
+postponement of marriage, and that such postponement
+may still account for 50 per cent of it.
+<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>It is not enough, however, to consider the mechanism
+by which the birth-rate declines; to realize the significance
+of the decline we must consider the causes which
+set the mechanism in action.</p>
+
+<p>We begin to obtain a truer insight into the meaning
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+of the curve of a country's birth-rate when we realize
+that it is in relation with the industrial and commercial
+activity of the country.<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
+It is sometimes stated that a
+high birth-rate goes with a high degree of national prosperity.
+That, however, is scarcely the case; we have to
+look into the matter a little more closely. And, when
+we do so, we find that, not only is the statement of a
+supposed connection between a high birth-rate and a
+high degree of prosperity an imperfect statement; it is
+altogether misleading.</p>
+
+<p>If, in the first place, we attempt to consider the state
+of things among savages, we find, indeed, great variations,
+and the birth-rate is not infrequently low. But, on the
+whole, it would appear, the marriage-rate, the birth-rate,
+and, it may be added, the death-rate are all alike high.
+Karl Ranke has investigated the question with considerable
+care among the Trumai and Nahuqua Indians of
+Central Brazil.<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
+These tribes are yet totally uncontaminated
+by contact with European influences; consumption
+and syphilis are alike unknown. In the two villages
+he investigated in detail, Ranke found that every man
+over twenty-five years of age was married, and that the
+only unmarried woman he discovered was feeble-minded.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+The average size of the families of those women who were
+over forty years of age was between five and six children,
+while, on the other hand, the mortality among children
+was great, and a relatively small proportion of the population
+reached old age. We see therefore that, among
+these fairly typical savages, living under simple natural
+conditions, the fertility of the women is as high as it is
+among all but the most prolific of European peoples;
+while, in striking contrast with European peoples, among
+whom a large percentage of the population never marry,
+and of those who do, many have no children, practically
+every man and woman both marries and produces
+children.</p>
+
+<p>If we leave savages out of the question and return to
+Europe, it is still instructive to find that among those
+peoples who live under the most primitive conditions
+much the same state of things may be found as among
+savages. This is notably the case as regards Russia. In
+no other great European country do the bulk of the
+women marry at so early an age, and in no other is the
+average size of the family so large. And, concomitantly
+with a very high marriage-rate and a very high birth-rate,
+we find in Russia, in an equally high degree, the prevalence
+among the masses of infantile and general mortality,
+disease (epidemical and other), starvation, misery.
+<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+So far we scarcely see any marked connection between
+high fertility and prosperity. It is more nearly indicated
+in the high birth-rate of Hungary&mdash;only second
+to that of Russia, and also accompanied by a high
+mortality&mdash;which is associated with the rapid and
+notable development of a young nationality. The case
+of Hungary is, indeed, typical. In so far as high fertility
+is associated with prosperity, it is with the prosperity of
+a young and unstable community, which has experienced
+a sudden increase of wealth and a sudden expansion.
+The case of Western Australia illustrates the same point.
+Thirty years ago the marriage-rate and the birth-rate of
+this colony were on the same level as those of the other
+Australian colonies; but a sudden industrial expansion
+occurred, both rates rose, and in 1899 the fertility of
+Western Australia was higher than that of any other
+English-speaking community.<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p>
+
+<p>If now we put together the facts observed in savage
+life and the facts observed in civilized life, we shall begin
+to see the real nature of the factors that operate to raise
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+or lower the fertility of a community. It is far, indeed,
+from being prosperity which produces a high fertility,
+for the most wretched communities are the most prolific,
+but, on the other hand, it is by no means the mere absence
+of prosperity which produces fertility, for we constantly
+observe that the on-coming of a wave of prosperity
+elevates the birth-rate. In both cases alike it is the
+absence of social-economic restraints which conduces to
+high fertility. In the simple, primitive community of
+savages, serfs, or slaves, there is no restraint on either
+nutritive or reproductive enjoyments; there is no
+adequate motive for restraint; there are no claims of
+future wants to inhibit the gratification of present wants;
+there are no high standards, no ideals. Supposing,
+again, that such restraints have been established by a
+certain amount of forethought as regards the future, or
+a certain calculation as to social advantages to be gained
+by limiting the number of children, a check on natural
+fertility is established. But a sudden accession of prosperity&mdash;a
+sudden excess of work and wages and food&mdash;sweeps
+away this check by apparently rendering it unnecessary;
+the natural reproductive impulse is liberated
+by this rising wave, and we here see whatever truth
+there is in the statement that prosperity means a high
+birth-rate. In reality, however, prosperity in such a
+case merely increases fertility because its sudden affluence
+reduces a community to the same careless indifference
+in regard to the future, the same hasty snatching at the
+pleasures of the moment, as we find among the most
+hopeless and least prosperous communities. It is a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+significant fact, as shown by Beveridge, that the years
+when the people of Great Britain marry most are the
+years when they drink most. It is in the absence of
+social-economic restraints&mdash;the absence of the perception
+of such restraints, or the absence of the ability to act in accordance
+with such perception&mdash;that the birth-rate is high.</p>
+
+<p>Ars&egrave;ne Dumont seems to have been one of the first
+who observed this significance of the oscillation of the
+birth-rate, though he expressed it in a somewhat peculiar
+way, as the social capillarity theory. It is the natural
+and universal tendency of mankind to ascend, he declared;
+a high birth-rate and a strong ascensional impulse are
+mutually contradictory. Large families are only possible
+when there is no progress, and no expectation of it can
+be cherished; small families become possible when the
+way has been opened to progress. "One might say,"
+Dumont puts it, "that invisible valves, like those which
+direct the circulation of the blood, have been placed by
+Nature to direct the current of human aspiration in the
+upward path it has prescribed." As the proletariat is
+enabled to enjoy the prospect of rising it comes under
+the action of this law of social capillarity, and the birth-rate
+falls. It is the effort towards an indefinite perfection,
+Dumont declares, which justifies Nature and
+Man, consoles us for our griefs, and constitutes our
+sovereign safeguard against the philosophy of despair.
+<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>When we thus interpret the crude facts of the falling
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+birth-rate, viewing them widely and calmly in connection
+with the other social facts with which they are
+intimately related, we are able to see how foolish has
+been the outcry against a falling birth-rate, and how
+false the supposition that it is due to a new selfishness
+replacing an ancient altruism.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> On the contrary, the
+excessive birth-rate of the early industrial period was
+directly stimulated by selfishness. There were no laws
+against child-labour; children were produced that they
+might be sent out, when little more than babies, to the
+factories and the mines to increase their parents' income.
+The fundamental instincts of men and women do not
+change, but their direction can be changed. In this field
+the change is towards a higher transformation, introducing
+a finer economy into life, diminishing death, disease, and
+misery, making possible the finer ends of living, and at the
+same time indirectly and even directly improving the
+quality of the future race.<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> This is now becoming recognized
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+by nearly all calm and sagacious inquirers.
+<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The wild
+outcry of many unbalanced persons to-day, that a falling
+birth-rate means degeneration and disaster, is so altogether
+removed from the sphere of reason that we
+ought perhaps to regard it as comparable to those manias
+which, in former centuries, have assumed other forms
+more attractive to the neurotic temperament of those
+days; fortunately, it is a mania which, in the nature of
+things, is powerless to realize itself, and we need not
+anticipate that the outcry against small families will
+have the same results as the ancient outcry against
+witches.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>It may be proper at this stage to point out that while,
+in the foregoing statement, a high birth-rate and a high
+marriage-rate have been regarded as practically the
+same thing, we need to make a distinction. The true
+relation of the two rates may be realized when it is
+stated that, the more primitive a community is, the
+more closely the two rates vary together. As a community
+becomes more civilized and more complex, the
+two rates tend to diverge; the restraints on child-production
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+are deeper and more complex than those on
+marriage, so that the removal of the restraint on marriage
+by no means removes the restraint on fertility. They
+tend to diverge in opposite directions. Farr considered
+the marriage-rate among civilized peoples as a barometer
+of national prosperity. In former years, when corn was
+a great national product, the marriage-rate in England
+rose regularly as the price of wheat fell. Of recent years
+it has become very difficult to estimate exactly what
+economic factors affect the marriage-rate. It is believed
+by some that the marriage-rate rises or falls with the
+value of exports.<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> Udny Yule, however, in an expertly
+statistical study of the matter,<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> finds (in agreement
+with Hooker) that neither exports nor imports tally
+with the marriage-rate. He concludes that the movement
+of prices is a predominant&mdash;though by no means
+the sole&mdash;factor in the change of marriage-rates, a fall
+in prices producing a fall in the marriage-rates and also
+in the birth-rates, though he also thinks that pressure
+on the labour market has forced both rates lower than
+the course of prices would lead one to expect. In so far
+as these causes are concerned, Udny Yule states, the fall
+is quite normal and pessimistic views are misplaced.
+Udny Yule, however, appears to be by no means confident
+that his explanation covers a large part of the
+causation, and he admits that he cannot understand
+the rationale of the connection between marriage-rates
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+and prices. The curves of the marriage-rates in many
+countries indicate a maximum about or shortly before,
+1875, when the birth-rate also tended to reach a
+maximum, and another rise towards 1900, thus making
+the intermediate curve concave. There was, however,
+a large rise in money wages between 1860 and 1875, and
+the rise in the consuming power of the population has
+been continuous since 1850. Thus the factors favourable
+to a high marriage-rate must have risen from 1850
+to a maximum about 1870-1875, and since then have
+fallen continuously. This statement, which Mr. Udny
+Yule emphasizes, certainly seems highly significant from
+our present point of view. It falls into line with the
+view here accepted, that the first result of a sudden
+access of prosperity is to produce a general orgy, a reckless
+and improvident haste to take advantage of the new
+prosperity, but that, as the effects of the orgy wear off,
+it necessarily gives place to new ideals, and to higher
+standards of life which lead to caution and prudence.
+Mr. N.A. Hooker seems to have perceived this, and in
+the discussion which followed the reading of Udny Yule's
+paper he set forth what (though it was not accepted by
+Udny Yule) may perhaps fairly be regarded as the sound
+view of the matter. "During the great expansion of
+trade prior to 1870," he remarked, "the means of satisfying
+the desired standard of comfort were increasing much
+more rapidly than the rise in the standard; hence a
+decreasing age of marriage and a marriage-rate above
+the normal. After about 1873, however, the means of
+satisfying the standard of comfort no longer increased
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+with the same rapidity, and then a new factor, he thought,
+became important, viz. the increased intelligence of the
+people."<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>
+This seems to be precisely the same view of
+the matter as I have here sought to set forth; prosperity
+is not civilization, its first tendency is to produce
+a reckless abandonment to the satisfaction of the crudest
+impulses. But as prosperity develops it begins to engender
+more complex ideals and higher standards; the
+inevitable result is a greater forethought and restraint.
+<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we consider, not the marriage-rate, but the average
+age at marriage, and especially the age of the woman,
+which varies less than that of the man, the results,
+though harmonious, would not be quite the same. The
+general tendency as regards the age of girls at marriage
+is summed up by Ploss and Bartels, in their monumental
+work on Woman, in the statement: "It may be said
+in general that the age of girls at marriage is lower,
+the lower the stage of civilization is in the community to
+which they belong."<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> We thus see one reason why it is
+that, in an advanced stage of civilization, a high marriage-rate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+is not necessarily associated with a high birth-rate.
+A large number of women who marry late may have
+fewer children than a smaller number who marry early.</p>
+
+
+<p>We may see the real character of the restraints on
+fertility very well illustrated by the varying birth-rate
+of the upper and lower social classes belonging to the same
+community. If a high birth-rate were a mark of prosperity
+or of advanced civilization, we should expect to
+find it among the better social class of a community.
+But the reverse is the case; it is everywhere the least
+prosperous and the least cultured classes of a community
+which show the highest birth-rate. As we go from the
+very poor to the very rich quarters of a great city&mdash;whether
+Paris, Berlin, or Vienna&mdash;the average number
+of children to the family diminishes regularly. The
+difference is found in the country as well as in the towns.
+In Holland, for instance, whether in town or country,
+there are 5.19 children per marriage among the poor,
+and only 4.50 among the rich. In London it is notorious
+that the same difference appears; thus Charles Booth,
+the greatest authority on the social conditions of London,
+in the concluding volume of his vast survey, sums up
+the condition of things in the statement that "the lower
+the class the earlier the period of marriage and the
+greater the number of children born to each marriage."
+The same phenomenon is everywhere found, and it is
+one of great significance.</p>
+
+<p>The significance becomes clearer when we realize
+that an urban population must always be regarded as
+more "civilized" than a rural population, and that, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+accordance with that fact, an urban population tends to
+be less prolific than a rural population. The town birth-rate
+is nearly always lower than the country birth-rate.
+In Germany this is very marked, and the rapidly growing
+urbanization of Germany is accompanied by a great
+fall of the birth-rate in the large cities, but not in the
+rural districts. In England the fall is more widespread,
+and though the birth-rate is much higher in the country
+than in the towns the decline in the rural birth-rate is
+now proceeding more rapidly than that in the urban
+birth-rate. England, which once contained a largely
+rural population, now possesses a mainly urban population.
+Every year it becomes more urban; while the
+town population grows, the rural population remains
+stationary; so that, at the present time, for every
+inhabitant of the country in England, there are more
+than three town-dwellers. As the country-dweller is
+more prolific than the town-dweller, this means that
+the rural population is constantly being poured into
+the towns. The larger our great cities grow, the more
+irresistible becomes the attraction which they exert on
+the children of the country, who are fascinated by them,
+as the birds are fascinated by the lighthouse or the moths
+by the candle. And the results are not altogether unlike
+those which this analogy suggests. At the present time,
+one-third of the population of London is made up of
+immigrants from the country. Yet, notwithstanding
+this immense and constant stream of new and vigorous
+blood, it never suffices to raise the urban population to
+the same level of physical and nervous stability which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+the rural population possesses. More alert, more vivacious,
+more intelligent, even more urbane in the finer sense,
+as the urban population becomes,&mdash;not perhaps at first,
+but in the end,&mdash;it inevitably loses its stamina, its reserves
+of vital energy. Dr. Cantlie very properly defines a
+Londoner as a person whose grandparents all belonged
+to London&mdash;and he could not find any. Dr. Harry
+Campbell has found a few who could claim London
+grandparents; they were poor specimens of humanity.
+<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a>
+Even on the intellectual side there are no great Londoners.
+It is well known that a number of eminent men have
+been born in London; but, in the course of a somewhat
+elaborate study of the origins of British men of genius, I
+have not been able to find that any were genuinely
+Londoners by descent.<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> An urban life saps that calm
+and stolid strength which is necessary for all great effort
+and stress, physical or intellectual. The finest body of
+men in London, as a class, are the London police, and
+Charles Booth states that only 17 per cent of the London
+police are born in London, a smaller proportion than any
+other class of the London population except the army
+and navy. As Mr. N.C. Macnamara has pointed out,
+it is found that London men do not possess the necessary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+nervous stability and self-possession for police work;
+they are too excitable and nervous, lacking the equanimity,
+courage, and self-reliance of the rural men. Just
+in the same way, in Spain, the bull-fighters, a body of
+men admirable for their graceful strength, their modesty,
+courage, and skill, nearly always come from country
+districts, although it is in the towns that the enthusiasm
+for bull-fighting is centred. Therefore, it would appear
+that until urban conditions of life are greatly improved,
+the more largely urban a population becomes, the more
+is its standard of vital and physical efficiency likely to
+be lowered. This became clearly visible during the
+South African War; it was found at Manchester (as
+stated by Dr. T.P. Smith and confirmed by Dr. Clayton)
+that among 11,000 young men who volunteered for
+enlistment, scarcely more than 10 per cent could pass
+the surgeon's examination, although the standard of
+physique demanded was extremely low, while Major-General
+Sir F. Maurice has stated<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> that, even when all
+these rejections have been made, of those who actually
+are enlisted, at the end of two years only two effective
+soldiers are found for every five who enlist. It is not
+difficult to see a bearing of these facts on the birth-rate.
+The civilized world is becoming a world of towns, and,
+while the diminished birth-rate of towns is certainly
+not mainly the result of impaired vitality, these phenomena
+are correlative facts of the first importance for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+every country which is using up its rural population and
+becoming a land of cities.</p>
+
+<p>From our present point of view it is thus a very significant
+fact that the equipoise between country-dwellers
+and town-dwellers has been lost, that the towns are
+gaining at the expense of the country whose surplus
+population they absorb and destroy. The town population
+is not only disinclined to propagate; it is probably
+in some measure unfit to propagate.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, we must not too strongly emphasize
+this aspect of the matter; such over-emphasis of a
+single aspect of highly complex phenomena constantly
+distorts our vision of great social processes. We have
+already seen that it is inaccurate to assert any connection
+between a high birth-rate and a high degree of
+national prosperity, except in so far as at special periods
+in the history of a country a sudden wave of prosperity
+may temporarily remove the restraints on natural
+fertility. Prosperity is only one of the causes that tend
+to remove the restraint on the birth-rate; and it is a
+cause that is never permanently effective.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III</h3>
+
+<p>To get to the bottom of the matter, we thus find
+it is necessary to look into it more closely than is
+usually attempted. When we ask ourselves why
+prosperity fails permanently to remove the restraints
+on fertility the answer is, that it speedily creates
+new restraints. Prosperity and civilization are far
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+from being synonymous terms. The savage who is
+able to glut himself with the whale that has just been
+stranded on his coast, is more prosperous than he was
+the day before, but he is not more civilized, perhaps a
+trifle less so. The working community that is suddenly
+glutted by an afflux of work and wages is in exactly the
+same position as the savage who is suddenly enabled to
+fill himself with a rich mass of decaying blubber. It is
+prosperity; it is not civilization.
+<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> But, while prosperity
+leads at first to the reckless and unrestrained gratification
+of the simplest animal instincts of nutrition and reproduction,
+it tends, when it is prolonged, to evolve more
+complex instincts. Aspirations become less crude, the
+needs and appetites engendered by prosperity take on a
+more social character, and are sharpened by social
+rivalries. In place of the earlier easy and reckless gratification
+of animal impulses, a peaceful and organized
+struggle is established for securing in ever fuller degree
+the gratification of increasingly insistent and increasingly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+complex desires. Such a struggle involves a deliberate
+calculation and forethought, which, sooner or later,
+cannot fail to be applied to the question of offspring.
+Thus it is that affluence, in the long run, itself imposes a
+check on reproduction. Prosperity, under the stress of
+the urban conditions with which it tends to be associated,
+has been transformed into that calculated forethought,
+that deliberate self-restraint for the attainment of ever
+more manifold ends, which in its outcome we term
+"civilization."</p>
+
+<p>It is frequently assumed, as we have seen, that the
+process by which civilization is thus evolved is a selfish
+and immoral process. To procreate large families, it is
+said, is unselfish and moral, as well as a patriotic, even
+a religious duty. This assumption, we now find,
+is a little too hasty and is even the reverse of the
+truth; it is necessary to take into consideration the
+totality of the social phenomena accompanying a
+high birth-rate, more especially under the conditions
+of town life. A community in which children are born
+rapidly is necessarily in an unstable position; it is
+growing so quickly that there is insufficient time for
+the conditions of life to be equalized. The state of ill-adjustment
+is chronic; the pressure is lifted from off the
+natural impulse of procreation, but is increased on all
+the conditions under which the impulse is exerted.
+There is increased overcrowding, increased filth, increased
+disease, increased death. It can never happen, in modern
+times, that the readjustment of the conditions of life
+can be made to keep pace with a high birth-rate. It is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+sufficient if we consider the case of English towns, of
+London in particular, during the period when British
+prosperity was most rapidly increasing, and the birth-rate
+nearing its maximum, in the middle of the great
+Victorian epoch, of which Englishmen are, for many
+reasons, so proud. It was certainly not an age lacking in
+either energy or philanthropy; yet, when we read the
+memorable report which Chadwick wrote in 1842, on the
+<i>Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great
+Britain</i>, or the minute study of Bethnal Green which
+Gavin published in 1848 as a type of the conditions
+prevailing in English towns, we realize that the magnificence
+of this epoch was built up over circles of Hell to
+which the imagination of Dante never attained.</p>
+
+<p>As reproductive activity dies down, social conditions
+become more stable, a comparatively balanced state of
+adjustment tends to be established, insanitary surroundings
+can be bettered, disease diminished, and the death-rate
+lowered. How much may thus be accomplished we
+realize when we compare the admirably precise and
+balanced pages in which Charles Booth, in the concluding
+volumes of his great work, has summarized his survey
+of London, with the picture presented by Chadwick and
+Gavin half a century earlier. Ugly and painful as are many
+of the features of this modern London, the vision which
+is, on the whole, evoked is that of a community which
+has attained self-consciousness, which is growing into
+some faint degree of harmony with its environment, and
+is seeking to gain the full amount of the satisfaction
+which an organized urban life can yield. Booth, who
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+appears to have realized the significance of a decreased
+fertility in the attainment of this progress, hopes for a
+still greater fall in the birth-rate; and those who seek
+to restore the birth-rate of half a century ago are engaged
+on a task which would be criminal if it were not based on
+ignorance, and which is, in any case, fatuous.</p>
+
+<p>The whole course of zoological evolution reveals a
+constantly diminishing reproductive activity and a
+constantly increasing expenditure of care on the offspring
+thus diminished in number.<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> Fish spawn their
+ova by the million, and it is a happy chance if they
+become fertilized, a highly unlikely chance that more
+than a very small proportion will ever attain maturity.
+Among the mammals, however, the female may produce
+but half a dozen or fewer offspring at a time, but she
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+lavishes so much care upon them that they have a very
+fair chance of all reaching maturity. In man, in so far
+as he refrains from returning to the beast and is true to
+the impulse which in him becomes a conscious process
+of civilization, the same movement is carried forward.
+He even seeks to decrease still further the number of
+his offspring by voluntary effort, and at the same time
+to increase their quality and magnify their importance.
+<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>When in human families, especially under civilized
+conditions, we see large families we are in the presence
+of a reversion to the tendencies that prevail among lower
+organisms. Such large families may probably be regarded,
+as N&auml;cke suggests, as constituting a symptom of degeneration.
+It is noteworthy that they usually occur in
+the pathological and abnormal classes, among the
+insane, the feeble-minded, the criminal, the consumptive,
+the alcoholic, etc.<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>This tendency of the birth-rate to fall with the growth
+of social stability is thus a tendency which is of the
+very essence of civilization. It represents an impulse
+which, however deliberate it may be in the individual,
+may, in the community, be looked upon as an instinctive
+effort to gain more complete control of the conditions of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+life, and to grapple more efficiently with the problems
+of misery and disease and death. It is not only, as is
+sometimes supposed, during the past century that the
+phenomena may be studied. We have a remarkable
+example some centuries earlier, an example which very
+clearly illustrates the real nature of the phenomena.
+The city of Geneva, perhaps first of European cities,
+began to register its births, deaths, and marriages from
+the middle of the sixteenth century. This alone indicates
+a high degree of civilization; and at that time, and for
+some succeeding centuries, Geneva was undoubtedly a
+very highly civilized city. Its inhabitants really were
+the "elect," morally and intellectually, of French
+Protestantism. In many respects it was a model city,
+as Gray noted when he reached it in the course of his
+travels in the middle of the eighteenth century. These
+registers of Geneva show, in a most illuminating manner,
+how extreme fertility at the outset, gradually gave
+place, as civilization progressed, to a very low fertility,
+with fewer and later marriages, a very low death-rate,
+and a state of general well-being in which the births
+barely replaced the deaths.</p>
+
+<p>After Protestant Geneva had lost her pioneering place
+in civilization, it was in France, the land which above
+all others may in modern times claim to represent the
+social aspects of civilization, that the same tendency
+most conspicuously appeared. But all Europe, as well
+as all the English-speaking lands outside Europe, is now
+following the lead of France. In a paper read before
+the Paris Society of Anthropology a few years ago,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+Emile Macquart showed clearly, by a series of ingenious
+diagrams, that whereas, fifty years ago, the condition
+of the birth-rate in France diverged widely from that
+prevailing in the other chief countries of Europe, the
+other countries are now rapidly following in the same
+road along which France has for a century been proceeding
+slowly, and are constantly coming closer to her,
+England closest of all. In the past, proposals have from
+time to time been made in France to interfere with the
+progress of this downward movement of the birth-rate&mdash;proposals
+that were sufficiently foolish, for neither in
+France nor elsewhere will the individual allow the statistician
+to interfere officiously in a matter which he regards
+as purely intimate and private. But the real character
+of this tendency of the birth-rate, as an essential phenomenon
+of civilization, with which neither moralist nor
+politician can successfully hope to interfere, is beginning
+to be realized in France. Azoulay, in summing up the
+discussion after Macquart's paper<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> had been read at
+the Society of Anthropology, pointed out that "nations
+must inevitably follow the same course as social classes,
+and the more the mass of these social classes becomes
+civilized, the more the nation's birth-rate falls; therefore
+there is nothing to be done legally and administratively."
+And another member added: "Except to applaud."</p>
+
+<p>It is probably too much to hope that so sagacious a
+view will at once be universally adopted. The United
+States and the great English colonies, for instance, find
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+it difficult to realize that they are not really new countries,
+but branches of old countries, and already nearing
+maturity when they began their separate lives. They
+are not at the beginning of two thousand years of slow
+development, such as we have passed through, but at
+the end of it, with us, and sometimes even a little ahead
+of us. It is therefore natural and inevitable that, in a
+matter in which we are moving rapidly, Massachusetts
+and Ontario and New South Wales and New Zealand
+should have moved still more rapidly, so rapidly indeed,
+that they have themselves failed to perceive that their
+real natural increase and the manner in which it is
+attained place them in this matter at the van of civilization.
+These things are, however, only learnt slowly. We
+may be sure that the fundamental and complex character
+of the phenomena will never be obvious to our fussy
+little politicians, so apt to advocate panaceas which
+have effects quite opposite to those they desire. But,
+whatever politicians may wish to do or to leave undone,
+it is well to remember that, of the various ideals the
+world holds, there are some that lie on the path of our
+social progress, and others that do not there lie. We may
+properly exercise such wisdom as we possess by utilizing
+the ideals which are before us, serenely neglecting many
+others which however precious they may once have
+seemed, no longer form part of the stage of civilization
+we are now moving towards.</p>
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+What are the ideals of the stage of civilization we of
+the Western world are now moving towards? We have
+here pushed as far as need be the analysis of that declining
+birth-rate which has caused so much anxiety to
+those amongst us who can only see narrowly and see
+superficially. We have found that, properly understood,
+there is nothing in it to evoke our pessimism. On the
+contrary, we have seen that, in the opinion of the most
+distinguished authorities, the energy with which we
+move in our present direction, through the exercise of an
+ever finer economy in life, may be regarded as a "measure
+of civilization" in the important sphere of vital statistics.
+As we now leave the question, some may ask themselves
+whether this concomitant decline in birth-rates and
+death-rates may not possibly have a still wider and more
+fundamental meaning as a measure of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>We have long been accustomed to regard the East as a
+spiritual world in which the finer ends of living were
+counted supreme, and the merely materialistic aspects
+of life, dissociated from the aims of religion and of art,
+were trodden under foot. Our own Western world we
+have humbly regarded as mainly absorbed in a feverish
+race for the attainment, by industry and war, of the
+satisfaction of the impulses of reproduction and nutrition,
+and the crudely material aggrandizement of which those
+impulses are the symbol. A certain outward idleness,
+a semi-idleness, as Nietzsche said, is the necessary condition
+for a real religious life, for a real &aelig;sthetic life, for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+any life on the spiritual plane. The noisy, laborious,
+pushing, "progressive" life we traditionally associate
+with the West is essentially alien to the higher ends of
+living, as has been intuitively recognized and acted on
+by all those among us who have sought to pursue the
+higher ends of living. It was so that the nineteenth-century
+philosophers of Europe, of whom Schopenhauer
+was in this matter the extreme type, viewed the matter.
+But when we seek to measure the tendency of the chief
+countries of the West, led by France, England, and
+Germany, and the countries of the East led by Japan,
+in the light of this strictly measurable test of vital
+statistics, may we not, perhaps, trace the approach of a
+revolutionary transposition? Japan, entering on the
+road we have nearly passed through, in which the perpetual
+clash of a high birth-rate and a high death-rate
+involves social disorder and misery, has flung to the
+winds the loftier ideals it once pursued so successfully
+and has lost its fine &aelig;sthetic perceptions, its insight into
+the most delicate secrets of the soul.
+<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> And while Japan,
+certainly to-day voicing the aspirations of the East, is
+concerned to become a great military and industrial
+power, we in the West are growing weary of war, and
+are coming to look upon commerce as a necessary routine
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+no longer adequate to satisfy the best energies of human
+beings. We are here moving towards the fine quiescence
+involved by a delicate equipoise of life and of death;
+and this economy sets free an energy we are seeking to
+expend in a juster social organization, and in the realization
+of ideals which until now have seemed but the
+imagination of idle dreamers. Asia, as an anonymous
+writer has recently put it, is growing crude, vulgar, and
+materialistic; Europe, on the other hand, is growing to
+loathe its own past grossness. "London may yet be
+the spiritual capital of the world, while Asia&mdash;rich in all
+that gold can buy and guns can give, lord of lands and
+bodies, builder of railways and promulgator of police
+regulations, glorious in all material glories&mdash;postures,
+complacent and obtuse, before a Europe content in the
+possession of all that matters,"<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Certainly, we are not
+there yet, but the old Earth has seen many stranger and
+more revolutionary changes than this. England, as
+this writer reminds us, was once a tropical forest.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
+It must be understood that, from the present point of view, the
+term "Anglo-Saxon" covers the peoples of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland,
+as well as of England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a>
+The decline of the French birth-rate has been investigated in a
+Lyons thesis by Salvat, <i>La D&eacute;population de la France</i>, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a>
+The latest figures are given in the Annual Reports of the Registrar-General
+for England and Wales.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a>
+Newsholme and Stevenson, "Decline of Human Fertility as shown
+by corrected Birth-rates," <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>,
+1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a>
+Werner Sombart, <i>International Magazine</i>, December, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a>
+A.W. Flux, "Urban Vital Statistics in England and Germany,"
+<i>Journ. Statist. Soc.</i>, March, 1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a>
+German infantile mortality, B&ouml;hmert states ("Die S&auml;uglingssterblichkeit
+in Deutschland und ihre Ursachen," <i>Die Neue Generation</i>,
+March, 1908), is greater than in any European country, except Russia and
+Hungary, about 50 per cent greater than in England, France, Belgium,
+or Holland. The infantile mortality has increased in Germany, as
+usually happens, with the increased employment of women, and, largely
+from this cause, has nearly doubled in Berlin in the course of four years,
+states Lily Braun (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1906, Heft I, p. 21); but even on
+this basis it is only 22 per cent in the English textile industries, as against
+38 per cent in the German textile industries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a>
+In England the marriage-rate fell rather sharply in 1875, and
+showed a slight tendency to rise about 1900 (G. Udny Yule, "On the
+Changes in the Marriage-and Birth-rates in England and Wales,"
+<i>Journal of the Statistical Society</i>, March, 1906). On the whole there has
+been a real though slight decline. The decline has been widespread,
+and is most marked in Australia, especially South Australia. There
+has, however, been a rise in the marriage-rate in Ireland, France,
+Austria, Switzerland, Germany, and especially Belgium. The movement
+for decreased child-production would naturally in the first place
+involve decreased marriage, but it is easy to understand that when it
+is realized the marriage is not necessarily followed by conception
+this motive for avoiding marriage loses its force, and the marriage-rate
+rises.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a>
+<i>Medicine</i>, February, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a>
+Davidson, "The Growth of the French-Canadian Race," <i>Annals
+of the American Academy</i>, September, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a>
+T.A. Coghlan, <i>The Decline of the Birth-rate of New South Wales</i>,
+1903. The New South Wales statistics are specially valuable as the
+records contain many particulars (such as age of parents, period since
+marriage, and number of children) not given in English or most other
+records.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a>
+C. Hamburger, "Kinderzahl und Kindersterblichkeit," <i>Die Neue
+Generation</i>, August, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a>
+Looked at in another way, it may be said that if a natural increase,
+as ascertained by subtracting the death-rate from the birth-rate, of
+10 to 15 per cent be regarded as normal, then, taking so far as possible
+the figures for 1909, the natural increase of England and Scotland, of
+Germany, of Italy, of Austria and Hungary, of Belgium, is normal;
+the natural increase of New South Wales, of Victoria, of South Australia,
+of New Zealand, is abnormally high (though in new countries such
+increase may not be undesirable) while the natural increase of France,
+of Spain, and of Ireland is abnormally low. Such a method of estimation,
+of course, entirely leaves out of account the question of the social
+desirability of the process by which the normal increase is secured.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103]</span></a>
+Johannsen, <i>Janus</i>, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a>
+Rubin, "A Measure of Civilization," <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical
+Society</i>, March, 1897. "The lowest stage of civilization," he points out,
+"is to go forward blindly, which in this connection means to bring into
+the world a great number of children which must, in great proportion,
+sink into the grave. The next stage of civilization is to see the danger
+and to keep clear of it. The highest stage of civilization is to see the
+danger and overcome it." Europe in the past and various countries
+in the present illustrate the first stage; France illustrates the second
+stage; the third stage is that towards which we are striving to move
+to-day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a>
+Baines, "The Recent Growth of Population in Western Europe,"
+<i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, December, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a>
+Various facts and references are given by Havelock Ellis, <i>The
+Nationalization of Health</i>, chap. <span class="smcap">XIV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a>
+These are the figures given by the chief Japanese authority,
+Professor Takano, <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, July, 1910,
+p. 738.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a>
+E.A. Ross, "The Race Fibre of the Chinese," <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>, October, 1911. According to another competent and fairly
+concordant estimate, the infantile death-rate of China is 90 per cent.
+Of the female infants, probably about 1 in 10 is intentionally destroyed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a>
+J.J. Matignon, "La M&egrave;re et l'Enfant en Chine," <i>Archives
+d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, October to November, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a>
+Ars&egrave;ne Dumont, for instance, points out
+(<i>D&eacute;population et Civilization</i>,
+p. 116) that the very early marriages and the reckless fertility of
+the Chinese cannot fail to cease as soon as the people adopt European
+ways.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
+The confident estimates of the future population of the world
+which are from time to time put forward on the basis of the present
+birth-rate are quite worthless. A brilliantly insubstantial fabric of
+this kind, by B.L. Putnam Weale (<i>The Conflict of Colour</i>, 1911), has
+been justly criticized by Professor Weatherley (<i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>, November, 1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a>
+It is sometimes convenient to use the term "Neo-Malthusianism"
+to indicate the voluntary limitation of the family, but it must always be
+remembered that Malthus would not have approved of Neo-Malthusianism,
+and that Neo-Malthusian practices have nothing to do with the
+theory of Malthus. They would not be affected could that theory
+be conclusively proved or conclusively disproved.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a>
+We even find the demand that bachelors and spinsters shall be
+taxed. This proposal has been actually accepted (1911) by the Landtag
+of the little Principality of Reuss, which proposes to tax bachelors
+and spinsters over thirty years of age. Putting aside the arguable
+questions as to whether a State is entitled to place such pressure on its
+citizens, it must be pointed out that it is not marriage but the child
+which concerns the State. It is possible to have children without
+marriage, and marriage does not ensure the procreation of children.
+Therefore it would be more to the point to tax the childless. In that
+case, it would be necessary to remit the tax in the case of unmarried
+people with children, and to levy it in the case of married people without
+children. But it has further to be remembered that not all persons
+are fitted to have sound children, and as unsound children are a burden
+and not a benefit to the State, the State ought to reward rather than
+to fine those conscientious persons who refrain from procreation when
+they are too poor, or with too defective a heredity, to be likely to produce,
+or to bring up, sound children. Moreover, some persons are sterile,
+and thorough medical investigation would be required before they
+could fairly be taxed. As soon as we begin to analyse such a proposal
+we cannot fail to see that, even granting that the aim of such legislation
+is legitimate and desirable, the method of attaining it is thoroughly
+mischievous and unjustifiable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a>
+J.G. Engelmann, "Decreasing Fecundity," <i>Philadelphia Medical
+Journal</i>, January 18, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a>
+It has, further, been frequently denied that Neo-Malthusian practices
+can affect Roman Catholic countries, since the Church is precluded
+from approving of them. That is true. But it is also true that, as
+Lagneau long since pointed out, the Protestants of Europe have increased
+at more than double the annual rate of the Catholics, though this relationship
+has now ceased to be exact. Dumont states (<i>D&eacute;population et
+Civilisation</i>, chap. <span class="smcap">XVIII</span>)
+that there is not the slightest reason to
+suppose that (apart from the question of poverty) the faithful have
+more children than the irreligious; moreover, in dealing with its more
+educated members, it is not the policy of the Church to make indiscreet
+inquiries (see Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI,
+"Sex in Relation to Society," p. 590). A Catholic bishop is reported
+to have warned his clergy against referring in their Lent sermons
+to the voluntary restriction of conception, remarking that an excess
+of rigour in this matter would cause the Church to lose half her flock.
+The fall in the birth-rate is as marked in Catholic as in Protestant
+countries; the Catholic communities in which this is not the case
+are few, and placed in exceptional circumstances. It must be remembered,
+moreover, that the Church enjoins celibacy on its clergy, and
+that celibacy is practically a Malthusian method. It is not easy while
+preaching practical Malthusianism to the clergy to spend much fervour
+in preaching against practical Neo-Malthusianism to the laity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a>
+McLean, "The Declining Birth-rate in Australia," <i>International
+Medical Journal of Australasia</i>, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a>
+Thus in France the low birth-rate is associated with a high infantile
+death-rate, which has not yet been appreciably influenced by the
+movement of puericulture in France. In England also, at the end of
+the last century, the declining birth-rate was accompanied by a rising
+infantile death-rate, which is now, however, declining under the
+influence of greater care of child-life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a>
+Sidney Webb, <i>Times</i>, October 11 and 16, 1906; also <i>Popular
+Science Monthly</i>, 1906, p. 526.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a>
+It is important to remember the distinction between "fecundity"
+and "fertility." A woman who has one child has proved that she is
+fecund, but has not proved that she is fertile. A woman with six
+children has proved that she is not only fecund but fertile.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a>
+They have been worked out by C.J. Lewis and J. Norman Lewis,
+<i>Natality and Fecundity</i>, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a>
+Newsholme and Stevenson, <i>op. cit.</i>; Rubin and Westergaard,
+<i>Statistik der Ehen</i>, 1890, p. 95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a>
+D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status,"
+<i>Drapers' Company Research Memoirs</i>, No. 1, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a>
+The recognition of this relationship must not be regarded as an
+attempt unduly to narrow down the causation of changes in the birth-rate.
+The great complexity of the causes influencing the birth-rate
+is now fairly well recognized, and has, for instance, been pointed out by
+Goldscheid, <i>H&ouml;herentwicklung und Menschen&ouml;konomie</i>,
+Vol. I, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a>
+In a paper read at the Brunswick Meeting of the German Anthropological
+Society (<i>Correspondenzblatt</i> of the Society, November, 1898);
+a great many facts concerning the fecundity of women among savages
+in various parts of the world are brought together by Ploss and Bartels,
+<i>Das Weib</i>, Vol I, chap. <span class="smcap">XXIV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
+The proportion of doctors to the population is very small, and the
+people still have great confidence in their quacks and witch-doctors.
+The elementary rules of sanitation are generally neglected, water
+supplies are polluted, filth is piled up in the streets and the courtyards,
+as it was in England and Western Europe generally until a century ago,
+and the framing of regulations or the incursions of the police have
+little effect on the habits of the people. Neglect of the ordinary
+precautions of cleanliness is responsible for the wide extension of
+syphilis by the use of drinking vessels, towels, etc., in common. Not
+only is typhoid prevalent in nearly every province of Russia, but
+typhus, which is peculiarly the disease of filth, overcrowding, and
+starvation, and has long been practically extinct in England, still
+flourishes and causes an immense mortality. The workers often have
+no homes and sleep in the factories amidst the machinery, men and
+women together; their food is insufficient, and the hours of labour
+may vary from twelve to fourteen. When famine occurs these conditions
+are exaggerated, and various epidemics ravage the population.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a>
+It must, however, be remembered that in small and unstable
+communities a considerable margin for error must be allowed, as the
+crude birth-rate is unduly raised by an afflux of immigrants at the
+reproductive age.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a>
+Ars&egrave;ne Dumont, <i>D&eacute;population et Civilisation</i>, 1890, chap.
+<span class="smcap">VI</span>. The
+nature of the restraint on fertility has been well set forth by Dr. Bushee
+("The Declining Birth-rate and its Causes," <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>,
+August, 1903), mainly in the terms of Dumont's "social capillarity"
+theory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a>
+Even Dr. Newsholme, usually so cautious and reliable an investigator
+in this field, has been betrayed into a reference in this connection
+(<i>The Declining Birth-rate</i>, 1911, p. 41) to the "increasing rarity of
+altruism," though in almost the next paragraph he points out that the
+large families of the past were connected with the fact that the child
+was a profitable asset, and could be sent to work when little more than
+an infant. The "altruism" which results in crushing the minds and
+bodies of others in order to increase one's own earnings is not an
+"altruism" which we need desire to perpetuate. The beneficial effect
+of legislation against child-labour in reducing an unduly high birth-rate
+has often been pointed out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a>
+It may suffice to take a single point. Large families involve the
+birth of children at very short intervals. It has been clearly shown
+by Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring,"
+<i>Eugenics Review</i>, October, 1911) that children born at an interval of
+less than two years after the birth of the previous child, remain, even
+when they have reached their sixth year, three inches shorter and three
+pounds lighter than first-born children.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a>
+For instance, Goldscheid, in <i>H&ouml;herentwicklung und Menschen&ouml;konomie</i>;
+it is also, on the whole, the conclusion of Newsholme, though
+expressed in an exceedingly temperate manner, in his
+<i>Declining Birth-rate</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+If, however, our birth-rate fanatics should hear of the results
+obtained at the experimental farm at Roseville, California, by Professor
+Silas Wentworth, who has found that by placing ewes in a field under
+the power wires of an electric wire company, the average production
+of lambs is more than doubled, we may anticipate trouble in many
+hitherto small families. Their predecessors insisted, in the cause of
+religion and morals, on burning witches; we must not be surprised if
+our modern fanatics, in the same holy cause, clamour for a law compelling
+all childless women to live under electric wires.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a>
+J. Holt Schooling, "The English Marriage Rate," <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, June, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a>
+G. Udny Yule, "Changes in the Marriage-and Birth-rate in
+England," <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, March, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a>
+At an earlier period Hooker had investigated the same subject
+without coming to any very decisive conclusions ("Correlation of the
+Marriage-rate with Trade," <i>Journ. Statistical Soc.</i>, September, 1901).
+Minor fluctuations in marriage and in trade per head, he found, tend
+to be in close correspondence, but on the whole trade has risen and the
+marriage-rate has fallen, probably, Hooker believed, as the result
+of the gradual deferment of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
+The higher standard need not be, among the mass of the population,
+of a very exalted character, although it marks a real progress. Newsholme
+and Stevenson (<i>op. cit.</i>) term it a higher "standard of comfort."
+The decline of the birth-rate, they say, "is associated with a general
+raising of the standard of comfort, and is an expression of the determination
+of the people to secure this greater comfort."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a>
+Ploss, <i>Das Weib</i>, Vol. I, chap. <span class="smcap">XX</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a>
+It must not, however, be assumed that the rural immigrants
+are in the mass better suited to urban life than the urban natives.
+It is probable that, notwithstanding their energy and robustness,
+the immigrants are less suited to urban conditions than the natives.
+Consequently a process of selection takes place among the immigrants,
+and the survivors become, as it were, immunized to the poisons of
+urban life. But this immunization is by no means necessarily associated
+with any high degree of nervous vigour or general physical development.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
+Havelock Ellis, <i>A Study of British Genius</i>, pp. 22, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a>
+"National Health: a Soldier's Study," <i>Contemporary Review</i>,
+January, 1903. The Reports of the Inspector-General of Recruiting
+are said to show that the recruits are every year smaller, lighter, and
+narrower-chested.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a>
+This has been well illustrated during the past forty years in the
+flourishing county of Glamorgan in Wales, as is shown by Dr. R.S.
+Stewart ("The Relationship of Wages, Lunacy, and Crime in South
+Wales," <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, January, 1904). The staple industry
+here is coal, 17 per cent of the population being directly employed in
+coal-mining, and wages are determined by the sliding scale as it is
+called, according to which the selling price of coal regulates the wages.
+This leads to many fluctuations and sudden accesses of prosperity.
+It is found that whenever wages rise there is a concomitant increase
+of insanity and at the same time a diminished output of coal due to
+slacking of work when earnings are greater; there is also an increase
+of drunkenness and of crime. Stewart concludes that it is doubtful
+whether increased material prosperity is conducive to improvement
+in physical and mental status. It must, however, be pointed out
+that it is a sudden and unstable prosperity, not necessarily a gradual
+and stable prosperity, which is hereby shown to be pernicious.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a>
+The relationship is sometimes expressed by saying that the
+more highly differentiated the organism the fewer the offspring.
+According to Plate we ought to say that, the greater the capacity
+for parental care the fewer the offspring. This, however, comes
+to the same thing, since it is the higher organisms which possess
+the increased capacity for parental care. Putting it in the most
+generalized zoological way, diminished offspring is the response
+to improved environment. Thus in Man the decline of the birth-rate,
+as Professor Benjamin Moore remarks (<i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+August 20, 1910, p. 454), is "the simple biological reply to good
+economic conditions. It is a well-known biological law that even a
+micro-organism, when placed in unfavourable conditions as to food and
+environment, passes into a reproductive phase, and by sporulation
+or some special type produces new individuals very rapidly. The same
+condition of affairs in the human race was shown even by the fact that
+one-half of the births come from the least favourably situated one-quarter
+of the population. Hence, over-rapid birth-rate indicates
+unfavourable conditions of life, so that (so long as the population was
+on the increase) a lower birth-rate was a valuable indication of a better
+social condition of affairs, and a matter on which we should congratulate
+the country rather than proceed to condolences."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a>
+"The accumulations of racial experience tend to show," remarks
+Woods Hutchinson ("Animal Marriage," <i>Contemporary Review</i>,
+October, 1904), "that by the production of a smaller and smaller
+number of offspring, and the expenditure upon those of a greater
+amount of parental care, better results can be obtained in efficiency
+and capacity for survival."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a>
+Toulouse, <i>Causes de la Folie</i>, p. 91; Magri, <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>,
+1896, fasc. vi-vii; Havelock Ellis, <i>A Study of British Genius</i>, pp. 106
+et seq.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a>
+Emile Macquart, "Mortalit&eacute;, Natalit&eacute;, D&eacute;population," <i>Bulletin
+de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Anthropologie</i>, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a>
+It is interesting to observe how Lafcadio Hearn, during the last
+years of his life, was compelled, however unwillingly, to recognize
+this change. See e.g. his <i>Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation</i>, 1904,
+ch. <span class="smcap">XXI</span>, on "Industrial Dangers." The Japanese themselves have
+recognized it, and it is the feeling of the decay of their ancient ideals
+which has given so great an impetus to new ethical movements, such as
+that, described as a kind of elevated materialism, established by
+Yukichi Fukuzawa (see <i>Open Court</i>, June, 1907).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a>
+<i>Athen&aelig;um</i>, October 7, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+<a name="CHAPVI" id="CHAPVI"></a></p><h3>VI</h3>
+
+<h3>EUGENICS AND LOVE</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate&mdash;Quantity and Quality
+in the Production of Children&mdash;Eugenic Sexual Selection&mdash;The
+Value of Pedigrees&mdash;Their Scientific Significance&mdash;The Systematic
+Record of Personal Data&mdash;The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates&mdash;St.
+Valentine's Day and Sexual Selection&mdash;Love and Reason&mdash;Love
+Ruled by Natural Law&mdash;Eugenic Selection not opposed to Love&mdash;No
+Need for Legal Compulsion&mdash;Medicine in Relation to Marriage</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h4>I</h4>
+
+<p>During recent years the question of the future
+of the human race has been brought before us
+in a way it has never been brought before. The
+great expansive movement in civilized countries is over.
+Whereas, fifty years ago, France seemed to present a
+striking contrast to other countries in her low and
+gradually falling birth-rate, to-day, though she has
+herself now almost reached a stationary position, France
+is seen merely to have been the leader in a movement
+which is common to all the more highly civilized nations.
+They are all now moving rapidly in the direction in
+which she moved slowly. It was inevitable that this
+movement, world-wide as it is, should call forth energetic
+protests, for there is no condition of things so bad but it
+finds some to advocate its perpetuation. There has,
+therefore, been much vigorous preaching against "race
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+suicide" by people who were deaf to the small voice of
+reason, who failed to understand that this matter could
+not be settled by mere consideration of the crude birth-rates,
+and that, even if it could, we should have still to
+realize that, as an economist remarks, it is to the decline of
+the birth-rate only that we probably owe it that the modern
+civilized world has been saved from economic disaster.
+<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>But whatever the causes of the declining birth-rate it
+is certain that even when they are within our control
+they are of far too intimate a character for the public
+moralist to be permitted to touch them, even though we
+consider them to be in a disastrous state. It has to be
+recognized that we are here in the presence, not of a
+merely local or temporary tendency which might be
+shaken off with an effort, but of a great fundamental
+law of civilization; and the fact that we encounter it in
+our own race merely means that we are reaching a fairly
+high stage of civilization. It is far from the first time,
+in the history of the world, that the same phenomenon
+has been witnessed. It was seen in Imperial Rome; it
+was seen, again, in the "Protestant Rome," Geneva.
+Wherever are gathered together an exceedingly fine race
+of people, the flower of the race, individuals of the highest
+mental and moral distinction, there the birth-rate falls
+steadily. Vice or virtue alike avails nothing in this field;
+with high civilization fertility inevitably diminishes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>II</h4>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances it was to be expected that
+a new ideal should begin to flash before men's eyes. If
+the ideal of <i>quantity</i> is lost to us, why not seek the ideal
+of <i>quality</i>? We know that the old rule: "Increase and
+multiply" meant a vast amount of infant mortality,
+of starvation, of chronic disease, of widespread misery.
+In abandoning that rule, as we have been forced to do,
+are we not left free to seek that our children, though few,
+should be at all events fit, the finest, alike in physical and
+psychical constitution, that the world has seen?</p>
+
+<p>Thus has come about the recent expansion of that
+conception of <i>Eugenics</i>, or the science and art of Good
+Breeding in the human race, which a group of workers,
+pioneered by Francis Galton<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a>&mdash;at first in England and
+later in America, Germany and elsewhere&mdash;have been
+developing for some years past. Eugenics is beginning
+to be felt to possess a living actuality which it failed to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+possess before. Instead of being a benevolent scientific
+fad it begins to present itself as the goal to which we are
+inevitably moving.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of Eugenics has sometimes been prejudiced
+in the public mind by a comparison with the artificial
+breeding of domestic animals. In reality the two things
+are altogether different. In breeding animals a higher
+race of beings manipulates a lower race with the object
+of securing definite points that are of no use whatever
+to the animals themselves, but of considerable value to
+the breeders. In our own race, on the other hand, the
+problem of breeding is presented in an entirely different
+shape. There is as yet no race of super-men who are
+prepared to breed man for their own special ends. As
+things are, even if we had the ability and the power, we
+should surely hesitate before we bred men and women
+as we breed dogs or fowls. We may, therefore, quite put
+aside all discussion of eugenics as a sort of higher cattle-breeding.
+It would be undesirable, even if it were not
+impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another aspect of Eugenics. Human
+eugenics need not be, and is not likely to be, a cold-blooded
+selection of partners by some outside scientific
+authority. But it may be, and is very likely to be, a
+slowly growing conviction&mdash;first among the more intelligent
+members of the community and then by imitation
+and fashion among the less intelligent members&mdash;that
+our children, the future race, the torch-bearers of
+civilization for succeeding ages, are not the mere result
+of chance or Providence, but that, in a very real sense,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+it is within our power to mould them, that the salvation
+or damnation of many future generations lies in our
+hands since it depends on our wise and sane choice of a
+mate. The results of the breeding of those persons who
+ought never to be parents is well known; the notorious
+case of the Jukes family is but one among many instances.
+We could scarcely expect in any community that individuals
+like the Jukes would take the initiative in
+movements for the eugenic development of the race,
+but it makes much difference whether such families
+exist in an environment like our own which is indifferent
+to the future of the race, or whether they are surrounded
+by influences of a more wholesome character which can
+scarcely fail to some extent to affect, and even to control,
+the reckless and anti-social elements in the community.</p>
+
+<p>In considering this question, therefore, we are justified
+in putting aside not only any kind of human breeding
+resembling the artificial breeding of animals, but also,
+at all events for the present, every compulsory prohibition
+on marriage or procreation. We must be
+content to concern ourselves with ideals, and with the
+endeavour to exert our personal influence in the realization
+of these ideals.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III</h4>
+
+<p>Such ideals cannot, however, be left in the air; if
+they depend on individual caprice nothing but fruitless
+confusion can come of them. They must be firmly
+grounded on a scientific basis of ascertained fact. This
+was always emphasized by Galton. He not only initiated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+schemes for obtaining, but actually to some extent
+obtained, a large amount of scientific knowledge concerning
+the special characteristics and aptitudes of
+families, and his efforts in this direction have since been
+largely extended and elaborated.<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> The feverish activities
+of modern life, and the constant vicissitudes and
+accidents that overtake families to-day, have led to an
+extraordinary indifference to family history and tradition.
+Our forefathers, from generation to generation, carefully
+entered births, baptisms, marriages, and deaths in
+the fly-leaf of the Family Bible. It is largely owing to
+these precious entries that many are able to carry their
+family history several centuries further back than they
+otherwise could. But nowadays the Family Bible has
+for the most part ceased to exist, and nothing else has
+taken its place. If a man wishes to know what sort of
+stocks he has come from, unless he is himself an antiquarian,
+or in a position to employ an antiquarian to
+assist him, he can learn little, and in the most favourable
+position he is helpless without clues; though with such
+clues he might often learn much that would be of the
+greatest interest to him. The entries in the Family
+Bible, however, whatever their value as clues and even
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+as actual data, do not furnish adequate information to
+serve as a guide to the different qualities of stocks; we
+need far more detailed and varied information in order
+to realize the respective values of families from the point
+of view of eugenics. Here, again, Galton had already
+realized the need for supplying a great defect in our
+knowledge, and his Life-history Albums showed how the
+necessary information may be conveniently registered.</p>
+
+<p>The accumulated histories of individual families, it is
+evident, will in time furnish a foundation on which to
+base scientific generalizations, and eventually, perhaps,
+to justify practical action. Moreover, a vast amount of
+valuable information on which it is possible to build up
+a knowledge of the correlated characteristics of families,
+already lies at present unused in the great insurance
+offices and elsewhere. When it is possible to obtain a
+large collection of accurate pedigrees for scientific purposes,
+and to throw them into a properly tabulated
+form, we shall certainly be in a position to know more of
+the qualities of stocks, of their good and bad characteristics,
+and of the degree in which they are correlated.
+<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this way we shall, in time, be able to obtain a clear
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+picture of the probable results on the offspring of unions
+between any kind of people. From personal and ancestral
+data we shall be able to reckon the probable
+quality of the offspring of a married couple. Given a
+man and woman of known personal qualities and of
+known ancestors, what are likely to be the personal
+qualities, physical, mental and moral, of the children?
+That is a question of immense importance both for the
+beings themselves whom we bring into the world, for the
+community generally, and for the future race.</p>
+
+<p>Eventually, it seems evident, a general system, whether
+private or public, whereby all personal facts, biological
+and mental, normal and morbid, are duly and systematically
+registered, must become inevitable if we are to have
+a real guide as to those persons who are most fit, or most
+unfit, to carry on the race.<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Unless they are full and
+frank such records are useless. But it is obvious that
+for a long time to come such a system of registration
+must be private. According to the belief which is still
+deeply rooted in most of us, we regard as most private
+those facts of our lives which are most intimately connected
+with the life of the race, and most fateful for the
+future of humanity. The feeling is no doubt inevitable;
+it has a certain rightness and justification. As, however,
+our knowledge increases we shall learn that we are,
+on the one hand, a little more responsible for future
+generations than we are accustomed to think, and, on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+the other hand, a little less responsible for our own good
+or bad qualities. Our fiat makes the future man, but,
+in the same way, we are ourselves made by a choice and
+a will not our own. A man may indeed, within limits,
+mould himself, but the materials he can alone use were
+handed on to him by his parents, and whether he becomes
+a man of genius, a criminal, a drunkard, an
+epileptic, or an ordinarily healthy, well-conducted, and
+intelligent citizen, must depend at least as much on his
+parents as on his own effort or lack of effort, since even
+the aptitude for effective effort is largely inborn. As we
+learn to look on the facts from the only sound standpoint
+of heredity, our anger or contempt for a failing and
+erring individual has to give way to the kindly but firm
+control of a weakling. If the children's teeth have been
+set on edge it is because the parents have eaten sour
+grapes.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we certainly cannot bring legal or even
+moral force to compel everyone to maintain such detailed
+registers of himself, his ancestral stocks, and his offspring&mdash;to
+say nothing of inducing him to make them
+public&mdash;there is something that we can do. We can
+make it to his interest to keep such a record.
+<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>If it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+became an advantage in life to a man to possess good
+ancestors, and to be himself a good specimen of humanity
+in mind, character, and physique, we may be sure that
+those who are above the average in these matters will be
+glad to make use of that superiority. Insurance offices
+already make an inquisition into these matters, to which
+no one objects, because a man only submits to it for his
+own advantage; while for military and some other
+services similar inquiries are compulsory. Eugenic
+certificates, according to Galton's proposal, would be
+issued by a suitably constituted authority to those
+candidates who chose to apply for them and were able
+to pass the necessary tests. Such certificates would
+imply an inquiry and examination into the ancestry of
+the candidate as well as into his own constitution,
+health, intelligence and character; and the possession
+of such a certificate would involve a superiority to the
+average in all these respects. No one would be compelled
+to offer himself for such examination, just as no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+one is compelled to seek a university degree. But its
+possession would often be an advantage. There is
+nothing to prevent the establishment of a board of
+examiners of this kind to-morrow, and we may be sure
+that, once established, many candidates would hasten
+to present themselves.<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> There are obviously many
+positions in life wherein a certificate of this kind of
+superiority would be helpful. But its chief distinction
+would be that its possession would be a kind of patent of
+natural nobility; the man or woman who held it would
+be one of Nature's aristocrats, to whom the future of the
+race might be safely left without further question.</p>
+
+<h4>IV</h4>
+
+<p>By happy inspiration, or by chance, Galton made
+public his programme of eugenic research, in a paper
+read before the Sociological Society, on February 14,
+the festival of St. Valentine. Although the ancient
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+observances of that day have now died out, St. Valentine
+was for many centuries the patron saint of sexual
+selection, more especially in England. It can scarcely
+be said that any credit in this matter belongs to the
+venerable saint himself; it was by an accident that he
+achieved his conspicuous position in the world. He was
+simply a pious Christian who was beheaded for his faith
+in Rome under Claudius. But it so happened that his
+festival fell at that period in early spring when birds
+were believed to pair, and when youths and maidens
+were accustomed to select partners for themselves or
+for others. This custom&mdash;which has been studied together
+with many allied primitive practices by Mannhard
+<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>&mdash;was
+not always carried out on February 14,
+sometimes it took place a little later. In England,
+where it was strictly associated with St. Valentine's
+Day, the custom was referred to by Lydgate, and by
+Charles of Orleans in the rondeaus and ballades he wrote
+during his long imprisonment in England. The name
+Valentins or Valentines was also introduced into France
+(where the custom had long existed) to designate the
+young couples thus constituted. This method of sexual
+selection, half playful, half serious, flourished especially
+in the region between England, the Moselle, and the
+Tyrol. The essential part of the custom lay in the public
+choice of a fitting mate for marriageable girls. Sometimes
+the question of fitness resolved itself into one of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+good looks; occasionally the matter was settled by lot.
+There was no compulsion about these unions; they
+were often little more than a game, though at times they
+involved a degree of immorality which caused the
+authorities to oppose them. But very frequently the
+sexual selection thus exerted led to weddings, and these
+playful Valentine unions were held to be a specially
+favourable prelude to a happy marriage.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to show how the ancient
+customs associated with St. Valentine's Day are taken
+up again and placed on a higher plane by the great
+movement which is now beginning to shape itself among
+us. The old Valentine unions were made by a process of
+caprice tempered more or less by sound instincts and
+good sense. In the sexual selection of the future the
+same results will be attained by more or less deliberate
+and conscious recognition of the great laws and tendencies
+which investigation is slowly bringing to light. The new St.
+Valentine will be a saint of science rather than of folk-lore.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever such statements as these are made it is
+always retorted that love laughs at science, and that the
+winds of passion blow where they list.
+<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> That, however,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+is by no means altogether true, and in any case it is far
+from covering the whole of the ground. It is hard to
+fight against human nature, but human nature itself is
+opposed to indiscriminate choice of mates. It is not
+true that any one tends to love anybody, and that
+mutual attraction is entirely a matter of chance. The
+investigations which have lately been carried out show
+that there are certain definite tendencies in this matter,
+that certain kinds of people tend to be attracted to
+certain kinds, especially that like are attracted to like
+rather than unlike to unlike, and that, again, while some
+kinds of people tend to be married with special frequency
+other kinds tend to be left unmarried.
+<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> Sexual selection,
+even when left to random influences, is still not left to
+chance; it follows definite and ascertainable laws. In
+that way the play of love, however free it may appear,
+is really limited in a number of directions. People do
+not tend to fall in love with those who are in racial
+respects a contrast to themselves; they do not tend to
+fall in love with foreigners; they do not tend to be
+attracted to the ugly, the diseased, the deformed. All
+these things may happen, but they are the exception
+and not the rule. These limitations to the roving impulses
+of love, while very real, to some extent vary at
+different periods in accordance with the ideals which
+happen to be fashionable. In more remote ages they
+have been still more profoundly modified by religious
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+and social ideas; polygamy and polyandry, the custom
+of marrying only inside one's own caste, or only outside
+it, all these various and contradictory plans have been
+easily accepted at some place and some time, and have
+offered no more conscious obstacle to the free play of
+love than among ourselves is offered by the prohibition
+against marriage between near relations.</p>
+
+<p>Those simple-minded people who talk about the blind
+and irresistible force of passion are themselves blind to
+very ordinary psychological facts. Passion&mdash;when it
+occurs&mdash;requires in normal persons cumulative and prolonged
+forces to impart to it full momentum.
+<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> In its
+early stages it is under the control of many influences,
+including influences of reason. If it were not so there
+could be no sexual selection, nor any social organization.
+<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>The eugenic ideal which is now developing is thus not
+an artificial product, but the reasoned manifestation of a
+natural instinct, which has often been far more severely
+strained by the arbitrary prohibitions of the past than
+it is ever likely to be by any eugenic ideals of the future.
+The new ideal will be absorbed into the conscience of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+community, whether or not like a kind of new religion,
+<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>
+and will instinctively and unconsciously influence the
+impulses of men and women. It will do all this the more
+surely since, unlike the taboos of savage societies, the
+eugenic ideal will lead men and women to reject as
+partners only the men and women who are naturally
+unfit&mdash;the diseased, the abnormal, the weaklings&mdash;and
+conscience will thus be on the side of impulse.</p>
+
+<p>It may indeed be pointed out that those who advocate
+a higher and more scientific conscience in matters of
+mating are by no means plotting against love, which is
+for the most part on their side, but rather against the
+influences that do violence to love: on the one hand,
+the reckless and thoughtless yielding to mere momentary
+desire, and, on the other hand, the still more fatal influences
+of wealth and position and worldly convenience
+which give a factitious value to persons who would never
+appear attractive partners in life were love and eugenic
+ideals left to go hand in hand. It is such unions, and
+not those inspired by the wholesome instincts of wholesome
+lovers, which lead, if not to the abstract "deterioration
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+of the race," at all events in numberless cases to the
+abiding unhappiness of persons who choose a mate without
+realizing how that mate is likely to develop, nor
+what sort of children may probably be expected from
+the union. The eugenic ideal will have to struggle with
+the criminal and still more resolutely with the rich; it
+will have few serious quarrels with normal and well
+constituted lovers.</p>
+
+<p>It will now perhaps be clear how it is that the eugenic
+conception of the improvement of the race embodies a
+new ideal. We are familiar with legislative projects for
+compulsory certificates as a condition of marriage. But
+even apart from all the other considerations which
+make such schemes both illusory and undesirable, these
+externally imposed regulations fail to go to the root of
+the matter. If they are voluntary, if they spring out of
+a fine eugenic aspiration, it is another matter. Under
+these conditions the method may be carried out at once.
+Professor Grasset has pointed out one way in which
+this may be effected. We cannot, he remarks, follow
+the procedure of a military <i>conseil de revision</i> and compulsorily
+reject the candidate for a definite defect. But
+it would be possible for the two families concerned to
+call a conference of their two family doctors, after
+examination of the would-be bride and bridegroom,
+permitting the doctors to discuss freely the medical
+aspects of the proposed union, and undertaking to
+accept their decision, without asking for the revelation of
+any secrets, the families thus remaining ignorant of the
+defect which prevented this union but might not prevent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+another union, for the chief danger in many cases comes
+from the conjunction of convergent morbid tendencies.
+<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+In France, where much power remains with the respective
+families, this method might be operative, provided
+complete confidence was felt in the doctors concerned.
+In some countries, such as England, the
+prospective couple might prefer to take the matter into
+their own hands, to discuss it frankly, and to seek
+medical advice on their own account; this is now much
+more frequently done than was formerly the case. But
+all compulsory projects of this kind, and indeed any mere
+legislation, cannot go to the root of the matter. For in
+the first place, what we need is a great body of facts, and
+a careful attention to the record and registration and
+statistical tabulation of personal and family histories.
+In the second place, we need that sound ideals and a
+high sense of responsibility should permeate the whole
+community, first its finer and more distinguished members
+and then, by the usual contagion that rules in such
+matters, the whole body of its members.
+<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> In time, no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+doubt, this would lead to concerted social action. We
+may reasonably expect that a time will come when if,
+for instance, an epileptic woman conceals her condition
+from the man she is marrying it would generally be felt
+that an offence has been committed serious enough to
+invalidate the marriage. We must not suppose that
+lovers would be either willing or competent to investigate
+each other's family and medical histories. But it
+would be at least as easy and as simple to choose a
+partner from those persons who had successfully passed
+the eugenic test&mdash;more especially since such persons
+would certainly be the most attractive group in the
+community&mdash;as it is for an Australian aborigine to
+select a conjugal partner from one social group rather
+than from any other.<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> It is a matter of accepting an
+ideal and of exerting our personal and social influence in
+the direction of that ideal. If we really seek to raise the
+level of humanity we may in this way begin to do so
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+<h4>NOTE ON THE LIFE-HISTORY RECORD</h4>
+
+<p>The extreme interest of a Life-History Record is obvious,
+even apart from its eventual scientific value. Most of us
+would have reason to congratulate ourselves had such records
+been customary when we were ourselves children. It is
+probable that this is becoming more generally realized,
+though until recently only the pioneers have here been active.
+"I started a Life-History Album for each of my children,"
+writes Mr. F.H. Perrycoste in a private letter, "as soon as
+they were born; and by the time they arrive at man's and
+woman's estate they will have valuable records of their own
+physical, mental, and moral development, which should be
+of great service to them when they come to have children of
+their own, whilst the physical&mdash;in which are included, of
+course, medical&mdash;records may at any time be of great value
+to their own medical advisers in later life. I have reason
+to regret that some such Albums were not kept for my wife
+and myself, for they would have afforded the necessary
+data by which to 'size up' the abilities and conduct of our
+children. I know, for instance, pretty well what was my own
+Galtonian rank as a schoolboy, and I am constantly asking
+myself whether my boy will do as well, better, or worse.
+Now fortunately I do happen to remember roughly what
+stages I had reached at one or two transition periods of
+school-life; but if only such an Album had been kept for
+me, I could turn it up and check my boy against myself
+in each subject at each yearly stage. You will gather from
+this that I consider it of great importance that ample details
+of school-work and intellectual development should be entered
+in the Album. I find the space at my disposal for these
+entries insufficient, and consequently I summarize in the
+Album and insert a reference to sheets of fuller details which
+I keep; but it might be well, when another edition of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+Album comes to be published, to agitate for the insertion of
+extra blank pages after the age of eight or nine, in order to
+allow of the transcription of full school-reports. However,
+the great thing is to induce people to keep an Album
+that will form the nucleus round which any number of fuller
+records can cluster."</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary that the Galtonian type of Album
+should be rigidly preserved, and I am indebted to "Henry
+Hamill," the author of <i>The Truth We Owe to Youth</i>, for the
+following suggestions as to the way in which such a record
+may be carried out:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The book should not be a mere dry rigmarole, but include
+a certain appeal to sentiment. The subject should begin
+to make the entries himself when old enough to do so properly,
+i.e. so that the book will not be disfigured&mdash;though indeed
+the naivity of juvenile phrasing, etc., may be of a particular
+interest. From a graphological point of view, the evolution
+of the handwriting will be of interest; and if for no other
+reason, specimens of handwriting ought to appear in it from
+year to year, while the parent is still writing the other entries.
+There may now be a certain sacramental character in the life-history.
+The subject should be led to regard the book as
+a witness, and to perceive in it an additional reason for avoiding
+every act the mention of which would be a disfigurement of
+the history. At the same time, the nature of the witness
+may be made to correct the wrong notions prevailing as to
+the worthiness of acts, and to sanctify certain of them that
+have been foolishly degraded. Thus there may be left several
+leaves blank before the pages of forms for filling in anthropometric
+and physiological data, and the headings may be
+made to suggest a worthier way of viewing these things.
+For instance, there may be the indication 'Place and time of
+conception,' and a specimen entry may be of service to lead
+commonplace minds into a more reverent and poetical view
+than is now usual&mdash;such as the one I culled from the life-history
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+of an American child: 'Our second child M&mdash;&mdash;
+was conceived on Midsummer Day, under the shade of a
+friendly sycamore, beneath the cloudless blue of Southern
+California.' Or, instead of restricting the reference to the
+particular episode, it may refer to the whole chapter of
+Love which that episode adorned, more especially in the case
+of a first child, when a poetical history of the mating of the
+parents may precede. The presence of the idea that the
+book would some day be read by others than the intimate
+circle, would restrain the tendency of some persons to inordinate
+self-revelation and 'gush.' Such books as these would
+form the dearest heirlooms of a family, helping to knit its
+bonds firmer, and giving an insight into individual character
+which would supplement the more tangible data for the
+pedigree in a most valuable way. The photographs taken
+every three months or so ought to be as largely as possible
+nude. The gradual transition from childhood would help
+to prevent an abrupt feeling arising, and the practice would
+be a valuable aid to the rehabilitation of the nude, and of
+genuineness in our daily life, no matter in what respect.
+This leads to the difficult question of how far moral aspects
+should be entertained. 'To-day Johnnie told his first fib;
+we pretended to disbelieve everything else he said, and he
+began to see that lying was bad policy.' 'Chastised Johnnie
+for the first time for pulling the wings off a fly; he wanted
+to know why we might kill flies outright, but not mutilate
+them,' and so on. For in this way parents would train themselves
+in the psychology of education and character-building,
+though books by specially gifted parents would soon appear
+for their guidance.</p>
+
+<p>"Of course, whatever relevant circumstances were available
+about the ante-natal period or the mother's condition would
+be noted (but who would expect a mother to note that she
+laced tight up to such and such a month? Perhaps the
+keeping of a log like this might act as a deterrent). Similarly,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+under diet and regimen, year by year, the assumption of
+breast-feeding&mdash;provision of columns for the various incidents
+of it&mdash;weight before and after feeding, etc., would have a
+great suggestive value.</p>
+
+<p>"The provision under diet and regimen of columns for
+'drug habits, if any'&mdash;tea, coffee, alcohol, nicotine, morphia,
+etc.&mdash;would have a suggestive value and operate in the
+direction of the simple life and a reverence for the body.
+Some good aphorisms might be strewed in, such as:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i-4">"'If anything is sacred, the human body is sacred' (Whitman).<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>"As young people circulate their 'Books of Likes and
+Dislikes,' etc., and thus in an entertaining way provide each
+other with insight into mutual character, so the Life-History
+need not be an <i>arcanum</i>&mdash;at least where people have nothing
+to be ashamed of. It would be a very trying ordeal, no doubt,
+to admit even intimate friends to this confidence. <i>But as
+eugenics spread, concealment of taint will become almost impracticable</i>,
+and the facts may as well be confessed. But
+even then there will be limitations. There might be an
+esoteric book for the individual's own account of himself.
+Such important items as the incidence of puberty (though
+notorious in some communities) could not well be included in
+a book open even to the family circle, for generations to come.
+The quiescence of the genital sense, the sedatives naturally
+occurring, important as these are, and occupying the consciousness
+in so large a degree, would find no place; nevertheless,
+a private journal of the facts would help to steady
+the individual, and prove a check against disrespect to his
+body.</p>
+
+<p>"As the facts of individual evolution would be noted, so
+likewise would those of dissolution. The first signs of decay&mdash;the
+teeth, the elasticity of body and mind&mdash;would provide
+a valuable sphere for all who are disposed to the diary-habit.
+The journals of individuals with a gift for introspection would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+furnish valuable material for psychologists in the future.
+Life would be cleansed in many ways. Journals would not
+have to be bowdlerized, like Marie Bashkirtseff's, for the
+morbidity that gloats on the forbidden would have a lesser
+scope, much that is now regarded as disgraceful being then
+accepted as natural and right.</p>
+
+<p>"The book might have several volumes, and that for the
+periods of infancy and childhood might need to be less private
+than the one for puberty. More, in his <i>Utopia</i>, demands that
+lovers shall learn to know each other as they really are,
+i.e. naked. That is now the most Utopian thing in More's
+<i>Utopia</i>. But the lovers might communicate their life-histories
+to each other as a preliminary.</p>
+
+<p>"The whole plan would, of course, finally have to be over-hauled
+by the so-called 'man of the world.'"</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Not everyone may agree with this conception of the Life-History
+Album and its uses. Some will prefer a severely dry
+and bald record of measurements. At the present time,
+however, there is room for very various types of such documents.
+The important point is to realize that, in some form
+or another, a record of this kind from birth or earlier is practicable,
+and constitutes a record which is highly desirable
+alike on personal, social, and scientific grounds.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a>
+Dr. Scott Nearing, "Race Suicide <i>versus</i> Over-Population,"
+<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, January, 1911. And from the biological side
+Professor Bateson concludes (<i>Biological Fact and the Structure of Society</i>,
+p. 23) that "it is in a decline in the birth-rate that the most promising
+omen exists for the happiness of future generations."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a>
+Galton himself, the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, and the half-cousin
+of Charles Darwin, may be said to furnish a noble illustration
+of an unconscious process of eugenics. (He has set forth his ancestry
+in <i>Memories of My Life</i>.) On his death, the editor of the <i>Popular
+Science Monthly</i> wrote, referring to the fact that Galton was nominated
+to succeed William James in the honorary membership of an Academy
+of Science: "These two men are the greatest whom he has known.
+James possessed the more complicated personality; but they had
+certain common traits&mdash;a combination of perfect aristocracy with
+complete democracy, directness, kindliness, generosity, and nobility
+beyond all measure. It has been said that eugenics is futile because it
+cannot define its end. The answer is simple&mdash;we want men like William
+James and Francis Galton" (<i>Popular Science Monthly, March</i>, 1911.)
+Probably most of those who were brought, however slightly, in contact
+with these two fine personalities will subscribe to this conclusion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a>
+Galton chiefly studied the families to which men of intellectual
+ability belong, especially in his <i>Hereditary Genius</i> and <i>English Men of
+Science</i>; various kinds of pathological families have since been investigated
+by Karl Pearson and his co-workers (see the series of
+<i>Biometrika</i>); the pedigrees of the defective classes (especially the
+feeble-minded and epileptic) are now being accurately worked out,
+as by Godden, at Vineland, New Jersey, and Davenport, in New York
+(see e.g. <i>Eugenics Review</i>, April, 1911, and <i>Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Disease</i>, November, 1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a>
+"When once more the importance of good birth comes to be
+recognized in a new sense," wrote W.C.D. Whetham and Mrs. Whetham
+(in <i>The Family and the Nation</i>, p. 222), "when the innate physical and
+mental qualities of different families are recorded in the central
+sociological department or scientifically reformed College of Arms,
+the pedigrees of all will be known to be of supreme interest. It would
+be understood to be more important to marry into a family with a
+good hereditary record of physical and mental and moral qualities
+than it ever has been considered to be allied to one with sixteen
+quarterings."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a>
+The importance of such biographical records of aptitude and
+character are so great that some, like Schallmayer (<i>Vererbung und
+Auslese</i>, 2nd ed., 1910, p. 389) believe that they must be made universally
+obligatory. This proposal, however, seems premature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a>
+In many undesigned and unforeseen ways these registers may be
+of immense value. They may even prove the means of overthrowing
+our pernicious and destructive system of so-called "education." A step
+in this direction has been suggested by Mr. R.T. Bodey, Inspector
+of Elementary Schools, at a meeting of the Liverpool branch of the
+Eugenics Education Society: "Education facilities should be carefully
+distributed with regard to the scientific likelihood of their utilization to
+the maximum of national advantage, and this not for economic reasons
+only, but because it was cruel to drag children from their own to a
+different sphere of life, and cruel to the class they deserted. Since the
+activities of the nation and the powers of the children were alike
+varied in kind and degree, the most natural plan would be to sort
+them both out, and then design a school system expressly in order to
+fit one to the other. At present there was no fixed purpose, but a perpetual
+riot of changes, resulting in distraction of mind, discontinuity
+of purpose, and increase of cost, while happiness decayed because
+desires grew faster than possessions or the sense of achievement. The
+only really scientific basis for a national system of education would be
+a full knowledge of the family history of each child. With more perfect
+classification of family talent the need of scholarships of transplantation
+would become less, for each of them was the confession of an initial error
+in placing the child. Then there would be more money to be spared
+for industrial research, travelling and art studentships, and other aids
+to those who had the rare gift of original thought" (<i>British Medical
+Journal</i>, November 18, 1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a>
+I should add that there is one obstacle, viz. expense. When the present
+chapter was first published in its preliminary form as an article in
+the <i>Nineteenth Century and After</i> (May, 1906), Galton, always alive to
+everything bearing on the study of Eugenics, wrote to me that he had
+been impressed by the generally sympathetic reception my paper had
+received, and that he felt encouraged to consider whether it was
+possible to begin giving such certificates at once. He asked for my
+views, among others, as to the ground which should be covered by such
+certificates. The programme I set forth was somewhat extensive,
+as I considered that the applicant must not only bring evidence
+of a sound ancestry, but also submit to anthropological, psychological,
+and medical examination. Galton eventually came to the conclusion
+that the expenses involved by the scheme rendered it for the present
+impracticable. My opinion was, and is, that though the charge for
+such a certificate might in the first place be prohibitive for most people,
+a few persons might find it desirable to seek, and advantageous to
+possess, such certificates, and that it is worth while at all events to
+make a beginning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a>
+Mannhardt, <i>Wald-und Feldkulte</i>, 1875, Vol. I, pp. 422 <i>et seq.</i>
+I have discussed seasonal erotic festivals in a study of "The Phenomena
+of Sexual Periodicity," <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a>
+Thus we read in a small popular periodical: "I am prepared to
+back human nature against all the cranks in Christendom. Human
+nature will endure a faddist so long as he does not interfere with things
+it prizes. One of these things is the right to select its partner for life.
+If a man loves a girl he is not going to give her up because she happens
+to have an aunt in a lunatic asylum or an uncle who has epileptic
+fits," etc. In the same way it may be said that a man will allow nothing
+to interfere with his right to eat such food as he chooses, and is not
+going to give up a dish he likes because it happens to be peppered with
+arsenic. It may be so, let us grant, among savages. The growth of
+civilization lies in ever-extended self-control guided by foresight.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a>
+I have summarized some of the evidence on these points, especially
+that showing that sexual attraction tends to be towards like persons
+and not, as was formerly supposed, towards the unlike, in <i>Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. IV, "Sexual Selection in Man."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a>
+In other words, the process of tumescence is gradual and complex.
+See Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. III, "The
+Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a>
+As Roswell Johnson remarks ("The Evolution of Man and its
+Control," <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, January, 1910): "While it is
+undeniable that love when once established defies rational considerations,
+yet we must remark that sexual selection proceeds usually through
+two stages, the first being one of mere mutual attraction and interest.
+It is in this stage that the will and reason are operative, and here alone
+that any considerable elevation of standard may be effective."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a>
+Galton looked upon eugenics as fitted to become a factor in religion
+(<i>Essays in Eugenics</i>, p. 68). It may, however, be questioned whether
+this consummation is either probable or desirable. The same religious
+claim has been made for socialism. But, as Dr. Eden Paul remarks
+in a recent pamphlet on <i>Socialism and Eugenics</i>, "Whereas both
+Socialism and Eugenics are concerned solely with the application of
+the knowledge gained by experience to the amelioration of the human
+lot, it seems preferable to dispense with religious terminology, and to
+regard the two doctrines as complementary parts of the great modern
+movement known by the name of Humanism." Personally, I do not
+consider that either Socialism or Eugenics can be regarded as coming
+within the legitimate sphere of religion, which I have elsewhere attempted
+to define (Conclusion to <i>The New Spirit</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a>
+J. Grasset, in Dr. A. Marie's <i>Trait&eacute; International de Psychologie
+Pathologique</i>, 1910, Vol. I, p. 25. Grasset proceeds to discuss the
+principles which must guide the physician in such consultations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a>
+This has been clearly realized by the German Society of Eugenics
+or "Racial Hygiene," as it is usually termed in Germany (Internationale
+Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Rassen-Hygiene), founded by Dr. Alfred
+Ploetz, with the co-operation of many distinguished physicians and
+men of science, "to further the theory and practice of racial hygiene."
+It is a chief aim of this Society to encourage the registration by the
+members of the biological and other physical and psychic characteristics
+of themselves and their families, in order to obtain a body of data on
+which conclusions may eventually be based; the members undertake
+not to enter on a marriage except they are assured by medical
+investigation of both parties that the union is not likely to cause
+disaster to either partner or to the offspring. The Society also admits
+associates who only occupy themselves with the scientific aspects of
+its work and with propaganda. In England the Eugenics Education
+Society (with its organ the <i>Eugenics Review</i>) has done much to stimulate
+an intelligent interest in eugenics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a>
+How influential public opinion may be in the selection of mates
+is indicated by the influence it already exerts&mdash;in less than a century&mdash;in
+the limitation of offspring. This is well marked in some parts of
+France. Thus, concerning a rural district near the Garonne, Dr.
+Belb&egrave;ze, who knows it thoroughly, writes (<i>La Neurasth&eacute;nie Rurale</i>,
+1911): "Public opinion does not at present approve of multiple
+procreation. Large families, there can be no doubt, are treated with
+contempt. Couples who produce a numerous progeny are looked on,
+with a wink, as 'maladroits,' which in this region is perhaps the supreme
+term of abuse.... Public opinion is all-powerful, and alone suffices
+to produce restraint, when foresight is not adequate for this purpose."</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+
+<a name="CHAPVII" id="CHAPVII"></a></p><h3>VII</h3>
+
+<h3>RELIGION AND THE CHILD</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to Psychology&mdash;The
+Psychology of the Child&mdash;The Contents of Children's Minds&mdash;The
+Imagination of Children&mdash;How far may Religion be assimilated
+by Children?&mdash;Unfortunate Results of Early Religious Instruction&mdash;Puberty
+the Age for Religious Education&mdash;Religion as
+an Initiation into a Mystery&mdash;Initiation among Savages&mdash;The Christian
+Sacraments&mdash;The Modern Tendency as regards Religious
+Instruction&mdash;Its Advantages&mdash;Children and Fairy Tales&mdash;The
+Bible of Childhood&mdash;Moral Training.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It is a fact as strange as it is unfortunate that the
+much-debated question of the religious education
+of children is almost exclusively considered from
+the points of view of the sectarian and the secularist. In
+a discussion of this question we are almost certain to be
+invited to take part in an unedifying wrangle between
+Church and Chapel, between religion and secularism.
+That is the strange part of it, that it should seem impossible
+to get away from this sectarian dispute as to the
+abstract claims of varying religious bodies. The unfortunate
+part of it is that in this quarrel the interests
+of the community, the interests of the child, even the
+interests of religion are alike disregarded.</p>
+
+<p>If we really desire to reach a sound conclusion on a
+matter which is unquestionably of great moment, both
+for the child and for the community of which he will one
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+day become a citizen, we must resolutely put into the
+background, as of secondary importance, the cries of
+contending sects, religious or irreligious. The first place
+here belongs to the psychologist, who is building up the
+already extensive edifice of knowledge concerning the
+real nature of the child and the contents and growth of
+the youthful mind, and to the practical teacher who is
+in touch with that knowledge and can bring it to the
+test of actual experience. Before considering what
+drugs are to be administered we must consider the
+nature of the organism they are to be thrust into.</p>
+
+<p>The mind of the child is at once logical and extravagant,
+matter-of-fact and poetic or rather mytho-p[oe]ic. This
+combination of apparent opposites, though it often
+seems almost incomprehensible to the adult, is the
+inevitable outcome of the fact that the child's dawning
+intelligence is working, as it were, in a vacuum. In
+other words, the child has not acquired the two endowments
+which chiefly give character to the whole body of
+the adult's beliefs and feelings. He is without the
+pubertal expansion which fills out the mind with new
+personal and altruistic impulses and transforms it with
+emotion that is often dazzling and sometimes distorting;
+and he has not yet absorbed, or even gained the power
+of absorbing, all those beliefs, opinions, and mental
+attitudes which the race has slowly acquired and transmitted
+as the traditional outcome of its experiences.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual processes of children, the attitude and
+contents of the child's mind, have been explored during
+recent years with a care and detail that have never been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+brought to that study before. This is not a matter of
+which the adult can be said to possess any instinctive
+or matter-of-course knowledge. Adults usually have a
+strange aptitude to forget entirely the facts of their
+lives as children, and children are usually, like peoples
+of primitive race, very cautious in the deliberate communication
+of their mental operations, their emotions,
+and their ideas. That is to say that the child is equally
+without the internally acquired complex emotional
+nature which has its kernel in the sexual impulse, and
+without the externally acquired mental equipment which
+may be summed up in the word tradition. But he
+possesses the vivid activities founded on the exercise of
+his senses and appetites, and he is able to reason with a
+relentless severity from which the traditionalized and
+complexly emotional adult shrinks back with horror.
+The child creates the world for himself, and he creates
+it in his own image and the images of the persons he is
+familiar with. Nothing is sacred to him, and he pushes
+to the most daring extremities&mdash;as it seems to the adult&mdash;the
+arguments derived from his own personal experiences.
+He is unable to see any distinction between the
+natural and the supernatural, and he is justified in this
+conviction because, as a matter of fact, he himself lives
+in what for most adults would be a supernatural atmosphere;
+most children see visions with closed and sometimes
+with open eyes;<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> they are not infrequently subject
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+to colour-hearing and other syn&aelig;sthetic sensations;
+and they occasionally hear hallucinatory voices. It is
+possible, indeed, that this is the case with all children in
+some slight degree, although the faculty dies out early
+and is easily forgotten because its extraordinary character
+was never recognized.</p>
+
+<p>Of 48 Boston children, says Stanley Hall,
+<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> 20 believed
+the sun, moon, and stars to live, 16 thought flowers
+could feel, and 15 that dolls would feel pain if burnt.
+The sky was found the chief field in which the children
+exercise their philosophic minds. About three-quarters
+of them thought the world a plain with the sky like a
+bowl turned over it, sometimes believing that it was of
+such thin texture that one could easily break through,
+though so large that much floor-sweeping was necessary
+in Heaven. The sun may enter the ground when it
+sets, but half the children thought that at night it rolls
+or flies away, or is blown or walks, or God pulls it higher
+up out of sight, taking it up into Heaven, according to
+some putting it to bed, and even taking off its clothes and
+putting them on again in the morning, or again, it is
+believed to lie under the trees at night and the angels
+mind it. God, of whom the children always hear so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+much, plays a very large part in these conceptions, and
+is made directly responsible for all cosmic phenomena.
+Thus thunder to these American children was God
+groaning or kicking or rolling barrels about, or turning
+a big handle, or grinding snow, or breaking something,
+or rattling a big hammer; while the lightning is due to
+God putting his finger out, or turning the gas on quick,
+or striking matches, or setting paper on fire. According
+to Boston children, God is a big, perhaps a blue, man,
+to be seen in the sky, on the clouds, in church, or even
+in the streets. They declare that God comes to see them
+sometimes, and they have seen him enter the gate. He
+makes lamps, babies, dogs, trees, money, etc., and the
+angels work for him. He looks like a priest, or a teacher,
+or papa, and the children like to look at him; a few
+would themselves like to be God. His house in the sky
+may be made of stone or brick; birds, children, and
+Santa Claus live with God.</p>
+
+<p>Birds and beasts, their food and their furniture, as
+Burnham points out, all talk to children; when the dew
+is on the grass "the grass is crying," the stars are candles
+or lamps, perhaps cinders from God's stove, butterflies
+are flying pansies, icicles are Christmas candy. Children
+have imaginary play-brothers and sisters and friends,
+with whom they talk. Sometimes God talks with them.
+Even the prosiest things are vivified; the tracks of
+dirty feet on the floor are flowers; a creaking chair
+talks; the shoemaker's nails are children whom he is
+driving to school; a pedlar is Santa Claus.</p>
+
+
+<p>Miss Miriam Levy once investigated the opinions of 560
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+children, boys and girls, between the ages of 4 and 14, as
+to how the man in the moon got there. Only 5 were unable
+to offer a serious explanation; 48 thought there
+was no man there at all; 50 offered a scientific explanation
+of the phenomena; but all the rest, the great majority,
+presented imaginative solutions which could be grouped
+into seventeen different classes.</p>
+
+<p>Such facts as these&mdash;which can easily be multiplied
+and are indeed familiar to all, though their significance
+is not usually realized&mdash;indicate the special tendencies
+of the child in the religious sphere. He is unable to
+follow the distinctions which the adult is pleased to make
+between "real," "spiritual" and "imaginary" beings.
+To him such distinctions do not exist. He may, if he so
+pleases, adopt the names or such characteristics as he
+chooses, of the beings he is told about, but he puts them
+into his own world, on a footing of more or less equality,
+and he decides himself what their fate is to be. The
+adult's supreme beings by no means always survive in
+the struggle for existence which takes place in the child's
+imaginative world. It was found among many thousand
+children entering the city schools of Berlin that Red
+Riding Hood was better known than God, and Cinderella
+than Christ. That is the result of the child's freedom
+from the burden of tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Yet at the same time the opposite though allied
+peculiarity of childhood&mdash;the absence of the emotional
+developments of puberty which deepen and often cloud
+the mind a few years later&mdash;is also making itself felt.
+Extravagant as his beliefs may appear, the child is an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+uncompromising rationalist and realist. His supposed
+imaginativeness is indeed merely the result of his logical
+insistence that all the new phenomena presented to him
+shall be thought of in terms of himself and his own
+environment. His wildest notions are based on precise,
+concrete, and personal facts of his own experience. That
+is why he is so keen a questioner of grown-up people's
+ideas, and a critic who may sometimes be as dangerous
+and destructive as Bishop Colenso's Zulus. Most children
+before the age of thirteen, as Earl Barnes states, are
+inquirers, if not sceptics.</p>
+
+<p>If we clearly realize these characteristics of the childish
+mind, we cannot fail to understand the impression made
+on it by religious instruction. The statements and stories
+that are repeated to him are easily accepted by the
+child in so far, and in so far only, as they answer to his
+needs; and when accepted they are assimilated, which
+means that they are compelled to obey the laws of his
+own mental world. In so far as the statements and
+stories presented to him are not acceptable or cannot be
+assimilated, it happens either that they pass by him
+unnoticed, or else that he subjects them to a cold and
+matter-of-fact logic which exerts a dissolving influence
+upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Now a few of the ideas of religion are assimilable by
+the child, and notably the idea of a God as the direct
+agent in cosmic phenomena; some of the childish notions
+I have quoted illustrate the facility with which the child
+adopts this idea. He adopts, that is, what may be called
+the hard precise skeleton of the idea, and imagines a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+colossal magician, of anthropomorphic (if not paidomorphic)
+nature, whose operations are curious, though
+they altogether fail to arouse any mysterious reverence
+or awe for the agent. Even this is not very satisfactory,
+and Stanley Hall, in the spirit of Froebel, considers that
+the best result is attained when the child knows no God
+but his own mother.<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> But for the most part the ideas
+of religion cannot be accepted or assimilated by children
+at all; they were not made by children or for children,
+but represent the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of
+men, and sometimes even of very exceptional and abnormal
+men. "The child," it has been said, "no doubt
+has the psychical elements out of which the religious
+experience is evolved, just as the seed has the promise
+of the fruit which will come in the fullness of time. But
+to say, therefore, that the average child is religious, or
+capable of receiving the usual advanced religious instruction,
+is equivalent to saying that the seed is the
+fruit or capable of being converted into fruit before the
+fullness of time."<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> The child who grows devout and
+becomes anxious about the state of his soul is a morbid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+and unwholesome child; if he prefers praying for the
+conversion of his play-fellows to joining them in their
+games he is not so much an example of piety as a pathological
+case whose future must be viewed with anxiety;
+and to preach religious duties to children is exactly the
+same, it has been well said, as to exhort them to imagine
+themselves married people and to inculcate on them the
+duties of that relation. Fortunately the normal child
+is usually able to resist these influences. It is the healthy
+child's impulse either to let them fall with indifference
+or to apply to them the instrument of his unmerciful
+logic.</p>
+
+
+<p>Naturally, the adult, in self-defence, is compelled to
+react against this indifferent or aggressive attitude of
+the child. He may be no match for the child in logic, and
+even unspeakably shocked by his daring inquiries, like
+an amiable old clergyman I knew when a Public School
+teacher in Australia; he went to a school to give
+Bible lessons, and was one day explaining how King
+David was a man after God's own heart, when a small
+voice was heard making inquiries about Uriah's wife;
+the small boy was hushed down by the shocked clergyman,
+and the cause of religion was not furthered in that
+school. But the adult knows that he has on his side
+tradition which has not yet been acquired by the child,
+and the inner emotional expansion which still remains
+unliberated in the child. The adult, therefore, fortified
+by this superiority, feels justified in falling back on the
+weapon of authority: "You may not <i>want</i> to believe
+this and to learn it, but you've <i>got</i> to."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+It is in this way that the adult wins the battle of
+religious education. In the deeper and more far-seeing
+sense he has lost it. Religion has become, not a charming
+privilege, but a lesson, a lesson about unbelievable
+things, a meaningless task to be learnt by heart, a
+drudgery. It may be said that even if that is so, religious
+lessons merely share the inevitable fate of all subjects
+which become school tasks. But that is not the case.
+Every other subject which is likely to become a school
+task is apt to become intelligible and attractive to some
+considerable section of the scholars because it is within
+the range of childish intelligence. But, for the two very
+definite reasons I have pointed out, this is only to an
+extremely limited degree true as regards the subject of
+religion, because the young organism is an instrument
+not as yet fitted with the notes which religion is most
+apt to strike.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the school subjects religion thus tends to be the
+least attractive. Lobsien, at Kiel, found a few years
+since, in the course of a psychological investigation, that
+when five hundred children (boys and girls in equal
+numbers), between the ages of nine and fourteen, were
+asked which was their favourite lesson hour, only twelve
+(ten girls and two boys) named the religious lesson.
+<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>
+In other words, nearly 98 per cent children (and nearly
+all the boys) find that religion is either an indifferent or
+a repugnant subject. I have no reports at hand as
+regards English children, but there is little reason
+to suppose that the result would be widely
+different.<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+Here and there a specially skilful teacher might
+bring about a result more favourable to religious
+teaching, but that could only be done by depriving the
+subject of its most characteristic elements.</p>
+
+<p>This is, however, not by any means the whole of the
+mischief which, from the religious point of view, is thus
+perpetrated. It might, on <i>a priori</i> grounds, be plausibly
+argued that even if there is among healthy young children
+a certain amount of indifference or even repugnance to
+religious instruction, that is of very little consequence:
+they cannot be too early grounded in the principles of
+the faith they will later be called on to profess; and
+however incapable they may now be of understanding
+the teaching that is being inculcated in the school, they
+will realize its importance when their knowledge and
+experience increase. But however plausible this may
+seem, practically it is not what usually happens. The
+usual effect of constantly imparting to children an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+instruction they are not yet ready to receive is to deaden
+their sensibilities to the whole subject of religion.
+<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> The
+premature familiarity with religious influences&mdash;putting
+aside the rare cases where it leads to a morbid pre-occupation
+with religion&mdash;induces a reaction of routine
+which becomes so habitual that it successfully withstands
+the later influences which on more virgin soil would have
+evoked vigorous and living response. So far from preparing
+the way for a more genuine development of
+religious impulse later on, this precocious scriptural instruction
+is just adequate to act as an inoculation against
+deeper and more serious religious interests. The commonplace
+child in later life accepts the religion it has been
+inured to so early as part of the conventional routine of
+life. The more vigorous and original child for the same
+reason shakes it off, perhaps for ever.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, feeling the need to gain converts to Protestantism
+as early as possible, was a strong advocate for the
+religious training of children, and has doubtless had
+much influence in this matter on the Protestant churches.
+"The study of religion, of the Bible and the Catechism,"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+says Fiedler, "of course comes first and foremost in his
+scheme of instruction." He was also quite prepared to
+adapt it to the childish mind. "Let children be taught,"
+he writes, "that our dear Lord sits in Heaven on a
+golden throne, that He has a long grey beard and a
+crown of gold." But Luther quite failed to realize the
+inevitable psychological reaction in later life against such
+fairy-tales.</p>
+
+<p>At a later date, Rousseau, who, like Luther, was on
+the side of religion, realized, as Luther failed to realize,
+the disastrous results of attempting to teach it to children.
+In <i>La Nouvelle H&eacute;lo&iuml;se</i>, Saint-Preux writes that Julie
+had explained to him how she sought to surround her
+children with good influences without forcing any religious
+instruction on them: "As to the Catechism,
+they don't so much as know what it is." "What! Julie,
+your children don't learn their Catechism?" "No,
+my friend, my children don't learn their Catechism."
+"So pious a mother!" I exclaimed; "I can't understand.
+And why don't your children learn their Catechism?"
+"In order that they may one day believe it.
+I wish to make Christians of them."
+<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+<p>Since Rousseau's day this may be said to be the general
+attitude of nearly all thinkers who have given attention
+to the question, even though they may not have viewed
+it psychologically. It is an attitude by no means confined
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+to those who are anxious that children should
+grow up to be genuine Christians, but is common to all
+who consider that the main point is that children should
+grow up to be, at all events, genuine men and women. "I
+do not think," writes John Stuart Mill, in 1868, "there
+should be any <i>authoritative</i> teaching at all on such subjects.
+I think parents ought to point out to their children,
+when the children begin to question them or to make
+observations of their own, the various opinions on such
+subjects, and what the parents themselves think the
+most powerful reasons for and against. Then, if the
+parents show a strong feeling of the importance of truth,
+and also of the difficulty of attaining it, it seems to me
+that young people's minds will be sufficiently prepared
+to regard popular opinion or the opinion of those about
+them with respectful tolerance, and may be safely left
+to form definite conclusions in the course of mature
+life."<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are few among us who have not suffered from
+too early familiarity with the Bible and the conceptions
+of religion. Even for a man of really strong and independent
+intellect it may be many years before the precociously
+dulled feelings become fresh again, before the
+fetters of routine fall off, and he is enabled at last to
+approach the Bible with fresh receptivity and to realize,
+for the first time in his life, the treasures of art and
+beauty and divine wisdom it contains. But for most that
+moment never comes round. For the majority the
+religious education of the school as effectually seals the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+Bible for life as the classical education of the college
+seals the great authors of Greece and Rome for life;
+no man opens his school books again when he has once
+left school. Those who read Greek and Latin for love
+have not usually come out of universities, and there is
+surely a certain significance in the fact that the children
+of one's secularist friends are so often found to become
+devout church-goers, while, according to the frequent
+observation, devout parents often have most irreligious
+offspring, just as the bad boys at school and college are
+frequently sons of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p>At puberty and during adolescence everything begins
+to be changed. The change, it is important to remember,
+is a natural change, and tends to come about spontaneously;
+"where no set forms have been urged, the
+religious emotion," as Lancaster puts it, "comes forth
+as naturally as the sun rises."<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> That period, really and
+psychologically, marks a "new birth." Emotions
+which are of fundamental importance, not only for the
+individual's personal life but for his social and even
+cosmic relationships, are for the first time born. Not
+only is the child's body remoulded in the form of a man
+or a woman, but the child-soul becomes a man-soul or a
+woman-soul, and nothing can possibly be as it has been
+before. The daringly sceptical logician has gone, and so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+has the imaginative dreamer for whom the world was
+the automatic magnifying mirror of his own childish
+form and environment. It has been revealed to him that
+there are independent personal and impersonal forces
+outside himself, forces with which he may come into
+a conscious and fascinatingly exciting relationship. It
+is a revelation of supreme importance, and with it comes
+not only the complexly emotional and intellectual realization
+of personality, but the aptitude to enter into and
+assimilate the traditions of the race.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be too strongly emphasized that this is the
+moment, and the earliest moment, when it becomes
+desirable to initiate the boy or girl into the mysteries of
+religion. That it is the best moment is indicated by the
+well-recognized fact that the immediately post-pubertal
+period of adolescence is the period during which, even
+spontaneously, the most marked religious phenomena
+tend to occur.<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>
+ Stanley Hall seems to think that twelve
+is the age at which the cultivation of the religious consciousness
+may begin; "the age, signalized by the
+ancient Greeks as that at which the study of what was
+comprehensively called music should begin, the age at
+which Roman guardianship ended, at which boys are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+confirmed in the modern Greek, Catholic, Lutheran and
+Episcopal Churches, and at which the Child Jesus entered
+the Temple, is as early as any child ought consciously to
+go about his Heavenly Father's business."
+<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174]</a> But I
+doubt whether we can fix the age definitely by years,
+nor is it indeed quite accurate to assert that so early an
+age as twelve is generally accepted as the age of initiation;
+the Anglican Church, for example, usually confirms
+at the age of fifteen. It is not age with which we
+ought to be concerned, but a biological epoch of psychic
+evolution. It is unwise to insist on any particular age,
+because development takes place within a considerably
+wide limit of years.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the introduction to religion at puberty
+as the initiation into a mystery. The phrase was deliberately
+chosen, for it seems to me to be not a metaphor,
+but the expression of a truth which has always been
+understood whenever religion has been a reality and not
+a mere convention. Among savages in nearly all parts
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+of the world the boy or girl at puberty is initiated into
+the mystery of manhood or of womanhood, into the
+duties and the privileges of the adult members of the
+tribe. The youth is taken into a solitary place, for a
+month or more, he is made to suffer pain and hardship,
+to learn self-restraint, he is taught the lore of the tribe
+as well as the elementary rules of morality and justice;
+he is shown the secret things of the tribe and their meaning
+and significance, which no stranger may know. He is,
+in short, enabled to find his soul, and he emerges from
+this discipline a trained and responsible member of his
+tribe. The girl receives a corresponding training, suited
+to her sex, also in solitude, at the hands of the older
+women. A clear and full description of a typical savage
+initiation into manhood at puberty is presented by Dr.
+Haddon in the fifth volume of the <i>Reports of the Cambridge
+Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, and Dr.
+Haddon makes the comment: "It is not easy to conceive
+of more effectual means for a rapid training."</p>
+
+<p>The ideas of remote savages concerning the proper
+manner of initiating youth in the religious and other
+mysteries of life may seem of little personal assistance
+to superiorly civilized people like ourselves. But let us
+turn, therefore, to the Greeks. They also had preserved
+the idea and the practice of initiation into sacred mysteries,
+though in a somewhat modified form because
+religion had ceased to be so intimately blended with all
+the activities of life. The Eleusinian and other mysteries
+were initiations into sacred knowledge and insight
+which, as is now recognized, involved no revelation of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+obscure secrets, but were mysteries in the sense that all
+intimate experiences of the soul, the experiences of love
+quite as much as those of religion, are mysteries, not to
+be lightly or publicly spoken of. In that feeling the
+Greek was at one with the Papuan, and it is interesting
+to observe that the procedure of initiation into the Greek
+mysteries, as described by Theon of Smyrna and other
+writers, followed the same course as the pubertal initiations
+of savages; there was the same preliminary purification
+by water, the same element of doctrinal teaching,
+the same ceremonial and symbolic rubbing with sand or
+charcoal or clay, the same conclusion in a joyous feast,
+even the same custom of wearing wreaths.</p>
+
+<p>In how far the Christian sacraments were consciously
+moulded after the model of the Greek mysteries is still
+a disputed point;<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>
+but the first Christians were seeking
+the same spiritual initiation, and they necessarily adopted,
+consciously or unconsciously, methods of procedure
+which, in essentials, were fundamentally the same as
+those they were already familiar with. The early Christian
+Church adopted the rite of Baptism not merely as a
+symbol of initiation, but as an actual component part
+of a process of initiation; the purifying ceremony was
+preceded by long preparation, and when at last completed
+the baptized were sometimes crowned with
+garlands. When at a later period in the history of the
+Church the physical part of the initiation was divorced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+from the spiritual part, and baptism was performed in
+infancy and confirmation at puberty, a fatal mistake
+was made, and each part of the rite largely lost its real
+significance.</p>
+
+<p>But it still remains true that Christianity embodied in
+its practical system the ancient custom of initiating the
+young at puberty, and that the custom exists in an
+attenuated form in all the more ancient Christian
+Churches. The rite of Confirmation has, however, been
+devitalized, and its immense significance has been
+almost wholly lost. Instead of being regarded as a real
+initiation into the privileges and the responsibilities of a
+religious communion, of an active fellowship for the
+realization of a divine life on earth, it has become a
+mere mechanical corollary of the precedent rite of
+baptism, a formal condition of participation in the
+Sacrament of Holy Communion. The splendid and
+many-sided discipline by which the child of the savage
+was initiated into the secrets of his own emotional
+nature and the sacred tradition of his people has been
+degraded into the learning of a catechism and a few
+hours' perfunctory instruction in the schoolroom or in
+the parlour of the curate's lodgings. The vital kernel of
+the rite is decayed and only the dead shell is left, while
+some of the Christian Churches have lost even the
+shell.</p>
+
+<p>It is extremely probable that in no remote future the
+State in England will reject as insoluble the problem of
+imparting religious instruction to the young in its schools,
+in accordance with a movement of opinion which is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+taking place in all civilized countries.
+<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The support
+which the Secular Education League has found in the
+most various quarters is without doubt a fact of impressive
+significance.<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> It is well known also that the
+working classes&mdash;the people chiefly concerned in the
+matter&mdash;are distinctly opposed to religious teaching in
+State schools. There can be little doubt that before
+many years have passed, in England as elsewhere, the
+Churches will have to face the question of the best
+methods of themselves undertaking that task of religious
+training which they have sought to foist upon the State.
+If they are to fulfil this duty in a wise and effectual
+manner they must follow the guidance of biological
+psychology at the point where it is at one with the
+teaching of their own most ancient traditions, and
+develop the merely formal rite of confirmation into a
+true initiation of the new-born soul at puberty into the
+deepest secrets of life and the highest mysteries of
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>It must, of course, be remembered that, so far as
+England is concerned, we live in an empire in which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+there are 337 millions of people who are not even
+nominally Christians,<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> and that even among the comparatively
+small proportion (about 14 per cent) who call
+themselves "Christians," a very large proportion are
+practically Secularists, and a considerable number
+avowedly so. If, however, we assume the Secularist's
+position, the considerations here brought forward still
+retain their validity. In the first place, the undoubtedly
+frequent hostility of the Freethinker to Christianity is
+not so much directed against vital religion as against a
+dead Church. The Freethinker is prepared to respect
+the Christian who by free choice and the exercise of
+thought has attained the position of a Christian, but he
+resents the so-called Christian who is merely in the
+Church because he finds himself there, without any effort
+of his will or his intelligence. The convinced secularist
+feels respect for the sincere Christian, even though it
+may only be in the sense that the real saint feels tenderness
+for the hopeless sinner. And in the second place, as I
+have sought to point out, the facts we are here concerned
+with are far too fundamental to concern the Christian
+alone. They equally concern the secularist, who also is
+called upon to satisfy the spiritual hunger of the adolescent
+youth, to furnish him with a discipline for his entry into
+life, and a satisfying vision of the universe. And if
+secularists have not always grasped this necessity, we may
+perhaps find therein one main reason why secularism
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+has not met with so enormous and enthusiastic a reception
+as the languor and formalism of the churches seemed
+to render possible.</p>
+
+<p>If the view here set forth is sound,&mdash;a view more and
+more widely held by educationists and by psychologists
+trained in biology,&mdash;the first twelve years must be left
+untouched by all conceptions of life and the world which
+transcend immediate experience, for the child whose
+spiritual virginity has been prematurely tainted will never
+be able to awake afresh to the full significance of those
+conceptions when the age of religion at last arrives. But
+are we, it may be asked, to leave the child's restless,
+inquisitive, imaginative brain without any food during
+all those early years? By no means. Even admitting
+that, as it has been said, at the early stage religious
+training is the supreme art of standing out of Nature's way,
+it is still not hard to find what, in this matter, the way of
+Nature is. The life of the individual recapitulates
+the life of the race, and there can be no better imaginative
+food for the child than that which was found good in the
+childhood of the race. The child who is deprived of fairy
+tales invents them for himself,&mdash;for he must have them
+for the needs of his psychic growth just as there is reason
+to believe he must have sugar for his metabolic growth,&mdash;but
+he usually invents them badly.<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> The savage sees the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+world almost exactly as the civilized child sees it, as the
+magnified image of himself and his own environment;
+but he sees it with an added poetic charm, a delightful
+and accomplished inventiveness which the child is incapable
+of. The myths and legends of primitive peoples&mdash;for
+instance, those of the British Columbian Indians,
+so carefully reproduced by Boas in German and Hill Tout
+in English&mdash;are one in their precision and their extravagance
+with the stories of children, but with a finer inventiveness.
+It was, I believe, many years ago pointed
+out by Ziller that fairy-tales ought to play a very important
+part in the education of young children, and since
+then B. Hartmann, Stanley Hall and many others of the
+most conspicuous educational authorities have emphasized
+the same point. Fairy tales are but the final and transformed
+versions of primitive myths, creative legends,
+stories of old gods. In purer and less transformed
+versions the myths and legends of primitive peoples
+are often scarcely less adapted to the child's mind.
+Julia Gayley argues that the legends of early Greek
+civilization, the most perfect of all dreams, should above
+all be revealed to children; the early traditions of the
+East and of America yield material that is scarcely less
+fitted for the child's imaginative uses. Portions of the
+Bible, especially of Genesis, are in the strict sense fairy
+tales, that is legends of early gods and their deeds which
+have become stories. In the opinion of many these
+portions of the Bible may suitably be given to children
+(though it is curious to observe that a Welsh Education
+Committee a few years ago prohibited the reading in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+schools of precisely the most legendary part of Genesis);
+but it must always be remembered, from the Christian
+point of view, that nothing should be given at this
+early age which is to be regarded as essential at a later
+age, for the youth turns against the tales of his childhood
+as he turns against its milk-foods. Some day, perhaps,
+it may be thought worth while to compile a Bible for
+childhood, not a mere miscellaneous assortment of
+stories, but a collection of books as various in origin and
+nature as are the books of the Hebraic-Christian Bible,
+so that every kind of child in all his moods and stages of
+growth might here find fit pasture. Children would not
+then be left wholly to the mercy of the thin and frothy
+literature which the contemporary press pours upon them
+so copiously; they would possess at least one great and
+essential book which, however fantastic and extravagant
+it might often be, would yet have sprung from the deepest
+instincts of the primitive soul, and furnish answers to the
+most insistent demands of primitive hearts. Such a
+book, even when finally dropped from the youth's or
+girl's hands, would still leave its vague perfume behind.</p>
+
+<p>It may be pointed out, finally, that the fact that it is
+impossible to teach children even the elements of adult
+religion and philosophy, as well as unwise to attempt it,
+by no means proves that all serious teaching is impossible
+in childhood. On the imaginative and spiritual side, it is
+true, the child is re-born and transformed during adolescence,
+but on the practical and concrete side his life
+and thought are for the most part but the regular and
+orderly development of the habits he has already acquired.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+The elements of ethics on the one hand, as well as of
+natural science on the other, may alike be taught to
+children, and indeed they become a necessary part of
+early education, if the imaginative side of training is to
+be duly balanced and complemented. The child as much
+as the adult can be taught, and is indeed apt to learn,
+the meaning and value of truth and honesty, of justice
+and pity, of kindness and courtesy; we have wrangled
+and worried for so long concerning the teaching of
+religion in schools that we have failed altogether to
+realize that these fundamental notions of morality
+are a far more essential part of school training. It must,
+however, always be remembered that they cannot be
+adequately treated merely as an isolated subject of
+instruction, and possibly ought not to be so treated at
+all. As Harriet Finlay-Johnson wisely says in her
+<i>Dramatic Method of Instruction</i>: "It is impossible to
+shut away moral teaching into a compartment of the
+mind. It should be firmly and openly diffused throughout
+the thoughts, to 'leaven the whole of the lump.'" She
+adds the fruitful suggestion: "There is real need for
+some lessons in which the emotions shall not be ignored.
+Nature study, properly treated, can touch both senses
+and emotions."<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+The child is indeed quite apt to acquire a precise
+knowledge of the natural objects around him, of flowers
+and plants and to some extent of animals, objects which
+to the savage also are of absorbing interest. In this way,
+under wise guidance, the caprices of his imagination
+may be indirectly restrained and the lessons of life taught,
+while at the same time he is thus being directly prepared
+for the serious studies which must occupy so much of his
+later youth.</p>
+
+<p>The child, we thus have to realize, is, from the educational
+point of view of social hygiene, a being of dual
+nature, who needs ministering to on both sides. On
+the one hand he demands the key to an imaginative
+paradise which one day he must leave, bearing away
+with him, at the best, only a dim and haunting memory
+of its beauty. On the other hand he possesses eager
+aptitudes on which may be built up concrete knowledge
+and the sense of human relationships, to serve as a firm
+foundation when the period of adolescent development
+and discipline at length arrives.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a>
+ De Quincey in his <i>Confessions of an Opium Eater</i> referred to
+the power that many, perhaps most, children possess of seeing visions
+in the dark. The phenomenon has been carefully studied by G.L.
+Partridge (<i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, April, 1898) in over 800 children.
+He found that 58.5 of them aged between thirteen and sixteen could
+see visions or images at night with closed eyes before falling asleep;
+of those aged six the proportion was higher. There seemed to be a
+maximum at the age of ten, and probably another maximum at a
+much earlier age. Among adults this tendency is rudimentary, and
+only found in a marked form in neurasthenic subjects or at moments
+of nervous exhaustion. See also Havelock Ellis, <i>The World of Dreams</i>,
+chap. <span class="smcap">II</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a>
+G. Stanley Hall, "The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering
+School," <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a>
+"The mother's face and voice are the first conscious objects as
+the infant soul unfolds, and she soon comes to stand in the very place
+of God to her child. All the religion of which the child is capable
+during this by no means brief stage of its development consists of
+these sentiments&mdash;gratitude, trust, dependence, love, etc.&mdash;now felt
+only for her, which are later directed towards God. The less these are
+now cultivated towards the mother, who is now their only fitting if
+not their only possible object, the more feebly they will later be felt
+towards God. This, too, adds greatly to the sacredness of the responsibilities
+of motherhood." (G. Stanley Hall, <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June,
+1891, p. 199).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a>
+J. Morse, <i>American Journal of Religious Psychology</i>, 1911, p. 247.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a>
+Lobsien, "Kinderideale," <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r P&auml;d. Psychologie</i>, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a>
+Mr. Edmond Holmes, formerly Chief Inspector of Elementary
+Education in England, has an instructive remark bearing on this point
+in his suggestive book, <i>What Is and What Might be</i> (1911, p. 88):
+"The first forty minutes of the morning session are given in almost
+every elementary school to what is called <i>Religious Instruction</i>. This
+goes on, morning after morning, and week after week. The fact
+that the English parent, who must himself have attended from 1500
+to 2000 Scripture lessons in his schooldays, is not under any circumstance
+to be trusted to give religious instruction to his own children,
+shows that those who control the religious education of the youthful
+'masses' have but little confidence in the effects of their system on
+the religious life and faith of the English people." Miss Harriet
+Finlay-Johnson, a highly original and successful elementary school
+teacher, speaks (<i>The Dramatic Method of Teaching</i>, 1911, p. 170) with
+equal disapproval of the notion that any moral value attaches to the
+ordinary school examinations in "Scripture."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a>
+If it were not so, England, after sixty years of National Schools,
+ought to be a devout nation of good Church people. Most of the
+criminals and outcasts have been taught in Church Schools. A clergyman,
+who points this out to me, adds: "I am heartily thankful that
+religion was never forced on me as a child. I do not think I had any
+religion, in the ethical sense, until puberty, or any conscious realization
+of religion, indeed, until nineteen." "The boy," remarks Holmes
+(<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 100), "who, having attended two thousand Scripture lessons,
+says to himself when he leaves school: 'If this is religion I will have
+no more of it,' is acting in obedience to a healthy instinct. He is to
+be honoured rather than blamed for having realized at last that the
+chaff on which he has so long been fed is not the life-giving grain
+which, unknown to himself, his inmost soul demands."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>
+La Nouvelle H&eacute;lo&iuml;se</i>, Part V, Letter 3. In more recent times
+Ellen Key remarks in a suggestive chapter on "Religions Education"
+in her <i>Century of the Child</i>: "Nothing better shows how deeply
+rooted religion is in human nature than the fact that 'religious education'
+has not been able to tear it out."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a>
+J.S. Mill, <i>Letters</i>, Vol. II, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a>
+Lancaster found ("The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence,"
+<i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, July, 1897) that among 598 individuals
+of both sexes in the United States, as many as 518 experienced new
+religious emotions between the ages of 12 and 20, only 80 having no
+such emotions at this period, so that more than 5 out of 6 have this
+experience; it is really even more frequent, for it has no necessary
+tendency to fall into conventional religious moulds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a>
+Professor Starbuck, in his <i>Psychology of Religion</i>, has well brought
+together and clearly presented much of the evidence showing this
+intimate association between adolescence and religious manifestations.
+He finds (Chap. III) that in females there are two tidal waves of religious
+awakening, one at about 13, the other at 16, with a less significant
+period at 18; for males, after a wavelet at 12, the great tidal wave is
+at 16, followed by another at 18 or 19. Ruediger's results are fairly
+concordant ("The Period of Mental Reconstruction," <i>American
+Journal of Psychology</i>, July, 1907); he finds that in women the average
+age of conversion is 14, in men it is at 13 or 14, and again at 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a>
+G. Stanley Hall, "The Moral and Religious Training of Children
+and Adolescents," <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1891, p. 207. From
+the more narrowly religious side the undesirability of attempting to
+teach religion to children is well set forth by Florence Hayllar (<i>Independent
+Review</i>, Oct., 1906). She considers that thirteen is quite early
+enough to begin teaching children the lessons of the Gospels, for a
+child who acted in accordance with the Gospels would be "aggravating,"
+and would generally be regarded as "an insufferable prig."
+Moreover, she points out, it is dangerous to teach young children the
+Christian virtues of charity, humility, and self-denial. It is far better
+that they should first be taught the virtues of justice and courage and
+self-mastery, and the more Christian virtues later. She also believes
+that in the case of the clergy who are brought in contact with children
+a preliminary course of child-study, with the necessary physiology
+and psychology, should be compulsory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a>
+The varying opinions on this point have been fairly and clearly
+presented by Cheetham in his Hulsean lectures on the <i>Mysteries
+Pagan and Christian</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a>
+ Thus at the first Congress of Italian Women held at Rome in 1908&mdash;a
+very representative Congress, by no means made up of "feminists"
+or anti-clericals, and marked by great moderation and good sense&mdash;a
+resolution was passed against religious teaching in primary schools,
+though a subsequent resolution declared by a very large majority in
+favour of teaching the history of religions in secondary schools. These
+resolutions caused much surprise at the time to those persons who
+still cherish the superstition that in matters of religion women are
+blindly prejudiced and unable to think for themselves.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a>
+See e.g. an article by Halley Stewart, President of the Secular
+Education League, on "The Policy of Secular Education," <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, April, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a>
+So far as numbers go, the dominant religion of the British Empire,
+the religion of the majority, is Hinduism; Mohammedanism comes
+next.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a>
+"Not long ago," says Dr. L. Guthrie (<i>Clinical Journal</i>, 7th June,
+1899), "I heard of a lady who, in her desire that her children should
+learn nothing but what was true, banished fairy tales from her nursery.
+But the children evolved from their own imagination fictions which
+were so appalling that she was glad to divert them with Jack-the-Giant-Killer."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a>
+In his interesting study of comparative education (<i>The Making
+of Citizens</i>, 1902, p. 194), Mr. R.E. Hughes, a school inspector, after
+discussing the methods of settling the difficulties of religious education
+in England, America, Germany, and France, reasonably concludes:
+"The solution of the religious problem of the schools of these four
+peoples lies in the future, but we believe it will be found not to be
+beyond human ingenuity to devise a scheme of moral and ethical
+training for little children which will be suitable. It is the moral
+principles underlying all conduct which the school should teach.
+Indeed, the school, to justify its existence, dare not neglect them.
+It will teach them, not dogmatically or by precept, but by example,
+and by the creation of a noble atmosphere around the child." Holmes
+also (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 276) insists that the teaching of patriotism and citizenship
+must be informal and indirect.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPVIII" id="CHAPVIII"></a>VIII</h3>
+
+<h3>THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL HYGIENE</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children&mdash;The
+Need of such a Movement&mdash;Contradictions involved by the Ancient
+Policy of Silence&mdash;Errors of the New Policy&mdash;The Need of Teaching
+the Teacher&mdash;The Need of Training the Parents&mdash;And of Scientifically
+equipping the Physician&mdash;Sexual Hygiene and Society&mdash;The
+far-reaching Effects of Sexual Hygiene.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>It is impossible to doubt the vitality and the vigour
+of the new movement of sexual hygiene, especially
+that branch of it concerned with the instruction
+of children in the essential facts of life.
+<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> In the eighteenth
+century the great educationist, Basedow, was almost
+alone when, by practice and by precept, he sought to
+establish this branch of instruction in schools.
+<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> A few
+years ago, when the German D&uuml;rer Bund offered prizes
+for the best essays on the training of the young in matters
+of sex, as many as five hundred papers were sent in.
+<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>
+We may say that during the past ten years more has been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+done to influence popular feeling on this question than
+during the whole of the preceding century.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever we witness a sudden impulse of zeal and
+enthusiasm to rush into a new channel, however admirable
+the impulse may be, we must be prepared for many risks
+and perhaps even a certain amount of damage. This is,
+indeed, especially the case when we are concerned with a
+new activity in the sphere of sex. The sexual relationships
+of life are so ancient and so wide, their roots ramify
+so complexly and run so deep, that any sudden disturbance
+in this soil, however well-intentioned, is certain
+to have many results which were not anticipated by
+those responsible for it. Any movement here runs the
+risk of defeating its own ends, or else, in gaining them, to
+render impossible other ends which are of not less value.</p>
+
+<p>In this matter of sexual hygiene we are faced at the
+outset by the fact that the very recognition of any
+such branch of knowledge as "sexual hygiene" involves
+not merely a new departure, but the reversal of a policy
+which has been accepted, almost without question, for
+centuries. Among many primitive peoples, indeed, we
+know that the boy and girl at puberty are initiated with
+solemnity, and even a not unwholesome hardship, into
+the responsibilities of adult life, including those which
+have reference to the duties and privileges of sex.
+<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> But
+in our own traditions scarcely even a relic of any such
+custom is preserved. On the contrary, we tacitly maintain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+a custom, and even a policy, of silent obscurantism.
+Parents and teachers have considered it a duty to say
+nothing and have felt justified in telling lies, or "fairy
+tales," in order to maintain their attitude. The oncoming
+of puberty, with its alarming manifestations, especially
+in the girl, has often left them unmoved and still silent.
+They have taken care that our elementary textbooks
+of anatomy and physiology, even when written by so
+independent and fearless a pioneer as Huxley, should
+describe the human body absolutely as though the
+organs and functions of reproduction had no existence.
+The instinct was not thus suppressed; all the inevitable
+stimulations which life furnishes to the youthful
+sexual impulse have continued in operation.
+<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> Sexual
+activities were just as liable to break out. They were
+all the more liable to break out, indeed, because fostered
+by ignorance, often unconscious of themselves, and not
+held in check by the restraints which knowledge and teaching
+might have furnished. This, however, has seemed a
+matter of no concern to the guardians of youth. They
+have congratulated themselves if they could pilot the
+youths, and especially the maidens, under their guardianship
+into the haven of matrimony not only in apparent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+chastity, but in ignorance of nearly everything that
+marriage signifies and involves, alike for the individual
+and the coming race.</p>
+
+<p>This policy has been so firmly established that the
+theory of it has never been clearly argued out. So
+far as it exists at all, it is a theory that walks on two
+feet pointing opposite ways: sex things must not be
+talked about because they are "dirty"; sex things
+must not be talked about because they are "sacred."
+We must leave sex things alone, they say, because God will
+see to it that they manifest themselves aright and work
+for good; we must leave sex things alone, they also say,
+because there is no department in life in which the
+activity of the Devil is so specially exhibited. The very
+same person may be guilty of this contradiction, when
+varying circumstances render it convenient. Such a
+confusion is, indeed, a fate liable to befall all ancient
+and deeply rooted <i>tabus</i>; we see it in the <i>tabus</i> against
+certain animals as foods (as the Mosaic prohibition of
+pork); at first the animal was too sacred to eat, but in
+time people came to think that it is too disgusting to eat.
+They begin the practice for one reason, they continue it
+for a totally opposed reason. Reasons are such a superficial
+part of our lives!</p>
+
+<p>Thus every movement of sexual hygiene necessarily
+clashes against an established convention which is itself
+an inharmonious clash of contradictory notions. This is
+especially the case if sexual hygiene is introduced by
+way of the school. It is very widely held by many who
+accept the arguments so ably set forth by Frau Maria
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+Lischnewska, that the school is not only the best way of
+introducing sexual hygiene, but the only possible way,
+since through this channel alone is it possible to employ
+an antidote to the evil influences of the home and the
+world.<a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a>
+Yet to teach children what some of their parents
+consider as too sacred to be taught, and others as too
+disgusting, and to begin this teaching at an age when
+the children, having already imbibed these parental
+notions, are old enough to be morbidly curious and
+prurient, is to open the way to a complicated series of
+social reactions which demand great skill to adjust.</p>
+
+<p>Largely, no doubt, from anxiety to counterbalance
+these dangers, there has been a tendency to emphasize,
+or rather to over-emphasize, the moral aspects of sexual
+hygiene. Rightly considered, indeed, it is not easy to
+over-value its moral significance. But in the actual
+teaching of such hygiene it is quite easy, and the error is
+often found, to make statements and to affirm doctrines&mdash;all
+in the interests of good morals and with the object
+of exhibiting to the utmost the beneficial tendencies of
+this teaching&mdash;which are dubious at the best and often at
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+variance with actual experience. In such cases we seem
+to see that the sexual hygienist has indeed broken with
+the conventional conspiracy of silence in these matters,
+but he has not broken with the conventional morality
+which grew out of that ignorant silence. With the best
+intention in the world he sets forth, dogmatically and
+without qualification, ancient half-truths which to become
+truly moral need to be squarely faced with their complementary
+half-truths. The inevitable danger is that the
+pupil sooner or later grasps the one-sided exaggeration
+of this teaching, and the credit of the sexual hygienist is
+gone. Life is an art, and love, which lies at the heart of
+life, is an art; they are not science; they cannot be
+converted into clear-cut formul&aelig; and taught as the
+multiplication table is taught. Example here counts
+for more than precept, and practice teaches more than
+either, provided it is carried on in the light of precept and
+example. The rash and unqualified statements concerning
+the immense benefits of continence, or the awful
+results of self-abuse, etc., frequently found in books for
+young people will occur to every one. Stated with
+wise moderation they would have been helpful. Pushed
+to harsh extravagance they are not only useless to aid
+the young in their practical difficulties, but become mischievous
+by the injury they inflict on over-sensitive
+consciences, fearful of falling short of high-strung ideals.
+This consideration brings us, indeed, to what is perhaps
+the chief danger in the introduction of any teaching of
+sexual hygiene: the fact that our teachers are themselves
+untaught. Sexual hygiene in the full sense&mdash;in so far as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+it concerns individual action and not the regulative
+or legislative action of communities&mdash;is the art of imparting
+such knowledge as is needed at successive stages
+by the child, the youth and maiden, the young man and
+woman, in order to enable them to deal rightly, and so
+far as possible without injury either to themselves or to
+others, with all those sexual events to which every one
+is naturally liable. To fulfil his functions adequately
+the master in the art of teaching sexual hygiene must
+answer to three requirements: (1) he must have a sufficing
+knowledge of the facts of sexual psychology, sexual
+physiology, and sexual pathology, knowledge which, in
+many important respects, hardly existed at all until
+recently, and is only now beginning to become generally
+accessible; (2) he must have a wise and broad moral
+outlook, with a sane idealism which refrains from demanding
+impossibilities, and resolutely thrusts aside
+not only the vulgar platitudes of worldliness, but the
+equally mischievous platitudes of an outworn and insincere
+asceticism, for the wise sexual hygienist knows, with
+Pascal, that "he who tries to be an angel becomes a
+beast," and is less anxious to make his pupils ineffective
+angels than effective men and women, content to say with
+Browning, "I may put forth angels' pinions, once
+unmanned, but not before"; (3) in addition to sound
+knowledge and a wise moral outlook, the sexual hygienist
+must possess, finally, a genuine sympathy with the young,
+an insight into their sensitive shyness, a comprehension
+of their personal difficulties, and the skill to speak to
+them simply, frankly, and humanly. If we ask ourselves
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+how many of the apostles of sexual hygiene combine
+these three essential qualities, we shall probably not be
+able to name many, while we may suspect that some do
+not even possess one of the three qualifications. If we
+further consider that the work of sexual hygiene, to be
+carried out on a really national scale, demands the more
+or less active co-operation of parents, teachers, and
+doctors, and that parents, teachers, and doctors are
+in these matters at present all alike untrained, and usually
+prejudiced, we shall realize some of the dangers through
+which sexual hygiene must at first pass.</p>
+
+<p>It is, I hope, unnecessary for me to say that, in thus
+pointing out some of the difficulties and the risks which
+must assail every attempt to introduce an element of
+effective sexual hygiene into life, I am far from wishing
+to argue that it is better to leave things as they are.
+That is impossible, not only because we are realizing
+that our system of incomplete silence is mischievous, but
+because it is based on a confusion which contains within
+itself the elements of disruption. We have to remember,
+however, that the creation of a new tradition cannot be
+effected in a day. Before we begin to teach sexual hygiene
+the teachers must themselves be taught.</p>
+
+<p>There are many who have insisted, and not without
+reason, on the right of the parent to control the education
+of the child. Sexual hygiene introduces us to another
+right, the right of the child to control the education of
+the parents. For few parents to-day are fitted to exercise
+the duty of training and guiding the child in the difficult
+field of sex without preliminary education, and such
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+education, to be real and effective, must begin at an
+early age in the parents' life.
+<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p>
+
+<p>The school teacher, again, on whom so many rely
+for the initial stage in sexual hygiene, is at present often
+in almost exactly the same stage of ignorance or prejudice
+in these matters as his or her pupils. The teacher has
+seldom been trained to impart even the most elementary
+scientific knowledge of the facts of sex, of reproduction,
+and of sexual hygiene, and is more often than not without
+that personal experience of life in its various aspects
+which is required in order to teach wisely in such a difficult
+field as that of sex, even if the principle is admitted
+that the teacher in class, equally whether addressing one
+sex or both sexes, is not called upon to go beyond the
+scientific, abstract, and objective aspects of sex.</p>
+
+<p>This difficulty of the lack of suitable teachers is not,
+indeed, insuperable. It would be largely settled, no doubt,
+if a wise and thorough course of sexual hygiene and puericulture
+formed part of the training of all school teachers, as,
+in France, Pinard has proposed for the Normal schools for
+young women. Dr. W.O. Henry, in a paper read before
+the Nebraska State Medical Association in May, 1911, put
+forward the proposal: "Let each State have one or more
+competent physicians whose duty it shall be to teach
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+these things to the children in all the public schools
+of the State from the time they are eight years of age.
+The boys and girls should be given the instruction
+separately by means of charts, pictures, and stereopticon
+views, beginning with the lower forms of life, flowers,
+plants, and then closing with the organs in man. These
+lectures and illustrations should be given every year to
+all the boys and girls separately, having those from eight
+to ten together at one time, and those from ten to twelve,
+and those from over twelve to sixteen." Dr. Henry was
+evidently not aware that the principle of a special teacher
+appointed by Government to give special instruction in
+matters of sex in all State schools had already been adopted
+in Canada, in the province of Ontario; the teacher thus
+appointed goes from school to school and teaches the
+elements of sexual physiology and anatomy, and the
+duty of treating sexual matters with reverence, to
+classes of boys and of girls from the age of ten. The
+course is not compulsory, but any School Board may
+call upon the special teacher to deliver the lectures.
+This appointment has met with so much approval that
+it is proposed to appoint further teachers on the same
+lines, women as well as men.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary that the school teacher of sex
+should be a physician. For personal and particular advice
+on the concrete difficulties of sex, however, as well as for
+the more special and detailed hygiene of the sexual
+relationship and the precautions demanded by eugenics,
+we must call in the physician. Yet none of these things
+so far enter the curriculum through which the physician
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+passes to reach his profession; he is often only a layman
+in relation to them. Even if we are assured that these
+subjects form part of his scientific equipment, that fact
+by no means guarantees his tact, sympathy, and insight
+in addressing the young, whether by general lectures or
+individual interviews, both these being forms of imparting
+sexual hygiene for which we may properly call upon
+the physician, especially towards the end of the school
+or college course, and at the outset of any career in the
+world.<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly we have amongst us many mothers,
+teachers, and physicians who are admirably equipped
+to fulfil their respective parts&mdash;elementary, secondary,
+and advanced&mdash;in the work of sexual hygiene. But so
+long as they are few and far apart their influence is
+negatived, if it is not even rendered harmful.</p>
+
+<p>It must often be useless for a mother to instil into her
+little boy respect for his own body, reverence for the
+channel of motherhood through which he entered the
+world, any sense of the purity of natural functions
+or the beauty of natural organs, if outside his home
+the little boy finds that all other little boys and girls
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+regard these things as only an occasion for sniggering.
+It is idle for the teacher to describe plainly the scientific
+facts of sex as a marvellous culmination in the natural
+unfolding of the world if, outside the schoolroom, the
+pupil finds that, in the newspapers and in the general
+conversation of adults, this sacred temple is treated as a
+common sewer, too filthy to be spoken of, and that the
+books which contain even the most necessary descriptions
+of it are liable to be condemned as "obscene" in the law
+courts.<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>
+It is vain for the physician to explain to young
+men and women the subtle and terrible nature of venereal
+poisons, to declare the right and the duty of both partners
+in marriage to know, authoritatively and beforehand, the
+state of each other's health, or to warn them that a
+proper sense of responsibility towards the race must
+prevent some ill-born persons from marrying, or at all
+events from procreating, if the young man and woman
+find, on leaving the physician, that their acquaintances
+are prepared to accept all these risks, light-heartedly, in
+the dark, in a heedless dream from which they somehow
+hope there will be no awful awakening.</p>
+
+<p>The moral to which these observations point is fairly
+clear. Sex penetrates the whole of life. It is not a
+branch of mathematics, or a period of ancient history,
+which we can elect to teach, or not to teach, as may seem
+best to us, which if we teach we may teach as we choose,
+and if we neglect to teach it will never trouble us. Love
+and Hunger are the foundations of life, and the impulse
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+of sex is just as fundamental as the impulse of nutrition.
+It will not remain absent because we refuse to call for its
+presence, it will not depart because we find its presence
+inconvenient. At the most it will only change its shape,
+and mock at us from beneath masks so degraded, and
+sometimes so exalted, that we are no longer able to
+recognize it.</p>
+
+<p>"People are always writing about education," said
+Chamfort more than a century ago, "and their writings
+have led to some valuable methods. But what is the
+use, unless side by side with the introduction of such
+methods, corresponding reforms are not introduced in
+legislation, in religion, in public opinion? The only
+object of education is to conform the child's reason
+to that of the community. But if there is no corresponding
+reform in the community, by training the child to
+reason you are merely training him to see the absurdity
+of opinions and customs consecrated by the seal of
+sacred authority, public or legislative, and you are
+inspiring him with contempt of them."
+<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> We cannot too
+often meditate on these wise words.</p>
+
+<p>It is useless to attempt to introduce sexual hygiene as a
+subject apart, and in some respects it may be dangerous.
+When we touch sex we are touching sensitive fibres which
+thrill through the whole of our social organism, just as the
+touch of love thrills through the whole of the bodily
+organism. Any vital reform here, any true introduction
+of sexual hygiene to replace our traditional policy
+of confused silence, affects the whole of life or it affects
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+nothing. It will modify our social conventions, enter our
+family life, transform our moral outlook, perhaps re-inspire
+our religion and our philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>That conclusion need by no means render us pessimistic
+concerning the future of sexual hygiene, nor unduly
+anxious to cling to the policy of the past. But it may
+induce us to be content to move slowly, to prepare
+our movements widely and firmly, and not to expect
+too much at the outset. By introducing sexual hygiene
+we are breaking with the tradition of the past which
+professed to leave the process by which the race is carried
+on to Nature, to God, especially to the devil. We are
+claiming that it is a matter for individual personal
+responsibility, deliberately exercised in the light of
+precise knowledge which every young man and woman
+has a right, or rather a duty, to possess. That conception
+of personal responsibility thus extended to the sphere of
+sex in the reproduction of the race may well transform
+life and alter the course of civilization. It is not merely
+a reform in the class-room, it is a reform in the home,
+in the church, in the law courts, in the legislature. If
+sexual hygiene means that, it means something great,
+though something which can only come slowly, with
+difficulty, with much searching of hearts. If, on the
+other hand, sexual hygiene means nothing but the introduction
+of a new formal catechism, and an occasional
+goody-goody perfunctory exhortation, it may be introduced
+at once, quite easily, without hurting anyone's
+feelings. But, really, it will not be worth worrying about,
+one way or the other.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a>
+For a full discussion of the movement, see Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chaps.
+<span class="smcap">II</span> and <span class="smcap">III</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a>
+Basedow (born at Hamburg 1723, died 1790) set forth his views
+on sexual education&mdash;which will seem to many somewhat radical and
+advanced even to-day&mdash;in his great treatise Elementarwerk (1774).
+His practical educational work is dealt with by Pinloche, <i>La R&eacute;forme
+de l'Education en Allemagne au Dix-huiti&egrave;me Si&egrave;cle</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a>
+The best of these papers have been printed in a volume entitled
+<i>Am Lebensquell</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">[841]</span></a>
+The elaborate and admirable initiation of boys among the natives
+of Torres Straits furnishes a good example of this education, and has
+been fully described by Dr. A.C. Haddon, <i>Reports of the Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, Vol. V, chaps. <span class="smcap">VII</span>
+and <span class="smcap">XII</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a>
+Moll in his wise and comprehensive work, <i>The Sexual Life of the
+Child</i> (German ed., p. 225), lays it down emphatically that "<i>we must
+clearly realize at the outset that the complete exclusion of sexual stimuli
+in the education of children is impossible</i>." He adds that the demands
+made by some "fanatics of hygiene" would be dangerous even if they
+were practicable. Games and physical exercises induce in many
+cases a considerable degree of sexual stimulation. But this need not
+cause us undue alarm, nor must we thereby be persuaded to change
+our policy of recommending such games and exercises.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a>
+See Frau Maria Lischnewska's excellent pamphlet, <i>Geschlechtliche
+Belehrung der Kinder</i>, first published in <i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 4
+and 5. This is perhaps the ablest statement of the argument in favour
+of giving the chief place in sexual hygiene to the teacher. Frau Lischnewska
+recognizes three factors in the movement for freeing the
+sexual activities from degradation: (1) medical, (2) economic, and
+(3) rational. But it is the last&mdash;in the broadest sense as a comprehensive
+process of enlightenment&mdash;which she regards as the chief.
+"The views and sentiments of people must be changed," she says.
+"The civilized man must learn to gaze at this piece of Nature with
+pure eyes; reverence towards it must early sink into his soul. In the
+absence of this fundamental renovation, medical and social measures
+will merely produce refined animals."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a>
+"We parents of to-day," as Henriette F&uuml;rth truly says ("Erotik
+und Elternpflicht," <i>Am Lebensquell</i>, p. 11), "have not yet attained
+that beautiful naturalness out of which in these matters simplicity
+and freedom grow. And however willing we may be to learn afresh,
+most of us have so far lost our inward freedom from prejudice&mdash;the
+standpoint of the pure to whom all things are pure&mdash;that we cannot
+acquire it again. We parents of to-day have been altogether wrongly
+brought up. The inoculated feeling of shame still remains even after
+we have recognized that shame in this connection is false."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a>
+The method of imparting a knowledge of sexual hygiene (especially
+in relation to venereal diseases) at the outset of adult life has
+most actively been carried out in Germany and the United States.
+In Germany lectures by doctors to students and others on these matters
+are frequently given. In the United States information and advice
+are spread abroad chiefly by the aid of societies. The American
+Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis, with which the name of
+Dr. Morrow is specially connected, was organized in 1905. The Chicago
+Society of Social Hygiene was established in 1906. Since then many
+other similar societies have sprung up under medical auspices in various
+American cities and states.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a>
+Many flagrant cases in point are set forth from the legal point of
+view by Theodore Schroeder, <i>"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional
+Law</i>, New York, 1911, chap. <span class="smcap">IV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a>
+Chamfort, <i>[OE]uvres Choisies</i>, ed. by Lescure, Vol. I, p. 33.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPIX" id="CHAPIX"></a>IX</h3>
+
+<h3>IMMORALITY AND THE LAW</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion&mdash;The Binding Force of Custom
+among Savages&mdash;The Dissolving Influence of Civilization&mdash;The
+Distinction between Immorality and Criminality&mdash;Adultery as a
+Crime&mdash;The Tests of Criminality&mdash;National Differences in laying
+down the Boundary between Criminal and Immoral Acts&mdash;France&mdash;Germany&mdash;England&mdash;The
+United States&mdash;Police Administration&mdash;Police
+Methods in the United States&mdash;National Differences in
+the Regulation of the Trade in Alcohol&mdash;Prohibition in the United
+States&mdash;Origin of the American Method of Dealing with Immorality&mdash;Russia&mdash;Historical
+Fluctuations in Methods of dealing with
+Immorality and Prostitution&mdash;Homosexuality&mdash;Holland&mdash;The Age
+of Consent&mdash;Moral Legislation in England&mdash;In the United States&mdash;The
+Raines Law&mdash;American Attempts to Suppress Prostitution&mdash;Their
+Futility&mdash;German Methods of Regulating Prostitution&mdash;The
+Sound Method of Approaching Immorality&mdash;Training in
+Sexual Hygiene&mdash;Education in Personal and Social Responsibility.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The modern development of Social Hygiene in
+matters of Eugenics has already sufficed to
+show that there are certain people in the
+community, anxious to take quick cuts to the millennium,
+who think that Eugenics can be promoted by hasty
+legislation. That method of attempting to further
+social progress is not new. It has been practised with
+signal lack of success for several thousand years. Therefore,
+if Social Hygiene is really to progress among us on
+sane and fundamental lines, it is necessary for us to
+realize clearly the mistakes of the past. Again and again
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+the blind haste of over-zealous reformers has led not to
+progress, but to retrogression. The excellent intentions
+of such social reformers have been defeated, not so
+much by the evils they have sought to overcome, as
+by their own excesses of ignorant zeal. As our knowledge
+of history and of psychology increases, we learn
+that, in dealing with human nature, what seems the
+longest way round is sometimes the shortest way home.</p>
+
+<p>Among savages, and no doubt in primitive societies
+generally, the social reaction against injurious or even
+unusual acts on the part of individuals is regulated by
+the binding force of custom. The ruling opinion is the
+opinion of all, the ruling custom is the duty for all.
+The dictates of custom, even of ritual and etiquette,
+are stringent dictates of morality binding upon all, and
+the breach of any is equivalent to what we should consider
+a crime. The savage man is held in the path of
+duty by a much more united force of public opinion
+than is the civilized man. But, as Westermarck points
+out, in a suggestive chapter on customs and laws as
+the expression of moral ideas, "custom never covers the
+whole field of morality, and the uncovered space grows
+larger in proportion as the moral consciousness develops....
+The rule of custom is the rule of duty at early
+stages of development. Only progress in culture lessens
+its sway."<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a>
+As a community increases in size and in
+cultivation, growing more heterogeneous, it adheres
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+rigidly to fundamental conceptions of right and wrong,
+but in less fundamental matters its moral ideas become
+both more subjective and more various. If a man
+kills another man out of love to that man's wife, all
+civilized society is of opinion that the homicide is a
+"crime" to be severely punished; but if the man should
+make love to the wife without killing the husband, then,
+although in some savage societies the act would still
+have been a "crime," in a civilized society it would
+usually be regarded as more properly a case for civil
+action, not for criminal action; while should it come to be
+known that the wife had from the first been in love with
+the man, and was married by compulsion to a husband
+who had brutally ill-used her, then a very considerable
+section of the civilized community would actually transfer
+their sympathies to the offending couple and look upon
+the husband as the real offender.</p>
+
+<p>This is why the vestigial relics of the ancient ecclesiastical
+view of adultery as a "crime" are no longer
+supported by public opinion;<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> they are no longer enforced,
+or else the penalty is reduced to ridiculous dimensions
+(as in France, where a fine of a few francs may be
+imposed), and there is a general inclination to abolish
+them altogether. Penalties for adultery are not nowadays
+enacted afresh, except in the United States, where
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+medieval regulations are enabled to survive through the
+strength of the Puritan tradition. Thus in the State
+of New York a law was passed in 1907 rendering any
+person guilty of adultery punishable by six months'
+imprisonment, or a heavy fine, or both. The law was
+largely due to agitation by the National Christian League
+for the Promotion of Purity; it was supposed the law
+would act to prevent adultery. Less than three months
+after the Act became law, lawyers reached the conclusion
+that it was a dead letter. During the two years after
+its enactment, notwithstanding the large number of
+divorces, only three persons were sent to prison, for a
+few days, under this Act, and only four fined a small sum.
+The Committee of Fourteen state that it is "of practically
+no effect," and add: "The preventive values of this
+statute cannot be determined, but, judging from the
+prosecutions, it has proved an ineffective weapon against
+immorality, and has practically no effect upon commercialized
+vice."<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> When such laws remain on the
+Statute Book as relics of practically medieval days they
+deserve a certain respect, even if it is impossible to enforce
+them; to re-enact them in modern times is a
+gratuitous method of bringing law into contempt.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that all such cases affecting morals are not
+only altered by circumstances, and by consideration of
+the psychic state of the individual, but that in regard to
+them different sections of the community hold widely
+different views. The sanctions of the criminal law to be
+firm and unshakeable must be capable of literal interpretation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+and of unfailing execution, and in that interpretation
+and execution be accepted as just by the
+whole community. But as soon as law enters the sphere
+of morals this becomes impossible; law loses all its
+certainty and all the reverence that rightly belongs to it.
+It no longer voices the conscience of the whole community;
+it tends to be merely an expression of the feelings
+of a small upper-class social circle; the feelings and the
+habits and the necessities of the mass of the population
+are altogether ignored.<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> Nor are such legislative incursions
+into the sphere of morals any more satisfactory
+from the point of view of the class which is responsible
+for them. It very soon begins to be felt that, as Hagen
+puts it, "the formulas of penal law are stiff and clumsy
+instruments which can only in the rarest instance serve
+to disentangle the delicate and manifoldly interwoven
+threads of the human soul, and decide what is just and
+what unjust. Formulas are adopted for simple, uncomplicated,
+rough everyday cases. Only in such cases
+do they achieve the conquest of justice over injustice."</p>
+
+<p>It is true that no sharp line divides criminal acts
+from merely immoral acts, and the latter tend to
+be indirectly, even when not directly, anti-social. It
+would be highly convenient if we could draw a sharp
+distinction between major anti-social acts, which may
+properly be described as "crime," and justly be pursued
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+with the full rigour of the law, and minor anti-social
+acts, which may be left to the varying reaction of the
+social environments since they cannot properly be
+visited by the criminal law.<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> Such a distinction exists,
+but it cannot be made sharply because there are a large
+number of intermediate anti-social acts which some
+sections of the community regard as major, while others
+regard them as minor, or even, in some cases, as not anti-social
+at all. The only convenient test we can apply is
+the strength of the social reaction&mdash;provided we are
+dealing with an act which is definitely anti-social, injuring
+recognized rights, and not merely an unusual or disgusting
+act.<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>
+When an anti-social act meets with a reaction
+of social indignation which is fairly universal and
+permanent, it may be regarded as a crime coming under
+the jurisdiction of the law. If opinion varies, if a considerable
+section of the community revolt against the
+punishment of the alleged anti-social act, then we are not
+entitled to dignify it with the appellation of "crime."
+This is not an altogether sure or satisfactory criterion
+because there are frequently times and places, especially
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+under the stimulation of some particular occurrence
+evoking an outburst of increased public emotion, when
+a section of the community succeeds by its noisy vigour in
+creating the impression that it voices the universal will.
+But, on the whole, it works out justly. Ethical standards
+differ in different places at different times. They are,
+indeed, always changing. Therefore, in regard to all
+matters which belong to the sphere of what we commonly
+call morals, there are in every community some who
+approve of a given act, others who disapprove of it, yet
+others who regard it with indifference. In such a shifting
+sphere we cannot legislate with the certainty of carrying
+the whole community with us, nor can we properly
+introduce the word "crime," which ought to indicate
+only an action of so gravely anti-social nature that
+there can be no possibility of doubt about it.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, important to understand the marked
+national differences in the reaction to these slightly or
+dubiously anti-social acts, for such differences rest
+on ancient tradition, and are to some extent the expression
+of the genius of a people, though they are not
+the absolutely immutable product of racial constitution,
+and, within limits, they undergo transformation. It
+thus happens that acts which in some countries are
+pursued by the law and punished as crime, are in other
+countries untouched by the law, and left to the social
+reaction of the community. It becomes, therefore, of
+some importance to compare national differences in the
+attitude towards immorality, to find out whether the
+attempt to repress it directly, by law, is more effective,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+or less effective, than the method of leaving it to social
+reaction.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects France and Germany present a
+remarkable contrast in their respective methods of
+dealing with immorality. The contrast has only existed
+since the sweeping legal reforms which followed the
+Revolution in France. In old France the laws against
+sexual and religious offences were extremely severe,
+involving in some cases death at the stake, and even
+during the eighteenth century this extreme penalty of
+the law was sometimes carried out. The police were
+active, their methods of investigation elaborate and
+thorough, yet the rigour of the law and the energy of the
+police signally failed to suppress irreligion and immorality
+in eighteenth-century France. The Revolution, by
+popularizing the opinions of the more enlightened men
+of the time, and by giving to the popular voice an
+authority it had never possessed before, remoulded the
+antiquated ecclesiastical laws in accordance with the
+ideas of the average modern man. In 1791 nearly all
+the ancient laws against immorality, which had proved
+so ineffectual, were flung away, and when in 1810 Napoleon
+established the great penal code which bears his
+name, he was careful to limit to a minimum the moral
+offences of which the law was empowered to take cognisances,
+and&mdash;acting certainly in accordance with
+deeply rooted instincts of the French people&mdash;he avoided
+any useless or dangerous interference with private life
+and the freedom of the individual. The penal code in
+France remains substantially the same to-day, while
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+the other countries which have constructed their codes
+on the French model have shown similar tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, and more especially in Prussia, which
+now dominates German opinion, a very different tendency
+prevails. The German feels nothing of that sensitive
+jealousy with which the French seek to guard private
+life and the rights of the individual. He tolerates a
+police system which, as Fuld has pointed out, is the
+most military police system in the world, and he makes
+little complaint of the indiscriminating thoroughness,
+even harshness, with which it exercises its functions.
+"The North German," as a German lawyer puts it,
+"gazes with sacred respect on every State authority,
+and on every official, especially on executive and police
+functionaries; he complacently accepts police inquisition
+into his private life, and the regulation of his behaviour
+by law and police affects his impulse of freedom in a
+relatively slight manner. Hence the law-maker's interference
+with his private life seems to him a customary
+and not too injurious encroachment on his individuality."
+<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>
+It thus comes about that a great many acts, of for the
+most part unquestioned immoral character&mdash;such as
+incest, the procuring of women for immoral purposes,
+and acts of a homosexual character&mdash;which, when adults
+are alone concerned, the French leave to be dealt with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+by the social reaction, are in Germany directly dealt
+with by the law. These things and the like are viewed
+in France with fully as much detestation as in Germany,
+but while the German considers that that detestation is
+itself a reason for inflicting a legal penalty on the detested
+act, the Frenchman considers that to inflict a punishment
+upon such acts by law is an inadmissible interference
+of the State in private affairs, and an unnecessary interference
+since the social reaction is quite adequate. In
+Germany, Dr. Wilhelm points out, a man who allows
+his daughter's <i>fianc&eacute;</i> to stay overnight in his house
+with her is liable to be dragged before the police court
+and sent to prison for procuring immorality;
+<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> to a
+Frenchman this is a shocking and inconceivable insult to
+private rights.<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> So also with the German legal attitude
+towards sexual inversion. The German method of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+dragging private scandals into the glare of day and
+investigating them at interminable length in the law
+courts is a perpetual source of astonishment to Frenchmen.
+They point out that not only does this method defeat its
+own end by concentrating attention on the abnormal
+practices it attacks, but it adds dignity to them; a
+certain small section of the community justifies and
+upholds these practices, but while in France this section
+has no reason to come prominently before the public since
+it has no grievances demanding redress, in Germany the
+existence of a cause to advocate in the name of justice
+has produced a serious and imposing body of literature
+which has no parallel in France.<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> Thus, as Wilhelm points
+out, we find exactly opposite methods adopted in Germany
+and France to obtain the same ends: "In Germany,
+punishment on account of alleged injury to general
+interests; in France absence of punishment in order to
+avoid injury to general interests; in Germany the police
+baton is called for in order to ward off threatened injury,
+while in France it is feared that the use of the police
+baton will itself cause the injury."</p>
+
+
+<p>The question naturally arises: Which method is the
+more effective? Wilhelm finds that these differences in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+national attitude towards immorality have not by any
+means rendered immorality more prevalent in France
+than in Germany; on the contrary, though extra-conjugal
+intercourse is in Germany almost a crime, sexual
+offences against children are far more prevalent than in
+France, while family life is at least as stable in France as
+in Germany, and more intimate. "The freer way of
+regarding sexual matters and its results in legislation
+have, as compared to Germany, in no respect led to more
+immoral conditions, while, on the other hand, it has
+been the reason why the vigorous agitation which we
+find in Germany for certain legal reforms in respect to
+sexuality are quite unknown."</p>
+
+<p>It is forgotten, in Germany and in some other countries,
+sometimes even in France, that to bring immorality
+within reach of the arm of the law is not necessarily by
+any means to make the actual penalty, in the largest
+sense of the term, more severe. So long as he retains the
+good opinion of his fellows, imprisonment is no injury to a
+man; it has happened to some of our most distinguished
+and respected public men. The bad opinion of his
+fellows, even when the law is powerless to touch him, is
+often an irretrievable injury to a man. We do not
+fortify the social reaction, in most matters, when we
+attempt to give it a legal sanction; we do not even need
+to fortify it, for it is sometimes harsher and more severe
+than the law, overlooking or not knowing all the extenuating
+circumstances. In France, as in England, the force
+of social opinion, independently of the law, is exceedingly
+and perhaps excessively strong.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+In England, however, we see an attitude towards
+immorality which differs alike from the French attitude
+and the German attitude, though it has points of contact
+with both. The distinctive feature of the Englishman's
+attitude is his spirit of extreme individualism (which
+distinguishes him from the German) combined with the
+religious nature of his moral fervour (which distinguishes
+him from the Frenchman), both being veiled by a shy
+prudery (which distinguishes him alike from the Frenchman
+and the German). The Englishman's reverence for
+the individual's rights goes beyond the Frenchman's, for
+in France there is a tendency to subordinate the individual
+to the family, and in England the interests of the individual
+predominate. But while in France the laws have
+been re-moulded to the national temperament, this has
+not been the case to anything like the same extent in
+England, where in modern times no great revolution has
+occurred to shake off laws which still by their antiquity,
+rather than by their reasonableness, retain the reverence
+of the people. Thus it comes about that, on the legal side
+the English attitude towards immorality in many respects
+resembles the German attitude. Yet undoubtedly the
+most fundamental element in the English attitude is the
+instinct for personal freedom, and even the religious
+fervour of the moral impulse has strengthened the
+individualistic element.<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> We see this clearly in the fact
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+that England has even gone beyond France in rejecting
+the control of prostitutes. The French are striving to
+abolish such control, but in England where it was never
+extensively established it has long been abolished, leaving
+only a few faint traces behind. It is abhorrent to the
+English mind that even the most degraded specimens of
+humanity should be compulsorily deprived of rights over
+their own persons, even when it is claimed that the
+deprivation of such rights might be for the benefit of the
+community. In no country, perhaps, is the prostitute so
+free to parade the streets in the exercise of her profession
+as in England, and in no country is public opinion so
+intolerant of even the suspicion of a mistake by the
+police in the exercise of that very limited control over
+prostitutes which they possess. The freedom of the
+prostitute in England is further guaranteed by the very
+fervour of English religious feeling; for active interference
+with prostitutes involves regulation of prostitution,
+and that implies a national recognition of prostitution
+which to a very large section of the English people would
+be altogether repellant. Thus English love of freedom
+and English love of God combine to protect the prostitute.
+It has to be added that this result is by no means, as some
+have imagined, hostile to morality. It is the opinion of
+many foreign observers that in this matter London, for
+all its freedom, compares favourably with many other
+large cities where prostitution is severely regulated by
+the police and so far as possible concealed. For the
+police can never become the agents of any morality of
+the heart, and all the repression in the world can only
+touch the surface of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+The English attitude, again, is characteristically seen
+in the method of dealing with homosexual practices and
+other similar sexual aberrations. Here, legally, England
+is closer to Germany than to modern France. No country
+in the world, it is often said, has preserved by tradition and
+even maintained by recent accretion such severe penalties
+against homosexual offences as England. Yet, unlike the
+Germans, the English do not actively prosecute in these
+cases and are usually content to leave the law in abeyance,
+so long as public order and decency are reasonably
+maintained. English people, like the French people,
+are by no means impressed by the advantages of the
+German system by which purely private scandals are
+made public scandals, to be set forth day after day
+in all their details before the court, and discussed
+excitedly by the whole population. Yet the English law
+in this matter is still very widely upheld. There are very
+many English people who think that the fact that homosexuality
+is disgusting to most people is a reason for
+punishing it with extreme severity. Yet disgust is a
+matter of taste, we cannot properly impart it into our
+laws; a disgusting person is not necessarily a criminal
+person, or we shall have to enact that many inmates of
+our hospitals and lunatic asylums be hanged. There is
+thus a fundamental inconsistency in the English method of
+dealing with immorality; it is made up of opposite views,
+some of them extreme in contrary directions. But by
+virtue of the national tendency to compromise, these
+conflicting tendencies work in a fairly harmonious manner.
+The result is that the general state of English morality&mdash;notwithstanding,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+and perhaps partly by reason of, its
+prudish anxiety to leave unpleasant matters alone&mdash;is at
+least as satisfactory as that of countries where much more
+logical and thorough methods are in favour.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States we see yet another attitude
+towards immorality. It is, indeed, related to the English
+attitude, necessarily so, since the most ancient and
+fundamental element of it was carried over to America
+by the English Puritans, who cherished in the extreme
+form alike the English passion for individualism and the
+English fervour of religious idealism. These germs have
+been too potent for destruction even under all the new
+influences of American life. But they are not altogether
+in harmony with those influences, and the result has
+been that the American attitude towards immorality has
+sometimes looked rather like a caricature of the English
+method. The influx of a vast and racially confused
+population with the over-rapid development of urbanization
+which has necessarily followed, opens an immense
+field for idealistic individualism to attempt reforms.
+But this individualism has not been held in check by
+the English spirit of compromise, which is not a part of
+Puritanism, and it has thus tended alike to excess and to
+impotence. This result is brought about partly by
+facilities for individualistic legislation not voicing the
+tendencies of the whole population, and therefore fatally
+condemned to sterility, and partly by the fact that in a
+new and rapidly developed civilization it is impossible
+to secure an army of functionaries who may be trusted to
+deal with the regulation of delicate and complex moral
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+questions in regard to which the community is not really
+agreed. The American police are generally admitted
+to be open with special frequency to the charge of ineffectiveness
+and venality. It is not so often realized that
+these defects are fostered by the impossible nature of the
+tasks which are imposed on the American police.</p>
+
+<p>This aspect of the matter has been very clearly set
+forth by Dr. Fuld, of Columbia University, in his able and
+thorough book on police administration.
+<a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> He shows
+that, though the American police system as a system
+has defects which need to be remedied, it is not true that
+the individual members of the American police forces are
+inferior to those of other countries; on the contrary,
+they are, in some respects, superior; it is not a large
+proportion which sells the right to break the law.
+<a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> Their
+most serious defects are due to the impracticable laws and
+regulations made by inexperienced legislators. These
+laws and ordinances in many cases cannot possibly be
+enforced, and the weak police officers accept money from
+the citizen for not enforcing rules which in any case they
+could not enforce. "The American police forces," says
+Fuld, "have been corrupted almost solely by the statutes....
+The real blame attaches not to the policeman who
+accepts a bribe temptingly offered him, nor to the bribe-giver
+who seeks by giving a bribe to make the best
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+possible business arrangement, but rather to the law,
+which by giving the police a large and uncontrolled
+discretion in the enforcement of the law places a premium
+upon bribe-giving and bribe-taking." This state of things
+is rendered possible by the fact that the duties of the
+police are not confined to matters affecting crime and
+public order&mdash;matters which the whole community
+consider essential, and in regard to which any police
+negligence is counted a serious charge&mdash;but are extended
+to unessential matters which a considerable section of the
+community, including many of the police themselves,
+view with complete indifference. It is impossible to
+regard seriously a conspiracy to defeat laws which a large
+proportion of citizens regard as unnecessary or even
+foolish. It thus unfortunately comes about that the
+charge brought against the American police that "it
+sells the right to break the law" has not the same grave
+significance which it would have in most countries, for the
+rights purchased in America may in most countries be
+obtained without purchase. "An act ought to be made
+criminal," as Fuld rightly lays down, "only when it is
+socially expedient to punish its criminality.... The American
+people, or at least the American legislators, do not
+make this clear distinction between vice and crime. There
+seems to be a feeling in America that unless a vice is made
+a crime, the State countenances the vice and becomes a
+party to its commission. There are unfortunately a
+large number of men in the community who believe that
+they have satisfied the demands made upon them to lead
+a virtuous life by incorporating into some statute the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+condemnation of a particular vicious act as a crime."
+<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>
+This special characteristic of American laws, with its
+failure to distinguish between vice and crime, is clearly a
+legacy of the early Puritans. The Puritans carried over
+to New England independent autonomous laws of
+morality, and were contemptuous of external law. The
+sturdy pioneers of the first generation were faithful to
+that attitude, and were not even guilty of punishing
+witches. But, when the opportunity came, their descendants
+could not resist the temptation to erect an external
+law of morals, and, like the Calvinists of Geneva, they
+set up an inquisition backed by the secular arm. It was
+not until the days of Emerson that American Puritanism
+regained autonomous freedom and moved in the same air
+as Milton. But in the meantime the mischief had been
+done. Even to-day an inquisition of the mails has been
+established in the United States. It is said to be unconstitutional,
+and one can well believe that that is so,
+but none the less it flourishes under the protection of
+what a famous American has called "the never-ending
+audacity of elected persons." But to allow subordinate
+officials to masquerade in the Postal Department as
+familiars of the inquisition, in the supposed interests of
+public morals, is a dangerous policy.
+<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> Its deadening
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+influence on national life cannot fail sooner or later to be
+realized by Americans. To moralize by statute is idle
+and unsatisfactory enough; but it is worse to attempt to
+moralize by the arbitrary dicta of minor government
+officials.</p>
+
+
+<p>It is interesting to observe the methods which find
+favour in some parts of the United States for dealing with
+the trade in alcoholic liquors. Alcohol is, on the one hand,
+a poison; on the other hand, it is the basis of the national
+drinks of every civilized country. Every state has felt
+called upon to regulate its sale to more or less extent, in
+such a way that (1) in the interests of public health
+alcohol may not be too easily or too cheaply obtainable,
+that (2) the restraints on its sale may be a source of
+revenue to the State, and that (3) at the same time this
+regulation of the sale may not be a vexatious and useless
+attempt to interfere unduly with national customs.
+States have sought to attain these ends in various ways.
+The sale of alcohol may be made a State monopoly, as in
+Russia, or, again, it may be carried on under disinterested
+municipal or other control, as by the Gothenburg system
+of Sweden or the Samlag system of Norway.
+<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> In England
+the easier and more usual plan is adopted of heavily
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+taxing the sale, with, in addition, various minor methods
+for restraining the sale of alcoholic drinks and attempting
+to improve the conditions under which they are sold.</p>
+
+
+<p>In France an ingenious method of influencing the sale
+of alcohol has lately been adopted, in the interests of
+public health, which has proved completely successful.
+The French national drink is light wine, which may be
+procured in abundance, of excellent and wholesome
+quality and very cheaply, provided it is not heavily taxed.
+But of recent years there has been a tendency in France
+to consume in large quantity the heavy alcoholic spirits,
+often of a specially deleterious kind. The plan has been
+adopted of placing a very high duty on distilled beverages
+and reducing the duty on the light wines, as well as beer,
+so that a wholesome and genuine wine can be supplied to
+the consumer at as low a price as beer. As a result the
+French consumer has shown a preference for the cheap
+and wholesome wine which is really his national drink, and
+there is an enormous fall in the consumption of spirits.
+Whereas formerly the consumption of brandy in French
+towns amounted to seven or eight litres of absolute
+alcohol per head, it has now fallen in the large towns to
+4.23 litres.<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>In America, however, there is a tendency to deal with
+the sale of alcohol totally opposed to that which nearly
+everywhere prevails in Europe. When in Europe a man
+abandons the use of alcohol he makes no demand on his
+fellow men to follow his example, or, if he does, he is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+usually content to employ moral suasion to gain this end.
+But in the United States, where there is no single national
+drink, a large number of people have abandoned the use
+of alcohol, and have persuaded themselves that its use by
+other people is a vice, for it is not universally recognized
+that&mdash;"Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live, it
+is asking others to live as one wishes to live." Moreover,
+as in the United States the medieval confusion between
+vice and crime still subsists among a section of the
+population, being a part of the national tradition, it
+became easy to regard the drinking of alcohol as a crime
+and to make it punishable. Hence we have "Prohibition,"
+which has prevailed in various States of the Union
+and is especially associated with Maine, where it was
+established in a crude form so long ago as 1846 and
+(except for a brief interval between 1856 and 1858)
+has prevailed until to-day. The law has never been
+effective. It has been made more and more stringent;
+the wildest excuses of arbitrary administration have been
+committed; scandals have constantly occurred; officials
+of iron will and determination have perished in the faith
+that if only they put enough energy into the task the law
+might, after all, be at last enforced. It was all in vain.
+It has always been easy in the cities of Maine for those to
+obtain alcohol who wished to obtain it. Finally, in 1911,
+by a direct Referendum, the majority by which the people
+of Maine are maintaining Prohibition has been brought
+down to 700 in a total poll of 120,000, while all the large
+towns have voted for the repeal of Prohibition by enormous
+majorities. The people of Maine are evidently
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+becoming dimly conscious that it is worse than useless to
+make laws which no human power can enforce. "The
+result of the vote," writes Mr. Arthur Sherwell, an
+English social Reformer, not himself opposed to temperance
+legislation, "from every point of view, and not
+least from the point of view of temperance, is eminently
+unsatisfactory, and it unquestionably creates a position
+of great difficulty and embarrassment for the authorities.
+A majority of 700 in a total poll of 120,000 is clearly
+not a sufficient mandate for a drastic law which previous
+experience has conclusively shown cannot be enforced
+successfully in the urban districts of the State." Successful
+enforcement of prohibition on a State basis would
+appear to be hopeless. The history of Prohibition in
+Maine will for ever form an eloquent proof of the mischief
+which comes when the ancient ecclesiastical failure
+to distinguish between the sphere of morals and the
+sphere of law is perpetuated under the conditions of
+modern life. The attempt to force men to render unto
+C&aelig;sar the things which are God's must always end thus.</p>
+
+<p>In these matters we witness in America the survival of
+an ancient tradition. The early Puritans were individualists,
+it is true, but their individualism took a
+theocratic form, and, in the name of God, they looked
+upon crimes and vices equally and indistinguishably as
+sins. We see exactly the same point of view in the
+Penitentials of the ninth century, which were ecclesiastical
+codes dealing, exactly in the same spirit and in the same
+way, with crime and with vice, recognizing nothing but a
+certain difference in degree between murder and masturbation.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+In the ninth century, and even much later, in
+Calvin's Geneva and Cotton Mather's New England, it was
+possible to carry into practice this theocratic conception
+of the unity of vices and crimes and the punishment as
+sins of both alike, for the community generally accepted
+that point of view. But that is very far from being the
+case in the United States of to-day. The result is that in
+America in this respect we find a condition of things
+analogous to that which existed in France, before the
+Revolution remoulded the laws in accordance with the
+temperament of the nation. Laws and regulations of the
+medieval kind, for the moral ordering of the smallest
+details of life, are still enacted in America, but they are
+regarded with growing contempt by the community and
+even by the administrators of the laws. It is realized
+that such minute inquisition into the citizen's private life
+can only be effectively carried out where the citizen
+himself recognizes the divine right of the inquisitor. But
+the theocratic conception of life no longer corresponds to
+American ideas or American customs; this minute moral
+legislation rests on a basis which in the course of centuries
+has become rotten. Thus it has come about that nowhere
+in the world is there so great an anxiety to place the
+moral regulation of social affairs in the hands of the police;
+nowhere are the police more incapable of carrying out
+such regulation.</p>
+
+<p>When we thus bear in mind the historical aspect of the
+matter we can understand how it has come about that
+the individualistic idealist in America has been much more
+resolute than in England to effect reforms, much more
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+determined that they shall be very thorough and extreme
+reforms, and, especially, much more eager to embody his
+moral aspirations in legal statutes. But his tasks are
+bigger than in England, because of the vast, unstable,
+heterogeneous and crude population he has to deal with,
+and because, at the same time, he has no firmly established
+centralized and reliable police instrument whereby to
+effect his reforms. The fiery American moral idealist is
+determined to set out for the Kingdom of Heaven at once,
+but every steed he mounts proves broken-winded, and
+speedily drops down by the wayside. Don Quixote sets
+the lance at rest and digs his spurs into Rosinante's
+flanks, but he fails to realize that, in our modern world,
+he will never bear him anywhere near the foe.</p>
+
+<p>If we wish to see a totally different national method of
+regarding immorality we may turn to Russia. Here also
+we find idealism at work, but it is not the same kind of
+idealism, since, far from desiring to express itself by force,
+its essential basis is an absolute disbelief in force. Russia,
+like France, has inherited from an ancient ecclesiastical
+domination an extremely severe code of regulations
+against immorality and all sexual aberrations, but, unlike
+France, it has not cast them off in order to mould the
+laws in accordance with national temperament. The
+essence of the Russian attitude in these matters is a
+sympathy with the individual which is stronger than any
+antipathy aroused by his immoral acts; his act is a
+misfortune rather than a sin or a crime. We may observe
+this attitude in the kindly and helpful fashion in which the
+Russian assists along the streets his fellow-man who has
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+drunk too much vodka, and, on a higher plane, we see the
+same spirit of forgiving human tenderness in the Russian
+novelists, most clearly in the greatest and most typically
+national, in Dostoieffsky and in Tolstoy. The harsh rigidity
+of the old Russian laws had not the slightest influence,
+either in changing this national attitude or in diminishing
+the prevalence, at the very least as great as elsewhere,
+of sexual laxity or sexual aberration. Nowadays, as
+Russia attains national self-consciousness, these laws
+against immorality are being slowly remoulded in accordance
+with the national temperament, and in some
+respects&mdash;as in its attitude towards homosexuality and
+the introduction in 1907 of what is practically divorce by
+mutual consent&mdash;they allow a freedom and latitude
+scarcely equalled in any other country.
+<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly there is, within certain limits, mutual
+action and reaction in these matters among nations.
+Thus the influence of France has led to the abolition of
+the penalty against homosexual practices in many
+countries, notably Holland, Spain, Portugal, and, more
+recently, Italy, while even in Germany there is a strong
+and influential party, among legal as well as medical
+authorities, in favour of taking the same step. On the
+other hand, France has in some matters of detail departed
+from her general principle in these matters, and has, for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+instance&mdash;without doubt in an altogether justifiable
+manner&mdash;taken part in the international movement
+against what is called the white slave trade. This mutual
+reaction of nations is well recognized by the more alert and
+progressive minds in every country, jealous of any undue
+interference with liberty. When, for instance, a Bill is
+introduced in the English Parliament for promoting
+inquisitorial and vexatious interference with matters
+that are not within the sphere of legislation it is eagerly
+discussed in Germany before even its existence is known
+to most people in England, not so much out of interest in
+English Affairs as from a sensitive dread that English
+example may affect German legislation.
+<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p>
+
+<p>Not only, indeed, have we to recognize the existence of
+these clearly marked and profound differences in legislative
+reaction to immorality. We have also to realize that
+at different periods there are general movements, to some
+extent overpassing national bounds, of rise and of fall in
+this reaction.</p>
+
+<p>A sudden impulse seizes on a community, and spreads
+to other communities, to attempt to suppress some form
+of immorality by law. Such attempts, as we know, have
+always ended in failure or worse than failure, for laws
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+against immorality are either not carried out, or, if they
+are carried out, it is at once realized that new evils are
+created worse than the original evils, and the laws
+speedily fall into abeyance or are repealed. That has
+been repeatedly seen, and is well illustrated by the history
+of prostitution, a sexual manifestation which for two
+thousand years all sorts of persons in authority have
+sought to suppress off-hand by law or by administrative
+fiat. From the time when Christianity gained full
+political power, prostitution has again and again been
+prohibited, under the severest penalties, but always in
+vain. The mightiest emperors&mdash;Theodosius, Valentinian,
+Justinian, Karl the Great, St. Louis, Frederick Barbarossa&mdash;all
+had occasion to discover that might was here
+in vain, and worse than in vain, that they could not always
+obey their own moral ordinances, still less coerce their
+subjects into doing so, and that even so far as, on the
+surface, they were successful they produced results more
+pernicious than the evils they sought to suppress. The
+best known and one of the most vigorous of these attempts
+was that of the Empress Maria Theresa in Vienna; but
+all the cruelty and injustice of that energetic effort, and
+all the stringent, ridiculous, and brutal regulations it
+involved&mdash;its prohibition of short dresses, its inspection of
+billiard-rooms, its handcuffing of waitresses, its whippings
+and its tortures&mdash;proved useless and worse than useless,
+and were soon quietly dropped.<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> No more fortunate
+were more recent municipal attempts in England and
+America (Portsmouth, Pittsburgh, New York, etc.) to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+suppress prostitution off-hand; for the most part they
+collapsed even in a few days.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the legal attempts to suppress homosexuality
+shows the same results. It may even be said to
+show more, for when the laws against homosexuality are
+relaxed or abolished, homosexuality becomes, not perhaps
+less prevalent (in so far as it is a congenital anomaly
+we cannot expect its prevalence to be influenced by law),
+but certainly less conspicuous and ostentatious. In
+France, under the Bourbons, the sexual invert was a
+sacrilegious criminal who could legally be burnt at the
+stake, but homosexuality flourished openly in the highest
+circles, and some of the kings were themselves notoriously
+inverted. Since the Code Napol&eacute;on was introduced homosexual
+acts, <i>per se</i>, have never been an offence, yet instead
+of flourishing more vigorously, homosexuality has so far
+receded into the background that some observers regard
+it as very rare in France. In Germany and England, on
+the other hand, where the antiquated laws against this
+perversion still prevail, homosexuality is extremely
+prominent, and its right to exist is vigorously championed.
+The law cannot suppress these impulses and passions;
+it can only sting them into active rebellion.
+<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p>
+
+<p>But although it has invariably been seen that all
+attempts to make men moral by law are doomed to disappointment,
+spasmodic attempts to do so are continually
+being made afresh. No doubt those who make these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+attempts are but a small minority, people whose good
+intentions are not accompanied by knowledge either of
+history or of the world. But though a minority they
+can often gain a free field for their activities. The reason
+is plain. No public man likes to take up a position which
+his enemies may interpret as favourable to vice and
+probably due to an anxiety to secure legal opportunities
+for his own enjoyment of vice. This consideration especially
+applies to professional politicians. A Member of
+Parliament, who must cultivate an immaculately pure
+reputation, feels that he is also bound to record by his vote
+how anxious he is to suppress other people's immorality.
+Thus the philistine and the hypocrite join hands
+with the simple-minded idealist. Very few are left to
+point out that, however desirable it is to prevent immorality,
+that end can never be attained by law.</p>
+
+<p>During the past ten years one of these waves of
+enthusiasm for the moralization of the public by law
+has been sweeping across Europe and America. Its
+energy is scarcely yet exhausted, and it may therefore be
+worthwhile to call attention to it. The movement has
+shown special activity in Germany, in Holland, in England,
+in the United States, and is traceable in a minor
+degree in many other countries. In Germany the Lex
+Heintze in 1900 was an indication of the appearance of
+this movement, while various scandals have had the
+result of attracting an exaggerated amount of attention
+to questions of immorality and of tightening the rigour
+of the law, though as Germany already holds moral
+matters in a very complex web of regulations it can scarcely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+be said that the new movement has here found any large
+field of activity. In Holland it is different. Holland is
+one of the traditional lands of freedom; it was the home
+of independent intellect, of free religion, of autonomous
+morals, when every other country in Europe was closed
+to these manifestations of the spirit, and something of the
+same tradition has always inspired its habits of thought,
+even when they have been largely Puritanic. So that
+there was here a clear field for the movement to work in,
+and it has found expression, of a very thorough character
+indeed, in the new so-called "Morals Law" which was
+passed in 1911 after several weeks' discussion. Undoubtedly
+this law contains excellent features; thus the
+agents of the "white slave trade," who have hitherto been
+especially active in Holland, are now threatened with five
+years' imprisonment. Here we are concerned with what
+may fairly be regarded as crime and rightly punishable as
+such. But excellent provisions like these are lost to sight
+in a great number of other paragraphs which are at best
+useless and ridiculous, and at worst vexatious and mischievous
+in their attempts to limit the free play of civilization.
+Thus we find that a year's imprisonment, or a heavy
+fine, threatens any one who exposes any object or writing
+which "offends decency," a provision which enabled a
+policeman to enter an art-pottery shop in Amsterdam and
+remove a piece of porcelain on which he detected an insufficiently
+clothed human figure. Yet this paragraph of
+the law had been passed with scarcely any opposition.
+Another provision of this law deals extensively with the
+difficult and complicated question of the "age of consent"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+for girls, which it raises to the age of twenty-one,
+making intercourse with a girl under twenty-one an
+offence punishable by four years' imprisonment. It is
+generally regarded as desirable that chastity should be
+preserved until adult age is well established. But as soon
+as sexual maturity is attained&mdash;which is long before what
+we conventionally regard as the adult age, and earlier in
+girls than in boys&mdash;it is impossible to dismiss the question
+of personal responsibility. A girl over sixteen, and still
+more when she is over twenty, is a developed human being
+on the sexual side; she is capable of seducing as well as of
+being seduced; she is often more mature than the youth
+of corresponding age; to instruct her in sexual hygiene,
+to train her to responsibility, is the proper task of morals.
+But to treat her as an irresponsible child, and to regard
+the act of interfering with her chastity when her consent
+has been given, as on a level with an assault on an
+innocent child merely introduces confusion. It must often
+be unjust to the male partner in the act; it is always
+demoralizing and degrading to the girl whom it aims at
+"protecting"; above all, it reduces what ought to be an
+extremely serious crime to the level of a merely nominal
+offence when it punishes one of two practically mature persons
+for engaging with full knowledge and deliberation in
+an act which, however undesirable, is altogether according
+to Nature. There is here a fatal confusion between
+a crime and an action which is at the worst morally reprehensible
+and only properly combated by moral methods.</p>
+
+<p>These objections are not of a purely abstract or theoretical
+character. They are based on the practical outcome
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
+of such enactments. Thus in the State of New York
+the "age of consent" was in former days thirteen years.
+It was advanced to fourteen and afterwards to sixteen.
+This is the extreme limit to which it may prudently be
+raised, and the New York Society for the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children, which had taken the chief part in
+obtaining these changes in the law, was content to stop at
+this point. But without seeking the approval of this
+Society, another body, the White Cross and Social Purity
+League, took the matter in hand, and succeeded in
+passing an amendment to the law which raised the age of
+consent to eighteen. What has been the result? The
+Committee of Fourteen, who are not witnesses hostile to
+moral legislation, state that "since the amendment went
+into effect making the age of consent eighteen years there
+have been few successful prosecutions. The laws are
+practically inoperative so far as the age clause is concerned."
+Juries naturally require clear evidence that a
+rape has been committed when the case concerns a grown-up
+girl in the full possession of her faculties, possibly even
+a clandestine prostitute. Moreover, as rape in the first
+degree involves the punishment of imprisonment for
+twenty years, there is a disinclination to convict a man
+unless the case is a very bad one. One judge, indeed, has
+asserted that he will not give any man the full penalty
+under the present law, so long as he is on the bench. The
+natural result of stretching the law to undue limits is to
+weaken it. Instead of being, as it should be, an extremely
+serious crime, rape loses in a large proportion of cases the
+opprobrium which rightly belongs to it. It is, therefore,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+a matter for regret that in some English dominions there
+is a tendency to raise the "age of consent" to an unduly
+high limit. In New South Wales the Girls' Protection Act
+has placed the age of consent at sixteen, and in the case
+of offences by guardians, schoolmasters, or employers at
+seventeen years, notwithstanding the vigorous opposition
+of a distinguished medical member of the Legislative
+Council (the Hon. J.M. Creed), who presented the arguments
+against so high an age. Not a single prosecution
+has so far occurred under this Act.</p>
+
+<p>In England the force of the moral legislation wave has
+been felt, but it has been largely broken against the conservative
+traditions of the country, which make all legislation,
+good or bad, very difficult. A lengthy, elaborate
+and high-strung Prevention of Immorality Bill was
+introduced in the House of Commons by a group of
+Nonconformists mainly on the Liberal side. This Bill
+was very largely on the lines of the Dutch law already
+mentioned; it proposed to raise the age of consent to
+nineteen; making intercourse with a girl under that age
+felony, punishable by five years' penal servitude, and
+any attempt at such intercourse by two years' imprisonment.
+Such a measure would be, it may be noted,
+peculiarly illogical and inconsistent in England and Scotland,
+in both of which countries (though their laws in
+these matters are independent) even a girl of twelve is
+legally regarded as sufficiently mature and responsible to
+take to herself a husband. At one moment the Bill seemed
+to have a chance of becoming law, but a group of enlightened
+and independent Liberals, realizing that such
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+a measure would introduce intolerable social conditions,
+organized resistance and prevented the acceptance of the
+Bill.</p>
+
+<p>The chief organization in England at the present time
+for the promotion of public morality is the National
+Council of Public Morals, which is a very influential body,
+with many able and distinguished supporters. Law-enforced
+morality, however, constitutes but a very small
+part of the reforms advocated by this organization, which
+is far more concerned with the home, the school, the
+Church, and the influences which operate in those spheres.
+It has lately to a considerable extent joined hands with
+the workers in the eugenic movement, advocating sexual
+hygiene and racial betterment, thus allying itself with
+one of the most hopeful movements of our day. Certainly
+there may be some amount of zeal not according to knowledge
+in the activities of the National Council of Public
+Morals, but there is also very much that is genuinely
+enlightened, and the very fact that the Council includes
+representatives from so many fields of action and so many
+schools of thought largely saves it from running into
+practical excesses. Its influence on the whole is beneficial,
+because, although it may not be altogether averse
+to moral legislation, it recognizes that the policeman is a
+very feeble guide in these matters, and that the fundamental
+and essential way of bettering the public morality
+is by enlightening the private conscience.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States conditions have been very favourable,
+as we have seen, for the attempt to achieve social
+reform by moral legislation, and nowhere else in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+world has it been so clearly demonstrated that such
+attempts not only fail to cure the evils they are aimed at,
+but tend to further evils far worse than those aimed at.
+A famous example is furnished by the so-called "Raines
+Law" of New York. This Act was passed in 1896, and
+was intended to regulate the sale of alcoholic liquor in all
+its phases throughout the State. The grounds for bringing
+it forward were that the number of drinking saloons was
+excessive, that there was no fixed licensing fee, that too
+much discretionary power was allowed to the local commissioner;
+while, above all, the would-be Puritanic legislators
+wished so far as possible to suppress the drinking
+of alcoholic liquors on Sunday. To achieve these objects
+the licensing fee was raised to four times its usual amount
+previously to this enactment; heavy penalties, including
+the forfeiture of a large surety-bond, were established,
+and more surely to prevent Sunday drinking only hotels,
+not ordinary drinking bars, were allowed, with many
+stringent restrictions, to sell drink on that day. In order
+that there should be no mistake, it was set forth in the
+Act that the hotel must be a real hotel with at least ten
+properly furnished bedrooms. The legislators clearly
+thought that they had done a fine piece of work. "Seldom,"
+wrote the Committee of Fourteen, who are by no
+means out of sympathy with the aims of this legislation,
+"has a law intended to regulate one evil resulted in so
+aggravated a phase of another evil directly traceable to
+its provisions."<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+In the first place, the passing of this law alarmed the
+saloon keepers; they realized that it had them in a very
+tight grip, and they suspected that it might be strictly
+enforced. They came to the conclusion, therefore, that
+their best policy would be to accept the law and to conform
+themselves to its provisions by converting their
+drinking bars into real hotels, with ten properly furnished
+bedrooms, kitchen, and dining-room. The immediate
+result was the preparation of ten thousand bedrooms, for
+which there was of course no real demand, and by 1905
+there were 1407 certificated hotels in Manhattan and the
+Bronx alone, about 1150 of these hotels having probably
+been created by the Raines Law.</p>
+
+<p>But something had to be done with all these bedrooms,
+properly furnished according to law, for it was necessary
+to meet the heavy expenses incurred under the new
+conditions created by the law. The remedy was fairly
+obvious. These bedrooms were excellently adapted to
+serve as places of assignation and houses of prostitution.
+Many hotel proprietors became practically brothel
+keepers, the women in some cases becoming boarders in
+the hotels; and saloons and hotels have entered into a
+kind of alliance for their mutual benefit, and are sometimes
+indeed under the same management. When a hotel
+is thus run in the interests of prostitution it has what may
+be regarded as a staff of women in the neighbouring
+streets. In some districts of New York it is found that
+practically all the prostitutes on the street are connected
+with some Raines Law hotel. These wise moral legislators
+of New York thought they were placing a penalty on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+Sunday drinking; what they have really done is to place
+a premium on prostitution<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt of a different kind to strike a blow at once
+at alcohol and at prostitution has been made in Chicago,
+with equally unsatisfactory results. Drink and prostitution
+are connected, so intimately connected, indeed, that
+no attempt to separate them can ever be more than
+superficially successful even with the most minute inquisition
+by the police, least of all by police officers, who, in
+Chicago, we are officially told, are themselves sometimes
+found, when in uniform and on duty, drinking among
+prostitutes in "saloons." On May 1, 1910, the Chicago
+General Superintendent of Police made a rule prohibiting
+the sale of liquor in houses of prostitution. On the surface
+this rule has in most cases been observed (though only on
+the surface, as the field-workers of the Chicago Vice
+Commission easily discovered), and a blow was thus
+dealt to those houses which derive a large profit from the
+sale of drinks on account of the high price at which they
+retail them. Yet even so far as the rule has been obeyed,
+and not evaded, has it effected any good? On this point
+we may trust the evidence of the Vice Commissioners of
+Chicago, a municipal body appointed by the Mayor and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+City Council, and not anxious to discredit the actions of
+their Police Superintendent. "As to the benefits derived
+from this order, either to the inmates or the public,
+opinions differ," they write. "It is undoubtedly true
+that the result of the order has been to scatter the prostitutes
+over a wide territory and to transfer the sale of
+liquor carried on heretofore in houses to the near-by
+saloon-keepers, and to flats and residential sections, but
+it is an open question whether it has resulted in the
+lessening of either of the two evils of prostitution and
+drink."<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a>
+That is a mild statement of the results. It may
+be noted that there are over seven thousand drinking
+saloons in Chicago, so that the transfer is not difficult,
+while the migration to flats&mdash;of which an enormous
+number have been taken for purposes of prostitution
+(five hundred in one district alone) since this rule came
+into force&mdash;may indeed enable the prostitute to live a
+freer and more humanizing life, but in no faintest degree
+diminishes the prevalence of prostitution. From the
+narrow police standpoint, indeed, the change is a disadvantage,
+for it shelters the prostitute from observation,
+and involves an entirely new readjustment to new conditions.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be said that either the State of New York or
+the city of Chicago has been in any degree more fortunate
+in its attempts at moral legislation against prostitution
+than against drinking. As we should expect, the laws of
+New York regard prostitution and the prostitute with an
+eye of extreme severity. Every prostitute in New York,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+by virtue of the mere fact that she is a prostitute, is
+technically termed a "vagrant." As such she is liable
+to be committed to the workhouse for a term not exceeding
+six months; the owner of houses where she lives
+may be heavily fined, as she herself may be for living in
+them, and the keeper of a disorderly house may be
+imprisoned and the disorderly house suppressed. It is
+not clear that the large number of prostitutes in New
+York have been diminished by so much as a single unit,
+but from time to time attempts are made in some district
+or another by an unusually energetic official to put the
+laws into execution, and it is then possible to study the
+results. When disorderly houses are suppressed on a
+large scale, there are naturally a great number of prostitutes
+who have to find homes elsewhere in order to carry
+on their business. On one occasion, under the auspices
+of District-Attorney Jerome, it is stated by the Committee
+of Fourteen that eight hundred women were reported to be
+turned out into the street in a single night. For many
+there are the Raines Law hotels. A great many others
+take refuge in tenement houses. Such houses in congested
+districts are crowded with families, and with these the
+prostitute is necessarily brought into close contact.
+Consequently the seeds of physical and mental disorder
+which she may bear about her are disseminated in a much
+more fruitful soil than they were before. Moreover, she
+is compelled by the laws to exert very great energy in the
+pursuit of her profession. As it is an offence to harbour
+her she has to pay twice as high a rent as other people
+would have to pay for the same rooms. She may have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+to pay the police to refrain from molesting her, as well as
+others to protect her from molestation. She is surrounded
+by people whom the law encourages to prey upon her.
+She is compelled to exert her energies at highest tension
+to earn the very large sums which are necessary, not to
+gain profits for herself, but to feed all the sharks who are
+eager to grab what is given to her. The blind or perverse
+zeal of the moral legislators not only intensifies the evils
+it aims at curing, but it introduces a whole crop of new
+evils.</p>
+
+<p>How large these sums are we may estimate by the
+investigation made by the Vice Commissioners of Chicago.
+They conclude after careful inquiry that the annual
+profits of prostitution in the city of Chicago alone amount
+to between fifteen to sixteen million dollars, and they
+regard this as "an ultra-conservative estimate." It is
+true that not all this actually passes through the women's
+hands and it includes the sales of drinks. If we confine
+ourselves strictly to the earnings of the girls themselves
+it is found to work out at an average for each girl of
+thirteen hundred dollars per annum. This is more than
+four times as much as the ordinary shop-girl can earn in
+Chicago by her brains, virtue, and other good qualities.
+But it is not too much for the prostitute's needs; she is
+compelled to earn so large an income because the active
+hostility of society, the law, and the police facilitates the
+task of all those persons&mdash;and they are many&mdash;who
+desire to prey upon her. Thus society, the law, and the
+police gain nothing for morals by their hostility to the
+prostitute. On the contrary, they give strength and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+stability to the very vice they nominally profess to fight
+against. This is shown in the vital matter of the high
+rents which it is possible to obtain where prostitution is
+concerned. These high rents are the direct result of legal
+and police enactments against the prostitute. Remove
+these enactments and the rents would automatically fall.
+The enactments maintain the high rents and so ensure
+that the mighty protection of capital is on the side of
+prostitution; the property brings in an exorbitant rate
+of interest on the capital invested, and all the forces of
+sound business are concerned in maintaining rents. So
+gross is the ignorance of the would-be moral legislators&mdash;or,
+some may think, so skilful their duplicity&mdash;that the
+methods by which they profess to fight against immorality
+are the surest methods for enabling immorality not
+merely to exist&mdash;which it would in any case&mdash;but to
+flourish. A vigorous campaign is initiated against immorality.
+On the surface it is successful. Morality
+triumphs. But, it may be, in the end we are reminded
+of the saying of M. Desmaisons in one of Remy de
+Gourmont's witty and profound <i>Dialogues des Amateurs</i>:
+"Quand la morale triomphe il se passe des choses tr&egrave;s
+vilaines."</p>
+
+<p>The reason why the "triumphs" of legislative and
+administrative morality are really such ignominious
+failures must now be clear, but may again be repeated.
+It is because on matters of morals there is no unanimity
+of opinion as there is in regard to crime. There is always
+a large section of the community which feels tolerant
+towards, and even practises, acts which another section,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+it may be quite reasonably, stigmatizes as "immoral."
+Such conditions are highly favourable for the exercise
+of moral influence; they are quite unsuitable for legislative
+action, which cannot possibly be brought to bear
+against a large minority, perhaps even majority, of otherwise
+law-abiding citizens. In the matter of prostitution,
+for instance, the Vice Commissioners of Chicago state
+emphatically the need for "constant and persistent
+repression" leading on to "absolute annihilation of
+prostitution." They recommend the appointment of a
+"Morals Commission" to suppress disorderly houses, and
+to prosecute their keepers, their inmates, and their
+patrons; they further recommend the establishment of a
+"Morals Court" of vaguely large scope. Among the
+other recommendations of the Commissioners&mdash;and there
+are ninety-seven such recommendations&mdash;we find the
+establishment of a municipal farm, to which prostitutes
+can be "committed on an indeterminate sentence"; a
+"special morals police squad"; instructions to the
+police to send home all unattended boys and girls under
+sixteen at 9 p.m.; no seats in the parks to be in shade;
+searchlights to be set up at night to enable the police to
+see what the public are doing, and so on. The scheme,
+it will be seen, combines the methods of Calvin in Geneva
+with those of Maria Theresa in Vienna.
+<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+The reason why any such high-handed repression of
+immorality by force is as impracticable in Chicago as
+elsewhere is revealed in the excellent picture of the
+conditions furnished by the Vice Commissioners themselves.
+They estimate that the prostitutes in disorderly
+houses known to the police&mdash;leaving out of account all
+prostitutes in flats, rooms, hotels and houses of assignation,
+and also taking no note of clandestine prostitutes&mdash;receive
+15,180 visits from men daily, or 5,540,700 per
+annum. They consider further that the men in question
+may be one-fourth of the adult male population (800,000
+in the city itself, leaving the surrounding district out of
+the reckoning), and they rightly insist that this estimate
+cannot possibly cover all the facts. Yet it never occurs
+to the Vice Commissioners that in thus proposing to brand
+one-third or even only one quarter of the adult male
+population as criminals, and as such to prosecute them
+actively, is to propose an absurd impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>It is not by any means only in the United States that
+an object lesson in the foolishness of attempting to make
+people moral by force is set up before the world. It has
+often been set up before, and at the present day it is
+illustrated in exactly the same way in Germany. Unlike
+as are the police systems and the national temperaments
+of Germany and the United States, in this matter social
+reformers tell exactly the same story. They report that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+the German laws and ordinances against immorality
+increase and support the very evil they profess to attack.
+Thus by making it criminal to shelter, even though not
+for purposes of gain, unmarried lovers, even when they
+intend to marry, the respectable girl is forced into the
+position of the prostitute, and as such she becomes subject
+to an endless amount of police regulation and police
+control. Landlords are encouraged to live on her activities,
+charging very high rates to indemnify themselves for
+the risks they run by harbouring her. She, in her turn,
+to meet the exorbitant demands which the law and the
+police encourage the whole environment to make upon
+her, is forced to exercise her profession with the greatest
+activity, and to acquire the maximum of profit. Law and
+the police have forged the same vicious circle.
+<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p>
+
+<p>The illustrations thus furnished by Germany, Holland,
+England, and the United States, will probably suffice to
+show that there really is at the present time a wave of
+feeling in favour of the notion that it is possible to promote
+public morals by force of law. It only remains to observe
+that the recognition of the futility of such attempts by no
+means necessarily involves a pessimistic conservatism.
+To point out that prostitution never has been, and never
+can be, abolished by law, is by no means to affirm that it
+is an evil which must endure for ever and that no influence
+can affect it. But we have to realize, in the first place,
+that prostitution belongs to that sphere of human impulses
+in which mere external police ordinances count for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
+comparatively little, and that, in the second place, even
+in the more potent field of true morals, which has nothing
+to do with moral legislation, prostitution is so subtly and
+deeply rooted that it can only be affected by influences
+which bear on all our methods of thought and feeling
+and all our social custom. It is far from being an isolated
+manifestation; it is, for instance, closely related to
+marriage; any reforms in prostitution, therefore, can
+only follow a reform in our marriage system. But prostitution
+is also related to economics, and when it is realized
+how much has to be altogether changed in our whole
+social system to secure even an approximate abolition of
+prostitution it becomes doubtful whether many people
+are willing to pay the price of removing the "social
+evil" they find it so easy to deplore. They are prepared
+to appoint Commissions; they have no objection to
+offer up a prayer; they are willing to pass laws and issue
+police regulations which are known to be useless. At
+that point their ardour ends.</p>
+
+<p>If it is impossible to guard the community by statute
+against the central evil of prostitution, still more hopeless
+is it to attempt the legal suppression of all the multitudinous
+minor provocations of the sexual impulse offered
+by civilization. Let it be assumed that only by such
+suppression, and not by frankly meeting and fighting
+temptations, can character be formed, yet it would be
+absolutely impossible to suppress more than a fraction
+of the things that would need to be suppressed. "There
+is almost no feature, article of dress, attitude, act," Dr.
+Stanley Hall has truly remarked, "or even animal, or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+perhaps object in nature, that may not have to some
+morbid soul specialized erogenic and erethic power."
+If, therefore, we wish to suppress the sexually suggestive
+and the possibly obscene we are bound to suppress the
+whole world, beginning with the human race, for if we
+once enter on that path there is no definite point at which
+we can logically stop. The truth is, as Mr. Theodore
+Schroeder has so repeatedly insisted,
+<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> that "obscenity"
+is subjective; it cannot reside in an object, but only in
+the impure mind which is influenced by the object. In
+this matter Mr. Schroeder is simply the follower, at an
+interval, of St. Paul. We must work not on the object,
+but on the impure mind affected by the object. If the
+impure heart is not suppressed it is useless to suppress the
+impure object, while if the heart is renewed the whole
+task is achieved. Certainly there are books, pictures, and
+other things in life so unclean that they can never be
+pure even to the purest, but these things by their loathsomeness
+are harmless to all healthy minds; they can
+only corrupt minds which are corrupt already. Unfortunately,
+when ignorant police officials and custom-house
+officers are entrusted with the task of searching for the
+obscene, it is not to these things that their attention is
+exclusively directed. Such persons, it seems, cannot
+distinguish between these things and the noblest productions
+of human art and intellect, and the law has
+proved powerless to set them right; in all civilized
+countries the list is indeed formidable of the splendid and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+inspiring productions, from the Bible downwards, which
+officials or the law courts have been pleased to declare
+"obscene." So that while the task of moralizing the
+community by force must absolutely fail of its object, it
+may at the same time suffice to effect much mischief.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the ironies of history that the passion for
+extinguishing immorality by law and administration
+should have arisen in what used to be called Christendom.
+For Christianity is precisely the most brilliant proof
+the world has ever seen of the truth that immorality
+cannot so be suppressed. From the standpoint of classic
+Rome Christianity was an aggressive attack on Roman
+morality from every side. It was not so only in appearance,
+but in reality, as modern historians fully recognize.
+<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a>
+Merely as a new religion Christianity would have been
+received with calm indifference, even with a certain
+welcome, as other new religions were received. But
+Christianity denied the supremacy of the State, carried on
+an anti-military propaganda in the army, openly flouted
+established social conventions, loosened family life,
+preached and practised asceticism to an age that was
+already painfully aware that, above all things, it needed
+men. The fatal though doubtless inevitable step was
+taken of attempting to suppress the potent poison of this
+manifold immorality by force. The triumph of Christianity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+was largely due to the fine qualities which were
+brought out by that annealing process, and the splendid
+prestige which the process itself assured. Yet the method
+of warfare which it had so brilliantly proved to be worthless
+was speedily adopted by Christianity itself, and is
+even yet, at intervals, spasmodically applied.</p>
+
+<p>That these attempts should have such results as we see
+is not surprising when we remember that even movements,
+at the outset, mainly inspired by moral energy,
+rather than by faith in moral legislation, when that energy
+becomes reckless, violent and intolerant, lead in the end
+to results altogether opposed to the aims of those who
+initiated them. It was thus that Luther has permanently
+fortified the position of the Popes whom he assailed, and
+that the Reformation produced the Counter-Reformation,
+a movement as formidable and as enduring as that which
+it countered. When Luther appeared all that was rigid
+and inhuman in the Church was slowly dissolving, certainly
+not without an inevitable sediment of immorality,
+yet the solution was in the highest degree favourable to
+the development of the freer and larger conceptions of life,
+the expansion of science and art and philosophy, which
+at that moment was pre-eminently necessary for the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+progress of civilisation, and, indirectly, therefore, for the
+progress of morals.<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> The violence of the Reformation
+not only resulted in a new tyranny for its own adherents&mdash;calling
+in turn for fresh reformations by Puritans,
+Quakers, Deists, and Freethinkers&mdash;but it re-established,
+and even to-day continues to support, that very tyranny
+of the old Church against which it was a protest.</p>
+
+<p>When we try to regulate the morals of men on the same
+uniform pattern we have to remember that we are
+touching the most subtle, intimate, and incalculable
+springs of action. It is useless to apply the crude methods
+of "suppression" and "annihilation" to these complex
+and indestructible forces. When Charles V retired in
+weariness from the greatest throne in the world to the
+solitude of the monastery at Yuste, he occupied his leisure
+for some weeks in trying to regulate two clocks. It proved
+very difficult. One day, it is recorded, he turned to his
+assistant and said: "To think that I attempted to force
+the reason and conscience of thousands of men into one
+mould, and I cannot make two clocks agree!" Wisdom
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>
+comes to the rulers of men, sometimes, usually when they
+have ceased to be rulers. It comes to the moral legislators
+not otherwise than it comes to the immoral persons they
+legislate against. "I act first," the French thief said;
+"then I think."</p>
+
+<p>It seems to some people almost a paradox to assert
+that immorality should not be encountered by physical
+force. The same people would willingly admit that
+it is hopeless to rout a modern army with bows and
+arrows, even with the support of a fanfare of trumpets.
+Yet that metaphor, as we have seen, altogether fails to
+represent the inadequacy of law in the face of immorality.
+We are concerned with a method of fighting which is not
+merely inadequate, but, as has been demonstrated many
+times during the last two thousand years, actually fortifies
+and even dignifies the foe it professes to attack. But the
+failure of physical force to suppress the spiritual evil of
+immorality by no means indicates that a like failure
+would attend the more rational tactics of opposing a
+spiritual force by spiritual force. The virility of our
+morals is not proved by any weak attempt to call in the
+aid of the secular arm of law or the ecclesiastical arm of
+theology. If a morality cannot by its own proper virtue
+hold its opposing immorality in check then there is
+something wrong with that morality. It runs the risk of
+encountering a fresh and more vigorous movement of
+morality. Men begin to think that, if not the whole
+truth, there is yet a real element of truth in the assertion
+of Nietzsche: "We believe that severity, violence,
+slavery, danger in the street and in the heart, secrecy,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
+stoicism, tempter's art and devilry of every kind, everything
+wicked, tyrannical, predatory and serpentine in
+man, serves as well for the elevation of the human species
+as its opposite."<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>
+To ignore altogether the affirmation of
+that opposing morality, it may be, would be to breed a
+race of weaklings, fatally doomed to succumb helplessly
+to the first breath of temptation.</p>
+
+<p>Although we are passing through a wave of moral
+legislation, there are yet indications that a sounder
+movement is coming into action. The demand for the
+teaching of sexual hygiene which parents, teachers, and
+physicians in Germany, the United States and elsewhere,
+are now striving to formulate and to supply will, if it is
+wisely carried out, effect far more for public morals than
+all the legislation in the world. Inconsistently enough,
+some of those who clamour for moral legislation also
+advocate the teaching of sexual hygiene. But there is
+no room for compromise or combination here. A training
+in sexual hygiene has no meaning if it is not a training,
+for men and women alike, in personal and social responsibility,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+in the right to know and to discriminate, and in so
+doing to attain self-conquest. A generation thus trained
+to self-respect and to respect for others has no use for a
+web of official regulations to protect its feeble and cloistered
+virtues from possible visions of evil, and an army of
+police to conduct it homewards at 9 p.m. Nor, on the
+other hand, can any reliable sense of social responsibility
+ever be developed in such an unwholesome atmosphere
+of petty moral officialdom. The two methods of moralization
+are radically antagonistic. There can be no doubt
+which of them we ought to pursue if we really desire to
+breed a firmly-fibred, clean-minded, and self-reliant race
+of manly men and womanly women.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a>
+Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, Vol. I,
+p. 160; see also chapter on sexual morality in Havelock Ellis, <i>Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex</i>, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap.
+<span class="smcap">IX</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a>
+It must be remembered that in medieval days not only adultery
+but the smallest infraction of what the Church regarded as morality
+could be punished in the Archdeacon's court; this continued to be the
+case in England even after the Reformation. See Archdeacon W.W.
+Hales' interesting work, <i>Precedents and Proceedings in Criminal
+Causes</i> (1847), which is, as the author states, "a History of the Moral
+Police of the Church."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a>
+<i>The Social Evil in New York City</i>, p. 100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a>
+ This has been emphasized in an able and lucid discussion of this
+question by Dr. Hans Hagen, "Sittliche Werturteile," <i>Mutterschutz</i>,
+Heft I and II, 1906. Such recognition of popular morals, he justly
+remarks, is needed not only for the sake of the people, but for the sake
+of law itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a>
+Grabowsky, in criticizing Hiller's book, <i>Das Recht &uuml;ber sich Selbst
+(Archiv f&uuml;r Kriminalanthropologie und Kriminalistik</i>, Bd. 36, 1809),
+argues that in some cases immorality injures rights which need legal
+protection, but he admits it is difficult to decide when this is the case.
+He does not think that the law should interfere with homosexuality
+in adults, but he does consider it should interfere with incest, on the
+ground that in-breeding is not good for the race. But it is the view of
+most authorities nowadays that in-breeding is only injurious to the
+race in the case of an unsound stock, when the defect being in both
+partners of the same kind would probably be intensified by heredity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a>
+The occurrence of, for instance, incestuous, bestial, and homosexual
+acts&mdash;which are generally abhorrent, but not necessarily anti-social&mdash;makes
+it necessary to exercise some caution here.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a>
+I quote from a valuable and interesting study by Dr. Eugen
+Wilhelm, "Die Volkspsychologischen Unterschiede in der franz&ouml;sischen
+und deustchen Sittlichkeits-Gesetzgebung und Rechtsprechung,"
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, October, 1911. It may be added that in
+Switzerland, also, the tyranny of the police is carried to an extreme.
+Edith Sellers gives some extraordinary examples, <i>Cornhill</i>, August,
+1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a>
+The absurdities and injustice of the German law, and its interference
+with purely private interests in these matters, have often been
+pointed out, as by Dr. Kurt Hiller ("Ist Kuppelei Strafw&uuml;rdig?"
+<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, November, 1910). As to what is possible under
+German law by judicial decision since 1882, Hagen takes the case of a
+widow who has living with her a daughter, aged twenty-five or thirty,
+engaged to marry an artisan now living at a distance for the sake of
+his work; he comes to see her when he can; she is already pregnant;
+they will marry soon; one evening, with the consent of the widow,
+who looks on the couple as practically married, he stays over-night,
+sharing his betrothed's room, the only room available. Result:
+the old woman becomes liable to four years' penal servitude, a fine
+of six thousand marks, loss of civil rights, and police supervision.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a>
+In another respect the French code carries private rights to an
+excess by forbidding the unmarried mother to make any claim on the
+father of her child. In most countries such a prohibition is regarded as
+unreasonable and unjust. There is even a tendency (as by a recent
+Dutch law) to compel the father to provide for his illegitimate child not
+on the scale of the mother's social position but on the scale of his own
+social position. This is, possibly, an undue assertion of the superiority
+of man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a>
+The same point has lately been illustrated in Holland, where a
+recent modification in the law is held to press harshly on homosexual
+persons. At once a vigorous propaganda on behalf of the homosexual
+has sprung into existence. We see here the difference between moral
+enactments and criminal enactments. Supposing that a change in
+the law had placed, for instance, increased difficulties in the way of
+burglary. We should not witness any outburst of literary activity on
+behalf of burglars, because the community, as a whole, is thoroughly
+convinced that burglary ought to be penalized.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a>
+Apart from the attitude towards immorality, we have an illustration
+of the peculiarly English tendency to unite religious fervour with
+individualism in Quakerism. In no other European country has any
+similar movement&mdash;that is, a popular movement of individualistic
+mysticism&mdash;ever appeared on the same scale.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a>
+E.F. Fuld, Ph.D., <i>Police Administration</i>, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a>
+Ex-Police Commissioner Bingham, of New York, estimated
+(<i>Hampton's Magazine</i>, September, 1909) that "fifteen per cent. or
+from 1500 to 2000 members of the police force are unscrupulous
+'grafters' whose hands are always out for easy money." See also
+Report of the Committee of Fourteen on <i>The Social Evil in New
+York City</i>, p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a>
+Fuld, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 373 <i>et seq.</i> This last opinion by no means stands
+alone. Thus it is asserted by the Committee of Fourteen in their
+Report on The <i>Social Evil in New York City</i> (1910, p. xxxiv) that
+"some laws exist to-day because an unintelligent, cowardly public
+puts unenforceable statutes on the book, being content with registering
+their hypocrisy."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a>
+It is also a blundering policy. Its blind anathema is as likely as
+not to fall on its own allies. Thus the Report of the municipally appointed
+and municipally financed Vice Commission of Chicago is
+not only an official but a highly moral document, advocating increased
+suppression of immoral literature, and erring, if it errs, on the side of
+over-severity. It has been suppressed by the United States Post Office!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a>
+This system applies only to spirits, not to beer and wine, but
+it has proved very effective in diminishing drunkenness, as is admitted
+by those who are opposed to the system. A somewhat similar system
+exists in England under the name of the Trust system, but its extension
+appears unfortunately to be much impeded by English laws and customs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a>
+Jacques Bertillon, in a paper read to the Acad&eacute;mie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques, 30th September, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a>
+During the present century a great wave of immorality and sexual
+crime has been passing over Russia. This is not attributable to the
+laws, old or new, but is due in part to the Russo-Japanese War, and
+in part to the relaxed tension consequent on the collapse of the movement
+for political reform. (See an article by Professor Asnurof, "La
+Crise Sexuelle en Russie," <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, April,
+1911.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a>
+It was by this indirect influence that I was induced to write the
+present chapter. The editor of a prominent German review wrote to
+me for my opinion regarding a Bill dealing with the prevention of
+immorality which had been introduced into the English Parliament
+and had aroused much interest and anxiety in Germany, where it had
+been discussed in all its details. But I had never so much as heard of
+the Bill, nor could I find any one else who had heard of it, until I
+consulted a Member of Parliament who happened to have been instrumental
+in causing its rejection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a>
+J. Schrank, <i>Die Prostitution in Wien</i>, Bd. I, pp. 152-206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a>
+The history of this movement in Germany may be followed in the
+<i>Vierteljahrsberichte des Wissenschaftlich-humanit&auml;ren Komitees</i>, edited
+by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, a great authority on the matter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a>
+Report on <i>The Social Evil in New York City</i>, p. 38; see also Rev
+Dr. J.P. Peters, "Suppression of the 'Raines Law Hotels,'" <i>American
+Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, November, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a>
+It is probably needless to add that the specific object of the Act&mdash;the
+Puritanic observance of Sunday&mdash;was by no means attained. On
+Sunday, the 8th December, 1907, the police made a desperate attempt
+to enforce the law; every place of amusement was shut up; lectures,
+religious concerts, even the social meetings of the Young Men's Christian
+Association, were rigorously put a stop to. There was, of course, great
+popular indignation and uproar, and the impromptu performances got
+up in the streets, while the police looked on sympathetically, are said
+to have been far more outrageous than any entertainment indoors
+could possibly have been.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a>
+<i>The Social Evil in Chicago</i>, p. 112.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a>
+The methods of Maria Theresa never had any success; the methods
+of Calvin at Geneva had, however, a certain superficial success, because
+the right conditions existed for their exercise. That is to say, that a
+theocratic basis of society was generally accepted, and that the suppression
+of immorality was regarded by the great mass of the population,
+including in most cases, no doubt, even the offenders themselves,
+as a religious duty. It is, however, interesting to note that, even at
+Geneva, these "triumphs of morality" have met the usual fate. At
+the present day, it appears (Edith Sellers, <i>Cornhill</i>, August, 1910), there
+are more disorderly houses in Geneva, in proportion to the population,
+than in any other town in Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a>
+See e.g. P. Hausmeister, "Zur Analyse der Prostitution," <i>Geschlect
+und Gesellschaft</i>, 1907, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a>
+Theodore Schroeder, <i>"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional Law</i>,
+New York, 1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a>
+Thus Sir Samuel Dill (<i>Roman Society</i>, p. 11) calls attention to the
+letter of St. Paulinus who, when the Empire was threatened by barbarians,
+wrote to a Roman soldier that Christianity is incompatible
+with family life, with citizenship, with patriotism, and that soldiers
+are doomed to eternal torment. Christians frequently showed no
+respect for law or its representatives. "Many Christian confessors,"
+says Sir W.M. Ramsay (<i>The Church in the Roman Empire</i>, chap.
+xv), "went to extremes in showing their contempt and hatred for
+their judges. Their answers to plain questions were evasive and
+indirect; they lectured Roman dignitaries as if the latter were the
+criminals and they themselves the judges; and they even used violent
+reproaches and coarse, insulting gestures." Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq (<i>L'Intol&eacute;rance
+Religieuse et le Politique</i>, 1911, especially chap. X) shows how the
+early Christians insisted on being persecuted. We see much the same
+attitude to-day among anarchists of the lower class (and also, it may
+be added, sometimes among suffragettes), who may be regarded as the
+modern analogues of the early Christians.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a>
+It may well be, indeed, that in all ages the actual sum of immorality,
+broadly considered&mdash;in public and in private, in thought and in act&mdash;undergoes
+but slight oscillations. But in the nature of its manifestations
+and in the nature of the manifestations that accompany it,
+there may be immense fluctuations. Tarde, the distinguished thinker,
+referring to the "delicious Catholicism" of the days before Luther,
+asks: "If that amiable Christian evolution had peacefully continued
+to our days, should we be still more immoral than we are? It is doubtful,
+but in all probability we should be enjoying the most &aelig;sthetic
+and the least vexatious religion in the world, in which all our science,
+all our civilization, would have been free to progress" (Tarde, <i>La
+Logique Sociale</i>, p. 198). As has often been pointed out, it was along
+the lines indicated by Erasmus, rather than along the lines pursued by
+Luther, that the progress of civilization lay.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a>
+Nietzsche, <i>Beyond Good and Evil</i>, chap. II. A century earlier
+Godwin had written in his <i>Political Justice</i> (Book VII, chap. VIII):
+"Men are weak at present because they have always been told they are
+weak and must not be trusted with themselves. Take them out of their
+shackles, bid them enquire, reason, and judge, and you will soon find
+them very different beings. Tell them that they have passions, are
+occasionally hasty, intemperate, and injurious, but that they must
+be trusted with themselves. Tell them that the mountains of parchment
+in which they have been hitherto entrenched, are fit only to
+impose upon ages of superstition and ignorance, that henceforth we
+will have no dependence but upon their spontaneous justice; that, if
+their passions be gigantic, they must rise with gigantic energy to subdue
+them; that if their decrees be iniquitous, the iniquity shall be all their
+own."</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPX" id="CHAPX"></a>X</h3>
+
+<h3>THE WAR AGAINST WAR</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day&mdash;The Beneficial
+Effects of War in Barbarous Ages&mdash;Civilization renders the Ultimate
+Disappearance of War Inevitable&mdash;The Introduction of Law
+in disputes between Individuals involves the Introduction of Law
+in disputes between Nations&mdash;But there must be Force behind
+Law&mdash;Henry IV's Attempt to Confederate Europe&mdash;Every International
+Tribunal of Arbitration must be able to enforce its Decisions&mdash;The
+Influences making for the Abolition of Warfare&mdash;(1)
+Growth of International Opinion&mdash;(2) International Financial
+Development&mdash;(3) The Decreasing Pressure of Population&mdash;(4)
+The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit&mdash;(5) The Spread
+of Anti-military Doctrines&mdash;(6) The overgrowth of Armaments&mdash;(7)
+The Dominance of Social Reform&mdash;War Incompatible with an
+Advanced Civilization&mdash;Nations as Trustees for Humanity&mdash;The
+Impossibility of Disarmament&mdash;The Necessity of Force to ensure
+Peace&mdash;The Federated State of the Future&mdash;The Decay of War
+still leaves the Possibilities of Daring and Heroism.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>There are, no doubt, special reasons why at
+the present time war and the armaments of
+war should appear an intolerable burden which
+must be thrown off as soon as possible if the task of social
+hygiene is not to be seriously impeded. But the abolition
+of the ancient method of settling international disputes
+by warfare is not a problem which depends for its solution
+on the conditions of the moment. It is implicit in the
+natural development of the process of civilization. At
+one stage, no doubt, warfare plays an important part in
+constituting states and so, indirectly, in promoting
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>
+civilization. But civilization tends slowly but surely to
+substitute for war in the later stages of this process the
+methods of law, or, in any case, methods which, while
+not always unobjectionable, avoid the necessity for any
+breach of the peace.<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> As soon, indeed, as in primitive
+society two individuals engage in a dispute which they
+are compelled to settle not by physical force but by a
+resort to an impartial tribunal, the thin end of the wedge
+is introduced, and the ultimate destruction of war becomes
+merely a matter of time. If it is unreasonable for
+two individuals to fight it is unreasonable for two groups
+of individuals to fight.<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
+The difficulty has been that while it is quite easy for
+an ordered society to compel two individuals to settle
+their differences before a tribunal, in accordance with
+abstractly determined principles of law and reason, it is a
+vastly more difficult matter to compel two groups of
+individuals so to settle their differences. A large part of
+the history of all the great European countries has consisted
+in the progressive conquest and pacification of
+small but often bellicose states outside, and even inside,
+their own borders.<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> This is the case even within a
+community. Hobbes, writing in the midst of a civil war,
+went so far as to lay down that the "final cause" of a
+commonwealth is nothing else but the abolition of "that
+miserable condition of war which is necessarily consequent
+to the natural passions of men when there is no visible
+power to keep them in awe." Yet we see to-day that even
+within our highly civilized communities there is not always
+any adequately awful power to prevent employers and
+employed from engaging in what is little better than a
+civil war, nor even to bind them to accept the decision of
+an impartial tribunal they may have been persuaded
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+to appeal to. The smallest state can compel its individual
+citizens to keep the peace; a large state can compel a
+small state to do so; but hitherto there has been no
+guarantee possible that large states, or even large compact
+groups within the state, should themselves keep the
+peace. They commit what injustice they please, for there
+is no visible power to keep them in awe. We have attained
+a condition in which a state is able to enforce a legal and
+peaceful attitude in its own individual citizens towards
+each other. The state is the guardian of its citizens'
+peace, but the old problem recurs: <i>Quis custodiet ipsos
+custodes?</i></p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that this difficulty increases as the size of
+states increases. To compel a small state to keep the
+peace by absorbing it if it fails to do so is always an easy
+and even tempting process to a neighbouring larger state.
+This process was once carried out on a complete scale,
+when practically the whole known world was brought under
+the sway of Rome. "War has ceased," Plutarch was able
+to declare in the days of the Roman Empire, and, though
+himself an enthusiastic Greek, he was unbounded in his
+admiration of the beneficence of the majestic <i>Pax Romana</i>,
+and never tempted by any narrow spirit of patriotism to
+desire the restoration of his own country's glories. But
+the Roman organization broke up, and no single state
+will ever be strong enough to restore it.</p>
+
+<p>Any attempt to establish orderly legal relationships
+between states must, therefore, be carried out by the
+harmonious co-operation of those states. At the end of
+the sixteenth century a great French statesman, Sully,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
+inspired Henry IV with a scheme of a Council of Confederated
+European Christian States; each of these
+states, fifteen in number, was to send four representatives
+to the Council, which was to sit at Metz or Cologne and
+regulate the differences between the constituent states of
+the Confederation. The army of the Confederation was to
+be maintained in common, and used chiefly to keep the
+peace, to prevent one sovereign from interfering with any
+other, and also, if necessary, to repel invasion of barbarians
+from without. The scheme was arranged in
+concert with Queen Elizabeth, and twelve of the fifteen
+Powers had already promised their active co-operation
+when the assassination of Henry destroyed the whole
+plan. Such a Confederation was easier to arrange then
+than it is now, but probably it was more difficult to maintain,
+and it can scarcely be said that at that date the
+times were ripe for so advanced a scheme.
+<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p>
+
+<p>To-day the interests of small states are so closely
+identified with peace that it is seldom difficult to exert
+pressure on them to maintain it. It is quite another
+matter with the large states. The fact that during the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+past half century so much has been done by the larger
+states to aid the cause of international arbitration, and
+to submit disputes to international tribunals, shows how
+powerful the motives for avoiding war are nowadays
+becoming. But the fact, also, that no country hitherto
+has abandoned its liberty of withdrawing from peaceful
+arbitration any question involving "national honour"
+shows that there is no constituted power strong enough
+to control large states. For the reservation of questions
+of national honour from the sphere of law is as absurd
+as would be any corresponding limitation by individuals
+of their liability for their acts before the law; it is as
+though a man were to say: "If I commit a theft I am
+willing to appear before the court, and will probably pay
+the penalty demanded; but if it is a question of murder,
+then my vital interests are at stake, and I deny altogether
+the right of the court to intervene." It is a reservation
+fatal to peace, and could not be accepted if pleaded at
+the bar of any international tribunal with the power to
+enforce its decisions. "Imagine," says Edward Jenks,
+in his <i>History of Politics</i>, "a modern judge 'persuading'
+Mr. William Sikes to 'make it up' with the relatives of
+his victim, and, on his remaining obdurate, leaving the
+two families to fight the matter out." Yet that is what
+was in some degree done in England until medieval times
+as regards individual crimes, and it is what is still done
+as regards national crimes, in so far as the appeal to
+arbitration is limited and voluntary. The proposals,
+therefore&mdash;though not yet accepted by any Government&mdash;lately
+mooted in the United States, in England, and in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+France, to submit international disputes, without reservation,
+to an impartial tribunal represent an advance
+of peculiar significance.</p>
+
+<p>The abolition of collective fighting is so desirable an
+extension of the abolition of individual fighting, and its
+introduction has waited so long the establishment of
+some high compelling power&mdash;for the influence of the
+Religion of Peace has in this matter been less than nil&mdash;that
+it is evident that only the coincidence of very
+powerful and peculiar factors could have brought the
+question into the region of practical politics in our own
+time. There are several such factors, most of which have
+been developing during a long period, but none have been
+clearly recognized until recent years. It may be worth
+while to indicate the great forces now warring against war.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Growth of International Opinion.</i> There can be no
+doubt whatever that during recent years, and especially
+in the more democratic countries, an international consensus
+of public opinion has gradually grown up, making
+itself the voice, like a Greek chorus, of an abstract justice.
+It is quite true that of this justice, as of justice generally,
+it may be said that it has wide limits. Renan declared
+once, in a famous allocution, that "what is called indulgence
+is, most often, only justice," and, at the other
+extreme, Remy de Gourmont has said that "injustice is
+sometimes a part of justice;" in other words, there are
+varying circumstances in which justice may properly
+be tempered either with mercy or with severity. In any
+case, and however it may be qualified; a popular international
+voice generously pronouncing itself in favour of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+justice, and resonantly condemning any Government
+which clashes against justice, is now a factor of the international
+situation. It is, moreover, tending to become a
+factor having a certain influence on affairs. This was the
+case during the South African War, when England, by
+offending this international sense of justice, fell into a
+discredit which had many actual unpleasant results and
+narrowly escaped, there is some reason to believe, proving
+still more serious. The same voice was heard with
+dramatically sudden and startling effect when Ferrer
+was shot at Barcelona. Ferrer was a person absolutely
+unknown to the man in the street; he was indeed little
+more than a name even to those who knew Spain; few
+could be sure, except by a kind of intuition, that he was
+the innocent victim of a judicial murder, for it is only now
+that the fact is being slowly placed beyond dispute. Yet
+immediately after Ferrer was shot within the walls of
+Monjuich a great shout of indignation was raised, with
+almost magical suddenness and harmony, throughout the
+civilized world, from Italy to Belgium, from England to
+Argentina. Moreover, this voice was so decisive and so
+loud that it acted like those legendary trumpet-blasts
+which shattered the walls of Jericho; in a few days the
+Spanish Government, with a powerful minister at its
+head, had fallen. The significance of this event we cannot
+easily overestimate. For the first time in history, the
+voice of international public opinion, unsupported by
+pressure, political, social, or diplomatic, proved potent
+enough to avenge an act of injustice by destroying a
+Government. A new force has appeared in the world,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+and it tends to operate against those countries which are
+guilty of injustice, whether that injustice is exerted
+against a State or even only against a single obscure
+individual. The modern developments of telegraphy
+and the Press&mdash;unfavourable as the Press is in many
+respects to the cause of international harmony&mdash;have
+placed in the hands of peace this new weapon against war.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>International Financial Development.</i> There is
+another international force which expresses itself in the
+same sense. The voice of abstract justice raised against
+war is fortified by the voice of concrete self-interest. The
+interests of the propertied classes, and therefore of the
+masses dependent upon them, are to-day so widely distributed
+throughout the world that whenever any
+country is plunged into a disastrous war there arises in
+every other country, especially in rich and prosperous
+lands with most at stake, a voice of self-interest in
+harmony with the voice of justice. It is sometimes said
+that wars are in the interest of capital, and of capital
+alone, and that they are engineered by capitalists masquerading
+under imposing humanitarian disguises. That
+is doubtless true to the extent that every war cannot fail
+to benefit some section of the capitalistic world, which
+will therefore favour it, but it is true to that extent only.
+The old notion that war and the acquisition of territories
+encouraged trade by opening up new markets has proved
+fallacious. The extension of trade is a matter of tariffs
+rather than of war, and in any case the trade of a country
+with its own acquisitions by conquest is a comparatively
+insignificant portion of its total trade. But even if the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+financial advantages of war were much greater than they
+are, they would be more than compensated by the disadvantages
+which nowadays attend war. International
+financial relationships have come to constitute a network
+of interests so vast, so complicated, so sensitive, that the
+whole thrills responsively to any disturbing touch, and
+no one can say beforehand what widespread damage may
+not be done by shock even at a single point. When a
+country is at war its commerce is at once disorganized,
+that is to say that its shipping, and the shipping of all
+the countries that carry its freights, is thrown out of gear
+to a degree that often cannot fail to be internationally
+disastrous. Foreign countries cannot send in the imports
+that lie on their wharves for the belligerent country, nor
+can they get out of it the exports they need for their own
+maintenance or luxury. Moreover, all the foreign money
+invested in the belligerent country is depreciated and
+imperilled. The international voice of trade and finance
+is, therefore, to-day mainly on the side of peace.</p>
+
+<p>It must be added that this voice is not, as it might
+seem, a selfish voice only. It is justifiable not only in
+immediate international interests, but even in the ultimate
+interests of the belligerent country, and not less so
+if that country should prove victorious. So far as business
+and money are concerned, a country gains nothing by a
+successful war, even though that war involves the acquisition
+of immense new provinces; after a great war
+a conquered country may possess more financial stability
+than its conqueror, and both may stand lower in this
+respect than some other country which is internationally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>
+guaranteed against war. Such points as these have of
+late been ably argued by Norman Angell in his remarkable
+book, <i>The Great Illusion</i>, and for the most part convincingly
+illustrated.<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>
+As was long since said, the ancients
+cried, <i>V&aelig; victis</i>! We have learnt to cry, <i>V&aelig;
+ victoribus</i>!</p>
+
+<p>It may, indeed, be added that the general tendency of
+war&mdash;putting aside peoples altogether lacking in stamina&mdash;is
+to moralize the conquered and to demoralise the
+conquerors. This effect is seen alike on the material and
+the spiritual sides. Conquest brings self-conceit and
+intolerance, the reckless inflation and dissipation of
+energies. Defeat brings prudence and concentration;
+it ennobles and fortifies. All the glorious victories of the
+first Napoleon achieved less for France than the crushing
+defeat of the third Napoleon. The triumphs left enfeeblement;
+the defeat acted as a strong tonic which is
+still working beneficently to-day. The corresponding
+reverse process has been at work in Germany: the
+German soil that Napoleon ploughed yielded a Moltke
+and a Bismarck,<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> while to-day,
+however mistakenly, the German Press is crying out that only another
+war&mdash;it ought in honesty to say an unsuccessful war&mdash;can restore
+the nation's flaccid muscle. It is yet too early to see the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>
+results of the Russo-Japanese War, but already there are
+signs that by industrial overstrain and the repression of
+individual thought Japan is threatening to enfeeble the
+physique and to destroy the high spirit of the indomitable
+men to whom she owed her triumph.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>The Decreasing Pressure of Population.</i> It was at
+one time commonly said, and is still sometimes repeated,
+that the pressure of over-population is the chief cause of
+wars. That is a statement which requires a very great deal
+of qualification. It is, indeed, possible that the great
+hordes of warlike barbarians from the North and the East
+which invaded Europe in early times, sometimes more
+or less overwhelming the civilized world, were the result
+of a rise in the birth-rate and an excess of population
+beyond the means of subsistence. But this is far from
+certain, for we know absolutely nothing concerning the
+birth-rate of these invading peoples either before or
+during the period of their incursions. Again, it is certain
+that, in modern times, a high and rising birth-rate presents
+a favourable condition for war. A war distracts
+attention from the domestic disturbances and economic
+wretchedness which a too rapid growth of population
+necessarily produces, while at the same time tending to
+draw away and destroy the surplus population which
+causes this disturbance and wretchedness. Yet there are
+other ways of meeting this over-population beside the
+crude method of war. Social reform and emigration
+furnish equally effective and much more humane methods
+of counteracting such pressure. No doubt the over-population
+resulting from an excessively high birth-rate,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
+when not met, as it tends to be, by a correspondingly high
+death-rate from disease, may be regarded as a predisposing
+cause of war, but to assert that it is the pre-eminent
+cause is to go far beyond the evidence at present
+available.</p>
+
+<p>To whatever degree, however, it may have been potent
+in causing war in the past, it is certain that the pressure
+of population as a cause of war will be eliminated in the
+future. The only nations nowadays that can afford to
+make war on the grand scale are the wealthy and civilized
+nations. But civilization excludes a high birth-rate:
+there has never been any exception to that law, nor can we
+conceive any exceptions, for it is more than a social law;
+it is a biological law. Russia, a still imperfectly civilized
+country, stands apart in having a very high birth-rate,
+but it also has a very high death-rate, and even should it
+happen that in Russia improved social conditions lower
+the death-rate before affecting the birth-rate, there is
+still ample room within Russian territory for the consequent
+increase of population. Among all the other nations
+which are considered to threaten the world's peace, the
+birth-rate is rapidly falling. This is so, for instance,
+as regards England and Germany. Germany, especially,
+it was once thought&mdash;though in actual fact Germany has
+not fought for over forty years&mdash;had an interest in going to
+war in order to find an outlet for her surplus population,
+compelled, in the absence of suitable German colonies,
+to sacrifice its patriotism and lose its nationality by
+emigrating to foreign countries. But the German birth-rate
+is falling, German emigration is decreasing, and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+immense growth of German industry is easily able to
+absorb the new generation. Thus the declining birth-rate
+of civilized lands will alone largely serve in the end to
+eliminate warfare, partly by removing one of its causes,
+partly because the increased value of human life will make
+war too costly.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit.</i>
+It is a remarkable tendency of the warlike spirit&mdash;frequently
+emphasized in recent years by the distinguished
+zoologist, President D.S. Jordan, who here follows
+Novikov<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a>&mdash;that
+it tends to exterminate itself. Fighting
+stocks, and peoples largely made up of fighting stocks, are
+naturally killed out, and the field is left to the unwarlike.
+It is only the prudent, those who fight and run away,
+who live to fight another day; and they transmit their
+prudence to their offspring. Great Britain is a conspicuous
+example of a land which, being an island, was necessarily
+peopled by predatory and piratical invaders. A
+long series of warlike and adventurous peoples&mdash;Celts,
+Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Normans&mdash;built up England
+and imparted to it their spirit. The English were, it
+was said, "a people for whom pain and death are nothing,
+and who only fear hunger and boredom." But for over
+eight hundred years they have never been reinforced by
+new invaders, and the inevitable consequences have
+followed. There has been a gradual killing out of the
+warlike stocks, a process immensely accelerated during the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+nineteenth century by a vast emigration of the more
+adventurous elements in the population, pressed out of
+the overcrowded country by the reckless and unchecked
+increase of the population which occurred during the first
+three-quarters of that century. The result is that the
+English (except sometimes when they happen to be
+journalists) cannot now be described as a warlike people.
+Old legends tell of British heroes who, when their legs
+were hacked away, still fought upon the stumps. Modern
+poets feel that to picture a British warrior of to-day in
+this attitude would be somewhat far-fetched. The
+historian of the South African War points out, again and
+again, that the British leaders showed a singular lack of
+the fighting spirit. During that war English generals
+seldom cared to engage the enemy's forces except when
+their own forces greatly outnumbered them, and on many
+occasions they surrendered immediately they realized
+that they were themselves outnumbered. Those reckless
+Englishmen who boldly sailed out from their little island
+to face the Spanish Armada were long ago exterminated;
+an admirably prudent and cautious race has been left
+alive.</p>
+
+<p>It is the same story elsewhere. The French long
+cherished the tradition of military glory, and no country
+has fought so much. We see the result to-day. In no
+country is the attitude of the intellectual classes so calm
+and so reasonable on the subject of war, and nowhere is
+the popular hostility to war so strongly marked.
+<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> Spain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+furnishes another instance which is even still more decisive.
+The Spanish were of old a pre-eminently warlike
+people, capable of enduring all hardships, never fearing
+to face death. Their aggressively warlike and adventurous
+spirit sent them to death all over the world. It cannot
+be said, even to-day, that the Spaniards have lost their
+old tenacity and hardness of fibre, but their passion for
+war and adventure was killed out three centuries ago.</p>
+
+<p>In all these and the like cases there has been a
+process of selective breeding, eliminating the soldierly
+stocks and leaving the others to breed the race. The
+men who so loved fighting that they fought till they died
+had few chances of propagating their own warlike impulses.
+The men who fought and ran away, the men who
+never fought at all, were the men who created the new
+generation and transmitted to it their own traditions.</p>
+
+<p>This selective process, moreover, has not merely acted
+automatically; it has been furthered by social opinion
+and social pressure, sometimes very drastically expressed.
+Thus in the England of the Plantagenets there grew up a
+class called "gentlemen"&mdash;not, as has sometimes been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span>
+supposed, a definitely defined class, though they were
+originally of good birth&mdash;whose chief characteristic
+was that they were good fighting men, and sought
+fortune by fighting. The "premier gentleman" of
+England, according to Sir George Sitwell, and an entirely
+typical representative of his class, was a certain
+glorious hero who fought with Talbot at Agincourt, and
+also, as the unearthing of obscure documents shows, at
+other times indulged in housebreaking, and in wounding
+with intent to kill, and in "procuring the murder of one
+Thomas Page, who was cut to pieces while on his knees
+begging for his life." There, evidently, was a state of
+society highly favourable to the warlike man, highly
+unfavourable to the unwarlike man whom he slew in his
+wrath. Nowadays, however, there has been a revaluation
+of these old values. The cowardly and no doubt plebeian
+Thomas Page, multiplied by the million, has succeeded
+in hoisting himself into the saddle, and he revenges himself
+by discrediting, hunting into the slums, and finally
+hanging, every descendant he can find of the premier
+gentleman of Agincourt.</p>
+
+<p>It must be added that the advocates of the advantages
+of war are not entitled to claim this process of selective
+breeding as one of the advantages of war. It is quite true
+that war is incompatible with a high civilization, and must
+in the end be superseded. But this method of suppressing
+it is too thorough. It involves not merely the extermination
+of the fighting spirit, but of many excellent
+qualities, physical and moral, which are associated with
+the fighting spirit. Benjamin Franklin seems to have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+been the first to point out that "a standing army diminishes
+the size and breed of the human species." Almost
+in Franklin's lifetime that was demonstrated on a
+wholesale scale, for there seems little reason to doubt
+that the size and stature of the French nation have been
+permanently diminished by the constant levies of young
+recruits, the flower of the population, whom Napoleon
+sent out to death in their first manhood and still childless.
+Fine physical breed involves also fine qualities of virility
+and daring which are needed for other purposes than
+fighting. In so far as the selective breeding of war kills
+these out, its results are imperfect, and could be better
+attained by less radical methods.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>The Growth of the Anti-Military Spirit.</i> The decay
+of the warlike spirit by the breeding out of fighting
+stocks has in recent years been reinforced by a more acute
+influence of which in the near future we shall certainly
+hear more. This is the spirit of anti-militarism. This
+spirit is an inevitable result of the decay of the fighting
+spirit. In a certain sense it is also complementary to it.
+The survival of non-fighting stocks by the destruction
+of the fighting stocks works most effectually in countries
+having a professional army. The anti-military spirit, on
+the contrary, works effectually in countries having a
+national army in which it is compulsory for all young
+citizens to serve, for it is only in such countries that the
+anti-militarist can, by refusing to serve, take an influential
+position as a martyr in the cause of peace.</p>
+
+<p>Among the leading nations, it is in France that the
+spirit of anti-militarism has taken the deepest hold of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+the people, though in some smaller lands, notably among
+the obstinately peaceable inhabitants of Holland, the same
+spirit also flourishes. Herv&eacute;, who is a leader of the
+insurrectional socialists, as they are commonly called
+in opposition to the purely parliamentary socialists led
+by Jaur&egrave;s,&mdash;though the insurrectional socialists also use
+parliamentary methods,&mdash;may be regarded as the most
+conspicuous champion of anti-militarism, and many of
+his followers have suffered imprisonment as the penalty
+of their convictions. In France the peasant proprietors
+in the country and the organized workers in the town are
+alike sympathetic to anti-militarism. The syndicalists,
+or labour unionists with the Conf&eacute;d&eacute;ration G&eacute;n&eacute;rale du
+Travail as their central organization, are not usually
+anxious to imitate what they consider the unduly timid
+methods of English trade unionists;
+<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> they tend to be
+revolutionary and anti-military. The Congress of delegates
+of French Trade Unions, held at Toulouse in 1910, passed
+the significant resolution that "a declaration of war
+should be followed by the declaration of a general revolutionary
+strike." The same tendency, though in a less
+radical form, is becoming international, and the great
+International Socialist Congress at Copenhagen has passed
+a resolution instructing the International Bureau to "take
+the opinion of the organized workers of the world on the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+utility of a general strike in preventing war."
+<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> Even the
+English working classes are slowly coming into line. At
+a Conference of Labour Delegates, held at Leicester in
+1911, to consider the Copenhagen resolution, the policy
+of the anti-military general strike was defeated by only
+a narrow majority, on the ground that it required further
+consideration, and might be detrimental to political
+action; but as most of the leaders are in favour of the
+strike policy there can be no doubt that this method of
+combating war will shortly be the accepted policy of the
+English Labour movement. In carrying out such a
+policy the Labour Party expects much help from the
+growing social and political power of women. The most
+influential literary advocate of the Peace movement, and
+one of the earliest, has been a woman, the Baroness
+Bertha von Suttner, and it is held to be incredible that
+the wives and mothers of the people will use their power
+to support an institution which represents the most
+brutal method of destroying their husbands and sons.
+"The cause of woman," says Novikov, "is the cause of
+peace." "We pay the first cost on all human life," says
+Olive Schreiner.<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+The anti-militarist, as things are at present, exposes
+himself not only to the penalty of imprisonment, but also
+to obloquy. He has virtually refused to take up arms in
+defence of his country; he has sinned against patriotism.
+This accusation has led to a counter-accusation directed
+against the very idea of patriotism. Here the writings of
+Tolstoy, with their poignant and searching appeals for
+the cause of humanity as against the cause of patriotism,
+have undoubtedly served the anti-militarists well, and
+wherever the war against war is being urged, even so far
+as Japan, Tolstoy has furnished some of its keenest
+weapons. Moreover, in so far as anti-militarism is advocated
+by the workers, they claim that international
+interests have already effaced and superseded the narrower
+interests of patriotism. In refusing to fight, the workers
+of a country are simply declaring their loyalty to fellow-workers
+on the other side of the frontier, a loyalty which
+has stronger claims on them, they hold, than any patriotism
+which simply means loyalty to capitalists;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>
+geographical frontiers are giving place to economic
+frontiers, which now alone serve to separate enemies.
+And if, as seems probable, when the next attempt is made
+at a great European war, the order for mobilization is
+immediately followed in both countries by the declaration
+of a general strike, there will be nothing to say against
+such a declaration even from the standpoint of the
+narrowest patriotism, although there may be much to say
+on other grounds against the policy of the general strike.
+<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we realize what is going on around us, it is easy to
+see that the anti-militarist movement is rapidly reaching
+a stage when it will be easily able, even unaided, to
+paralyse any war immediately and automatically. The
+pioneers in the movement have played the same part as
+was played in the seventeenth century by the Quakers.
+In the name of the Bible and their own consciences, the
+Quakers refused to recognize the right of any secular
+authority to compel them to worship or to fight; they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>
+gained what they struggled for, and now all men honour
+their memories. In the name of justice and human
+fraternity, the anti-militarists are to-day taking the like
+course and suffering the like penalties. To-morrow, they
+also will be revered as heroes and martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>The Over-growth of Armaments.</i> The hostile forces
+so far enumerated have converged slowly on to war from
+such various directions that they may be said to have
+surrounded and isolated it; its ultimate surrender can only
+be a matter of time. Of late, however, a new factor has
+appeared, of so urgent a character that it is fast rendering
+the question of the abolition of war acute: the over-growth
+of armaments. This is, practically, a modern factor in
+the situation, and while it is, on the surface, a luxury due
+to the large surplus of wealth in great modern states, it
+is also, if we look a little deeper, intimately connected
+with that decay of the warlike spirit due to selective
+breeding. It is the weak and timid woman who looks
+nervously under the bed for the burglar who is the last
+person she really desires to meet, and it is old, rich, and
+unwarlike nations which take the lead in laboriously
+protecting themselves against enemies of whom there is no
+sign in any quarter. Within the last half-century only
+have the nations of the world begun to compete with each
+other in this timorous and costly rivalry. In the warlike
+days of old, armaments in time of peace consisted in little
+more than solid walls for defence, a supply of weapons
+stored away here and there, sometimes in a room attached
+to the parish church, and occasional martial exercises
+with the sword or the bow, which were little more than
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+an amusement. The true fighting man trusted to his own
+strong right arm rather than to armaments, and considered
+that he was himself a match for any half-dozen
+of the enemy. Even in actual time of war it was often
+difficult to find either zeal or money to supply the munitions
+of war. The <i>Diary</i> of the industrious Pepys, who
+achieved so much for the English navy, shows that the
+care of the country's ships mainly depended on a few
+unimportant officials who had the greatest trouble in the
+world to secure attention to the most urgent and immediate
+needs.</p>
+
+<p>A very difficult state of things prevails to-day. The
+existence of a party having for its watchword the cry for
+retrenchment and economy is scarcely possible in a
+modern state. All the leading political parties in every
+great state&mdash;if we leave aside the party of Labour&mdash;are
+equally eager to pile up the expenditure on armaments.
+It is the boast of each party, not that it spends less, but
+more, than its rivals on this source of expenditure, now
+the chief in every large state. Moreover, every new step
+in expenditure involves a still further step; each new
+improvement in attack or defence must immediately be
+answered by corresponding or better improvements on
+the part of rival powers, if they are not to be outclassed.
+Every year these moves and counter-moves necessarily
+become more extensive, more complex, more costly;
+while each counter-move involves the obsolescence of the
+improvements achieved by the previous move, so that the
+waste of energy and money keeps pace with the expenditure.
+It is well recognized that there is absolutely no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+possible limit to this process and its constantly increasing
+acceleration.</p>
+
+<p>There is no need to illustrate this point, for it is familiar
+to all. Any newspaper will furnish facts and figures
+vividly exemplifying some aspect of the matter. For
+while only a handful of persons in any country are sincerely
+anxious under present conditions to reduce the
+colossal sums every year wasted on the unproductive
+work of armament; an increasing interest in the matter
+testifies to a vague alarm and anxiety concerning the
+ultimate issue. For it is felt that an inevitable crisis lies
+at the end of the path down which the nations are now
+moving.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, from this point of view, the end of war is being
+attained by a process radically opposite to that by which
+in the social as well as in the physical organism ancient
+structures and functions are outgrown. The usual
+process is a gradual recession to a merely vestigial state.
+But here what may perhaps be the same ultimate result
+is being reached by the more alarming method of over-inflation
+and threatening collapse. It is an alarming
+process because those huge and heavily armed monsters
+of primeval days who furnish the zoological types corresponding
+to our modern over-armed states, themselves died
+out from the world when their unwieldy armament had
+reached its final point of expansion. Will our own modern
+states, one wonders, more fortunately succeed in escaping
+from the tough hides that ever more closely constrict
+them, and finally save their souls alive?</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>The Dominance of Social Reform.</i> The final factor
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+in the situation is the growing dominance of the process
+of social reform. On the one hand, the increasing complexity
+of social organisation renders necessary a correspondingly
+increasing expenditure of money in diminishing
+its friction and aiding its elaboration; on the other
+hand, the still more rapidly increasing demands of armament
+render it ever more difficult to devote money to such
+social purposes. Everywhere even the most elementary
+provision for the finer breeding and higher well-being of
+a country's citizens is postponed to the clamour for ever
+new armaments. The situation thus created is rapidly
+becoming intolerable.</p>
+
+<p>It is not alone the future of civilization which is for
+ever menaced by the possibility of war; the past of
+civilization, with all the precious embodiments of its
+traditions, is even more fatally imperilled. As the world
+grows older and the ages recede, the richer, the more
+precious, the more fragile, become the ancient heirlooms
+of humanity. They constitute the final symbols of human
+glory; they cannot be too carefully guarded, too highly
+valued. But all the other dangers that threaten their
+integrity and safety, if put together, do not equal war.
+No land that has ever been a cradle of civilization but
+bears witness to this sad truth. All the sacred citadels,
+the glories of humanity,&mdash;Jerusalem and Athens, Rome
+and Constantinople,&mdash;have been ravaged by war, and, in
+every case, their ruin has been a disaster that can never
+be repaired. If we turn to the minor glories of more
+modern ages, the special treasure of England has been
+its parish churches, a treasure of unique charm in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+world and the embodiment of the people's spirit: to-day
+in their battered and irreparable condition they are the
+monuments of a Civil War waged all over the country
+with ruthless religious ferocity. Spain, again, was a land
+which had stored up, during long centuries, nearly the
+whole of its accumulated possessions in every art, sacred
+and secular, of fabulous value, within the walls of its
+great fortress-like cathedrals; Napoleon's soldiers over-ran
+the land, and brought with them rapine and destruction;
+so that in many a shrine, as at Montserrat, we still
+can see how in a few days they turned a Paradise into a
+desert. It is not only the West that has suffered. In
+China the rarest and loveliest wares and fabrics that the
+hand of man has wrought were stored in the Imperial
+Palace of Pekin; the savage military hordes of the West
+broke in less than a century ago and recklessly trampled
+down and fired all that they could not loot. In every such
+case the loss is final; the exquisite incarnation of some
+stage in the soul of man that is for ever gone is permanently
+diminished, deformed, or annihilated.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time all civilized countries are becoming
+keenly aware of the value of their embodied artistic
+possessions. This is shown, in the most decisive manner
+possible, by the enormous prices placed upon them. Their
+pecuniary value enables even the stupidest and most
+unimaginative to realize the crime that is committed
+when they are ruthlessly and wantonly destroyed. Nor
+is it only the products of ancient art which have to-day
+become so peculiarly valuable. The products of modern
+science are only less valuable. So highly complex and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+elaborate is the mechanism now required to ensure
+progress in some of the sciences that enormous sums of
+money, the most delicate skill, long periods of time, are
+necessary to produce it. Galileo could replace his telescope
+with but little trouble; the destruction of a single
+modern observatory would be almost a calamity to the
+human race.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations as these are, indeed, at last recognized
+in all civilized countries. The engines of destruction
+now placed at the service of war are vastly more potent
+than any used in the wars of the past. On the other hand,
+the value of the products they can destroy is raised in a
+correspondingly high degree. But a third factor is now
+intervening. And if the museums of Paris or the
+laboratories of Berlin were threatened by a hostile army
+it would certainly be felt that an international power,
+if it existed, should be empowered to intervene, at
+whatever cost to national susceptibilities, in order to
+keep the peace. Civilization, we now realize, is wrought
+out of inspirations and discoveries which are for ever
+passed and repassed from land to land; it cannot be
+claimed by any individual land. A nation's art-products
+and its scientific activities are not mere national property;
+they are international possessions, for the joy and service
+of the whole world. The nations hold them in trust for
+humanity. The international force which will inspire
+respect for that truth it is our business to create.</p>
+
+<p>The only question that remains&mdash;and it is a question
+the future alone will solve&mdash;is the particular point at
+which this ancient and overgrown stronghold of war, now
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>
+being invested so vigorously from so many sides, will
+finally be overthrown, whether from within or from
+without, whether by its own inherent weakness, by the
+persuasive reasonableness of developing civilization, by
+the self-interest of the commercial and financial classes,
+or by the ruthless indignation of the proletariat. That is a
+problem still insoluble, but it is not impossible that some
+already living may witness its solution.</p>
+
+<p>Two centuries ago the Abb&eacute; de Saint-Pierre set forth
+his scheme for a federation of the States of Europe,
+which meant, at that time, a federation of all the civilised
+states of the world. It was the age of great ideas, scattered
+abroad to germinate in more practical ages to come.
+The amiable Abb&eacute; enjoyed all the credit of his large and
+philanthropic conceptions. But no one dreamed of
+realizing them, and the forces which alone could realize
+them had not yet appeared above the horizon.
+<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> In this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+matter, at all events, the world has progressed, and a
+federation of the States of the world is no longer the mere
+conception of a philosophic dreamer. The first step will
+be taken when two of the leading countries of the world&mdash;and
+it would be most reasonable for the states having
+the closest community of origin and language to take the
+initiative&mdash;resolve to submit all their differences without
+reserve to arbitration. As soon as a third power of
+magnitude joined this federation the nucleus would be
+constituted of a world state. Such a state would be able
+to impose peace on even the most recalcitrant outside
+states, for it would furnish that "visible power to keep
+them in awe," which Hobbes rightly declared to be
+indispensable; it could even, in the last resort, if necessary,
+enforce peace by war. Thus there might still be
+war in the world. But there would be no wars that were
+not Holy Wars. There are other methods than war of enforcing
+peace, and these such a federation of great states
+would be easily able to bring to bear on even the most
+warlike of states, but the necessity of a mighty armed
+international force would remain for a long time to come.
+To suppose, as some seem to suppose, that the establishment
+of arbitration in place of war means immediate
+disarmament is an idle dream. At Conferences of the
+English Labour Party on this question, the most active
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>
+opposition to the proposed strike method for rendering
+war impossible comes from the delegates representing the
+workers in arsenals and dockyards. But there is no
+likelihood of arsenals and dockyards closing in the lifetime
+of the present workers, and though the establishment
+of peaceful methods of settling international disputes
+cannot fail to diminish the number of the workers who
+live by armament, it will be long before they can be
+dispensed with altogether.</p>
+
+<p>It is, indeed, so common to regard the person who points
+out the inevitable bankruptcy of war under highly
+civilized conditions as a mere Utopian dreamer, that it
+becomes necessary to repeat, with all the emphasis
+necessary, that the settlement of international disputes
+by law cannot be achieved by disarmament, or by any
+method not involving force. All law, even the law that
+settles the disputes of individuals, has force behind it,
+and the law that is to settle the disputes between nations
+cannot possibly be effective unless it has behind it a
+mighty force. I have assumed this from the outset in
+quoting the dictum of Hobbes, but the point seems to be
+so easily overlooked by the loose thinker that it is
+necessary to reiterate it. The necessity of force behind
+the law ordering international relations has, indeed, never
+been disputed by any sagacious person who has occupied
+himself with the matter. Even William Penn, who,
+though a Quaker, was a practical man of affairs, when in
+1693 he put forward his <i>Essay Towards the Present and
+Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of a European
+Diet, Parliament or Estate</i>, proposed that if any imperial
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+state refused to submit its pretensions to the sovereign
+assembly and to abide by its decisions, or took up arms
+on its own behalf, "all the other sovereignties, united as
+one strength, shall compel the submission and performance
+of the sentence, with damages to the suffering
+party, and charges to the sovereignties that obliged their
+submission." In repudiating some injudicious and
+hazardous pacificist considerations put forth by Novikov,
+the distinguished French philosopher, Jules de Gaultier,
+points out that law has no rights against war save in
+force, on which war itself bases its rights. "Force <i>in
+abstracto</i> creates right. It is quite unimaginable that a
+right should exist which has not been affirmed at some
+moment as a reality, that is to say a force.... What we
+glorify under the name of right is only a more intense and
+habitual state of force which we oppose to a less frequent
+form of force."<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a>
+The old Quaker and the modern philosopher
+are thus at one with the practical man in rejecting
+any form of pacification which rests on a mere appeal to
+reason and justice.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+It cannot be said that the progress of civilization has
+so far had any tendency to render unnecessary the point of
+view adopted by Penn and Jules de Gaultier. The acts
+of states to-day are apt to be just as wantonly aggressive
+as they ever were, as reckless of reason and of justice.
+There is no country, however high it may stand in the
+comity of nations, which is not sometimes carried away
+by the blind fever of war. France, the land of reason,
+echoed, only forty years ago, with the mad cry, "&Agrave;
+Berlin!" England, the friend of the small nationalities,
+jubilantly, with even an air of heroism, crushed under foot
+the little South African Republics, and hounded down
+every Englishman who withstood the madness of the
+crowd. The great, free intelligent people of the United
+States went to war against Spain with a childlike faith in
+the preposterous legend of the blowing up of the <i>Maine</i>.
+There is no country which has not some such shameful
+page in its history, the record of some moment when its
+moral and intellectual prestige was besmirched in the
+eyes of the whole world. It pays for its momentary madness,
+it may valiantly strive to atone for its injustice, but
+the damaging record remains. The supersession of war
+is needed not merely in the interests of the victims of
+aggression; it is needed fully as much in the interests of
+the aggressors, driven by their own momentary passions,
+or by the ambitious follies of their rulers, towards crimes
+for which a terrible penalty is exacted. There has never
+been any country at every moment so virtuous and so wise
+that it has not sometimes needed to be saved from itself.
+For every country has sometimes gone mad, while every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span>
+other country has looked on its madness with the mocking
+calm of clear-sighted intelligence, and perhaps with a
+pharisaical air of virtuous indignation.</p>
+
+<p>During the single year of 1911 the process was unrolled
+in its most complete form. The first bad move&mdash;though
+it was a relatively small and inoffensive move&mdash;was made
+by France. The Powers, after much deliberation, had
+come to certain conclusions concerning Morocco, and
+while giving France a predominant influence in that
+country, had carefully limited her power of action. But
+France, anxious to increase her hold on the land, sent out,
+with the usual pretexts, an unnecessary expedition to Fez.
+Had an international tribunal with an adequate force
+behind it been in existence, France would have been
+called upon to justify her action, and whether she succeeded
+or failed in such justification, no further evils
+would have occurred. But there was no force able or
+willing to call France to account, and the other Powers
+found it a simpler plan to follow her example than to
+check it. In pursuance of this policy, Germany sent a
+warship to the Moroccan port of Agadir, using the same
+pretext as the French, with even less justification. When
+the supreme military power of the world wags even a
+finger the whole world is thrown into a state of consternation.
+That happened on the present occasion, though,
+as a matter of fact, giants are not given to reckless violence,
+and Germany, far from intending to break the
+world's peace, merely used her power to take advantage
+of France's bad move. She agreed to condone France's
+mistake, and to resign to her the Moroccan rights to which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+neither country had the slightest legitimate claim, in
+return for an enormous tract of land in another part of
+Africa. Now, so far, the game had been played in accordance
+with rules which, though by no means those of
+abstract justice, were fairly in accordance with the
+recognized practices of nations. But now another Power
+was moved to far more openly unscrupulous action. It
+has long been recognized that if there must be a partition
+of North Africa, Italy's share is certainly Tripoli. The
+action of France and of Germany stirred up in Italy the
+feeling that now or never was the moment for action, and
+with brutal recklessness, and the usual pretexts, now
+flimsier than ever, Italy made war on Turkey, without
+offer of mediation, in flagrant violation of her own undertakings
+at the Hague Peace Convention of 1899. There
+was now only one Mohammedan country left to attack,
+and it was Russia's turn to make the attack.
+Northern Persia&mdash;the most civilized and fruitful half
+of Persia&mdash;had been placed under the protection of
+Russia, and Russia, after cynically doing her best to
+make good government in Persia impossible, seized on
+the pretext of the bad government to invade the country.
+If the Powers of Europe had wished to demonstrate the
+necessity for a great international tribunal, with a
+mighty force behind it to ensure the observance of its
+decisions, they could not have devised a more effective
+demonstration.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it is that there can be no question of disarmament
+at present, and that there can be no effective international
+tribunal unless it has behind it an effective army. A
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+great army must continue to exist apart altogether from
+the question as to whether the army in itself is a school
+of virtue or of vice. Both these views of its influence have
+been held in extreme forms, and both seem to be without
+any great justification. On this point we may perhaps
+accept the conclusion of Professor Gu&eacute;rard, who can view
+the matter from a fairly impartial standpoint, having
+served in the French army, closely studied the life of the
+people in London, and occupied a professorial chair in
+California. He denies that an army is a school of all the
+vices, but he is also unable to see that it exercises an
+elevating influence on any but the lowest: "A regiment
+is not much worse than a big factory. Factory life in
+Europe is bad enough; military service extends its evils
+to agricultural labourers, and also to men who would
+otherwise have escaped these lowering influences. As for
+traces of moral uplift in the army, I have totally failed
+to notice any. War may be a stern school of virtue;
+barrack life is not. Honour, duty, patriotism, are feelings
+instilled at school; they do not develop, but often deteriorate,
+during the term of compulsory service."
+<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
+
+<p>But, as we have seen, and as Gu&eacute;rard admits, it is
+probable that wars will be abolished generations before
+armies are suppressed. The question arises what we are
+to do with our armies. There seem to be at least two
+ways in which armies may be utilized, as we may already
+see in France, and perhaps to some slight extent in
+England. In the first place, the army may be made a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+great educational agency, an academy of arts and sciences,
+a school of citizenship. In the second place, armies are
+tending to become, as William James pointed out, the
+reserve force of peace, great organized unemployed bodies
+of men which can be brought into use during sudden
+emergencies and national disasters. Thus the French
+army performed admirable service during the great Seine
+floods a few years ago, and both in France and in England
+the army has been called upon to help to carry on public
+duties indispensable to the welfare of the nation during
+great strikes, though here it would be unfortunate if the
+army came to be regarded as a mere strike-breaking
+corps. Along these main lines, however, there are, as
+Gu&eacute;rard has pointed out, signs of a transformation which,
+while preserving armies for international use, yet point to
+a compromise between the army and modern democracy.</p>
+
+<p>It is feared by some that the reign of universal peace
+will deprive them of the opportunity of exhibiting daring
+and heroism. Without inquiring too carefully what use
+has been made of their present opportunities by those
+who express this fear, it must be said that such a fear is
+altogether groundless. There are an infinite number of
+positions in life in which courage is needed, as much as on
+a battlefield, though, for the most part, with less risk of
+that total annihilation which in the past has done so
+much to breed out the courageous stocks. Moreover,
+the certain establishment of peace will immensely enlarge
+the scope for daring and adventure in the social sphere.
+There are departments in the higher breeding and social
+evolution of the race&mdash;some perhaps even involving
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+questions of life and death&mdash;where the highest courage is
+needed. It would be premature to discuss them, for they
+can scarcely enter the field of practical politics until war
+has been abolished. But those persons who are burning
+to display heroism may rest assured that the course of
+social evolution will offer them every opportunity.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a>
+The respective parts of war and law in the constitution of states
+are clearly and concisely set forth by Edward Jenks in his little primer,
+<i>A History of Politics</i>. Steinmetz, who argues in favour of the preservation
+of the method of war, in his book <i>Die Philosophie des Krieges</i>
+(p. 303) states that "not a single element of the warlike spirit, not one of
+the psychic conditions of war, is lacking to the civilized European
+peoples of to-day." That may well be, although there is much reason to
+believe that they have all very considerably diminished. Such warlike
+spirit as exists to-day must be considerably discounted by the fact
+that those who manifest it are not usually the people who would
+actually have to do the fighting. It is more important to point out
+(as is done in a historical sketch of warfare by A. Sutherland, <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, April, 1899) that, as a matter of fact, war is becoming
+both less frequent and less ferocious. In England, for instance, where
+at one period the population spent a great part of their time in fighting,
+there has practically been no war for two and a half centuries. When
+the ancient Germans swept through Spain (as Procopius, who was an eye-witness,
+tells) they slew every human being they met, including women
+and children, until millions had perished. The laws of war, though not
+always observed, are constantly growing more humane, and Sutherland
+estimates that warfare is now less than one-hundredth part as destructive
+as it was in the early Middle Ages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a>
+ This inevitable extension of the sphere of law from the settlement
+of disputes between individuals to disputes between individual states has
+been pointed out before, and is fairly obvious. Thus Mougins-Roquefort,
+a French lawyer, in his book <i>De la Solution Juridique des Conflits</i>
+<i>Internationaux</i> (1889), observes that in the days of the Roman Empire,
+when there was only one civilized state, any system of international
+relationships was impossible, but that as soon as we have a number of
+states forming units of international society there at once arises the
+necessity for a system of international relationships, just as some
+system of social order is necessary to regulate the relations of any
+community of individuals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a>
+In England, a small and compact country, this process was
+completed at a comparatively early date. In France it was not until
+the days of Louis XV (in 1756) that the "last feudal brigand," as
+Taine calls the Marquis de Pleumartin in Poitou, was captured and
+beheaded.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a>
+France, notwithstanding her military aptitude, has always
+taken the pioneering part in the pacific movement of civilization.
+Even at the beginning of the fourteenth century France produced an
+advocate of international arbitration, Pierre Dubois (Petrus de Bosco),
+the Norman lawyer, a pupil of Thomas Aquinas. In the seventeenth
+century Emeric Cruc&eacute; proposed, for the first time, to admit all peoples,
+without distinction of colour or religion, to be represented at some
+central city where every state would have its perpetual ambassador,
+these representatives forming an assembly to adjudicate on international
+differences (Dubois and Cruc&eacute; have lately been studied by
+Prof. Vesnitch, <i>Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique</i>, January, 1911). The
+history of the various peace projects generally has been summarily
+related by Lagorgette in <i>Le R&ocirc;le de la Guerre</i>, 1906, Part IV, chap.
+<span class="smcap">VI</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a>
+The same points had previously been brought forward by others,
+although not so vigorously enforced. Thus the well-known Belgian
+economist and publicist, Emile de Laveleye, pointed out (<i>Pall Mall
+Gazette</i>, 4th August, 1888) that "the happiest countries are incontestably
+the smallest: Switzerland, Norway, Luxembourg, and still
+more the Republics of San Marino and Val d'Andorre"; and that "countries
+in general, even when victorious, do not profit by their conquests."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a>
+Bismarck himself declared that without the deep shame of the
+German defeat at Jena in 1806 the revival of German national feeling
+would have been impossible.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a>
+D. Starr Jordan, <i>The Human Harvest</i>, 1907; J. Novikov, <i>La
+Guerre et ses Pr&eacute;tendus Bienfaits</i>, 1894, chap. IV; Novikov here argued
+that the selection of war eliminates not the feeble but the strong, and
+tends to produce, therefore, a survival of the unfittest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a>
+"The most demoralizing features in French military life," says
+Professor Gu&eacute;rard, a highly intelligent observer, "are due to an
+incontestable progress in the French mind&mdash;its gradual loss of faith
+and interest in military glory. Henceforth the army is considered as
+useless, dangerous, a burden without a compensation. Authors of
+school books may be censured for daring to print such opinions, but
+the great majority of the French hold them in their hearts. Nay,
+there is a prevailing suspicion among working men that the military
+establishment is kept up for the sole benefit of the capitalists, and the
+reckless use of troops in case of labour conflicts gives colour to the
+contention." It has often happened that what the French think to-day
+the world generally thinks to-morrow. There is probably a world-wide
+significance in the fact that French experience is held to show
+that progress in intelligence means the demoralization of the army.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a>
+The influence of Syndicalism has, however, already reached the
+English Labour Movement, and an ill-advised prosecution by the
+English Government must have immensely aided in extending and
+fortifying that influence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a>
+Some small beginnings have already been made. "The greatest
+gain ever yet won for the cause of peace," writes Mr. H.W. Nevinson,
+the well-known war correspondent (<i>Peace and War in the Balance</i>,
+p. 47), "was the refusal of the Catalonian reservists to serve in the war
+against the Riff mountaineers of Morocco in July, 1909.... So
+Barcelona flared to heaven, and for nearly a week the people held the
+vast city. I have seen many noble, as well as many terrible, events,
+but none more noble or of finer promise than the sudden uprising of
+the Catalan working people against a dastardly and inglorious war,
+waged for the benefit of a few speculators in Paris and Madrid."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a>
+J. Novikov, <i>Le F&eacute;d&eacute;ration de l'Europe</i>, chap. iv. Olive Schreiner,
+<i>Woman and Labour</i>, chap. <span class="smcap">IV</span>.
+While this is the fundamental fact,
+we must remember that we cannot generalize about the ideas or
+the feelings of a whole sex, and that the biological traditions of
+women have been associated with a primitive period when they were
+the delighted spectators of combats. "Woman," thought Nietzsche,
+"is essentially unpeaceable, like the cat, however well she may
+have assumed the peaceable demeanour." Steinmetz (<i>Philosophie
+des Krieges</i>, p. 314), remarking that women are opposed to war in
+the abstract, adds: "In practice, however, it happens that women
+regard a particular war&mdash;and all wars are particular wars&mdash;with special
+favour"; he remarks that the majority of Englishwomen fully shared
+the war fever against the Boers, and that, on the other side, he knew
+Dutch ladies in Holland, very opposed to war, who would yet have
+danced with joy at that time on the news of a declaration of war
+against England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a>
+The general strike, which has been especially developed by the
+syndicalist Labour movement, and is now tending to spread to various
+countries, is a highly powerful weapon, so powerful that its results are
+not less serious than those of war. To use it against war seems to be to
+cast out Beelzebub by Beelzebub. Even in Labour disputes the modern
+strike threatens to become as serious and, indeed, almost as sanguinary
+as the civil wars of ancient times. The tendency is, therefore, in
+progressive countries, as we see in Australia, to supersede strikes by
+conciliation and arbitration, just as war is tending to be superseded
+by international tribunals. These two aims are, however, absolutely
+distinct, and the introduction of law into the disputes between nations
+can have no direct effect on the disputes between social classes. It is
+quite possible, however, that it may have an indirect effect, and that
+when disputes between nations are settled in an orderly manner,
+social feeling will forbid disputes between classes to be settled in a
+disorderly manner.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a>
+The Abb&eacute; de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), a churchman without
+vocation, was a Norman of noble family, and first published his <i>M&eacute;moires
+pour rendre la Paix Perpetuelle &agrave; l'Europe</i> in 1722. As Si&eacute;gler-Pascal
+well shows (<i>Les Projets de l'Abb&eacute; d&eacute; Saint-Pierre</i>, 1900) he was
+not a mere visionary Utopian, but an acute and far-seeing thinker, practical
+in his methods, a close observer, an experimentalist, and one of
+the first to attempt the employment of statistics. He was secretary to
+the French plenipotentiaries who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht, and
+was thus probably put on the track of his scheme. He proposed that
+the various European states should name plenipotentiaries to form a
+permanent tribunal of compulsory arbitration for the settlement of
+all differences. If any state took up arms against one of the allies,
+the whole confederation would conjointly enter the field, at their
+conjoint expense, against the offending state. He was opposed to
+absolute disarmament, an army being necessary to ensure peace,
+but it must be a joint army composed of contingents from each Power
+in the confederation. Saint-Pierre, it will be seen, had clearly grasped
+the essential facts of the situation as we see them to-day. "The author
+of <i>The Project of Perpetual Peace</i>" concludes Prof. Pierre Robert in a
+sympathetic summary of his career (Petit de Julleville, <i>Histoire de la
+Langue et de la Litt&eacute;rature Fran&ccedil;aise</i>, Vol. VI), "is the precursor of
+the twentieth century." His statue, we cannot doubt, will be a conspicuous
+object, beside Sully's, on the future Palace of any international
+tribunal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a>
+Jules de Gaultier, "Comment Naissent les Dogmes," <i>Mercure
+de France</i>, 1st Sept., 1911. Jules de Gaultier also observes that "conflict
+is the law and condition of all existence." That may be admitted,
+but it ceases to be true if we assume, as the same thinker assumes,
+that "conflict" necessarily involves "war." The establishment of
+law to regulate the disputes between individuals by no means suppresses
+conflict, but it suppresses fighting, and it ensures that if any
+fighting occur the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression. In the
+same way the existence of a tribunal to regulate the disputes between
+national communities of individuals can by no means suppress conflict;
+but unless it suppresses fighting, and unless it ensures that if
+fighting occurs the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression, it will
+have effected nothing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a>
+A.L. Gu&eacute;rard, "Impressions of Military Life in France," <i>Popular
+Science Monthly</i>, April, 1911.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPXI" id="CHAPXI"></a>XI</h3>
+
+<h3>THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL
+LANGUAGE</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Early Attempts to Construct an International Language&mdash;The Urgent
+Need of an Auxiliary Language To-day&mdash;Volap&uuml;k&mdash;The Claims of
+Spanish&mdash;Latin&mdash;The Claims of English&mdash;Its Disadvantages&mdash;The
+Claims of French&mdash;Its Disadvantages&mdash;The Modern Growth of
+National Feeling opposed to Selection of a Natural Language&mdash;Advantages
+of an Artificial Language&mdash;Demands it must fulfil&mdash;Esperanto&mdash;Its
+Threatened Disruption&mdash;The International Association
+for the adoption of an Auxiliary International Language&mdash;The
+First Step to Take.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Ever since the decay of Latin as the universal
+language of educated people, there have been
+attempts to replace it by some other medium
+of international communication. That decay was inevitable;
+it was the outward manifestation of a movement
+of individualism which developed national languages
+and national literatures, and burst through the restraining
+envelope of an authoritarian system expounded in an
+official language. This individualism has had the freest
+play, and we are not likely to lose all that it has given us.
+Yet as soon as it was achieved the more distinguished
+spirits in every country began to feel the need of counterbalancing
+it. The history of the movement may be said
+to begin with Descartes, who in 1629 wrote to his friend
+Mersenne that it would be possible to construct an artificial
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+language which could be used as an international
+medium of communication. Leibnitz, though he had
+solved the question for himself, writing some of his works
+in Latin and others in French, was yet all his life more or
+less occupied with the question of a universal language.
+Other men of the highest distinction&mdash;Pascal, Condillac,
+Voltaire, Diderot, Amp&egrave;re, Jacob Grimm&mdash;have sought
+or desired a solution to this problem.<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> None of these
+great men, however, succeeded even in beginning an
+attempt to solve the problem they were concerned
+with.</p>
+
+<p>Some forty years ago, however, the difficulty began
+again to be felt, this time much more keenly and more
+widely than before. The spread of commerce, the
+facility of travel, the ramifications of the postal service,
+the development of new nationalities and new literatures,
+have laid upon civilized peoples a sense of burden and
+restriction which could never have been felt by their
+forefathers in the previous century. Added to this, a
+new sense of solidarity had been growing up in the world;
+the financial and commercial solidarity, by which any
+disaster or disturbance in one country causes a wave of
+disaster or disturbance to pass over the whole civilized
+globe, was being supplemented by a sense of spiritual
+solidarity. Men began to realize that the tasks of civilization
+cannot be carried out except by mutual understanding
+and mutual sympathy among the more civilized
+nations, that every nation has something to learn from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
+other nations, and that the bonds of international intercourse
+must thus be drawn closer. This feeling of the
+need of an international language led in America to
+several serious attempts to obtain a consensus of opinion
+among scientific men regarding an international language.
+Thus in 1888 the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia,
+the oldest of American learned societies, unanimously
+resolved, on the initiative of Brinton, to address a letter
+to learned societies throughout the world, asking for
+their co-operation in perfecting a language for commercial
+and learned purposes, based on the Aryan vocabulary and
+grammar in their simplest forms, and to that end proposing
+an international congress, the first meeting of
+which should be held in Paris or London. In the same
+year Horatio Hale read a paper on the same subject
+before the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science. A little later, in 1890, it was again proposed at
+a meeting of the same Association that, in order to consider
+the question of the construction and adoption of a
+symmetrical and scientific language, a congress should
+be held, delegates being in proportion to the number
+of persons speaking each language.</p>
+
+<p>These excellent proposals seem, however, to have borne
+little fruit. It is always an exceedingly difficult matter to
+produce combined action among scientific societies even
+of the same nation. Thus the way has been left open for
+individuals to adopt the easier but far less decisive or
+satisfactory method of inventing a new language by their
+own unaided exertions. Certainly over a hundred such
+languages have been proposed during the past century.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+The most famous of these was undoubtedly Volap&uuml;k,
+which was invented in 1880 by Schleyer, a German-Swiss
+priest who knew many languages and had long pondered
+over this problem, but who was not a scientific philologist;
+the actual inception of the language occurred in a
+dream. Volap&uuml;k was almost the first real attempt at an
+organic language capable of being used for the oral transmission
+of thought. On this account, no doubt, it met
+with great and widespread success; it was actively taken
+up by a professor at Paris, societies were formed for its
+propagation, journals and hundreds of books were
+published in it; its adherents were estimated at a million.
+But its success, though brilliant, was short-lived. In
+1889, when the third Volap&uuml;k Congress was held, it was
+at the height of its success, but thereafter dissension
+arose, and its reputation suddenly collapsed. No one
+now speaks Volap&uuml;k; it is regarded as a hideous monstrosity,
+even by those who have the most lively faith in
+artificial languages. Its inventor has outlived his language,
+and, like it, has been forgotten by the world,
+though his achievement was a real step towards the
+solution of the problem.</p>
+
+<p>The collapse of Volap&uuml;k discouraged thoughtful persons
+from expecting any solution of the problem in an artificial
+language. It seemed extremely improbable that any
+invented language, least of all the unaided product of a
+single mind, could ever be generally accepted, or be
+worthy of general acceptance, as an international mode
+of communication. Such a language failed to carry the
+prestige necessary to overcome the immense inertia
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+which any attempt to adopt it would meet with. Invented
+languages, the visionary schemes of idealists,
+apparently received no support from practical men of
+affairs. It seemed to be among actual languages, living
+or dead, that we might most reasonably expect to find
+a medium of communication likely to receive wide support.
+The difficulty then lay in deciding which language should
+be selected.</p>
+
+<p>Russian had sometimes been advocated as the universal
+language for international purposes, and it is possible to
+point to the enormous territory of Russia, its growing
+power and the fact that Russian is the real or official
+language of a larger number of people than any other
+language except English. But Russian is so unlike the
+Latin and Teutonic tongues, used by the majority of
+European peoples; it is so complicated, so difficult to
+acquire, and, moreover, so lacking in concision that it has
+never had many enthusiastic advocates.</p>
+
+<p>The virtues and defects of Spanish, which has found
+many enthusiastic supporters, are of an opposite character.
+It is an admirably vigorous and euphonious
+language, on a sound phonetic basis, every letter always
+standing for a definite sound; the grammar is simple
+and exceptionally free from irregularities, and it is the
+key to a great literature. Billroth, the distinguished
+Austrian surgeon, advocated the adoption of Spanish;
+he regarded English as really more suitable, but, he
+pointed out, it is so difficult for the Latin races to speak
+non-Latin tongues that a Romance language is essential,
+and Spanish is the simplest and most logical of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+Romance tongues.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> It is, moreover, spoken by a vast
+number of people in South America and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>A few enthusiasts have advocated Greek, and have
+supported their claim with the argument that it is still a
+living language. But although Greek is the key to a small
+but precious literature, and is one of the sources of latter-day
+speech and scientific terminology, it is difficult, it is
+without special adaptation to modern uses, and there are
+no adequate reasons why it should be made an international
+language.</p>
+
+<p>Latin cannot be dismissed quite so hastily. It has in
+its favour the powerful argument that it has once already
+been found adequate to serve as the universal language.
+There is a widespread opinion to-day among the medical
+profession&mdash;the profession most actively interested
+in the establishment of a universal language&mdash;that Latin
+should be adopted, and before the International Medical
+Congress at Rome in 1894, a petition to this effect was
+presented by some eight hundred doctors in India.
+<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> It is
+undoubtedly an admirable language, expressive, concentrated,
+precise. But the objections are serious. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
+relative importance of Latin to-day is very far from what
+it was a thousand years ago, for conditions have wholly
+changed. There is now no great influence, such as the
+Catholic Church was of old, to enforce Latin, even if it
+possessed greater advantages. And the advantages are
+very mixed. Latin is a wholly dead tongue, and except in
+a degenerate form not by any means an easy one to learn,
+for its genius is wholly opposed to the genius even of
+those modern languages which are most closely allied to
+it. The world never returns on its own path. Although
+the prestige of Latin is still enormous, a language could
+only be brought from death to life by some widespread
+motor force; such a force no longer exists behind Latin.</p>
+
+<p>There remain English and French, and these are undoubtedly
+the two natural languages most often put
+forward&mdash;even outside England and France&mdash;as possessing
+the best claims for adoption as auxiliary international
+mediums of communication.</p>
+
+<p>English, especially, was claimed by many, some
+twenty years ago, to be not merely the auxiliary language
+of the future, but the universal language which must
+spread all over the world and supersede and drive out all
+others by a kind of survival of the fittest. This notion
+of a universal language is now everywhere regarded as a
+delusion, but at that time there was still thought by
+many to be a kind of special procreative activity in the
+communities of Anglo-Saxon origin which would naturally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+tend to replace all other peoples, both the people and the
+language being regarded as the fittest to survive.
+<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> English
+was, however, rightly felt to be a language with very
+great force behind it, being spoken by vast communities
+possessing a peculiarly energetic and progressive temperament,
+and with much power of peaceful penetration in
+other lands. It is generally acknowledged also that
+English fully deserves to be ranked as one of the first of
+languages by its fine aptitude for powerful expression,
+while at the same time it is equally fitted for routine
+commercial purposes. The wide extension of English
+and its fine qualities have often been emphasized, and it
+is unnecessary to dwell on them here. The decision of
+the scientific societies of the world to use English for
+bibliographical purposes is not entirely a tribute to
+English energy in organization, but to the quality of the
+language. One finds, indeed, that these facts are widely
+recognized abroad, in France and elsewhere, though I have
+noted that those who foretell the conquest of English,
+even when they are men of intellectual distinction and
+able to read English, are often quite unable to speak it or
+to understand it when spoken.</p>
+
+<p>That brings us to a point which is overlooked by those
+who triumphantly pointed to the natural settlement of
+this question by the swamping of other tongues in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>
+overflowing tide of English speech. English is the most
+concise and laconic of the great languages. Greek, French
+and German are all more expansive, more syllabically
+copious. Latin alone may be said to equal, or surpass
+English in concentration, because, although Latin words
+are longer on the average, by their greater inflection they
+cover a larger number of English words. This power of
+English to attain expression with a minimum expenditure
+of energy in written speech is one of its chief claims to
+succeed Latin as the auxiliary international language.
+But it furnishes no claim to preference for actual speaking,
+in which this economy of energy ceases to be a
+supreme virtue, since here we have also to admit the
+virtues of easy intelligibility and of persuasiveness.
+Greek largely owed its admirable fitness for speech to the
+natural richness and prolongation of its euphonious
+words, which allowed the speaker to attain the legitimate
+utterance of his thought without pauses or superfluous
+repetition. French, again, while by no means inapt for
+concentration, as the <i>pens&eacute;e</i> writers show, most easily
+lends itself to effects that are meant for speech, as in
+Bossuet, or that recall speech, as in Mme de Sevign&eacute; in
+one order of literature, or Renan in another. But at
+Rome, we feel, the spoken tongue had a difficulty to
+overcome, and the mellifluously prolonged rhetoric of
+Cicero, delightful as it may be, scarcely seems to reveal
+to us the genius of the Latin tongue. The inaptitude of
+English for the purposes of speech is even more conspicuous,
+and is again well illustrated in our oratory.
+Gladstone was an orator of acknowledged eloquence,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+but the extreme looseness and redundancy into which
+his language was apt to fall in the effort to attain the
+verbose richness required for the ends of spoken speech,
+reveals too clearly the poverty of English from this point
+of view. The same tendency is also illustrated by the
+vain re-iterations of ordinary speakers. The English
+intellect, with all its fine qualities, is not sufficiently
+nimble for either speaker or hearer to keep up with the
+swift brevity of the English tongue. It is a curious fact
+that Great Britain takes the lead in Europe in the prevalence
+of stuttering; the language is probably a factor
+in this evil pre-eminence, for it appears that the Chinese,
+whose language is powerfully rhythmic, never stutter.
+One authority has declared that "no nation in the
+civilized world speaks its language so abominably as the
+English." We can scarcely admit that this English
+difficulty of speech is the result of some organic defect
+in English nervous systems; the language itself must be a
+factor in the matter. I have found, when discussing the
+point with scientific men and others abroad, that the
+opinion prevails that it is usually difficult to follow a
+speaker in English. This experience may, indeed, be
+considered general. While an admirably strong and concise
+language, English is by no means so adequate in
+actual speech; it is not one of the languages which can be
+heard at a long distance, and, moreover, it lends itself
+in speaking to so many contractions that are not used in
+writing&mdash;so many "can'ts" and "won'ts" and "don'ts,"
+which suit English taciturnity, but slur and ruin English
+speech&mdash;that English, as spoken, is almost a different
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+language from that which excites admiration when
+written. So that the exclusive use of English for international
+purposes would not be the survival of the fittest
+so far as a language for speaking purposes is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it must be remembered that English is not a
+democratic language. It is not, like the chief Romance
+languages and the chief Teutonic languages, practically
+homogeneous, made out of one block. It is formed by the
+mixture of two utterly unlike elements, one aristocratic,
+the other plebeian. Ever since the Norman lord came
+over to England a profound social inequality has become
+rooted in the very language. In French, <i>b[oe]uf</i> and <i>mouton</i>
+and <i>veau</i> and <i>porc</i> have always been the same for master
+and for man, in the field and on the table; the animal has
+never changed its plebeian name for an aristocratic name
+as it passed through the cook's hands. That example is
+typical of the curious mark which the Norman Conquest
+left on our speech, rendering it so much more difficult for
+us than for the French to attain equality of social intercourse.
+Inequality is stamped indelibly into our language
+as into no other great language. Of course, from the
+literary point of view, that is all gain, and has been of incomparable
+aid to our poets in helping them to reach their
+most magnificent effects, as we may see conspicuously in
+Shakespeare's enormous vocabulary. But from the point
+of view of equal social intercourse, this wealth of language
+is worse than lost, it is disastrous. The old feudal distinctions
+are still perpetuated; the "man" still speaks
+his "plain Anglo-Saxon," and the "gentleman" still
+speaks his refined Latinized speech. In every language,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>
+it is true, there are social distinctions in speech, and every
+language has its slang. But in English these distinctions
+are perpetuated in the very structure of the language.
+Elsewhere the working-class speak&mdash;with a little difference
+in the quality&mdash;a language needing no substantial
+transformation to become the language of society, which
+differs from it in quality rather than in kind. But
+the English working man feels the need to translate
+his common Anglo-Saxon speech into foreign words of
+Latin origin. It is difficult for the educated person in
+England to understand the struggle which the uneducated
+person goes through to speak the language of the educated,
+although the unsatisfactory result is sufficiently conspicuous.
+But we can trace the operation of a similar
+cause in the hesitancy of the educated man himself when
+he attempts to speak in public and is embarrassed by the
+search for the set of words most suited for dignified
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Most of those who regarded English as the coming
+world-language admitted that it would require improvement
+for general use. The extensive and fundamental
+character of the necessary changes is not, however,
+realized. The difficulties of English are of four kinds:
+(1) its special sounds, very troublesome for foreigners to
+learn to pronounce, and the uncertainty of its accentuation;
+(2) its illogical and chaotic spelling, inevitably
+leading to confusions in pronunciation; (3) the grammatical
+irregularities in its verbs and plural nouns; and
+(4) the great number of widely different words which
+are almost or quite similar in pronunciation. A vast
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+number of absurd pitfalls are thus prepared for the unwary
+user of English. He must remember that the plural
+of "mouse" is "mice," but that the plural of "house"
+is not "hice," that he may speak of his two "sons,"
+but not of his two "childs"; he will indistinguishably
+refer to "sheeps" and "ships"; and like the preacher
+a little unfamiliar with English who had chosen a well-known
+text to preach on, he will not remember whether
+"plough" is pronounced "pluff" or "plo,"
+<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> and even
+a phonetic spelling system would render still more
+confusing the confusion between such a series of words as
+"hair," "hare," "heir," "are," "ere" and "eyre."
+Many of these irregularities are deeply rooted in the
+structure of the language; it would be an extremely
+difficult as well as extensive task to remove them, and
+when the task was achieved the language would have
+lost much of its character and savour; it would clash
+painfully with literary English.</p>
+
+<p>Thus even if we admitted that English ought to be the
+international language of the future, the result is not so
+satisfactory from a British point of view as is usually
+taken for granted. All other civilized nations would be
+bilingual; they would possess the key not only to their
+own literature, but to a great foreign literature with all
+the new horizons that a foreign literature opens out.
+The English-speaking countries alone would be furnished
+with only one language, and would have no stimulus to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+acquire any other language, for no other language would
+be of any practical use to them. All foreigners would be
+in a position to bring to the English-speaking man whatever
+information they considered good for him. At first
+sight this seems a gain for the English-speaking peoples,
+because they would thus be spared a certain expenditure
+of energy; but a very little reflection shows that such a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+saving of energy is like that effected by the intestinal
+parasitic worm who has digested food brought ready to
+his mouth. It leads to degeneracy. Not the people
+whose language is learnt, but the people who learn a
+language reap the benefit, spiritual and material. It is
+now admitted in the commercial world that the ardour
+of the Germans in learning English has brought more
+advantage to the Germans than to the English. Moreover,
+the high intellectual level of small nations at the
+present time is due largely to the fact that all their
+educated members must be familiar with one or two
+languages besides their own. The great defect of the
+English mind is insularity; the virtue of its boisterous
+energy is accompanied by lack of insight into the differing
+virtues of other peoples. If the natural course of events
+led to the exclusive use of English for international
+communication, this defect would be still more accentuated.
+The immense value of becoming acquainted
+with a foreign language is that we are thereby led into a
+new world of tradition and thought and feeling. Before
+we know a new language truly, we have to realize that
+the words which at first seem equivalent to words in our
+own language often have a totally different atmosphere, a
+different rank or dignity from that which they occupy in
+our own language. It is in learning this difference in the
+moral connotation of a language and its expression in
+literature that we reap the real benefit of knowing a
+foreign tongue. There is no other way&mdash;not even residence
+in a foreign land if we are ignorant of the language&mdash;to
+take us out of the customary circle of our own
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+traditions. It imparts a mental flexibility and emotional
+sympathy which no other discipline can yield. To ordain
+that all non-English-speaking peoples should learn
+English in addition to their mother tongue, and to render
+it practically unnecessary for English-speakers (except
+the small class of students) to learn any other language,
+would be to confer an immense boon on the first group of
+peoples, doubling their mental and emotional capacity;
+it is to render the second group hidebound.</p>
+
+<p>When we take a broad and impartial survey of the
+question we thus see that there is reason to believe that,
+while English is an admirable literary language (this is
+the ground that its eulogists always take), and sufficiently
+concise for commercial purposes, it is by no means an
+adequate international tongue, especially for purposes
+of oral speech, and, moreover, its exclusive use for this
+purpose would be a misfortune for the nations already
+using it, since they would be deprived of that mental
+flexibility and emotional sympathy which no discipline
+can give so well as knowledge of a living foreign tongue.</p>
+
+<p>Many who realized these difficulties put forward French
+as the auxiliary international language. It is quite
+true that the power behind French is now relatively
+less than it was two centuries ago.
+<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> At that time France
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+by its relatively large population, the tradition of its
+military greatness, and its influential political position,
+was able to exert an immense influence; French was the
+language of intellect and society in Germany, in England,
+in Russia, everywhere in fact. During the eighteenth
+century internal maladministration, the cataclysm of the
+Revolution, and finally the fatal influence of Napoleon
+alienated foreign sympathy, and France lost her commanding
+position. Yet it was reasonably felt that, if a
+natural language is to be used for international purposes,
+after English there is no practicable alternative to French.</p>
+
+<p>French is the language not indeed in any special
+sense of science or of commerce, but of the finest human
+culture. It is a well-organized tongue, capable of the
+finest shades of expression, and it is the key to a great
+literature. In most respects it is the best favoured child
+of Latin; it commends itself to all who speak Romance
+languages, and, as Alphonse de Candolle has remarked,
+a Spaniard and an Italian know three-quarters of French
+beforehand, and every one who has learnt Latin knows
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+half of French already. It is more admirably adapted
+for speaking purposes than perhaps any other language
+which has any claim to be used for international purposes,
+as we should expect of the tongue spoken by a people
+who have excelled in oratory, who possess such widely
+diffused dramatic ability, and who have carried the arts
+of social intercourse to the highest point.</p>
+
+<p>Paris remains for most people the intellectual capital
+of Europe; French is still very generally used for purposes
+of intercommunication throughout Europe, while
+the difficulty experienced by all but Germans and Russians
+in learning English is well known. Li Hung Chang
+is reported to have said that, while for commercial reasons
+English is far more widely used in China than French,
+the Chinese find French a much easier language to learn
+to speak, and the preferences of the Chinese may one day
+count for a good deal&mdash;in one direction or another&mdash;in
+the world's progress. One frequently hears that the use
+of French for international purposes is decaying; this
+is a delusion probably due to the relatively slow growth
+of the French-speaking races and to various temporary
+political causes. It is only necessary to look at the large
+International Medical Congresses. Thus at one such
+Congress at Rome, at which I was present, over six
+thousand members came from forty-two countries of the
+globe, and over two thousand of them took part in the
+proceedings. Four languages (Italian, French, German
+and English) were used at this Congress. Going over the
+seven large volumes of Transactions, I find that fifty-nine
+communications were presented in English, one hundred
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+and seventy-one in German, three hundred and one in
+French, the rest in Italian. The proportion of English
+communications to German is thus a little more than one
+to three, and the proportion of English to French less
+than one to six. Moreover, the English-speaking members
+invariably (I believe) used their own language, so
+that these fifty-nine communications represent the whole
+contribution of the English-speaking world. And they
+represent nothing more than that; notwithstanding the
+enormous spread of English, of which we hear so much,
+not a single non-English speaker seems to have used
+English. It might be supposed that this preponderance
+of French was due to a preponderance of the French
+element, but this was by no means the case; the members
+of English-speaking race greatly exceeded those of French-speaking
+race. But, while the English communications
+represented the English-speaking countries only, and the
+German communications were chiefly by German speakers,
+French was spoken not only by members belonging to
+the smaller nations of Europe, from the north and from
+the south, by the Russians, by most of the Turkish and
+Asiatic members, but also by all the Mexicans and South
+Americans. These figures may not be absolutely free
+from fallacy, due to temporary causes of fluctuation.
+But that they are fairly exact is shown by the results of
+the following Congress, held at Moscow. If I take up the
+programme for the department of psychiatry and nervous
+disease, in which I was myself chiefly interested, I find
+that of 131 communications, 80 were in French, 37 in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
+German and 14 in English. This shows that French,
+German and English bear almost exactly the same relation
+to one another as at Rome. In other words, 61 per cent
+of the speakers used French, 28 per cent German, and
+only 11 per cent English.</p>
+
+<p>If we come down to one of the most recent International
+Medical Congresses, that of Lisbon in 1906, we find that
+the supremacy of French, far from weakening, is more
+emphatically affirmed. The language of the country in
+which the Congress was held was ruled out, and I find
+that of 666 contributions to the proceedings of the Congress,
+over 84 per cent were in French, scarcely more than
+8 per cent in English, and less than 7 per cent in German.
+At the subsequent Congress at Budapesth in 1909,
+the French contributions were to the English as three to
+one. Similar results are shown by other International
+Congresses. Thus at the third International Congress of
+Psychology, held at Munich, there were four official
+languages, and on grounds of locality the majority of
+communications were in German; French followed with
+29, Italian with 12, and English brought up the rear with
+11. Dr. Westermarck, who is the stock example of the
+spread of English for international purposes, spoke in
+German. It is clearly futile to point to figures showing
+the prolific qualities of English races; the moral quality
+of a race and its language counts, as well as mere physical
+capacity for breeding, and the moral influence of French
+to-day is immensely greater than that of English. That
+is, indeed, scarcely a fair statement of the matter in view
+of the typical cases just quoted; one should rather say
+that, as a means of spoken international communication
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+for other than commercial purposes, English is nowhere.</p>
+
+<p>There is one other point which serves to give prestige to
+French: its literary supremacy in the modern world.
+While some would claim for the English the supreme
+poetic literature, there can be no doubt that the French
+own the supreme prose literature of modern Europe. It
+was felt by those who advocated the adoption of English
+or French that it would surely be a gain for human
+progress if the auxiliary international languages of the
+future should be one, if not both, of two that possess
+great literatures, and which embody cultures in some
+respects allied, but in most respects admirably supplementing
+each other.<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p>
+
+<p>The collapse of Volap&uuml;k stimulated the energy of those
+who believed that the solution of the question lay in the
+adoption of a natural language. To-day, however, there
+are few persons who, after carefully considering the
+matter, regard this solution as probable or practicable.
+<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
+Considerations of two orders seem now to be decisive
+in rejecting the claims of English and French, or, indeed,
+any other natural language, to be accepted as an international
+language: (1) The vast number of peculiarities,
+difficulties, and irregularities, rendering necessary so
+revolutionary a change for international purposes that
+the language would be almost transformed into an artificial
+language, and perhaps not even then an entirely
+satisfactory one. (2) The extraordinary development
+during recent years of the minor national languages, and
+the jealousy of foreign languages which this revival has
+caused. This latter factor is probably alone fatal to the
+adoption of any living language. It can scarcely be
+disputed that neither English nor French occupies to-day
+so relatively influential a position as it once occupied.
+The movement against the use of French in Roumania,
+as detrimental to the national language, is significant of
+a widespread feeling, while, as regards English, the
+introduction by the Germans into commerce of the
+method of approaching customers in their own tongue,
+has rendered impossible the previous English custom of
+treating English as the general language of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The natural languages, it became realized, fail to
+answer to the requirements which must be made of an
+auxiliary international language. The conditions which
+have to be fulfilled are thus formulated by Anna Roberts:
+<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>First</i>, a vocabulary having a maximum of internationality
+in its root-words for at least the Indo-European
+races, living or bordering on the confines of the old Roman
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
+Empire, whose vocabularies are already saturated with
+Greek and Latin roots, absorbed during the long centuries
+of contact with Greek and Roman civilization. As the
+centre of gravity of the world's civilization now stands,
+this seems the most rational beginning. Such a language
+shall then have:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Second</i>, a grammatical structure stripped of all the
+irregularities found in every existing tongue, and that
+shall be simpler than any of them. It shall have:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Third</i>, a single, unalterable sound for each letter, no
+silent letters, no difficult, complex, shaded sounds, but
+simple primary sounds, capable of being combined into
+harmonious words, which latter shall have but a single
+stress accent that never shifts.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Fourth</i>, mobility of structure, aptness for the expression
+of complex ideas, but in ways that are grammatically
+simple, and by means of words that can easily be
+analysed without a dictionary.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Fifth</i>, it must be capable of being, not merely a
+literary language,<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>
+but a spoken tongue, having a pronunciation
+that can be perfectly mastered by adults
+through the use of manuals, and in the absence of oral
+teachers.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Finally</i>, and as a necessary corollary and complement
+to all of the above, this international auxiliary language
+must, to be of general utility, be exceedingly easy of
+acquisition by persons of but moderate education,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
+and hitherto conversant with no language but their
+own."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Thus the way was prepared for the favourable reception
+of a new artificial language, which had in the meanwhile
+been elaborated. Dr. Zamenhof, a Russian physician
+living at Warsaw, had been from youth occupied with the
+project of an international language, and in 1887 he put
+forth in French his scheme for a new language to be
+called Esperanto. The scheme attracted little notice;
+Volap&uuml;k was then at the zenith of its career, and when it
+fell, its fall discredited all attempts at an artificial language.
+But, like Volap&uuml;k, Esperanto found its great
+apostle in France. M. Louis de Beaufront brought his
+high ability and immense enthusiasm to the work of
+propaganda, and the success of Esperanto in the world is
+attributed in large measure to him. The extension of
+Esperanto is now threatening to rival that of Volap&uuml;k.
+Many years ago Max M&uuml;ller, and subsequently Skeat,
+notwithstanding the philologist's prejudice in favour of
+natural languages, expressed their approval of Esperanto,
+and many persons of distinction, moving in such widely
+remote spheres as Tolstoy and Sir William Ramsay, have
+since signified their acceptance and their sympathy.
+Esperanto Congresses are regularly held, Esperanto
+Societies and Esperanto Consulates are established in
+many parts of the world, a great number of books and
+journals are published in Esperanto, and some of the
+world's classics have been translated into it.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally recognized that Esperanto represents a
+great advance on Volap&uuml;k. Yet there are already signs
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+that Esperanto is approaching the climax of its reputation,
+and that possibly its inventor may share the fate of the
+inventor of Volap&uuml;k and outlive his own language. The
+most serious attack on Esperanto has come from within.
+The most intelligent Esperantists have realized the
+weakness and defects of their language (in some measure
+due to the inevitable Slavonic prepossessions of its
+inventor) and demand radical reforms, which the conservative
+party resist. Even M. de Beaufront, to whom
+its success was largely due, has abandoned primitive
+Esperanto, and various scientific men of high distinction
+in several countries now advocate the supersession of
+Esperanto by an improved language based upon it and
+called Ido. Professor Lorenz, who is among the advocates
+of Ido, admits that Esperanto has shown the possibility
+of a synthetic language, but states definitely that
+"according to the concordant testimony of all unbiased
+opinions" Esperanto in no wise represents the final
+solution of the problem. This new movement is embodied
+in the D&eacute;l&eacute;gation pour l'Adoption d'une Langue Auxiliaire
+Internationale, founded in Paris during the International
+Exhibition in 1900 by various eminent literary and
+scientific men, and having its head-quarters in Paris.
+The D&eacute;l&eacute;gation consider that the problem demands a
+purely scientific and technical solution, and it is claimed
+that 40 per cent of the stems of Ido are common to six
+languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian
+and Spanish. The D&eacute;l&eacute;gation appear to have approached
+the question with a fairly open mind, and it was only
+after study of the subject that they finally reached the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
+conclusion that Esperanto contained a sufficient number
+of good qualities to furnish a basis on which to work.
+<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+<p>The general programme of the D&eacute;l&eacute;gation is that (1)
+an auxiliary international language is required, adapted
+to written and oral language between persons of different
+mother tongues; (2) such language must be capable of
+serving the needs of science, daily life, commerce, and
+general intercourse, and must be of such a character that
+it may easily be learnt by persons of average elementary
+education, especially those of civilized European nationality;
+(3) the decision to rest with the International
+Association of Academies, and, in case of their refusal,
+with the Committee of the D&eacute;l&eacute;gation.
+<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p>
+
+<p>The D&eacute;l&eacute;gation is seeking to bring about an official
+international Congress which would either itself or
+through properly appointed experts establish an internationally
+and officially recognized auxiliary language.
+The chief step made in this direction has been the formation
+at Berne in 1911 of an international association
+whose object is to take immediate steps towards bringing
+the question before the Governments of Europe. The
+Association is pledged to observe a strict neutrality in
+regard to the language to be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>The whole question seems thus to have been placed on
+a sounder basis than hitherto. The international language
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>
+of the future cannot be, and ought not to be,
+settled by a single individual seeking to impose his own
+invention on the world. This is not a matter for zealous
+propaganda of an almost religious character. The hasty
+and premature adoption of some privately invented
+language merely retards progress. No individual can
+settle the question by himself. What we need is calm
+study and deliberation between the nations and the classes
+chiefly concerned, acting through the accredited representatives
+of their Governments and other professional
+bodies. Nothing effective can be done until the pressure
+of popular opinion has awakened Governments and
+scientific societies to the need for action. The question of
+international arbitration has become practical; the
+question of the international language ought to go hand
+in hand with that of international arbitration. They are
+closely allied and both equally necessary.</p>
+
+<p>While the educational, commercial, and official advantages
+of an auxiliary international language are obvious,
+it seems to me that from the standpoint of social hygiene
+there are at least three interests which are especially and
+deeply concerned in the settlement of this question.</p>
+
+<p>The first and chief is that of international democracy
+in its efforts to attain an understanding on labour questions.
+There can be no solution of this question until a
+simpler mode of personal communication has become
+widely prevalent. This matter has from time to time
+already been brought before international labour congresses,
+and those who attend such congresses have
+doubtless had occasion to realize how essential it is.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
+Perhaps it is a chief factor in the comparative failure of
+such congresses hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>Science represents the second great interest which has
+shown an active concern in the settlement of this question.
+To follow up any line of scientific research is already a
+sufficiently gigantic work, on account of the absence of
+proper bibliographical organization; it becomes almost
+overwhelming now that the search has to extend over at
+least half a dozen languages, and still leaves the searcher
+a stranger to the important investigations which are
+appearing in Russian and in Japanese, and will before long
+appear in other languages. Sir Michael Foster once drew
+a humorous picture of the woes of the physiologist owing
+to these causes. In other fields&mdash;especially in the numerous
+branches of anthropological research, as I can myself
+bear witness&mdash;the worker is even worse off than the
+physiologist. Just now science is concentrating its
+energies on the organization of bibliography, but much
+attention has been given to this question of an international
+language from time to time, and it is likely before
+long to come pressingly to the front.</p>
+
+<p>The medical profession is also practically concerned in
+this question; hitherto it has, indeed, taken a more
+lively interest in the effort to secure an international
+language than has pure science. It is of the first importance
+that new discoveries and methods in medicine and
+hygiene should be rendered immediately accessible;
+while the now enormously extended domain of medicine
+is full of great questions which can only be solved by
+international co-operation on an international basis.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span>
+The responsibility of advocating a number of measures
+affecting the well-being of communities lies, in the first
+place, with the medical profession; but no general agreement
+is possible without full facilities for discussion in
+international session. This has been generally recognized;
+hence the numerous attempts to urge a single
+language on the organizers of the international medical
+congresses. I have already observed how large and
+active these congresses were. Yet it cannot be said that
+any results are achieved commensurate with the world-wide
+character of such congresses. Partly this is due to
+the fact that the organizers of international congresses
+have not yet learnt what should be the scope of such
+conferences, and what they may legitimately hope to perform;
+but very largely because there is no international
+method of communication; and, except for a few
+seasoned cosmopolitans, no truly international exchange
+of opinions takes place. This can only be possible when
+we have a really common and familiar method of intercommunication.</p>
+
+<p>These three interests&mdash;democratic, scientific, medical&mdash;seem
+at present those chiefly concerned in the task of
+putting this matter on a definite basis, and it is much to
+be desired that they should come to some common agreement.
+They represent three immensely important
+modes of social and intellectual activity, and the progress
+of every nation is bound up with an international progress
+of which they are now the natural pioneers. It cannot be
+too often repeated that the day has gone by when any
+progress worthy of the name can be purely national.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>
+All the most vital questions of national progress tend to
+merge themselves into international questions. But
+before any question of international progress can result
+in anything but noisy confusion, we need a recognized
+mode of international intelligence and communication.
+That is why the question of the auxiliary international
+language is of actual and vital interest to all who are
+concerned with the tasks of social hygiene.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE QUESTION ON INTERNATIONAL COINAGE</h4>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that the international auxiliary
+language is an organic part of a larger internationalization
+which must inevitably be effected, and is indeed already
+coming into being. Two related measures of intercommunication
+are an international system of postage stamps, and an
+international coinage, to which may be added an international
+system of weights and measures, which seems to be already
+in course of settlement by the increasingly general adoption
+of the metric system. The introduction of the exchangeable
+international stamp coupon represents the beginning of a
+truly international postal system; but it is only a beginning.
+If a completely developed international postal system were
+incidentally to deliver some nations, and especially the English,
+from the depressingly ugly postage stamps they are
+now condemned to use, this reform would possess a further
+advantage almost as great as its practical utility. An international
+coinage is, again, a prime necessity, which would
+possess immense commercial advantages in addition to the
+great saving of trouble it would effect. The progress of
+civilization is already working towards an international
+coinage. In an interesting paper on this subject ("International
+Coinage," <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, March, 1910)
+T.F. van Wagenen writes; "Each in its way, the great
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span>
+commercial nations of the day are unconsciously engaged in
+the task. The English shilling is working northwards from
+the Cape of Good Hope, has already come in touch with the
+German mark and the Portuguese peseta which have been
+introduced on both the east and west sides of the Continent,
+and will in due time meet the French franc and Italian
+lira coming south from the shores of the Mediterranean.
+In Asia, the Indian rupee, the Russian rouble, the Japanese
+yen, and the American-Philippine coins are already competing
+for the patronage of the Malay and the Chinaman. In South
+America neither American nor European coins have any foot-hold,
+the Latin-American nations being well supplied by
+systems of their own, all related more or less closely to the
+coinage of Mexico or Portugal. Thus the plainly evolutionary
+task of pushing civilization into the uneducated parts of the
+world through commerce is as badly hampered by the different
+coins offered to the barbarian as are the efforts of the evangelists
+to introduce Christianity by the existence of the various
+denominations and creeds. The Church is beginning to appreciate
+the wastage in its efforts, and is trying to minimize
+it by combinations among the denominations having for their
+object to standardize Christianity, so to speak, by reducing
+tenet and dogma to the lowest possible terms. Commerce
+must do the same. The white man's coins must be standardized
+and simplified.... The international coin will
+come in a comparatively short time, just as will arrive the
+international postage stamp, which, by the way, is very
+badly needed. For the upper classes of all countries, the people
+who travel, and have to stand the nuisance and loss of changing
+their money at every frontier, the bankers and international
+merchants who have to cumber their accounts with the
+fluctuating item of exchange between commercial centres
+will insist upon it. All the European nations, with the
+exception of Russia and Turkey, are ready for the change,
+and when these reach the stage of real constitutionalism in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span>
+their progress upward, they will be compelled to follow, being
+already deeply in debt to the French, English, and Germans.
+Japan may be counted upon to acquiesce instantly in any
+unit agreed upon by the rest of the civilized world."</p>
+
+<p>This writer points out that the opening out of the uncivilized
+parts of the world to commerce will alone serve to make an
+international coinage absolutely indispensable.</p>
+
+<p>Without, however, introducing a really new system, an
+auxiliary international money system (corresponding to an
+auxiliary international language) could be introduced as a
+medium of exchange without interfering with the existing
+coinages of the various nations. R&eacute;n&eacute; de Saussure (writing
+in the <i>Journal de Gen&egrave;ve</i>, in 1907) has insisted on the immense
+benefit such a system of "monnaie de compte" would be
+in removing the burden imposed upon all international
+financial relations by the diversity of money values. He
+argues that the best point of union would be a gold piece of
+eight grammes&mdash;almost exactly equivalent to one pound,
+twenty marks, five dollars, and twenty-five francs&mdash;being,
+in fact, but one-third of a penny different from the value of
+a pound sterling. For the subdivisions the point of union
+must be decimally divided, and M. de Saussure would give
+the name of speso to a ten-thousandth part of the gold coin.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a>
+The history of the efforts to attain a universal language has been
+written by Couturat and Leau, <i>Histoire de la Langue Universelle</i>, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a>
+The distinguished French physician, Dr. Sollier, also, in an address
+to the Lisbon International Medical Congress, on "La Question de la
+Langue Auxiliaire Internationale," in 1906, advocating the adoption of
+one of the existing Romance tongues, said: "Spanish is the simplest
+of all and the easiest, and if it were chosen for this purpose I should
+be the first to accept it."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a>
+It has even been stated by a distinguished English man of science
+that Latin is sometimes easier for the English to use than is their own
+language. "I have known Englishmen who could be trusted to write
+a more intelligible treatise, possibly even to make a more lucid speech,
+in Latin than in English," says Dr. Miers, the Principal of London
+University (<i>Lancet</i>, 7th October, 1911), and he adds: "Quite seriously,
+I think some part of the cause is to be sought in the difficulty of our
+language, and many educated persons get lost in its intricacies, just
+as they get lost in its spelling." Without questioning the fact, however,
+I would venture to question this explanation of it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a>
+Thus in one article on the growing extension of the English language
+throughout the world (<i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>, March, 1892) we read:
+"English is practically certain to become the language of the world....
+The speech of Shakespeare and Milton, of Dryden and Swift,
+of Byron and Wordsworth, will be, in a sense in which no other language
+has been, the speech of the whole world." We do not nowadays meet
+with these wild statements.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a>
+The stumbling-stones for the foreigner presented by English words
+in "ough" have often been referred to, and are clearly set forth in
+the verses in which Mr. C.B. Loomis has sought to represent a French
+learner's experiences&mdash;and the same time to show the criminal impulses
+which these irregularities arouse in the pupil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"I'm taught p-l-o-u-g-h</span>
+<span class="i0">Shall be pronounc&egrave;d 'plow,'</span>
+<span class="i0">'Zat's easy when you know,' I say,</span>
+<span class="i0">'Mon Anglais I'll get through.'</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"My teacher say zat in zat case</span>
+<span class="i0">O-u-g-h is 'oo,'</span>
+<span class="i0">And zen I laugh and say to him</span>
+<span class="i0">'Zees Anglais make me cough.'</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"He say, 'Not coo, but in zat word</span>
+<span class="i0">O-u-g-h is "off,"'</span>
+<span class="i0">Oh, <i>sacre bleu</i>! such varied sounds</span>
+<span class="i0">Of words make me hiccough!</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"He say, 'Again, mon friend ees wrong!</span>
+<span class="i0">O-u-g-h is "up,"</span>
+<span class="i0">In hiccough,' Zen I cry, 'No more,</span>
+<span class="i0">You make my throat feel rough,'</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"'Non! non!' he cry, 'you are not right&mdash;</span>
+<span class="i0">O-u-g-h is "uff."'</span>
+<span class="i0">I say, 'I try to speak your words,</span>
+<span class="i0">I can't prononz zem though,'</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"'In time you'll learn, but now you're wrong,</span>
+<span class="i0">O-u-g-h is "owe."'</span>
+<span class="i0">'I'll try no more. I sall go mad,</span>
+<span class="i0">I'll drown me in ze lough!'</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"'But ere you drown yourself,' said he,</span>
+<span class="i0">'O-u-g-h is "ock."'</span>
+<span class="i0">He taught no more! I held him fast,</span>
+<span class="i0">And killed him wiz a rough!"</span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a>
+It is interesting to remember that at one period in European
+history, French seemed likely to absorb English, and thus to acquire,
+in addition to its own motor force, all the motor force which now
+lies behind English. When the Normans&mdash;a vigorous people of
+Scandinavian origin, speaking a Romance tongue, and therefore well
+fitted to accomplish a harmonizing task of this kind&mdash;occupied both
+sides of the English Channel, it seemed probable that they would
+dominate the speech of England as well as of France. "At that time,"
+says M&eacute;ray (<i>La Vie aux Temps des Cours d'Amour</i>, p. 367), who puts
+forward this view, "the people of the two coasts of the Channel were
+closer in customs and in speech than were for a long time the French on
+the opposite banks of the Loire.... The influential part of the English
+nation and all the people of its southern regions spoke the <i>Romance</i>
+of the north of France. In the Crusades the Knights of the two peoples
+often mixed, and were greeted as Franks wherever their adventurous
+spirit led them. If Edward III, with the object of envenoming an
+antagonism which served his own ends, had not broken this link of
+language, the two peoples would perhaps have been united to-day in
+the same efforts of progress and of liberty.... Of what a fine instrument
+of culture and of progress has not that fatal decree of Edward
+III deprived civilization!"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a>
+I was at one time (<i>Progressive Review</i>, April, 1897) inclined to think
+that the adoption of both English and French, as joint auxiliary
+international languages&mdash;the first for writing and the second
+for speaking&mdash;might solve the problem. I have since recognized that
+such a solution, however advantageous it might be for human culture, would
+present many difficulties, and is quite impracticable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a>
+I may refer to three able papers which have appeared in recent
+years in the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>: Anna Monsch Roberts, "The
+Problem of International Speech" (February, 1908); Ivy Kellerman,
+"The Necessity for an International Language," (September, 1909);
+Albert L&eacute;on Gu&eacute;rard, "English as an International Language"
+(October, 1911). All these writers reject as impracticable the adoption
+of either English or French as the auxiliary international language,
+and view with more favour the adoption of an artificial language such
+as Esperanto.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a>
+A.M. Roberts, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a>
+It should be added, however, that the auxiliary language need not
+be used as a medium for literary art, and it is a mistake, as Pfaundler
+points out, to translate poems into such a language.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a>
+See <i>International Language and Science</i>, 1910, by Couturat, Jespersen,
+Lorenz, Ostwald, Pfaundler, and Donnan, five professors living in
+five different countries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a>
+The progress of the movement is recorded in its official journal,
+<i>Progreso</i>, edited by Couturat, and in De Beaufront's journal, <i>La Langue
+Auxiliaire</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPXII" id="CHAPXII"></a>XII</h3>
+
+<h3>INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM</h3>
+
+<blockquote><p>Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between Socialism
+and Individualism&mdash;The Two Parties in Politics&mdash;The Relation
+of Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and Individualism&mdash;The
+Basis of Socialism&mdash;The Basis of Individualism&mdash;The seeming
+Opposition between Socialism and Individualism merely a Division
+of Labour&mdash;Both Socialism and Individualism equally Necessary&mdash;Not
+only Necessary but Indispensable to each other&mdash;The Conflict
+between the Advocates of Environment and Heredity&mdash;A New
+Embodiment of the supposed Conflict between Socialism and
+Individualism&mdash;The Place of Eugenics&mdash;Social Hygiene ultimately
+one with the Hygiene of the Soul&mdash;The Function of Utopias.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The controversy between Individualism and
+Socialism, the claim of the personal unit as
+against the claim of the collective community,
+is of ancient date. Yet it is ever new and constantly
+presented afresh. It even seems to become more acute as
+civilization progresses. Every scheme of social reform,
+every powerful manifestation of individual energy, raise
+anew a problem that is never out of date.</p>
+
+<p>It is inevitable, indeed, that with the development
+of social hygiene during the past hundred years there
+should also develop a radical opposition of opinion as to
+the methods by which such hygiene ought to be accomplished.
+There has always been this opposition in the
+political sphere; it is natural to find it also in the social
+sphere. The very fact that old-fashioned politics are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>
+becoming more and more transformed into questions of
+social hygiene itself ensures the continuance of such an
+opposition.</p>
+
+<p>In politics, and especially in the politics of constitutional
+countries of which England is the type, there are
+normally two parties. There is the party that holds by
+tradition, by established order and solidarity, the maintenance
+of the ancient hierarchical constitution of society,
+and in general distinguishes itself by a preference for the
+old over the new. There is, on the other side, the party
+that insists on progress, on freedom, on the reasonable
+demands of the individual, on the adaptation of the
+accepted order to changing conditions, and in general
+distinguishes itself by a preference for the new over the
+old. The first may be called the party of structure, and
+the second the party of function. In England we know
+the adherents of one party as Conservatives and those of
+the other party as Liberals or Radicals.</p>
+
+<p>In time, it is true, these normal distinctions between
+the party of structure and the party of function tend to
+become somewhat confused; and it is precisely the
+transition of politics into the social sphere which tends
+to introduce confusion. With a political system which
+proceeds ultimately out of a society with a feudalistic
+basis, the normal attitude of political parties is long
+maintained. The party of structure, the Conservative
+party, holds by the ancient feudalistic ideals which are
+really, in the large sense, socialistic, though a socialism
+based on a foundation of established inequality, and so
+altogether unlike the democratic socialism promulgated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span>
+to-day. The party of function, the Liberal party, insists
+on the break-up of this structural socialism to meet the
+new needs of progressive civilization. But when feudalism
+has been left far behind, and many of the changes introduced
+by Liberalism have become part of the social
+structure, they fall under the protection of Conservatives
+who are fighting against new Liberal innovations. Thus
+the lines of delimitation tend to become indistinct.</p>
+
+<p>In the politics of social hygiene there are the same two
+factors: the party of structure and the party of function.
+In their nature and in their opposition to each other
+they correspond to the two parties in the old political field.
+But they have changed their character and their names:
+the party of structure is here Socialism or Collectivism,
+<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a>
+the party of function is Individualism.
+<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> And while the
+Tory, the Conservative of early days, was allied to
+Collectivism, and the Whig, the Liberal of early days, to
+Individualism, that correspondence has ceased to be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span>
+invariable owing to the confused manner in which the old
+political parties have nowadays shifted their ground.
+We may thus see a Liberal who is a Collectivist when a
+Collectivist measure may involve that innovation to
+secure adjustment to new needs which is of the essence of
+Liberalism, and we may see a Conservative who is an
+Individualist when Individualism involves that maintenance
+of the existing order which is of the essence of
+Conservatism. Whether a man is a Conservative or a
+Liberal, he may incline either to Socialism or to Individualism
+without breaking with his political tradition.
+It is, therefore, impossible to import any political animus
+into the fundamental antagonism between Individualism
+and Socialism, which prevails in the sphere of social
+hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot hope to see clearly the grave problems
+involved by the fundamental antagonism between
+Socialism and Individualism unless we understand what
+each is founded on and what it is aiming at.</p>
+
+<p>When we seek to inquire how it is that the Socialist
+ideal exerts so powerful an attraction on the human mind,
+and why it is ever seeking new modes of practical realization,
+we cannot fail to perceive that it ultimately proceeds
+from the primitive need of mutual help, a need
+which was felt long before the appearance of humanity.
+<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a>
+If, however, we keep strictly to our immediate mammalian
+traditions it may be said that the earliest socialist community
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+is the family, with its trinity of father, mother, and
+child. The primitive family constitutes a group which is
+conditioned by the needs of each member. Each individual
+is subordinated to the whole. The infant needs
+the mother and the mother needs the infant; they both
+need the father and the father needs both for the complete
+satisfaction of his own activities. Socially and
+economically this primitive group is a unit, and if broken
+up into its individual parts these would be liable to perish.</p>
+
+<p>However we may multiply our social unit, however we
+may enlarge and elaborate it, however we may juggle
+with the results, we cannot disguise the essential fact.
+At the centre of every social agglomeration, however vast,
+however small, lies the social unit of the family of which
+each individual is by himself either unable to live or
+unable to reproduce, unable, that is to say, to gratify the
+two fundamental needs of hunger and love.</p>
+
+<p>There are many people who, while willing to admit
+that the family is, in a sense, a composite social unit to
+which each part has need of the other parts, so that all
+are mutually bound together, seek to draw a firm line of
+distinction between the family and society. Family life,
+they declare, is not irreconcilable with individualism; it
+is merely <i>un &eacute;go&iuml;sme &agrave; trois</i>. It is, however, difficult to
+see how such a distinction can be maintained, whether we
+look at the matter theoretically or practically. In a small
+country like Great Britain, for instance, every Englishman
+(excluding new immigrants) is related by blood to every
+other Englishman, as would become clearer if every man
+possessed his pedigree for a thousand years back. When
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>
+we remember, further, also, that every nation has been
+overlaid by invasions, warlike or peaceful, from neighbouring
+lands, and has, indeed, been originally formed in
+this way since no people has sprung up out of the soil of
+its own land, we must further admit that the nations
+themselves form one family related by blood.</p>
+
+<p>Our genealogical relation to our fellows is too remote
+and extensive to concern us much practically and sentimentally,
+though it is well that we should realize it. If
+we put it aside, we have still to remember that our actual
+need of our fellows is not definitely to be distinguished
+from the mutual needs of the members of the smallest
+social unit, the family.</p>
+
+<p>In practice the individual is helpless. Of all animals,
+indeed, man is the most helpless when left to himself.
+He must be cared for by others at every moment during
+his long infancy. He is dependent on the exertions of
+others for shelter and clothes, while others are occupied
+in preparing his food and conveying it from the ends of
+the world. Even if we confine ourselves to the most
+elementary needs of a moderately civilized existence, or
+even if our requirements are only those of an idiot in an
+asylum, yet, for every one of us, there are literally millions
+of people spending the best of their lives from morning to
+night and perhaps receiving but little in return. The very
+elementary need of the individual in an urban civilization
+for pure water to drink can only be attained by organized
+social effort. The gigantic aqueducts constructed by the
+Romans are early monuments of social activity typical of
+all the rest. The primary needs of the individual can only
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span>
+be supplied by an immense and highly organized social
+effort. The more complex civilization becomes, and the
+more numerous individual needs become, so much the
+more elaborate and highly organized becomes the social
+response to those needs. The individual is so dependent
+on society that he needs not only the active work of
+others, but even their mere passive good opinion, and if he
+loses that he is a failure, bankrupt, a pauper, a lunatic, a
+criminal, and the social reaction against him may suffice
+to isolate him, even to put him out of life altogether. So
+dependent indeed on society is the individual that there
+has always been a certain plausibility in the old idea of
+the Stoics, countenanced by St. Paul, and so often revived
+in later days (as by Sch&auml;ffle, Lilienfeld, and Ren&eacute; Worms),
+that society is an organism in which the individuals are
+merely cells depending for their significance on the whole
+to which they belong. Just as the animal is, as Hegel,
+the metaphysician, called it, a "nation," and Dareste,
+the physiologist, a "city," made up of cells which are
+individuals having a common ancestor, so the actual
+nation, the real city, is an animal made up of individuals
+which are cells having a common ancestor, or, as Oken
+long ago put it, individuals are the organs of the whole.
+<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>
+Man is a social animal in constant action and reaction with
+all his fellows of the same group&mdash;a group which becomes
+ever greater as civilization advances&mdash;and socialism is
+merely the formal statement of this ultimate social fact.
+<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span>
+There is a divinity that hedges certain words. A
+sacred terror warns the profane off them as off something
+that might blast the beholder's sight. In fact it is so,
+and even a clear-sighted person may be blinded by such
+a word. Of these words none is more typical than the
+word "socialism." Not so very long ago a prominent
+public man, of high intelligence, but evidently susceptible
+to the terror-striking influence of words, went to Glasgow
+to deliver an address on Social Reform. He warned his
+hearers against Socialism, and told them that, though so
+much talked about, it had not made one inch of progress;
+of practical Socialism or Collectivism there were no signs
+at all. Yet, as some of his hearers pointed out, he gave
+his address in a municipally owned hall, illuminated by
+municipal lights, to an audience which had largely
+arrived in municipal tramcars travelling through streets
+owned, maintained, and guarded by the municipality.
+This audience was largely educated in State schools, in
+which their children nowadays can receive not only free
+education and free books, but, if necessary, free food and
+free medical inspection and treatment. Moreover, the
+members of this same audience thus assured of the non-existence
+of Socialism, are entitled to free treatment in
+the municipal hospital, should an infective disease overtake
+them; the municipality provides them freely with
+concerts and picture galleries, golf courses and swimming
+ponds; and in old age, finally, if duly qualified, they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>
+receive a State pension. Now all these measures are
+socialistic, and Socialism is nothing more or less than a
+complicated web of such measures; the socialistic State,
+as some have put it, is simply a great national co-operative
+association of which the Government is the board of
+managers.</p>
+
+<p>It is said by some who disclaim any tendency to
+Socialism, that what they desire is not the State-ownership
+of the means of production, but State-regulation.
+Let the State, in the interests of the community, keep a
+firm control over the individualistic exploitation of
+capital, let it tax capital as far as may be desirable in the
+interests of the community. But beyond this, capital,
+as well as land, is sacred. The distinction thus assumed
+is not, however, valid. The very people who make this
+distinction are often enthusiastic advocates of an enlarged
+navy and a more powerful army. Yet these can only be
+provided by taxation, and every tax in a democratic
+State is a socialistic measure, and involves collective
+ownership of the proceeds, whether they are applied to
+making guns or swimming-baths. Every step in the
+regulation of industry assumes the rights of society over
+individualistic production, and is therefore socialistic.
+It is a question of less or more, but except along those two
+lines, there is no socialism at all to be reckoned with in the
+practical affairs of the world. That revolutionary socialism
+of the dogmatically systematic school of Karl Marx
+which desired to transfer society at a single stroke by
+taking over and centralizing all the means of production
+may now be regarded as a dream. It never at any time
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span>
+took root in the English-speaking lands, though it was
+advocated with unwearying patience by men of such
+force of intellect and of character as Mr. Hyndman and
+William Morris. Even in Germany, the land of its origin,
+nearly all its old irreconcilable leaders are dead, and it is
+now slowly but steadily losing influence, to give place
+to a more modern and practical socialism.</p>
+
+<p>As we are concerned with it to-day and in the future,
+Socialism is not a rigid economic theory, nor is it the
+creed of a narrow sect. In its wide sense it is a name that
+covers all the activities&mdash;first instinctive, then organized&mdash;which
+arise out of the fundamental fact that man is a
+social animal. In its more precise sense it indicates the
+various orderly measures that are taken by groups of
+individuals&mdash;whether States or municipalities&mdash;to provide
+collectively for the definite needs of the individuals composing
+the group. So much for Socialism.</p>
+
+<p>The individualist has a very different story to tell.
+From the point of view of Individualism, however elaborate
+the structure of the society you erect, it can only,
+after all, be built up of individuals, and its whole worth
+must depend on the quality of those individuals. If they
+are not fully developed and finely tempered by high
+responsibilities and perpetual struggles, all social effort
+is fruitless, it will merely degrade the individual to the
+helpless position of a parasite. The individual is born
+alone; he must die alone; his deepest passions, his most
+exquisite tastes, are personal; in this world, or in any
+other world, all the activities of society cannot suffice to
+save his soul. Thus it is that the individual must bear
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span>
+his own burdens, for it is only in so doing that the muscles
+of his body grow strong and that the energies of his spirit
+become keen. It is by the qualities of the individual
+alone that work is sound and that initiative is possible.
+All trade and commerce, every practical affair of life,
+depend for success on the personal ability of individuals.
+<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a>
+It is not only so in the everyday affairs of life,
+it is even more so on the highest planes of intellectual
+and spiritual life. The supreme great men of the race
+were termed by Carlyle its "heroes," by Emerson its
+"representative men," but, equally by the less and by
+the more democratic term, they are always individuals
+standing apart from society, often in violent opposition
+to it, though they have always conquered in the end.
+When any great person has stood alone against the world
+it has always been the world that lost. The strongest
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span>
+man, as Ibsen argued in his <i>Enemy of the People</i>, is the
+man who stands most alone. "He will be the greatest,"
+says Nietzsche in <i>Beyond Good and Evil</i>, "who can be
+the most solitary, the most concealed, the most divergent."
+Every great and vitally organized person is
+hostile to the rigid and narrow routine of social conventions,
+whether established by law or by opinion; they
+must ever be broken to suit his vital needs. Therefore
+the more we multiply these social routines, the more
+strands we weave into the social web, the more closely we
+draw them, by so much the more we are discouraging the
+production of great and vitally organized persons, and by
+so much the more we are exposing society to destruction
+at the hands of such persons.</p>
+
+<p>Beneath Socialism lies the assertion that society came
+first and that individuals are indefinitely apt for education
+into their place in society. Socialism has inherited the
+maxim, which Rousseau, the uncompromising Individualist,
+placed at the front of his <i>Social Contract</i>: "Man
+is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." There is
+nothing to be done but to strike off the chains and
+organize society on a social basis. Men are not this or
+that; they are what they have been made. Make the
+social conditions right, says the thorough-going Socialist,
+and individuals will be all that we could desire them to be.
+Not poverty alone, but disease, lunacy, prostitution,
+criminality are all the results of bad social and economic
+conditions. Create the right environment and you have
+done all that is necessary. To some extent that is clearly
+true. But the individualist insists that there are definite
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>
+limits to its truth. Even in the most favourable environment
+nearly every ill that the Socialist seeks to remove
+is found. Inevitably, the Individualist declares, because
+we do not spring out of our environment, but out of our
+ancestral stocks. Against the stress on environment, the
+Individualist lays the stress on the ascertained facts of
+heredity. It is the individual that counts, and for good or
+for ill the individual brought his fate with him at birth.
+Ensure the production of sound individuals, and you may
+set at naught the environment. You will, indeed, secure
+results incomparably better than even the most anxious
+care expended on environment alone can ever hope to
+secure.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the respective attitudes of Socialism and
+Individualism. So far as I can see, they are both absolutely
+right. Nor is it even clear that they are really
+opposed; for, as happens in every field, while the affirmations
+of each are sound, their denials are unsound. Certainly,
+along each line we may be carried to absurdity.
+The Individualism of Max Stirner is not far from the
+ultimate frontier of sanity, and possibly even on the
+other side of it;<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> while the Socialism of the Oneida
+Community involved a self-subordination which it would
+be idle to expect from the majority of men and women.
+But there is a perfect division of labour between Socialism
+and Individualism. We cannot have too much of either
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span>
+of them. We have only to remember that the field of each
+is distinct. No one needs Individualism in his water
+supply, and no one needs Socialism in his religion. All
+human affairs sort themselves out as coming within the
+province of Socialism or of Individualism, and each may
+be pushed to its furthest extreme.<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>It so happens, however, that the capacity of the human
+brain is limited, and a single brain is not made to hold
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span>
+together the idea of Socialism and the idea of Individualism.
+Ordinary people have, it is true, no practical
+difficulty whatever in acting concurrently in accordance
+with the ideas of Socialism and of Individualism. But it
+is different with the men of ideas; they must either be
+Socialists or Individualists; they cannot be both. The
+tendency in one or the other direction is probably inborn
+in these men of ideas.</p>
+
+<p>We need not regret this inevitable division of labour.
+On the contrary, it is difficult to see how the right result
+could otherwise be brought about. People without ideas
+experience no difficulty in harmonizing the two tendencies.
+But if the ideas of Socialism and Individualism tended to
+appear in the same brain they would neutralize each other
+or lead action into an unprofitable <i>via media</i>. The
+separate initiative and promulgation of the two tendencies
+encourages a much more effective action, and best promotes
+that final harmony of the two extremes which the
+finest human development needs.</p>
+
+<p>There is more to be said. Not only are both alike
+indispensable, and both too profoundly rooted in human
+nature to be abolished or abridged, but each is indispensable
+to the other. There can be no Socialism without
+Individualism; there can be no Individualism without
+Socialism. Only a very fine development of personal
+character and individual responsibility can bear up any
+highly elaborated social organization, which is why small
+Socialist communities have only attained success by
+enlisting finely selected persons; only a highly organized
+social structure can afford scope for the play of individuality.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span>
+The enlightened Socialist nowadays often
+realizes something of the relationship of Socialism to
+Individualism, and the Individualist&mdash;if he were not in
+recent times, for all his excellent qualities, sometimes
+lacking in mental flexibility and alertness&mdash;would be
+prepared to admit his own relationship to Socialism.
+"The organization of the whole is dominated by the
+necessities of cellular life," as Dareste says. That truth
+is well recognized by the physiologists since the days of
+Claude Bernard. It is absolutely true of the physiology
+of society. Social organization is not for the purpose of
+subordinating the individual to society; it is as much
+for the purpose of subordinating society to the individual.</p>
+
+<p>Between individuals, even the greatest, and society
+there is perpetual action and reaction. While the individual
+powerfully acts on society, he can only so act
+in so far as he is himself the instrument and organ of
+society. The individual leads society, but only in that
+direction whither society wishes to go. Every man of
+science merely carries knowledge or invention one further
+step, a needed and desired step, beyond the stage reached
+by his immediate predecessors. Every poet and artist is
+only giving expression to the secret feelings and impulses
+of his fellows. He has the courage to utter for the first
+time the intimate emotion and aspiration which he finds
+in the depth of his own soul, and he has the skill to express
+them in forms of radiant beauty. But all these secret
+feelings and desires are in the hearts of other men, who
+have not the boldness to tell them nor the ability to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span>
+embody them exquisitely. In the life of man, as in
+nature generally, there is a perpetual process of exfoliation,
+as Edward Carpenter calls it, whereby a latent but
+striving desire is revealed, and the man of genius is the
+stimulus and the incarnation of this exfoliating movement.
+That is why every great poet and artist when once
+his message becomes intelligible, is acclaimed and adored
+by the crowd for whom he would only have been an
+object of idle wonderment if he had not expressed and
+glorified themselves. When the man of genius is too far
+ahead of his time, he is rejected, however great his genius
+may be, because he represents the individual out of vital
+relation to his time. A Roger Bacon, for all his stupendous
+intellect, is deprived of pen and paper and shut up
+in a monastery, because he is undertaking to answer
+questions which will not be asked until five centuries
+after his death. Perhaps the supreme man of genius is he
+who, like Virgil, Leonardo, or Shakespeare, has a message
+for his own time and a message for all times, a message
+which is for ever renewed for every new generation.</p>
+
+<p>The need for insisting on the intimate relations between
+Socialism and Individualism has become the more urgent
+to-day because we are reaching a stage of civilization in
+which each tendency is inevitably so pushed to its full
+development that a clash is only prevented by the
+realization that here we have truly a harmony. Sometimes
+a matter that belongs to one sphere is so closely
+intertwined with a matter that belongs to the other that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span>
+it is a very difficult problem how to hold them separate
+and allow each its due value.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p>
+
+<p>At times, indeed, it is really very difficult to determine
+to which sphere a particular kind of human activity
+belongs. This is notably the case as regards education.
+"Render unto C&aelig;sar the things that be C&aelig;sar's, and unto
+God the things that be God's." But is education among
+the things that belong to C&aelig;sar, to social organization,
+or among the things that belong to God, to the province
+of the individual's soul? There is much to be said on
+both sides. Of late the Socialist tendency prevails here,
+and there is a disposition to standardize rigidly an education
+so superficial, so platitudinous, so uniform, so unprofitable&mdash;so
+fatally oblivious of what even the word
+<i>education</i> means<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a>&mdash;that some day,
+perhaps, the revolted Individualist spirit will arise in irresistible might
+to sweep away the whole worthless structure from top to bottom,
+with even such possibilities of good as it may conceal.
+The educationalists of to-day may do well to remember
+that it is wise to be generous to your enemies even in
+the interests of your own preservation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span>
+In every age the question of Individualism and Socialism
+takes on a different form. In our own age it has
+become acute under the form of a conflict between the
+advocates of good heredity and the advocates of good
+environment. On the one hand there is the desire to
+breed the individual to a high degree of efficiency by
+eugenic selection, favouring good stocks and making the
+procreation of bad stocks more difficult. On the other
+hand there is the effort so to organize the environment
+by collectivist methods that life for all may become easy
+and wholesome. As usual, those who insist on the importance
+of good environment are inclined to consider
+that the question of heredity may be left to itself, and
+those who insist on the importance of good heredity are
+indifferent to environment. As usual, also, there is a real
+underlying harmony of those two demands. There is,
+however, here more than this. In this most modern of
+their embodiments, Socialism and Individualism are not
+merely harmonious, each is the key to the other, which
+remains unattainable without it. However carefully we
+improve our breed, however anxiously we guard the
+entrance to life, our labour will be in vain if we neglect
+to adapt the environment to the fine race we are breeding.
+The best individuals are not the toughest, any more than
+the highest species are the toughest, but rather, indeed,
+the reverse, and no creature needs so much and so prolonged
+an environing care as man, to ensure his survival.
+On the other hand, an elaborate attention to the environment,
+combined with a reckless inattention to the quality
+of the individuals born to live in that environment can
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span>
+only lead to an overburdened social organization which
+will speedily fall by its own weight.</p>
+
+<p>During the past century the Socialists of the school for
+bettering the environment have for the most part had the
+game in their own hands. They founded themselves on
+the very reasonable basis of sympathy, a basis which
+the eighteenth-century moralists had prepared, which
+Schopenhauer had formulated, which George Eliot had
+passionately preached, which had around its operations
+the immense prestige of the gospel of Jesus. The environmental
+Socialists&mdash;always quite reasonably&mdash;set
+themselves to improve the conditions of labour; they
+provided local relief for the poor; they built hospitals
+for the free treatment of the sick. They are proceeding to
+feed school children, to segregate and protect the feeble-minded,
+to insure the unemployed, to give State pensions
+to the aged, and they are even asked to guarantee work
+for all. Now these things, and the likes of them, are not
+only in accordance with natural human impulses, but
+for the most part they are reasonable, and in protecting
+the weak the strong are, in a certain sense, protecting
+themselves. No one nowadays wants the hungry to
+hunger or the suffering to suffer. Indeed, in that sense,
+there never has been any <i>laissez-faire</i> school.
+<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span>
+But as the movement of environmental Socialism
+realizes itself, it becomes increasingly clear that it is itself
+multiplying the work which it sets itself to do. In enabling
+the weak, the incompetent, and the defective to live and
+to live comfortably, it makes it easier for those on the
+borderland of these classes to fall into them, and it furnishes
+the conditions which enable them to propagate
+their like, and to do this, moreover, without that prudent
+limitation which is now becoming universal in all classes
+above those of the weak, the incompetent, and the defective.
+Thus unchecked environmental Socialism, obeying
+natural impulses and seeking legitimate ends, would be
+drawn into courses at the end of which only social enfeeblement,
+perhaps even dissolution, could be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The key to the situation, it is now beginning to be
+more and more widely felt, is to be found in the counterbalancing
+tendency of Individualism, and the eugenic
+guardianship of the race. Not, rightly understood, as a
+method of arresting environmental Socialism, nor even
+as a counterblast to its gospel of sympathy. Nietzsche,
+indeed, has made a famous assault on sympathy, as he
+has on conventional morality generally, but his "immoralism"
+in general and his "hardness" in particular
+are but new and finer manifestations of those faded
+virtues he was really seeking to revive. The superficially
+sympathetic man flings a coin to the beggar; the more
+deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so
+that he need no longer beg; but perhaps the most
+radically sympathetic of all is the man who arranges that
+the beggar shall not be born.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span>
+So it is that the question of breed, the production of fine
+individuals, the elevation of the ideal of quality in human
+production over that of mere quantity, begins to be seen,
+not merely as a noble ideal in itself, but as the only
+method by which Socialism can be enabled to continue on
+its present path. If the entry into life is conceded more
+freely to the weak, the incompetent, and the defective
+than to the strong, the efficient, and the sane, then a
+Sisyphean task is imposed on society; for every burden
+lifted two more burdens appear. But as individual
+responsibility becomes developed, as we approach the
+time to which Galton looked forward, when the eugenic
+care for the race may become a religion, then social control
+over the facts of life becomes possible. Through the
+slow growth of knowledge concerning hereditary conditions,
+by voluntary self-restraint, by the final disappearance
+of the lingering prejudice against the control of
+procreation, by sterilization in special cases, by methods
+of pressure which need not amount to actual compulsion,
+<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>
+it will be possible to attain an increasingly firm grip on
+the evil elements of heredity. Not until such measures as
+these, under the controlling influence of a sense of personal
+responsibility extending to every member of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>
+community, have long been put into practice, can we hope
+to see man on the earth risen to his full stature, healthy
+in body, noble in spirit, beautiful in both alike, moving
+spaciously and harmoniously among his fellows in the
+great world of Nature, to which he is so subtly adapted
+because he has himself sprung out of it and is its most
+exquisite flower. At this final point social hygiene
+becomes one with the hygiene of the soul.
+<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+
+<p>Poets and prophets, from Jesus and Paul to Novalis
+and Whitman, have seen the divine possibilities of Man.
+There is no temple in the world, they seem to say, so great
+as the human body; he comes in contact with Heaven,
+they declare, who touches a human person. But these
+human things, made to be gods, have spawned like frogs
+over all the earth. Everywhere they have beslimed its
+purity and befouled its beauty, darkening the very sunshine.
+Heaped upon one another in evil masses, preying
+upon one another as no other creature has ever preyed
+upon its kind, they have become a festering heap which
+all the oceans in vain lave with their antiseptic waters,
+and all the winds of heaven cannot purify. It is only
+in the unextinguished spark of reason within him that
+salvation for man may ever be found, in the realization
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span>
+that he is his own star, and carries in his hands his own
+fate. The impulses of Individualism and of Socialism
+alike prompt us to gain self-control and to learn the vast
+extent of our responsibility. The whole of humanity is
+working for each of us; each of us must live worthy of
+that great responsibility to humanity. By how fine a flash
+of insight Jesus declared that few could enter the Kingdom
+of Heaven! Not until the earth is purified of untold
+millions of its population will it ever become the Heaven
+of old dreamers, in which the elect walk spaciously and
+nobly, loving one another. Only in such spacious and
+pure air is it possible for the individual to perfect himself,
+as a rose becomes perfect, according to Dante's beautiful
+simile,<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a>
+in order that he may spread abroad for others the
+fragrance that has been generated within him. If one
+thinks of it, that seems a truism, yet, even in this
+twentieth century, how few, how very few, there are
+who know it!</p>
+
+<p>This is why we cannot have too much Individualism,
+we cannot have too much Socialism. They play into each
+other's hands. To strengthen one is to give force to the
+other. The greater the vigour of both, the more vitally
+a society is progressing. "I can no more call myself an
+Individualist or a Socialist," said Henry George, "than
+one who considers the forces by which the planets are held
+to their orbits could call himself a centrifugalist or a
+centripetalist." To attain a society in which Individualism
+and Socialism are each carried to its extreme
+point would be to attain to the society that lived in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span>
+Abbey of Thelema, in the City of the Sun, in Utopia, in
+the land of Zarathustra, in the Garden of Eden, in the
+Kingdom of Heaven. It is a kingdom, no doubt, that is,
+as Diderot expressed it, "diablement id&eacute;al." But to-day
+we hold in our hands more certainly than ever before the
+clues that were imperfectly foreshadowed by Plato, and
+what our fathers sought ignorantly we may attempt by
+methods according to knowledge. No Utopia was ever
+realized; and the ideal is a mirage that must ever elude
+us or it would cease to be ideal. Yet all our progress, if
+progress there be, can only lie in setting our faces towards
+that goal to which Utopias and ideals point.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a>
+In the narrow sense Socialism is identical with the definite economic
+doctrine of the Collectivistic organization of the productive and
+distributive work of society. It also possesses, as Bosanquet remarks
+(in an essay on "Individualism and Socialism," in <i>The Civilization of
+Christendom</i>), "a deeper meaning as a name for a human tendency
+that is operative throughout history." Every Collectivist is a Socialist,
+but not every Socialist would admit that he is a Collectivist. "Moral
+Socialism," however, though not identical with "Economic Socialism,"
+tends to involve it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a>
+The term "Individualism," like the term "Socialism," is used
+in varying senses, and is not, therefore, satisfactory to everyone. Thus
+E.F.B. Fell (<i>The Foundations of Liberty</i>, 1908), regarding "Individualism,"
+as a merely negative term, prefers the term "Personalism,"
+to denote a more positive ideal. There is, however, by no
+means as any necessity to consider "Individualism," a more negative
+term than "Socialism."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a>
+The inspiring appeal of Socialism to ardent minds is no doubt
+ethical. "The ethics of Socialism," says Kirkup, "are closely akin to
+the ethics of Christianity, if not identical with them." That, perhaps,
+is why Socialism is so attractive to some minds, so repugnant to others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a>
+This idea was elaborated by Eimer in an appendix to his <i>Organic
+Evolution</i> on the idea of the individual in the animal kingdom.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a>
+The term "socialism" is said to date from about the year 1835.
+Leroux claimed that he invented it, in opposition to the term "individualism,"
+but at that period it had become so necessary and so
+obvious a term that it is difficult to say positively by whom it was
+first used.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a>
+An important point which the Individualist may fairly bring forward
+in this connection is the tendency of Socialism to repress the energy
+of the best worker among its officials at the expense of the public. Alike in
+government offices at Whitehall and in municipal offices in the town halls
+there is a certain proportion of workers who find pleasure in putting
+forth their best energies at high pressure. But the majority take care
+that work shall be carried on at low pressure, and that the output shall
+not exceed a certain understood minimum. They ensure this by making
+things uncomfortable for the workers who exceed that minimum.
+The gravity of this evil is scarcely yet realized. It could probably be
+counteracted by so organizing promotion that the higher posts really
+went to the officials distinguished by the quantity and the quality of
+their work. Pensions should also be affected by the same consideration.
+In any case, the evil is serious, and is becoming more so since the number
+of public officials is constantly increasing. The Council of the Law
+Society found some years ago that the cost of civil administration in
+England had increased between the years 1894 and 1904 from 19
+millions to 25 millions, and, excluding the Revenue Departments,
+it is now said to have gone up to 42 millions. It is an evil that will
+have to be dealt with sooner or later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a>
+Max Stirner wrote his work, <i>Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum</i> (<i>The
+Ego and His Own</i>, in the English translation of Byington), in 1845.
+His life has been written by John Henry Mackay (<i>Max Stirner: Sein
+Leben und Sein Werk</i>), and an interesting study of Max Stirner (whose
+real name was Schmidt) will be found in James Huneker's <i>Egoists</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a>
+In the introduction to my earliest book, <i>The New Spirit</i> (1889),
+I set forth this position, from which I have never departed: "While
+we are socializing all those things of which all have equal common need,
+we are more and more tending to leave to the individual the control
+of those things which in our complex civilization constitute individuality.
+We socialize what we call our physical life in order that we may
+attain greater freedom for what we call our spiritual life." No doubt
+such a point of view was implicit in Ruskin and other previous writers,
+just as it has subsequently been set forth by Ellen Key and others,
+while from the economic side it has been well formulated by Mr. J.A.
+Hobson in his <i>Evolution of Capital</i>: "The <i>very raison
+d'&ecirc;tre</i> of increased social cohesiveness is to economize and enrich
+the individual life, and to enable the play of individual energy to assume
+higher forms out of which more individual satisfaction may accrue." "Socialism will
+be of value," thought Oscar Wilde in his <i>Soul of Man</i>, "simply
+because it will lead to Individualism." "Socialism denies economic
+Individualism for any," says Karl N&ouml;tzel ("Zur Ethischen Begrundung
+des Sozialismus," <i>Sozialistische Monatshefte</i>, 1910, Heft 23), "in order
+to make moral intellectual Individualism possible for all." And as it
+has been seen that Socialism leads to Individualism, so it has also been
+seen that Individualism, even on the ethical plane, leads to Socialism.
+"You must let the individual make his will a reality in the conduct of
+his life," Bosanquet remarks in an essay already quoted, "in order that
+it may be possible for him consciously to entertain the social purpose
+as a constituent of his will. Without these conditions there is no
+social organism and no moral Socialism.... Each unit of the social
+organism has to embody his relations with the whole in his own particular
+work and will; and in order to do this the individual must have
+a strength and depth in himself proportional to and consisting of the
+relations which he has to embody." Grant Allen long since clearly
+set forth the harmony between Individualism and Socialism in an
+article published in the <i>Contemporary Review</i> in 1879.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a>
+An instructive illustration is furnished by the question of the
+relation of the sexes, and elsewhere (<i>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</i>,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society") I have sought to show that
+we must distinguish between marriage, which is directly the affair of
+the individuals primarily concerned, and procreation, which is mainly
+the concern of society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
+See, for instance, the opinion of the former Chief Inspector of
+Elementary Schools in England, Mr. Edmond Holmes, <i>What Is and
+What Might Be</i> (1911). He points out that true education must be
+"self-realization," and that the present system of "education" is
+entirely opposed to self-realization. Sir John Gorst, again, has repeatedly
+attacked the errors of the English State system of education.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a>
+The phrase <i>Laissez faire</i> is sometimes used as though it were the
+watchword of a party which graciously accorded a free hand to the
+Devil to do his worst. As a matter of fact, it was simply a phrase
+adopted by the French economists of the eighteenth century to summarize
+the conclusion of their arguments against the antiquated
+restrictions which were then stifling the trade and commerce of France
+(see G. Weuleresse, <i>Le Mouvement Physiocratique en France</i>, 1910,
+Vol. II, p. 17). Properly understood, it is not a maxim which any
+party need be ashamed to own.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a>
+I would again repeat that I do not regard legislation as a channel
+of true eugenic reform. As Bateson well says (<i>op. cit.</i> p. 15); "It is
+not the tyrannical and capricious interference of a half-informed
+majority which can safely mould or purify a population, but rather
+that simplification of instinct for which we ever hope, which fuller knowledge
+alone can make possible." Even the subsidising of unexceptionable
+parents, as the same writer remarks, cannot be viewed with enthusiasm.
+"If we picture to ourselves the kind of persons who would infallibly
+be chosen as examples of 'civic worth' the prospect is not very
+attractive."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a>
+"Aristotle, herein the organ and exponent of the Greek national
+mind," remarks Gomperz, "understood by the hygiene of the soul
+the avoidance of all extremes, the equilibrium of the powers, the
+harmonious development of aptitudes, none of which is allowed to
+starve or paralyse the others." Gomperz points out that this individual
+morality corresponded to the characteristics of the Greek
+national religion&mdash;its inclusiveness and spaciousness, its freedom and
+serenity, its ennoblement alike of energetic action and passive enjoyment
+(Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, Eng. Trans., Vol. III, p. 13).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a>
+<i>Convito</i>, IV, 27.</p></div>
+
+<h4>THE END</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p>(<i>Names of Authors quoted are italicized.</i>)</p>
+<table class="az" border="1" summary="Alphabetic jump-table for the index">
+        <tr>
+            <td><a href="#IX_A">A</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_B">B</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_C">C</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_D">D</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_E">E</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_F">F</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_G">G</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_H">H</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_I">I</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_J">J</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_K">K</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_L">L</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_M">M</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td><a href="#IX_N">N</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_O">O</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_P">P</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_Q">Q</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_R">R</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_S">S</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_T">T</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_U">U</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_V">V</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_W">W</a></td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_X">X</a></td>
+            <td>Y</td>
+            <td><a href="#IX_Z">Z</a></td>
+        </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul>
+<li><a name="IX_A" id="IX_A"></a>Abortion, facultative, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Age of consent, <a href="#Page_288">288</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Aggeneration, <a href="#Page_24"></a>24</li>
+
+<li>Alcohol, legislative control of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+<a href="#Page_295">295</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Alcoholism, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Allen, Grant</i>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Allen, W.H.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Ancestry, the study of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Angell, Norman</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Anthony, Susan</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Antimachus of Colophon, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Anti-militarism, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Aristotle</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ashby</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Asnurof</i>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Aubry</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Augustine</i>, St., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>Australia, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral legislation in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Azoulay</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_B" id="IX_B"></a><br />Bachofen, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Baines, Sir J.A.</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Barnes, Earl</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Basedow</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bateson</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+
+<li>Beatrice, Dante's, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Beaufront, L. de, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li>Bebel, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Becker, R.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Belb&egrave;ze</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Benecke, E.F.M.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Bergsonian philosophy, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bertillon, G.</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bertillon, J.</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Beveridge</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Bible in religious education, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Billroth</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bingham</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Birth-rate, in France, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australasia, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">among savages, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance of a falling, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in relation to death-rate, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Blease, W. Lyon</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bloch, Iwan</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Boccaccio</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bodey</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li><i>B&ouml;hmert</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bonhoeffer</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Booth, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bosanquet</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Branthwaite</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Braun, Lily</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Brinton</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span></li>
+<li>Budin, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>Bund f&uuml;r Mutterschutz, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Burckhardt</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Burnham</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Bushee, F.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Byington</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_C" id="IX_C"></a><br />Camp, Maxime du, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Campanella, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Campbell, Harry, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Canada, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual hygiene in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Cantlie</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Carpenter, Edward</i>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Casper</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>Certificates, eugenic, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Chadwick, Sir E.</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Chamfort</i>, <a href="#Page_256">X</a>256</li>
+
+<li>Chastity of German women, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Cheetham</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Chicago Vice Commission, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Child, psychology of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, religious education of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>China, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Christianity in relation to romantic love, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li>Chivalrous attitude towards women, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Civilization, what it consists in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Clayton</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Cobbe, F.P.</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Co-education, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Coghlan, T.A.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>Coinage, international, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+<li>Concubinage, legalized, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Condorcet</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Confirmation, rite of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Consent, age of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Courts of Love, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Couturat</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Creed, J.M.</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Criminality and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Cruc&eacute;, Emeric, <a href="#Page_315">316</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_D" id="IX_D"></a><br /><i>Dante</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Dareste</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Davenport</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Death-rate in relation to birth-rate, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>Degenerate families, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Degeneration of race, alleged, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><i>De Quincey</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Descartes, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Dickens</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Dill, Sir S.</i>, <a href="#Page_303">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Disinfection, origin of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>Divorce, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Donkin, Sir H.B.</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Donnan</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li>Drunkenness, decrease of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>Dubois, P., <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Dugdale</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Dumont, Ars&egrave;ne</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_E" id="IX_E"></a><br />Economic aspect of woman's movement, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Education, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ehrenfels</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Eichholz</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Eimer</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ellis, Havelock</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
+<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li>Enfantin, Prosper, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Engelmann</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>English, characteristics of the, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards immorality, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">language for international purposes, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Esperanto, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Espinas</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li>Eugenics, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Euthenics, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ewart, R.J.</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_F" id="IX_F"></a><br />Factory legislation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Fahlbeck</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Fairy tales in education, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Family, limitation of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Family in relation to degeneracy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Feeble-minded, problem of the, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Fell, E.F.B.</i>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+<li>Ferrer, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li>Fertility in relation to prosperity, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Fiedler</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Finlay-Johnson, H.</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Firenzuola</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>"Fit," the term, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Flux</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Forel</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>France, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">women and love in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">legal attitude towards immorality in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">regulation of alcohol in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Franklin, B.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Fraser, Mrs.</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>French language for international purposes, <a href="#Page_364">364</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Frenssen, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Freud</i>, S, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Fuld, E.F.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li><i>F&uuml;rch, Henriette</i>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_G" id="IX_G"></a><br /><i>Galton, Sir F.</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
+<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
+<a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gaultier, J. de</i>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gautier, L&eacute;on</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gavin, H.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gayley, Julia</i>, 420</li>
+
+<li>Germany, sex questions in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">illegitimacy in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual hygiene in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">legal attitude towards immorality in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Giddings</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Godden</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Godwin, W.</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Goethe</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Goldscheid</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gomperz</i>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Goncourt</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li>Gouges, Olympe de, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gourmont, Remy de</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gournay, Marie de</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Grabowsky</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Grasset</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gr&uuml;nspan</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Gu&eacute;rard</i>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Guthrie, L.</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_H" id="IX_H"></a><br /><i>Haddon, A.C.</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hagen</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hale, Horatio</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hales, W.W.</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hall, G. Stanley</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hamburger, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hamill, Henry</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hausmeister, P.</i>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hayllar, F.</i>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, nationalization of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Health visitors, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hearn, Lafcadio</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Henry, W.O.</i>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span></li>
+<li>Heredity of feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">as the hope of the race, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">study of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Heron</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Herv&eacute;</i>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hiller</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hinton, James</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hirschfeld, Magnus</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hobbes</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li>Holland, moral legislation in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Holmes, Edmond</i>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Homosexuality and the law, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hookey, N.A.</i>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hughes, R.E.</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Humboldt, W. von</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Huneker</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li>Hungary, birth-rate and death-rate in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hutchinson, Woods</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Hygiene, in medieval and modern times, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of sex, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_I" id="IX_I"></a><br />Idiocy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Ido, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li>Illegitimacy, and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Imbecility, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Individualism, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Industrialism, modern, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li>Inebriety and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li>Infant consultations, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>Infantile mortality, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Initiation of youth, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Insurance, national, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>International language of the future, <a href="#Page_349">349</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_J" id="IX_J"></a><br /><i>James, E.C.</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>James, William, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Japan, romantic love in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">birth-rate and death-rate in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">changed conditions in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Jenks, E.</i>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Johannsen</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Johnson, Roswell</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Jordan, D.S.</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li><i>J&ouml;rger</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Jukes family, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_K" id="IX_K"></a><br /><i>Kaan</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Kellerman, Ivy</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Key, Ellen</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Kirkup</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Krafft-Ebing</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Krauss, F.S.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Kuczynski</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_L" id="IX_L"></a><br />Labour movement and war, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+
+<li><i>La Chapelle, E.P.</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lacour, L.</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lagorgette</i>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Laissez-faire, the maxim of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lancaster</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Language, international, <a href="#Page_349">349</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Latin as an international language, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lavelege, E. de</i>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li>Law, in relation to eugenics, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">to morals, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the sphere of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Lea</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Leau</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Leibnitz</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Levy, Miriam</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lewis, C.J. and J.N.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>Lichtenstein, Ulrich von, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Life-history albums, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span></li>
+<li><i>Lischnewska, Maria</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lobsien</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Loomis, C.B.</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lorenz</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li>Love, and the woman's question, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and eugenics, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Luther, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_M" id="IX_M"></a><br />Mackay, J.H., <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Macnamara, N.C.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Macquart</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Maine, prohibition in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Mannhardt</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Manouvrier</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Marcuse, Max</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, certificates for, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">economics and, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">natural selection and, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">State regulation of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the ideal of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in classic times, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Marriage-rate, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Matignon</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Matriarchal theory, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Maurice, Sir F.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li><i>McLean</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Meisel-Hess, Grete</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li><i>M&eacute;ray</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Mercier</i>, C., <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Meredith, George, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>Miele, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Miers</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li>Milk Dep&ocirc;ts, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Mill</i>, J.S., <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Moll</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Montaigne</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Montesquieu</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Moore, B.</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Morals in relation to law, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>More, Sir T., <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Morgan, L.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Morse, J.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Mortality of infants, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Motherhood in relation to eugenics, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>Mothers, schools for, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Mougins-Roquefort</i>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li>Municipal authorities to instruct in limitation of offspring, duty of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Muralt</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li>Mysteries, Pagan and Christian, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_N" id="IX_N"></a><i><br />N&auml;cke</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Napoleon, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Nars, L.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>National Insurance, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Nationalization of health, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Natural selection and social reform, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Nearing, Scott</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Neo-Malthusianism, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Nevinson, H.W.</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Newsholme</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li>New Zealand, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Nietzsche</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Niphus</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Norway, infantile mortality in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li><i>N&ouml;tzel</i>, R., <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Novikov</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+
+<li>Noys, H., <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Nystr&ouml;m</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_O" id="IX_O"></a><br />Obscenity, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Oneida, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Ovid, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Owen, Robert, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_P" id="IX_P"></a><br />Pankhurst, Mrs., <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span></li>
+<li><i>Partridge, G.L.</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Paul, Eden</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Pearson, Karl</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Penn, W.</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Perrycoste, F.H.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Peters, J.P.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Pfaundler</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+<li>Pinard, J., <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Pinloche</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Plate</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ploetz</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ploss</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Police systems, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Post Office, inquisition at the, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Prohibition of alcohol in Maine, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Prosperity in relation to fertility, <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Prostitution, and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and sexual selection, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">varying legal attitude towards, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Puberty, psychic influence of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Puericulture, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_Q" id="IX_Q"></a><br />Quakers, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Quarantine, origin of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_R" id="IX_R"></a><br />Race, alleged degeneration of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Raines Law hotels, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Ramsay, Sir W.M.</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ranke, Karl</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Raschke, Marie</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Reform, Social hygiene as distinct from sexual, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">four stages of social, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Reibmayr</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Religion, and eugenics, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the child, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Reproduction, control of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Richards, Ellen</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Richardson, Sir B.W.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Robert, P.</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Roberts, A.M.</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+<li>Roman Catholics and Neo-Malthusianism, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Roseville, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ross, E.A.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Rousseau</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Rubin</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ruediger</i>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Rural life, influence of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Russell, Mrs. B.</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Russia, infantile mortality in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral legislation in, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span></li>
+
+<li><i>Ryle, R.J.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_S" id="IX_S"></a><br />Sacraments, origin of Christian, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Saint-Pierre, Abb&eacute; de, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li>Saint-Simon, <a href="#Page_51">1</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>St. Valentine and eugenics, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Sand, George, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li>Sanitation as an element of social reform, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Saussure, R. de</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sayer, E.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schallmayer</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schiff, M.</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Schleyer, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schooling, J.H.</i>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Schools for mothers, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schrader, O.</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schreiner, Olive</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Schroeder, T.</i>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Science and social reform, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sellers, E.</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Sex questions in Germany, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Sexual hygiene, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual selection, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span></li>
+<li>Shaftesbury, Earl of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sherwell, A.</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Shrank, J.</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Si&eacute;gler-Pascal</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sitwell, Sir G.</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Smith, Sir T.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Smith, T.P.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Social reform as distinct from social hygiene, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">its four stages, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Socialism, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Society of the future, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sollier</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Solmi</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sombart</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li>Spain, legalized concubinage in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">women in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Spanish as an international language, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Stanton, E.C.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Starbuck</i>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Steinmetz</i>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Steele</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Sterilization, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>Sterility and the birth-rate, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Stevenson</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Stewart, A.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Stewart, R.S.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Stirner, Max</i>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li><i>St&ouml;cker, H.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Streitberg, Countess von</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Suffrage, woman's, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Sully, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li>Sun, City of the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sutherland, A.</i>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Sykes</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Syndicalism, <a href="#Page_32">329</a></li>
+
+<li>Syphilis, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_T" id="IX_T"></a><br /><i>Taine</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_31">313</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Takano</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Tarde</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Thompson, W.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Toulouse</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Tramps and feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Tredgold</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_U" id="IX_U"></a><br />United States, birth-rate in, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sexual hygiene in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards immorality in, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>et seq.</i></span></li>
+
+<li>Urban life, influence of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_V" id="IX_V"></a><br />Vasectomy, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Venereal disease and sexual hygiene, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Vesnitch</i>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li>Vineland, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Volap&uuml;k, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_W" id="IX_W"></a><i><br />Wagenen, W.F. van</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+
+<li>War against war, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Ward, Mrs. Humphry, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weale, B.L. Putnam</i>, <a href="#Page_15">157</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weatherby</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Webb, Sidney</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_16">163</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weeks</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weinberg, S.</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wentworth, S.</i>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Westergaard</i>, <a href="#Page_16">166</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Westermarck</i>,559</li>
+
+<li><i>Weuleresse</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></li>
+
+<li>Wheeler, Mrs., <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>White slave trade, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Whetham, W.C.D. and Mrs.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Whitman, Walt</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wilcox, W.F.</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wilde, O.</i>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wilhelm, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+<li><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p></li>
+<li><i>Wollstonecraft, Mary</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Woman, and eugenics, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">movement, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">economics, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the suffrage, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Italian Renaissance, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spanish literature, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and war, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_X" id="IX_X"></a><br /><i>Yule, G. Udny</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+
+<li><a name="IX_Z" id="IX_Z"></a><br />Zamenhof, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+
+<li>Zero family, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ziller</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>
+WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.<br />
+PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH
+</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr />
+
+<p>Transciber's notes:<br />
+<br />
+With the following exceptions spelling and punctuation of the
+original text have been maintained:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation inconsistencies.</li>
+<li>Chapter V, Par 16 "high death-rate" has been changed to "high birth-rate".</li>
+<li>Chapter VII Par 16 "precocious sexual" has been changed
+to "precocious scriptural".</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 22090-h.txt or 22090-h.zip *******</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Task of Social Hygiene, by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Task of Social Hygiene
+
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+
+
+Release Date: July 17, 2007  [eBook #22090]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Ross Wilburn, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+   STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY
+   OF SEX. SIX VOLS.
+
+   THE NEW SPIRIT
+
+   AFFIRMATIONS
+
+   MAN AND WOMAN
+
+   THE CRIMINAL
+
+   THE WORLD OF DREAMS
+
+   THE SOUL OF SPAIN
+
+   IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS
+
+   ESSAYS IN WAR-TIME. ETC.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+Author of "The Soul of Spain"; "The World of Dreams"; etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Boston and New York
+Houghton Mifflin Company
+1916
+
+Printed in Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The study of social hygiene means the study of those things which
+concern the welfare of human beings living in societies. There can,
+therefore, be no study more widely important or more generally
+interesting. I fear, however, that by many persons social hygiene is
+vaguely regarded either as a mere extension of sanitary science, or else
+as an effort to set up an intolerable bureaucracy to oversee every
+action of our lives, and perhaps even to breed us as cattle are bred.
+
+That is certainly not the point of view from which this book has been
+written. Plato and Rabelais, Campanella and More, have been among those
+who announced the principles of social hygiene here set forth. There
+must be a social order, all these great pioneers recognized, but the
+health of society, like the health of the body, is marked by expansion
+as much as by restriction, and, the striving for order is only justified
+because without order there can be no freedom. If it were not the
+mission of social hygiene to bring a new joy and a new freedom into life
+I should not have concerned myself with the writing of this book.
+
+When we thus contemplate the process of social hygiene, we are no longer
+in danger of looking upon it as an artificial interference with Nature.
+It is in the Book of Nature, as Campanella put it, that the laws of
+life and of government are to be read. Or, as Quesnel said two centuries
+ago, more precisely for our present purpose, "Nature is universal
+hygiene." All animals are scrupulous in hygiene; the elaboration of
+hygiene moves _pari passu_ with the rank of a species in intelligence.
+Even the cockroach, which lives on what we call filth, spends the
+greater part of its time in the cultivation of personal cleanliness. And
+all social hygiene, in its fullest sense, is but an increasingly complex
+and extended method of purification--the purification of the conditions
+of life by sound legislation, the purification of our own minds by
+better knowledge, the purification of our hearts by a growing sense of
+responsibility, the purification of the race itself by an enlightened
+eugenics, consciously aiding Nature in her manifest effort to embody new
+ideals of life. It was not Man, but Nature, who realized the daring and
+splendid idea--risky as it was--of placing the higher anthropoids on
+their hind limbs and so liberating their fore-limbs in the service of
+their nimble and aspiring brains. We may humbly follow in the same path,
+liberating latent forces of life and suppressing those which no longer
+serve the present ends of life. For, as Shakespeare said, when in _The
+Winter's Tale_ he set forth a luminous philosophy of social hygiene and
+applied it to eugenics,
+
+
+      "Nature is made better by no mean
+    But Nature makes that mean ...
+                          This is an art
+    Which does mend Nature, change it rather, but
+    The art itself is Nature."
+
+
+In whatever way it may be understood, however, social hygiene is now very
+much to the front of people's minds. The present volume, I wish to make
+clear, has not been hastily written to meet any real or supposed demand.
+It has slowly grown during a period of nearly twenty-five years, and it
+expresses an attitude which is implicit or explicit in the whole of my
+work. By some readers, doubtless, it will be seen to constitute an
+extension in various directions of the arguments developed in the larger
+work on "Sex in Relation to Society," which is the final volume of my
+_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_. The book I now bring forward may,
+however, be more properly regarded as a presentation of the wider scheme
+of social reform out of which the more special sex studies have
+developed. We are faced to-day by the need for vast and complex changes
+in social organization. In these changes the welfare of individuals and
+the welfare of communities are alike concerned. Moreover, they are
+matters which are not confined to the affairs of this nation or of that
+nation, but of the whole family of nations participating in the
+fraternity of modern progress.
+
+The word "progress," indeed, which falls so easily from our lips is not
+a word which any serious writer should use without precaution. The
+conception of "progress" is a useful conception in so far as it binds
+together those who are working for common ends, and stimulates that
+perpetual slight movement in which life consists. But there is no
+general progress in Nature, nor any unqualified progress; that is to
+say, that there is no progress for all groups along the line, and that
+even those groups which progress pay the price of their progress. It was
+so even when our anthropoid ancestors rose to the erect position; that
+was "progress," and it gained us the use of hands. But it lost us our
+tails, and much else that is more regrettable than we are always able to
+realize. There is no general and ever-increasing evolution towards
+perfection. "Existence is realized in its perfection under whatever
+aspect it is manifested," says Jules de Gaultier. Or, as Whitman put it,
+"There will never be any more perfection than there is now." We cannot
+expect an increased power of growth and realization in existence, as a
+whole, leading to any general perfection; we can only expect to see the
+triumph of individuals, or of groups of individuals, carrying out their
+own conceptions along special lines, every perfection so attained
+involving, on its reverse side, the acquirement of an imperfection. It
+is in this sense, and in this sense only, that progress is possible. We
+need not fear that we shall ever achieve the stagnant immobility of a
+general perfection.
+
+The problems of progress we are here concerned with are such as the
+civilized world, as represented by some of its foremost individuals or
+groups of individuals, is just now waking up to grapple with. No doubt
+other problems might be added, and the addition give a greater semblance
+of completion to this book. I have selected those which seem to me very
+essential, very fundamental. The questions of social hygiene, as here
+understood, go to the heart of life. It is the task of this hygiene not
+only to make sewers, but to re-make love, and to do both in the same
+large spirit of human fellowship, to ensure finer individual development
+and a larger social organization. At the one end social hygiene may be
+regarded as simply the extension of an elementary sanitary code; at the
+other end it seems to some to have in it the glorious freedom of a new
+religion. The majority of people, probably, will be content to admit
+that we have here a scheme of serious social reform which every man and
+woman will soon be called upon to take some share in.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+I.--INTRODUCTION
+                                                                    PAGE
+The aim of Social Hygiene--Social Reform--The Rise of Social Reform out
+of English Industrialism--The Four Stages of Social Reform--(1) The
+Stage of Sanitation--(2) Factory Legislation--(3) The Extension of the
+Scope of Education--(4) Puericulture--The Scientific Evolution
+corresponding to these Stages--Social Reform only Touched the Conditions
+of Life--Yet Social Reform Remains highly Necessary--The Question of
+Infantile Mortality and the Quality of the Race--The Better Organization
+of Life Involved by Social Hygiene--Its Insistence on the Quality rather
+than on the Conditions of Life--The Control of Reproduction--The Fall of
+the Birth-rate in Relation to the Quality of the Population--The
+Rejuvenation of a Society--The Influence of Culture and Refinement on a
+Race--Eugenics--The Regeneration of the Race--The Problem of
+Feeble-mindedness--The Methods of Eugenics--Some of the Problems which
+Face us                                                                1
+
+
+II.--THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN
+
+The Origin of the Woman Movement--Mary Wollstonecraft--George
+Sand--Robert Owen--William Thompson--John Stuart Mill--The Modern
+Growth of Social Cohesion--The Growth of Industrialism--Its Influence in
+Woman's Sphere of Work--The Education of Women--Co-education--The Woman
+Question and Sexual Selection--Significance of Economic
+Independence--The State Regulation of Marriage--The Future of
+Marriage--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Social Equality of Women--The
+Reproduction of the Race as a Function of Society--Women and the Future
+of Civilization                                                       49
+
+
+III.--THE NEW ASPECT OF THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT
+
+Eighteenth-Century France--Pioneers of the Woman's Movement--The Growth
+of the Woman's Suffrage Movement--The Militant Activities of the
+Suffragettes--Their Services and Disservices to the Cause--Advantages of
+Women's Suffrage--Sex Questions in Germany--Bebel--The Woman's Rights
+Movement in Germany--The Development of Sexual Science in Germany--The
+Movement for the Protection of Motherhood--Ellen Key--The Question of
+Illegitimacy--Eugenics--Women as Law-makers in the Home               67
+
+
+IV.--THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN IN RELATION TO ROMANTIC LOVE
+
+The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization--Marriage as a
+Duty--The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire--The Influence of
+Christianity--The Attitude of Chivalry--The Troubadours--The Courts of
+Love--The Influence of the Renaissance--Conventional Chivalry and Modern
+Civilization--The Woman Movement--The Modern Woman's Equality of Rights
+and Responsibilities excludes Chivalry--New Forms of Romantic Love still
+remain possible--Love as the Inspiration of Social Hygiene           113
+
+
+V.--THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A FALLING BIRTH-RATE
+
+The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally--In England--In
+Germany--In the United States--In Canada--In Australasia--"Crude"
+Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate--The Connection between High
+Birth-rate and High Death-rate--"Natural Increase" measured by Excess
+of Births over Deaths--The Measure of National Well-being--The
+Example of Russia--Japan--China--The Necessity of viewing the
+Question from a wide Standpoint--The Prevalence of Neo-Malthusian
+Methods--Influence of the Roman Catholic Church--Other Influences
+lowering the Birth-rate--Influence of Postponement of Marriage--Relation
+of the Birth-rate to Commercial and Industrial Activity--Illustrated
+by Russia, Hungary, and Australia--The Relation of Prosperity to
+Fertility--The Social Capillarity Theory--Divergence of the Birth-rate
+and the Marriage-rate--Marriage-rate and the Movement of
+Prices--Prosperity and Civilization--Fertility among Savages--The
+lesser fertility of Urban Populations--Effect of Urbanization on
+Physical Development--Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+Fertility--Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility--The process
+of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility--In this Respect it is
+a Continuation of Zoological Evolution--Large Families as a Stigma
+of Degeneration--The Decreased Fertility of Civilization a General
+Historical Fact--The Ideals of Civilization to-day--The East and
+the West                                                             134
+
+
+VI.--EUGENICS AND LOVE
+
+Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate--Quantity and Quality in the
+Production of Children--Eugenic Sexual Selection--The Value of
+Pedigrees--Their Scientific Significance--The Systematic Record of
+Personal Data--The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates--St. Valentine's
+Day and Sexual Selection--Love and Reason--Love Ruled by Natural
+Law--Eugenic Selection not opposed to Love--No Need for Legal
+Compulsion--Medicine in Relation to Marriage.                        193
+
+
+VII.--RELIGION AND THE CHILD
+
+Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to Psychology--The
+Psychology of the Child--The Contents of Children's Minds--The
+Imagination of Children--How far may Religion be assimilated by
+Children?--Unfortunate Results of Early Religious Instruction--Puberty
+the Age for Religious Education--Religion as an Initiation into a
+Mystery--Initiation among Savages--The Christian Sacraments--The Modern
+Tendency as regards Religious Instruction--Its Advantages--Children and
+Fairy Tales--The Bible of Childhood--Moral Training                  217
+
+
+VIII.--THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL HYGIENE
+
+The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children--The Need of
+such a Movement--Contradictions involved by the Ancient Policy of
+Silence--Errors of the New Policy--The Need of Teaching the Teacher--The
+Need of Training the Parents--And of Scientifically equipping the
+Physician--Sexual Hygiene and Society--The far-reaching Effects of
+Sexual Hygiene                                                       244
+
+
+IX.--IMMORALITY AND THE LAW
+
+Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion--The Binding Force of Custom among
+Savages--The Dissolving Influence of Civilization--The Distinction
+between Immorality and Criminality--Adultery as a Crime--The Tests of
+Criminality--National Differences in laying down the Boundary between
+Criminal and Immoral Acts--France--Germany--England--The United
+States--Police Administration--Police Methods in the United
+States--National Differences in the Regulation of the Trade in
+Alcohol--Prohibition in the United States--Origin of the American Method
+of Dealing with Immorality--Russia--Historical Fluctuations in Methods
+of Dealing with Immorality and Prostitution--Homosexuality--Holland--The
+Age of Consent--Moral Legislation in England--In the United States--The
+Raines Law--America Attempts to Suppress Prostitution--Their
+Futility--German Methods of Regulating Prostitution--The Sound Method of
+Approaching Immorality--Training in Sexual Hygiene--Education in
+Personal and Social Responsibility                                   258
+
+
+X.--THE WAR AGAINST WAR
+
+Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day--The Beneficial
+Effects of War in Barbarous Ages--Civilization renders the Ultimate
+Disappearance of War Inevitable--The Introduction of Law in disputes
+between Individuals involves the Introduction of Law in disputes between
+Nations--But there must be Force behind Law--Henry IV's Attempt to
+Confederate Europe--Every International Tribunal of Arbitration must be
+able to Enforce its decisions--The Influences making for the Abolition
+of Warfare--(1) Growth of International Opinion--(2) International
+Financial Development--(3) The Decreasing Pressure of Population--(4)
+The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit--(5) The Spread of
+Anti-military Doctrines--(6) The Over-growth of Armaments--(7) The
+Dominance of Social Reform--War Incompatible with an Advanced
+Civilization--Nations as Trustees for Humanity--The Impossibility of
+Disarmament--The Necessity of Force to ensure Peace--The Federated State
+of the Future--The Decay of War still leaves the Possibilities of Daring
+and Heroism                                                          311
+
+
+XI.--THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
+
+Early Attempts to construct an International Language--The Urgent Need
+of an Auxiliary Language To-day--Volapuek--The Claims of
+Spanish--Latin--The Claims of English--Its Disadvantages--The Claims of
+French--Its Disadvantages--The Modern Growth of National Feeling opposed
+to Selection of a Natural Language--Advantages of an Artificial
+Language--Demands it must Fulfil--Esperanto--Its Threatened
+Disruption--The International Association for the Adoption of an
+Auxiliary International Language--The First Step to Take             349
+
+
+XII.--INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM
+
+Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between Socialism
+and Individualism--The Two Parties in Politics--The Relation of
+Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and Individualism--The Basis of
+Socialism--The Basis of Individualism--The seeming Opposition between
+Socialism and Individualism merely a Division of Labour--Both Socialism
+and Individualism equally Necessary--Not only Necessary, but
+Indispensable to each other--The Conflict between the Advocates of
+Environment and Heredity--A New Embodiment of the supposed Conflict
+between Socialism and Individualism--The place of Eugenics--Social
+Hygiene ultimately one with the Hygiene of the Soul--The Function of
+Utopias                                                              381
+
+
+INDEX                                                                407
+
+
+
+
+THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+     The Aim of Social Hygiene--Social Reform--The Rise of Social Reform
+     out of English Industrialism--The Four Stages of Social Reform--(1)
+     The Stage of Sanitation--(2) Factory Legislation--(3) The Extension
+     of the Scope of Education--(4) Puericulture--The Scientific
+     Evolution corresponding to these Stages--Social Reform only Touched
+     the Conditions of Life--Yet Social Reform Remains highly
+     Necessary--The Question of Infantile Mortality and the Quality of
+     the Race--The Better Organization of Life Involved by Social
+     Hygiene--Its Insistence on the Quality rather than on the
+     Conditions of Life--The Control of Reproduction--The Fall of the
+     Birth-rate in Relation to the Quality of the Population--The
+     Rejuvenation of a Society--The Influence of Culture and Refinement
+     on a Race--Eugenics--The Regeneration of the Race--The Problem of
+     Feeble-Mindedness--The Methods of Eugenics--Some of the Problems
+     which Face us.
+
+
+Social Hygiene, as it will be here understood, may be said to be a
+development, and even a transformation, of what was formerly known as
+Social Reform. In that transformation it has undergone two fundamental
+changes. In the first place, it is no longer merely an attempt to deal
+with the conditions under which life is lived, seeking to treat bad
+conditions as they occur, without going to their source, but it aims at
+prevention. It ceases to be simply a reforming of forms, and approaches
+in a comprehensive manner not only the conditions of life, but life
+itself. In the second place, its method is no longer haphazard, but
+organized and systematic, being based on a growing knowledge of those
+biological sciences which were scarcely in their infancy when the era of
+social reform began. Thus social hygiene is at once more radical and
+more scientific than the old conception of social reform. It is the
+inevitable method by which at a certain stage civilization is compelled
+to continue its own course, and to preserve, perhaps to elevate, the
+race.
+
+The era of social reform followed on the rise of modern industrialism,
+and, no doubt largely on this account, although an international
+movement, it first became definite and self-conscious in England. There
+were perhaps other reasons why it should have been in the first place
+specially prominent in England. When at the end of the seventeenth
+century, Muralt, a highly intelligent Swiss gentleman, visited England,
+and wrote his by no means unsympathetic _Lettres sur les Anglais_, he
+was struck by a curious contradiction in the English character. They are
+a good-natured people, he observed, very rich, so well-nourished that
+sometimes they die of obesity, and they detest cruelty so much that by
+royal proclamation it is ordained that the fish and the ducks of the
+ponds should be duly and properly fed. Yet he found that this
+good-natured, rich, cruelty-hating nation systematically allowed the
+prisoners in their gaols to die of starvation. "The great cruelty of
+the English," Muralt remarks, "lies in permitting evil rather than in
+doing it."[1] The root of the apparent contradiction lay clearly in a
+somewhat excessive independence and devotion to liberty. We give a man
+full liberty, they seem to have said, to work, to become rich, to grow
+fat. But if he will not work, let him starve. In that point of view
+there were involved certain fallacies, which became clearer during the
+course of social evolution.
+
+It was obvious, indeed, that such an attitude, while highly favourable
+to individual vigour and independence, and not incompatible with fairly
+healthy social life under the conditions which prevailed at the time,
+became disastrous in the era of industrialism. The conditions of
+industrial life tore up the individual from the roots by which he
+normally received strength, and crowded the workers together in masses,
+thus generating a confusion which no individual activity could grapple
+with. So it was that the very spirit which, under the earlier
+conditions, made for good now made for evil. To stand by and applaud the
+efforts of the individual who was perhaps slowly sinking deeper and
+deeper into a miry slough of degradation began to seem an even
+diabolical attitude. The maxim of _laissez-faire_, which had once stood
+for the whole unfettered action of natural activities in life, began to
+be viewed with horror and contempt. It was realized that there must be
+an intelligent superintendence of social conditions, humane regulation,
+systematic organization. The very intensity of the evils which the
+English spirit produced led to a reaction by which that spirit, while
+doubtless remaining the same at heart, took on a different form, and
+manifested its energy in a new direction.
+
+The modern industrial era, replacing domestic industry by collective
+work carried out by "hands" in factories, began in the eighteenth
+century. The era of social reform was delayed until the second quarter
+of the nineteenth century. It has proceeded by four successively
+progressive stages, each stage supplementing, rather than supplanting,
+the stage that preceded it. In 1842 Sir Edwin Chadwick wrote an official
+Report on the _Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great
+Britain_, in which was clearly presented for the first time a vivid,
+comprehensive, and authoritative picture of the incredibly filthy
+conditions under which the English labouring classes lived. The times
+were ripe for this Report. It attracted public attention, and exerted an
+important influence. Its appearance marks the first stage of social
+reform, which was mainly a sanitary effort to clear away the gross filth
+from our cities, to look after the cleansing, lighting, and policing of
+the streets, to create a drainage system, to improve dwellings, and in
+these ways to combat disease and to lower the very high death-rate.
+
+At an early stage, however, it began to be seen that this process of
+sanitation, necessary as it had become, was far too crude and elementary
+to achieve the ends sought. It was not enough to improve the streets, or
+even to regulate the building of dwellings. It was clearly necessary to
+regulate also the conditions of work of the people who lived in those
+streets and dwellings. Thus it was that the scheme of factory
+legislation was initiated. Rules were made as to the hours of labour,
+more especially as regards women and children, for whom, moreover,
+certain specially dangerous or unhealthy occupations were forbidden, and
+an increasingly large number of avocations were brought under Government
+inspection. This second stage of social reform encountered a much more
+strenuous opposition than the first stage. The regulation of the order
+and cleanliness of the streets was obviously necessary, and it had
+indeed been more or less enforced even in medieval times;[2] but the
+regulation of the conditions of work in the interests of the worker was
+a more novel proceeding, and it appeared to clash both with the
+interests of the employers and the ancient principles of English freedom
+and independence, behind which the employers consequently sheltered
+themselves. The early attempts to legislate on these lines were thus
+fruitless. It was not until a distinguished aristocratic philanthropist
+of great influence, the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, took up the
+question, that factory legislation began to be accepted. It continues to
+develop even to-day, ever enlarging the sphere of its action, and now
+meeting with no opposition. But, in England, at all events, its
+acceptance marks a memorable stage in the growth of the national spirit.
+It was no longer easy and natural for the Englishmen to look on at
+suffering without interference. It began to be recognized that it was
+perfectly legitimate, and even necessary, to put a curb on the freedom
+and independence which involved suffering to others.
+
+But as the era of factory legislation became established, a further
+advance was seen to be necessary. Factory legislation had forbidden the
+child to work. But the duty of the community towards the child, the
+citizen of the future, was evidently by no means covered by this purely
+negative step. The child must be prepared to take his future part in
+life, in the first place by education. The nationalization of education
+in England dates from 1870. But during the subsequent half century
+"education" has come to mean much more than mere instruction; it now
+covers a certain amount of provision for meals when necessary, the
+enforcement of cleanliness, the care of defective conditions, inborn or
+acquired, with special treatment for mentally defective children, an
+ever-increasing amount of medical inspection and supervision, while it
+is beginning to include arrangements for placing the child in work
+suited to his capacities when he leaves school.
+
+During the past ten years the movement of social reform has entered a
+fourth stage. The care of the child during his school-days was seen to
+be insufficient; it began too late, when probably the child's fate for
+life was already decided. It was necessary to push the process further
+back, to birth and even to the stage before birth, by directing social
+care to the infant, and by taking thought of the mother. This
+consideration has led to a whole series of highly important and fruitful
+measures which are only beginning to develop, although they have already
+proved very beneficial. The immediate notification to the authorities of
+a child's birth, and the institution of Health Visitors to ascertain
+what is being done for the infant's well-being, and to aid the mother
+with advice, have certainly been a large factor in the recent reduction
+in the infantile death-rate in England.[3]
+
+The care of the infant has indeed now become a new applied science, the
+science of puericulture. Professor Budin of Paris may fairly be regarded
+as the founder of puericulture by the establishment in Paris, in 1892,
+of Infant Consultations, to which mothers were encouraged to bring their
+babies to be weighed and examined, any necessary advice being given
+regarding the care of the baby. The mothers are persuaded to suckle
+their infants if possible, and if their own health permits. For the
+cases in which suckling is undesirable or impossible, Budin established
+Milk Depots, where pure milk is supplied at a low price or freely.
+Infant Consultations and Milk Depots are now becoming common everywhere.
+A little later than Budin, another distinguished French physician,
+Pinard, carried puericulture a step further back, but a very important
+step, by initiating a movement for the care of the pregnant woman.
+Pinard and his pupils have shown by a number of detailed investigations
+that the children born to working mothers who rest during the last three
+months of pregnancy, are to a marked extent larger and finer than the
+children of those mothers who enjoy no such period of rest, even though
+the mothers themselves may be equally robust and healthy in both cases.
+Moreover, it is found that premature birth, one of the commonest
+accidents of modern life, tends to be prevented by such rest. The
+children of mothers who rest enjoy on the average three weeks longer
+development in the womb than the children of the mothers who do not
+rest, and this prolonged ante-natal development cannot fail to be a
+benefit for the whole of the child's subsequent life. The movement
+started by Pinard, though strictly a continuation of the great movement
+for the improvement of the conditions of life, takes us as far back as
+we are able to go on these lines, and has in it the promise of an
+immense benefit to human efficiency.
+
+In connection with the movement of puericulture initiated by Budin and
+Pinard must be mentioned the institution of Schools for Mothers, for it
+is closely associated with the aims of puericulture. The School for
+Mothers arose in Belgium, a little later than the activities of Budin
+and Pinard commenced. About 1900 a young Socialist doctor of Ghent, Dr.
+Miele, started the first school of this kind, with girls of from twelve
+to sixteen years of age as students and assistants. The School
+eventually included as many as twelve different services, among these
+being dispensaries for mothers, a mothers' friendly society, milk depots
+both for babies and nursing mothers, health talks to mothers with
+demonstrations, courses on puericulture (including anatomy, physiology,
+preparation of foods, weighing, etc.) to girls between fourteen and
+eighteen, who afterwards become eligible for appointment as paid
+assistants.[4] In 1907 Schools for Mothers were introduced into England,
+at first under the auspices of Dr. Sykes, Medical Officer of Health for
+St. Pancras, London. Such Schools are now spreading everywhere. In the
+end they will probably be considered necessary centres for any national
+system of puericulture. Every girl at the end of her school life should
+be expected to pass through a certain course of training at a School for
+Mothers. It would be the technical school for the working-class mother,
+while such a course would be invaluable for any girl, whatever her
+social class, even if she is never called to be a mother herself or to
+have the care of children.
+
+The great movement of social reform during the nineteenth century, we
+thus see, has moved in four stages, each of which has reinforced rather
+than replaced that which went before: (1) the effort to cleanse the
+gross filth of cities and to remedy obvious disorder by systematic
+attention to scavenging, drainage, the supply of water and of artificial
+light, as well as by improved policing; (2) the great system of factory
+legislation for regulating the conditions of work, and to some extent
+restraining the work of women and of children; (3) the introduction of
+national systems of education, and the gradual extension of the idea of
+education to cover far more than mere instruction; and (4), most
+fundamental of all and last to appear, the effort to guard the child
+before the school age, even at birth, even before birth, by bestowing
+due care on the future mother.[5]
+
+It may be pointed out that this movement of practical social reform has
+been accompanied, stimulated, and guided by a corresponding movement in
+the sciences which in their application are indispensable to the
+progress of civilized social reform. There has been a process of mutual
+action and reaction between science and practice. The social movement
+has stimulated the development of abstract science, and the new progress
+in science has enabled further advances to be made in social practice.
+The era of expansion in sanitation was the era of development in
+chemistry and physics, which alone enabled a sound system of sanitation
+to be developed. The fight against disease would have been impossible
+but for bacteriology. The new care for human life, and for the
+protection of its source, is associated with fresh developments of
+biological science. Sociological observations and speculation, including
+economics, are intimately connected with the efforts of social reform to
+attain a broad, sound, and truly democratic basis.[6]
+
+When we survey this movement as a whole, we have to recognize that it is
+exclusively concerned with the improvement of the conditions of life. It
+makes no attempt to influence either the quantity or the quality of
+life.[7] It may sometimes have been carried out with the assumption that
+to improve the conditions of life is, in some way or other, to improve
+the quality of life itself. But it accepted the stream of life as it
+found it, and while working to cleanse the banks of the stream it made
+no attempt to purify the stream itself.
+
+It must, however, be remembered that the arguments which, especially
+nowadays, are brought against the social reform of the condition of
+life, will not bear serious examination. It is said, for instance, or at
+all events implied, that we need bestow very little care on the
+conditions of life because such care can have no permanently beneficial
+effect on the race, since acquired characters, for the most part, are
+not transmitted to descendants. But to assume that social reform is
+unnecessary because it is not inherited is altogether absurd. The people
+who make this assumption would certainly not argue that it is useless
+for them to satisfy their own hunger and thirst, because their children
+will not thereby be safeguarded from experiencing hunger and thirst. Yet
+the needs which the movement of organized social reform seeks to satisfy
+are precisely on a level with, and indeed to some extent identical with,
+the needs of hunger and thirst. The impulse and the duty which move
+every civilized community to elaborate and gratify its own social needs
+to the utmost are altogether independent of the race, and would not
+cease to exist even in a community vowed to celibacy or the most
+absolute Neo-Malthusianism. Nor, again, must it be said that social
+reform destroys the beneficial results of natural selection.
+
+Here, indeed, we encounter a disputed point, and it may be admitted that
+the precise data for absolute demonstration in one direction or the
+other cannot yet be found. Whenever human beings breed in reckless and
+unrestrained profusion--as is the case under some conditions before a
+free and self-conscious civilization is attained--there is an immense
+infantile mortality. It is claimed, on the one hand, that this is
+beneficial, and need not be interfered with. The weak are killed off,
+it is said, and the strong survive; there is a process of natural
+survival of the fittest. That is true. But it is equally true, as has
+also been clearly seen on the other hand, that though the relatively
+strongest survive, their relative strength has been impaired by the very
+influences which have proved altogether fatal to their weaker brethren.
+There is an immense infantile mortality in Russia. Yet, notwithstanding
+any resulting "survival of the fittest," Russia is far more ravaged by
+disease than Norway, where infantile mortality is low. "A high infantile
+mortality," as George Carpenter, a great authority on the diseases of
+childhood, remarks, "denotes a far higher infantile deterioration rate";
+or, as another doctor puts it, "the dead baby is next of kin to the
+diseased baby," The protection of the weak, so frequently condemned by
+some Neo-Darwinians, is thus in reality, as Goldscheid terms it, "the
+protection of the strong from degeneration."
+
+There is, however, more to be said. Not only must an undue struggle with
+unfavourable conditions enfeeble the strong as well as kill the feeble;
+it also imposes an intolerable burden upon these enfeebled survivors.
+The process of destruction is not sudden, it is gradual. It is a
+long-drawn-out process. It involves the multiplication of the diseased,
+the maimed, the feeble-minded, of paupers and lunatics and criminals.
+Even natural selection thus includes the need for protecting the feeble,
+and so renders urgent the task of social reform, while the more
+thoroughly this task is carried out with the growth of civilization,
+the more stupendous and overwhelming the task becomes.
+
+It is thus that civilization, at a certain point in its course, renders
+inevitable the appearance of that wider and deeper organization of life
+which in the present volume we are concerned with under the name of
+Social Hygiene. That movement is far from being an abrupt or
+revolutionary manifestation in the ordinary progress of social growth.
+As we have seen, social reform during the past eighty years may be said
+to have proceeded in four successive stages, each of which has involved
+a nearer approach to the sources of life. The fourth stage, which in its
+beginnings dates only from the last years of the nineteenth century,
+takes us to the period before birth, and is concerned with the care of
+the child in the mother's womb. The next stage cannot fail to take us to
+the very source of life itself, lifting us beyond the task of purifying
+the conditions, and laying on us the further task of regulating the
+quantity and raising the quality of life at its very source. The duty of
+purifying, ordering, and consolidating the banks of the stream must
+still remain.[8] But when we are able to control the stream at its
+source we are able to some extent to prevent the contamination of that
+stream by filth, and ensure that its muddy floods shall not sweep away
+the results of our laborious work on the banks. Our sense of social
+responsibility is developing into a sense of racial responsibility, and
+that development is expressed in the nature of the tasks of Social
+Hygiene which now lie before us.
+
+It is the control of the reproduction of the race which renders possible
+the new conception of Social Hygiene. We have seen that the gradual
+process of social reform during the first three quarters of the
+nineteenth century, by successive stages of movement towards the sources
+of life, finally reached the moment of conception. The first result of
+reform at this point was that procreation became a deliberate act. Up
+till then the method of propagating the race was the same as that which
+savages have carried on during thousands of years, the chief difference
+being that whereas savages have frequently sought to compensate their
+recklessness by destroying their inferior offspring, we had accepted all
+the offspring, good, bad, and indifferent, produced by our
+indiscriminate recklessness, shielding ourselves by a false theology.
+Children "came," and their parents disclaimed all responsibility for
+their coming. The children were "sent by God," and if they all turned
+out to be idiots, the responsibility was God's. But when it became
+generally realized that it was possible to limit offspring without
+interfering with conjugal life a step of immense importance was
+achieved. It became clear to all that the Divine force works through us,
+and that we are not entitled to cast the burden of our evil actions on
+any Higher Power. Marriage no longer fatally involved an endless
+procession of children who, in so far as they survived at all, were in a
+large number of cases doomed to disease, neglect, misery, and ignorance.
+The new Social Hygiene was for the first time rendered possible.
+
+It was in France during the first half of the nineteenth century that
+the control of reproduction first began to become a social habit. In
+Sweden and in Denmark, the fall in the birth-rate, though it has been
+irregular, may be said to have begun in 1860. It was not until about the
+year 1876 that, in so far as we may judge by the arrest of the
+birth-rate, the movement began to spread to Europe generally. In England
+it is usual to associate this change with a famous prosecution which
+brought a knowledge of the means of preventing conception to the whole
+population of Great Britain. Undoubtedly this prosecution was an
+important factor in the movement, but we cannot doubt that, even if the
+prosecution had not taken place, the course of social progress must
+still have pursued the same course. It is noteworthy that it was about
+this same period, in various European countries, that the tide turned,
+and the excessively high birth-rate began to fall.[9] Recklessness was
+giving place to foresight and self-control. Such foresight and
+self-control are of the essence of civilization.[10]
+
+It cannot be disputed that the transformation by which the propagation
+of the race became deliberate and voluntary has not been established in
+social custom without a certain amount of protestation from various
+sides. No social change, however beneficial, ever is established without
+such protestation, which may, therefore, be regarded as an inevitable
+and probably a salutary part of social change. Even some would-be
+scientific persons, with a display of elaborate statistics, set forth
+various alarmistic doctrines. If, said these persons, this new movement
+goes on at the present pace, and if all other conditions remain
+unchanged, then all sorts of terrible results will ensue. But the
+alarming conclusion failed to ensue, and for a very sufficient reason.
+The assumed premises of the argument were unsound. Nothing ever goes on
+at the same pace, nor do all other conditions ever remain unchanged.
+
+The world is a living fire, as Heraclitus long ago put it. All things
+are in perpetual flux. Life is a process of perpetual movement. It is
+idle to bid the world stand still, and then to argue about the
+consequences. The world will not stand still, it is for ever revolving,
+for ever revealing some new facet that had not been allowed for in the
+neatly arranged mechanism of the statistician.
+
+It is perhaps unnecessary to dwell on a point which is now at last, one
+may hope, becoming clear to most intelligent persons. But I may perhaps
+be allowed to refer in passing to an argument that has been brought
+forward with the wearisome iteration which always marks the progress of
+those who are feeble in argument. The good stocks of upper social class
+are decreasing in fertility, it is said; the bad stocks of lower social
+class are not decreasing; therefore the bad stocks are tending to
+replace the good stocks.[11]
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that, even assuming that the facts are
+as stated; it is a hazardous assumption that the best stocks are
+necessarily the stocks of high social class. In the main no doubt this
+is so, but good stocks are nevertheless so widely spread through all
+classes--such good stocks in the lower social classes being probably the
+most resistent to adverse conditions--that we are not entitled to regard
+even a slightly greater net increase of the lower social classes as an
+unmitigated evil. It may be that, as Mercier has expressed it, "we have
+to regard a civilized community somewhat in the light of a lamp, which
+burns at the top and is replenished from the bottom."[12]
+
+The soundness of a stock, and its aptitude for performing efficiently
+the functions of its own social sphere, cannot, indeed, be accurately
+measured by any tendency to rise into a higher social sphere. On the
+whole, from generation to generation, the men of a good stock remain
+within their own social sphere, whether high or low, adequately
+performing their functions in that sphere, from generation to
+generation. They remain, we may say, in that social stratum of which the
+specific gravity is best suited for their existence.[13]
+
+Yet, undoubtedly, from time to time, there is a slight upward social
+tendency, due in most cases to the exceptional energy and ability of
+some individual who succeeds in permanently lifting his family into a
+slightly higher social stratum.[14] Such a process has always taken
+place, in the past even more conspicuously than in the present. The
+Normans who came over to England with William the Conqueror and
+constituted the proud English nobility were simply a miscellaneous set
+of adventurers, professional fighting men, of unknown, and no doubt for
+the most part undistinguished, lineage. William the Conqueror himself
+was the son of a woman of the people. The Catholic Church founded no
+families, but its democratic constitution opened a career to men of all
+classes, and the most brilliant sons of the Church were often of the
+lowliest social rank. We should not, therefore, say that the bad stocks
+are replacing the good stocks. There is not the slightest evidence for
+any such theory. All that we are entitled to say is that when in the
+upward progression of a community the vanishing point of culture and
+refinement is attained the bearers of that culture and refinement die
+off as naturally and inevitably as flowers in autumn, and from their
+roots spring up new and more vigorous shoots to replace them and to pass
+in their turn through the same stages, with that perpetual slight
+novelty in which lies the secret of life, as well as of art. An
+aristocracy which is merely an aristocracy because it is "old"--whether
+it is an aristocracy of families, or of races, or of species--has
+already ceased to be an aristocracy in any sound meaning of the term. We
+need not regret its disappearance.
+
+Do not, therefore, let us waste our time in crying over the dead roses
+of the summer that is past. There is something morbid in the perpetual
+groaning over that inevitable decay which is itself a part of all life.
+Such a perpetual narrow insistence on one aspect of life is scarcely
+sane. One suspects that these people are themselves of those stocks over
+whose fate they grieve. Let us, therefore, mercifully leave them to
+manure their dead roses in peace. They will soon be forgotten. The world
+is for ever dying. The world is also for ever bursting with life. The
+spring song of _Sursum corda_ easily overwhelms the dying autumnal wails
+of the _Dies Irae_.
+
+It would thus appear that, even apart from any deliberate restraint from
+procreation, as a family attains the highest culture and refinement
+which civilization can yield, that family tends to die out, at all
+events in the male line.[15] This is, for instance, the result which
+Fahlbeck has reached in his valuable demographic study of the Swedish
+nobility, _Der Adel Schwedens_. "Apparently," says Fahlbeck, "the
+greater demands on nervous and intellectual force which the culture and
+refinement of the upper classes produce are chiefly responsible for
+this. For these are the two personal factors by which those classes are
+distinguished from the lower classes: high education and refinement in
+tastes and habits. The first involves predominant activity of the brain,
+the last a heightened sensitiveness in all departments of nervous life.
+In both respects, therefore, there is increased work for the nervous
+system, and this is compensated in the other vital functions, especially
+reproduction. Man cannot achieve everything; what he gains on one side
+he loses on the other." We should do well to hold these wise words in
+mind when we encounter those sciolists who in the presence of the finest
+and rarest manifestations of civilizations, can only talk of race
+"decay." A female salmon, it is estimated, lays about nine hundred eggs
+for every pound of her own weight, and she may weigh fifty pounds. The
+progeny of Shakespeare and Goethe, such as it was, disappeared in the
+very centuries in which these great men themselves died. At the present
+stage of civilization we are somewhat nearer to Shakespeare and Goethe
+than to the salmon. We must set our ideals towards a very different
+direction from that which commends itself to our Salmonidian sciolists.
+"Increase and multiply" was the legendary injunction uttered on the
+threshold of an empty world. It is singularly out of place in an age in
+which the earth and the sea, if not indeed the very air, swarm with
+countless myriads of undistinguished and indistinguishable human
+creatures, until the beauty of the world is befouled and the glory of
+the Heavens bedimmed. To stem back that tide is the task now imposed on
+our heroism, to elevate and purify and refine the race, to introduce
+the ideal of quality in place of the ideal of quantity which has run
+riot so long, with the results we see. "As the Northern Saga tells that
+Odin must sacrifice his eye to attain the higher wisdom," concludes
+Fahlbeck, "so Man also, in order to win the treasures of culture and
+refinement, must give not only his eye but his life, if not his own life
+that of his posterity."[16] The vulgar aim of reckless racial fertility
+is no longer within our reach and no longer commends itself as worthy.
+It is not consonant with the stage of civilization we are at the moment
+passing through. The higher task is now ours of the regeneration of the
+race, or, if we wish to express that betterment less questionably, the
+aggeneration of the race.[17]
+
+The control of reproduction, we see, essential as it is, cannot by
+itself carry far the betterment of the race, because it involves no
+direct selection of stocks. Yet we have to remember that though this
+control, with the limitation of offspring it involves, fails to answer
+all the demands which Social Hygiene to-day makes of us, it yet achieves
+much. It may not improve what we abstractly term the "race," but it
+immensely improves the individuals of which the race is made up. Thus
+the limitation of the family renders it possible to avoid the production
+of undesired children. That in itself is an immense social gain, because
+it tends to abolish excessive infantile mortality.[18] It means that
+adequate care will be expended upon the children that are produced, and
+that no children will be produced unless the parents are in a position
+to provide for them.[19] Even the mere spacing out of the children in a
+family, the larger interval between child-births, is a very great
+advantage. The mother is no longer exhausted by perpetually bearing,
+suckling, and tending babies, while the babies themselves are on the
+average of better quality.[20] Thus the limitation of offspring, far from
+being an egoistic measure, as some have foolishly supposed, is
+imperatively demanded in the altruistic interests of the individuals
+composing the race.
+
+But the control of reproduction, enormously beneficial as it is even in
+its most elementary shapes, mainly concerns us here because it furnishes
+the essential condition for the development of Social Hygiene. The
+control of reproduction renders possible, and leads on to, a wise
+selection in reproduction. It is only by such selection of children to
+be born that we can balance our indiscriminate care in the preservation
+of all children that are born, a care which otherwise would become an
+intolerable burden. It is only by such selection that we can work
+towards the elimination of those stocks which fail to help us in the
+tasks of our civilization to-day. It is only by such selection that we
+can hope to fortify the stocks that are fitted for these tasks. More
+than two centuries ago Steele playfully suggested that "one might wear
+any passion out of a family by culture, as skilful gardeners blot a
+colour out of a tulip that hurts its beauty."[21] The progress of
+civilization, with the self-control it involves, has made it possible to
+accept this suggestion seriously.[22] The difference is that whereas the
+flowers of our gardens are bettered only by the control of an arbitrary
+external will and intelligence, our human flowers may be bettered by an
+intelligence and will, a finer sense of responsibility, developed within
+themselves. Thus it is that human culture renders possible Social
+Hygiene.
+
+Three centuries ago an inspired monk set forth his ideal of an ennobled
+world in _The City of the Sun_. Campanella wrote that prophetic book in
+prison. But his spirit was unfettered, and his conception of human
+society, though in daring it outruns all the visions we may compare it
+with, is yet on the lines along which our civilization lies. In the City
+of the Sun not only was the nobility of work, even mechanical
+work,--which Plato rejected and More was scarcely conscious of,--for the
+first time recognized, but the supreme impulse of procreation was
+regarded as a sacred function, to be exercised in the light of
+scientific knowledge. It was a public rather than a private duty,
+because it concerned the interests of the race; only valorous and
+high-spirited men ought to procreate, and it was held that the father
+should bear the punishments inflicted on the son for faults due to his
+failure by defects in generation.[23] Moreover, while unions not for the
+end of procreation were in the City of the Sun left to the judgment of
+the individuals alone concerned, it was not so with unions for the end
+of procreation. These were arranged by the "great Master," a physician,
+aided by the chief matrons, and the public exercises of the youths and
+maidens, performed in a state of nakedness, were of assistance in
+enabling unions to be fittingly made. No eugenist under modern
+conditions of life proposes that unions should be arranged by a supreme
+medical public official, though he might possibly regard such an
+official, if divested of any compulsory powers, a kind of public trustee
+for the race, as a useful institution. But it is easy to see that the
+luminous conception of racial betterment which, since Galton rendered it
+practicable, is now inspiring social progress, was already burning
+brightly three centuries ago in the brain of this imprisoned Italian
+monk. Just as Thomas More has been called the father of modern
+Socialism, so Campanella may be said to be the prophet of modern
+Eugenics.
+
+By "Eugenics" is meant the scientific study of all the agencies by which
+the human race may be improved, and the effort to give practical effect
+to those agencies by conscious and deliberate action in favour of better
+breeding. Even among savages eugenics may be said to exist, if only in
+the crude and unscientific practice of destroying feeble, deformed, and
+abnormal infants at birth. In civilized ages elaborate and more or less
+scientific attempts are made by breeders of animals to improve the
+stocks they breed, and their efforts have been crowned with much
+success. The study of the same methods in their bearing on man proceeded
+out of the Darwinian school of biology, and is especially associated
+with the great name of Sir Francis Galton, the cousin of Darwin. Galton
+first proposed to call this study "Stirpiculture." Under that name it
+inspired Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, with the impulse to
+carry it into practice with a thoroughness and daring--indeed a
+similarity of method--which caused Oneida almost to rival the City of
+the Sun. But the scheme of Noyes, excellent as in some respects it was
+as an experiment, outran both scientific knowledge and the spirit of the
+times. It was not countenanced by Galton, who never had any wish to
+offend general sentiment, but sought to win it over to his side, and
+before 1880 the Oneida Community was brought to an end in consequence of
+the antagonism it aroused. Galton continued to develop his conceptions
+slowly and cautiously, and in 1883, in his _Inquiries into Human
+Faculty_, he abandoned the term "Stirpiculture" and devised the term
+"Eugenics," which is now generally adopted to signify Good Breeding.
+
+Galton was quite well aware that the improved breeding of men is a very
+different matter from the improved breeding of animals, requiring a
+different knowledge and a different method, so that the ridicule which
+has sometimes been ignorantly flung at Eugenics failed to touch him. It
+would be clearly undesirable to breed men, as animals are bred, for
+single points at the sacrifice of other points, even if we were in a
+position to breed men from outside. Human breeding must proceed from
+impulses that arise, voluntarily, in human brains and wills, and are
+carried out with a human sense of personal responsibility. Galton
+believed that the first need was the need of knowledge in these matters.
+He was not anxious to invoke legislation.[24] The compulsory presentation
+of certificates of health and good breeding as a preliminary to marriage
+forms no part of Eugenics, nor is compulsory sterilization a demand made
+by any reasonable eugenist. Certainly the custom of securing
+certificates of health and ability is excellent, not only as a
+preliminary to marriage, but as a general custom. Certainly, also, there
+are cases in which sterilization is desirable, if voluntarily
+accepted.[25] But neither certification nor sterilization should be
+compulsory. They only have their value if they are intelligent and
+deliberate, springing out of a widened and enlightened sense of personal
+responsibility to society and to the race.
+
+Eugenics constitutes the link between the Social Reform of the past,
+painfully struggling to improve the conditions of life, and the Social
+Hygiene of the future, which is authorized to deal adequately with the
+conditions of life because it has its hands on the sources of life. On
+this plane we are able to concentrate our energies on the finer ends of
+life, because we may reasonably expect to be no longer hampered by the
+ever-increasing burdens which were placed upon us by the failure to
+control life; while the more we succeed in our efforts to purify and
+strengthen life, the more magnificent become the tasks we may reasonably
+hope to attempt and compass.
+
+A problem which is often and justly cited as one to be settled by
+Eugenics is that presented by the existence among us of the large class
+of the feeble-minded. No doubt there are some who would regret the
+disappearance of the feeble-minded from our midst. The philosophies of
+the Bergsonian type, which to-day prevail so widely, place intuition
+above reason, and the "pure fool" has sometimes been enshrined and
+idolized. But we may remember that Eugenics can never prevent absolutely
+the occurrence of feeble-minded persons, even in the extreme degree of
+the imbecile and the idiot.[26] They come within the range of variation,
+by the same right as genius so comes. We cannot, it may be, prevent the
+occurrence of such persons, but we can prevent them from being the
+founders of families tending to resemble themselves. And in so doing, it
+will be agreed by most people, we shall be effecting a task of immense
+benefit to society and the race.
+
+Feeble-mindedness is largely handed on by heredity. It was formerly
+supposed that idiocy and feeble-mindedness are mainly due to
+environmental conditions, to the drink, depravity, general disease, or
+lack of nutrition of the parents, and there is no doubt an element of
+truth in that view. But serious and frequent as are the results of bad
+environment and acquired disease in the parentage of the feeble-minded,
+they do not form the fundamental factor in the production of the
+feeble-minded.[27]
+
+Feeble-mindedness is essentially a germinal variation, belonging to the
+same large class as all other biological variations, occurring, for the
+most part, in the first place spontaneously, but strongly tending to be
+inherited. It thus resembles congenital cataract, deaf-mutism, the
+susceptibility to tuberculous infection, etc.[28]
+
+Exact investigation is now showing that feeble-mindedness is passed on
+from parent to child to an enormous extent. Some years ago Ashby,
+speaking from a large experience in the North of England, estimated that
+at least seventy-five per cent of feeble-minded children are born with
+an inherited tendency to mental defect. More precise investigation has
+since shown that this estimate was under the mark. Tredgold, who in
+England has most carefully studied the heredity of the feeble-minded,[29]
+found that in over eighty-two per cent cases there is a bad nervous
+inheritance. In a large number of cases the bad heredity was associated
+with alcoholism or consumption in the parentage, but only in a small
+proportion of cases (about seven per cent) was it probable that
+alcoholism and consumption alone, and usually combined, had sufficed to
+produce the defective condition of the children, while environmental
+conditions only produced mental defect in ten per cent cases.[30]
+Heredity is the chief cause of feeble-mindedness, and a normal child is
+never born of two feeble-minded parents. The very thorough investigation
+of the heredity of the feeble-minded which is now being carried on at
+the institution for their care at Vineland, New Jersey, shows even more
+decisive results. By making careful pedigrees of the families to which
+the inmates at Vineland belong it is seen that in a large proportion of
+cases feeble-mindedness is handed on from generation to generation, and
+is traceable through three generations, though it sometimes skips a
+generation. In one family of three hundred and nineteen persons, one
+hundred and nineteen were known to be feeble-minded, and only forty-two
+known to be normal. The families tended to be large, sometimes very
+large, most of them in many cases dying in infancy or growing up
+weak-minded.[31]
+
+Not only is feeble-mindedness inherited, and to a much greater degree
+than has hitherto been suspected even by expert authorities, but the
+feeble-minded thus tend (though, as Davenport and Weeks have found, not
+invariably) to have a larger number of children than normal people. That
+indeed, we might expect, apart altogether from the question of any
+innate fertility. The feeble-minded have no forethought and no
+self-restraint. They are not adequately capable of resisting their own
+impulses or the solicitations of others, and they are unable to
+understand adequately the motives which guide the conduct of ordinary
+people. The average number of children of feeble-minded people seems to
+be frequently about one-third more than in normal families, and is
+sometimes much greater. Dr. Ettie Sayer, when investigating for the
+London County Council the family histories of one hundred normal
+families and one hundred families in which mentally defective children
+had been found, ascertained that the families of the latter averaged 7.6
+children, while in the normal families they averaged 5. Tredgold,
+specially investigating 150 feeble-minded cases, found that they
+belonged to families in which 1269 children had been born, that is to
+say 7.3 per family, or, counting still-born children, 8.4. Nearly
+two-thirds of these abnormally large families were mentally defective,
+many showing a tendency to disease, pauperism, criminality, or else to
+early death.[32]
+
+Here, indeed, we have a counterbalancing influence, for, in the large
+families of the feeble-minded, there is a correspondingly large
+infantile mortality. A considerable proportion of Tredgold's group of
+children were born dead, and a very large number died early. Eichholz,
+again, found that, in one group of defective families, about sixty per
+cent of the children died young. That is probably an unusually high
+proportion, and in Eichholz's cases it seems to have been associated
+with very unusually large families, but the infant mortality is always
+very high.
+
+This large early mortality of the offspring of the feeble-minded is,
+however, very far from settling the question of the disposal of the
+mentally defective, or we should not find families of them propagated
+from generation to generation. The large number who die early merely
+serves, roughly speaking, to reduce the size of the abnormal family to
+the size of a normal family, and some authorities consider that it
+scarcely suffices to do this, for we must remember that there is a
+considerable mortality even in the so-called normal family during early
+life. Even when there is no abnormal fertility in the defective family
+we may still have to recognize that, as Davenport and Weeks argue, their
+defectiveness is intensified by heredity. Moreover, we have to consider
+the social disorder and the heavy expense which accompany the large
+infantile mortality. Illegitimacy is frequently the result of
+feeble-mindedness, since feeble-minded women are peculiarly unable to
+resist temptation. A great number of such women are continually coming
+into the workhouses and giving birth to illegitimate children whom they
+are unable to support, and who often never become capable of supporting
+themselves, but in their turn tend to produce a new feeble-minded
+generation, more especially since the men who are attracted to these
+feeble-minded women are themselves--according to the generally
+recognized tendency of the abnormal to be attracted to the
+abnormal--feeble-minded or otherwise mentally defective. There is thus
+generated not only a heavy financial burden, but also a perpetual danger
+to society, and, it may well be, a serious depreciation in the quality
+of the community.[33]
+
+It is not only in themselves that the feeble-minded are a burden on the
+present generation and a menace to future generations. In large measure
+they form the reservoir from which the predatory classes are recruited.
+This is, for instance, the case as regards prostitutes. Feeble-minded
+girls, of fairly high grade, may often be said to be predestined to
+prostitution if left to themselves, not because they are vicious, but
+because they are weak and have little power of resistance. They cannot
+properly weigh their actions against the results of their actions, and
+even if they are intelligent enough to do that, they are still too weak
+to regulate their actions accordingly. Moreover, even when, as often
+happens among the high-grade feeble-minded, they are quite able and
+willing to work, after they have lost their "respectability" by having a
+child, the opportunities for work become more restricted, and they drift
+into prostitution. It has been found that of nearly 15,000 women who
+passed through Magdalen Homes in England, over 2500, or more than
+sixteen per cent--and this is probably an under-estimate--were
+definitely feeble-minded. The women belonging to this feeble-minded
+group were known to have added 1000 illegitimate children to the
+population. In Germany Bonhoeffer found among 190 prostitutes who passed
+through a prison that 102 were hereditarily degenerate and 53
+feeble-minded. This would be an over-estimate as regards average
+prostitutes, though the offences were no doubt usually trivial, but in
+any case the association between prostitution and feeble-mindedness is
+intimate. Everywhere, there can be no doubt, the ranks of prostitution
+contain a considerable proportion of women who were, at the very outset,
+in some slight degree feeble-minded, mentally and morally a little
+blunted through some taint of inheritance.[34]
+
+Criminality, again, is associated with feeble-mindedness in the most
+intimate way. Not only do criminals tend to belong to large families,
+but the families that produce feeble-minded offspring also produce
+criminals, while a certain degree of feeble-mindedness is extremely
+common among criminals, and the most hopeless and typical, though
+fortunately rare, kind of criminal, frequently termed a "moral
+imbecile," is nothing more than a feeble-minded person whose defect is
+shown not so much in his intelligence as in his feelings and his
+conduct. Sir H.B. Donkin, who speaks with authority on this matter,
+estimates that, though it is difficult to obtain the early history of
+the criminals who enter English prisons, about twenty per cent of them
+are of primarily defective mental capacity. This would mean that every
+year some 35,000 feeble-minded persons are sent to English prisons as
+"criminals." The tendency of criminals to belong to the feeble-minded
+class is indeed every day becoming more clearly recognized. At
+Pentonville, putting aside prisoners who were too mentally affected to
+be fit for prison discipline, eighteen per cent of the adult prisoners
+and forty per cent of the juvenile offenders were found to be
+feeble-minded. This includes only those whose defect is fairly obvious,
+and is not the result of methodical investigation. It is certain that
+such methodical inquiry would reveal a very large proportion of cases of
+less obvious mental defect. Thus the systematic examination of a number
+of delinquent children in an Industrial School showed that in
+seventy-five per cent cases they were defective as compared to normal
+children, and that their defectiveness was probably inborn. Even the
+possession of a considerable degree of cunning is no evidence against
+mental defect, but may rather be said to be a sign of it, for it shows
+an intelligence unable to grasp the wider relations of life, and
+concentrated on the gratification of petty and immediate desires. Thus
+it happens that the cunning of criminals is frequently associated with
+almost inconceivable stupidity.[35]
+
+Closely related to the great feeble-minded class, and from time to time
+falling into crime, are the inmates of workhouses, tramps, and the
+unemployable. The so-called "able-bodied" inmates of the workhouses are
+frequently found, on medical examination, to be, in more than fifty per
+cent cases, mentally defective, equally so whether they are men or
+women. Tramps, by nature and profession, who overlap the workhouse
+population, and are estimated to number 20,000 to 30,000 in England and
+Wales, when the genuine unemployed are eliminated, are everywhere found
+to be a very degenerate class, among whom the most mischievous kinds of
+feeble-mindedness and mental perversion prevail. Inebriates, the people
+who are chronically and helplessly given to drink, largely belong to the
+same great family, and do not so much become feeble-minded because they
+drink, but possess the tendency to drink because they have a strain of
+feeble-mindedness from birth. Branthwaite, the chief English authority
+on this question, finds that of the inebriates who come to his notice,
+putting aside altogether the group of actually insane persons, about
+sixty-three per cent are mentally defective, and scarcely more than a
+third of the whole number of average mental capacity. It is evident that
+these people, even if restored to sobriety, would still retain their
+more or less inborn defectiveness, and would remain equally, unfit to
+become the parents of the coming generation.
+
+These are the kind of people--tramps, prostitutes, paupers, criminals,
+inebriates, all tending to be born a little defective--who largely make
+up the great degenerate families whose histories are from time to time
+recorded. Such a family was that of the Jukes in America, who, in the
+course of five generations, by constantly intermarrying with bad stocks,
+produced 709 known descendants who were on the whole unfit for society,
+and have been a constant danger and burden to society.[36] A still larger
+family of the same kind, more recently studied in Germany, consisted of
+834 known persons, all descended from a drunken vagabond woman, probably
+somewhat feeble-minded but physically vigorous. The great majority of
+these descendants were prostitutes, tramps, paupers, and criminals (some
+of them murderers), and the direct cost in money to the Prussian State
+for the keep and care of this woman and her family has been a quarter of
+a million pounds. Yet another such family is that of the "Zeros." Three
+centuries ago they were highly respectable people, living in a Swiss
+valley. But they intermarried with an insane stock, and subsequently
+married other women of an unbalanced nature. In recent times 310 members
+of this family have been studied, and it is found that vagrancy,
+feeble-mindedness, mental troubles, criminality, pauperism, immorality
+are, as it may be termed, their patrimony.[37]
+
+These classes, with their tendency to weak-mindedness, their inborn
+laziness, lack of vitality, and unfitness for organized activity,
+contain the people who complain that they are starving for want of work,
+though they will never perform any work that is given them.
+Feeble-mindedness is an absolute dead-weight on the race. It is an evil
+that is unmitigated. The heavy and complicated social burdens and
+injuries it inflicts on the present generation are without compensation,
+while the unquestionable fact that in any degree it is highly
+inheritable renders it a deteriorating poison to the race; it
+depreciates the quality of a people. The task of Social Hygiene which
+lies before us cannot be attempted by this feeble folk. Not only can
+they not share it, but they impede it; their clumsy hands are for ever
+becoming entangled in the delicate mechanism of our modern civilization.
+Their very existence is itself an impediment. Apart altogether from the
+gross and obvious burden in money and social machinery which the
+protection they need, and the protection we need against them, casts
+upon the community,[38] they dilute the spiritual quality of the
+community to a degree which makes it an inapt medium for any high
+achievement. It matters little how small a city or a nation is, provided
+the spirit of its people is great. It is the smallest communities that
+have most powerfully and most immortally raised the level of
+civilization, and surrounded the human species (in its own eyes) with a
+halo of glory which belongs to no other species. Only a handful of
+people, hemmed in on every side, created the eternal radiance of Athens,
+and the fame of the little city of Florence may outlive that of the
+whole kingdom of Italy. To realize this truth in the future of
+civilization is one of the first tasks of Social Hygiene.[39]
+
+It is here that the ideals of Eugenics may be expected to work
+fruitfully. To insist upon the power of heredity was once considered to
+indicate a fatalistic pessimism. It wears a very different aspect
+nowadays, in the light of Eugenics. "To the eugenist," as Davenport
+observes, "heredity stands as the one great hope of the human race: its
+saviour from imbecility, poverty, disease, immorality."[40] We cannot,
+indeed, desire any compulsory elimination of the unfit or any centrally
+regulated breeding of the fit.[41] Such notions are idle, and even the
+mere fact that unbalanced brains may air them abroad tends to impair the
+legitimate authority of eugenic ideals. The two measures which are now
+commonly put forward for the attainment of eugenic ends--health
+certificates as a legal preliminary to marriage and the sterilization of
+the unfit--are excellent when wisely applied, but they become
+mischievous, if not ridiculous, in the hands of fanatics who would
+employ them by force. Domestic animals may be highly bred from outside,
+compulsorily. Man can only be bred upwards from within through the
+medium of his intelligence and will, working together under the control
+of a high sense of responsibility. The infinite cunning of men and women
+is fully equal to the defeat of any attempt to touch life at this
+intimate point against the wish of those to whom the creation of life is
+entrusted. The laws of marriage even among savages have often been
+complex and strenuous in the highest degree. But it has been easy to
+bear them, for they have been part of the sacred and inviolable
+traditions of the race; religion lay behind them. And Galton, who
+recognized the futility of mere legislation in the elevation of the
+race, believed that the hope of the future lies in rendering eugenics a
+part of religion. The only compulsion we can apply in eugenics is the
+compulsion that comes from within. All those in whom any fine sense of
+social and racial responsibility is developed will desire, before
+marriage, to give, and to receive, the fullest information on all the
+matters that concern ancestral inheritance, while the registration of
+such information, it is probable, will become ever simpler and more a
+matter of course.[42] And if he finds that he is not justified in aiding
+to carry on the race, the eugenist will be content to make himself, in
+the words of Jesus, "a eunuch for the kingdom of Heaven's sake,"
+whether, under modern conditions, that means abstention in marriage from
+procreation, or voluntary sterilization by operative methods.[43] For, as
+Giddings has put it, the goal of the race lies, not in the ruthless
+exaltation of a super-man, but in the evolution of a super-mankind. Such
+a goal can only be reached by resolute selection and elimination.[44]
+
+The breeding of men lies largely in the hands of women. That is why the
+question of Eugenics is to a great extent one with the woman question.
+The realization of eugenics in our social life can only be attained with
+the realization of the woman movement in its latest and completest phase
+as an enlightened culture of motherhood, in all that motherhood involves
+alike on the physical and the psychic sides. Motherhood on the eugenic
+basis is a deliberate and selective process, calling for the highest
+intelligence as well as the finest emotional and moral aptitudes, so
+that all the best energies of a long evolution of womanhood in the paths
+of modern culture here find their final outlet. The breeding of children
+further involves the training of children, and since the expansion of
+Social Hygiene renders education a far larger and more delicate task
+than it has ever been before, the responsibilities laid upon women by
+the evolution of civilization become correspondingly great.
+
+For the men who have been thus born and taught the tasks imposed by
+Social Hygiene are in no degree lighter. They demand all the best
+qualities of a selectively bred race from which the mentally and
+physically weak have, so far as possible, been bred out. The
+substitution of law for war alike in the relations of class to class,
+and of nation to nation, and the organization of international methods
+of social intercourse between peoples of different tongues and unlike
+traditions, are but two typical examples of the tasks, difficult but
+imperative, which Social Hygiene presents and the course of modern
+civilization renders insistent. Again, the adequate adjustment of the
+claims of the individual and the claims of the community, each carried
+to its farthest point, can but prove an exquisite test of the quality of
+any well-bred and well-trained race. It is exactly in that balancing of
+apparent opposites, the necessity of pushing to extremes both opposites,
+and the consequent need of cultivating that quality of temperance the
+Greeks estimated so highly, that the supreme difficulties of modern
+civilization lie. We see these difficulties again in relation to the
+extension of law. It is desirable and inevitable that the sphere of law
+should be extended, and that the disputes which are still decided by
+brutal and unreasoning force should be decided by humane and reasoning
+force, that is to say, by law. But, side by side with this extension of
+law, it is necessary to wage a constant war with the law-making
+tendency, to cherish an undying resolve to maintain unsullied those
+sacred and intimate impulses, all the finest activities of the moral
+sphere, which the generalizing hand of law can only injure and stain.
+
+It is these fascinating and impassioning problems, every day becoming of
+more urgent practical importance, which it is the task of Social Hygiene
+to solve, having first created the men and women who are fit to solve
+them. It is such problems as these that we are to-day called upon to
+illuminate, as far as we may--it may not yet be very far--by the dry
+light of science.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Muralt, _Lettres sur les Anglais_. Lettre V.
+
+[2] In the reign of Richard II (1388) an Act was passed for "the
+punishment of those which cause corruption near a city or great town to
+corrupt the air." A century later (in Henry VII's time) an Act was
+passed to prevent butchers killing beasts in walled towns, the preamble
+to this Act declaring that no noble town in Christendom should contain
+slaughter-houses lest sickness be thus engendered. In Charles II's time,
+after the great fire of London, the law provided for the better paving
+and cleansing of the streets and sewers. It was, however, in Italy, as
+Weyl points out (_Geschichte der Sozialen Hygiene im Mittelalter_, at a
+meeting of the Gesellschaft fuer Soziale Medizin, May 25, 1905), that the
+modern movement of organized sanitation began. In the thirteenth century
+the great Italian cities (like Florence and Pistoja) possessed _Codici
+Sanitarii_; but they were not carried out, and when the Black Death
+reached Florence in 1348, it found the city altogether unprepared. It
+was Venice which, in the same year, first initiated vigorous State
+sanitation. Disinfection was first ordained by Gian Visconti, in Milan,
+in 1399. The first quarantine station of which we hear was established
+in Venice in 1403.
+
+[3] The rate of infant mortality in England and Wales has decreased from
+149 per 1000 births in 1871-80 to 127 per 1000 births in 1910. In
+reference to this remarkable fall which has taken place _pari passu_
+with the fall in the birth-rate, Newsholme, the medical officer to the
+Local Government Board, writes: "There can be no reasonable doubt that
+much of the reduction has been caused by that 'concentration' on the
+mother and the child which has been a striking feature of the last few
+years. Had the experience of 1896-1900 held good there would have been
+45,120 more deaths of infants in 1910 than actually occurred." In some
+parts of the country, however, where the women go out to work in
+factories (as in Lancashire and parts of Staffordshire) the infantile
+mortality remains very high.
+
+[4] Mrs. Bertrand Russell, "The Ghent School for Mothers," _Nineteenth
+Century_, December, 1906.
+
+[5] It is scarcely necessary to say that other classifications of social
+reform on its more hygienic side may be put forward. Thus W.H. Allen,
+looking more narrowly at the sanitary side of the matter, but without
+confining his consideration to the nineteenth century, finds that there
+are always seven stages: (1) that of racial tutelage, when sanitation
+becomes conscious and receives the sanction of law; (2) the introduction
+of sanitary comfort, well-paved streets, public sewers, extensive
+waterworks; (3) the period of commercial sanitation, when the mercantile
+classes insist upon such measures as quarantine and street-cleaning to
+check the immense ravages of epidemics; (4) the introduction of
+legislation against nuisances and the tendency to extend the definition
+of nuisance, which for Bracton, in the fourteenth century, meant an
+obstruction, and for Blackstone, in the eighteenth, included things
+otherwise obnoxious, such as offensive trades and foul watercourses; (5)
+the stage of precaution against the dangers incidental to the slums that
+are fostered by modern conditions of industry; (6) the stage of
+philanthropy, erecting hospitals, model tenements, schools, etc.; (7)
+the stage of socialistic sanitation, when the community as a whole
+actively seeks its own sanitary welfare, and devotes public funds to
+this end. (W.H. Allen, "Sanitation and Social Progress," _American
+Journal of Sociology_, March, 1903.)
+
+[6] Dr. F. Bushee has pointed out ("Science and Social Progress,"
+_Popular Science Monthly_, September, 1911) that there is a kind of
+related progression between science and practice in this matter: "The
+natural sciences developed first, because man was first interested in
+the conquest of nature, and the simpler physical laws could be grasped
+at an early period. This period brought an increase of wealth, but it
+was wasteful of human life. The desire to save life led the way to the
+study of biology. Knowledge of the physical environment and of life,
+however, did not prevent social disease from flourishing, and did not
+greatly improve the social condition of a large part of society. To
+overcome these defects the social sciences within recent years have been
+cultivated with great seriousness. Interest in the social sciences has
+had to wait for the enlarged sympathies and the sense of solidarity
+which has appeared with the growing interdependence of dense
+populations, and these conditions have been dependent upon the advance
+of the other sciences. With the cultivation of the social sciences, the
+chain of knowledge will be complete, at least so far as the needs which
+have already appeared are concerned. For each group of sciences will
+solve one or more of the great problems which man has encountered in the
+process of development. The physical sciences will solve the problems of
+environment, the biological sciences the problems of life, and the
+social sciences the problems of society."
+
+[7] This exclusive pre-occupation with the improvement of the
+environment has been termed Euthenics by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, who has
+written a book with this title, advocating euthenics in opposition to
+eugenics.
+
+[8] Not one of the four stages of social reform already summarized can
+be neglected. On the contrary, they all need to be still further
+consolidated in a completely national organization of health. I may
+perhaps refer to the little book on _The Nationalization of Health_, in
+which, many years ago, I foreshadowed this movement, as well as to the
+recent work of Professor Benjamin Moore on the same subject. The
+gigantic efforts of Germany, and later of England, to establish National
+Insurance systems, bear noble witness to the ardour with which these two
+countries, at all events, are moving towards the desired goal.
+
+[9] In some countries, however, the decline, although traceable about
+1876, only began to be pronounced somewhat later, in Austria in 1883, in
+the German Empire, Hungary and Italy in 1885, and in Prussia in 1886.
+Most of these countries, though late in following the modern movement of
+civilization initiated by France, are rapidly making their way in the
+same direction. Thus the birth-rate in Berlin is already as low as that
+of Paris ten years ago, although the French decline began at a very
+early period. In Norway, again, the decline was not marked until 1900,
+but the birth-rate has nevertheless already fallen as low as that of
+Sweden, where the fall began very much earlier.
+
+[10] "Foresight and self-control is, and always must be, the ground and
+medium of all Moral Socialism," says Bosanquet (_The Civilization of
+Christendom_, p. 336), using the term "Socialism" in the wide and not in
+the economic sense. We see the same civilized growth of foresight and
+self-control in the decrease of drunkenness. Thus in England the number
+of convictions for drunkenness, while varying greatly in different parts
+of the country, is decreasing for the whole country at the rapid rate of
+5000 to 8000 a year, notwithstanding the constant growth of the
+population. It is incorrect to suppose that this decrease has any
+connection with decreased opportunities for drinking; thus in London
+County and in Cardiff the proportion of premises licensed for drinking
+is the same, yet while the convictions for drunkenness in 1910 were in
+London 83 per 10,000 inhabitants, in Cardiff they were under 6 per
+10,000.
+
+[11] Thus Heron finds that in London during the past fifty years there
+has been 100 per cent increase in the intensity of the relation between
+low social birth and high birth-rate, and that the high birth-rate of
+the lower social classes is not fully compensated by their high
+death-rate (D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social
+Status," _Drapers' Company Research Memoirs_, No. I, 1906). As, however,
+Newsholme and Stevenson point out (_Journal Royal Statistical Society_,
+April, 1906, p. 74), the net addition to the population made by the best
+social classes is at so very slightly lower a rate than that made by the
+poorest class that, even if we consent to let the question rest on this
+ground, there is still no urgent need for the wailings of Cassandra.
+
+[12] _Sociological Papers_ of the Sociological Society, 1904, p. 35.
+
+[13] There is a certain profit in studying one's own ancestry. It has
+been somewhat astonishing to me to find how very slight are the social
+oscillations traceable in a middle-class family and the families it
+intermarries with through several centuries. A professional family tends
+to form a caste marrying within that caste. An ambitious member of the
+family may marry a baronet's daughter, and another, less pretentious, a
+village tradesman's daughter; but the general level is maintained
+without rising or falling. Occasionally, it happens that the ambitious
+and energetic son of a prosperous master-craftsman becomes a
+professional man, marries into the professional caste, and founds a
+professional family; such a family seems to flourish for some three
+generations, and then suddenly fails and dies out in the male line,
+while the vigour of the female line is not impaired.
+
+[14] The new social adjustment of a family, it is probable, is always
+difficult, and if the change is sudden or extreme, the new environment
+may rapidly prove fatal to the family. Lorenz (_Lehrbuch der
+Genealogie_, p. 135) has shown that when a peasant family reaches an
+upper social class it dies out in a few generations.
+
+[15] See, on this point, Reibmayr, _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes
+und Genies_, Vol. I, ch. VII.
+
+[16] Fahlbeck, _op. cit._, p. 168.
+
+[17] Regeneration implies that there has been degeneration, and it cannot
+be positively affirmed that such degeneration has, on the whole,
+occurred in such a manner as to affect the race. Reibmayr (_Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_, Bd. I, p. 400) regards
+degeneration as a process setting in with urbanization and the tendency
+to diminished population; if so, it is but another name for
+civilization, and can only be condemned by condemning civilization,
+whether or not physical deterioration occurs. The Inter-departmental
+Commission on Physical Deterioration held in 1904, in London, concluded
+that there are no sufficient statistical or other data to prove that the
+physique of the people in the present, as compared with the past, has
+undergone any change; and this conclusion was confirmed by the
+Director-General of the Army Medical Service. There is certainly good
+reason to believe that urban populations (and especially industrial
+workers in factories) are inferior in height and weight and general
+development to rural populations, and less fit for military or similar
+service. The stunted development of factory workers in the East End of
+London was noted nearly a century ago, and German military experience
+distinctly shows the inferiority of the town-dweller to the
+country-dweller. (See e.g. Weyl, _Handbuch der Hygiene_, Supplement, Bd.
+IV, pp. 746 _et seq._; _Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, 1905, pp. 145
+_et seq._) The proportion of German youths fit for military service
+slowly decreases every year; in 1909 it was 53.6 per cent, in 1910 only
+53 per cent; of those born in the country and engaged in agricultural or
+forest work 58.2 were found fit; of those born in the country and
+engaged in other industries, 55.1 per cent; of those born in towns, but
+engaged in agricultural or forest work, 56.2 per cent; of those born in
+towns and engaged in other industries 47.9 per cent. It is fairly clear
+that this deterioration under urban and industrial conditions cannot
+properly be termed a racial degeneration. It is, moreover, greatly
+improved even by a few months' training, and there is an immense
+difference between the undeveloped, feeble, half-starved recruit from
+the slums and the robust, broad-shouldered veteran when he leaves the
+army. The term "aggeneration"--not beyond criticism, though it is free
+from the objection to "regeneration"--was proposed by Prof. Christian
+von Ehrenfels ("Die Aufsteigende Entwicklung des Menschen,"
+_Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, April, 1903, p. 50).
+
+[18] It is unnecessary to touch here on the question of infant mortality,
+which has already been referred to, and will again come in for
+consideration in a later chapter. It need only be said that a high
+birth-rate is inextricably combined with a high death-rate. The European
+countries with the highest birth-rates are, in descending order: Russia,
+Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, and Hungary. The European countries with the
+highest death-rates are, in descending order, almost the same: Russia,
+Hungary, Spain, Bulgaria, and Servia, It is the same outside Europe.
+Thus Chile, with a birth-rate which comes next after Roumania, has a
+death-rate that is only second to Russia.
+
+[19] Nystroem (_La Vie Sexuelle_, 1910, p. 248) believes that "the time is
+coming when it will be considered the duty of municipal authorities, if
+they have found by experience or have reason to suspect that children
+will be thrown upon the parish, to instruct parents in methods of
+preventive conception."
+
+[20] The directly unfavourable influences on the child of too short an
+interval between its birth and that of the previous child has been
+shown, for instance, by Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age
+on Offspring," _Eugenics Review_, October, 1911). He has found at
+Middlesbrough that children born at an interval of less than two years
+after the birth of the previous child still show at the age of six a
+notable deficiency in height, weight, and intelligence, when compared
+with children born after a longer interval, or with first-born children.
+
+[21] _Tatler_, Vol. II, No. 175, 1709.
+
+[22] "Write Man for Primula, and the stage of the world for that of the
+greenhouse," says Professor Bateson (_Biological Fact and the Structure
+of Society_, 1912, p. 9), "and I believe that with a few generations of
+experimental breeding we should acquire the power similarly to determine
+how the varieties of men should be represented in the generations that
+succeed." But Bateson proceeds to point out that our knowledge is still
+very inadequate, and he is opposed to eugenics by Act of Parliament.
+
+[23] E. Solmi, _La Citta del Sole di Campanella_, 1904, p. xxxiv.
+
+[24] Only a year before his death Galton wrote (Preface to _Essays in
+Eugenics_): "The power by which Eugenic reform must chiefly be effected
+is that of Popular Opinion, which is amply strong enough for that
+purpose whenever it shall be roused."
+
+[25] It may perhaps be necessary to remark that by sterilization is here
+meant, not castration, but, in the male vasectomy (and a corresponding
+operation in the female), a simple and harmless operation which involves
+no real mutilation and no loss of power beyond that of procreation. See
+on this and related points, Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology
+of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. XII.
+
+[26] The term "feeble-minded" may be used generally to cover all degrees
+of mental weakness. In speaking a little more precisely, however, we
+have to recognize three main degrees of congenital mental weakness:
+_feeble-mindedness_, in which with care and supervision it is possible
+to work and earn a livelihood; _imbecility_, in which the subject is
+barely able to look after himself, and sometimes only has enough
+intelligence to be mischievous (the moral imbecile); and _idiocy_, the
+lowest depth of all, in which the subject has no intelligence and no
+ability to look after himself. More elaborate classifications are
+sometimes proposed. The method of Binet and Simon renders possible a
+fairly exact measurement of feeble-mindedness.
+
+[27] Mott (_Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry_, Vol. V, 1911) accepts
+the view that in some cases feeble-mindedness is simply a form of
+congenital syphilis, but he points out that feeble-mindedness abounds in
+many rural districts where syphilis, as well as alcoholism, is very
+rare, and concludes by emphasizing the influence of heredity; the
+prevalence of feeble-mindedness in these rural districts is thus due to
+the fact that the mentally and physically fit have emigrated to the
+great industrial centres, leaving the unfit to procreate the race.
+
+[28] "Whether germinal variations," remarked Dr. R.J. Ryle at a
+Conference on Feeble-mindedness (_British Medical Journal_, October 3,
+1911), "be expressed by cleft palate, cataract, or cerebral deficiency
+of the pyramidal cells in the brain cortex, they may be produced, and,
+when once produced, they are reproduced as readily as the perfected
+structure of the face or eye or brain, if the gametes which contain
+these potentialities unite to form the ovum. But Nature is not only the
+producer. Given a fair field and no favour, natural selection would
+leave no problem of the unfit to perplex the mind of man who looks
+before and after. This we know cannot be, and we know, too, that we have
+no longer the excuse of ignorance to cover the neglect of the new duties
+which belong to the present epoch of civilization. We know now that we
+have to deal with a growing group in our community who demand permanent
+care and control as well for their own sakes as for the welfare of the
+community. All are now agreed on the general principle of segregation,
+but it is true that something more than this should be forthcoming. The
+difficulties of theory are clearing up as our wider view obtains a
+firmer grasp of our material, but the difficulties of practice are still
+before us." These remarks correspond with the general results reached by
+the Royal Commission on the Feeble-minded, which issued its voluminous
+facts and conclusions in 1908.
+
+[29] See, for instance, A.F. Tredgold, _Mental Deficiency_, 1908.
+
+[30] The investigation of Bezzola showing that the maxima in the
+conception of idiots occur at carnival time, and especially at the
+vintage, has been held (especially by Forel) to indicate that alcoholism
+of the parents at conception causes idiocy in the offspring. It may be
+so. But it may also be that the licence of these periods enables the
+defective members of the community to secure an amount of sexual
+activity which they would be debarred from under normal conditions. In
+that case the alcoholism would merely liberate, and not create, the
+idiocy-producing mechanism.
+
+[31] Godden, _Eugenics Review_, April, 1911.
+
+[32] Feeble-mindedness and the other allied variations are not always
+exactly repeated in inheritance. They may be transmuted in passing from
+father to son, an epileptic father, for instance, having a feeble-minded
+child. These relationships of feeble-mindedness have been clearly
+brought out in an important investigation by Davenport and Weeks
+(_Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease_, November, 1911), who have for
+the first time succeeded in obtaining a large number of really thorough
+and precise pedigrees of such cases.
+
+[33] It may be as well to point out once more that the possibility of
+such limited depreciation must not be construed into the statement that
+there has been any general "degeneration of the race." It maybe added
+that the notion that the golden age lay in the past, and that our own
+age is degenerate is not confined to a few biometricians of to-day; it
+has commended itself to uncritical minds in all ages, even the greatest,
+as far back as we can go. Montesquieu referred to this common notion
+(and attempted to explain it) in his _Pensees Diverses_: "Men have such
+a bad opinion of themselves," he adds, "that they have believed not only
+that their minds and souls were degenerate, but even their bodies, and
+that they were not so tall as the men of previous ages." It is thus
+quite logically that we arrive at the belief that when mankind first
+appeared, "there were giants on the earth in those days," and that Adam
+lived to the age of nine hundred and thirty. Evidently no syndromes of
+degenerescence there!
+
+[34] The Superintendent of a large State School for delinquent girls in
+America (as quoted in the Chicago Vice Commission's Report on _The
+Social Evil in Chicago_, p. 229) says: "The girls who come to us
+possessed of normal brain power, or not infected with venereal disease,
+we look upon as a prize indeed, and we seldom fail to make a woman worth
+while of a really normal girl, whatever her environment has been. But we
+have failed in numberless cases where the environment has been all
+right, but the girl was born wrong."
+
+[35] See e.g. Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, 4th ed., 1910, chap IV.
+
+[36] R.L. Dugdale, _The Jukes_, 4th ed., 1910. It is noteworthy that
+Dugdale, who wrote nearly forty years ago, was concerned to prove the
+influence of bad environment rather than of bad heredity. At that time
+the significance of heredity was scarcely yet conceived. It remains
+true, however, that bad heredity and bad environment constantly work
+together for evil.
+
+[37] Joerger, _Archiv fuer Rassen-und Gesellschafts-Biologie_, 1905, p.
+294. Criminal families are also recorded by Aubry, _La Contagion du
+Meutre_.
+
+[38] Even during school life this burden is serious. Mr. Bodey, Inspector
+of Schools, states that the defective school child costs three times as
+much as the ordinary school child.
+
+[39] I have set forth these considerations more fully in a popular form
+in _The Problem of the Regeneration of the Race_, the first of a series
+of "New Tracts for the Times," issued under the auspices of the National
+Council of Public Morals.
+
+[40] C.B. Davenport, "Euthenics and Eugenics," _Popular Science Monthly_,
+January, 1911.
+
+[41] The use of the terms "fit" and "unfit" in a eugenic sense has been
+criticized. It is said, for instance, that in a bad environment it may
+be precisely the defective classes who are most "fit" to survive. It is
+quite true that these terms are not well adapted to resist
+hyper-critical attack. The persistence with which they are employed
+seems, however, to indicate a certain "survival of the fittest." The
+terms "worthy" and "unworthy," which some would prefer to substitute,
+are unsatisfactory, for they have moral associations which are
+misleading. Galton spoke of "civic worth" in this connection, and very
+occasionally used the term "worthy" (with inverted commas), but he was
+careful to point out (_Essays in Eugenics_, p. 35) that in eugenics "we
+must leave morals as far as possible out of the discussion, not
+entangling ourselves with the almost hopeless difficulties they raise as
+to whether a character as a whole is good or bad."
+
+[42] Dr. Toulouse has devoted a whole volume to the results of a minute
+personal examination of Zola, the novelist, and another to Poincare, the
+mathematician. Such minute investigations are at present confined to men
+of genius, but some day, perhaps, we shall consider that from the
+eugenic standpoint all men are men of genius.
+
+[43] Sterilization for social ends was introduced in Switzerland a few
+years ago, in order to enable some persons with impaired self-control to
+be set at liberty and resume work without the risk of adding to the
+population defective members who would probably be a burden on the
+community. It was performed with the consent of the subjects (in some
+cases at their urgent request) and their relations, so requiring no
+special legislation, and the results are said to be satisfactory. In
+some American States sterilization for some classes of defective persons
+has been established by statute, but it is difficult to obtain reliable
+information as regards the working and the results of such legislation.
+
+[44] When Professor Giddings speaks of the "goal of mankind," it must, of
+course, be remembered, he is using a bold metaphor in order to make his
+meaning clearer. Strictly speaking, mankind has no "goals," nor are
+there any ends in Nature which are not means to further ends.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN[45]
+
+     The Origin of the Woman Movement--Mary Wollstonecraft--George
+     Sand--Robert Owen--William Thompson--John Stuart Mill--The Modern
+     Growth of Social Cohesion--The Growth of Industrialism--Its
+     Influence in Woman's Sphere of Work--The Education of
+     Women--Co-education--The Woman Question and Sexual
+     Selection--Significance of Economic Independence--The State
+     Regulation of Marriage--The Future of Marriage--Wilhelm von
+     Humboldt--Social Equality of Women--The Reproduction of the Race as
+     a Function of Society--Women and the Future of Civilization.
+
+
+I
+
+It was in the eighteenth century, the seed-time of modern ideas, that
+our great-grandfathers became conscious of a discordant break in the
+traditional conceptions of women's status. The vague cries of Justice,
+Freedom, Equality, which were then hurled about the world, were here and
+there energetically applied to women--notably in France by
+Condorcet--and a new movement began to grow self-conscious and coherent.
+Mary Wollstonecraft, after Aphra Behn the first really noteworthy
+Englishwoman of letters, gave voice to this movement in England.
+
+The famous and little-read _Vindication of the Rights of Women_,
+careless and fragmentary as it is, and by no means so startling to us as
+to her contemporaries, shows Mary Wollstonecraft as a woman of genuine
+insight, who saw the questions of woman's social condition in their
+essential bearings. Her intuitions need little modification, even though
+a century of progress has intervened. The modern advocates of woman's
+suffrage have little to add to her brief statement. She is far, indeed,
+from the monstrous notion of Miss Cobbe, that woman's suffrage is the
+"crown and completion" of all progress so far as women's movements are
+concerned. She looks upon it rather as one of the reasonable conditions
+of progress. It is pleasant to turn from the eccentric energy of so many
+of the advocates of women's causes to-day, all engaged in crying up
+their own particular nostrum, to the genial many-sided wisdom of Mary
+Wollstonecraft, touching all subjects with equal frankness and delicacy.
+
+The most brilliant and successful exponent of the new revolutionary
+ideas--making Corinne and her prototype seem dim and ineffectual--was
+undoubtedly George Sand. The badly-dressed woman who earned her living
+by scribbling novels, and said to M. du Camp, as she sat before him in
+silence rolling her cigarette, "Je ne dis rien parceque je suis bete,"
+has exercised a profound influence throughout Europe, an influence
+which, in the Sclavonic countries especially, has helped to give impetus
+to the resolution we are now considering. And this not so much from any
+definite doctrines that underlie her work--for George Sand's views on
+such matters varied as much as her political views--as from her whole
+temper and attitude. Her large and rich nature, as sometimes happens in
+genius of a high order, was twofold; on the one hand, she possessed a
+solid serenity, a quiet sense of power, the qualities of a _bonne
+bourgeoise_, which found expression in her imperturbable calm, her
+gentle look and low voice. And with this was associated a massive,
+almost Rabelaisian temperament (one may catch glimpses of it in her
+correspondence), a sane exuberant earthliness which delighted in every
+manifestation of the actual world. On the other hand, she bore within
+her a volcanic element of revolt, an immense disgust of law and custom.
+Throughout her life George Sand developed her strong and splendid
+individuality, not perhaps as harmoniously, but as courageously and as
+sincerely as even Goethe.
+
+Robert Owen, who, like Saint-Simon in France, gave so extraordinary an
+impulse to all efforts at social reorganization, and who planted the
+seed of many modern movements, could not fail to extend his influence to
+the region of sex. A disciple of his, William Thompson, who still holds
+a distinguished position in the history of the economic doctrines of
+Socialism, wrote, under the inspiration of a woman (a Mrs. Wheeler),
+and published in 1825, an _Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women,
+against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to retain them in
+Political, and thence in Civil and Domestic Slavery_. It is a thorough
+and logical, almost eloquent, demand for the absolute social equality of
+the sexes.[46]
+
+Forty years later, Mill, also inspired by a woman, published his
+_Subjection of Women_. However partial and inadequate it may seem to us,
+this was at that day a notable book. Mill's clear vision and feminine
+sensibilities gave freshness to his observations regarding the condition
+and capacity of women, while his reputation imparted gravity and
+resonance to his utterances. Since then the signs in literature of the
+breaking up of the status of women have become far too numerous to be
+chronicled even in a volume. It is enough to have mentioned here some
+typical initiatory names. Now, the movement may be seen at work
+anywhere, from Norway to Italy, from Russia to California. The status
+which women are now entering places them, not, as in the old communism,
+in large measure practically above men, nor, as in the subsequent
+period, both practically and theoretically in subordination to men. It
+places them side by side, with like rights and like duties in relation
+to society.
+
+
+II
+
+Condorcet, Mary Wollstonecraft, George Sand, Owen, Mill--these were
+feathers on the stream. They indicated the forces that had their source
+at the centre of social life. That historical movement which produced
+mother-law probably owed its rise, as well as its fall, to demands of
+subsistence and property--that is, to economic causes. The decay of the
+subsequent family system, in which the whole power is concentrated in
+the male head, is being produced by similar causes. The early communism,
+and the modes of action and sentiment which it had produced, still
+practically persisted long after the new system had arisen. In the
+patriarchal family the woman still had a recognized sphere of work and a
+recognized right to subsistence. It was not, indeed, until the sudden
+development of the industrial system, and the purely individualistic
+economics with which it was associated, at the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, that women in England were forced to realize that
+their household industries were gone, and that they must join in that
+game of competition in which the field and the rules had alike been
+chosen with reference to men alone. The commercial and industrial
+system, and the general diffusion of education that has accompanied it,
+and which also has its roots in economic causes, has been the chief
+motive force in revolutionizing the status of women; and the epoch of
+unrestricted competition on masculine lines has been a necessary period
+of transition.[47]
+
+At the present time two great tendencies are visible in our social
+organization. On the one hand, the threads of social life are growing
+closer, and organization, as regards the simple and common means of
+subsistence, is increasing. On the other hand, as regards the things
+that most closely concern the individual person, the sphere of freedom
+is being perpetually enlarged. Instead of every man digging a well for
+his own use and at his own free pleasure, perhaps in a graveyard or a
+cesspool, we consent to the distribution of water by a central
+executive. We have carried social methods so far that, instead of
+producing our own bread and butter, we prefer to go to a common bakery
+and dairy. The same centralizing methods are extending to all those
+things of which all have equal need. On the other hand, we exercise a
+very considerable freedom of individual thought. We claim a larger and
+larger freedom of individual speech and criticism. We worship any god we
+choose, after any fashion we choose. The same individual freedom is
+beginning to invade the sexual relationships. It is extending to all
+those things in regard to which civilized men have become so variously
+differentiated that they have no equal common needs. These two
+tendencies, so far from being antagonistic, cannot even be carried out
+under modern conditions of life except together. It is only by social
+co-operation in regard to what is commonly called the physical side of
+life that it becomes possible for the individual to develop his own
+peculiar nature. The society of the future is a reasonable anarchy
+founded on a broad basis of Collectivism.
+
+It is not our object here to point out how widely these tendencies
+affect men, but it is worth while to indicate some of their bearings on
+the condition of women. While genuine productive industries have been
+taken out of the hands of women who work under the old conditions, an
+increasingly burdensome weight of unnecessary duties has been laid upon
+them. Under the old communistic system, when a large number of families
+lived together in one great house, the women combined to perform their
+household duties, the cooking being done at a common fire. They had
+grown up together from childhood, and combination could be effected
+without friction. It is the result of the later system that the woman
+has to perform all the necessary household duties in the most wasteful
+manner, with least division of labour; while she has, in addition, to
+perform a great amount of unnecessary work, in obedience to traditional
+or conventional habits, which make it impossible even to perform the
+simple act of dusting the rooms of a small house in less than perhaps an
+hour and a half. She has probably also to accomplish, if she happens to
+belong to the middle or upper classes, an idle round of so-called
+"social duties." She tries to escape, when she can afford it, by
+adopting the apparently simple expedient of paying other people to
+perform these necessary and unnecessary household duties, but this
+expedient fails; the "social duties" increase in the same ratio as the
+servants increase and the task of overseeing these latter itself proves
+formidable. It is quite impossible for any person under these conditions
+to lead a reasonable and wholesome human life. A healthy life is more
+difficult to attain for the woman of the ordinary household than for the
+worker in a mine, for he at least, when the work of his set is over, has
+two-thirds of the twenty-four hours to himself. The woman is bound by a
+thousand Lilliputian threads from which there seems no escape. She often
+makes frantic efforts to escape, but the combined strength of the
+threads generally proves too strong. There can be no doubt that the
+present household system is doomed; the higher standard of intelligence
+demanded from women, the growth of interest in the problems of domestic
+economy, the movement for association of labour, the revolt against the
+survivals of barbaric complication in living--all these, which are
+symptoms of a great economic revolution, indicate, the approach of a new
+period.
+
+The education of women is an essential part of the great movement we are
+considering. Women will shortly be voters, and women, at all events in
+England, are in a majority. We have to educate our mistresses as we once
+had to educate our masters. And the word "education" is here used by no
+means in the narrow sense. A woman may be acquainted with Greek and the
+higher mathematics, and be as uneducated in the wider relationships of
+life as a man in the like case. How much women suffer from this lack of
+education may be seen to-day even among those who are counted as
+leaders.
+
+There are extravagances in every period of transition. Undoubtedly a
+potent factor in bringing about a saner attitude will be the education
+of boys and girls together. The lack of early fellowship fosters an
+unnatural divergence of aims and ideals, and a consequent lack of
+sympathy. It makes possible those abundant foolish generalizations by
+men concerning "women," by women concerning "men." St. Augustine, at an
+early period of his ardent career, conceived with certain friends the
+notion of forming a community having goods in common; the scheme was
+almost effected when it was discovered that "those little wives, which
+some already had, and others would shortly have," objected, and so it
+fell through. Perhaps the _mulierculae_ were right. It is simply a rather
+remote instance of a fundamental divergence amply illustrated before our
+eyes. If men and women are to understand each other, to enter into each
+other's natures with mutual sympathy, and to become capable of genuine
+comradeship, the foundation must be laid in youth. Another wholesome
+reform, promoted by co-education, is the physical education of women. In
+the case of boys special attention has generally been given to physical
+education, and the lack of it is one among several artificial causes of
+that chronic ill-health which so often handicaps women. Women must have
+the same education as men, Miss Faithfull shrewdly observes, because
+that is sure to be the best. The present education of boys cannot,
+however, be counted a model, and the gradual introduction of
+co-education will produce many wholesome reforms. If the intimate
+association of the sexes destroys what remnant may linger of the
+unhealthy ideal of chivalry--according to which a woman was treated as a
+cross between an angel and an idiot--that is matter for rejoicing.
+Wherever men and women stand in each other's presence the sexual
+instinct will always ensure an adequate ideal halo.
+
+
+III
+
+The chief question that we have to ask when we consider the changing
+status of women is: How will it affect the reproduction of the race?
+Hunger and love are the two great motor impulses, the ultimate source,
+probably, of all other impulses. Hunger--that is to say, what we call
+"economic causes"--has, because it is the more widespread and constant,
+though not necessarily the more imperious instinct, produced nearly all
+the great zoological revolutions, including, as we have seen, the rise
+and fall of that phase of human evolution dominated by mother-law. Yet
+love has, in the form of sexual selection, even before we reach the
+vertebrates, moulded races to the ideal of the female; and reproduction
+is always the chief end of nutrition which hunger waits on, the supreme
+aim of life everywhere.
+
+If we place on the one side man, as we know him during the historical
+period, and on the other, nearly every highly organized member of the
+animal family, there appears, speaking roughly and generally, a distinct
+difference in the relation which these two motor impulses bear to each
+other. Among animals generally, economics are comparatively so simple
+that it is possible to satisfy the nutritive instinct without putting
+any hard pressure on the spontaneous play of the reproductive instinct.
+And nearly everywhere it is the female who has the chief voice in the
+establishment of sexual relationships. The males compete for the favour
+of the female by the fascination of their odour, or brilliant colour, or
+song, or grace, or strength, as revealed in what are usually
+mock-combats. The female is, in these respects, comparatively
+unaccomplished and comparatively passive. With her rests the final
+decision, and only after long hesitation, influenced, it seems, by a
+vaguely felt ideal resulting from her contemplation of the rivals, she
+calls the male of her choice.[48] A dim instinct seems to warn her of the
+pains and cares of maternity, so that only the largest promises of
+pleasure can induce her to undertake the function of reproduction. In
+civilized man, on the other hand, as we know him, the situation is to
+some extent reversed; it is the woman who, by the display of her
+attractions, competes for the favour of the man. The final invitation
+does not come, as among animals generally, from the female; the decision
+rests with the man. It would be a mistake to suppose that this change
+reveals the evolution of a superior method; although it has developed
+the beauty of women, it has clearly had its origin in economic causes.
+The demands of nutrition have overridden those of reproduction; sexual
+selection has, to a large extent, given place to natural selection, a
+process clearly not for the advantage of the race. The changing status
+of women, in bestowing economic independence, will certainly tend to
+restore to sexual selection its due weight in human development.
+
+In so doing it will certainly tend also to destroy prostitution, which
+is simply one of the forms in which the merging of sexual selection in
+natural selection has shown itself. Wherever sexual selection has free
+play, unhampered by economic considerations, prostitution is
+impossible. The dominant type of marriage is, like prostitution, founded
+on economic considerations; the woman often marries chiefly to earn her
+living; here, too, we may certainly expect profound modifications. We
+have long sought to preserve our social balance by placing an
+unreasonable licence in the one scale, an equally unreasonable
+abstinence in the other; the economic independence of women, tending to
+render both extremes unnecessary, can alone place the sexual
+relationships on a sound and free basis.
+
+The State regulation of marriage has undoubtedly played a large and
+important part in the evolution of society. At the present time the
+advantages of this artificial control no longer appear so obvious
+(even when the evidence of the law courts is put aside); they will
+vanish altogether when women have attained complete economic
+independence. With the disappearance of the artificial barriers in the
+way of friendship between the sexes and of the economic motive to
+sexual relationships--perhaps the two chief forces which now tend to
+produce promiscuous sexual intercourse, whether dignified or not with
+the name of marriage--men and women will be free to engage,
+unhampered, in the search, so complicated in a highly civilized
+condition of society, for a fitting mate.[49]
+
+It is probable that this inevitable change will be brought about partly
+by the voluntary action of individuals, and in greater measure by the
+gradual and awkward method of shifting and ever freer divorce laws. The
+slow disintegration of State-regulated marriage from the latter cause
+may be observed now throughout the United States, where there is, on the
+whole, a developing tendency to frequency and facility of divorce. It
+is clear, however, that on this line marriage will not cease to be a
+concern to the State, and it may be as well to point out at once the
+important distinction between State-_regulated_ and State-_registered_
+marriage. Sexual relationships, so long as they do not result in the
+production of children, are matters in which the community has, as a
+community, little or no concern, but as soon as a sexual relationship
+results in the pregnancy of the woman the community is at once
+interested. At this point it is clearly the duty of the State to
+register the relationship.[50]
+
+It is necessary to remember that the kind of equality of the sexes
+towards which this change of status is leading, is social equality--that
+is, equality of freedom. It is not an intellectual equality, still less
+is it likeness. Men and women can only be alike mentally when they are
+alike in physical configuration and physiological function. Even
+complete economic equality is not attainable. Among animals which live
+in herds under the guidance of a leader, this leader is nearly always a
+male; there are few exceptions.[51] In woman, the long period of
+pregnancy and lactation, and the prolonged helplessness of her child,
+render her for a considerable period of her life economically dependent.
+On whom shall she be dependent? This is a question of considerable
+moment. According to the old conception of the family, all the members
+were slaves producing for the benefit of the owner, and it was natural
+that the wife should be supported by the husband when she is producing
+slaves for his service. But this conception is, as we have seen, no
+longer possible. It is clearly unfair also to compel the mother to
+depend on her own previous exertions. The reproduction of the race is a
+social function, and we are compelled to conclude that it is the duty of
+the community, as a community, to provide for the child-bearer when in
+the exercise of her social function she is unable to provide for
+herself. The woman engaged in producing a new member, who may be a
+source of incalculable profit or danger to the whole community, cannot
+fail to be a source of the liveliest solicitude to everyone in the
+community, and it was a sane and beautiful instinct that found
+expression of old in the permission accorded to a pregnant woman to
+enter gardens and orchards, and freely help herself. Whether this
+instinct will ever again be embodied in a new form, and the reproduction
+of the race be recognized as truly a social function, is a question
+which even yet lacks actuality. The care of the child-bearer and her
+child will at present continue to be a matter for individual
+arrangement. That it will be arranged much better than at present we
+may reasonably hope. On the one hand, the reckless multiplication of
+children will probably be checked; on the other hand, a large body of
+women will no longer be shut out from maternity. That the state should
+undertake the regulation of the birth-rate we can scarcely either desire
+or anticipate. Undoubtedly the community has an abstract right to limit
+the number of its members. It may be pointed out, however, that under
+rational conditions of life the process would probably be
+self-regulating; in the human races, and also among animals generally,
+fertility diminishes as the organism becomes highly developed. And,
+without falling back on any natural law, it may be said that the
+extravagant procreation of children, leading to suffering both to
+parents and offspring, carried on under existing social conditions, is
+largely the result of ignorance, largely of religious or other
+superstition. A more developed social state would not be possible at all
+unless the social instincts were strong enough to check the reckless
+multiplication of offspring. Richardson and others appear to advocate
+the special cultivation of a class of non-childbearing women. Certainly
+no woman who freely chose should be debarred from belonging to such a
+class. But reproduction is the end and aim of all life everywhere, and
+in order to live a humanly complete life, every healthy woman should
+have, not sexual relationships only, but the exercise at least once in
+her life of the supreme function of maternity, and the possession of
+those experiences which only maternity can give. That unquestionably is
+the claim of natural and reasonable living in the social state towards
+which we are moving.
+
+To deal with the social organization of the future would be to pass
+beyond the limits that I have here set myself, and to touch on matters
+of which it is impossible to speak with certainty. The new culture of
+women, in the light and the open air, will doubtless solve many matters
+which now are dark to us. Morgan supposed that it was in some measure
+the failure of the Greeks and Romans to develop their womanhood which
+brought the speedy downfall of classic civilization. The women of the
+future will help to renew art and science as well as life. They will do
+more even than this, for the destiny of the race rests with women. "I
+have sometimes thought," Whitman wrote in his _Democratic Vistas_, "that
+the sole avenue and means to a reconstructed society depended primarily
+on a new birth, elevation, expansion, invigoration of women." That
+intuition is not without a sound basis, and if a great historical
+movement called for justification here would be enough.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] This chapter was written so long ago as 1888, and published in the
+_Westminster Review_ in the following year. I have pleasure in here
+including it exactly as it was originally written, not only because it
+has its proper place in the present volume, but because it may be
+regarded as a programme which I have since elaborated in numerous
+volumes. The original first section has, however, been omitted, as it
+embodied a statement of the matriarchal theory which, in view of the
+difficulty of the subject and the wide differences of opinion about it,
+I now consider necessary to express more guardedly (see, for a more
+recent statement, Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. X). With this exception,
+and the deletion of two insignificant footnotes, no changes have been
+made. After the lapse of a quarter of a century I find nothing that I
+seriously wish to withdraw and much that I now wish to emphasize.
+
+[46] The following passage summarizes this _Appeal_: "The simple and
+modest request is, that they may be permitted equal enjoyments with men,
+_provided they can, by the free and equal development and exercise of
+their faculties, procure for themselves such enjoyments_. They ask the
+same means that men possess of acquiring every species of knowledge, of
+unfolding every one of their faculties of mind and body that can be made
+tributary to their happiness. They ask every facility of access to every
+art, occupation, profession, from the highest to the lowest, without one
+exception, to which their inclinations and talents may direct and may
+fit them to occupy. They ask the removal of _all_ restraints and
+exclusions not applicable to men of equal capacities. They ask for
+perfectly equal political, civil, and domestic rights. They ask for
+equal obligations and equal punishments from the law with men in case of
+infraction of the same law by either party. They ask for an equal system
+of morals, founded on utility instead of caprice and unreasoning
+despotism, in which the same action, attended with the same
+consequences, whether done by man or woman, should be attended with the
+same portion of approbation or disapprobation; in which every pleasure,
+accompanied or followed by no preponderant evil, should be equally
+permitted to women and to men; in which every pleasure accompanied or
+followed by preponderant evil should be equally censured in women and in
+men."
+
+[47] A period of transition not the less necessary although it is
+certainly disastrous and tends to produce an unwholesome tension between
+the sexes so long as men and women do not receive equal payment for
+equal work. "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever," as a working man in
+Blackburn lately put it, "but when the thing of beauty takes to doing
+the work for 16s. a week that you have been paid 22s. for, you do not
+feel as if you cannot live without possessing that thing of beauty all
+to yourself, or that you are willing to lay your life and your fortune
+(when you have one) at its feet." On the other hand, the working girl in
+the same town often complains that a man will not look at a girl unless
+she is a "four-loom weaver," earning, that is, perhaps, 20s. or 25s. a
+week.
+
+[48] See the very interesting work of Alfred Espinas, _Des Societes
+Animales_, which contains many fruitful suggestions for the student of
+human sociology.
+
+[49] The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+high civilization, and the unhappy results of their State regulation,
+was well expressed by Wilhehm von Humboldt in his _Ideen zu einen
+Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates zu bestimmen_, so long
+ago as 1792: "A union so closely allied with the very nature of the
+respective individuals must be attended with the most hurtful
+consequences when the State attempts to regulate it by law, or, through
+the force of its institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we shall
+be still more ready to admit the justice of this conclusion. It may
+reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the race only conducts to the
+same results as the highest solicitude for the most beautiful
+development of the inner man. For after careful observation it has been
+found that the uninterrupted union of one man with one woman is most
+beneficial to the race, and it is likewise undeniable that no other
+union springs from true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may
+be observed that such love leads to the same results as those very
+relations which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error
+seems to be that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould
+itself according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on
+inclination; and wherever coercion or guidance comes into collision with
+inclination, they divert it still farther from the proper path.
+Wherefore it appears to me that the State should not only loosen the
+bonds in this instance, and leave ampler freedom to the citizen, but
+that it should entirely withdraw its active solicitude from the
+institution of marriage, and both generally and in its particular
+modifications, should rather leave it wholly to the free choice of the
+individuals, and the various contracts they may enter into with respect
+to it. I should not be deterred from the adoption of this principle by
+the fear that all family relations might be disturbed, for although such
+a fear might be justified by considerations of particular circumstances
+and localities, it could not fairly be entertained in an inquiry into
+the nature of men and States in general. For experience frequently
+convinces us that just where law has imposed no fetters, morality most
+surely binds; the idea of external coercion is one entirely foreign to
+an institution which, like marriage, reposes only on inclination and an
+inward sense of duty; and the results of such coercive institutions do
+not at all correspond to the intentions in which they originate."
+
+[50] Such register should, as Bertillon rightly insisted, be of the most
+complete description--setting forth all the anthropological traits of
+the contracting parties--so that the characteristics of a human group at
+any time and place may be studied and compared. Registration of this
+kind would, beside its more obvious convenience, form an almost
+indispensable guide to the higher evolution of the race. I may here add
+that I have assumed, perhaps too rashly, that the natural tendency among
+civilized men and women is towards a monogamic and more or less
+permanent union; preceded, it may be in most individuals, by a more
+restless period of experiment. Undoubtedly, many variations will arise
+in the future, leading to more complex relationships. Such variations
+cannot be foreseen, and when they arise they will still have to prove
+their stability and their advantage to the race.
+
+[51] As among geese, and, occasionally, it is said, among elephants.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+THE NEW ASPECT OF THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT
+
+     Eighteenth-Century France--Pioneers of the Woman's Movement--The
+     Growth of the Woman's Suffrage Movement--The Militant Activities of
+     the Suffragettes--Their Services and Disservices to the
+     Cause--Advantages of Women's Suffrage--Sex Questions in
+     Germany--Bebel--The Woman's Rights Movement in Germany--The
+     Development of Sexual Science in Germany--the Movement for the
+     Protection of Motherhood--Ellen Key--The Question of
+     Illegitimacy--Eugenics--Women as Law-makers in the Home.
+
+
+I
+
+The modern conception of the political equality of women with men, we
+have seen, arose in France in the second half of the eighteenth century.
+Its way was prepared by the philosophic thinkers of the _Encyclopedie_,
+and the idea was definitely formulated by some of the finest minds of
+the age, notably by Condorcet,[52] as part of the great new programme of
+social and political reform which was to some small degree realized in
+the upheaval of the Revolution. The political emancipation of women
+constituted no part of the Revolution. It has indeed been maintained,
+and perhaps with reason, that the normal development of the
+revolutionary spirit would probably have ended in vanquishing the claim
+of masculine predominance if war had not diverted the movement of
+revolution by transforming it into the Terror. Even as it was, the
+rights of women were not without their champions even at this period. We
+ought specially to remember Olympe de Gouges, whose name is sometimes
+dismissed too contemptuously. With all her defects of character and
+education and literary style, Olympe de Gouges, as is now becoming
+recognized, was, in her biographer's words, "one of the loftiest and
+most generous souls of the epoch," in some respects superior to Madame
+Roland. She was the first woman to demand of the Revolution that it
+should be logical by proclaiming the rights of woman side by side with
+those of her equal, man, and in so doing she became the great pioneer of
+the feminist movement of to-day.[53] She owes the position more
+especially to her little pamphlet, issued in 1791, entitled _Declaration
+des Droits de la Femme_. It is this _Declaration_ which contains the
+oft-quoted (or misquoted) saying: "Women have the right to ascend the
+scaffold; they must also have the right to ascend the tribune." Two
+years later she had herself ascended the scaffold, but the other right
+she claimed is only now beginning to be granted to women. At that time
+there were too many more pressing matters to be dealt with, and the only
+women who had been taught to demand the rights of their sex were
+precisely those whom the Revolution was guillotining or exiling. Even
+had it been otherwise, we may be quite sure that Napoleon, the heir of
+the Revolution and the final arbiter of what was to be permanent in its
+achievements, would have sternly repressed any political freedom
+accorded to women. The only freedom he cared to grant to women was the
+freedom to produce food for cannon, and so far as lay in his power he
+sought to crush the political activities of women even in literature, as
+we see in his treatment of Mme de Stael.[54]
+
+An Englishwoman of genius was in Paris at the time of the Revolution,
+with as broad a conception of the place of woman side by side with man
+as Olympe de Gouges, while for the most part she was Olympe's superior.
+In 1792, a year after the _Declaration des Droits de la Femme_, Mary
+Wollstonecraft--it is possible to some extent inspired by the brief
+_Declaration_--published her _Vindication of the Rights of Women_. It
+was not a shrill outcry, nor an attack on men--in that indeed
+resembling the _Declaration_--but just the book of a woman, a wise and
+sensible woman, who discusses many women's questions from a woman's
+point of view, and desires civil and political rights, not as a panacea
+for all evils, but simply because, as she argues, humanity cannot
+progress as a whole while one half of it is semi-educated and only half
+free. There can be little doubt that if the later advocates of woman's
+suffrage could have preserved more of Mary Wollstonecraft's sanity,
+moderation, and breadth of outlook, they would have diminished the
+difficulties that beset the task of convincing the community generally.
+Mary Wollstonecraft was, however, the inspired pioneer of a great
+movement which slowly gained force and volume.[55] During the long
+Victorian period the practical aims of this movement went chiefly into
+the direction of improving the education of girls so as to make it, so
+far as possible, like that of boys. In this matter an immense revolution
+was slowly accomplished, involving the entrance of women into various
+professions and employments hitherto reserved to men. That was a very
+necessary preliminary to the extension of the franchise to women. The
+suffrage propaganda could not, moreover, fail to benefit by the better
+education of women and their increased activity in public life. It was
+their activity, indeed, far more than the skill of the women who fought
+for the franchise, which made the political emancipation of women
+inevitable, and the noble and brilliant women who through the middle of
+the nineteenth century recreated the educational system for women, and
+so prepared them to play their proper part in life, were the best women
+workers the cause of women's enfranchisement ever had. There was,
+however, one distinguished friend of the emancipation of women whose
+advocacy of the cause at this period was of immense value. It is now
+nearly half a century since John Stuart Mill--inspired, like Thompson,
+by a woman--wrote his _Subjection of Women_, and it may undoubtedly be
+said that since that date no book on this subject published in any
+country--with the single exception of Bebel's _Woman_--has been so
+widely read or so influential. The support of this distinguished and
+authoritative thinker gave to the woman's movement a stamp of
+aristocratic intellectuality very valuable in a land where even the
+finest minds are apt to be afflicted by the disease of timidity, and was
+doubtless a leading cause of the cordial reception which in England the
+idea of women's political emancipation has long received among
+politicians. Bebel's book, speedily translated into English, furnished
+the plebeian complement to Mill's.
+
+The movement for the education of women and their introduction into
+careers previously monopolized by men inevitably encouraged the movement
+for extending the franchise to women. This political reform was
+remarkably successful in winning over the politicians, and not those of
+one party only. In England, since Mill published his _Subjection of
+Women_ in 1869, there have always been eminent statesmen convinced of
+the desirability of granting the franchise to women, and among the rank
+and file of Members of Parliament, irrespective of party, a very large
+proportion have pledged themselves to the same cause. The difficulty,
+therefore, in introducing woman's suffrage into England has not been
+primarily in Parliament. The one point, at which political party feeling
+has caused obstruction--and it is certainly a difficult and important
+point--is the method by which woman's suffrage should be introduced.
+Each party--Conservative, Liberal, Labour--naturally enough desires that
+this great new voting force should first be applied at a point which
+would not be likely to injure its own party interests. It is probable
+that in each party the majority of the leaders are of opinion that the
+admission of female voters is inevitable and perhaps desirable; the
+dispute is as to the extent to which the floodgates should in the first
+place be opened. In accordance with English tradition, some kind of
+compromise, however illogical, suggests itself as the safest first step,
+but the dispute remains as to the exact class of women who should be
+first admitted and the exact extent to which entrance should be granted
+to them.
+
+The dispute of the gate-keepers would, however, be easily overcome if
+the pressure behind the gate were sufficiently strong. But it is not.
+However large a proportion of the voters in Great Britain may be in
+favour of women's franchise, it is certain that only a very minute
+percentage regard this as a question having precedency over all other
+questions. And the reason why men have only taken a very temperate
+interest in woman's suffrage is that women themselves, in the mass, have
+taken an equally temperate interest in the matter when they have not
+been actually hostile to the movement. It may indeed be said, even at
+the present time, that whenever an impartial poll is taken of a large
+miscellaneous group of women, only a minority are found to be in favour
+of woman's suffrage.[56] No significant event has occurred to stimulate
+general interest in the matter, and no supremely eloquent or influential
+voice has artificially stirred it. There has been no woman of Mary
+Wollstonecraft's genius and breadth of mind who has devoted herself to
+the cause, and since Mill the men who have made up their minds on this
+side have been content to leave the matter to the women's associations
+formed for securing the success of the cause. These associations have,
+however, been led by women of a past generation, who, while of
+unquestionable intellectual power and high moral character, have viewed
+the woman question in a somewhat narrow, old-fashioned spirit, and have
+not possessed the gift of inspiring enthusiasm. Thus the growth of the
+movement, however steady it may have been, has been slow. John Stuart
+Mill's remark, in a letter to Bain in 1869, remains true to-day: "The
+most important thing women have to do is to stir up the zeal of women
+themselves."
+
+In the meanwhile in some other countries where, except in the United
+States, it was of much more recent growth, the woman's suffrage movement
+has achieved success, with no great expenditure of energy. It has been
+introduced into several American States and Territories. It is
+established throughout Australasia. It is also established in Norway. In
+Finland women may not only vote, but also sit in Parliament.
+
+It was in these conditions that the Women's Social and Political Union
+was formed in London. It was not an offshoot from any existing woman's
+suffrage society, but represented a crystallization of new elements. For
+the most part, even its leaders had not previously taken any active part
+in the movement for woman's suffrage. The suffrage movement had need of
+exactly such an infusion of fresh and ardent blood; so that the new
+society was warmly welcomed, and met with immediate success, finding
+recruits alike among the rich and the poor. Its unconventional methods,
+its eager and militant spirit, were felt to supply a lacking element,
+and the first picturesque and dashing exploits of the Union were on the
+whole well received. The obvious sincerity and earnestness of these very
+fresh recruits covered the rashness of their new and rather ignorant
+enthusiasm.
+
+But a hasty excess of ardour only befits a first uncalculated outburst
+of youthfulness. It is quite another matter when it is deliberately
+hardened into a rigid routine, and becomes an organized method of
+creating disorder for the purpose of advertising a grievance in season
+and out of season. Since, moreover, the attack was directed chiefly
+against politicians, precisely that class of the community most inclined
+to be favourable to woman's suffrage, the wrong-headedness of the
+movement becomes as striking as its offensiveness.
+
+The effect on the early friends of the new movement was inevitable.
+Some, who had hailed it with enthusiasm and proclaimed its pioneers as
+new Joans of Arc, changed their tone to expostulation and protest, and
+finally relapsed into silence. Other friends of the movement, even among
+its former leaders, were less silent. They have revealed to the world,
+too unkindly, some of the influences which slowly corrupt such a
+movement from the inside when it hardens into sectarianism: the
+narrowing of aim, the increase of conventionality, the jealousy of
+rivals, the tendency to morbid emotionalism.
+
+It is easy to exaggerate the misdeeds and the weaknesses of the
+suffragettes. It is undoubtedly true that they have alienated, in an
+increasing degree, the sympathies of the women of highest character and
+best abilities among the advocates of woman's suffrage. Nearly all
+Englishwomen to-day who stand well above the average in mental
+distinction are in favour of woman's suffrage, though they may not
+always be inclined to take an active part in securing it. Perhaps the
+only prominent exception is Mrs. Humphry Ward. Yet they rarely associate
+themselves with the methods of the suffragettes. They do not, indeed,
+protest, for they feel there would be a kind of disloyalty in fighting
+against the Extreme Left of a movement to which they themselves belong;
+but they stand aloof. The women who are chiefly attracted to the ranks
+of the suffragettes belong to three classes: (1) Those of the well-to-do
+class with no outlet for their activities, who eagerly embrace an
+exciting occupation which has become, not only highly respectable, but
+even, in a sense, fashionable; they have no natural tendency to excess,
+but are easily moved by their social environment; some of these are
+rich, and the great principle--once formulated in an unhappy moment
+concerning a rich lady interested in social reform--"We must not kill
+the goose that lays the golden eggs," has never been despised by the
+suffragette leaders; (2) the rowdy element among women which is not so
+much moved to adopt the methods for the sake of the cause as to adopt
+the cause for the sake of the methods, so that in the case of their
+special emotional temperament it may be said, reversing an ancient
+phrase, that the means justify the end; this element of noisy
+explosiveness, always found in a certain proportion of women, though
+latent under ordinary circumstances, is easily aroused by stimulation,
+and in every popular revolt the wildest excesses are the acts of women.
+(3) In this small but important group we find women of rare and
+beautiful character who, hypnotized by the enthralling influence of an
+idea, and often having no great intellectual power of their own, are
+even unconscious of the vulgarity that accompanies them, and gladly
+sacrifice themselves to a cause that seems to be sacred; these are the
+saints and martyrs of every movement.
+
+When we thus analyse the suffragette outburst we see that it is really
+compounded out of quite varied elements: a conventionally respectable
+element, a rowdy element, and an ennobling element. It is, therefore,
+equally unreasonable to denounce its vices or to idealize its virtues.
+It is more profitable to attempt to balance its services and its
+disservices to the cause of women's suffrage.
+
+Looked at dispassionately, the two main disadvantages of the suffragette
+agitation--and they certainly seem at the first glance very
+comprehensive objections--lie in its direction and in its methods. There
+are two vast bodies of people who require to be persuaded in order to
+secure woman's suffrage: first women themselves, and secondly their
+men-folk, who at present monopolize the franchise. Until the majority of
+both men and women are educated to understand the justice and
+reasonableness of this step, and until men are persuaded that the time
+has come for practical action, the most violent personal assaults on
+cabinet ministers--supposing such political methods to be otherwise
+unobjectionable--are beside the mark. They are aimed in the wrong
+direction. This is so even when we leave aside the fact that
+politicians are sufficiently converted already. The primary task of
+women suffragists is to convert their own sex. Indeed it may be said
+that that is their whole task. Whenever the majority of women are
+persuaded that they ought to possess the vote, we may be quite sure that
+they will communicate that persuasion to their men-folk who are able to
+give them the vote. The conversion of the majority of women to a belief
+in women's suffrage is essential to its attainment because it is only by
+the influence of the women who belong to him, whom he knows and loves
+and respects, that the average man is likely to realize that, as Ellen
+Key puts it, "a ballot paper in itself no more injures the delicacy of a
+woman's hand than a cooking recipe." The antics of women in the street,
+however earnest those women may be, only leave him indifferent, even
+hostile, at most, amused.
+
+It may be added that in any case it would be undesirable, even if
+possible, to bestow the suffrage on women so long as only a minority
+have the wish to exercise it. It would be contrary to sound public
+policy. It would not only discredit political rights, but it would tend
+to give the woman's vote too narrow and one-sided a character. To grant
+women the right to vote is a different matter from granting women the
+right to enter a profession. In order to give women the right to be
+doctors or lawyers it is not necessary that women generally should be
+convinced of the advantage of such a step. The matter chiefly concerns
+the very small number of women who desire the privilege. But the women
+who vote will be in some measure legislating for women generally, and it
+is therefore necessary that women generally should participate.
+
+But even if it is admitted--although, as we have seen, there is a
+twofold reason for not making such an admission--that the suffragettes
+are justified in regarding politicians as the obstacles in the way of
+their demands, there still remains the question of the disadvantage of
+their method. This method is by some euphemistically described as the
+introduction of "nagging" into politics; but even at this mild estimate
+of its character the question may still be asked whether the method is
+calculated to attain the desired end. One hears women suffragettes
+declare that this is the only kind of argument men understand. There is,
+however, in the masculine mind--and by no means least when it is
+British--an element which strongly objects to be worried and bullied
+even into a good course of action. The suffragettes have done their best
+to stimulate that element of obstinacy. Even among men who viewed the
+matter from an unprejudiced standpoint many felt that, necessary as
+woman's suffrage is, the policy of the suffragettes rendered the moment
+unfavourable for its adoption. It is a significant fact that in the
+countries which have so far granted women the franchise no methods in
+the slightest degree resembling those of the suffragettes have ever been
+practised. It is not easy to imagine Australia tolerating such methods,
+and in Finland full Parliamentary rights were freely granted, as is
+generally recognized, precisely as a mark of gratitude for women's
+helpfulness in standing side by side with their men in a great political
+struggle. The policy of obstruction adopted by the English suffragettes,
+with its "tactics" of opposing at election times the candidates of the
+very party whose leaders they are imploring to grant them the franchise,
+was so foolish that it is little wonder that many doubted whether women
+at all understand the methods of politics, or are yet fitted to take a
+responsible part in political life.
+
+The suffragette method of persuading public men seems to be, on the
+whole, futile, even if it were directed at the proper quarter, and even
+if it were in itself a justifiable method. But it would be possible to
+grant these "ifs" and still to feel that a serious injury is done to the
+cause of woman's suffrage when the method of violence is adopted by
+women. Some suffragettes have argued, in this matter, that in political
+crises men also have acted just as badly or worse. But, even if we
+assume that this is the case,[57] it has been one of the chief arguments
+hitherto for the admission of women into political life that they
+exercise an elevating and refining influence, so that their entrance
+into this field will serve to purify politics. That, no doubt, is an
+argument mostly brought forward by men, and may be regarded as, in some
+measure, an amiable masculine delusion, since most of the refining and
+elevating elements in civilization probably owe their origin not to
+women but to men. But it is not altogether a delusion. In the virtues of
+force--however humbly those virtues are to be classed--women, as a sex,
+can never be the rivals of men, and when women attempt to gain their
+ends by the demonstration of brute force they can only place themselves
+at a disadvantage. They are laying down the weapons they know best how
+to use, and adopting weapons so unsuitable that they only injure the
+users.
+
+Many women, speaking on behalf of the suffragettes, protest against the
+idea that women must always be "charming." And if "charm" is to be
+understood in so narrow and conventionalized a sense that it means
+something which is incompatible with the developed natural activities,
+whether of the soul or of the body, then such a protest is amply
+justified. But in the larger sense, "charm"--which means the power to
+effect work without employing brute force--is indispensable to women.
+Charm is a woman's strength just as strength is a man's charm. And the
+justification for women in this matter is that herein they represent the
+progress of civilization. All civilization involves the substitution in
+this respect of the woman's method for the man's. In the last resort a
+savage can only assert his rights by brute force. But with the growth of
+civilization the wronged man, instead of knocking down his opponent,
+employs "charm"; in other words he engages an advocate, who, by the
+exercise of sweet reasonableness, persuades twelve men in a box that
+his wrongs must be righted, and the matter is then finally settled, not
+by man's weapon, the fist, but by woman's weapon, the tongue. Nowadays
+the same method of "charm" is being substituted for brute force in
+international wrongs, and with the complete substitution of arbitration
+for war the woman's method of charm will have replaced the man's method
+of brute force along the whole line of legitimate human activity. If we
+realize this we can understand why it is that a group of women who, even
+in the effort to support a good cause, revert to the crude method of
+violence are committing a double wrong. They are wronging their own sex
+by proving false to its best traditions, and they are wronging
+civilization by attempting to revive methods of savagery which it is
+civilization's mission to repress. Therefore it may fairly be held that
+even if the methods of the suffragettes were really adequate to secure
+women's suffrage, the attainment of the franchise by those methods would
+be a misfortune. The ultimate loss would be greater than the gain.
+
+If we hold the foregoing considerations in mind it is difficult to avoid
+the conclusion that neither in their direction nor in their nature are
+the methods of the suffragettes fitted to attain the end desired. We
+have still, however, to consider the other side of the question.
+
+Whenever an old movement receives a strong infusion of new blood,
+whatever excesses or mistakes may arise, it is very unlikely that all
+the results will be on the same side. It is certainly not so in this
+case. Even the opposition to woman's suffrage which the suffragettes
+are responsible for, and the Anti-Suffrage societies which they have
+called into active existence, are not an unmitigated disadvantage. Every
+movement of progress requires a vigorous movement of opposition to
+stimulate its progress, and the clash of discussion can only be
+beneficial in the end to the progressive cause.
+
+But the immense advantage of the activity of the suffragettes has been
+indirect. It has enabled the great mass of ordinary sensible women who
+neither join Suffrage societies nor Anti-Suffrage societies to think for
+themselves on this question. Until a few years ago, while most educated
+women were vaguely aware of the existence of a movement for giving women
+the vote, they only knew of it as something rather unpractical and
+remote; its reality had never been brought home to them. When women
+witnessed the eruption into the streets of a band of women--most of them
+apparently women much like themselves--who were so convinced that the
+franchise must be granted to women, here and now, that they were
+prepared to face publicity, ridicule, and even imprisonment, then "votes
+for women" became to them, for the first time, a real and living issue.
+In a great many cases, certainly, they realized that they intensely
+disliked the people who behaved in this way and any cause that was so
+preached. But in a great many other cases they realized, for the first
+time definitely, that the demand of votes for women was a reasonable
+demand, and that they were themselves suffragists, though they had no
+wish to take an active part in the movement, and no real sympathy with
+its more "militant" methods. There can be no doubt that in this way the
+suffragettes have performed an immense service for the cause of women's
+suffrage. It has been for the most part an indirect and undesigned
+service, but in the end it will perhaps more than serve to
+counterbalance the disadvantages attached to their more conscious
+methods and their more deliberate aims.
+
+If, as we may trust, this service will be the main outcome of the
+suffragette phase of the women's movement, it is an outcome to be
+thankful for; we may then remember with gratitude the ardent enthusiasm
+of the suffragettes and forget the foolish and futile ways in which it
+was manifested. There has never been any doubt as to the ultimate
+adoption of women's suffrage; its gradual extension among the more
+progressive countries of the world sufficiently indicates that it will
+ultimately reach even to the most backward countries. Its accomplishment
+in England has been gradual, although it is here so long since the first
+steps were taken, not because there has been some special and malignant
+opposition to it on the part of men in general and politicians in
+particular, but simply because England is an old and conservative
+country, with a very ancient constitutional machinery which effectually
+guards against the hasty realization of any scheme of reform. This
+particular reform, however, is not an isolated or independent scheme; it
+is an essential part of a great movement in the social equalization of
+the sexes which has been going on for centuries in our civilization, a
+movement such as may be correspondingly traced in the later stages of
+the civilizations of antiquity. Such a movement we may by our efforts
+help forward, we may for a while retard, but it is a part of
+civilization, and it would be idle to imagine that we can affect the
+ultimate issue.
+
+That the issue of women's suffrage may be reached in England within a
+reasonable period is much to be desired for the sake of the woman's
+movement in the larger sense, which has nothing to do with politics, and
+is now impeded by this struggle. The enfranchisement of women, Miss
+Frances Cobbe declared thirty years ago, is "the crown and completion"
+of all progress in women's movement. "Votes for women," exclaims, more
+youthfully but not less unreasonably, Miss Christabel Pankhurst, "means
+a new Heaven and a new Earth." But women's suffrage no more means a new
+Heaven or even a new Earth than it means, as other people fear, a new
+Purgatory and a new Hell. We may see this quite plainly in Australasia.
+Women's votes aid in furthering social legislation and contribute to the
+passing of acts which have their good side, and, no doubt, like
+everything else, their bad side. As Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who devoted
+her life to the political enfranchisement of women, declared, the ballot
+is, at most, only the vestibule to women's emancipation. Man's suffrage
+has not introduced the millennium, and it is foolish to suppose that
+woman's suffrage can. It is merely an act of justice and a reasonable
+condition of social hygiene.
+
+The attainment of the suffrage, if it is a beginning and not an end,
+will thus have a real and positive value in liberating the woman's
+movement from a narrow and sterilizing phase of its course. In England,
+especially, the woman's movement has in the past largely confined itself
+to imitating men and to obtaining the same work and the same rights as
+men. Putting the matter more broadly, it may be said that it has been
+the aim of the woman's movement to secure woman's claims as a human
+being rather than as woman. But that is only half the task of the
+woman's movement, and perhaps not the most essential half. Women can
+never be like men, any more than men can be like women. It is their
+unlikeness which renders them indispensable to each other, and which
+also makes it imperative that each sex should have its due share in
+moulding the conditions of life. Woman's function in life can never be
+the same as man's, if only because women are the mothers of the race.
+That is the point, the only point, at which women have an uncontested
+supremacy over men. The most vital problem before our civilization
+to-day is the problem of motherhood, the question of creating the human
+beings best fitted for modern life, the practical realization of a sound
+eugenics. Manouvrier, the distinguished anthropologist, who carries
+feminism to its extreme point in the scientific sphere, yet recognizes
+the fundamental fact that "a woman's part is to make children." But he
+clearly perceives also that "in all its extent and all its consequences
+that part is not surpassed in importance, in difficulty, or in dignity,
+by the man's part." On the contrary it is a part which needs "an amount
+of intelligence incontestably superior, and by far, to that required by
+most masculine occupations."[58] We are here at the core of the woman's
+movement. And the full fruition of that movement means that women, by
+virtue of their supremacy in this matter, shall take their proper share
+in legislation for life, not as mere sexless human beings, but as women,
+and in accordance with the essential laws of their own nature as women.
+
+
+II
+
+There is a further question. Is it possible to discern the actual
+embodiment of this new phase of the woman movement? I think it is.
+
+To those who are accustomed to watch the emotional pulse of mankind,
+nothing has seemed so remarkable during recent years as the eruption of
+sex questions in Germany. We had always been given to understand that
+the sphere of women and the laws of marriage had been definitely
+prescribed and fixed in Germany for at least two thousand years, since
+the days of Tacitus, in fact, and with the best possible results.
+Germans assured the world in stentorian tones that only in Germany could
+young womanhood be seen in all its purity, and that in the German
+_Hausfrau_ the supreme ideal had been reached, the woman whose great
+mission is to keep alive the perennial fire of the ancient German
+hearth. Here and there, indeed, the quiet voice of science was heard in
+Germany; thus Schrader, the distinguished investigator of Teutonic
+origins, in commenting on the oft-quoted testimony of Tacitus to the
+chastity of the German women, has appositely referred to the detailed
+evidences furnished by the Committee of pastors of the Evangelical
+Church as to the extreme prevalence of unchastity among the women of
+rural Germany, and argued that these widespread customs must be very
+ancient and deep-rooted.[59] But Germans in general refused to admit that
+Tacitus had only used the idea of German virtue as a stick to beat his
+own fellow-countrywomen with.
+
+The Social-Democratic movement, which has so largely overspread
+industrial and even intellectual Germany, prepared the way for a less
+traditional and idealistic way of feeling in regard to these questions.
+The publication by Bebel of a book, _Die Frau_, in which the leader of
+the German Social-Democratic party set forth the Socialist doctrine of
+the position of women in society, marked the first stage in the new
+movement. This book exercised a wide influence, more especially on
+uncritical readers. It is, indeed, from a scientific point of view a
+worthless book--if a book in which genuine emotions are brought to the
+cause of human freedom and social righteousness may ever be so
+termed--but it struck a rude blow at the traditions of Teutonic
+sentiment. With something of the rough tone and temper of the great
+peasant who initiated the German Reformation, a man who had himself
+sprung from the people, and who knew of what he was speaking, here set
+down in downright fashion the actual facts as to the position of women
+in Germany, as well as what he conceived to be the claims of justice in
+regard to that position, slashing with equal vigour alike at the
+absurdities of conventional marriage and of prostitution, the obverse
+and the reverse, he declared, of a false society. The emotional
+renaissance with which we are here concerned seems to have no special
+and certainly no exclusive association with the Social-Democratic
+movement, but it can scarcely be doubted that the permeation of a great
+mass of the German people by the socialistic conceptions which in their
+bearing on women have been rendered so familiar by Bebel's exposition
+has furnished, as it were, a ready-made sounding-board which has given
+resonance and effect to voices which might otherwise have been quickly
+lost in vacuity.
+
+There is another movement which counts for something in the renaissance
+we are here concerned with, though for considerably less than one might
+be led to expect. What is specifically known as the "woman's rights'
+movement" is in no degree native to Germany, though Hippel is one of the
+pioneers of the woman's movement, and it is only within recent years
+that it has reached Germany. It is alien to the Teutonic feminine mind,
+because in Germany the spheres of men and women are so far apart and so
+unlike that the ideal of imitating men fails to present itself to a
+German woman's mind. The delay, moreover, in the arrival of the woman's
+movement in Germany had given time for a clearer view of that movement
+and a criticism of its defects to form even in the lands of its origin,
+so that the German woman can no longer be caught unawares by the cry for
+woman's rights. Still, however qualified a view might be taken of its
+benefits, it had to be recognized, even in Germany, that it was an
+inevitable movement, and to some extent at all events indispensable from
+the woman's point of view. The same right to education as men, the same
+rights of public meeting and discussion, the same liberty to enter the
+liberal professions, these are claims which during recent years have
+been widely made by German women and to some extent secured, while--as
+is even more significant--they are for the most part no longer very
+energetically disputed. The International Congress of Women which met in
+Berlin in 1904 was a revelation to the citizens of Berlin of the skill
+and dignity with which women could organize a congress and conduct
+business meetings. It was notable, moreover, in that, though under the
+auspices of an International Council, it showed the large number of
+German women who are already entitled to take a leading part in the
+movements for women's welfare. Both directly and indirectly, indeed,
+such a movement cannot be otherwise than specially beneficial in
+Germany. The Teutonic reverence for woman, the assertion of the "aliquid
+divinum," has sometimes been accompanied by the openly expressed
+conviction that she is a fool. Outside Germany it would not be easy to
+find the representative philosophers of a nation putting forward so
+contemptuous a view of women as is set forth by Schopenhauer or by
+Nietzsche, while even within recent years a German physician of some
+ability, the late Dr. Moebius, published a book on the "physiological
+weak-mindedness of women."
+
+The new feminine movement in Germany has received highly important
+support from the recent development of German science. The German
+intellect, exceedingly comprehensive in its outlook, ploddingly
+thorough, and imperturbably serious, has always taken the leading and
+pioneering part in the investigation of sexual problems, whether from
+the standpoint of history, biology, or pathology. Early in the
+nineteenth century, when even more courage and resolution were needed to
+face the scientific study of such questions than is now the case, German
+physicians, unsupported by any co-operation in other countries, were the
+pioneers in exploring the paths of sexual pathology.[60] From the
+antiquarian side, Bachofen, more than half a century ago, put forth his
+conception of the exalted position of the primitive mother which,
+although it has been considerably battered by subsequent research, has
+been by no means without its value, and is of special significance from
+the present standpoint, because it sprang from precisely the same view
+of life as that animating the German women who are to-day inaugurating
+the movement we are here concerned with. From the medical side the late
+Professor Krafft-Ebing of Vienna and Dr. Albert Moll of Berlin are
+recognized throughout the world as leading authorities on sexual
+pathology, and in recent times many other German physicians of the first
+authority can be named in this field; while in Austria Dr. F.S. Krauss
+and his coadjutors in the annual volumes of _Anthropophyteia_ are
+diligently exploring the rich and fruitful field of sexual folk-lore.
+The large volumes of the _Jahrbuch fuer Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, edited
+by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld of Berlin, have presented discussions of the
+commonest of sexual aberrations with a scientific and scholarly
+thoroughness, a practical competence, as well as admirable tone, which
+we may seek in vain in other countries. In Vienna, moreover, Professor
+Freud, with his bold and original views on the sexual causation of many
+abnormal mental and nervous conditions, and his psycho-analytic method
+of investigating and treating them, although his doctrines are by no
+means universally accepted, is yet exerting a revolutionary influence
+all over the world. During the last ten years, indeed, the amount of
+German scientific and semi-scientific literature, dealing with every
+aspect of the sexual question, and from every point of view, is
+altogether unparalleled. It need scarcely be said that much of this
+literature is superficial or worthless. But much of it is sound, and it
+would seem that on the whole it is this portion of it which is most
+popular. Thus Dr. August Forel, formerly professor of psychiatry at
+Zurich and a physician of world-wide reputation, published a few years
+ago at Munich a book on the sexual question, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, in
+which all the questions of the sexual life, biological, medical, and
+social, are seriously discussed with no undue appeal to an ignorant
+public; it had an immediate success and a large sale. Dr. Forel had not
+entered this field before; he had merely come to the conclusion that
+every man at the end of his life ought to set forth his observations and
+conclusions regarding the most vital of questions. Again, at about the
+same time, Dr. Iwan Bloch, of Berlin, published his many-sided work on
+the sexual life of our time, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, a work less
+remarkable than Forel's for the weight of the personal authority
+expressed, but more remarkable by the range of its learning and the
+sympathetic attitude it displayed towards the best movements of the day;
+this book also met with great success.[61] Still more recently (1912) Dr.
+Albert Moll, with characteristic scientific thoroughness, has edited,
+and largely himself written, a truly encyclopaedic _Handbuch der
+Sexualwissenschaften_. The eminence of the writers of these books and
+the mental calibre needed to read them suffice to show that we are not
+concerned, as a careless observer might suppose, with a matter of supply
+and demand in prurient literature, but with the serious and widespread
+appreciation of serious investigations. This same appreciation is shown
+not only by several bio-sociological periodicals of high scientific
+quality, but by the existence of a journal like _Sexual-Probleme_,
+edited by Dr. Max Marcuse, a journal with many distinguished
+contributors, and undoubtedly the best periodical in this field to be
+found in any language.
+
+At the same time the new movement of German women, however it may arise
+from or be supported by political or scientific movements, is
+fundamentally emotional in its character. If we think of it, every great
+movement of the Teutonic soul has been rooted in emotion. The German
+literary renaissance of the eighteenth century was emotional in its
+origin and received its chief stimulus from the contagion of the new
+irruption of sentiment in France. Even German science is often
+influenced, and not always to its advantage, by German sentiment. The
+Reformation is an example on a huge scale of the emotional force which
+underlies German movements. Luther, for good and for evil, is the most
+typical of Germans, and the Luther who made his mark in the world--the
+shrewd, coarse, superstitious peasant who blossomed into genius--was an
+avalanche of emotion, a great mass of natural human instincts
+irresistible in their impetuosity. When we bear in mind this general
+tendency to emotional expansiveness in the manifestations of the
+Teutonic soul we need feel no surprise that the present movement among
+German women should be, to a much greater extent than the corresponding
+movements in other countries, an emotional renaissance. It is not, first
+and last, a cry for political rights, but for emotional rights, and for
+the reasonable regulation of all those social functions which are
+founded on the emotions.[62]
+
+This movement, although it may properly be said to be German, since its
+manifestations are mainly exhibited in the great German Empire, is yet
+essentially a Teutonic movement in the broader sense of the word.
+Germans of Austria, Germans of Switzerland, Dutch women, Scandinavians,
+have all been drawn into this movement. But it is in Germany proper that
+they all find the chief field of their activities.
+
+If we attempt to define in a single sentence the specific object of this
+agitation we may best describe it as based on the demands of woman the
+mother, and as directed to the end of securing for her the right to
+control and regulate the personal and social relations which spring from
+her nature as mother or possible mother. Therein we see at once both the
+intimately emotional and practical nature of this new claim and its
+decisive unlikeness to the earlier woman movement. That was definitely a
+demand for emancipation; political enfranchisement was its goal; its
+perpetual assertion was that women must be allowed to do everything
+that men do. But the new Teutonic woman's movement, so far from making
+as its ideal the imitation of men, bases itself on that which most
+essentially marks the woman as unlike the man.
+
+The basis of the movement is significantly indicated by the title,
+_Mutterschutz_--the protection of the mother--originally borne by "a
+Journal for the reform of sexual morals," established in 1905, edited by
+Dr. Helene Stoecker, of Berlin, and now called _Die Neue Generation_. All
+the questions that radiate outwards from the maternal function are here
+discussed: the ethics of love, prostitution ancient and modern, the
+position of illegitimate mothers and illegitimate children, sexual
+hygiene, the sexual instruction of the young, etc. It must not be
+supposed that these matters are dealt with from the standpoint of a
+vigilance society for combating vice. The demand throughout is for the
+regulation of life, for reform, but for reform quite as much in the
+direction of expansion as of restraint. On many matters of detail,
+indeed, there is no agreement among these writers, some of whom approach
+the problems from the social and practical side, some from the
+psychological and philosophic side, others from the medical, legal, or
+historical sides.
+
+This journal was originally the organ of the association for the
+protection of mothers, more especially unmarried mothers, called the
+_Bund fuer Mutterschutz_. There are many agencies for dealing with
+illegitimate children, but the founders of this association started from
+the conviction that it is only through the mother that the child can be
+adequately cared for. As nearly a tenth of the children born in Germany
+are illegitimate, and the conditions of life into which such children
+are thrown are in the highest degree unfavourable, the question has its
+actuality.[63] It is the aim of the _Bund fuer Mutterschutz_ to
+rehabilitate the unmarried mother, to secure for her the conditions of
+economic independence--whatever social class she may belong to--and
+ultimately to effect a change in the legal status of illegitimate
+mothers and children alike. The Bund, which is directed by a committee
+in which social, medical, and legal interests are alike represented,
+already possesses numerous branches, in addition to its head-quarters in
+Berlin, and is beginning to initiate practical measures on the lines of
+its programme, notably Homes for Mothers, of which it has established
+nearly a dozen in different parts of Germany.
+
+In 1911 the first International Congress for the Protection of Mothers
+and for Sexual Reform was held at Dresden, in connection with the great
+Exhibition of Hygiene. As a result of this Congress, an International
+Union was constituted, representing Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, and
+Holland, which may probably be taken to be the countries which have so
+far manifested greatest interest in the programme of sexual reform based
+on recognition of the supreme importance of motherhood. This movement
+may, therefore, be said to have overcome the initial difficulties, the
+antagonism, the misunderstanding, and the opprobrium, which every
+movement in the field of sexual reform inevitably encounters, and often
+succumbs to.
+
+It would be a mistake to regard this Association as a merely
+philanthropic movement. It claims to be "An Association for the Reform
+of Sexual Ethics," and _Die Neue Generation_ deals with social and
+ethical rather than with philanthropic questions. In these respects it
+reflects the present attitude of many thoughtful German women, though
+the older school of women's rights advocates still holds aloof. We may
+here, for instance, find a statement of the recent discussion
+concerning the right of the mother to destroy her offspring before
+birth. This has been boldly claimed for women by Countess Gisela von
+Streitberg, who advocates a return to the older moral view which
+prevailed not only in classic antiquity, but even, under certain
+conditions, in Christian practice, until Canon law, asserting that the
+embryo had from the first an independent life, pronounced abortion under
+all circumstances a crime. Countess von Streitberg takes the standpoint
+that as the chief risks and responsibilities must necessarily rest upon
+the woman, it is for her to decide whether she will permit the embryo
+she bears to develop. Dr. Marie Raschke, taking up the discussion from
+the legal side, is unable to agree that abortion should cease to be a
+punishable offence, though she advocates considerable modifications in
+the law on this matter. Dr. Siegfried Weinberg, summarizing this
+discussion, again from the legal standpoint, considers that there is
+considerable right on the Countess's side, because from the modern
+juridical standpoint a criminal enactment is only justified because it
+protects a right, and in law the embryo possesses no rights which can be
+injured. From the moral standpoint, also, it is argued, its destruction
+often becomes justifiable in the interests of the community.
+
+This debatable question, while instructive as an example of the radical
+manner in which German women are now beginning to face moral questions,
+deals only with an isolated point which has hardly yet reached the
+sphere of practical politics.[64] It is more interesting to consider the
+general conceptions which underlie this movement, and we can hardly do
+this better than by studying the writings of Ellen Key, who is not only
+one of its recognized leaders, but may be said to present its aims and
+ideals in a broader and more convinced manner than any other writer.
+
+Ellen Key's views are mainly contained in three books, _Love and
+Marriage_, _The Century of the Child_, and _The Women's Movement_, in
+which form they enjoy a large circulation, and are now becoming well
+known, through translations, in England and America. She carefully
+distinguishes her aims from what she regards as the American conception
+of progress in woman's movements, that is to say the tendency for women
+to seek to capture the activities which may be much more adequately
+fulfilled by the other sex, while at the same time neglecting the far
+weightier matters that concern their own sex. Man and woman are not
+natural enemies who need to waste their energies in fighting over their
+respective rights and privileges; in spiritual as in physical life they
+are only fruitful together. Women, indeed, need free scope for their
+activities--and the earlier aspirations of feminism are thus
+justified--but they need it, not to wrest away any tasks that men may be
+better fitted to perform, but to play their part in that field of
+creative life which is peculiarly their own. Ellen Key would say that
+the highest human unit is triune: father, mother, and child. Marriage,
+therefore, instead of being, as it is to-day, the last thing to be
+thought of in education, becomes the central point of life. In Ellen
+Key's conception, "those who love each other are man and wife," and by
+love she means not a temporary inclination, but "a synthesis of desire
+and friendship," just as the air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. It
+must be this for both sexes alike, and Ellen Key sees a real progress in
+what seems to her the modern tendency for men to realize that the soul
+has its erotic side, and for women to realize that the senses have. She
+has no special sympathy with the cry for purity in masculine candidates
+for marriage put forward by some women of the present day. She observes
+that many men who have painfully struggled to maintain this ideal meet
+with disillusion, for it is not the masculine lamb, but much more the
+spotted leopard, who fascinates women. The notion that women have higher
+moral instincts than men Ellen Key regards as absurd. The majority of
+Frenchwomen, she remarks, were against Dreyfus, and the majority of
+Englishwomen approved the South African war. The really fundamental
+difference between man and woman is that he can usually give his best as
+a creator, and she as a lover, that his value is according to his work
+and hers according to her love. And in love the demand for each sex
+alike must not be primarily for a mere anatomical purity, but for
+passion and for sincerity.
+
+The aim of love, as understood by Ellen Key, is always marriage and the
+child, and as soon as the child comes into question society and the
+State are concerned. Before fruition, love is a matter for the lovers
+alone, and the espionage, ceremony, and routine now permitted or
+enjoined are both ridiculous and offensive. "The flower of love belongs
+to the lovers, and should remain their secret; it is the fruit of love
+which brings them into relation to society." The dominating importance
+of the child, the parent of the race to be, alone makes the immense
+social importance of sexual union. It is not marriage which sanctifies
+generation, but generation which sanctifies marriage. From the point of
+view of "the sanctity of generation" and the welfare of the race, Ellen
+Key looks forward to a time when it will be impossible for a man and
+woman to become parents when they are unlikely to produce a healthy
+child, though she is opposed to Neo-Malthusian methods, partly on
+aesthetic grounds and partly on the more dubious grounds of doubt as to
+their practical efficiency; it is from this point of view also that she
+favours sexual equality in matters of divorce, the legal assimilation of
+legitimate and illegitimate children, the recognition of unions outside
+marriage,--a recognition already legally established under certain
+circumstances in Sweden, in such a way as to confer the rights of
+legitimacy on the child,--and she is even prepared to advise women under
+some conditions to become mothers outside marriage, though only when
+there are obstacles to legal marriage, and as the outcome of deliberate
+will and resolution. In these and many similar proposals in detail, set
+forth in her earlier books, it is clear that Ellen Key has sometimes
+gone beyond the mandate of her central conviction, that love is the
+first condition for increasing the vitality alike of the race and of the
+individuality, and that the question of love, properly considered, is
+the question of creating the future man. As she herself has elsewhere
+quite truly pointed out, practice must precede, and precede by a very
+long time, the establishment of definite rules in matters of detail.
+
+It will be noticed that a point with which Ellen Key and the leaders of
+the new German woman's movement specially concern themselves is the
+affectional needs of the "supernumerary" woman and the legitimation of
+her children. There is an excess of women over men, in Germany as in
+most other countries. That excess, it is said, is balanced by the large
+number of women who do not wish to marry. But that is too cheap a
+solution of the question. Many women may wish to remain unmarried, but
+no woman wishes to be forced to remain unmarried. Every woman, these
+advocates of the rights of women claim, has a right to motherhood, and
+in exercising the right under sound conditions she is benefiting
+society. But our marriage system, in the rigid form which it has long
+since assumed, has not now the elasticity necessary to answer these
+demands. It presents a solution which is often impossible, always
+difficult, and perhaps in a large proportion of cases undesirable. But
+for a woman who is shut out from marriage to grasp at the vital facts of
+love and motherhood which she perhaps regards, unreasonably or not, as
+the supreme things in the world, must often be under such conditions a
+disastrous step, while it is always accompanied by certain risks.
+Therefore, it is asked, why should there not be, as of old there was, a
+relationship established which while of less dignity than marriage, and
+less exclusive in its demands, should yet permit a woman to enter into
+an honourable, open, and legally recognized relationship with a man?
+Such a relationship a woman could proclaim to the whole world, if
+necessary, without reflecting any disesteem upon herself or her child,
+while it would give her a legal claim on her child's father. Such a
+relationship would be substantially the same as the ancient concubinate,
+which persisted even in Christendom up to the sixteenth century. Its
+establishment in Sweden has apparently been satisfactory, and it is now
+sought to extend it to other countries.[65]
+
+It is interesting to compare, or to contrast, the movement of which
+Ellen Key has been a conspicuous champion with the futile movement
+initiated nearly a century ago by the school of Saint-Simon and Prosper
+Enfantin, in favour of "la femme libre."[66] That earlier movement had no
+doubt its bright and ideal side, but it was not supported by a sound and
+scientific view of life; it was rooted in sand and soon withered up. The
+kind of freedom which Ellen Key advocates is not a freedom to dispense
+with law and order, but rather a freedom to recognize and follow true
+law; it is the freedom which in morals as well as in politics is
+essential for the development of real responsibility.
+
+People talk, Ellen Key remarks, as though reform in sexual morality
+meant the breaking up of a beautiful idyll, while the idyll is
+impossible as long as the only alternative offered to so many young men
+and women at the threshold of life is between becoming "the slave of
+duty or the slave of lust." In these matters we already possess licence,
+and the only sound reform lies in a kind of "freedom" which will correct
+that licence by obedience to the most fundamental natural instincts
+acting in harmony with the claims of the race, which claims, it must be
+added, cannot be out of harmony with the best traditions of the race.
+Ellen Key would agree with a great German, Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+wrote more than a century ago that "a solicitude for the race conducts
+to the same results as the highest solicitude for the most beautiful
+development of the inner man." The modern revolt against fossilized laws
+is inevitable; it is already in progress, and we have to see to it that
+the laws written upon tables of stone in their inevitable decay only
+give place to the mightier laws written upon tables of flesh and blood.
+Life is far too rich and manifold, Ellen Key says again, to be confined
+in a single formula, even the best; if our ideal has its worth for
+ourselves, if we are prepared to live for it and to die for it, that is
+enough; we are not entitled to impose it on others. The conception of
+duty still remains, duty to love and duty to the race. "I believe in a
+new ethics," Ellen Key declares at the end of _The Women's Movement_,
+"which will be a synthesis growing out of the nature of man and the
+nature of woman, out of the demands of the individual and the demands
+of society, out of the pagan and the Christian points of view, out of
+the resolve to mould the future and out of piety towards the past."
+
+No reader of Ellen Key's books can fail to be impressed by the
+remarkable harmony between her sexual ethics and the conception that
+underlies Sir Francis Galton's scientific eugenics. In setting forth the
+latest aspects of his view of eugenics before the Sociological Society,
+Galton asserted that the improvement of the race, in harmony with
+scientific knowledge, would come about by a new religious movement, and
+he gave reasons to show why such an expectation is not unreasonable; in
+the past men have obeyed the most difficult marriage rules in response
+to what they believed to be supernatural commands, and there is no
+ground for supposing that the real demands of the welfare of the race,
+founded on exact knowledge, will prove less effective in calling out an
+inspiring religious emotion. Writing probably at the same time, Ellen
+Key, in her essay entitled _Love and Ethics_, set forth precisely the
+same conception, though not from the scientific but from the emotional
+standpoint. From the outset she places the sexual question on a basis
+which brings it into line with Galton's eugenics. The problem used to be
+concerned, she remarks, with the insistence of society on a rigid
+marriage form, in conflict with the demand of the individual to gratify
+his desires in any manner that seemed good to him, while now it becomes
+a question of harmonizing the claims of the improvement of the race with
+the claims of the individual to happiness in love. She points out that
+on this aspect real harmony becomes more possible. Regard for the
+ennoblement of the race serves as a bridge from a chaos of conflicting
+tendencies to a truer conception of love, and "love must become on a
+higher plane what it was in primitive days--a religion." She compares
+the growth of the conception of the vital value of love to the modern
+growth of the conception of the value of health as against the medieval
+indifference to hygiene. It is inevitable that Ellen Key, approaching
+the question from the emotional side, should lay less stress than Galton
+on the importance of scientific investigation in heredity, and insist
+mainly on the value of sound instincts, unfettered by false and
+artificial constraints, and taught to realize that the physical and the
+psychic aspects of life are alike "divine."
+
+It would obviously be premature to express either approval or
+disapproval of the conceptions of sexual morality which Ellen Key has
+developed with such fervour and insight. It scarcely seems probable that
+the methods of sexual union, put forward as an alternative to celibacy
+by some of the adherents of the new movement, are likely to become
+widely popular, even if legalized in an increasing number of countries.
+I have elsewhere given reasons to believe that the path of progress lies
+mainly in the direction of a reform of the present institution of
+marriage.[67] The need of such reform is pressing, and there are many
+signs that it is being recognized. We can scarcely doubt that the
+advocates of these alternative methods of sexual union will do good by
+stimulating the champions of marriage to increased activity in the
+reform of that institution. In such matters a certain amount of
+competition sometimes has a remarkably vivifying effect.
+
+We may be sure that women, whose interests are so much at stake in this
+matter, and who tend to look at it in a practical rather than in a legal
+and theological spirit, will exert a powerful influence when they have
+acquired the ability to enforce that influence by the vote. This is
+significantly indicated by an inquiry held in England during 1910 by the
+Women's Co-operative Guild. A number of women who had held official
+positions in the Guild were asked (among other questions) whether or not
+they were in favour of divorce by mutual consent. Of 94 representative
+women conversant with affairs who were thus consulted, as many as 82
+deliberately recorded their opinion in favour of divorce by mutual
+consent, and only 12 were against that highly important marriage reform.
+
+It is probably unnecessary to discuss the opinions of other leaders in
+this movement, though there are several, such as Frau Grete Meisel-Hess,
+whose views deserve study. It will be sufficiently clear in what way
+this Teutonic movement differs from that Anglo-Saxon woman's rights'
+movement with which we have long been familiar. These German women fully
+recognize that women are entitled to the same human rights as men, and
+that until such rights are attained "feminism" still has a proper task
+to achieve. But women must use their strength in the sphere for which
+their own nature fits them. Even though millions of women are enabled to
+do the work which men could do better the gain for mankind is nil. To
+put women to do men's work is (Ellen Key has declared) as foolish as to
+set a Beethoven or a Wagner to do engine-driving.
+
+It has probably excited surprise in the minds of some who have been
+impressed by the magnitude and vitality of this movement that it should
+have manifested itself in Germany rather than in England, which is the
+original home of movements for women's emancipation, or in America,
+where they have reached their fullest developments. This, however,
+ceases to be surprising when we realize the special qualities of the
+Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic temperaments and the special conditions under
+which the two movements arose. The Anglo-Saxon movement was a special
+application to women of the general French movement for the logical
+assertion of abstract human rights. That special application was not
+ardently taken up in France itself, though first proclaimed by French
+pioneers,[68] partly perhaps because such one-sided applications make
+little appeal to the French mind, and mainly, no doubt, because women
+throughout the eighteenth century enjoyed such high social
+consideration and exerted so much influence that they were not impelled
+to rise in any rebellious protest. But when the seed was brought over to
+England, especially in the representative form of Mary Wollstonecraft's
+_Vindication of the Rights of Women_, it fell in virgin soil which
+proved highly favourable to its development. This special application
+escaped the general condemnation which the Revolution had brought upon
+French ideas. Women in England were beginning to awaken to ideas,--as
+women in Germany are now,--and the more energetic and intelligent among
+them eagerly seized upon conceptions which furnished food for their
+activities. In large measure they have achieved their aims, and even
+woman's suffrage has been secured here and there, without producing any
+notable revolution in human affairs. The Anglo-Saxon conception of
+feminine progress--beneficial as it has undoubtedly been in many
+respects--makes little impression in Germany, partly because it fails to
+appeal to the emotional Teutonic temperament, and partly because the
+established type of German life and civilization offers very small scope
+for its development. When Miss Susan Anthony, the veteran pioneer of
+woman's movements in the United States, was presented to the German
+Empress she expressed a hope that the Emperor would soon confer the
+suffrage on German women; it is recorded that the Empress smiled, and
+probably most German women smiled with her. At the present time,
+however, there is an extraordinary amount of intellectual activity in
+Germany, a widespread and massive activity. For the first time,
+moreover, it has reached women, who are taking it up with characteristic
+Teutonic thoroughness. But they are not imitating the methods of their
+Anglo-Saxon sisters; they are going to work their own way. They are
+spending very little energy in waving the red flag before the fortresses
+of male monopoly. They are following an emotional influence which,
+strangely enough, it may seem to some, finds more support from the
+biological and medical side than the Anglo-Saxon movement has always
+been able to win. From the time of Aristophanes downwards, whenever they
+have demonstrated before the masculine citadels, women have always been
+roughly bidden to go home. And now, here in Germany, where of all
+countries that advice has been most freely and persistently given, women
+are adopting new tactics: they have gone home. "Yes, it is true," they
+say in effect, "the home is our sphere. Love and marriage, the bearing
+and the training of children--that is our world. And we intend to lay
+down the laws of our world."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[52] In 1787 Condorcet declared (_Lettres d'un Bourgeois de New Haven_,
+Lettre II) that women ought to have absolutely the same rights as men,
+and he repeated the same statement emphatically in 1790, in an article
+"Sur l'Admission des Femmes au Droit de Cite," published in the _Journal
+de la Societe de 1789_. It must be added that Condorcet was not a
+democrat, and neither to men nor to women would he grant the vote unless
+they were proprietors.
+
+[53] Leopold Lacour has given a full and reliable account of Olympe de
+Gouges (who was born at Montauban in 1755) in his _Trois Femmes de la
+Revolution_, 1900.
+
+[54] It is noteworthy that the Empire had even a depressing effect on the
+physical activities of women. The eighteenth-century woman in France,
+although she was not athletic in the modern sense, enjoyed a free life
+in the open air and was fond of physical exercises. During the
+Directoire this tendency became very pronounced; women wore the
+scantiest of garments, were out of doors in all weathers, cultivated
+healthy appetites, and enjoyed the best of health. But with the
+establishment of the Empire these wholesome fashions were discarded, and
+women cultivated new ideals of fragile refinement indoors. (This
+evolution has been traced by Dr. Lucien Nars, _L'Hygiene_, September,
+1911.)
+
+[55] Concerning the rise and progress of this movement in England much
+information is sympathetically and vivaciously set forth in W. Lyon
+Blease's _Emancipation of English Women_ (1910), a book, however, which
+makes no claim to be judicial or impartial; the author regards
+"unregulated male egoism" as the source of the difficulties in the way
+of women's suffrage.
+
+[56] Thus, in 1911 the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage took
+an impartial poll of the women voters on the municipal register in
+several large constituencies, by sending a reply-paid postcard to ask
+whether or not they favoured the extension to women of the Parliamentary
+franchise. Only 5579 were in favour of it; 18,850 were against; 12,621
+did not take the trouble to answer, and it was claimed, probably with
+reason, that a majority of these were not in favour of the vote.
+
+[57] It must not be too hastily assumed. Unless we go back to ancient
+plots of the Guy Fawkes type (now only imitated by self-styled
+anarchists), the leaders of movements of political reform have rarely,
+if ever, organized outbursts of violence; such violence, when it
+occurred, has been the spontaneous and unpremeditated act of a mob.
+
+[58] _Revue de l'Ecole d'Anthropologie_, February, 1909, p. 50.
+
+[59] O. Schrader, _Reallexicon_, Art. "Keuschheit." He considers that
+Tacitus merely shows that German women were usually chaste after
+marriage. A few centuries later, Lea points out, Salvianus, while
+praising the barbarians generally for their chastity, makes an exception
+in the case of the Alemanni. (See also Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," pp. 382-4.)
+
+[60] Thus Kaan, anticipating Krafft-Ebing, published a _Psychopathia
+Sexualis_, in 1844, and Casper, in 1852, was the first medical authority
+to point out that sexual inversion is sometimes due to a congenital
+psychic condition.
+
+[61] Both Forel's and Bloch's books have become well known through
+translations in England and America. Dr. Bloch is also the author of an
+extremely erudite and thorough history of syphilis, which has gone far
+to demonstrate that this disease was introduced into Europe from America
+on the first discovery of the New World at the end of the fifteenth
+century.
+
+[62] This attitude is plainly reflected even in many books written by
+men; I may mention, for instance, Frenssen's well-known novel
+_Hilligenlei_ (_Holyland_).
+
+[63] In most countries illegitimacy is decreasing; in Germany it is
+steadily increasing, alike in rural and urban districts. Illegitimate
+births are, however, more numerous in the cities than in the country. Of
+the constituent states of the German Empire, the illegitimate birth-rate
+is lowest in Prussia, highest in Saxony and Bavaria. In Munich 27 per
+cent of the births are illegitimate. (The facts are clearly brought out
+in an article by Dr. Arthur Gruenspan in the _Berliner Tagblatt_ for
+January 6, 1911, reproduced in _Die Neue Generation_, July, 1911.) Thus,
+in Prussia, while the total births between 1903 and 1908,
+notwithstanding a great increase in the population, have only increased
+2.6 per cent, the illegitimate births have increased as much as 11.1 per
+cent. The increase is marked in nearly all the German States. It is
+specially marked in Saxony; here the proportion of illegitimate births
+to the total number of births was, in 1903, 12.51 per cent, and in 1908
+it had already risen to 14.40 per cent. In Berlin it is most marked;
+here it began in 1891, when there were nearly 47,000 legitimate births;
+by 1909, however, the legitimate births had fallen to 38,000, a decrease
+of 19.4 per cent. But illegitimate births rose during the same period
+from nearly 7000 to over 9000, an increase of 35 per cent. The
+proportion of illegitimate births to the total births is now over 20 per
+cent, so that to every four legitimate children there is rather more
+than one illegitimate child. It may be said that this is merely due to
+an increasing proportion of unmarried women. That, however, is not the
+case. The marriage-rate is on the whole rising, and the average age of
+women at marriage is becoming lower rather than higher. Gruenspan
+considers that this increase in illegitimacy is likely to continue, and
+he is inclined to attribute it less to economic than to
+social-psychological causes.
+
+[64] I have discussed this point in _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. XII.
+
+[65] It is remarkable that in early times in Spain the laws recognized
+concubinage (_barragania_) as almost equal to marriage, and as
+conferring equal rights on the child, even on the sons of the clergy,
+who could thus inherit from their fathers by right of the privileges
+accorded to the concubine or _barragana_. _Barragania_, however, was not
+real marriage, and in many regions it could be contracted by married men
+(R. Altamira, _Historia de Espana y de la Civilazacion Espanola_, Vol.
+I, pp. 644 et seq.).
+
+[66] "La femme libre," in quest of whom the young Saint-Simonians
+preached a crusade, must be a woman of reflection and intellect who,
+having meditated on the fate of her "sisters," knowing the wants of
+women, and having sounded those feminine capacities which man has never
+completely penetrated, shall give forth the confession of her sex,
+without restriction or reserve, in such a manner as to furnish the
+indispensable elements for formulating the rights and duties of woman.
+Saint Simon had asked Madame de Stael to undertake this role, but she
+failed to respond. When George Sand published her first novels, one
+Gueroult was commissioned to ascertain if the author of _Lelia_ would
+undertake this important service. He found a badly dressed woman who was
+using her talents to gain a living, but was by no means anxious to
+become the high priestess of a new religion. Even after his
+disappointment Enfantin looked eagerly forward to the publication of
+George Sand's _Histoire de ma Vie_, hoping that at last the great
+revelation was coming, and he was again disillusioned. But before this
+Emile Barrault had arisen and declared that in the East, in the solitude
+of the harem, "la femme libre" would be found in the person of some
+odalisque. The "mission of the mother" was formed, and with Barrault at
+the head it set out for Constantinople. All were dressed in white as an
+indication of the vow of chastity they had taken before leaving Paris,
+and on the road they begged in the name of the Mother. They arrived at
+Constantinople and preached the faith of Saint-Simon to the Turks in
+French. But "la femme libre" seemed as far off as ever, and they
+resolved to go to Rotourma in Oceana, there to establish the religion of
+Saint-Simon and a perfect Government which might serve as a model to the
+States of Europe. First, however, they felt it a duty to make certain
+that the Mother was not hiding somewhere in Russia, and they went
+therefore to Odessa, but the Governor, who was wanting in sympathy,
+speedily turned them out, and having realized that Rotourma was some
+distance off, the mission broke up, most of the members going to Egypt
+to rejoin Enfantin, whom the Arabs, struck by his beauty, had called
+_Abu-l-dhunieh_, the Father of the World. (This account of the movement
+is based on that given by Maxime du Camp, in his _Souvenirs
+Litteraires_)
+
+[67] _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to
+Society," chap. X.
+
+[68] It is worth noting that a Frenchwoman has been called "the mother of
+modern feminism." Marie de Gournay, who died in 1645 at the age of
+eighty, is best known as the adopted daughter of Montaigne, for whom she
+cherished an enthusiastic reverence, becoming the first editor of his
+essays. Her short essay, _Egalite des Hommes et des Femmes_, was written
+in 1622. See e.g. M. Schiff, _La Fille d'Alliance de Montaigne_.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN IN RELATION TO ROMANTIC LOVE
+
+     The Absence of Romantic Love in Classic Civilization--Marriage as a
+     Duty--The Rise of Romantic Love in the Roman Empire--The Influence
+     of Christianity--The Attitude of Chivalry--The Troubadours--The
+     Courts of Love--The Influence of the Renaissance--Conventional
+     Chivalry and Modern Civilization--The Woman Movement--The Modern
+     Woman's Equality of Rights and Responsibilities excludes
+     Chivalry--New Forms of Romantic Love still remain possible--Love as
+     the Inspiration of Social Hygiene.
+
+
+What will be the ultimate effect of the woman's movement, now slowly but
+surely taking place among us, upon romantic love? That is really a
+serious question, and it is much more complex than many of those who are
+prepared to answer it off-hand may be willing to admit.
+
+It must be remembered that romantic love has not been a constant
+accompaniment of human relationships, even in civilization. It is true
+that various peoples very low down in the scale possess romantic
+love-songs, often, it appears, written by the women. But the classic
+civilizations of Greece and Rome in their most robust and brilliant
+periods knew little or nothing of romantic love in connection with
+normal sexual relationships culminating in marriage. Classic antiquity
+reveals a high degree of conjugal devotion, and of domestic affection,
+at all events in Rome, but the right of the woman to follow the
+inspirations of her own heart, and the idealization and worship of the
+woman by the man, were not only scarcely known but, so far as they were
+known, reprehended or condemned. Ovid, in the opinion of some,
+represents a new movement in Rome. We are apt to regard Ovid as, in
+erotic matters, the representative of a set of immoral Roman
+voluptuaries. That view probably requires considerable modification.
+Ovid was not indeed a champion of morality, but there is no good reason
+to suppose that, before he appeared, the rather stern Roman mind had yet
+conceived those refinements and courtesies which he set forth in such
+charming detail. If we take a wide survey of his work, we may perhaps
+regard Ovid as the pioneer of a chivalrous attitude towards women and of
+a romantic conception of love not only new in Rome but of significance
+for Europe generally. Ovid was a powerful factor in the Renaissance
+movement, and not least in England, where his influence on Shakespeare
+and some others of the Elizabethans cannot easily be overrated.[69]
+
+For the ordinary classic mind, Greek or Roman, marriage was intended for
+the end of building up the family, and the family was consecrated to the
+State. The fulfilment of so exalted a function involved a certain
+austere dignity which excluded wayward inclination or passionate
+emotion. These might indeed occur between a man and a woman outside
+marriage, but putting aside the very limited phenomena of Athenian
+hetairism, they were too shameful to be idealized. Some trace of this
+classic attitude may be said to persist even to-day among the so-called
+Latin nations, notably in the French tradition (now dying out) of
+treating marriage as a relationship to be arranged, not by the two
+parties themselves, but by their parents and guardians; Montaigne,
+attached as he was to maxims of Roman antiquity, was not very alien from
+the ordinary French attitude of his time when he declared that, since we
+do not marry so much for our own sakes as for the sake of posterity and
+the race, marriage is too sacred a process to be mixed with amorous
+extravagance.[70] There is something to be said for that point of view
+which is nowadays too often forgotten, but it certainly fails to cover
+the whole of the ground.
+
+It is not only in the West that a contemptuous attitude towards the
+romantic and erotic side of life has prevailed at some of the most
+vigorous moments of civilization. It is also found in the East. In
+Japan, for instance, even at the present day, romantic love, as a
+reputable element of ordinary life, is unknown or disapproved; its
+existence is not recognized in the schools, and the European novels that
+celebrate it are scarcely understood.[71]
+
+The development of modern romantic love in connection with marriage
+seems to be found in the late Greek world under the Roman Empire.[72]
+That is commonly called a period of decadence. In a certain limited
+sense it was. Greece had become subjugated to Rome. Rome herself had
+lost her military spirit and was losing her political power. But the
+fighting instinct, and even the ruling spirit, are not synonymous with
+civilization. The "decline and fall" of empires by no means necessarily
+involves the decay of civilization. It is now generally realized that
+the later Roman Empire was not, as was once thought, an age of social
+and moral degeneration.[73] The State indeed was dissolving, but the
+individual was evolving. The age which produced a Plutarch--for fifteen
+hundred years one of the great inspiring forces of the world--was the
+reverse of a corrupt age. The life of the home and the life of the soul
+were alike developing. The home was becoming more complex, more
+intimate, more elevated. The soul was being turned in on itself to
+discover new and joyous secrets: the secret of the love of Nature, the
+secret of mystic religion, and, not least, the secret of romantic love.
+When Christianity finally conquered the Roman world its task very
+largely lay in taking over and developing those three secrets already
+discovered by Paganism.
+
+It was inevitable, however, that in developing these new forms of the
+emotional life, the ascetic bent of Christianity should make itself
+felt. It was not possible for Christianity to cast its halo around the
+natural sexual life, but it was possible to refine and exalt that life,
+to lift it into a spiritual sphere. Neither woman the sweetheart nor
+woman the mother were in ordinary life glorified by the Church; they
+were only tolerated. But on a higher than natural plane they were
+surrounded by a halo and raised to the highest pedestal of reverence and
+even worship. The Virgin was exalted, Bride and Bridegroom became terms
+of mystical import, and the Holy Mother received the adoring love of all
+Christendom. Even in the actual relations of men and women, quite early
+in the history of Christianity, we sometimes find men and women
+cultivating relationships which excluded that earthly union the Church
+looked down on, but yet involved the most tender and intimate physical
+affection. Many charming stories of such relationships are found in the
+lives of the saints, and sometimes they existed even within the
+marriage bond.[74] Christianity led to the use of ideas and terms
+borrowed from earthly love in a different and symbolic sense. But the
+undesigned result was that a new force and beauty were added to those
+ideas and terms, however applied, and also that many emotions were thus
+cultivated which became capable of re-inforcing earthly human love. In
+this way it happened that, though Christianity rejected the ideal of
+romantic love in its natural associations, it indirectly prepared the
+way for a loftier and deeper realization of that love.
+
+There can be no doubt that the emotional training and refining of the
+fleshly instincts by Christianity was the chief cause of the rise of
+that conception of romantic love which we associate with the institution
+of chivalry. Exalted and sanctified by contact with the central dogmas
+of religion, the emotion of love was brought down from this spiritual
+atmosphere by the knightly lover, with something of its ethereal halo
+still clinging to it, and directed towards an earthly mistress. The most
+extravagant phase of romantic love which has ever been seen was then
+brought about, and in many cases, certainly, it was a real erotomania
+which passed beyond the bounds of sanity.[75] In its extreme forms,
+however, this romantic love was a rare, localized, and short-lived
+manifestation. The dominant attitude of the chivalrous age towards
+women, as Leon Gautier has shown in his monumental work on chivalry, was
+one of indifference, or even contempt. The knight's thoughts were more
+of war than of women, and he cherished his horse more than his
+mistress.[76]
+
+But women, above all in France, reacted against this attitude, and with
+splendid success. Their husbands treated them with indifference or left
+them at home while they sought adventure in the world. The neglected
+wives proceeded to lay down the laws of society, and took upon
+themselves the part of rulers in the domain of morals. In the eleventh,
+the twelfth, the thirteenth centuries, says Meray in a charming book on
+life in the days of the Courts of Love, we find women "with infinite
+skill and an adorable refinement seizing the moral direction of French
+society." They did so, he remarks, in a spirit so Utopian, so ideally
+poetic, that historians have hesitated to take them seriously. The laws
+of the Courts of Love[77] may sometimes seem to us immoral and
+licentious, but in reality they served to restrain the worst
+immoralities and licences of the time. They banished violence, they
+allowed no venality, and they inculcated moderation in passion. The task
+of the Courts of Love was facilitated by the relative degree of peace
+which then reigned, especially by the fact that the Normans, holding
+both coasts of the Channel, formed a link between France and England.
+When the murderous activities of French kings and English kings
+destroyed that link, the Courts of Love were swept away in the general
+disorder and the progress of civilization indefinitely retarded.[78] Yet
+in some degree the ideals which had been thus embodied still persisted.
+As the Goncourts pointed out in their invaluable book, _La Femme au
+Dix-huitieme Siecle_ (Chap. v), from the days of chivalry even on into
+the eighteenth century, when on the surface at all events it apparently
+disappeared, an exalted ideal of love continued to be cherished in
+France. This conception remained associated, throughout, with the great
+social influence and authority which had been enjoyed by women in France
+even from medieval times. That influence had become pronounced during
+the seventeenth century, and at that time Sir Thomas Smith in his
+_Commonwealth of England_, writing of the high position of women in
+England, remarked that they possessed "almost as much liberty as in
+France."
+
+There were at least two forms of medieval romantic love. The first arose
+in Provence and northern Italy during the twelfth century, and spread to
+Germany as _Minnedienst_. In this form the young knights directed their
+respectful and adoring devotion to a high-born married woman who chose
+one of them as her own cavalier, to do her service and reverence, the
+two vowing devotion to each other until death. It was a part of this
+amorous code that there could not be love between husband and wife, and
+it was counted a mark of low breeding for a husband to challenge his
+wife's right to her young knight's services, though sometimes we are
+told the husband risked this reproach, occasionally with tragic results.
+This mode of love, after being eloquently sung and practised by the
+troubadours--usually, it appears, younger sons of noble houses--died out
+in the place of its origin, but it had been introduced into Spain, and
+the Spaniards reintroduced it into Italy when they acquired the kingdom
+of Naples; in Italy it was conventionalized into the firmly rooted
+institution of the _cavaliere servente_. From the standpoint of a strict
+morality, the institution was obviously open to question. But we can
+scarcely fail to see that at its origin it possessed, even if
+unconsciously, a quasi-religious warrant in the worship of the Holy
+Mother, and we have to recognize that, notwithstanding its questionable
+shape, it was really an effort to attain a purer and more ideal
+relationship than was possible in a rough and warlike age which placed
+the wife in subordination to her husband. A tender devotion that
+inspired poetry, an unalloyed respect that approached reverence, vows
+that were based on equal freedom and independence on both sides--these
+were possibilities which the men and women of that age felt to be
+incompatible with marriage as they knew it.
+
+The second form of medieval romantic love was more ethereal than the
+first, and much more definitely and consciously based on a religious
+attitude. It was really the worship of the Virgin transferred to a
+young earthly maiden, yet retaining the purity and ideality of
+religious worship. To so high a degree is this the case that it is
+sometimes difficult to be sure whether we are concerned with a real
+maiden of flesh and blood or only a poetic symbol of womanhood. This
+doubt has been raised, notably by Bartoli, concerning Dante's Beatrice,
+the supreme type of this ethereal love, which arose in the thirteenth
+century, and was chiefly cultivated in Florence. The poets of this
+movement were themselves aware of the religious character of their
+devotion to the _donna angelicata_ to whom they even apply, as they
+would to the Queen of Heaven, the appellation Stella Maris. That there
+was an element of flesh and blood in these figures is believed by Remy
+de Gourmont, but when we gaze at them, he remarks, we see at first, "in
+place of a body only two eyes with angel's wings behind them, on the
+background of an azure sky sown with golden stars"; the lover is on his
+knees and his love has become a prayer.[79] This phase of romantic love
+was brief, and perhaps mostly the possession of the poets, but it
+represented a really important moment in the evolution of modern
+romantic love. It was a step towards the realization of the genuinely
+human charm of young womanhood in real human relationships, of which we
+already have a foretaste in the delicious early French story of Aucassin
+and Nicolette.
+
+The re-discovery of classic literature, the movements of Humanism and
+the Renaissance, swept away what was left of the almost religious
+idealization of the young virgin. The ethereal maiden, thin, pale,
+anaemic, disappeared alike from literature and from art, and was no
+longer an ideal in actual life. She gave place to a new woman, conscious
+of her own fully developed womanhood and all its needs, radiantly
+beautiful and finely shaped in every limb. She lacked the spirituality
+of her predecessors, but she had gained in intellect. She appears first
+in the pages of Boccaccio. After a long interval Titian immortalized her
+rich and mature beauty; she is Flora, she is Ariadne, she is alike the
+Earthly Love and the Heavenly Love. Every curve of her body was
+adoringly and minutely described by Niphus and Firenzuola.[80] She was,
+moreover, the courtesan whose imperial charm and adroitness enabled her
+to trample under foot the medieval conception of lust as sin, even in
+the courts of popes. At the great academic centre of Bologna, finally,
+she chastely taught learning and science.[81] The people of the Italian
+Renaissance placed women on the same level as men, and to call a woman a
+_virago_ implied unalloyed praise.[82]
+
+The very mixed conditions of what we have been accustomed to consider
+the modern world then began for women. They were no longer
+cloistered--whether in convents or the home--but neither were they any
+longer worshipped. They began to be treated as human beings, and when
+men idealized them in figures of romantic charm or pathos--figures like
+Shakespeare's Rosalind or Marivaux's Sylvia or Richardson's
+Clarissa--this humanity was henceforth the common ground out of which
+the vision arose. But, one notes, in nearly all the great poets and
+novelists up to the middle of the last century, it was usually in the
+weakness of humanity that the artist sought the charm and pathos of his
+feminine figures. From Shakespeare's Ophelia to Thackeray's Amelia this
+is the rule, more emphatically expressed in the literature of England
+than of any other country. There had been no actual emancipation of
+women; though now they had entered the world of men, they were not yet,
+socially and legally, of that world. Even the medieval traditions still
+lived on in subtly conventionalized forms. The "chivalrous" attitude
+towards women was, as the word itself suggests, a medieval survival. It
+belonged to a period of barbarism when brutal force ruled and when the
+man who magnanimously placed his force at the disposition of a woman was
+really doing her a service and granting her a privilege. But
+civilization means the building up of an orderly society in which
+individual rights are respected, and force no longer dominates. So that
+as civilization advances the occasions on which women require the aid
+of masculine force become ever fewer and more unimportant. The
+conventionalized chivalry of men then tends to become an offer of
+services which it would be better for women to do for themselves and a
+bestowal of privileges to which they are nowise entitled.[83] Moreover,
+this same chivalry is, under these conditions, apt to take on a
+character which is the reverse of its face value. It becomes the
+assertion of a power over women instead of a power on their behalf; and
+it carries with it a tinge of contempt in place of respect.
+Theoretically, a thousand chivalrous swords should leap from their
+scabbards to succour the distressed woman. In practice this may only
+mean that the thousand owners of these metaphorical weapons are on the
+alert to take advantage of the distressed woman.
+
+Thus the romantic emotions based on medieval ideals gradually lost their
+worth. They were not in relation to the altered facts of life; they had
+become an empty convention which could be turned to very unromantic
+uses. The movement for the emancipation of women was not consciously or
+directly a movement of revolt against an antiquated chivalry. It was
+rather a part of the development of civilization which rendered chivalry
+antique. Medieval romantic love implied in women a weakness in the soil
+of which only a spiritual force could flourish. The betterment of social
+conditions, the subordination of violence to order, the growing respect
+for individual rights, took away the reasons for consecrating weakness
+in women, and created an ever larger field in which women could freely
+seek to rival men, because it is a field in which knowledge and skill
+are of far more importance than muscular strength. The emancipation of
+women has simply been the later and more conscious phase of the process
+by which women have entered into this field and sought their share of
+its rights and its responsibilities.
+
+The woman movement of modern times, properly understood, has thus been
+the effort of women to adapt themselves to the conditions of an orderly
+and peaceful civilization. Education, under the changed conditions, can
+effect what before needed force of arms; responsibility is now demanded
+where before only tutelage was possible. A civilized society in which
+women are ignorant and irresponsible is an anachronism, and, however
+great the wrench with the past might be, it was necessary that women
+should be adjusted to the changing times. The ideal of the weak,
+ignorant, inexperienced woman--the cross between an angel and an idiot,
+as I have elsewhere described her[84]--no longer fulfilled any useful
+purpose. Civilized society furnishes the conditions under which all
+adult persons are socially equal and all are free to give to society the
+best they are capable of.
+
+It was inevitable, but unfortunate, that this movement should have
+sometimes tended to take the form of an attempt on the part of women to
+secure, not merely equality with men, but actual imitation of men. These
+women said that since men had attained mastery in life, captured all the
+best things, and adopted the most successful methods of living, it was
+necessary for women to copy them at every point. That was a specious
+plea which even had in it a certain element of truth. But the fact
+remained that women and men are different, that the difference is based
+in fundamental natural functions, and that to place one sex in exactly
+the same position as the other sex is to deform its outlines and to
+hamper its activities.
+
+From the present point of view we are only concerned with the influence
+of the woman's movement on love. On the traditional conception of
+romantic love inherited from medieval days there can be no doubt that
+this influence has been highly dissolvent. Medieval romantic love, in
+its original form, had been part of a conception of womanhood made up of
+opposites, and all the opposites balanced each other. The medieval man
+laid his homage at the feet of the great lady in the castle hall, but he
+himself lorded it over the wife who drudged in his own home. On his
+knees he gazed up in devotion at the ethereal virgin, but when she
+ceased to be a virgin, he asserted himself by cursing her as a demon
+sent from hell to seduce and torment him. All this was possible because
+the woman was outside the orbit of the man's life, never on the same
+plane, necessarily higher or lower. It became difficult if woman was
+man's equal, absurdly impossible if she was of identical nature with
+him.
+
+The medieval romantic tradition has come down to us so laden with beauty
+and mystery that we are apt to think, as we see it melt away, that human
+achievements are being permanently depreciated. That illusion occurs in
+every age of transition. It was notably so in the eighteenth century,
+which represented a highly important stage in the emancipation of women.
+To some that century seems to have been given up to empty gallantry and
+facile pleasure. Yet it was not only the age in which women for the
+first time succeeded in openly attaining their supreme social
+influence,[85] it was an age of romantic love, and the noble or poignant
+love-stories which have reached us from the records of that period
+surpass those of any other age.
+
+If we believe with Goethe that the religion of the future consists in a
+triple reverence--the reverence for what is above us, the reverence for
+what is below us, and the reverence for our equals[86]--we need not
+grieve overmuch if one form of this reverence, the first, and that which
+Goethe regarded as the earliest and crudest, has lost its exclusive
+claim. Reverence is essential to all romantic love. To bring down the
+Madonna and the Virgin from their pedestals to share with men the common
+responsibilities and duties of life is not to divest them of the claim
+to reverence. It is merely the sign of a change in the form of that
+reverence, a change which heralds a new romantic love.
+
+It would be premature to attempt to define the exact outline of the new
+forms of romantic love, or the precise lineaments of the beings who will
+most ardently evoke that love. In literature, indeed, the ideals of life
+cast their shadow before, and we may surely trace a change in the erotic
+ideals mirrored in literature. The woman whom Dickens idealized in
+_David Copperfield_ is unlike indeed to the series of women of a new
+type introduced by George Meredith, and the modern heroine generally
+exhibits more of the robust, open-eyed and spontaneous qualities of that
+later type than the blind and clinging nature of the amiable simpletons
+of the older type. That the changed conditions of civilization should
+produce new types of womanhood and of love is not surprising, if we
+realize that, even within the ancient chivalrous forms it was possible
+to produce similar robust types when the qualities of a race were
+favourable to them. Spain furnishes a notable illustration. Spanish
+literature from Cervantes and Tirso to Valera and Blasco Ibanez reflects
+a type of woman who stands on the same ground as man and is his equal
+and often his superior on that ground, alike in vigour of body and of
+spirit, acquiring all that she cares to of virility, while losing
+nothing feminine that is of worth.[87] In more than one respect the
+ideal woman of Spain is the ideal woman our civilization now renders
+necessary. The women of the future, Grete Meisel-Hess declares in her
+femininely clever and frank discussion of present-day conditions, _Die
+Sexuelle Krise_, will be full, strong, elementary natures, devoid alike
+of the impulse to destroy or the aptitude to be destroyed. She
+considers, moreover, that so far from romantic love being a thing of the
+past, "love as a form of worship is reserved for the future."[88] In the
+past it has only been found among a few rare souls; in the future world,
+fostered by the finer selection of a conscious eugenics, and a new
+reverence and care for motherhood, we may reasonably hope for a truly
+efficient humanity, the bearers and conservers of the highest human
+emotions. It is in this sense, indeed, that the voices of the greatest
+and most typical leaders of the woman's movement of emancipation to-day
+are heard. Ellen Key, in her _Love and Marriage_, seeks to conciliate
+the cultivation of a free and sacred sexual relationship with the
+worship of the child, as the embodiment of the future race, while Olive
+Schreiner proclaims in her _Woman and Labour_ that the woman of the
+future will walk side by side with man in a higher and deeper
+relationship than has ever been possible before because it will involve
+a new community in activity and insight.
+
+Nor is it alone from the feminine side that these forecasts are made.
+Certainly for the most part love has been cultivated more by women than
+by men. Primacy in the genius of intellect belongs incontestably to men,
+but in the genius of love it has doubtless oftener been achieved by
+women. They have usually understood better than men that in this matter,
+as Goethe insisted, it is the lover and not the beloved who reaps the
+chief fruits of love. "It is better to love, even violently," wrote the
+forsaken Portuguese nun, in her immortal _Letters_, "than merely to be
+loved." He who loses his life here saves it, for it is only in so far as
+he becomes a crucified god that Love wins the sacrifice of human hearts.
+Of late years, by an inevitable reaction, women have sometimes forgotten
+this eternal verity. The women of the twentieth century in their anxiety
+for self-possession and their rightful eagerness to gain positions they
+feel they have been too long excluded from, have perhaps yet failed to
+realize that the women of the eighteenth century, who exerted a sway
+over life that the women of no age before or since have possessed, were,
+above all women, great and heroic lovers, and that those two fundamental
+facts cannot be cut asunder. But this failure, temporary as it is
+doubtless destined to be, will work for good if it is the point of
+departure for a revival among men of the art of love.
+
+Men indeed have here fallen behind women. The old saying, so tediously
+often quoted, concerning love as a "thing apart" in the lives of men
+would scarcely have occurred to a medieval poet of Provence or Florence.
+It is not enough for women to proclaim a new avatar of love if men are
+not ready and eager to learn its art and to practise its discipline. In
+a profoundly suggestive fragment on love, left incomplete at his death
+by the distinguished sociologist Tarde,[89] he suggests that when
+masculine energy dies down in the fields of political ambition and
+commercial gain, as it already has in the field of warfare, the energy
+liberated by greater social organization and cohesion may find scope
+once more in love. For too long a period love, like war and politics and
+commerce, has been chiefly monopolized by the predatory type of man, in
+this field symbolized by the figure of Don Juan. In the future, Tarde
+suggests, the Don Juan type of lover may fall into disrepute, giving
+place to the Virgilian type, for whom love is not a thing apart but a
+form of life embodying its best and highest activities.
+
+When we come upon utterances of this kind we are tempted to think that
+they represent merely the poetic dreams of individuals, standing too far
+ahead of their fellows to possess any significance for men and women in
+general. But it is probable that Ovid, and certain that Dante, set forth
+erotic conceptions that were unintelligible to most of their
+contemporaries, yet they have been immensely influential over the ideas
+and emotions of men in later ages. The poets and prophets of one
+generation are engaged in moulding ideals which will be realized in the
+lives of a subsequent generation; in expressing their own most intimate
+emotions, as it has been truly said, they become the leaders in a long
+file of men and women. Whatever may yet be uncertain and undefined, we
+may assuredly believe that the emotion of love is far too deeply rooted
+in the depth of man's organism and woman's organism ever to be torn out
+or ever to be thrust into a subordinate place. And we may also believe
+that there is no measurable limit to its power of putting forth ever new
+and miraculous flowers. It is recorded that once, in James Hinton's
+presence, the conversation turned on music, and it was suggested that,
+owing to the limited number of musical combinations and the unlimited
+number of musical compositions, a time would come when all music would
+only be a repetition of exhausted harmonies. Hinton remarked that then
+would come a man so inspired by a new spirit that his feeling would be,
+not that _all_ music has been written, but that no _music_ has yet been
+written. It was a memorable saying. In every field that is the perpetual
+proclamation of genius: Behold! I create all things new. And in this
+field of love we can conceive of no age in which to the inspired seer it
+will not be possible to feel: There has yet been no _love_!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[69] See especially Sidney Lee, "Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets,"
+_Quarterly Review_, April, 1909.
+
+[70] Montaigne, _Essais_, Book III, chap. V.
+
+[71] See e.g. Mrs. Fraser, _World's Work and Play_, December, 1906.
+
+[72] A more modern feeling for love and marriage begins to emerge,
+however, at a much earlier period, with Menander and the New Comedy.
+E.F.M. Benecke, in his interesting little book on _Antimachus of
+Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek Poetry_, believes that the
+romantic idea (that is to say, the idea that a woman is a worthy object
+for a man's love, and that such love may well be the chief, if not the
+only, aim of a man's life) had originally been propounded by Antimachus
+at the end of the fifth century B.C. Antimachus, said to have been the
+friend of Plato, had been united to a woman of Lydia (where women, we
+know, occupied a very high position) and her death inspired him to write
+a long poem, _Lyde_, "the first love poem ever addressed by a Greek to
+his wife after death." Only a few lines of this poem survive. But
+Antimachus seems to have greatly influenced Philetas (whom Croiset calls
+"the first of the Alexandrians") and Asclepiades of Samos, tender and
+exquisite poets whom also we only know by a few fragments. Benecke's
+arguments, therefore, however probable, cannot be satisfactorily
+substantiated.
+
+[73] As I have elsewhere pointed out (_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_,
+Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. IX), most modern
+authorities--Friedlaender, Dill, Donaldson, etc.--consider that there was
+no real moral decline in the later Roman Empire; we must not accept the
+pictures presented by satirists, pagan or Christian, as of general
+application.
+
+[74] I have discussed this phase of early Christianity in the sixth
+volume of _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, "Sex in Relation to
+Society," chap. V.
+
+[75] Ulrich von Lichtenstein, in the thirteenth century, is the typical
+example of this chivalrous erotomania. His account of his own adventures
+has been questioned, but Reinhold Becker (_Wahrheit und Dichtung in
+Ulrich von Lichtenstein's Frauendienst_, 1888) considers that, though
+much exaggerated, it is in substance true.
+
+[76] Leon Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, pp. 236-8, 348-50.
+
+[77] The chief source of information on these Courts is Andre le
+Chapelain's _De Arte Amatoria_. Boccaccio made use of this work, though
+without mentioning the author's name, in his own _Dialogo d' Amore_.
+
+[78] A. Meray, _La Vie au Temps des Cours d'Amour_, 1876.
+
+[79] Remy de Gourmont, _Dante, Beatrice et la Poesie Amoureuse_, 1907, p.
+32.
+
+[80] Niphus (born about 1473), a physician and philosopher of the Papal
+Court, wrote in his _De Pulchro_, sometimes considered the first modern
+treatise on aesthetics, a minute description of Joan of Aragon, whose
+portrait, traditionally ascribed to Raphael, is in the Louvre. The
+famous work of Firenzuola (born 1493) entitled _Dialogo delle Bellezze
+delle Donne_, was published in 1548. It has been translated into English
+by Clara Bell under the title _On the Beauty of Women_.
+
+[81] See, for example, Edith Coulson James, _Bologna: Its History,
+Antiquities and Art_, 1911.
+
+[82] See, for an interesting account of the position of women in the
+Italian Renaissance, Burckhardt, _Die Kultur der Renaissance_, Part V,
+ch. VI.
+
+[83] I may quote the following remarks from a communication I have
+received from a University man: "I am prepared to show women, and to
+expect from them, precisely the same amount of consideration as I show
+to or expect from other men, but I rather resent being expected to make
+a preferential difference. For example, in a crowded tram I see no more
+adequate reason for giving up my seat to a young and healthy girl than
+for expecting her to give up hers to me; I would do so cheerfully for an
+old person of either sex on the ground that I am probably better fit to
+stand the fatigue of 'strap-hanging,' and because I recognize that some
+respect is due to age; but if persons get into over-full vehicles they
+should not expect first-comers to turn out of their seats merely because
+they happen to be men." This writer acknowledges, indeed, that he is not
+very sensitive to the erotic attraction of women, but it is probable
+that the changing status of women will render the attitude he expresses
+more and more common among men.
+
+[84] _Ante_, p. 58.
+
+[85] "Women then were queens," as Taine writes (_L'Ancien Regime_, Vol.
+I, p. 219), and he gives references to illustrate the point.
+
+[86] Goethe, _Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_, Book II, ch. I.
+
+[87] Havelock Ellis, _The Soul of Spain_, chap. III, "The Women of
+Spain."
+
+[88] Grete Meisel-Hess, _Die Sexuelle Krise_, 1909, pp. 148, 168.
+
+[89] "La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_,
+January, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A FALLING BIRTH-RATE
+
+     The Fall of the Birth-rate in Europe generally--In England--In
+     Germany--In the United States--In Canada--In Australasia--"Crude"
+     Birth-rate and "Corrected" Birth-rate--The Connection between High
+     Birth-rate and High Death-rate--"Natural Increase" measured by
+     Excess of Births over Deaths--The Measure of National
+     Well-being--The Example of Russia--Japan--China--The Necessity of
+     viewing the Question from a wide Standpoint--The Prevalence of
+     Neo-Malthusian Methods--Influence of the Roman Catholic
+     Church--Other Influences lowering the Birth-rate--Influence of
+     Postponement of Marriage--Relation of the Birth-rate to Commercial
+     and Industrial Activity--Illustrated by Russia, Hungary, and
+     Australia--The Relation of Prosperity to Fertility--The Social
+     Capillarity Theory--Divergence of the Birth-rate and the
+     Marriage-rate--Marriage-rate and the Movement of Prices--Prosperity
+     and Civilization--Fertility among Savages--The lesser Fertility of
+     Urban Populations--Effect of Urbanization on Physical
+     Development--Why Prosperity fails permanently to increase
+     Fertility--Prosperity creates Restraints on Fertility--The Process
+     of Civilization involves Decreased Fertility--In this Respect it is
+     a Continuation of Zoological Evolution--Large Families as a Stigma
+     of Degeneration--The Decreased Fertility of Civilization a General
+     Historical Fact--The Ideals of Civilization to-day--The East and
+     the West.
+
+
+I
+
+One of the most interesting phenomena of the early part of the
+nineteenth century was the immense expansion of the people of the
+so-called "Anglo-Saxon" race.[90] This expansion coincided with that
+development of industrial and commercial activity which made the
+English people, who had previously impressed foreigners as somewhat lazy
+and drunken, into "a nation of shopkeepers." It also coincided with the
+end of the supremacy of France in Europe; France had succeeded to Spain
+as the leading power in Europe, and had on the whole maintained a
+supremacy which Napoleon brought to a climax, and, in doing so, crushed.
+The growing prosperity of England represented an entirely new wave of
+influence, mainly economic in character, but not less forceful than that
+of Spain and of France had been; and this prosperity was reflected in
+the growth of the nation. The greater part of the Victorian period was
+marked by this expansion of population, which reached its highest point
+in the early years of the second half of that period. While the
+population of England was thus increasing with ever greater rapidity at
+home, at the same time the English-speaking peoples overspread the whole
+of North America, and colonized the fertile fringe of Australia. It was,
+on a still larger scale, a phenomenon similar to that which had occurred
+three hundred years earlier, when Spain covered the world and founded an
+empire upon which, as Spaniards proudly boasted, the sun never set.
+
+When now, a century later, we survey the situation, not only has
+industrial and commercial activity ceased to be a special attribute of
+the Anglo-Saxons--since the Germans have here shown themselves to
+possess qualities of the highest order, and other countries are rapidly
+rivalling them--but within the limits of the English-speaking world
+itself the English have found formidable rivals in the Americans.
+Underlying, however, even these great changes there is a still more
+fundamental fact to be considered, a fact which affects all branches of
+the race; and that is, that the Anglo-Saxons have passed their great
+epoch of expansion and that their birth-rate is rapidly falling to a
+normal level, that is to say, to the average level of the world in
+general. Disregarding the extremely important point of the death-rate in
+its bearing on the birth-rate, England is seen to possess a medium
+birth-rate among European countries, not among the countries with a high
+birth-rate, like Russia, Roumania, or Bulgaria, nor among those with a
+low birth-rate, like Sweden, Belgium, and France. It was in this last
+country that the movement of decline in the European birth-rate began,
+and though the rate of decline has in France now become very gradual the
+long period through which it has extended has placed France in the
+lowest place, so far as Europe is concerned. In 1908 out of a total of
+over 11,000,000 French families, in nearly 2,000,000 there were no
+children, and in nearly 3,000,000 there was only one child.[91] The
+general decline in the European birth-rate, during the years 1901-1905,
+was only slight in Switzerland, Ireland and Spain, while it was large
+not only in France, but in Italy, Servia, England and Wales, and
+especially in Hungary (while, outside Europe, it was largest of all in
+South Australia). Since 1905 there has been a further general decline
+throughout Europe, only excepting Ireland, Bulgaria, and Roumania. In
+Prussia in 1881-1885 the birth-rate was 37.4; in 1909 it was only 31.8;
+while in the German Empire as a whole it is throughout lower than in
+Prussia, though somewhat higher than in England. In Austria and Spain
+alone of European countries during the twenty years between 1881 and
+1901 was there any tendency for the fertility of wives to increase. In
+all other countries there was a decrease, greatest in Belgium, next
+greatest in France, then in England.[92]
+
+If we consider the question, not on the basis of the crude birth-rate,
+but of the "corrected" birth-rate, with more exact reference to the
+child-producing elements in the population, as is done by Newsholme and
+Stevenson,[93] we find that the greatest decline has taken place in New
+South Wales, then in Victoria, Belgium, and Saxony, followed by New
+Zealand. But France, the German Empire generally, England, and Denmark
+all show a considerable fall; while Sweden and Norway show a fall,
+which, especially in Norway, is slight. Norway illustrates the
+difference between the "crude" and the "corrected" birth-rate; the crude
+birth-rate is lower than that of Saxony, but the corrected birth-rate is
+higher. Ireland, again, has a very low crude birth-rate, but the
+population of child-bearing age has a high birth-rate, considerably
+higher than that of England.
+
+Thus while forty years ago it was usual for both the English and the
+Germans to contemplate, perhaps with some complacency, the spectacle of
+the falling birth-rate in France as compared with the high birth-rate in
+England and Germany, we are now seen to be all marching along the same
+road. In 1876 the English birth-rate reached its maximum of 36.3 per
+thousand; while in France the birth-rate now appears almost to have
+reached its lowest level. Germany, like England, now also has a falling
+birth-rate, though it will take some time to sink to the English level.
+The birth-rate for Germany generally is still much higher than for
+England generally, but urbanization in Germany seems to have a greater
+influence than in England in lowering the birth-rate, and for many years
+past the birth-rate of Berlin has been lower than that of London. The
+birth-rate in Germany has long been steadily falling, and the increase
+in the population of Germany is due to a concomitant steady fall in the
+death-rate, a fall to which there are inevitable natural limits.[94]
+Moreover, as Flux has shown,[95] urbanization is going on at a greater
+speed in Germany than in England, and practically the entire natural
+increase of the German population for a quarter of a century has drifted
+into the towns. But the death-rate of the young in German towns is far
+higher than in English towns, and the first five years of life in
+Germany produce as much mortality as the first twenty-five years in
+England.[96] So that a thousand children born in England add far more to
+the population than a thousand children born in Germany. The average
+number of children per family in German towns is less than in English
+towns of the same size. These results, reached by Flux, suggest that in
+a few years' time the rate of increase in the German population will be
+lower than it is at present in England. In England, since 1876, the
+decline has been so rapid as to be equal to 20 per cent within a
+generation, and in some of the large towns to 40 per cent. Against this
+there has, indeed, to be set the general tendency during recent years
+for the death-rate to fall also. But this saving of life has until
+lately been effected mainly at the higher ages; there has been but
+little saving of the lives of infants, upon whom the death-rate falls
+most heavily. Accompanying this falling off in the number of children
+produced there has often been, as we might expect, a fall in the
+marriage-rate; but this has been less regular, and of late the
+marriage-rate has sometimes been high when the birth-rate was low.[97]
+There has, however, been a steady postponement of the average age at
+which marriage takes place. On the whole, the main fact that emerges is,
+that nowadays in England we marry less and have fewer children.
+
+This is now a familiar fact, and perhaps it should not excite very great
+surprise. England is an old and fairly stable country, and it may be
+said that it would be unreasonable to expect its population to retain
+indefinitely a high degree of fertility. Whether this is so or not,
+there is the further consideration to be borne in mind that, during
+nearly the whole of the Victorian period, emigration of the most
+vigorous stocks took place to a very marked extent. It is not difficult
+to see the influence of such emigration in connection with the greatly
+diminished population of Ireland, as compared with Scotland; and we may
+reasonably infer that it has had its part in the decreased fertility of
+the United Kingdom generally.
+
+But we encounter the remarkable fact that this decreased fertility of
+the Anglo-Saxon populations is not confined to the United Kingdom. It is
+even more pronounced in those very lands to which so many thousand
+shiploads of our best people have been taken. In the United States the
+question has attracted much attention, and there is little disagreement
+among careful observers as to the main facts of the situation. The
+question is, indeed, somewhat difficult for two reasons: the
+registration of births is not generally compulsory in the United States,
+and, even when general facts are ascertained, it is still necessary to
+distinguish between the different classes of the population. Our
+conclusions must therefore be based, not on the course of a general
+birth-rate, but on the most reliable calculations, based on the census
+returns and on the average size of the family at different periods, and
+among different classes of the population. A bulletin of the Census
+Bureau of the United States since 1860 was prepared a few years ago by
+Walter F. Wilcox, of Cornell University. It determines from the data in
+the census office the proportion of children to the number of women of
+child-bearing age in the country at different periods, and shows that
+there has been, on the whole, a fall from the beginning to the end of
+the last century. Children under ten years of age constituted one-third
+of the population at the beginning of the century, and at the end less
+than one-fourth of the total population. Between 1850 and 1860 the
+proportion of children to women between fifteen and forty-nine years of
+age increased, but since 1860 it has constantly decreased. In 1860 the
+number of children under five years of age to one thousand women between
+fifteen and forty-nine years of age was 634; in 1900 it was only 474.
+The proportion of children to potential mothers in 1900 was only
+three-fourths as large as in 1860. In the north and west of the United
+States the decline has been regular, while in the south the change has
+been less regular and the decline less marked. A comparison is made
+between the proportion of children in the foreign-born population and in
+the American. The former was 710 to the latter's 462. In the coloured
+population the proportion of children is greater than in the
+corresponding white population.
+
+There can be no doubt whatever that, from the eighteenth century to the
+twentieth, there has been a steady decrease in the size of the American
+family. Franklin, in the eighteenth century, estimated that the average
+number of children to a married couple was eight; genealogical records
+show that, while in the seventeenth century it was nearly seven, it was
+over six at the end of the eighteenth century. Since then, as Engelmann
+and others have shown, there has been a steady decrease in the size of
+the family; in the earlier years of the nineteenth century there were
+between four and five children to each marriage, while by the end of the
+century the number of children had fallen to between four and but little
+over one. Engelmann finds that there is but a very trifling difference
+in this respect between the upper and the lower social classes; the
+average for the labouring classes at St. Louis he finds to be about two,
+and for the higher classes a little less. It is among the foreign-born
+population, and among those of foreign parents, that the larger families
+are found; thus Kuczynski, by analysing the census, finds that in
+Massachusetts the average number of children to each married woman among
+the American-born of all social classes is 2.7, while among the
+foreign-born of all social classes it is 4.5. Moreover, sterility is
+much more frequent among American women than among foreign women in
+America. Among various groups in Boston, St. Louis, and elsewhere it
+varies between 20 and 23 per cent, and in some smaller groups is even
+considerably higher, while among the foreign-born it is only 13 per
+cent. The net result is that the general natality of the United States
+at the present day is about equal to that of France, but that, when we
+analyse the facts, the fertility of the old native-born American
+population of mainly Anglo-Saxon origin is found to be lower than that
+of France. This element, therefore, is rapidly dwindling away in the
+United States. The general level of the birth-rate is maintained by the
+foreign immigrants, who in many States (as in New York, Massachusetts,
+Michigan, and Minnesota) constitute the majority of the population, and
+altogether number considerably over ten millions. Among these immigrants
+the Anglo-Saxon element is now very small. Indeed, the whole North
+European contingent among the American immigrants, which was formerly
+nearly 90 per cent of the whole, has since 1890 steadily sunk, and the
+majority of the immigrants now belong to the Central, Southern, and
+Eastern European stocks. The racial, and, it is probable, the
+psychological characteristics of the people of the United States are
+thus beginning to undergo, not merely modification, but, it may almost
+be said, a revolution. If, as we may well believe, the influence of the
+original North-European racial elements--Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, and
+French--still continues to persist in the United States, it can only be
+the influence of a small aristocracy, maintained by intellect and
+character.
+
+When we turn to Canada, a land that is imposing, less by the actual size
+of the population than by the vast tracts it possesses for its
+development, the question has not yet been fully investigated; but such
+facts and official publications as I have been able to obtain all
+indicate that, in this matter, the English Canadians approximate to the
+native Americans. In the United States it is the European immigrants who
+maintain the general population at a productive level, and thus
+indirectly oust the Anglo-Saxon element. In Canada the chief dividing
+line is between the Anglo-Saxon element and the old French element in
+the population; and here it is the French Canadians who are gaining
+ground on the English elements in the population. Engelmann ascertained
+that an examination of one thousand families in the records of Quebec
+Life Assurance companies shows 9.2 children on the average to the French
+Canadian child-bearing woman. It is found also from the records of the
+French Canadian Society for Artisans that 500 families from town
+districts, taken at random, show 9.06 children per family, and 500
+families from country districts show 9.33 children per family.[98] It
+must be remembered that this average, which is even higher than that
+found in Russia, the most prolific of European countries, is not quite
+the same as the number of children per marriage; but it indicates very
+great fertility, while it may be noted also that sterile marriages are
+comparatively rare among French Canadians, although among English
+Canadians the proportion of childless families is found to be almost
+exactly the same (nearly 20 per cent) as among the infertile Americans
+of Massachusetts. The annual Reports of the Registrar-General of
+Ontario, a province which is predominantly of Anglo-Saxon origin, show
+that the average birth-rate during the decade 1899-1908 has been 22.3
+per 1000; it must be noted, however, that there has been a gradual rise
+from a rate of 19.4 in 1899 to one of 25.6 in 1908. The report of Mr.
+Prevost, the recorder of vital statistics for the predominantly French
+province of Quebec, shows much higher rates. The general birth-rate for
+the province for the year 1901 is high, being 35.2, much higher than
+that of England, and nearly as high as that of Germany. If, however, we
+consider the thirty-five counties of the province in which the
+population is almost exclusively French Canadian, we find that 35
+represents almost the lowest average; as many as twenty-two of these
+counties show a rate of over forty, and one (Yamaska) reached 51.52. It
+is very evident that, in order to pull down these high birth-rates to
+the general level of 35.2, we have to assume a much lower birth-rate
+among the counties in which the English element is considerable. It must
+be remembered, however, that infant mortality is high among the French
+Canadians. The French Canadian Catholic, it has been said, would shrink
+in horror from such an unnatural crime as limiting his family before
+birth, but he sees nothing repugnant to God or man in allowing the
+surplus excess of children to die after birth. In this he is at one with
+the Chinese. Dr. E.P. La Chapelle, the President of the Provincial
+Conseil d'Hygiene, wrote some years ago to Professor Davidson, in
+answer to inquiries: "I do not believe it would be correct to ascribe
+the phenomenon to any single cause, and I am convinced it is the result
+of several factors. For one, the first cause of the heavy infant
+mortality among the French Canadians is their very heavy natality, each
+family being composed of an average of twelve children, and instances of
+families of fifteen, eighteen, and even twenty-four children being not
+uncommon. The super-abundance of children renders, I think, parents less
+careful about them."[99]
+
+The net result is a slight increase on the part of the French Canadians,
+as compared with the English element in the province, as becomes clear
+when we compare the proportion of the population of English, Scotch,
+Irish, and all other nationalities with the total population of the
+province, now and thirty years ago. In 1871 it was 21 per cent; in 1901
+it was only 19 per cent. The decrease of the Anglo-Saxons may here
+appear to be small, though it must be remembered that thirty years is
+but a short period in the history of a nation; but it is significant
+when we bear in mind that the English element has here been constantly
+reinforced by immigrants (who, as the experience of the United States
+shows, are by no means an infertile class), and that such reinforcement
+cannot be expected to continue in the future.
+
+From Australia comes the same story of the decline of Anglo-Saxon
+fertility. In nearly all the Australian colonies the highest birth-rate
+was reached some twenty or thirty years ago. Since then there has been a
+more or less steady fall, accompanied by a marked decrease in the number
+of marriages, and a tendency to postpone the age of marriage. One
+colony, Western Australia, has a birth-rate which sometimes fluctuates
+above that of England; but it is the youngest of the colonies, and, at
+present, that with the smallest population, largely composed of recent
+immigrants. We may be quite sure that its comparatively high birth-rate
+is merely a temporary phenomenon. A very notable fact about the
+Australian birth-rate is the extreme rapidity with which the fall has
+taken place; thus Queensland, in 1890, had a birth-rate of 37, but by
+1899 the rate had steadily fallen to 27, and the Victorian rate during
+the same period fell from 33 to 26 per thousand. In New South Wales, the
+state of things has been carefully studied by Mr. Coghlan, formerly
+Government statistician of New South Wales, who comes to the conclusion
+that the proportion of fertile marriages is declining, and that (as in
+the United States) it is the recent European immigrants only who show a
+comparatively high birth-rate. Until 1880, Coghlan states, the
+Australasian birth-rate was about 38 per thousand, and the average
+number of children to the family about 5.4. In 1901 the birth-rate had
+already fallen to 27.6 and the size of the family to 3.6 children.[100] It
+should be added that in all the Australasian colonies the birth-rate
+reached its lowest point some years ago, and may now be regarded as in a
+state of normal equipoise with a slight tendency to rise. The case of
+New Zealand is specially interesting. New Zealand once had the highest
+birth-rate of all the Australasian colonies; it is without doubt the
+most advanced of all in social and legislative matters; a variety of
+social reforms, which other countries are struggling for, are, in New
+Zealand, firmly established. Its prosperity is shown by the fact that it
+has the lowest death-rate of any country in the world, only 10.2 per
+thousand, as against 24 in Austria and 22 in France; it cannot even be
+said that the marriage-rate is very low, for it is scarcely lower than
+that of Austria, where the birth-rate is high. Yet the birth-rate in New
+Zealand fell as the social prosperity of the country rose, reaching its
+lowest point in 1899.
+
+We thus find that from the three great Anglo-Saxon centres of the
+world--north, west, and south--the same story comes. We need not
+consider the case of South Africa, for it is well recognized that there
+the English constitute a comparatively infertile fringe, mostly confined
+to the towns, while the earlier Dutch element is far more prolific and
+firmly rooted in the soil. The position of the Dutch there is much the
+same as that of the French in Canada.
+
+Thus we find that among highly civilized races generally, and not least
+among the English-speaking peoples who were once regarded as peculiarly
+prolific, a great diminution of reproductive activity has taken place
+during the past forty years, and is in some countries still taking
+place. But before we proceed to consider its significance it may be well
+to look a little more closely at our facts.
+
+We have seen that the "crude" birth-rate is not an altogether reliable
+index of the reproductive energy of a nation. Various circumstances may
+cause an excess or a defect of persons of reproductive age in a
+community, and unless we allow for these variations, we cannot estimate
+whether that community is exercising its reproductive powers in a fairly
+normal manner. But there is another and still more important
+consideration always to be borne in mind before we can attach any
+far-reaching significance even to the corrected birth-rate. We have,
+that is, to bear in mind that a high or a low birth-rate has no meaning,
+so far as the growth of a nation is concerned, unless it is considered
+in relation to the death-rate. The natural increase of a nation is not
+the result of its birth-rate, but of its birth-rate minus its
+death-rate. A low birth-rate with a low death-rate (as in Australasia)
+produces a far greater natural increase than a low birth-rate with a
+rather high death-rate (as in France), and may even produce as great an
+increase as a very high birth-rate with a very high death-rate (as in
+Russia). Many worthy people might have been spared the utterance of
+foolish and mischievous jeremiads, if, instead of being content with a
+hasty glance at the crude birth-rate, they had paused to consider this
+fairly obvious fact.
+
+There is an intimate connection between a high birth-rate and a high
+death-rate, between a low birth-rate and a low death-rate. It may not,
+indeed, be an absolutely necessary connection, and is not the outcome of
+any mysterious "law." But it usually exists, and the reasons are fairly
+obvious. We have already encountered the statement from an official
+Canadian source that the large infantile mortality of French Canadian
+families is due to parental carelessness, consequent, no doubt, not only
+on the dimly felt consciousness that children are cheap, but much more
+on inability to cope with the manifold cares involved by a large family.
+Among the English working class every doctor knows the thinly veiled
+indifference or even repulsion with which women view the seemingly
+endless stream of babies they give birth to. Among the Berlin working
+class, also, Hamburger's important investigation has indicated how
+serious a cause of infantile mortality this may be. By taking 374
+working-class women, who had been married twenty years and conceived
+3183 times, he found that the net result in surviving children was
+relatively more than twice as great among the women who had only had one
+child when compared to the women who had had fifteen children. The women
+with only one child brought 76.47 per cent of these children to
+maturity; the women who had produced fifteen children could only bring
+30.66 of them to maturity; the intermediate groups showed a gradual fall
+to this low level, the only exception being that the mothers of three
+children were somewhat more successful than the mothers of two children.
+Among well-to-do mothers Hamburger found no such marked contrast
+between the net product of large families as compared to small
+families.[101]
+
+It we look at the matter from a wider standpoint we can have no
+difficulty in realizing that a community which is reproducing itself
+rapidly must always be in an unstable state of disorganization highly
+unfavourable to the welfare of its members, and especially of the
+new-comers; a community which is reproducing itself slowly is in a
+stable and organized condition which permits it to undertake adequately
+the guardianship of its new members. The high infantile mortality of the
+community with a high birth-rate merely means that that community is
+unconsciously making a violent and murderous effort to attain to the
+more stable and organized level of the country with a low birth-rate.
+
+The English Registrar-General in 1907 estimated the natural increase by
+excess of births over deaths as exceptionally high (higher than that of
+England) in several Australian Colonies, in the Balkan States, in
+Russia, the Netherlands, the German Empire, Denmark, and Norway, though
+in the majority of these lands the birth-rate is very low. On the other
+hand, the natural increase by excess of births over deaths is below the
+English rate in Austria, in Hungary, in Japan, in Italy, in Sweden,
+Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, and Ontario, though in the majority of
+these lands the birth-rate is high, and in some very high.[102] In most
+cases it is the high death-rate in infancy and childhood which exercises
+the counterbalancing influence against a high birth-rate; the death-rate
+in adult life may be quite moderate. And with few exceptions we find
+that a high infantile mortality accompanies a high birth-rate, while a
+low infantile mortality accompanies a low birth-rate. It is evident,
+however, that even an extremely high infantile mortality is no
+impediment to a large natural increase provided the birth-rate is
+extremely high to a more than corresponding extent. But a natural
+increase thus achieved seems to be accompanied by far more disastrous
+social conditions than when an equally large increase is achieved by a
+low infantile death-rate working in association with a low birth-rate.
+Thus in Norway on one side of the world and in Australasia on the
+opposite side we see a large natural increase effected not by a profuse
+expenditure of mostly wasted births but by an economy in deaths, and the
+increase thus effected is accompanied by highly favourable social
+conditions, and great national vigour. Norway appears to have the lowest
+infantile death-rate in Europe.[103]
+
+Rubin has suggested that the fairest measure of a country's well-being,
+as regards its actual vitality--without direct regard, of course, to the
+country's economic prosperity--is the square of the death-rate divided
+by the birth-rate.[104] Sir J.A. Baines, who accepts this test, states
+that Argentina with its high birth-rate and low death-rate stands even
+above Norway, and Australia still higher, while the climax for the world
+is attained by New Zealand, which has attained "the nearest approach to
+immortality yet on record."[105] The order of descending well-being in
+Europe is thus represented (at the year 1900) by Norway, Sweden,
+Denmark, Holland, England, Scotland, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland,
+Germany, Ireland, Portugal, Italy, Austria, France, and Spain.
+
+On the other hand, in all the countries, probably without exception, in
+which a large natural increase is effected by the efforts of an immense
+birth-rate to overcome an enormous death-rate the end is only effected
+with much friction and misery, and the process is accompanied by a
+general retardation of civilization.
+
+"The greater the number of children," as Hamburger puts it, "the greater
+the cost of each survivor to the family and to the State."
+
+Russia presents not only the most typical but the most stupendous and
+appalling example of this process. Thirty years ago the mortality of
+infants under one year was three times that of Norway, nearly double
+that of England. More recently (1896-1900) the infantile mortality in
+Russia has fallen from 313 to 261, but as that of the other countries
+has also fallen it still preserves nearly the same relative position,
+remaining the highest in Europe, while if we compare it with countries
+outside Europe we find it is considerably more than four times greater
+than that of South Australia. In one town in the government of Perm,
+some years ago if not still, the mortality of infants under one year
+regularly reached 45 per cent, and the deaths of children under five
+years constituted half the total mortality. This is abnormally high even
+for Russia, but for all Russia it was found that of the boys born in a
+single year during the second half of the last century only 50 per cent
+reached their twenty-first year, and even of these only 37.6 per cent
+were fit for military service. It is estimated that there die in Russia
+15 per thousand more individuals than among the same number in England;
+this excess mortality represents a loss of 1,650,000 lives to the State
+every year.[106]
+
+Thus Russia has the highest birth-rate and at the same time the highest
+death-rate. The large countries which, after Russia, have the highest
+infantile mortality are Austria, Hungary, Prussia, Spain, Italy, and
+Japan; all these, as we should expect, have a somewhat high birth-rate.
+
+The case of Japan is interesting as that of a vigorous young Eastern
+nation, which has assimilated Western ways and is encountering the evils
+which come of those ways. Japan is certainly worthy of all our
+admiration for the skill and vigour with which it has affirmed its young
+nationality along Western lines. But when the vital statistics of Japan
+are vaguely referred to either as a model for our imitation or as a
+threatening peril to us, we may do well to look into the matter a little
+more closely. The infantile mortality of Japan (1908) is 157, a very
+high figure, 50 per cent higher than that of England, much more than
+double that of New Zealand, or South Australia. Moreover, it has rapidly
+risen during the last ten years. The birth-rate of Japan in 1901-2 was
+high (36), though it has since fallen to the level of ten years ago. But
+the death-rate has risen concomitantly (to over 24 per 1000), and has
+continued to rise notwithstanding the slight decline in the birth-rate.
+We see here a tendency to the sinister combination of a falling
+birth-rate with a rising death-rate.[107] It is obvious that such a
+tendency, if continued, will furnish a serious problem to Japanese
+social reformers, and at the same time make it impossible for Western
+alarmists to regard the rise of Japan as a menace to the world.
+
+It is behind China that these alarmists, when driven from every other
+position, finally entrench themselves. "The ultimate future of these
+islands may be to the Chinese," incautiously exclaims Mr. Sidney Webb,
+who on many subjects, unconnected with China, speaks with authority. The
+knowledge of the vital statistics of China possessed by our alarmists is
+vague to the most extreme degree, but as the knowledge of all of us is
+scarcely less vague, they assume that their position is fairly safe.
+That, however, is an altogether questionable assumption. It seems to be
+quite true--though in the absence of exact statistics it may not be
+certain--that the birth-rate in China is very high. But it is quite
+certain that the infantile death-rate is extremely high. "Out of ten
+children born among us, three, normally the weakest three, will fail to
+grow up: out of ten children born in China these weakest three will die,
+and probably five more besides," writes Professor Ross, who is
+intimately acquainted with Chinese conditions, and has closely
+questioned thirty-three physicians practising in various parts of
+China.[108] Matignon, a French physician familiar with China, states that
+it is the custom for a woman to suckle her child for at least three
+years; should pregnancy occur during this period, it is usual, and quite
+legal, to procure abortion. Infants brought up by hand are fed on
+rice-flour and water, and consequently they nearly all die.[109]
+
+Putting aside altogether the question of infanticide, such a state of
+things is far from incredible when we remember the extremely insanitary
+state of China, the superstitions that flourish unchecked, and the
+famines, floods, and pestilences that devastate the country. It would
+appear probable that when vital statistics are introduced into China
+they will reveal a condition of things very similar to that we find in
+Russia, but in a more marked degree. No doubt it is a state of things
+which will be remedied. It is a not unreasonable assumption, supported
+by many indications, that China will follow Japan in the adoption of
+Western methods of civilization.[110] These methods, as we know, involve
+in the end a low birth-rate with a general tendency to a lower
+death-rate. Neither in the near nor in the remote future, under present
+conditions or under probable future conditions, is there any reason for
+imagining that the Chinese are likely to replace the Europeans in
+Europe.[111]
+
+This preliminary survey of the ground may enable us to realize that not
+only must we be cautious in attaching importance to the crude birth-rate
+until it is corrected, but that even as usually corrected the birth-rate
+can give us no clue at all to natural increase because there is a marked
+tendency for the birth-rate and the infantile death-rate to rise or sink
+together. Moreover, it is evident that we have also to realize that from
+the point of view of society and civilization there is a vast difference
+between the natural increase which is achieved by the effort of an
+enormously high birth-rate to overcome an almost correspondingly high
+death-rate and the natural increase which is attained by the dominance
+of a low birth-rate over a still lower death-rate.
+
+Having thus cleared the ground, we may proceed to attempt the
+interpretation of the declining birth-rate which marks civilization, and
+to discuss its significance.
+
+
+II
+
+It must be admitted that it is not usual to consider the question of the
+declining birth-rate from a broad or scientific standpoint. As we have
+seen, no attempt is usually made to correct the crude birth-rate; still
+more rarely is it pointed out that we cannot consider the significance
+of a falling birth-rate apart from the question of the death-rate, and
+that the net increase or decrease in a nation can only be judged by
+taking both these factors into account. It is scarcely necessary to add,
+in view of so superficial a way of looking at the problem, that we
+hardly ever find any attempt to deal with the more fundamental question
+of the meaning of a low birth-rate, and the problematical character of
+the advantages of rapid multiplication. The whole question is usually
+left to the ignorant preachers of the gospel of brute force, would-be
+patriots who desire their own country to increase at the cost of all
+other countries, not merely in ignorance of the fact that the crude
+birth-rate is not the index of increase, but reckless of the effect
+their desire, if fulfilled, would have upon all the higher and finer
+ends of living.
+
+When the question is thus narrowly and ignorantly considered, it is
+usual to account for the decreased birth-rate, the smaller average
+families, and the tendency to postpone the age of marriage, as due
+mainly to a love of luxury and vice, combined with a newly acquired
+acquaintance with Neo-Malthusian methods,[112] which must be combated, and
+may successfully be combated, by inculcating, as a moral and patriotic
+duty, the necessity of marrying early and procreating large families.[113]
+In France, the campaign against the religious Orders in their
+educational capacity, while doubtless largely directed against
+educational inefficiency, was also supported by the feeling that such
+education is not on the side of family life; and Arsene Dumont, one of
+the most vigorous champions of a strenuously active policy for
+increasing the birth-rate, openly protested against allowing any place
+as teachers to priests, monks, and nuns, whose direct and indirect
+influence must degrade the conception of sex and its duties while
+exalting the place of celibacy. In the United States, also, Engelmann,
+who, as a gynaecologist, was able to see this process from behind the
+scenes, urged his fellow-countrymen "to stay the dangerous and criminal
+practices which are the main determining factors of decreasing
+fecundity, and which deprive women of health, the family of its highest
+blessings, and the nation of its staunchest support."[114]
+
+We must, however, look at these phenomena a little more broadly, and
+bring them into relation with other series of phenomena. It is almost
+beyond dispute that a voluntary restriction of the number of offspring
+by Neo-Malthusian practices is at least one of the chief methods by
+which the birth-rate has been lowered. It may not indeed be--and
+probably, as we shall see, is not--the only method. It has even been
+denied that the prevalence of Neo-Malthusian practices counts at all.[115]
+Thus while Coghlan, the Government Statistician of New South Wales,
+concludes that the decline in the birth-rate in the Australian
+Commonwealth was due to "the art of applying artificial checks to
+conception," McLean, the Government Statistician of Victoria, concludes
+that it was "due mainly to natural causes." [116] He points out that when
+the birth-rate in Australia, half a century ago, was nearly 43 per 1000,
+the population consisted chiefly of men and women at the reproductive
+period of life, and that since then the proportion of persons at these
+ages has declined, leading necessarily to a decline in the crude
+birth-rate. If we compare the birth-rate of communities among women of
+the same age-periods, McLean argues, we may obtain results quite
+different from the crude birth-rate. Thus the crude birth-rate of
+Buda-Pesth is much higher than that of New South Wales, but if we
+ascertain the birth-rate of married women at different age-periods (15
+to 20, 20 to 25, etc.) the New South Wales birth-rate is higher for
+every age-period than that of Buda-Pesth. McLean considers that in young
+communities with many vigorous immigrants the population is normally
+more prolific than in older and more settled communities, and that
+hardships and financial depression still more depress the birth-rate. He
+further emphasizes the important relationship, which we must never lose
+sight of in this connection, between a high birth-rate and a high
+death-rate, especially a high infantile death-rate, and he believes,
+indeed, that "the solution of the problem of the general decline in the
+birth-rate throughout all civilized communities lies in the preservation
+of human life." The mechanism of the connection would be, he maintains,
+that prolonged suckling in the case of living children increases the
+intervals between childbearing. As we have seen, there is a tendency,
+though not a rigid and invariable necessity,[117] for a high birth-rate to
+be associated with a high infantile death-rate, and a low birth-rate
+with a low infantile death-rate. Thus in Victoria, we have the striking
+fact that while the birth-rate has declined 24 per cent the infantile
+death-rate has declined approximately to the still greater extent of 27
+per cent.
+
+No doubt the chief cause of the reduction of the birth-rate has been its
+voluntary restriction by preventive methods due to the growth of
+intelligence, knowledge, and foresight. In all the countries where a
+marked decline in the birth-rate has occurred there is good reason to
+believe that Neo-Malthusian methods are generally known and practised.
+So far as England is concerned this is certainly the case. A few years
+ago Mr. Sidney Webb made inquiries among middle-class people in all
+parts of the country, and found that in 316 marriages 242 were thus
+limited and only 74 unlimited, while for the ten years 1890-9 out of 120
+marriages 107 were limited and only 13 unlimited, but as five of these
+13 were childless there were only 8 unlimited fertile marriages out of
+120. As to the causes assigned for limiting the number of children, in
+73 out of 128 cases in which particulars were given under this head the
+poverty of the parents in relation to their standard of comfort was a
+factor; sexual ill-health--that is, generally, the disturbing effect of
+child-bearing--in 24; and other forms of ill-health of the parents in 38
+cases; in 24 cases the disinclination of the wife was a factor, and the
+death of a parent had in 8 cases terminated the marriage.[118] In the
+skilled artisan class there is also good reason to believe that the
+voluntary limitation of families is constantly becoming more usual, and
+the statistics of benefit societies show a marked decline in the
+fertility of superior working-class people during recent years; thus it
+is stated by Sidney Webb that the Hearts of Oak Friendly Society paid
+benefits on child-birth to 2472 per 10,000 members in 1880; by 1904 the
+proportion had fallen to 1165 per 10,000, a much greater fall than
+occurred in England generally.
+
+The voluntary adoption of preventive precautions may not be, however,
+the only method by which the birth-rate has declined; we may have also
+to recognize a concomitant physiological sterility, induced by delayed
+marriage and its various consequences; we have also to recognize
+pathological sterility due to the impaired vitality and greater
+liability to venereal disease of an increasingly urban life; and we may
+have to recognize that stocks differ from one another in fertility.
+
+The delay in marriage, as studied in England, is so far apparently
+slight; the mean age of marriage for all husbands in England has
+increased from 28.43 in 1896 to 28.88 in 1909, and the mean age of all
+wives from 26.21 in 1896 to 26.69 in 1909. This seems a very trifling
+rate of progression. If, however, we look at the matter in another way
+we find that there has been an extremely serious reduction in the number
+of marriages between 15 to 20, normally the most fecund of all
+age-periods. Between 1876 and 1880 (according to the Registrar-General's
+Report for 1909) the proportion of minors in 1000 marriages in England
+and Wales was 77.8 husbands and 217.0 wives. In 1909 it had fallen to
+only 39.8 husbands and 137.7 wives. It has been held that this has not
+greatly affected the decline in the birth-rate. Its tendency, however,
+must be in that direction. It is true that Engelmann argued that delayed
+marriages had no effect at all on the birth-rate. But it has been
+clearly shown that as the age of marriage increases fecundity distinctly
+diminishes.[119] This is illustrated by the specially elaborate statistics
+of Scotland for 1855;[120] the number of women having children, that is,
+the fecundity, was higher in the years 15 to 19, than at any subsequent
+age-period, except 20 to 24, and the fact that the earliest age-group is
+not absolutely highest is due to the presence of a number of immature
+women. In New South Wales, Coghlan has shown that if the average number
+of children is 3.6, then a woman marrying at 20 may expect to have five
+children, a woman marrying at 28 three children, at 32 two children, and
+at 37 one child. Newsholme and Stevenson, again, conclude that the
+general law of decline of fertility with advancing age of the mother is
+shown in various countries, and that in nearly all countries the mothers
+aged 15 to 20 have the largest number of children; the chief exception
+is in the case of some northern countries like Norway and Finland, where
+women develop late, and there it is the mothers of 20 to 25 who have the
+largest number of children.[121] The postponement in the age of marriage
+during recent years is, however, so slight that it can only account for
+a small part of the decline in the birth-rate; Coghlan calculates that
+of unborn possible children in New South Wales the loss of only about
+one-sixth is to be attributed to this cause. In London, however, Heron
+considers that the recognized connection between a low birth-rate and a
+high social standing might have been entirely accounted for sixty years
+ago by postponement of marriage, and that such postponement may still
+account for 50 per cent of it.[122]
+
+It is not enough, however, to consider the mechanism by which the
+birth-rate declines; to realize the significance of the decline we must
+consider the causes which set the mechanism in action.
+
+We begin to obtain a truer insight into the meaning of the curve of a
+country's birth-rate when we realize that it is in relation with the
+industrial and commercial activity of the country.[123] It is sometimes
+stated that a high birth-rate goes with a high degree of national
+prosperity. That, however, is scarcely the case; we have to look into
+the matter a little more closely. And, when we do so, we find that, not
+only is the statement of a supposed connection between a high birth-rate
+and a high degree of prosperity an imperfect statement; it is altogether
+misleading.
+
+If, in the first place, we attempt to consider the state of things among
+savages, we find, indeed, great variations, and the birth-rate is not
+infrequently low. But, on the whole, it would appear, the marriage-rate,
+the birth-rate, and, it may be added, the death-rate are all alike high.
+Karl Ranke has investigated the question with considerable care among
+the Trumai and Nahuqua Indians of Central Brazil.[124] These tribes are
+yet totally uncontaminated by contact with European influences;
+consumption and syphilis are alike unknown. In the two villages he
+investigated in detail, Ranke found that every man over twenty-five
+years of age was married, and that the only unmarried woman he
+discovered was feeble-minded. The average size of the families of those
+women who were over forty years of age was between five and six
+children, while, on the other hand, the mortality among children was
+great, and a relatively small proportion of the population reached old
+age. We see therefore that, among these fairly typical savages, living
+under simple natural conditions, the fertility of the women is as high
+as it is among all but the most prolific of European peoples; while, in
+striking contrast with European peoples, among whom a large percentage
+of the population never marry, and of those who do, many have no
+children, practically every man and woman both marries and produces
+children.
+
+If we leave savages out of the question and return to Europe, it is
+still instructive to find that among those peoples who live under the
+most primitive conditions much the same state of things may be found as
+among savages. This is notably the case as regards Russia. In no other
+great European country do the bulk of the women marry at so early an
+age, and in no other is the average size of the family so large. And,
+concomitantly with a very high marriage-rate and a very high birth-rate,
+we find in Russia, in an equally high degree, the prevalence among the
+masses of infantile and general mortality, disease (epidemical and
+other), starvation, misery.[125]
+
+So far we scarcely see any marked connection between high fertility and
+prosperity. It is more nearly indicated in the high birth-rate of
+Hungary--only second to that of Russia, and also accompanied by a high
+mortality--which is associated with the rapid and notable development of
+a young nationality. The case of Hungary is, indeed, typical. In so far
+as high fertility is associated with prosperity, it is with the
+prosperity of a young and unstable community, which has experienced a
+sudden increase of wealth and a sudden expansion. The case of Western
+Australia illustrates the same point. Thirty years ago the marriage-rate
+and the birth-rate of this colony were on the same level as those of the
+other Australian colonies; but a sudden industrial expansion occurred,
+both rates rose, and in 1899 the fertility of Western Australia was
+higher than that of any other English-speaking community.[126]
+
+If now we put together the facts observed in savage life and the facts
+observed in civilized life, we shall begin to see the real nature of the
+factors that operate to raise or lower the fertility of a community. It
+is far, indeed, from being prosperity which produces a high fertility,
+for the most wretched communities are the most prolific, but, on the
+other hand, it is by no means the mere absence of prosperity which
+produces fertility, for we constantly observe that the on-coming of a
+wave of prosperity elevates the birth-rate. In both cases alike it is
+the absence of social-economic restraints which conduces to high
+fertility. In the simple, primitive community of savages, serfs, or
+slaves, there is no restraint on either nutritive or reproductive
+enjoyments; there is no adequate motive for restraint; there are no
+claims of future wants to inhibit the gratification of present wants;
+there are no high standards, no ideals. Supposing, again, that such
+restraints have been established by a certain amount of forethought as
+regards the future, or a certain calculation as to social advantages to
+be gained by limiting the number of children, a check on natural
+fertility is established. But a sudden accession of prosperity--a sudden
+excess of work and wages and food--sweeps away this check by apparently
+rendering it unnecessary; the natural reproductive impulse is liberated
+by this rising wave, and we here see whatever truth there is in the
+statement that prosperity means a high birth-rate. In reality, however,
+prosperity in such a case merely increases fertility because its sudden
+affluence reduces a community to the same careless indifference in
+regard to the future, the same hasty snatching at the pleasures of the
+moment, as we find among the most hopeless and least prosperous
+communities. It is a significant fact, as shown by Beveridge, that the
+years when the people of Great Britain marry most are the years when
+they drink most. It is in the absence of social-economic restraints--the
+absence of the perception of such restraints, or the absence of the
+ability to act in accordance with such perception--that the birth-rate
+is high.
+
+Arsene Dumont seems to have been one of the first who observed this
+significance of the oscillation of the birth-rate, though he expressed
+it in a somewhat peculiar way, as the social capillarity theory. It is
+the natural and universal tendency of mankind to ascend, he declared; a
+high birth-rate and a strong ascensional impulse are mutually
+contradictory. Large families are only possible when there is no
+progress, and no expectation of it can be cherished; small families
+become possible when the way has been opened to progress. "One might
+say," Dumont puts it, "that invisible valves, like those which direct
+the circulation of the blood, have been placed by Nature to direct the
+current of human aspiration in the upward path it has prescribed." As
+the proletariat is enabled to enjoy the prospect of rising it comes
+under the action of this law of social capillarity, and the birth-rate
+falls. It is the effort towards an indefinite perfection, Dumont
+declares, which justifies Nature and Man, consoles us for our griefs,
+and constitutes our sovereign safeguard against the philosophy of
+despair.[127]
+
+When we thus interpret the crude facts of the falling birth-rate,
+viewing them widely and calmly in connection with the other social facts
+with which they are intimately related, we are able to see how foolish
+has been the outcry against a falling birth-rate, and how false the
+supposition that it is due to a new selfishness replacing an ancient
+altruism.[128] On the contrary, the excessive birth-rate of the early
+industrial period was directly stimulated by selfishness. There were no
+laws against child-labour; children were produced that they might be
+sent out, when little more than babies, to the factories and the mines
+to increase their parents' income. The fundamental instincts of men and
+women do not change, but their direction can be changed. In this field
+the change is towards a higher transformation, introducing a finer
+economy into life, diminishing death, disease, and misery, making
+possible the finer ends of living, and at the same time indirectly and
+even directly improving the quality of the future race.[129] This is now
+becoming recognized by nearly all calm and sagacious inquirers.[130] The
+wild outcry of many unbalanced persons to-day, that a falling birth-rate
+means degeneration and disaster, is so altogether removed from the
+sphere of reason that we ought perhaps to regard it as comparable to
+those manias which, in former centuries, have assumed other forms more
+attractive to the neurotic temperament of those days; fortunately, it is
+a mania which, in the nature of things, is powerless to realize itself,
+and we need not anticipate that the outcry against small families will
+have the same results as the ancient outcry against witches.[131]
+
+It may be proper at this stage to point out that while, in the foregoing
+statement, a high birth-rate and a high marriage-rate have been regarded
+as practically the same thing, we need to make a distinction. The true
+relation of the two rates may be realized when it is stated that, the
+more primitive a community is, the more closely the two rates vary
+together. As a community becomes more civilized and more complex, the
+two rates tend to diverge; the restraints on child-production are
+deeper and more complex than those on marriage, so that the removal of
+the restraint on marriage by no means removes the restraint on
+fertility. They tend to diverge in opposite directions. Farr considered
+the marriage-rate among civilized peoples as a barometer of national
+prosperity. In former years, when corn was a great national product, the
+marriage-rate in England rose regularly as the price of wheat fell. Of
+recent years it has become very difficult to estimate exactly what
+economic factors affect the marriage-rate. It is believed by some that
+the marriage-rate rises or falls with the value of exports.[132] Udny
+Yule, however, in an expertly statistical study of the matter,[133] finds
+(in agreement with Hooker) that neither exports nor imports tally with
+the marriage-rate. He concludes that the movement of prices is a
+predominant--though by no means the sole--factor in the change of
+marriage-rates, a fall in prices producing a fall in the marriage-rates
+and also in the birth-rates, though he also thinks that pressure on the
+labour market has forced both rates lower than the course of prices
+would lead one to expect. In so far as these causes are concerned, Udny
+Yule states, the fall is quite normal and pessimistic views are
+misplaced. Udny Yule, however, appears to be by no means confident that
+his explanation covers a large part of the causation, and he admits that
+he cannot understand the rationale of the connection between
+marriage-rates and prices. The curves of the marriage-rates in many
+countries indicate a maximum about or shortly before, 1875, when the
+birth-rate also tended to reach a maximum, and another rise towards
+1900, thus making the intermediate curve concave. There was, however, a
+large rise in money wages between 1860 and 1875, and the rise in the
+consuming power of the population has been continuous since 1850. Thus
+the factors favourable to a high marriage-rate must have risen from 1850
+to a maximum about 1870-1875, and since then have fallen continuously.
+This statement, which Mr. Udny Yule emphasizes, certainly seems highly
+significant from our present point of view. It falls into line with the
+view here accepted, that the first result of a sudden access of
+prosperity is to produce a general orgy, a reckless and improvident
+haste to take advantage of the new prosperity, but that, as the effects
+of the orgy wear off, it necessarily gives place to new ideals, and to
+higher standards of life which lead to caution and prudence. Mr. N.A.
+Hooker seems to have perceived this, and in the discussion which
+followed the reading of Udny Yule's paper he set forth what (though it
+was not accepted by Udny Yule) may perhaps fairly be regarded as the
+sound view of the matter. "During the great expansion of trade prior to
+1870," he remarked, "the means of satisfying the desired standard of
+comfort were increasing much more rapidly than the rise in the standard;
+hence a decreasing age of marriage and a marriage-rate above the normal.
+After about 1873, however, the means of satisfying the standard of
+comfort no longer increased with the same rapidity, and then a new
+factor, he thought, became important, viz. the increased intelligence of
+the people."[134] This seems to be precisely the same view of the matter
+as I have here sought to set forth; prosperity is not civilization, its
+first tendency is to produce a reckless abandonment to the satisfaction
+of the crudest impulses. But as prosperity develops it begins to
+engender more complex ideals and higher standards; the inevitable result
+is a greater forethought and restraint.[135]
+
+If we consider, not the marriage-rate, but the average age at marriage,
+and especially the age of the woman, which varies less than that of the
+man, the results, though harmonious, would not be quite the same. The
+general tendency as regards the age of girls at marriage is summed up by
+Ploss and Bartels, in their monumental work on Woman, in the statement:
+"It may be said in general that the age of girls at marriage is lower,
+the lower the stage of civilization is in the community to which they
+belong."[136] We thus see one reason why it is that, in an advanced stage
+of civilization, a high marriage-rate is not necessarily associated
+with a high birth-rate. A large number of women who marry late may have
+fewer children than a smaller number who marry early.
+
+We may see the real character of the restraints on fertility very well
+illustrated by the varying birth-rate of the upper and lower social
+classes belonging to the same community. If a high birth-rate were a
+mark of prosperity or of advanced civilization, we should expect to find
+it among the better social class of a community. But the reverse is the
+case; it is everywhere the least prosperous and the least cultured
+classes of a community which show the highest birth-rate. As we go from
+the very poor to the very rich quarters of a great city--whether Paris,
+Berlin, or Vienna--the average number of children to the family
+diminishes regularly. The difference is found in the country as well as
+in the towns. In Holland, for instance, whether in town or country,
+there are 5.19 children per marriage among the poor, and only 4.50 among
+the rich. In London it is notorious that the same difference appears;
+thus Charles Booth, the greatest authority on the social conditions of
+London, in the concluding volume of his vast survey, sums up the
+condition of things in the statement that "the lower the class the
+earlier the period of marriage and the greater the number of children
+born to each marriage." The same phenomenon is everywhere found, and it
+is one of great significance.
+
+The significance becomes clearer when we realize that an urban
+population must always be regarded as more "civilized" than a rural
+population, and that, in accordance with that fact, an urban population
+tends to be less prolific than a rural population. The town birth-rate
+is nearly always lower than the country birth-rate. In Germany this is
+very marked, and the rapidly growing urbanization of Germany is
+accompanied by a great fall of the birth-rate in the large cities, but
+not in the rural districts. In England the fall is more widespread, and
+though the birth-rate is much higher in the country than in the towns
+the decline in the rural birth-rate is now proceeding more rapidly than
+that in the urban birth-rate. England, which once contained a largely
+rural population, now possesses a mainly urban population. Every year it
+becomes more urban; while the town population grows, the rural
+population remains stationary; so that, at the present time, for every
+inhabitant of the country in England, there are more than three
+town-dwellers. As the country-dweller is more prolific than the
+town-dweller, this means that the rural population is constantly being
+poured into the towns. The larger our great cities grow, the more
+irresistible becomes the attraction which they exert on the children of
+the country, who are fascinated by them, as the birds are fascinated by
+the lighthouse or the moths by the candle. And the results are not
+altogether unlike those which this analogy suggests. At the present
+time, one-third of the population of London is made up of immigrants
+from the country. Yet, notwithstanding this immense and constant stream
+of new and vigorous blood, it never suffices to raise the urban
+population to the same level of physical and nervous stability which
+the rural population possesses. More alert, more vivacious, more
+intelligent, even more urbane in the finer sense, as the urban
+population becomes,--not perhaps at first, but in the end,--it
+inevitably loses its stamina, its reserves of vital energy. Dr. Cantlie
+very properly defines a Londoner as a person whose grandparents all
+belonged to London--and he could not find any. Dr. Harry Campbell has
+found a few who could claim London grandparents; they were poor
+specimens of humanity.[137] Even on the intellectual side there are no
+great Londoners. It is well known that a number of eminent men have been
+born in London; but, in the course of a somewhat elaborate study of the
+origins of British men of genius, I have not been able to find that any
+were genuinely Londoners by descent.[138] An urban life saps that calm and
+stolid strength which is necessary for all great effort and stress,
+physical or intellectual. The finest body of men in London, as a class,
+are the London police, and Charles Booth states that only 17 per cent of
+the London police are born in London, a smaller proportion than any
+other class of the London population except the army and navy. As Mr.
+N.C. Macnamara has pointed out, it is found that London men do not
+possess the necessary nervous stability and self-possession for police
+work; they are too excitable and nervous, lacking the equanimity,
+courage, and self-reliance of the rural men. Just in the same way, in
+Spain, the bull-fighters, a body of men admirable for their graceful
+strength, their modesty, courage, and skill, nearly always come from
+country districts, although it is in the towns that the enthusiasm for
+bull-fighting is centred. Therefore, it would appear that until urban
+conditions of life are greatly improved, the more largely urban a
+population becomes, the more is its standard of vital and physical
+efficiency likely to be lowered. This became clearly visible during the
+South African War; it was found at Manchester (as stated by Dr. T.P.
+Smith and confirmed by Dr. Clayton) that among 11,000 young men who
+volunteered for enlistment, scarcely more than 10 per cent could pass
+the surgeon's examination, although the standard of physique demanded
+was extremely low, while Major-General Sir F. Maurice has stated[139]
+that, even when all these rejections have been made, of those who
+actually are enlisted, at the end of two years only two effective
+soldiers are found for every five who enlist. It is not difficult to see
+a bearing of these facts on the birth-rate. The civilized world is
+becoming a world of towns, and, while the diminished birth-rate of towns
+is certainly not mainly the result of impaired vitality, these phenomena
+are correlative facts of the first importance for every country which
+is using up its rural population and becoming a land of cities.
+
+From our present point of view it is thus a very significant fact that
+the equipoise between country-dwellers and town-dwellers has been lost,
+that the towns are gaining at the expense of the country whose surplus
+population they absorb and destroy. The town population is not only
+disinclined to propagate; it is probably in some measure unfit to
+propagate.
+
+At the same time, we must not too strongly emphasize this aspect of the
+matter; such over-emphasis of a single aspect of highly complex
+phenomena constantly distorts our vision of great social processes. We
+have already seen that it is inaccurate to assert any connection between
+a high birth-rate and a high degree of national prosperity, except in so
+far as at special periods in the history of a country a sudden wave of
+prosperity may temporarily remove the restraints on natural fertility.
+Prosperity is only one of the causes that tend to remove the restraint
+on the birth-rate; and it is a cause that is never permanently
+effective.
+
+
+III
+
+To get to the bottom of the matter, we thus find it is necessary to look
+into it more closely than is usually attempted. When we ask ourselves
+why prosperity fails permanently to remove the restraints on fertility
+the answer is, that it speedily creates new restraints. Prosperity and
+civilization are far from being synonymous terms. The savage who is
+able to glut himself with the whale that has just been stranded on his
+coast, is more prosperous than he was the day before, but he is not more
+civilized, perhaps a trifle less so. The working community that is
+suddenly glutted by an afflux of work and wages is in exactly the same
+position as the savage who is suddenly enabled to fill himself with a
+rich mass of decaying blubber. It is prosperity; it is not
+civilization.[140] But, while prosperity leads at first to the reckless
+and unrestrained gratification of the simplest animal instincts of
+nutrition and reproduction, it tends, when it is prolonged, to evolve
+more complex instincts. Aspirations become less crude, the needs and
+appetites engendered by prosperity take on a more social character, and
+are sharpened by social rivalries. In place of the earlier easy and
+reckless gratification of animal impulses, a peaceful and organized
+struggle is established for securing in ever fuller degree the
+gratification of increasingly insistent and increasingly complex
+desires. Such a struggle involves a deliberate calculation and
+forethought, which, sooner or later, cannot fail to be applied to the
+question of offspring. Thus it is that affluence, in the long run,
+itself imposes a check on reproduction. Prosperity, under the stress of
+the urban conditions with which it tends to be associated, has been
+transformed into that calculated forethought, that deliberate
+self-restraint for the attainment of ever more manifold ends, which in
+its outcome we term "civilization."
+
+It is frequently assumed, as we have seen, that the process by which
+civilization is thus evolved is a selfish and immoral process. To
+procreate large families, it is said, is unselfish and moral, as well as
+a patriotic, even a religious duty. This assumption, we now find, is a
+little too hasty and is even the reverse of the truth; it is necessary
+to take into consideration the totality of the social phenomena
+accompanying a high birth-rate, more especially under the conditions of
+town life. A community in which children are born rapidly is necessarily
+in an unstable position; it is growing so quickly that there is
+insufficient time for the conditions of life to be equalized. The state
+of ill-adjustment is chronic; the pressure is lifted from off the
+natural impulse of procreation, but is increased on all the conditions
+under which the impulse is exerted. There is increased overcrowding,
+increased filth, increased disease, increased death. It can never
+happen, in modern times, that the readjustment of the conditions of life
+can be made to keep pace with a high birth-rate. It is sufficient if we
+consider the case of English towns, of London in particular, during the
+period when British prosperity was most rapidly increasing, and the
+birth-rate nearing its maximum, in the middle of the great Victorian
+epoch, of which Englishmen are, for many reasons, so proud. It was
+certainly not an age lacking in either energy or philanthropy; yet, when
+we read the memorable report which Chadwick wrote in 1842, on the
+_Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain_, or
+the minute study of Bethnal Green which Gavin published in 1848 as a
+type of the conditions prevailing in English towns, we realize that the
+magnificence of this epoch was built up over circles of Hell to which
+the imagination of Dante never attained.
+
+As reproductive activity dies down, social conditions become more
+stable, a comparatively balanced state of adjustment tends to be
+established, insanitary surroundings can be bettered, disease
+diminished, and the death-rate lowered. How much may thus be
+accomplished we realize when we compare the admirably precise and
+balanced pages in which Charles Booth, in the concluding volumes of his
+great work, has summarized his survey of London, with the picture
+presented by Chadwick and Gavin half a century earlier. Ugly and painful
+as are many of the features of this modern London, the vision which is,
+on the whole, evoked is that of a community which has attained
+self-consciousness, which is growing into some faint degree of harmony
+with its environment, and is seeking to gain the full amount of the
+satisfaction which an organized urban life can yield. Booth, who
+appears to have realized the significance of a decreased fertility in
+the attainment of this progress, hopes for a still greater fall in the
+birth-rate; and those who seek to restore the birth-rate of half a
+century ago are engaged on a task which would be criminal if it were not
+based on ignorance, and which is, in any case, fatuous.
+
+The whole course of zoological evolution reveals a constantly
+diminishing reproductive activity and a constantly increasing
+expenditure of care on the offspring thus diminished in number.[141] Fish
+spawn their ova by the million, and it is a happy chance if they become
+fertilized, a highly unlikely chance that more than a very small
+proportion will ever attain maturity. Among the mammals, however, the
+female may produce but half a dozen or fewer offspring at a time, but
+she lavishes so much care upon them that they have a very fair chance
+of all reaching maturity. In man, in so far as he refrains from
+returning to the beast and is true to the impulse which in him becomes a
+conscious process of civilization, the same movement is carried forward.
+He even seeks to decrease still further the number of his offspring by
+voluntary effort, and at the same time to increase their quality and
+magnify their importance.[142]
+
+When in human families, especially under civilized conditions, we see
+large families we are in the presence of a reversion to the tendencies
+that prevail among lower organisms. Such large families may probably be
+regarded, as Naecke suggests, as constituting a symptom of degeneration.
+It is noteworthy that they usually occur in the pathological and
+abnormal classes, among the insane, the feeble-minded, the criminal, the
+consumptive, the alcoholic, etc.[143]
+
+This tendency of the birth-rate to fall with the growth of social
+stability is thus a tendency which is of the very essence of
+civilization. It represents an impulse which, however deliberate it may
+be in the individual, may, in the community, be looked upon as an
+instinctive effort to gain more complete control of the conditions of
+life, and to grapple more efficiently with the problems of misery and
+disease and death. It is not only, as is sometimes supposed, during the
+past century that the phenomena may be studied. We have a remarkable
+example some centuries earlier, an example which very clearly
+illustrates the real nature of the phenomena. The city of Geneva,
+perhaps first of European cities, began to register its births, deaths,
+and marriages from the middle of the sixteenth century. This alone
+indicates a high degree of civilization; and at that time, and for some
+succeeding centuries, Geneva was undoubtedly a very highly civilized
+city. Its inhabitants really were the "elect," morally and
+intellectually, of French Protestantism. In many respects it was a model
+city, as Gray noted when he reached it in the course of his travels in
+the middle of the eighteenth century. These registers of Geneva show, in
+a most illuminating manner, how extreme fertility at the outset,
+gradually gave place, as civilization progressed, to a very low
+fertility, with fewer and later marriages, a very low death-rate, and a
+state of general well-being in which the births barely replaced the
+deaths.
+
+After Protestant Geneva had lost her pioneering place in civilization,
+it was in France, the land which above all others may in modern times
+claim to represent the social aspects of civilization, that the same
+tendency most conspicuously appeared. But all Europe, as well as all the
+English-speaking lands outside Europe, is now following the lead of
+France. In a paper read before the Paris Society of Anthropology a few
+years ago, Emile Macquart showed clearly, by a series of ingenious
+diagrams, that whereas, fifty years ago, the condition of the birth-rate
+in France diverged widely from that prevailing in the other chief
+countries of Europe, the other countries are now rapidly following in
+the same road along which France has for a century been proceeding
+slowly, and are constantly coming closer to her, England closest of all.
+In the past, proposals have from time to time been made in France to
+interfere with the progress of this downward movement of the
+birth-rate--proposals that were sufficiently foolish, for neither in
+France nor elsewhere will the individual allow the statistician to
+interfere officiously in a matter which he regards as purely intimate
+and private. But the real character of this tendency of the birth-rate,
+as an essential phenomenon of civilization, with which neither moralist
+nor politician can successfully hope to interfere, is beginning to be
+realized in France. Azoulay, in summing up the discussion after
+Macquart's paper[144] had been read at the Society of Anthropology,
+pointed out that "nations must inevitably follow the same course as
+social classes, and the more the mass of these social classes becomes
+civilized, the more the nation's birth-rate falls; therefore there is
+nothing to be done legally and administratively." And another member
+added: "Except to applaud."
+
+It is probably too much to hope that so sagacious a view will at once be
+universally adopted. The United States and the great English colonies,
+for instance, find it difficult to realize that they are not really new
+countries, but branches of old countries, and already nearing maturity
+when they began their separate lives. They are not at the beginning of
+two thousand years of slow development, such as we have passed through,
+but at the end of it, with us, and sometimes even a little ahead of us.
+It is therefore natural and inevitable that, in a matter in which we are
+moving rapidly, Massachusetts and Ontario and New South Wales and New
+Zealand should have moved still more rapidly, so rapidly indeed, that
+they have themselves failed to perceive that their real natural increase
+and the manner in which it is attained place them in this matter at the
+van of civilization. These things are, however, only learnt slowly. We
+may be sure that the fundamental and complex character of the phenomena
+will never be obvious to our fussy little politicians, so apt to
+advocate panaceas which have effects quite opposite to those they
+desire. But, whatever politicians may wish to do or to leave undone, it
+is well to remember that, of the various ideals the world holds, there
+are some that lie on the path of our social progress, and others that do
+not there lie. We may properly exercise such wisdom as we possess by
+utilizing the ideals which are before us, serenely neglecting many
+others which however precious they may once have seemed, no longer form
+part of the stage of civilization we are now moving towards.
+
+
+IV
+
+What are the ideals of the stage of civilization we of the Western world
+are now moving towards? We have here pushed as far as need be the
+analysis of that declining birth-rate which has caused so much anxiety
+to those amongst us who can only see narrowly and see superficially. We
+have found that, properly understood, there is nothing in it to evoke
+our pessimism. On the contrary, we have seen that, in the opinion of the
+most distinguished authorities, the energy with which we move in our
+present direction, through the exercise of an ever finer economy in
+life, may be regarded as a "measure of civilization" in the important
+sphere of vital statistics. As we now leave the question, some may ask
+themselves whether this concomitant decline in birth-rates and
+death-rates may not possibly have a still wider and more fundamental
+meaning as a measure of civilization.
+
+We have long been accustomed to regard the East as a spiritual world in
+which the finer ends of living were counted supreme, and the merely
+materialistic aspects of life, dissociated from the aims of religion and
+of art, were trodden under foot. Our own Western world we have humbly
+regarded as mainly absorbed in a feverish race for the attainment, by
+industry and war, of the satisfaction of the impulses of reproduction
+and nutrition, and the crudely material aggrandizement of which those
+impulses are the symbol. A certain outward idleness, a semi-idleness, as
+Nietzsche said, is the necessary condition for a real religious life,
+for a real aesthetic life, for any life on the spiritual plane. The
+noisy, laborious, pushing, "progressive" life we traditionally associate
+with the West is essentially alien to the higher ends of living, as has
+been intuitively recognized and acted on by all those among us who have
+sought to pursue the higher ends of living. It was so that the
+nineteenth-century philosophers of Europe, of whom Schopenhauer was in
+this matter the extreme type, viewed the matter. But when we seek to
+measure the tendency of the chief countries of the West, led by France,
+England, and Germany, and the countries of the East led by Japan, in the
+light of this strictly measurable test of vital statistics, may we not,
+perhaps, trace the approach of a revolutionary transposition? Japan,
+entering on the road we have nearly passed through, in which the
+perpetual clash of a high birth-rate and a high death-rate involves
+social disorder and misery, has flung to the winds the loftier ideals it
+once pursued so successfully and has lost its fine aesthetic perceptions,
+its insight into the most delicate secrets of the soul.[145] And while
+Japan, certainly to-day voicing the aspirations of the East, is
+concerned to become a great military and industrial power, we in the
+West are growing weary of war, and are coming to look upon commerce as a
+necessary routine no longer adequate to satisfy the best energies of
+human beings. We are here moving towards the fine quiescence involved by
+a delicate equipoise of life and of death; and this economy sets free an
+energy we are seeking to expend in a juster social organization, and in
+the realization of ideals which until now have seemed but the
+imagination of idle dreamers. Asia, as an anonymous writer has recently
+put it, is growing crude, vulgar, and materialistic; Europe, on the
+other hand, is growing to loathe its own past grossness. "London may yet
+be the spiritual capital of the world, while Asia--rich in all that gold
+can buy and guns can give, lord of lands and bodies, builder of railways
+and promulgator of police regulations, glorious in all material
+glories--postures, complacent and obtuse, before a Europe content in the
+possession of all that matters,"[146] Certainly, we are not there yet, but
+the old Earth has seen many stranger and more revolutionary changes than
+this. England, as this writer reminds us, was once a tropical forest.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[90] It must be understood that, from the present point of view, the term
+"Anglo-Saxon" covers the peoples of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, as
+well as of England.
+
+[91] The decline of the French birth-rate has been investigated in a
+Lyons thesis by Salvat, _La Depopulation de la France_, 1903.
+
+[92] The latest figures are given in the Annual Reports of the
+Registrar-General for England and Wales.
+
+[93] Newsholme and Stevenson, "Decline of Human Fertility as shown by
+corrected Birth-rates," _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_,
+1906.
+
+[94] Werner Sombart, _International Magazine_, December, 1907.
+
+[95] A.W. Flux, "Urban Vital Statistics in England and Germany," _Journ.
+Statist. Soc._, March, 1910.
+
+[96] German infantile mortality, Boehmert states ("Die
+Saeuglingssterblichkeit in Deutschland und ihre Ursachen," _Die Neue
+Generation_, March, 1908), is greater than in any European country,
+except Russia and Hungary, about 50 per cent greater than in England,
+France, Belgium, or Holland. The infantile mortality has increased in
+Germany, as usually happens, with the increased employment of women,
+and, largely from this cause, has nearly doubled in Berlin in the course
+of four years, states Lily Braun (_Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft I, p. 21);
+but even on this basis it is only 22 per cent in the English textile
+industries, as against 38 per cent in the German textile industries.
+
+[97] In England the marriage-rate fell rather sharply in 1875, and showed
+a slight tendency to rise about 1900 (G. Udny Yule, "On the Changes in
+the Marriage-and Birth-rates in England and Wales," _Journal of the
+Statistical Society_, March, 1906). On the whole there has been a real
+though slight decline. The decline has been widespread, and is most
+marked in Australia, especially South Australia. There has, however,
+been a rise in the marriage-rate in Ireland, France, Austria,
+Switzerland, Germany, and especially Belgium. The movement for decreased
+child-production would naturally in the first place involve decreased
+marriage, but it is easy to understand that when it is realized the
+marriage is not necessarily followed by conception this motive for
+avoiding marriage loses its force, and the marriage-rate rises.
+
+[98] _Medicine_, February, 1904.
+
+[99] Davidson, "The Growth of the French-Canadian Race," _Annals of the
+American Academy_, September, 1896.
+
+[100] T.A. Coghlan, _The Decline of the Birth-rate of New South Wales_,
+1903. The New South Wales statistics are specially valuable as the
+records contain many particulars (such as age of parents, period since
+marriage, and number of children) not given in English or most other
+records.
+
+[101] C. Hamburger, "Kinderzahl und Kindersterblichkeit," _Die Neue
+Generation_, August, 1909.
+
+[102] Looked at in another way, it may be said that if a natural increase,
+as ascertained by subtracting the death-rate from the birth-rate, of 10
+to 15 per cent be regarded as normal, then, taking so far as possible
+the figures for 1909, the natural increase of England and Scotland, of
+Germany, of Italy, of Austria and Hungary, of Belgium, is normal; the
+natural increase of New South Wales, of Victoria, of South Australia, of
+New Zealand, is abnormally high (though in new countries such increase
+may not be undesirable) while the natural increase of France, of Spain,
+and of Ireland is abnormally low. Such a method of estimation, of
+course, entirely leaves out of account the question of the social
+desirability of the process by which the normal increase is secured.
+
+[103] Johannsen, _Janus_, 1905.
+
+[104] Rubin, "A Measure of Civilization," _Journal of the Royal
+Statistical Society_, March, 1897. "The lowest stage of civilization,"
+he points out, "is to go forward blindly, which in this connection means
+to bring into the world a great number of children which must, in great
+proportion, sink into the grave. The next stage of civilization is to
+see the danger and to keep clear of it. The highest stage of
+civilization is to see the danger and overcome it." Europe in the past
+and various countries in the present illustrate the first stage; France
+illustrates the second stage; the third stage is that towards which we
+are striving to move to-day.
+
+[105] Baines, "The Recent Growth of Population in Western Europe,"
+_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, December, 1909.
+
+[106] Various facts and references are given by Havelock Ellis, _The
+Nationalization of Health_, chap. XIV.
+
+[107] These are the figures given by the chief Japanese authority,
+Professor Takano, _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, July,
+1910, p. 738.
+
+[108] E.A. Ross, "The Race Fibre of the Chinese," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, October, 1911. According to another competent and fairly
+concordant estimate, the infantile death-rate of China is 90 per cent.
+Of the female infants, probably about 1 in 10 is intentionally
+destroyed.
+
+[109] J.J. Matignon, "La Mere et l'Enfant en Chine," _Archives
+d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, October to November, 1909.
+
+[110] Arsene Dumont, for instance, points out (_Depopulation et
+Civilization_, p. 116) that the very early marriages and the reckless
+fertility of the Chinese cannot fail to cease as soon as the people
+adopt European ways.
+
+[111] The confident estimates of the future population of the world which
+are from time to time put forward on the basis of the present birth-rate
+are quite worthless. A brilliantly insubstantial fabric of this kind, by
+B.L. Putnam Weale (_The Conflict of Colour_, 1911), has been justly
+criticized by Professor Weatherley (_Popular Science Monthly_, November,
+1911).
+
+[112] It is sometimes convenient to use the term "Neo-Malthusianism" to
+indicate the voluntary limitation of the family, but it must always be
+remembered that Malthus would not have approved of Neo-Malthusianism,
+and that Neo-Malthusian practices have nothing to do with the theory of
+Malthus. They would not be affected could that theory be conclusively
+proved or conclusively disproved.
+
+[113] We even find the demand that bachelors and spinsters shall be taxed.
+This proposal has been actually accepted (1911) by the Landtag of the
+little Principality of Reuss, which proposes to tax bachelors and
+spinsters over thirty years of age. Putting aside the arguable questions
+as to whether a State is entitled to place such pressure on its
+citizens, it must be pointed out that it is not marriage but the child
+which concerns the State. It is possible to have children without
+marriage, and marriage does not ensure the procreation of children.
+Therefore it would be more to the point to tax the childless. In that
+case, it would be necessary to remit the tax in the case of unmarried
+people with children, and to levy it in the case of married people
+without children. But it has further to be remembered that not all
+persons are fitted to have sound children, and as unsound children are a
+burden and not a benefit to the State, the State ought to reward rather
+than to fine those conscientious persons who refrain from procreation
+when they are too poor, or with too defective a heredity, to be likely
+to produce, or to bring up, sound children. Moreover, some persons are
+sterile, and thorough medical investigation would be required before
+they could fairly be taxed. As soon as we begin to analyse such a
+proposal we cannot fail to see that, even granting that the aim of such
+legislation is legitimate and desirable, the method of attaining it is
+thoroughly mischievous and unjustifiable.
+
+[114] J.G. Engelmann, "Decreasing Fecundity," _Philadelphia Medical
+Journal_, January 18, 1902.
+
+[115] It has, further, been frequently denied that Neo-Malthusian
+practices can affect Roman Catholic countries, since the Church is
+precluded from approving of them. That is true. But it is also true
+that, as Lagneau long since pointed out, the Protestants of Europe have
+increased at more than double the annual rate of the Catholics, though
+this relationship has now ceased to be exact. Dumont states
+(_Depopulation et Civilisation_, chap. XVIII) that there is not the
+slightest reason to suppose that (apart from the question of poverty)
+the faithful have more children than the irreligious; moreover, in
+dealing with its more educated members, it is not the policy of the
+Church to make indiscreet inquiries (see Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," p. 590). A
+Catholic bishop is reported to have warned his clergy against referring
+in their Lent sermons to the voluntary restriction of conception,
+remarking that an excess of rigour in this matter would cause the Church
+to lose half her flock. The fall in the birth-rate is as marked in
+Catholic as in Protestant countries; the Catholic communities in which
+this is not the case are few, and placed in exceptional circumstances.
+It must be remembered, moreover, that the Church enjoins celibacy on its
+clergy, and that celibacy is practically a Malthusian method. It is not
+easy while preaching practical Malthusianism to the clergy to spend much
+fervour in preaching against practical Neo-Malthusianism to the laity.
+
+[116] McLean, "The Declining Birth-rate in Australia," _International
+Medical Journal of Australasia_, 1904.
+
+[117] Thus in France the low birth-rate is associated with a high
+infantile death-rate, which has not yet been appreciably influenced by
+the movement of puericulture in France. In England also, at the end of
+the last century, the declining birth-rate was accompanied by a rising
+infantile death-rate, which is now, however, declining under the
+influence of greater care of child-life.
+
+[118] Sidney Webb, _Times_, October 11 and 16, 1906; also _Popular Science
+Monthly_, 1906, p. 526.
+
+[119] It is important to remember the distinction between "fecundity" and
+"fertility." A woman who has one child has proved that she is fecund,
+but has not proved that she is fertile. A woman with six children has
+proved that she is not only fecund but fertile.
+
+[120] They have been worked out by C.J. Lewis and J. Norman Lewis,
+_Natality and Fecundity_, 1905.
+
+[121] Newsholme and Stevenson, _op. cit._; Rubin and Westergaard,
+_Statistik der Ehen_, 1890, p. 95.
+
+[122] D. Heron, "On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status,"
+_Drapers' Company Research Memoirs_, No. 1, 1906.
+
+[123] The recognition of this relationship must not be regarded as an
+attempt unduly to narrow down the causation of changes in the
+birth-rate. The great complexity of the causes influencing the
+birth-rate is now fairly well recognized, and has, for instance, been
+pointed out by Goldscheid, _Hoeherentwicklung und Menschenoekonomie_, Vol.
+I, 1911.
+
+[124] In a paper read at the Brunswick Meeting of the German
+Anthropological Society (_Correspondenzblatt_ of the Society, November,
+1898); a great many facts concerning the fecundity of women among
+savages in various parts of the world are brought together by Ploss and
+Bartels, _Das Weib_, Vol I, chap. XXIV.
+
+[125] The proportion of doctors to the population is very small, and the
+people still have great confidence in their quacks and witch-doctors.
+The elementary rules of sanitation are generally neglected, water
+supplies are polluted, filth is piled up in the streets and the
+courtyards, as it was in England and Western Europe generally until a
+century ago, and the framing of regulations or the incursions of the
+police have little effect on the habits of the people. Neglect of the
+ordinary precautions of cleanliness is responsible for the wide
+extension of syphilis by the use of drinking vessels, towels, etc., in
+common. Not only is typhoid prevalent in nearly every province of
+Russia, but typhus, which is peculiarly the disease of filth,
+overcrowding, and starvation, and has long been practically extinct in
+England, still flourishes and causes an immense mortality. The workers
+often have no homes and sleep in the factories amidst the machinery, men
+and women together; their food is insufficient, and the hours of labour
+may vary from twelve to fourteen. When famine occurs these conditions
+are exaggerated, and various epidemics ravage the population.
+
+[126] It must, however, be remembered that in small and unstable
+communities a considerable margin for error must be allowed, as the
+crude birth-rate is unduly raised by an afflux of immigrants at the
+reproductive age.
+
+[127] Arsene Dumont, _Depopulation et Civilisation_, 1890, chap. VI. The
+nature of the restraint on fertility has been well set forth by Dr.
+Bushee ("The Declining Birth-rate and its Causes," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, August, 1903), mainly in the terms of Dumont's "social
+capillarity" theory.
+
+[128] Even Dr. Newsholme, usually so cautious and reliable an investigator
+in this field, has been betrayed into a reference in this connection
+(_The Declining Birth-rate_, 1911, p. 41) to the "increasing rarity of
+altruism," though in almost the next paragraph he points out that the
+large families of the past were connected with the fact that the child
+was a profitable asset, and could be sent to work when little more than
+an infant. The "altruism" which results in crushing the minds and bodies
+of others in order to increase one's own earnings is not an "altruism"
+which we need desire to perpetuate. The beneficial effect of legislation
+against child-labour in reducing an unduly high birth-rate has often
+been pointed out.
+
+[129] It may suffice to take a single point. Large families involve the
+birth of children at very short intervals. It has been clearly shown by
+Dr. R.J. Ewart ("The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring," _Eugenics
+Review_, October, 1911) that children born at an interval of less than
+two years after the birth of the previous child, remain, even when they
+have reached their sixth year, three inches shorter and three pounds
+lighter than first-born children.
+
+[130] For instance, Goldscheid, in _Hoeherentwicklung und
+Menschenoekonomie_; it is also, on the whole, the conclusion of
+Newsholme, though expressed in an exceedingly temperate manner, in his
+_Declining Birth-rate_.
+
+[131] If, however, our birth-rate fanatics should hear of the results
+obtained at the experimental farm at Roseville, California, by Professor
+Silas Wentworth, who has found that by placing ewes in a field under the
+power wires of an electric wire company, the average production of lambs
+is more than doubled, we may anticipate trouble in many hitherto small
+families. Their predecessors insisted, in the cause of religion and
+morals, on burning witches; we must not be surprised if our modern
+fanatics, in the same holy cause, clamour for a law compelling all
+childless women to live under electric wires.
+
+[132] J. Holt Schooling, "The English Marriage Rate," _Fortnightly
+Review_, June, 1901.
+
+[133] G. Udny Yule, "Changes in the Marriage-and Birth-rate in England,"
+_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, March, 1906.
+
+[134] At an earlier period Hooker had investigated the same subject
+without coming to any very decisive conclusions ("Correlation of the
+Marriage-rate with Trade," _Journ. Statistical Soc._, September, 1901).
+Minor fluctuations in marriage and in trade per head, he found, tend to
+be in close correspondence, but on the whole trade has risen and the
+marriage-rate has fallen, probably, Hooker believed, as the result of
+the gradual deferment of marriage.
+
+[135] The higher standard need not be, among the mass of the population,
+of a very exalted character, although it marks a real progress.
+Newsholme and Stevenson (_op. cit._) term it a higher "standard of
+comfort." The decline of the birth-rate, they say, "is associated with a
+general raising of the standard of comfort, and is an expression of the
+determination of the people to secure this greater comfort."
+
+[136] Ploss, _Das Weib_, Vol. I, chap. XX.
+
+[137] It must not, however, be assumed that the rural immigrants are in
+the mass better suited to urban life than the urban natives. It is
+probable that, notwithstanding their energy and robustness, the
+immigrants are less suited to urban conditions than the natives.
+Consequently a process of selection takes place among the immigrants,
+and the survivors become, as it were, immunized to the poisons of urban
+life. But this immunization is by no means necessarily associated with
+any high degree of nervous vigour or general physical development.
+
+[138] Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 22, 43.
+
+[139] "National Health: a Soldier's Study," _Contemporary Review_,
+January, 1903. The Reports of the Inspector-General of Recruiting are
+said to show that the recruits are every year smaller, lighter, and
+narrower-chested.
+
+[140] This has been well illustrated during the past forty years in the
+flourishing county of Glamorgan in Wales, as is shown by Dr. R.S.
+Stewart ("The Relationship of Wages, Lunacy, and Crime in South Wales,"
+_Journal of Mental Science_, January, 1904). The staple industry here is
+coal, 17 per cent of the population being directly employed in
+coal-mining, and wages are determined by the sliding scale as it is
+called, according to which the selling price of coal regulates the
+wages. This leads to many fluctuations and sudden accesses of
+prosperity. It is found that whenever wages rise there is a concomitant
+increase of insanity and at the same time a diminished output of coal
+due to slacking of work when earnings are greater; there is also an
+increase of drunkenness and of crime. Stewart concludes that it is
+doubtful whether increased material prosperity is conducive to
+improvement in physical and mental status. It must, however, be pointed
+out that it is a sudden and unstable prosperity, not necessarily a
+gradual and stable prosperity, which is hereby shown to be pernicious.
+
+[141] The relationship is sometimes expressed by saying that the more
+highly differentiated the organism the fewer the offspring. According to
+Plate we ought to say that, the greater the capacity for parental care
+the fewer the offspring. This, however, comes to the same thing, since
+it is the higher organisms which possess the increased capacity for
+parental care. Putting it in the most generalized zoological way,
+diminished offspring is the response to improved environment. Thus in
+Man the decline of the birth-rate, as Professor Benjamin Moore remarks
+(_British Medical Journal_, August 20, 1910, p. 454), is "the simple
+biological reply to good economic conditions. It is a well-known
+biological law that even a micro-organism, when placed in unfavourable
+conditions as to food and environment, passes into a reproductive phase,
+and by sporulation or some special type produces new individuals very
+rapidly. The same condition of affairs in the human race was shown even
+by the fact that one-half of the births come from the least favourably
+situated one-quarter of the population. Hence, over-rapid birth-rate
+indicates unfavourable conditions of life, so that (so long as the
+population was on the increase) a lower birth-rate was a valuable
+indication of a better social condition of affairs, and a matter on
+which we should congratulate the country rather than proceed to
+condolences."
+
+[142] "The accumulations of racial experience tend to show," remarks Woods
+Hutchinson ("Animal Marriage," _Contemporary Review_, October, 1904),
+"that by the production of a smaller and smaller number of offspring,
+and the expenditure upon those of a greater amount of parental care,
+better results can be obtained in efficiency and capacity for survival."
+
+[143] Toulouse, _Causes de la Folie_, p. 91; Magri, _Archivio di
+Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. vi-vii; Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British
+Genius_, pp. 106 et seq.
+
+[144] Emile Macquart, "Mortalite, Natalite, Depopulation," _Bulletin de la
+Societe d'Anthropologie_, 1902.
+
+[145] It is interesting to observe how Lafcadio Hearn, during the last
+years of his life, was compelled, however unwillingly, to recognize this
+change. See e.g. his _Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation_, 1904, ch.
+XXI, on "Industrial Dangers." The Japanese themselves have recognized
+it, and it is the feeling of the decay of their ancient ideals which has
+given so great an impetus to new ethical movements, such as that,
+described as a kind of elevated materialism, established by Yukichi
+Fukuzawa (see _Open Court_, June, 1907).
+
+[146] _Athenaeum_, October 7, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+EUGENICS AND LOVE
+
+     Eugenics and the Decline of the Birth-rate--Quantity and Quality in
+     the Production of Children--Eugenic Sexual Selection--The Value of
+     Pedigrees--Their Scientific Significance--The Systematic Record of
+     Personal Data--The Proposal for Eugenic Certificates--St.
+     Valentine's Day and Sexual Selection--Love and Reason--Love Ruled
+     by Natural Law--Eugenic Selection not opposed to Love--No Need for
+     Legal Compulsion--Medicine in Relation to Marriage
+
+
+I
+
+During recent years the question of the future of the human race has
+been brought before us in a way it has never been brought before. The
+great expansive movement in civilized countries is over. Whereas, fifty
+years ago, France seemed to present a striking contrast to other
+countries in her low and gradually falling birth-rate, to-day, though
+she has herself now almost reached a stationary position, France is seen
+merely to have been the leader in a movement which is common to all the
+more highly civilized nations. They are all now moving rapidly in the
+direction in which she moved slowly. It was inevitable that this
+movement, world-wide as it is, should call forth energetic protests, for
+there is no condition of things so bad but it finds some to advocate its
+perpetuation. There has, therefore, been much vigorous preaching against
+"race suicide" by people who were deaf to the small voice of reason,
+who failed to understand that this matter could not be settled by mere
+consideration of the crude birth-rates, and that, even if it could, we
+should have still to realize that, as an economist remarks, it is to the
+decline of the birth-rate only that we probably owe it that the modern
+civilized world has been saved from economic disaster.[147]
+
+But whatever the causes of the declining birth-rate it is certain that
+even when they are within our control they are of far too intimate a
+character for the public moralist to be permitted to touch them, even
+though we consider them to be in a disastrous state. It has to be
+recognized that we are here in the presence, not of a merely local or
+temporary tendency which might be shaken off with an effort, but of a
+great fundamental law of civilization; and the fact that we encounter it
+in our own race merely means that we are reaching a fairly high stage of
+civilization. It is far from the first time, in the history of the
+world, that the same phenomenon has been witnessed. It was seen in
+Imperial Rome; it was seen, again, in the "Protestant Rome," Geneva.
+Wherever are gathered together an exceedingly fine race of people, the
+flower of the race, individuals of the highest mental and moral
+distinction, there the birth-rate falls steadily. Vice or virtue alike
+avails nothing in this field; with high civilization fertility
+inevitably diminishes.
+
+
+II
+
+Under these circumstances it was to be expected that a new ideal should
+begin to flash before men's eyes. If the ideal of _quantity_ is lost to
+us, why not seek the ideal of _quality_? We know that the old rule:
+"Increase and multiply" meant a vast amount of infant mortality, of
+starvation, of chronic disease, of widespread misery. In abandoning that
+rule, as we have been forced to do, are we not left free to seek that
+our children, though few, should be at all events fit, the finest, alike
+in physical and psychical constitution, that the world has seen?
+
+Thus has come about the recent expansion of that conception of
+_Eugenics_, or the science and art of Good Breeding in the human race,
+which a group of workers, pioneered by Francis Galton[148]--at first in
+England and later in America, Germany and elsewhere--have been
+developing for some years past. Eugenics is beginning to be felt to
+possess a living actuality which it failed to possess before. Instead of
+being a benevolent scientific fad it begins to present itself as the
+goal to which we are inevitably moving.
+
+The cause of Eugenics has sometimes been prejudiced in the public mind
+by a comparison with the artificial breeding of domestic animals. In
+reality the two things are altogether different. In breeding animals a
+higher race of beings manipulates a lower race with the object of
+securing definite points that are of no use whatever to the animals
+themselves, but of considerable value to the breeders. In our own race,
+on the other hand, the problem of breeding is presented in an entirely
+different shape. There is as yet no race of super-men who are prepared
+to breed man for their own special ends. As things are, even if we had
+the ability and the power, we should surely hesitate before we bred men
+and women as we breed dogs or fowls. We may, therefore, quite put aside
+all discussion of eugenics as a sort of higher cattle-breeding. It would
+be undesirable, even if it were not impracticable.
+
+But there is another aspect of Eugenics. Human eugenics need not be, and
+is not likely to be, a cold-blooded selection of partners by some
+outside scientific authority. But it may be, and is very likely to be, a
+slowly growing conviction--first among the more intelligent members of
+the community and then by imitation and fashion among the less
+intelligent members--that our children, the future race, the
+torch-bearers of civilization for succeeding ages, are not the mere
+result of chance or Providence, but that, in a very real sense, it is
+within our power to mould them, that the salvation or damnation of many
+future generations lies in our hands since it depends on our wise and
+sane choice of a mate. The results of the breeding of those persons who
+ought never to be parents is well known; the notorious case of the Jukes
+family is but one among many instances. We could scarcely expect in any
+community that individuals like the Jukes would take the initiative in
+movements for the eugenic development of the race, but it makes much
+difference whether such families exist in an environment like our own
+which is indifferent to the future of the race, or whether they are
+surrounded by influences of a more wholesome character which can
+scarcely fail to some extent to affect, and even to control, the
+reckless and anti-social elements in the community.
+
+In considering this question, therefore, we are justified in putting
+aside not only any kind of human breeding resembling the artificial
+breeding of animals, but also, at all events for the present, every
+compulsory prohibition on marriage or procreation. We must be content to
+concern ourselves with ideals, and with the endeavour to exert our
+personal influence in the realization of these ideals.
+
+
+III
+
+Such ideals cannot, however, be left in the air; if they depend on
+individual caprice nothing but fruitless confusion can come of them.
+They must be firmly grounded on a scientific basis of ascertained fact.
+This was always emphasized by Galton. He not only initiated schemes for
+obtaining, but actually to some extent obtained, a large amount of
+scientific knowledge concerning the special characteristics and
+aptitudes of families, and his efforts in this direction have since been
+largely extended and elaborated.[149] The feverish activities of modern
+life, and the constant vicissitudes and accidents that overtake families
+to-day, have led to an extraordinary indifference to family history and
+tradition. Our forefathers, from generation to generation, carefully
+entered births, baptisms, marriages, and deaths in the fly-leaf of the
+Family Bible. It is largely owing to these precious entries that many
+are able to carry their family history several centuries further back
+than they otherwise could. But nowadays the Family Bible has for the
+most part ceased to exist, and nothing else has taken its place. If a
+man wishes to know what sort of stocks he has come from, unless he is
+himself an antiquarian, or in a position to employ an antiquarian to
+assist him, he can learn little, and in the most favourable position he
+is helpless without clues; though with such clues he might often learn
+much that would be of the greatest interest to him. The entries in the
+Family Bible, however, whatever their value as clues and even as actual
+data, do not furnish adequate information to serve as a guide to the
+different qualities of stocks; we need far more detailed and varied
+information in order to realize the respective values of families from
+the point of view of eugenics. Here, again, Galton had already realized
+the need for supplying a great defect in our knowledge, and his
+Life-history Albums showed how the necessary information may be
+conveniently registered.
+
+The accumulated histories of individual families, it is evident, will in
+time furnish a foundation on which to base scientific generalizations,
+and eventually, perhaps, to justify practical action. Moreover, a vast
+amount of valuable information on which it is possible to build up a
+knowledge of the correlated characteristics of families, already lies at
+present unused in the great insurance offices and elsewhere. When it is
+possible to obtain a large collection of accurate pedigrees for
+scientific purposes, and to throw them into a properly tabulated form,
+we shall certainly be in a position to know more of the qualities of
+stocks, of their good and bad characteristics, and of the degree in
+which they are correlated.[150]
+
+In this way we shall, in time, be able to obtain a clear picture of the
+probable results on the offspring of unions between any kind of people.
+From personal and ancestral data we shall be able to reckon the probable
+quality of the offspring of a married couple. Given a man and woman of
+known personal qualities and of known ancestors, what are likely to be
+the personal qualities, physical, mental and moral, of the children?
+That is a question of immense importance both for the beings themselves
+whom we bring into the world, for the community generally, and for the
+future race.
+
+Eventually, it seems evident, a general system, whether private or
+public, whereby all personal facts, biological and mental, normal and
+morbid, are duly and systematically registered, must become inevitable
+if we are to have a real guide as to those persons who are most fit, or
+most unfit, to carry on the race.[151] Unless they are full and frank such
+records are useless. But it is obvious that for a long time to come such
+a system of registration must be private. According to the belief which
+is still deeply rooted in most of us, we regard as most private those
+facts of our lives which are most intimately connected with the life of
+the race, and most fateful for the future of humanity. The feeling is no
+doubt inevitable; it has a certain rightness and justification. As,
+however, our knowledge increases we shall learn that we are, on the one
+hand, a little more responsible for future generations than we are
+accustomed to think, and, on the other hand, a little less responsible
+for our own good or bad qualities. Our fiat makes the future man, but,
+in the same way, we are ourselves made by a choice and a will not our
+own. A man may indeed, within limits, mould himself, but the materials
+he can alone use were handed on to him by his parents, and whether he
+becomes a man of genius, a criminal, a drunkard, an epileptic, or an
+ordinarily healthy, well-conducted, and intelligent citizen, must depend
+at least as much on his parents as on his own effort or lack of effort,
+since even the aptitude for effective effort is largely inborn. As we
+learn to look on the facts from the only sound standpoint of heredity,
+our anger or contempt for a failing and erring individual has to give
+way to the kindly but firm control of a weakling. If the children's
+teeth have been set on edge it is because the parents have eaten sour
+grapes.
+
+If, however, we certainly cannot bring legal or even moral force to
+compel everyone to maintain such detailed registers of himself, his
+ancestral stocks, and his offspring--to say nothing of inducing him to
+make them public--there is something that we can do. We can make it to
+his interest to keep such a record.[152] If it became an advantage in
+life to a man to possess good ancestors, and to be himself a good
+specimen of humanity in mind, character, and physique, we may be sure
+that those who are above the average in these matters will be glad to
+make use of that superiority. Insurance offices already make an
+inquisition into these matters, to which no one objects, because a man
+only submits to it for his own advantage; while for military and some
+other services similar inquiries are compulsory. Eugenic certificates,
+according to Galton's proposal, would be issued by a suitably
+constituted authority to those candidates who chose to apply for them
+and were able to pass the necessary tests. Such certificates would imply
+an inquiry and examination into the ancestry of the candidate as well as
+into his own constitution, health, intelligence and character; and the
+possession of such a certificate would involve a superiority to the
+average in all these respects. No one would be compelled to offer
+himself for such examination, just as no one is compelled to seek a
+university degree. But its possession would often be an advantage. There
+is nothing to prevent the establishment of a board of examiners of this
+kind to-morrow, and we may be sure that, once established, many
+candidates would hasten to present themselves.[153] There are obviously
+many positions in life wherein a certificate of this kind of superiority
+would be helpful. But its chief distinction would be that its possession
+would be a kind of patent of natural nobility; the man or woman who held
+it would be one of Nature's aristocrats, to whom the future of the race
+might be safely left without further question.
+
+
+IV
+
+By happy inspiration, or by chance, Galton made public his programme of
+eugenic research, in a paper read before the Sociological Society, on
+February 14, the festival of St. Valentine. Although the ancient
+observances of that day have now died out, St. Valentine was for many
+centuries the patron saint of sexual selection, more especially in
+England. It can scarcely be said that any credit in this matter belongs
+to the venerable saint himself; it was by an accident that he achieved
+his conspicuous position in the world. He was simply a pious Christian
+who was beheaded for his faith in Rome under Claudius. But it so
+happened that his festival fell at that period in early spring when
+birds were believed to pair, and when youths and maidens were accustomed
+to select partners for themselves or for others. This custom--which has
+been studied together with many allied primitive practices by
+Mannhardt[154]--was not always carried out on February 14, sometimes it
+took place a little later. In England, where it was strictly associated
+with St. Valentine's Day, the custom was referred to by Lydgate, and by
+Charles of Orleans in the rondeaus and ballades he wrote during his long
+imprisonment in England. The name Valentins or Valentines was also
+introduced into France (where the custom had long existed) to designate
+the young couples thus constituted. This method of sexual selection,
+half playful, half serious, flourished especially in the region between
+England, the Moselle, and the Tyrol. The essential part of the custom
+lay in the public choice of a fitting mate for marriageable girls.
+Sometimes the question of fitness resolved itself into one of good
+looks; occasionally the matter was settled by lot. There was no
+compulsion about these unions; they were often little more than a game,
+though at times they involved a degree of immorality which caused the
+authorities to oppose them. But very frequently the sexual selection
+thus exerted led to weddings, and these playful Valentine unions were
+held to be a specially favourable prelude to a happy marriage.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to show how the ancient customs associated with
+St. Valentine's Day are taken up again and placed on a higher plane by
+the great movement which is now beginning to shape itself among us. The
+old Valentine unions were made by a process of caprice tempered more or
+less by sound instincts and good sense. In the sexual selection of the
+future the same results will be attained by more or less deliberate and
+conscious recognition of the great laws and tendencies which
+investigation is slowly bringing to light. The new St. Valentine will be
+a saint of science rather than of folk-lore.
+
+Whenever such statements as these are made it is always retorted that
+love laughs at science, and that the winds of passion blow where they
+list.[155] That, however, is by no means altogether true, and in any case
+it is far from covering the whole of the ground. It is hard to fight
+against human nature, but human nature itself is opposed to
+indiscriminate choice of mates. It is not true that any one tends to
+love anybody, and that mutual attraction is entirely a matter of chance.
+The investigations which have lately been carried out show that there
+are certain definite tendencies in this matter, that certain kinds of
+people tend to be attracted to certain kinds, especially that like are
+attracted to like rather than unlike to unlike, and that, again, while
+some kinds of people tend to be married with special frequency other
+kinds tend to be left unmarried.[156] Sexual selection, even when left to
+random influences, is still not left to chance; it follows definite and
+ascertainable laws. In that way the play of love, however free it may
+appear, is really limited in a number of directions. People do not tend
+to fall in love with those who are in racial respects a contrast to
+themselves; they do not tend to fall in love with foreigners; they do
+not tend to be attracted to the ugly, the diseased, the deformed. All
+these things may happen, but they are the exception and not the rule.
+These limitations to the roving impulses of love, while very real, to
+some extent vary at different periods in accordance with the ideals
+which happen to be fashionable. In more remote ages they have been still
+more profoundly modified by religious and social ideas; polygamy and
+polyandry, the custom of marrying only inside one's own caste, or only
+outside it, all these various and contradictory plans have been easily
+accepted at some place and some time, and have offered no more conscious
+obstacle to the free play of love than among ourselves is offered by the
+prohibition against marriage between near relations.
+
+Those simple-minded people who talk about the blind and irresistible
+force of passion are themselves blind to very ordinary psychological
+facts. Passion--when it occurs--requires in normal persons cumulative
+and prolonged forces to impart to it full momentum.[157] In its early
+stages it is under the control of many influences, including influences
+of reason. If it were not so there could be no sexual selection, nor any
+social organization.[158]
+
+The eugenic ideal which is now developing is thus not an artificial
+product, but the reasoned manifestation of a natural instinct, which has
+often been far more severely strained by the arbitrary prohibitions of
+the past than it is ever likely to be by any eugenic ideals of the
+future. The new ideal will be absorbed into the conscience of the
+community, whether or not like a kind of new religion,[159] and will
+instinctively and unconsciously influence the impulses of men and women.
+It will do all this the more surely since, unlike the taboos of savage
+societies, the eugenic ideal will lead men and women to reject as
+partners only the men and women who are naturally unfit--the diseased,
+the abnormal, the weaklings--and conscience will thus be on the side of
+impulse.
+
+It may indeed be pointed out that those who advocate a higher and more
+scientific conscience in matters of mating are by no means plotting
+against love, which is for the most part on their side, but rather
+against the influences that do violence to love: on the one hand, the
+reckless and thoughtless yielding to mere momentary desire, and, on the
+other hand, the still more fatal influences of wealth and position and
+worldly convenience which give a factitious value to persons who would
+never appear attractive partners in life were love and eugenic ideals
+left to go hand in hand. It is such unions, and not those inspired by
+the wholesome instincts of wholesome lovers, which lead, if not to the
+abstract "deterioration of the race," at all events in numberless cases
+to the abiding unhappiness of persons who choose a mate without
+realizing how that mate is likely to develop, nor what sort of children
+may probably be expected from the union. The eugenic ideal will have to
+struggle with the criminal and still more resolutely with the rich; it
+will have few serious quarrels with normal and well constituted lovers.
+
+It will now perhaps be clear how it is that the eugenic conception of
+the improvement of the race embodies a new ideal. We are familiar with
+legislative projects for compulsory certificates as a condition of
+marriage. But even apart from all the other considerations which make
+such schemes both illusory and undesirable, these externally imposed
+regulations fail to go to the root of the matter. If they are voluntary,
+if they spring out of a fine eugenic aspiration, it is another matter.
+Under these conditions the method may be carried out at once. Professor
+Grasset has pointed out one way in which this may be effected. We
+cannot, he remarks, follow the procedure of a military _conseil de
+revision_ and compulsorily reject the candidate for a definite defect.
+But it would be possible for the two families concerned to call a
+conference of their two family doctors, after examination of the
+would-be bride and bridegroom, permitting the doctors to discuss freely
+the medical aspects of the proposed union, and undertaking to accept
+their decision, without asking for the revelation of any secrets, the
+families thus remaining ignorant of the defect which prevented this
+union but might not prevent another union, for the chief danger in many
+cases comes from the conjunction of convergent morbid tendencies.[160] In
+France, where much power remains with the respective families, this
+method might be operative, provided complete confidence was felt in the
+doctors concerned. In some countries, such as England, the prospective
+couple might prefer to take the matter into their own hands, to discuss
+it frankly, and to seek medical advice on their own account; this is now
+much more frequently done than was formerly the case. But all compulsory
+projects of this kind, and indeed any mere legislation, cannot go to the
+root of the matter. For in the first place, what we need is a great body
+of facts, and a careful attention to the record and registration and
+statistical tabulation of personal and family histories. In the second
+place, we need that sound ideals and a high sense of responsibility
+should permeate the whole community, first its finer and more
+distinguished members and then, by the usual contagion that rules in
+such matters, the whole body of its members.[161] In time, no doubt, this
+would lead to concerted social action. We may reasonably expect that a
+time will come when if, for instance, an epileptic woman conceals her
+condition from the man she is marrying it would generally be felt that
+an offence has been committed serious enough to invalidate the marriage.
+We must not suppose that lovers would be either willing or competent to
+investigate each other's family and medical histories. But it would be
+at least as easy and as simple to choose a partner from those persons
+who had successfully passed the eugenic test--more especially since such
+persons would certainly be the most attractive group in the
+community--as it is for an Australian aborigine to select a conjugal
+partner from one social group rather than from any other.[162] It is a
+matter of accepting an ideal and of exerting our personal and social
+influence in the direction of that ideal. If we really seek to raise the
+level of humanity we may in this way begin to do so to-day.
+
+NOTE ON THE LIFE-HISTORY RECORD
+
+The extreme interest of a Life-History Record is obvious, even apart
+from its eventual scientific value. Most of us would have reason to
+congratulate ourselves had such records been customary when we were
+ourselves children. It is probable that this is becoming more generally
+realized, though until recently only the pioneers have here been active.
+"I started a Life-History Album for each of my children," writes Mr.
+F.H. Perrycoste in a private letter, "as soon as they were born; and by
+the time they arrive at man's and woman's estate they will have valuable
+records of their own physical, mental, and moral development, which
+should be of great service to them when they come to have children of
+their own, whilst the physical--in which are included, of course,
+medical--records may at any time be of great value to their own medical
+advisers in later life. I have reason to regret that some such Albums
+were not kept for my wife and myself, for they would have afforded the
+necessary data by which to 'size up' the abilities and conduct of our
+children. I know, for instance, pretty well what was my own Galtonian
+rank as a schoolboy, and I am constantly asking myself whether my boy
+will do as well, better, or worse. Now fortunately I do happen to
+remember roughly what stages I had reached at one or two transition
+periods of school-life; but if only such an Album had been kept for me,
+I could turn it up and check my boy against myself in each subject at
+each yearly stage. You will gather from this that I consider it of great
+importance that ample details of school-work and intellectual
+development should be entered in the Album. I find the space at my
+disposal for these entries insufficient, and consequently I summarize in
+the Album and insert a reference to sheets of fuller details which I
+keep; but it might be well, when another edition of the Album comes to
+be published, to agitate for the insertion of extra blank pages after
+the age of eight or nine, in order to allow of the transcription of full
+school-reports. However, the great thing is to induce people to keep an
+Album that will form the nucleus round which any number of fuller
+records can cluster."
+
+It is not necessary that the Galtonian type of Album should be rigidly
+preserved, and I am indebted to "Henry Hamill," the author of _The Truth
+We Owe to Youth_, for the following suggestions as to the way in which
+such a record may be carried out:
+
+"The book should not be a mere dry rigmarole, but include a certain
+appeal to sentiment. The subject should begin to make the entries
+himself when old enough to do so properly, i.e. so that the book will
+not be disfigured--though indeed the naivity of juvenile phrasing, etc.,
+may be of a particular interest. From a graphological point of view, the
+evolution of the handwriting will be of interest; and if for no other
+reason, specimens of handwriting ought to appear in it from year to
+year, while the parent is still writing the other entries. There may now
+be a certain sacramental character in the life-history. The subject
+should be led to regard the book as a witness, and to perceive in it an
+additional reason for avoiding every act the mention of which would be a
+disfigurement of the history. At the same time, the nature of the
+witness may be made to correct the wrong notions prevailing as to the
+worthiness of acts, and to sanctify certain of them that have been
+foolishly degraded. Thus there may be left several leaves blank before
+the pages of forms for filling in anthropometric and physiological data,
+and the headings may be made to suggest a worthier way of viewing these
+things. For instance, there may be the indication 'Place and time of
+conception,' and a specimen entry may be of service to lead commonplace
+minds into a more reverent and poetical view than is now usual--such as
+the one I culled from the life-history of an American child: 'Our
+second child M---- was conceived on Midsummer Day, under the shade of a
+friendly sycamore, beneath the cloudless blue of Southern California.'
+Or, instead of restricting the reference to the particular episode, it
+may refer to the whole chapter of Love which that episode adorned, more
+especially in the case of a first child, when a poetical history of the
+mating of the parents may precede. The presence of the idea that the
+book would some day be read by others than the intimate circle, would
+restrain the tendency of some persons to inordinate self-revelation and
+'gush.' Such books as these would form the dearest heirlooms of a
+family, helping to knit its bonds firmer, and giving an insight into
+individual character which would supplement the more tangible data for
+the pedigree in a most valuable way. The photographs taken every three
+months or so ought to be as largely as possible nude. The gradual
+transition from childhood would help to prevent an abrupt feeling
+arising, and the practice would be a valuable aid to the rehabilitation
+of the nude, and of genuineness in our daily life, no matter in what
+respect. This leads to the difficult question of how far moral aspects
+should be entertained. 'To-day Johnnie told his first fib; we pretended
+to disbelieve everything else he said, and he began to see that lying
+was bad policy.' 'Chastised Johnnie for the first time for pulling the
+wings off a fly; he wanted to know why we might kill flies outright, but
+not mutilate them,' and so on. For in this way parents would train
+themselves in the psychology of education and character-building, though
+books by specially gifted parents would soon appear for their guidance.
+
+"Of course, whatever relevant circumstances were available about the
+ante-natal period or the mother's condition would be noted (but who
+would expect a mother to note that she laced tight up to such and such a
+month? Perhaps the keeping of a log like this might act as a deterrent).
+Similarly, under diet and regimen, year by year, the assumption of
+breast-feeding--provision of columns for the various incidents of
+it--weight before and after feeding, etc., would have a great suggestive
+value.
+
+"The provision under diet and regimen of columns for 'drug habits, if
+any'--tea, coffee, alcohol, nicotine, morphia, etc.--would have a
+suggestive value and operate in the direction of the simple life and a
+reverence for the body. Some good aphorisms might be strewed in, such
+as:
+
+"'If anything is sacred, the human body is sacred' (Whitman).
+
+"As young people circulate their 'Books of Likes and Dislikes,' etc.,
+and thus in an entertaining way provide each other with insight into
+mutual character, so the Life-History need not be an _arcanum_--at least
+where people have nothing to be ashamed of. It would be a very trying
+ordeal, no doubt, to admit even intimate friends to this confidence.
+_But as eugenics spread, concealment of taint will become almost
+impracticable_, and the facts may as well be confessed. But even then
+there will be limitations. There might be an esoteric book for the
+individual's own account of himself. Such important items as the
+incidence of puberty (though notorious in some communities) could not
+well be included in a book open even to the family circle, for
+generations to come. The quiescence of the genital sense, the sedatives
+naturally occurring, important as these are, and occupying the
+consciousness in so large a degree, would find no place; nevertheless, a
+private journal of the facts would help to steady the individual, and
+prove a check against disrespect to his body.
+
+"As the facts of individual evolution would be noted, so likewise would
+those of dissolution. The first signs of decay--the teeth, the
+elasticity of body and mind--would provide a valuable sphere for all who
+are disposed to the diary-habit. The journals of individuals with a gift
+for introspection would furnish valuable material for psychologists in
+the future. Life would be cleansed in many ways. Journals would not have
+to be bowdlerized, like Marie Bashkirtseff's, for the morbidity that
+gloats on the forbidden would have a lesser scope, much that is now
+regarded as disgraceful being then accepted as natural and right.
+
+"The book might have several volumes, and that for the periods of
+infancy and childhood might need to be less private than the one for
+puberty. More, in his _Utopia_, demands that lovers shall learn to know
+each other as they really are, i.e. naked. That is now the most Utopian
+thing in More's _Utopia_. But the lovers might communicate their
+life-histories to each other as a preliminary.
+
+"The whole plan would, of course, finally have to be over-hauled by the
+so-called 'man of the world.'"
+
+Not everyone may agree with this conception of the Life-History Album
+and its uses. Some will prefer a severely dry and bald record of
+measurements. At the present time, however, there is room for very
+various types of such documents. The important point is to realize that,
+in some form or another, a record of this kind from birth or earlier is
+practicable, and constitutes a record which is highly desirable alike on
+personal, social, and scientific grounds.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[147] Dr. Scott Nearing, "Race Suicide _versus_ Over-Population," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, January, 1911. And from the biological side Professor
+Bateson concludes (_Biological Fact and the Structure of Society_, p.
+23) that "it is in a decline in the birth-rate that the most promising
+omen exists for the happiness of future generations."
+
+[148] Galton himself, the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, and the half-cousin
+of Charles Darwin, may be said to furnish a noble illustration of an
+unconscious process of eugenics. (He has set forth his ancestry in
+_Memories of My Life_.) On his death, the editor of the _Popular Science
+Monthly_ wrote, referring to the fact that Galton was nominated to
+succeed William James in the honorary membership of an Academy of
+Science: "These two men are the greatest whom he has known. James
+possessed the more complicated personality; but they had certain common
+traits--a combination of perfect aristocracy with complete democracy,
+directness, kindliness, generosity, and nobility beyond all measure. It
+has been said that eugenics is futile because it cannot define its end.
+The answer is simple--we want men like William James and Francis Galton"
+(_Popular Science Monthly_, _March_, 1911.) Probably most of those who
+were brought, however slightly, in contact with these two fine
+personalities will subscribe to this conclusion.
+
+[149] Galton chiefly studied the families to which men of intellectual
+ability belong, especially in his _Hereditary Genius_ and _English Men
+of Science_; various kinds of pathological families have since been
+investigated by Karl Pearson and his co-workers (see the series of
+_Biometrika_); the pedigrees of the defective classes (especially the
+feeble-minded and epileptic) are now being accurately worked out, as by
+Godden, at Vineland, New Jersey, and Davenport, in New York (see e.g.
+_Eugenics Review_, April, 1911, and _Journal of Nervous and Mental
+Disease_, November, 1911).
+
+[150] "When once more the importance of good birth comes to be recognized
+in a new sense," wrote W.C.D. Whetham and Mrs. Whetham (in _The Family
+and the Nation_, p. 222), "when the innate physical and mental qualities
+of different families are recorded in the central sociological
+department or scientifically reformed College of Arms, the pedigrees of
+all will be known to be of supreme interest. It would be understood to
+be more important to marry into a family with a good hereditary record
+of physical and mental and moral qualities than it ever has been
+considered to be allied to one with sixteen quarterings."
+
+[151] The importance of such biographical records of aptitude and
+character are so great that some, like Schallmayer (_Vererbung und
+Auslese_, 2nd ed., 1910, p. 389) believe that they must be made
+universally obligatory. This proposal, however, seems premature.
+
+[152] In many undesigned and unforeseen ways these registers may be of
+immense value. They may even prove the means of overthrowing our
+pernicious and destructive system of so-called "education." A step in
+this direction has been suggested by Mr. R.T. Bodey, Inspector of
+Elementary Schools, at a meeting of the Liverpool branch of the Eugenics
+Education Society: "Education facilities should be carefully distributed
+with regard to the scientific likelihood of their utilization to the
+maximum of national advantage, and this not for economic reasons only,
+but because it was cruel to drag children from their own to a different
+sphere of life, and cruel to the class they deserted. Since the
+activities of the nation and the powers of the children were alike
+varied in kind and degree, the most natural plan would be to sort them
+both out, and then design a school system expressly in order to fit one
+to the other. At present there was no fixed purpose, but a perpetual
+riot of changes, resulting in distraction of mind, discontinuity of
+purpose, and increase of cost, while happiness decayed because desires
+grew faster than possessions or the sense of achievement. The only
+really scientific basis for a national system of education would be a
+full knowledge of the family history of each child. With more perfect
+classification of family talent the need of scholarships of
+transplantation would become less, for each of them was the confession
+of an initial error in placing the child. Then there would be more money
+to be spared for industrial research, travelling and art studentships,
+and other aids to those who had the rare gift of original thought"
+(_British Medical Journal_, November 18, 1911).
+
+[153] I should add that there is one obstacle, viz. expense. When the
+present chapter was first published in its preliminary form as an
+article in the _Nineteenth Century and After_ (May, 1906), Galton,
+always alive to everything bearing on the study of Eugenics, wrote to me
+that he had been impressed by the generally sympathetic reception my
+paper had received, and that he felt encouraged to consider whether it
+was possible to begin giving such certificates at once. He asked for my
+views, among others, as to the ground which should be covered by such
+certificates. The programme I set forth was somewhat extensive, as I
+considered that the applicant must not only bring evidence of a sound
+ancestry, but also submit to anthropological, psychological, and medical
+examination. Galton eventually came to the conclusion that the expenses
+involved by the scheme rendered it for the present impracticable. My
+opinion was, and is, that though the charge for such a certificate might
+in the first place be prohibitive for most people, a few persons might
+find it desirable to seek, and advantageous to possess, such
+certificates, and that it is worth while at all events to make a
+beginning.
+
+[154] Mannhardt, _Wald-und Feldkulte_, 1875, Vol. I, pp. 422 _et seq._ I
+have discussed seasonal erotic festivals in a study of "The Phenomena of
+Sexual Periodicity," _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. I.
+
+[155] Thus we read in a small popular periodical: "I am prepared to back
+human nature against all the cranks in Christendom. Human nature will
+endure a faddist so long as he does not interfere with things it prizes.
+One of these things is the right to select its partner for life. If a
+man loves a girl he is not going to give her up because she happens to
+have an aunt in a lunatic asylum or an uncle who has epileptic fits,"
+etc. In the same way it may be said that a man will allow nothing to
+interfere with his right to eat such food as he chooses, and is not
+going to give up a dish he likes because it happens to be peppered with
+arsenic. It may be so, let us grant, among savages. The growth of
+civilization lies in ever-extended self-control guided by foresight.
+
+[156] I have summarized some of the evidence on these points, especially
+that showing that sexual attraction tends to be towards like persons and
+not, as was formerly supposed, towards the unlike, in _Studies in the
+Psychology of Sex_, Vol. IV, "Sexual Selection in Man."
+
+[157] In other words, the process of tumescence is gradual and complex.
+See Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. III, "The
+Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[158] As Roswell Johnson remarks ("The Evolution of Man and its Control,"
+_Popular Science Monthly_, January, 1910): "While it is undeniable that
+love when once established defies rational considerations, yet we must
+remark that sexual selection proceeds usually through two stages, the
+first being one of mere mutual attraction and interest. It is in this
+stage that the will and reason are operative, and here alone that any
+considerable elevation of standard may be effective."
+
+[159] Galton looked upon eugenics as fitted to become a factor in religion
+(_Essays in Eugenics_, p. 68). It may, however, be questioned whether
+this consummation is either probable or desirable. The same religious
+claim has been made for socialism. But, as Dr. Eden Paul remarks in a
+recent pamphlet on _Socialism and Eugenics_, "Whereas both Socialism and
+Eugenics are concerned solely with the application of the knowledge
+gained by experience to the amelioration of the human lot, it seems
+preferable to dispense with religious terminology, and to regard the two
+doctrines as complementary parts of the great modern movement known by
+the name of Humanism." Personally, I do not consider that either
+Socialism or Eugenics can be regarded as coming within the legitimate
+sphere of religion, which I have elsewhere attempted to define
+(Conclusion to _The New Spirit_).
+
+[160] J. Grasset, in Dr. A. Marie's _Traite International de Psychologie
+Pathologique_, 1910, Vol. I, p. 25. Grasset proceeds to discuss the
+principles which must guide the physician in such consultations.
+
+[161] This has been clearly realized by the German Society of Eugenics or
+"Racial Hygiene," as it is usually termed in Germany (Internationale
+Gesellschaft fuer Rassen-Hygiene), founded by Dr. Alfred Ploetz, with the
+co-operation of many distinguished physicians and men of science, "to
+further the theory and practice of racial hygiene." It is a chief aim of
+this Society to encourage the registration by the members of the
+biological and other physical and psychic characteristics of themselves
+and their families, in order to obtain a body of data on which
+conclusions may eventually be based; the members undertake not to enter
+on a marriage except they are assured by medical investigation of both
+parties that the union is not likely to cause disaster to either partner
+or to the offspring. The Society also admits associates who only occupy
+themselves with the scientific aspects of its work and with propaganda.
+In England the Eugenics Education Society (with its organ the _Eugenics
+Review_) has done much to stimulate an intelligent interest in
+eugenics.
+
+[162] How influential public opinion may be in the selection of mates is
+indicated by the influence it already exerts--in less than a century--in
+the limitation of offspring. This is well marked in some parts of
+France. Thus, concerning a rural district near the Garonne, Dr. Belbeze,
+who knows it thoroughly, writes (_La Neurasthenie Rurale_, 1911):
+"Public opinion does not at present approve of multiple procreation.
+Large families, there can be no doubt, are treated with contempt.
+Couples who produce a numerous progeny are looked on, with a wink, as
+'maladroits,' which in this region is perhaps the supreme term of
+abuse.... Public opinion is all-powerful, and alone suffices to produce
+restraint, when foresight is not adequate for this purpose."
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+RELIGION AND THE CHILD
+
+     Religious Education in Relation to Social Hygiene and to
+     Psychology--The Psychology of the Child--The Contents of Children's
+     Minds--The Imagination of Children--How far may Religion be
+     assimilated by Children?--Unfortunate Results of Early Religious
+     Instruction--Puberty the Age for Religious Education--Religion as
+     an Initiation into a Mystery--Initiation among Savages--The
+     Christian Sacraments--The Modern Tendency as regards Religious
+     Instruction--Its Advantages--Children and Fairy Tales--The Bible of
+     Childhood--Moral Training.
+
+
+It is a fact as strange as it is unfortunate that the much-debated
+question of the religious education of children is almost exclusively
+considered from the points of view of the sectarian and the secularist.
+In a discussion of this question we are almost certain to be invited to
+take part in an unedifying wrangle between Church and Chapel, between
+religion and secularism. That is the strange part of it, that it should
+seem impossible to get away from this sectarian dispute as to the
+abstract claims of varying religious bodies. The unfortunate part of it
+is that in this quarrel the interests of the community, the interests of
+the child, even the interests of religion are alike disregarded.
+
+If we really desire to reach a sound conclusion on a matter which is
+unquestionably of great moment, both for the child and for the community
+of which he will one day become a citizen, we must resolutely put into
+the background, as of secondary importance, the cries of contending
+sects, religious or irreligious. The first place here belongs to the
+psychologist, who is building up the already extensive edifice of
+knowledge concerning the real nature of the child and the contents and
+growth of the youthful mind, and to the practical teacher who is in
+touch with that knowledge and can bring it to the test of actual
+experience. Before considering what drugs are to be administered we must
+consider the nature of the organism they are to be thrust into.
+
+The mind of the child is at once logical and extravagant, matter-of-fact
+and poetic or rather mytho-poeic. This combination of apparent
+opposites, though it often seems almost incomprehensible to the adult,
+is the inevitable outcome of the fact that the child's dawning
+intelligence is working, as it were, in a vacuum. In other words, the
+child has not acquired the two endowments which chiefly give character
+to the whole body of the adult's beliefs and feelings. He is without the
+pubertal expansion which fills out the mind with new personal and
+altruistic impulses and transforms it with emotion that is often
+dazzling and sometimes distorting; and he has not yet absorbed, or even
+gained the power of absorbing, all those beliefs, opinions, and mental
+attitudes which the race has slowly acquired and transmitted as the
+traditional outcome of its experiences.
+
+The intellectual processes of children, the attitude and contents of the
+child's mind, have been explored during recent years with a care and
+detail that have never been brought to that study before. This is not a
+matter of which the adult can be said to possess any instinctive or
+matter-of-course knowledge. Adults usually have a strange aptitude to
+forget entirely the facts of their lives as children, and children are
+usually, like peoples of primitive race, very cautious in the deliberate
+communication of their mental operations, their emotions, and their
+ideas. That is to say that the child is equally without the internally
+acquired complex emotional nature which has its kernel in the sexual
+impulse, and without the externally acquired mental equipment which may
+be summed up in the word tradition. But he possesses the vivid
+activities founded on the exercise of his senses and appetites, and he
+is able to reason with a relentless severity from which the
+traditionalized and complexly emotional adult shrinks back with horror.
+The child creates the world for himself, and he creates it in his own
+image and the images of the persons he is familiar with. Nothing is
+sacred to him, and he pushes to the most daring extremities--as it seems
+to the adult--the arguments derived from his own personal experiences.
+He is unable to see any distinction between the natural and the
+supernatural, and he is justified in this conviction because, as a
+matter of fact, he himself lives in what for most adults would be a
+supernatural atmosphere; most children see visions with closed and
+sometimes with open eyes;[163] they are not infrequently subject to
+colour-hearing and other synaesthetic sensations; and they occasionally
+hear hallucinatory voices. It is possible, indeed, that this is the case
+with all children in some slight degree, although the faculty dies out
+early and is easily forgotten because its extraordinary character was
+never recognized.
+
+Of 48 Boston children, says Stanley Hall,[164] 20 believed the sun, moon,
+and stars to live, 16 thought flowers could feel, and 15 that dolls
+would feel pain if burnt. The sky was found the chief field in which the
+children exercise their philosophic minds. About three-quarters of them
+thought the world a plain with the sky like a bowl turned over it,
+sometimes believing that it was of such thin texture that one could
+easily break through, though so large that much floor-sweeping was
+necessary in Heaven. The sun may enter the ground when it sets, but half
+the children thought that at night it rolls or flies away, or is blown
+or walks, or God pulls it higher up out of sight, taking it up into
+Heaven, according to some putting it to bed, and even taking off its
+clothes and putting them on again in the morning, or again, it is
+believed to lie under the trees at night and the angels mind it. God, of
+whom the children always hear so much, plays a very large part in these
+conceptions, and is made directly responsible for all cosmic phenomena.
+Thus thunder to these American children was God groaning or kicking or
+rolling barrels about, or turning a big handle, or grinding snow, or
+breaking something, or rattling a big hammer; while the lightning is due
+to God putting his finger out, or turning the gas on quick, or striking
+matches, or setting paper on fire. According to Boston children, God is
+a big, perhaps a blue, man, to be seen in the sky, on the clouds, in
+church, or even in the streets. They declare that God comes to see them
+sometimes, and they have seen him enter the gate. He makes lamps,
+babies, dogs, trees, money, etc., and the angels work for him. He looks
+like a priest, or a teacher, or papa, and the children like to look at
+him; a few would themselves like to be God. His house in the sky may be
+made of stone or brick; birds, children, and Santa Claus live with God.
+
+Birds and beasts, their food and their furniture, as Burnham points out,
+all talk to children; when the dew is on the grass "the grass is
+crying," the stars are candles or lamps, perhaps cinders from God's
+stove, butterflies are flying pansies, icicles are Christmas candy.
+Children have imaginary play-brothers and sisters and friends, with whom
+they talk. Sometimes God talks with them. Even the prosiest things are
+vivified; the tracks of dirty feet on the floor are flowers; a creaking
+chair talks; the shoemaker's nails are children whom he is driving to
+school; a pedlar is Santa Claus.
+
+Miss Miriam Levy once investigated the opinions of 560 children, boys
+and girls, between the ages of 4 and 14, as to how the man in the moon
+got there. Only 5 were unable to offer a serious explanation; 48 thought
+there was no man there at all; 50 offered a scientific explanation of
+the phenomena; but all the rest, the great majority, presented
+imaginative solutions which could be grouped into seventeen different
+classes.
+
+Such facts as these--which can easily be multiplied and are indeed
+familiar to all, though their significance is not usually
+realized--indicate the special tendencies of the child in the religious
+sphere. He is unable to follow the distinctions which the adult is
+pleased to make between "real," "spiritual" and "imaginary" beings. To
+him such distinctions do not exist. He may, if he so pleases, adopt the
+names or such characteristics as he chooses, of the beings he is told
+about, but he puts them into his own world, on a footing of more or less
+equality, and he decides himself what their fate is to be. The adult's
+supreme beings by no means always survive in the struggle for existence
+which takes place in the child's imaginative world. It was found among
+many thousand children entering the city schools of Berlin that Red
+Riding Hood was better known than God, and Cinderella than Christ. That
+is the result of the child's freedom from the burden of tradition.
+
+Yet at the same time the opposite though allied peculiarity of
+childhood--the absence of the emotional developments of puberty which
+deepen and often cloud the mind a few years later--is also making itself
+felt. Extravagant as his beliefs may appear, the child is an
+uncompromising rationalist and realist. His supposed imaginativeness is
+indeed merely the result of his logical insistence that all the new
+phenomena presented to him shall be thought of in terms of himself and
+his own environment. His wildest notions are based on precise, concrete,
+and personal facts of his own experience. That is why he is so keen a
+questioner of grown-up people's ideas, and a critic who may sometimes be
+as dangerous and destructive as Bishop Colenso's Zulus. Most children
+before the age of thirteen, as Earl Barnes states, are inquirers, if not
+sceptics.
+
+If we clearly realize these characteristics of the childish mind, we
+cannot fail to understand the impression made on it by religious
+instruction. The statements and stories that are repeated to him are
+easily accepted by the child in so far, and in so far only, as they
+answer to his needs; and when accepted they are assimilated, which means
+that they are compelled to obey the laws of his own mental world. In so
+far as the statements and stories presented to him are not acceptable or
+cannot be assimilated, it happens either that they pass by him
+unnoticed, or else that he subjects them to a cold and matter-of-fact
+logic which exerts a dissolving influence upon them.
+
+Now a few of the ideas of religion are assimilable by the child, and
+notably the idea of a God as the direct agent in cosmic phenomena; some
+of the childish notions I have quoted illustrate the facility with which
+the child adopts this idea. He adopts, that is, what may be called the
+hard precise skeleton of the idea, and imagines a colossal magician, of
+anthropomorphic (if not paidomorphic) nature, whose operations are
+curious, though they altogether fail to arouse any mysterious reverence
+or awe for the agent. Even this is not very satisfactory, and Stanley
+Hall, in the spirit of Froebel, considers that the best result is
+attained when the child knows no God but his own mother.[165] But for the
+most part the ideas of religion cannot be accepted or assimilated by
+children at all; they were not made by children or for children, but
+represent the feelings, thoughts, and experiences of men, and sometimes
+even of very exceptional and abnormal men. "The child," it has been
+said, "no doubt has the psychical elements out of which the religious
+experience is evolved, just as the seed has the promise of the fruit
+which will come in the fullness of time. But to say, therefore, that the
+average child is religious, or capable of receiving the usual advanced
+religious instruction, is equivalent to saying that the seed is the
+fruit or capable of being converted into fruit before the fullness of
+time."[166] The child who grows devout and becomes anxious about the state
+of his soul is a morbid and unwholesome child; if he prefers praying for
+the conversion of his play-fellows to joining them in their games he is
+not so much an example of piety as a pathological case whose future must
+be viewed with anxiety; and to preach religious duties to children is
+exactly the same, it has been well said, as to exhort them to imagine
+themselves married people and to inculcate on them the duties of that
+relation. Fortunately the normal child is usually able to resist these
+influences. It is the healthy child's impulse either to let them fall
+with indifference or to apply to them the instrument of his unmerciful
+logic.
+
+Naturally, the adult, in self-defence, is compelled to react against
+this indifferent or aggressive attitude of the child. He may be no match
+for the child in logic, and even unspeakably shocked by his daring
+inquiries, like an amiable old clergyman I knew when a Public School
+teacher in Australia; he went to a school to give Bible lessons, and was
+one day explaining how King David was a man after God's own heart, when
+a small voice was heard making inquiries about Uriah's wife; the small
+boy was hushed down by the shocked clergyman, and the cause of religion
+was not furthered in that school. But the adult knows that he has on his
+side tradition which has not yet been acquired by the child, and the
+inner emotional expansion which still remains unliberated in the child.
+The adult, therefore, fortified by this superiority, feels justified in
+falling back on the weapon of authority: "You may not _want_ to believe
+this and to learn it, but you've _got_ to."
+
+It is in this way that the adult wins the battle of religious education.
+In the deeper and more far-seeing sense he has lost it. Religion has
+become, not a charming privilege, but a lesson, a lesson about
+unbelievable things, a meaningless task to be learnt by heart, a
+drudgery. It may be said that even if that is so, religious lessons
+merely share the inevitable fate of all subjects which become school
+tasks. But that is not the case. Every other subject which is likely to
+become a school task is apt to become intelligible and attractive to
+some considerable section of the scholars because it is within the range
+of childish intelligence. But, for the two very definite reasons I have
+pointed out, this is only to an extremely limited degree true as regards
+the subject of religion, because the young organism is an instrument not
+as yet fitted with the notes which religion is most apt to strike.
+
+Of all the school subjects religion thus tends to be the least
+attractive. Lobsien, at Kiel, found a few years since, in the course of
+a psychological investigation, that when five hundred children (boys and
+girls in equal numbers), between the ages of nine and fourteen, were
+asked which was their favourite lesson hour, only twelve (ten girls and
+two boys) named the religious lesson.[167] In other words, nearly 98 per
+cent children (and nearly all the boys) find that religion is either an
+indifferent or a repugnant subject. I have no reports at hand as regards
+English children, but there is little reason to suppose that the result
+would be widely different.[168] Here and there a specially skilful
+teacher might bring about a result more favourable to religious
+teaching, but that could only be done by depriving the subject of its
+most characteristic elements.
+
+This is, however, not by any means the whole of the mischief which, from
+the religious point of view, is thus perpetrated. It might, on _a
+priori_ grounds, be plausibly argued that even if there is among healthy
+young children a certain amount of indifference or even repugnance to
+religious instruction, that is of very little consequence: they cannot
+be too early grounded in the principles of the faith they will later be
+called on to profess; and however incapable they may now be of
+understanding the teaching that is being inculcated in the school, they
+will realize its importance when their knowledge and experience
+increase. But however plausible this may seem, practically it is not
+what usually happens. The usual effect of constantly imparting to
+children an instruction they are not yet ready to receive is to deaden
+their sensibilities to the whole subject of religion.[169] The premature
+familiarity with religious influences--putting aside the rare cases
+where it leads to a morbid pre-occupation with religion--induces a
+reaction of routine which becomes so habitual that it successfully
+withstands the later influences which on more virgin soil would have
+evoked vigorous and living response. So far from preparing the way for a
+more genuine development of religious impulse later on, this precocious
+scriptural instruction is just adequate to act as an inoculation against
+deeper and more serious religious interests. The commonplace child in
+later life accepts the religion it has been inured to so early as part
+of the conventional routine of life. The more vigorous and original
+child for the same reason shakes it off, perhaps for ever.
+
+Luther, feeling the need to gain converts to Protestantism as early as
+possible, was a strong advocate for the religious training of children,
+and has doubtless had much influence in this matter on the Protestant
+churches. "The study of religion, of the Bible and the Catechism," says
+Fiedler, "of course comes first and foremost in his scheme of
+instruction." He was also quite prepared to adapt it to the childish
+mind. "Let children be taught," he writes, "that our dear Lord sits in
+Heaven on a golden throne, that He has a long grey beard and a crown of
+gold." But Luther quite failed to realize the inevitable psychological
+reaction in later life against such fairy-tales.
+
+At a later date, Rousseau, who, like Luther, was on the side of
+religion, realized, as Luther failed to realize, the disastrous results
+of attempting to teach it to children. In _La Nouvelle Heloise_,
+Saint-Preux writes that Julie had explained to him how she sought to
+surround her children with good influences without forcing any religious
+instruction on them: "As to the Catechism, they don't so much as know
+what it is." "What! Julie, your children don't learn their Catechism?"
+"No, my friend, my children don't learn their Catechism." "So pious a
+mother!" I exclaimed; "I can't understand. And why don't your children
+learn their Catechism?" "In order that they may one day believe it. I
+wish to make Christians of them."[170]
+
+Since Rousseau's day this may be said to be the general attitude of
+nearly all thinkers who have given attention to the question, even
+though they may not have viewed it psychologically. It is an attitude by
+no means confined to those who are anxious that children should grow up
+to be genuine Christians, but is common to all who consider that the
+main point is that children should grow up to be, at all events, genuine
+men and women. "I do not think," writes John Stuart Mill, in 1868,
+"there should be any _authoritative_ teaching at all on such subjects. I
+think parents ought to point out to their children, when the children
+begin to question them or to make observations of their own, the various
+opinions on such subjects, and what the parents themselves think the
+most powerful reasons for and against. Then, if the parents show a
+strong feeling of the importance of truth, and also of the difficulty of
+attaining it, it seems to me that young people's minds will be
+sufficiently prepared to regard popular opinion or the opinion of those
+about them with respectful tolerance, and may be safely left to form
+definite conclusions in the course of mature life."[171]
+
+There are few among us who have not suffered from too early familiarity
+with the Bible and the conceptions of religion. Even for a man of really
+strong and independent intellect it may be many years before the
+precociously dulled feelings become fresh again, before the fetters of
+routine fall off, and he is enabled at last to approach the Bible with
+fresh receptivity and to realize, for the first time in his life, the
+treasures of art and beauty and divine wisdom it contains. But for most
+that moment never comes round. For the majority the religious education
+of the school as effectually seals the Bible for life as the classical
+education of the college seals the great authors of Greece and Rome for
+life; no man opens his school books again when he has once left school.
+Those who read Greek and Latin for love have not usually come out of
+universities, and there is surely a certain significance in the fact
+that the children of one's secularist friends are so often found to
+become devout church-goers, while, according to the frequent
+observation, devout parents often have most irreligious offspring, just
+as the bad boys at school and college are frequently sons of the clergy.
+
+At puberty and during adolescence everything begins to be changed. The
+change, it is important to remember, is a natural change, and tends to
+come about spontaneously; "where no set forms have been urged, the
+religious emotion," as Lancaster puts it, "comes forth as naturally as
+the sun rises."[172] That period, really and psychologically, marks a "new
+birth." Emotions which are of fundamental importance, not only for the
+individual's personal life but for his social and even cosmic
+relationships, are for the first time born. Not only is the child's body
+remoulded in the form of a man or a woman, but the child-soul becomes a
+man-soul or a woman-soul, and nothing can possibly be as it has been
+before. The daringly sceptical logician has gone, and so has the
+imaginative dreamer for whom the world was the automatic magnifying
+mirror of his own childish form and environment. It has been revealed to
+him that there are independent personal and impersonal forces outside
+himself, forces with which he may come into a conscious and
+fascinatingly exciting relationship. It is a revelation of supreme
+importance, and with it comes not only the complexly emotional and
+intellectual realization of personality, but the aptitude to enter into
+and assimilate the traditions of the race.
+
+It cannot be too strongly emphasized that this is the moment, and the
+earliest moment, when it becomes desirable to initiate the boy or girl
+into the mysteries of religion. That it is the best moment is indicated
+by the well-recognized fact that the immediately post-pubertal period of
+adolescence is the period during which, even spontaneously, the most
+marked religious phenomena tend to occur.[173] Stanley Hall seems to think
+that twelve is the age at which the cultivation of the religious
+consciousness may begin; "the age, signalized by the ancient Greeks as
+that at which the study of what was comprehensively called music should
+begin, the age at which Roman guardianship ended, at which boys are
+confirmed in the modern Greek, Catholic, Lutheran and Episcopal
+Churches, and at which the Child Jesus entered the Temple, is as early
+as any child ought consciously to go about his Heavenly Father's
+business."[174] But I doubt whether we can fix the age definitely by
+years, nor is it indeed quite accurate to assert that so early an age as
+twelve is generally accepted as the age of initiation; the Anglican
+Church, for example, usually confirms at the age of fifteen. It is not
+age with which we ought to be concerned, but a biological epoch of
+psychic evolution. It is unwise to insist on any particular age, because
+development takes place within a considerably wide limit of years.
+
+I have spoken of the introduction to religion at puberty as the
+initiation into a mystery. The phrase was deliberately chosen, for it
+seems to me to be not a metaphor, but the expression of a truth which
+has always been understood whenever religion has been a reality and not
+a mere convention. Among savages in nearly all parts of the world the
+boy or girl at puberty is initiated into the mystery of manhood or of
+womanhood, into the duties and the privileges of the adult members of
+the tribe. The youth is taken into a solitary place, for a month or
+more, he is made to suffer pain and hardship, to learn self-restraint,
+he is taught the lore of the tribe as well as the elementary rules of
+morality and justice; he is shown the secret things of the tribe and
+their meaning and significance, which no stranger may know. He is, in
+short, enabled to find his soul, and he emerges from this discipline a
+trained and responsible member of his tribe. The girl receives a
+corresponding training, suited to her sex, also in solitude, at the
+hands of the older women. A clear and full description of a typical
+savage initiation into manhood at puberty is presented by Dr. Haddon in
+the fifth volume of the _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits_, and Dr. Haddon makes the comment: "It is
+not easy to conceive of more effectual means for a rapid training."
+
+The ideas of remote savages concerning the proper manner of initiating
+youth in the religious and other mysteries of life may seem of little
+personal assistance to superiorly civilized people like ourselves. But
+let us turn, therefore, to the Greeks. They also had preserved the idea
+and the practice of initiation into sacred mysteries, though in a
+somewhat modified form because religion had ceased to be so intimately
+blended with all the activities of life. The Eleusinian and other
+mysteries were initiations into sacred knowledge and insight which, as
+is now recognized, involved no revelation of obscure secrets, but were
+mysteries in the sense that all intimate experiences of the soul, the
+experiences of love quite as much as those of religion, are mysteries,
+not to be lightly or publicly spoken of. In that feeling the Greek was
+at one with the Papuan, and it is interesting to observe that the
+procedure of initiation into the Greek mysteries, as described by Theon
+of Smyrna and other writers, followed the same course as the pubertal
+initiations of savages; there was the same preliminary purification by
+water, the same element of doctrinal teaching, the same ceremonial and
+symbolic rubbing with sand or charcoal or clay, the same conclusion in a
+joyous feast, even the same custom of wearing wreaths.
+
+In how far the Christian sacraments were consciously moulded after the
+model of the Greek mysteries is still a disputed point;[175] but the first
+Christians were seeking the same spiritual initiation, and they
+necessarily adopted, consciously or unconsciously, methods of procedure
+which, in essentials, were fundamentally the same as those they were
+already familiar with. The early Christian Church adopted the rite of
+Baptism not merely as a symbol of initiation, but as an actual component
+part of a process of initiation; the purifying ceremony was preceded by
+long preparation, and when at last completed the baptized were sometimes
+crowned with garlands. When at a later period in the history of the
+Church the physical part of the initiation was divorced from the
+spiritual part, and baptism was performed in infancy and confirmation at
+puberty, a fatal mistake was made, and each part of the rite largely
+lost its real significance.
+
+But it still remains true that Christianity embodied in its practical
+system the ancient custom of initiating the young at puberty, and that
+the custom exists in an attenuated form in all the more ancient
+Christian Churches. The rite of Confirmation has, however, been
+devitalized, and its immense significance has been almost wholly lost.
+Instead of being regarded as a real initiation into the privileges and
+the responsibilities of a religious communion, of an active fellowship
+for the realization of a divine life on earth, it has become a mere
+mechanical corollary of the precedent rite of baptism, a formal
+condition of participation in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The
+splendid and many-sided discipline by which the child of the savage was
+initiated into the secrets of his own emotional nature and the sacred
+tradition of his people has been degraded into the learning of a
+catechism and a few hours' perfunctory instruction in the schoolroom or
+in the parlour of the curate's lodgings. The vital kernel of the rite is
+decayed and only the dead shell is left, while some of the Christian
+Churches have lost even the shell.
+
+It is extremely probable that in no remote future the State in England
+will reject as insoluble the problem of imparting religious instruction
+to the young in its schools, in accordance with a movement of opinion
+which is taking place in all civilized countries.[176] The support which
+the Secular Education League has found in the most various quarters is
+without doubt a fact of impressive significance.[177] It is well known
+also that the working classes--the people chiefly concerned in the
+matter--are distinctly opposed to religious teaching in State schools.
+There can be little doubt that before many years have passed, in England
+as elsewhere, the Churches will have to face the question of the best
+methods of themselves undertaking that task of religious training which
+they have sought to foist upon the State. If they are to fulfil this
+duty in a wise and effectual manner they must follow the guidance of
+biological psychology at the point where it is at one with the teaching
+of their own most ancient traditions, and develop the merely formal rite
+of confirmation into a true initiation of the new-born soul at puberty
+into the deepest secrets of life and the highest mysteries of religion.
+
+It must, of course, be remembered that, so far as England is concerned,
+we live in an empire in which there are 337 millions of people who are
+not even nominally Christians,[178] and that even among the comparatively
+small proportion (about 14 per cent) who call themselves "Christians," a
+very large proportion are practically Secularists, and a considerable
+number avowedly so. If, however, we assume the Secularist's position,
+the considerations here brought forward still retain their validity. In
+the first place, the undoubtedly frequent hostility of the Freethinker
+to Christianity is not so much directed against vital religion as
+against a dead Church. The Freethinker is prepared to respect the
+Christian who by free choice and the exercise of thought has attained
+the position of a Christian, but he resents the so-called Christian who
+is merely in the Church because he finds himself there, without any
+effort of his will or his intelligence. The convinced secularist feels
+respect for the sincere Christian, even though it may only be in the
+sense that the real saint feels tenderness for the hopeless sinner. And
+in the second place, as I have sought to point out, the facts we are
+here concerned with are far too fundamental to concern the Christian
+alone. They equally concern the secularist, who also is called upon to
+satisfy the spiritual hunger of the adolescent youth, to furnish him
+with a discipline for his entry into life, and a satisfying vision of
+the universe. And if secularists have not always grasped this necessity,
+we may perhaps find therein one main reason why secularism has not met
+with so enormous and enthusiastic a reception as the languor and
+formalism of the churches seemed to render possible.
+
+If the view here set forth is sound,--a view more and more widely held
+by educationists and by psychologists trained in biology,--the first
+twelve years must be left untouched by all conceptions of life and the
+world which transcend immediate experience, for the child whose
+spiritual virginity has been prematurely tainted will never be able to
+awake afresh to the full significance of those conceptions when the age
+of religion at last arrives. But are we, it may be asked, to leave the
+child's restless, inquisitive, imaginative brain without any food during
+all those early years? By no means. Even admitting that, as it has been
+said, at the early stage religious training is the supreme art of
+standing out of Nature's way, it is still not hard to find what, in this
+matter, the way of Nature is. The life of the individual recapitulates
+the life of the race, and there can be no better imaginative food for
+the child than that which was found good in the childhood of the race.
+The child who is deprived of fairy tales invents them for himself,--for
+he must have them for the needs of his psychic growth just as there is
+reason to believe he must have sugar for his metabolic growth,--but he
+usually invents them badly.[179] The savage sees the world almost exactly
+as the civilized child sees it, as the magnified image of himself and
+his own environment; but he sees it with an added poetic charm, a
+delightful and accomplished inventiveness which the child is incapable
+of. The myths and legends of primitive peoples--for instance, those of
+the British Columbian Indians, so carefully reproduced by Boas in German
+and Hill Tout in English--are one in their precision and their
+extravagance with the stories of children, but with a finer
+inventiveness. It was, I believe, many years ago pointed out by Ziller
+that fairy-tales ought to play a very important part in the education of
+young children, and since then B. Hartmann, Stanley Hall and many others
+of the most conspicuous educational authorities have emphasized the same
+point. Fairy tales are but the final and transformed versions of
+primitive myths, creative legends, stories of old gods. In purer and
+less transformed versions the myths and legends of primitive peoples are
+often scarcely less adapted to the child's mind. Julia Gayley argues
+that the legends of early Greek civilization, the most perfect of all
+dreams, should above all be revealed to children; the early traditions
+of the East and of America yield material that is scarcely less fitted
+for the child's imaginative uses. Portions of the Bible, especially of
+Genesis, are in the strict sense fairy tales, that is legends of early
+gods and their deeds which have become stories. In the opinion of many
+these portions of the Bible may suitably be given to children (though it
+is curious to observe that a Welsh Education Committee a few years ago
+prohibited the reading in schools of precisely the most legendary part
+of Genesis); but it must always be remembered, from the Christian point
+of view, that nothing should be given at this early age which is to be
+regarded as essential at a later age, for the youth turns against the
+tales of his childhood as he turns against its milk-foods. Some day,
+perhaps, it may be thought worth while to compile a Bible for childhood,
+not a mere miscellaneous assortment of stories, but a collection of
+books as various in origin and nature as are the books of the
+Hebraic-Christian Bible, so that every kind of child in all his moods
+and stages of growth might here find fit pasture. Children would not
+then be left wholly to the mercy of the thin and frothy literature which
+the contemporary press pours upon them so copiously; they would possess
+at least one great and essential book which, however fantastic and
+extravagant it might often be, would yet have sprung from the deepest
+instincts of the primitive soul, and furnish answers to the most
+insistent demands of primitive hearts. Such a book, even when finally
+dropped from the youth's or girl's hands, would still leave its vague
+perfume behind.
+
+It may be pointed out, finally, that the fact that it is impossible to
+teach children even the elements of adult religion and philosophy, as
+well as unwise to attempt it, by no means proves that all serious
+teaching is impossible in childhood. On the imaginative and spiritual
+side, it is true, the child is re-born and transformed during
+adolescence, but on the practical and concrete side his life and thought
+are for the most part but the regular and orderly development of the
+habits he has already acquired. The elements of ethics on the one hand,
+as well as of natural science on the other, may alike be taught to
+children, and indeed they become a necessary part of early education, if
+the imaginative side of training is to be duly balanced and
+complemented. The child as much as the adult can be taught, and is
+indeed apt to learn, the meaning and value of truth and honesty, of
+justice and pity, of kindness and courtesy; we have wrangled and worried
+for so long concerning the teaching of religion in schools that we have
+failed altogether to realize that these fundamental notions of morality
+are a far more essential part of school training. It must, however,
+always be remembered that they cannot be adequately treated merely as an
+isolated subject of instruction, and possibly ought not to be so treated
+at all. As Harriet Finlay-Johnson wisely says in her _Dramatic Method of
+Instruction_: "It is impossible to shut away moral teaching into a
+compartment of the mind. It should be firmly and openly diffused
+throughout the thoughts, to 'leaven the whole of the lump.'" She adds
+the fruitful suggestion: "There is real need for some lessons in which
+the emotions shall not be ignored. Nature study, properly treated, can
+touch both senses and emotions."[180]
+
+The child is indeed quite apt to acquire a precise knowledge of the
+natural objects around him, of flowers and plants and to some extent of
+animals, objects which to the savage also are of absorbing interest. In
+this way, under wise guidance, the caprices of his imagination may be
+indirectly restrained and the lessons of life taught, while at the same
+time he is thus being directly prepared for the serious studies which
+must occupy so much of his later youth.
+
+The child, we thus have to realize, is, from the educational point of
+view of social hygiene, a being of dual nature, who needs ministering to
+on both sides. On the one hand he demands the key to an imaginative
+paradise which one day he must leave, bearing away with him, at the
+best, only a dim and haunting memory of its beauty. On the other hand he
+possesses eager aptitudes on which may be built up concrete knowledge
+and the sense of human relationships, to serve as a firm foundation when
+the period of adolescent development and discipline at length arrives.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[163] De Quincey in his _Confessions of an Opium Eater_ referred to the
+power that many, perhaps most, children possess of seeing visions in the
+dark. The phenomenon has been carefully studied by G.L. Partridge
+(_Pedagogical Seminary_, April, 1898) in over 800 children. He found
+that 58.5 of them aged between thirteen and sixteen could see visions or
+images at night with closed eyes before falling asleep; of those aged
+six the proportion was higher. There seemed to be a maximum at the age
+of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier age. Among adults
+this tendency is rudimentary, and only found in a marked form in
+neurasthenic subjects or at moments of nervous exhaustion. See also
+Havelock Ellis, _The World of Dreams_, chap. II.
+
+[164] G. Stanley Hall, "The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering
+School," _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891.
+
+[165] "The mother's face and voice are the first conscious objects as the
+infant soul unfolds, and she soon comes to stand in the very place of
+God to her child. All the religion of which the child is capable during
+this by no means brief stage of its development consists of these
+sentiments--gratitude, trust, dependence, love, etc.--now felt only for
+her, which are later directed towards God. The less these are now
+cultivated towards the mother, who is now their only fitting if not
+their only possible object, the more feebly they will later be felt
+towards God. This, too, adds greatly to the sacredness of the
+responsibilities of motherhood." (G. Stanley Hall, _Pedagogical
+Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 199).
+
+[166] J. Morse, _American Journal of Religious Psychology_, 1911, p. 247.
+
+[167] Lobsien, "Kinderideale," _Zeitschrift fuer Paed. Psychologie_, 1903.
+
+[168] Mr. Edmond Holmes, formerly Chief Inspector of Elementary Education
+in England, has an instructive remark bearing on this point in his
+suggestive book, _What Is and What Might be_ (1911, p. 88): "The first
+forty minutes of the morning session are given in almost every
+elementary school to what is called _Religious Instruction_. This goes
+on, morning after morning, and week after week. The fact that the
+English parent, who must himself have attended from 1500 to 2000
+Scripture lessons in his schooldays, is not under any circumstance to be
+trusted to give religious instruction to his own children, shows that
+those who control the religious education of the youthful 'masses' have
+but little confidence in the effects of their system on the religious
+life and faith of the English people." Miss Harriet Finlay-Johnson, a
+highly original and successful elementary school teacher, speaks (_The
+Dramatic Method of Teaching_, 1911, p. 170) with equal disapproval of
+the notion that any moral value attaches to the ordinary school
+examinations in "Scripture."
+
+[169] If it were not so, England, after sixty years of National Schools,
+ought to be a devout nation of good Church people. Most of the criminals
+and outcasts have been taught in Church Schools. A clergyman, who points
+this out to me, adds: "I am heartily thankful that religion was never
+forced on me as a child. I do not think I had any religion, in the
+ethical sense, until puberty, or any conscious realization of religion,
+indeed, until nineteen." "The boy," remarks Holmes (_op. cit._, p. 100),
+"who, having attended two thousand Scripture lessons, says to himself
+when he leaves school: 'If this is religion I will have no more of it,'
+is acting in obedience to a healthy instinct. He is to be honoured
+rather than blamed for having realized at last that the chaff on which
+he has so long been fed is not the life-giving grain which, unknown to
+himself, his inmost soul demands."
+
+[170] _La Nouvelle Heloise_, Part V, Letter 3. In more recent times Ellen
+Key remarks in a suggestive chapter on "Religions Education" in her
+_Century of the Child_: "Nothing better shows how deeply rooted religion
+is in human nature than the fact that 'religious education' has not been
+able to tear it out."
+
+[171] J.S. Mill, _Letters_, Vol. II, p. 135.
+
+[172] Lancaster found ("The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence,"
+_Pedagogical Seminary_, July, 1897) that among 598 individuals of both
+sexes in the United States, as many as 518 experienced new religious
+emotions between the ages of 12 and 20, only 80 having no such emotions
+at this period, so that more than 5 out of 6 have this experience; it is
+really even more frequent, for it has no necessary tendency to fall into
+conventional religious moulds.
+
+[173] Professor Starbuck, in his _Psychology of Religion_, has well
+brought together and clearly presented much of the evidence showing this
+intimate association between adolescence and religious manifestations.
+He finds (Chap. III) that in females there are two tidal waves of
+religious awakening, one at about 13, the other at 16, with a less
+significant period at 18; for males, after a wavelet at 12, the great
+tidal wave is at 16, followed by another at 18 or 19. Ruediger's results
+are fairly concordant ("The Period of Mental Reconstruction," _American
+Journal of Psychology_, July, 1907); he finds that in women the average
+age of conversion is 14, in men it is at 13 or 14, and again at 18.
+
+[174] G. Stanley Hall, "The Moral and Religious Training of Children and
+Adolescents," _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891, p. 207. From the more
+narrowly religious side the undesirability of attempting to teach
+religion to children is well set forth by Florence Hayllar (_Independent
+Review_, Oct., 1906). She considers that thirteen is quite early enough
+to begin teaching children the lessons of the Gospels, for a child who
+acted in accordance with the Gospels would be "aggravating," and would
+generally be regarded as "an insufferable prig." Moreover, she points
+out, it is dangerous to teach young children the Christian virtues of
+charity, humility, and self-denial. It is far better that they should
+first be taught the virtues of justice and courage and self-mastery, and
+the more Christian virtues later. She also believes that in the case of
+the clergy who are brought in contact with children a preliminary course
+of child-study, with the necessary physiology and psychology, should be
+compulsory.
+
+[175] The varying opinions on this point have been fairly and clearly
+presented by Cheetham in his Hulsean lectures on the _Mysteries Pagan
+and Christian_.
+
+[176] Thus at the first Congress of Italian Women held at Rome in 1908--a
+very representative Congress, by no means made up of "feminists" or
+anti-clericals, and marked by great moderation and good sense--a
+resolution was passed against religious teaching in primary schools,
+though a subsequent resolution declared by a very large majority in
+favour of teaching the history of religions in secondary schools. These
+resolutions caused much surprise at the time to those persons who still
+cherish the superstition that in matters of religion women are blindly
+prejudiced and unable to think for themselves.
+
+[177] See e.g. an article by Halley Stewart, President of the Secular
+Education League, on "The Policy of Secular Education," _Nineteenth
+Century_, April, 1911.
+
+[178] So far as numbers go, the dominant religion of the British Empire,
+the religion of the majority, is Hinduism; Mohammedanism comes next.
+
+[179] "Not long ago," says Dr. L. Guthrie (_Clinical Journal_, 7th
+June, 1899), "I heard of a lady who, in her desire that her children
+should learn nothing but what was true, banished fairy tales from her
+nursery. But the children evolved from their own imagination fictions
+which were so appalling that she was glad to divert them with
+Jack-the-Giant-Killer."
+
+[180] In his interesting study of comparative education (_The Making of
+Citizens_, 1902, p. 194), Mr. R.E. Hughes, a school inspector, after
+discussing the methods of settling the difficulties of religious
+education in England, America, Germany, and France, reasonably
+concludes: "The solution of the religious problem of the schools of
+these four peoples lies in the future, but we believe it will be found
+not to be beyond human ingenuity to devise a scheme of moral and ethical
+training for little children which will be suitable. It is the moral
+principles underlying all conduct which the school should teach. Indeed,
+the school, to justify its existence, dare not neglect them. It will
+teach them, not dogmatically or by precept, but by example, and by the
+creation of a noble atmosphere around the child." Holmes also (_op.
+cit._, p. 276) insists that the teaching of patriotism and citizenship
+must be informal and indirect.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL HYGIENE
+
+     The New Movement for giving Sexual Instruction to Children--The
+     Need of such a Movement--Contradictions involved by the Ancient
+     Policy of Silence--Errors of the New Policy--The Need of Teaching
+     the Teacher--The Need of Training the Parents--And of
+     Scientifically equipping the Physician--Sexual Hygiene and
+     Society--The far-reaching Effects of Sexual Hygiene.
+
+
+It is impossible to doubt the vitality and the vigour of the new
+movement of sexual hygiene, especially that branch of it concerned with
+the instruction of children in the essential facts of life.[181] In the
+eighteenth century the great educationist, Basedow, was almost alone
+when, by practice and by precept, he sought to establish this branch of
+instruction in schools.[182] A few years ago, when the German Duerer Bund
+offered prizes for the best essays on the training of the young in
+matters of sex, as many as five hundred papers were sent in.[183] We may
+say that during the past ten years more has been done to influence
+popular feeling on this question than during the whole of the preceding
+century.
+
+Whenever we witness a sudden impulse of zeal and enthusiasm to rush into
+a new channel, however admirable the impulse may be, we must be prepared
+for many risks and perhaps even a certain amount of damage. This is,
+indeed, especially the case when we are concerned with a new activity in
+the sphere of sex. The sexual relationships of life are so ancient and
+so wide, their roots ramify so complexly and run so deep, that any
+sudden disturbance in this soil, however well-intentioned, is certain to
+have many results which were not anticipated by those responsible for
+it. Any movement here runs the risk of defeating its own ends, or else,
+in gaining them, to render impossible other ends which are of not less
+value.
+
+In this matter of sexual hygiene we are faced at the outset by the fact
+that the very recognition of any such branch of knowledge as "sexual
+hygiene" involves not merely a new departure, but the reversal of a
+policy which has been accepted, almost without question, for centuries.
+Among many primitive peoples, indeed, we know that the boy and girl at
+puberty are initiated with solemnity, and even a not unwholesome
+hardship, into the responsibilities of adult life, including those which
+have reference to the duties and privileges of sex.[184] But in our own
+traditions scarcely even a relic of any such custom is preserved. On the
+contrary, we tacitly maintain a custom, and even a policy, of silent
+obscurantism. Parents and teachers have considered it a duty to say
+nothing and have felt justified in telling lies, or "fairy tales," in
+order to maintain their attitude. The oncoming of puberty, with its
+alarming manifestations, especially in the girl, has often left them
+unmoved and still silent. They have taken care that our elementary
+textbooks of anatomy and physiology, even when written by so independent
+and fearless a pioneer as Huxley, should describe the human body
+absolutely as though the organs and functions of reproduction had no
+existence. The instinct was not thus suppressed; all the inevitable
+stimulations which life furnishes to the youthful sexual impulse have
+continued in operation.[185] Sexual activities were just as liable to
+break out. They were all the more liable to break out, indeed, because
+fostered by ignorance, often unconscious of themselves, and not held in
+check by the restraints which knowledge and teaching might have
+furnished. This, however, has seemed a matter of no concern to the
+guardians of youth. They have congratulated themselves if they could
+pilot the youths, and especially the maidens, under their guardianship
+into the haven of matrimony not only in apparent chastity, but in
+ignorance of nearly everything that marriage signifies and involves,
+alike for the individual and the coming race.
+
+This policy has been so firmly established that the theory of it has
+never been clearly argued out. So far as it exists at all, it is a
+theory that walks on two feet pointing opposite ways: sex things must
+not be talked about because they are "dirty"; sex things must not be
+talked about because they are "sacred." We must leave sex things alone,
+they say, because God will see to it that they manifest themselves
+aright and work for good; we must leave sex things alone, they also say,
+because there is no department in life in which the activity of the
+Devil is so specially exhibited. The very same person may be guilty of
+this contradiction, when varying circumstances render it convenient.
+Such a confusion is, indeed, a fate liable to befall all ancient and
+deeply rooted _tabus_; we see it in the _tabus_ against certain animals
+as foods (as the Mosaic prohibition of pork); at first the animal was
+too sacred to eat, but in time people came to think that it is too
+disgusting to eat. They begin the practice for one reason, they continue
+it for a totally opposed reason. Reasons are such a superficial part of
+our lives!
+
+Thus every movement of sexual hygiene necessarily clashes against an
+established convention which is itself an inharmonious clash of
+contradictory notions. This is especially the case if sexual hygiene is
+introduced by way of the school. It is very widely held by many who
+accept the arguments so ably set forth by Frau Maria Lischnewska, that
+the school is not only the best way of introducing sexual hygiene, but
+the only possible way, since through this channel alone is it possible
+to employ an antidote to the evil influences of the home and the
+world.[186] Yet to teach children what some of their parents consider as
+too sacred to be taught, and others as too disgusting, and to begin this
+teaching at an age when the children, having already imbibed these
+parental notions, are old enough to be morbidly curious and prurient, is
+to open the way to a complicated series of social reactions which demand
+great skill to adjust.
+
+Largely, no doubt, from anxiety to counterbalance these dangers, there
+has been a tendency to emphasize, or rather to over-emphasize, the moral
+aspects of sexual hygiene. Rightly considered, indeed, it is not easy to
+over-value its moral significance. But in the actual teaching of such
+hygiene it is quite easy, and the error is often found, to make
+statements and to affirm doctrines--all in the interests of good morals
+and with the object of exhibiting to the utmost the beneficial
+tendencies of this teaching--which are dubious at the best and often at
+variance with actual experience. In such cases we seem to see that the
+sexual hygienist has indeed broken with the conventional conspiracy of
+silence in these matters, but he has not broken with the conventional
+morality which grew out of that ignorant silence. With the best
+intention in the world he sets forth, dogmatically and without
+qualification, ancient half-truths which to become truly moral need to
+be squarely faced with their complementary half-truths. The inevitable
+danger is that the pupil sooner or later grasps the one-sided
+exaggeration of this teaching, and the credit of the sexual hygienist is
+gone. Life is an art, and love, which lies at the heart of life, is an
+art; they are not science; they cannot be converted into clear-cut
+formulae and taught as the multiplication table is taught. Example here
+counts for more than precept, and practice teaches more than either,
+provided it is carried on in the light of precept and example. The rash
+and unqualified statements concerning the immense benefits of
+continence, or the awful results of self-abuse, etc., frequently found
+in books for young people will occur to every one. Stated with wise
+moderation they would have been helpful. Pushed to harsh extravagance
+they are not only useless to aid the young in their practical
+difficulties, but become mischievous by the injury they inflict on
+over-sensitive consciences, fearful of falling short of high-strung
+ideals. This consideration brings us, indeed, to what is perhaps the
+chief danger in the introduction of any teaching of sexual hygiene: the
+fact that our teachers are themselves untaught. Sexual hygiene in the
+full sense--in so far as it concerns individual action and not the
+regulative or legislative action of communities--is the art of imparting
+such knowledge as is needed at successive stages by the child, the youth
+and maiden, the young man and woman, in order to enable them to deal
+rightly, and so far as possible without injury either to themselves or
+to others, with all those sexual events to which every one is naturally
+liable. To fulfil his functions adequately the master in the art of
+teaching sexual hygiene must answer to three requirements: (1) he must
+have a sufficing knowledge of the facts of sexual psychology, sexual
+physiology, and sexual pathology, knowledge which, in many important
+respects, hardly existed at all until recently, and is only now
+beginning to become generally accessible; (2) he must have a wise and
+broad moral outlook, with a sane idealism which refrains from demanding
+impossibilities, and resolutely thrusts aside not only the vulgar
+platitudes of worldliness, but the equally mischievous platitudes of an
+outworn and insincere asceticism, for the wise sexual hygienist knows,
+with Pascal, that "he who tries to be an angel becomes a beast," and is
+less anxious to make his pupils ineffective angels than effective men
+and women, content to say with Browning, "I may put forth angels'
+pinions, once unmanned, but not before"; (3) in addition to sound
+knowledge and a wise moral outlook, the sexual hygienist must possess,
+finally, a genuine sympathy with the young, an insight into their
+sensitive shyness, a comprehension of their personal difficulties, and
+the skill to speak to them simply, frankly, and humanly. If we ask
+ourselves how many of the apostles of sexual hygiene combine these
+three essential qualities, we shall probably not be able to name many,
+while we may suspect that some do not even possess one of the three
+qualifications. If we further consider that the work of sexual hygiene,
+to be carried out on a really national scale, demands the more or less
+active co-operation of parents, teachers, and doctors, and that parents,
+teachers, and doctors are in these matters at present all alike
+untrained, and usually prejudiced, we shall realize some of the dangers
+through which sexual hygiene must at first pass.
+
+It is, I hope, unnecessary for me to say that, in thus pointing out some
+of the difficulties and the risks which must assail every attempt to
+introduce an element of effective sexual hygiene into life, I am far
+from wishing to argue that it is better to leave things as they are.
+That is impossible, not only because we are realizing that our system of
+incomplete silence is mischievous, but because it is based on a
+confusion which contains within itself the elements of disruption. We
+have to remember, however, that the creation of a new tradition cannot
+be effected in a day. Before we begin to teach sexual hygiene the
+teachers must themselves be taught.
+
+There are many who have insisted, and not without reason, on the right
+of the parent to control the education of the child. Sexual hygiene
+introduces us to another right, the right of the child to control the
+education of the parents. For few parents to-day are fitted to exercise
+the duty of training and guiding the child in the difficult field of sex
+without preliminary education, and such education, to be real and
+effective, must begin at an early age in the parents' life.[187]
+
+The school teacher, again, on whom so many rely for the initial stage in
+sexual hygiene, is at present often in almost exactly the same stage of
+ignorance or prejudice in these matters as his or her pupils. The
+teacher has seldom been trained to impart even the most elementary
+scientific knowledge of the facts of sex, of reproduction, and of sexual
+hygiene, and is more often than not without that personal experience of
+life in its various aspects which is required in order to teach wisely
+in such a difficult field as that of sex, even if the principle is
+admitted that the teacher in class, equally whether addressing one sex
+or both sexes, is not called upon to go beyond the scientific, abstract,
+and objective aspects of sex.
+
+This difficulty of the lack of suitable teachers is not, indeed,
+insuperable. It would be largely settled, no doubt, if a wise and
+thorough course of sexual hygiene and puericulture formed part of the
+training of all school teachers, as, in France, Pinard has proposed for
+the Normal schools for young women. Dr. W.O. Henry, in a paper read
+before the Nebraska State Medical Association in May, 1911, put forward
+the proposal: "Let each State have one or more competent physicians
+whose duty it shall be to teach these things to the children in all the
+public schools of the State from the time they are eight years of age.
+The boys and girls should be given the instruction separately by means
+of charts, pictures, and stereopticon views, beginning with the lower
+forms of life, flowers, plants, and then closing with the organs in man.
+These lectures and illustrations should be given every year to all the
+boys and girls separately, having those from eight to ten together at
+one time, and those from ten to twelve, and those from over twelve to
+sixteen." Dr. Henry was evidently not aware that the principle of a
+special teacher appointed by Government to give special instruction in
+matters of sex in all State schools had already been adopted in Canada,
+in the province of Ontario; the teacher thus appointed goes from school
+to school and teaches the elements of sexual physiology and anatomy, and
+the duty of treating sexual matters with reverence, to classes of boys
+and of girls from the age of ten. The course is not compulsory, but any
+School Board may call upon the special teacher to deliver the lectures.
+This appointment has met with so much approval that it is proposed to
+appoint further teachers on the same lines, women as well as men.
+
+It is not necessary that the school teacher of sex should be a
+physician. For personal and particular advice on the concrete
+difficulties of sex, however, as well as for the more special and
+detailed hygiene of the sexual relationship and the precautions demanded
+by eugenics, we must call in the physician. Yet none of these things so
+far enter the curriculum through which the physician passes to reach
+his profession; he is often only a layman in relation to them. Even if
+we are assured that these subjects form part of his scientific
+equipment, that fact by no means guarantees his tact, sympathy, and
+insight in addressing the young, whether by general lectures or
+individual interviews, both these being forms of imparting sexual
+hygiene for which we may properly call upon the physician, especially
+towards the end of the school or college course, and at the outset of
+any career in the world.[188]
+
+Undoubtedly we have amongst us many mothers, teachers, and physicians
+who are admirably equipped to fulfil their respective parts--elementary,
+secondary, and advanced--in the work of sexual hygiene. But so long as
+they are few and far apart their influence is negatived, if it is not
+even rendered harmful.
+
+It must often be useless for a mother to instil into her little boy
+respect for his own body, reverence for the channel of motherhood
+through which he entered the world, any sense of the purity of natural
+functions or the beauty of natural organs, if outside his home the
+little boy finds that all other little boys and girls regard these
+things as only an occasion for sniggering. It is idle for the teacher to
+describe plainly the scientific facts of sex as a marvellous culmination
+in the natural unfolding of the world if, outside the schoolroom, the
+pupil finds that, in the newspapers and in the general conversation of
+adults, this sacred temple is treated as a common sewer, too filthy to
+be spoken of, and that the books which contain even the most necessary
+descriptions of it are liable to be condemned as "obscene" in the law
+courts.[189] It is vain for the physician to explain to young men and
+women the subtle and terrible nature of venereal poisons, to declare the
+right and the duty of both partners in marriage to know, authoritatively
+and beforehand, the state of each other's health, or to warn them that a
+proper sense of responsibility towards the race must prevent some
+ill-born persons from marrying, or at all events from procreating, if
+the young man and woman find, on leaving the physician, that their
+acquaintances are prepared to accept all these risks, light-heartedly,
+in the dark, in a heedless dream from which they somehow hope there will
+be no awful awakening.
+
+The moral to which these observations point is fairly clear. Sex
+penetrates the whole of life. It is not a branch of mathematics, or a
+period of ancient history, which we can elect to teach, or not to teach,
+as may seem best to us, which if we teach we may teach as we choose, and
+if we neglect to teach it will never trouble us. Love and Hunger are the
+foundations of life, and the impulse of sex is just as fundamental as
+the impulse of nutrition. It will not remain absent because we refuse to
+call for its presence, it will not depart because we find its presence
+inconvenient. At the most it will only change its shape, and mock at us
+from beneath masks so degraded, and sometimes so exalted, that we are no
+longer able to recognize it.
+
+"People are always writing about education," said Chamfort more than a
+century ago, "and their writings have led to some valuable methods. But
+what is the use, unless side by side with the introduction of such
+methods, corresponding reforms are not introduced in legislation, in
+religion, in public opinion? The only object of education is to conform
+the child's reason to that of the community. But if there is no
+corresponding reform in the community, by training the child to reason
+you are merely training him to see the absurdity of opinions and customs
+consecrated by the seal of sacred authority, public or legislative, and
+you are inspiring him with contempt of them."[190] We cannot too often
+meditate on these wise words.
+
+It is useless to attempt to introduce sexual hygiene as a subject apart,
+and in some respects it may be dangerous. When we touch sex we are
+touching sensitive fibres which thrill through the whole of our social
+organism, just as the touch of love thrills through the whole of the
+bodily organism. Any vital reform here, any true introduction of sexual
+hygiene to replace our traditional policy of confused silence, affects
+the whole of life or it affects nothing. It will modify our social
+conventions, enter our family life, transform our moral outlook, perhaps
+re-inspire our religion and our philosophy.
+
+That conclusion need by no means render us pessimistic concerning the
+future of sexual hygiene, nor unduly anxious to cling to the policy of
+the past. But it may induce us to be content to move slowly, to prepare
+our movements widely and firmly, and not to expect too much at the
+outset. By introducing sexual hygiene we are breaking with the tradition
+of the past which professed to leave the process by which the race is
+carried on to Nature, to God, especially to the devil. We are claiming
+that it is a matter for individual personal responsibility, deliberately
+exercised in the light of precise knowledge which every young man and
+woman has a right, or rather a duty, to possess. That conception of
+personal responsibility thus extended to the sphere of sex in the
+reproduction of the race may well transform life and alter the course of
+civilization. It is not merely a reform in the class-room, it is a
+reform in the home, in the church, in the law courts, in the
+legislature. If sexual hygiene means that, it means something great,
+though something which can only come slowly, with difficulty, with much
+searching of hearts. If, on the other hand, sexual hygiene means nothing
+but the introduction of a new formal catechism, and an occasional
+goody-goody perfunctory exhortation, it may be introduced at once, quite
+easily, without hurting anyone's feelings. But, really, it will not be
+worth worrying about, one way or the other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[181] For a full discussion of the movement, see Havelock Ellis, _Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chaps.
+II and III.
+
+[182] Basedow (born at Hamburg 1723, died 1790) set forth his views on
+sexual education--which will seem to many somewhat radical and advanced
+even to-day--in his great treatise Elementarwerk (1774). His practical
+educational work is dealt with by Pinloche, _La Reforme de l'Education
+en Allemagne au Dix-huitieme Siecle_.
+
+[183] The best of these papers have been printed in a volume entitled _Am
+Lebensquell_.
+
+[184] The elaborate and admirable initiation of boys among the natives of
+Torres Straits furnishes a good example of this education, and has been
+fully described by Dr. A.C. Haddon, _Reports of the Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits_, Vol. V, chaps. VII and XII.
+
+[185] Moll in his wise and comprehensive work, _The Sexual Life of the
+Child_ (German ed., p. 225), lays it down emphatically that "_we must
+clearly realize at the outset that the complete exclusion of sexual
+stimuli in the education of children is impossible_." He adds that the
+demands made by some "fanatics of hygiene" would be dangerous even if
+they were practicable. Games and physical exercises induce in many cases
+a considerable degree of sexual stimulation. But this need not cause us
+undue alarm, nor must we thereby be persuaded to change our policy of
+recommending such games and exercises.
+
+[186] See Frau Maria Lischnewska's excellent pamphlet, _Geschlechtliche
+Belehrung der Kinder_, first published in _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 4
+and 5. This is perhaps the ablest statement of the argument in favour of
+giving the chief place in sexual hygiene to the teacher. Frau
+Lischnewska recognizes three factors in the movement for freeing the
+sexual activities from degradation: (1) medical, (2) economic, and (3)
+rational. But it is the last--in the broadest sense as a comprehensive
+process of enlightenment--which she regards as the chief. "The views and
+sentiments of people must be changed," she says. "The civilized man must
+learn to gaze at this piece of Nature with pure eyes; reverence towards
+it must early sink into his soul. In the absence of this fundamental
+renovation, medical and social measures will merely produce refined
+animals."
+
+[187] "We parents of to-day," as Henriette Fuerth truly says ("Erotik und
+Elternpflicht," _Am Lebensquell_, p. 11), "have not yet attained that
+beautiful naturalness out of which in these matters simplicity and
+freedom grow. And however willing we may be to learn afresh, most of us
+have so far lost our inward freedom from prejudice--the standpoint of
+the pure to whom all things are pure--that we cannot acquire it again.
+We parents of to-day have been altogether wrongly brought up. The
+inoculated feeling of shame still remains even after we have recognized
+that shame in this connection is false."
+
+[188] The method of imparting a knowledge of sexual hygiene (especially in
+relation to venereal diseases) at the outset of adult life has most
+actively been carried out in Germany and the United States. In Germany
+lectures by doctors to students and others on these matters are
+frequently given. In the United States information and advice are spread
+abroad chiefly by the aid of societies. The American Society of Sanitary
+and Moral Prophylaxis, with which the name of Dr. Morrow is specially
+connected, was organized in 1905. The Chicago Society of Social Hygiene
+was established in 1906. Since then many other similar societies have
+sprung up under medical auspices in various American cities and states.
+
+[189] Many flagrant cases in point are set forth from the legal point of
+view by Theodore Schroeder, _"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional
+Law_, New York, 1911, chap. IV.
+
+[190] Chamfort, _OEuvres Choisies_, ed. by Lescure, Vol. I, p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+IMMORALITY AND THE LAW
+
+     Social Hygiene and Legal Compulsion--The Binding Force of Custom
+     among Savages--The Dissolving Influence of Civilization--The
+     Distinction between Immorality and Criminality--Adultery as a
+     Crime--The Tests of Criminality--National Differences in laying
+     down the Boundary between Criminal and Immoral
+     Acts--France--Germany--England--The United States--Police
+     Administration--Police Methods in the United States--National
+     Differences in the Regulation of the Trade in Alcohol--Prohibition
+     in the United States--Origin of the American Method of Dealing with
+     Immorality--Russia--Historical Fluctuations in Methods of dealing
+     with Immorality and Prostitution--Homosexuality--Holland--The Age
+     of Consent--Moral Legislation in England--In the United States--The
+     Raines Law--American Attempts to Suppress Prostitution--Their
+     Futility--German Methods of Regulating Prostitution--The Sound
+     Method of Approaching Immorality--Training in Sexual
+     Hygiene--Education in Personal and Social Responsibility.
+
+
+The modern development of Social Hygiene in matters of Eugenics has
+already sufficed to show that there are certain people in the community,
+anxious to take quick cuts to the millennium, who think that Eugenics
+can be promoted by hasty legislation. That method of attempting to
+further social progress is not new. It has been practised with signal
+lack of success for several thousand years. Therefore, if Social Hygiene
+is really to progress among us on sane and fundamental lines, it is
+necessary for us to realize clearly the mistakes of the past. Again and
+again the blind haste of over-zealous reformers has led not to
+progress, but to retrogression. The excellent intentions of such social
+reformers have been defeated, not so much by the evils they have sought
+to overcome, as by their own excesses of ignorant zeal. As our knowledge
+of history and of psychology increases, we learn that, in dealing with
+human nature, what seems the longest way round is sometimes the shortest
+way home.
+
+Among savages, and no doubt in primitive societies generally, the social
+reaction against injurious or even unusual acts on the part of
+individuals is regulated by the binding force of custom. The ruling
+opinion is the opinion of all, the ruling custom is the duty for all.
+The dictates of custom, even of ritual and etiquette, are stringent
+dictates of morality binding upon all, and the breach of any is
+equivalent to what we should consider a crime. The savage man is held in
+the path of duty by a much more united force of public opinion than is
+the civilized man. But, as Westermarck points out, in a suggestive
+chapter on customs and laws as the expression of moral ideas, "custom
+never covers the whole field of morality, and the uncovered space grows
+larger in proportion as the moral consciousness develops.... The rule of
+custom is the rule of duty at early stages of development. Only progress
+in culture lessens its sway."[191] As a community increases in size and in
+cultivation, growing more heterogeneous, it adheres rigidly to
+fundamental conceptions of right and wrong, but in less fundamental
+matters its moral ideas become both more subjective and more various. If
+a man kills another man out of love to that man's wife, all civilized
+society is of opinion that the homicide is a "crime" to be severely
+punished; but if the man should make love to the wife without killing
+the husband, then, although in some savage societies the act would still
+have been a "crime," in a civilized society it would usually be regarded
+as more properly a case for civil action, not for criminal action; while
+should it come to be known that the wife had from the first been in love
+with the man, and was married by compulsion to a husband who had
+brutally ill-used her, then a very considerable section of the civilized
+community would actually transfer their sympathies to the offending
+couple and look upon the husband as the real offender.
+
+This is why the vestigial relics of the ancient ecclesiastical view of
+adultery as a "crime" are no longer supported by public opinion;[192] they
+are no longer enforced, or else the penalty is reduced to ridiculous
+dimensions (as in France, where a fine of a few francs may be imposed),
+and there is a general inclination to abolish them altogether. Penalties
+for adultery are not nowadays enacted afresh, except in the United
+States, where medieval regulations are enabled to survive through the
+strength of the Puritan tradition. Thus in the State of New York a law
+was passed in 1907 rendering any person guilty of adultery punishable by
+six months' imprisonment, or a heavy fine, or both. The law was largely
+due to agitation by the National Christian League for the Promotion of
+Purity; it was supposed the law would act to prevent adultery. Less than
+three months after the Act became law, lawyers reached the conclusion
+that it was a dead letter. During the two years after its enactment,
+notwithstanding the large number of divorces, only three persons were
+sent to prison, for a few days, under this Act, and only four fined a
+small sum. The Committee of Fourteen state that it is "of practically no
+effect," and add: "The preventive values of this statute cannot be
+determined, but, judging from the prosecutions, it has proved an
+ineffective weapon against immorality, and has practically no effect
+upon commercialized vice."[193] When such laws remain on the Statute Book
+as relics of practically medieval days they deserve a certain respect,
+even if it is impossible to enforce them; to re-enact them in modern
+times is a gratuitous method of bringing law into contempt.
+
+It is clear that all such cases affecting morals are not only altered by
+circumstances, and by consideration of the psychic state of the
+individual, but that in regard to them different sections of the
+community hold widely different views. The sanctions of the criminal law
+to be firm and unshakeable must be capable of literal interpretation
+and of unfailing execution, and in that interpretation and execution be
+accepted as just by the whole community. But as soon as law enters the
+sphere of morals this becomes impossible; law loses all its certainty
+and all the reverence that rightly belongs to it. It no longer voices
+the conscience of the whole community; it tends to be merely an
+expression of the feelings of a small upper-class social circle; the
+feelings and the habits and the necessities of the mass of the
+population are altogether ignored.[194] Nor are such legislative
+incursions into the sphere of morals any more satisfactory from the
+point of view of the class which is responsible for them. It very soon
+begins to be felt that, as Hagen puts it, "the formulas of penal law are
+stiff and clumsy instruments which can only in the rarest instance serve
+to disentangle the delicate and manifoldly interwoven threads of the
+human soul, and decide what is just and what unjust. Formulas are
+adopted for simple, uncomplicated, rough everyday cases. Only in such
+cases do they achieve the conquest of justice over injustice."
+
+It is true that no sharp line divides criminal acts from merely immoral
+acts, and the latter tend to be indirectly, even when not directly,
+anti-social. It would be highly convenient if we could draw a sharp
+distinction between major anti-social acts, which may properly be
+described as "crime," and justly be pursued with the full rigour of the
+law, and minor anti-social acts, which may be left to the varying
+reaction of the social environments since they cannot properly be
+visited by the criminal law.[195] Such a distinction exists, but it cannot
+be made sharply because there are a large number of intermediate
+anti-social acts which some sections of the community regard as major,
+while others regard them as minor, or even, in some cases, as not
+anti-social at all. The only convenient test we can apply is the
+strength of the social reaction--provided we are dealing with an act
+which is definitely anti-social, injuring recognized rights, and not
+merely an unusual or disgusting act.[196] When an anti-social act meets
+with a reaction of social indignation which is fairly universal and
+permanent, it may be regarded as a crime coming under the jurisdiction
+of the law. If opinion varies, if a considerable section of the
+community revolt against the punishment of the alleged anti-social act,
+then we are not entitled to dignify it with the appellation of "crime."
+This is not an altogether sure or satisfactory criterion because there
+are frequently times and places, especially under the stimulation of
+some particular occurrence evoking an outburst of increased public
+emotion, when a section of the community succeeds by its noisy vigour in
+creating the impression that it voices the universal will. But, on the
+whole, it works out justly. Ethical standards differ in different places
+at different times. They are, indeed, always changing. Therefore, in
+regard to all matters which belong to the sphere of what we commonly
+call morals, there are in every community some who approve of a given
+act, others who disapprove of it, yet others who regard it with
+indifference. In such a shifting sphere we cannot legislate with the
+certainty of carrying the whole community with us, nor can we properly
+introduce the word "crime," which ought to indicate only an action of so
+gravely anti-social nature that there can be no possibility of doubt
+about it.
+
+It is, however, important to understand the marked national differences
+in the reaction to these slightly or dubiously anti-social acts, for
+such differences rest on ancient tradition, and are to some extent the
+expression of the genius of a people, though they are not the absolutely
+immutable product of racial constitution, and, within limits, they
+undergo transformation. It thus happens that acts which in some
+countries are pursued by the law and punished as crime, are in other
+countries untouched by the law, and left to the social reaction of the
+community. It becomes, therefore, of some importance to compare national
+differences in the attitude towards immorality, to find out whether the
+attempt to repress it directly, by law, is more effective, or less
+effective, than the method of leaving it to social reaction.
+
+In many respects France and Germany present a remarkable contrast in
+their respective methods of dealing with immorality. The contrast has
+only existed since the sweeping legal reforms which followed the
+Revolution in France. In old France the laws against sexual and
+religious offences were extremely severe, involving in some cases death
+at the stake, and even during the eighteenth century this extreme
+penalty of the law was sometimes carried out. The police were active,
+their methods of investigation elaborate and thorough, yet the rigour of
+the law and the energy of the police signally failed to suppress
+irreligion and immorality in eighteenth-century France. The Revolution,
+by popularizing the opinions of the more enlightened men of the time,
+and by giving to the popular voice an authority it had never possessed
+before, remoulded the antiquated ecclesiastical laws in accordance with
+the ideas of the average modern man. In 1791 nearly all the ancient laws
+against immorality, which had proved so ineffectual, were flung away,
+and when in 1810 Napoleon established the great penal code which bears
+his name, he was careful to limit to a minimum the moral offences of
+which the law was empowered to take cognisances, and--acting certainly
+in accordance with deeply rooted instincts of the French people--he
+avoided any useless or dangerous interference with private life and the
+freedom of the individual. The penal code in France remains
+substantially the same to-day, while the other countries which have
+constructed their codes on the French model have shown similar
+tendencies.
+
+In Germany, and more especially in Prussia, which now dominates German
+opinion, a very different tendency prevails. The German feels nothing of
+that sensitive jealousy with which the French seek to guard private life
+and the rights of the individual. He tolerates a police system which, as
+Fuld has pointed out, is the most military police system in the world,
+and he makes little complaint of the indiscriminating thoroughness, even
+harshness, with which it exercises its functions. "The North German," as
+a German lawyer puts it, "gazes with sacred respect on every State
+authority, and on every official, especially on executive and police
+functionaries; he complacently accepts police inquisition into his
+private life, and the regulation of his behaviour by law and police
+affects his impulse of freedom in a relatively slight manner. Hence the
+law-maker's interference with his private life seems to him a customary
+and not too injurious encroachment on his individuality."[197] It thus
+comes about that a great many acts, of for the most part unquestioned
+immoral character--such as incest, the procuring of women for immoral
+purposes, and acts of a homosexual character--which, when adults are
+alone concerned, the French leave to be dealt with by the social
+reaction, are in Germany directly dealt with by the law. These things
+and the like are viewed in France with fully as much detestation as in
+Germany, but while the German considers that that detestation is itself
+a reason for inflicting a legal penalty on the detested act, the
+Frenchman considers that to inflict a punishment upon such acts by law
+is an inadmissible interference of the State in private affairs, and an
+unnecessary interference since the social reaction is quite adequate. In
+Germany, Dr. Wilhelm points out, a man who allows his daughter's
+_fiance_ to stay overnight in his house with her is liable to be dragged
+before the police court and sent to prison for procuring immorality;[198]
+to a Frenchman this is a shocking and inconceivable insult to private
+rights.[199] So also with the German legal attitude towards sexual
+inversion. The German method of dragging private scandals into the
+glare of day and investigating them at interminable length in the law
+courts is a perpetual source of astonishment to Frenchmen. They point
+out that not only does this method defeat its own end by concentrating
+attention on the abnormal practices it attacks, but it adds dignity to
+them; a certain small section of the community justifies and upholds
+these practices, but while in France this section has no reason to come
+prominently before the public since it has no grievances demanding
+redress, in Germany the existence of a cause to advocate in the name of
+justice has produced a serious and imposing body of literature which has
+no parallel in France.[200] Thus, as Wilhelm points out, we find exactly
+opposite methods adopted in Germany and France to obtain the same ends:
+"In Germany, punishment on account of alleged injury to general
+interests; in France absence of punishment in order to avoid injury to
+general interests; in Germany the police baton is called for in order to
+ward off threatened injury, while in France it is feared that the use of
+the police baton will itself cause the injury."
+
+The question naturally arises: Which method is the more effective?
+Wilhelm finds that these differences in national attitude towards
+immorality have not by any means rendered immorality more prevalent in
+France than in Germany; on the contrary, though extra-conjugal
+intercourse is in Germany almost a crime, sexual offences against
+children are far more prevalent than in France, while family life is at
+least as stable in France as in Germany, and more intimate. "The freer
+way of regarding sexual matters and its results in legislation have, as
+compared to Germany, in no respect led to more immoral conditions,
+while, on the other hand, it has been the reason why the vigorous
+agitation which we find in Germany for certain legal reforms in respect
+to sexuality are quite unknown."
+
+It is forgotten, in Germany and in some other countries, sometimes even
+in France, that to bring immorality within reach of the arm of the law
+is not necessarily by any means to make the actual penalty, in the
+largest sense of the term, more severe. So long as he retains the good
+opinion of his fellows, imprisonment is no injury to a man; it has
+happened to some of our most distinguished and respected public men. The
+bad opinion of his fellows, even when the law is powerless to touch him,
+is often an irretrievable injury to a man. We do not fortify the social
+reaction, in most matters, when we attempt to give it a legal sanction;
+we do not even need to fortify it, for it is sometimes harsher and more
+severe than the law, overlooking or not knowing all the extenuating
+circumstances. In France, as in England, the force of social opinion,
+independently of the law, is exceedingly and perhaps excessively
+strong.
+
+In England, however, we see an attitude towards immorality which differs
+alike from the French attitude and the German attitude, though it has
+points of contact with both. The distinctive feature of the Englishman's
+attitude is his spirit of extreme individualism (which distinguishes him
+from the German) combined with the religious nature of his moral fervour
+(which distinguishes him from the Frenchman), both being veiled by a shy
+prudery (which distinguishes him alike from the Frenchman and the
+German). The Englishman's reverence for the individual's rights goes
+beyond the Frenchman's, for in France there is a tendency to subordinate
+the individual to the family, and in England the interests of the
+individual predominate. But while in France the laws have been
+re-moulded to the national temperament, this has not been the case to
+anything like the same extent in England, where in modern times no great
+revolution has occurred to shake off laws which still by their
+antiquity, rather than by their reasonableness, retain the reverence of
+the people. Thus it comes about that, on the legal side the English
+attitude towards immorality in many respects resembles the German
+attitude. Yet undoubtedly the most fundamental element in the English
+attitude is the instinct for personal freedom, and even the religious
+fervour of the moral impulse has strengthened the individualistic
+element.[201] We see this clearly in the fact that England has even gone
+beyond France in rejecting the control of prostitutes. The French are
+striving to abolish such control, but in England where it was never
+extensively established it has long been abolished, leaving only a few
+faint traces behind. It is abhorrent to the English mind that even the
+most degraded specimens of humanity should be compulsorily deprived of
+rights over their own persons, even when it is claimed that the
+deprivation of such rights might be for the benefit of the community. In
+no country, perhaps, is the prostitute so free to parade the streets in
+the exercise of her profession as in England, and in no country is
+public opinion so intolerant of even the suspicion of a mistake by the
+police in the exercise of that very limited control over prostitutes
+which they possess. The freedom of the prostitute in England is further
+guaranteed by the very fervour of English religious feeling; for active
+interference with prostitutes involves regulation of prostitution, and
+that implies a national recognition of prostitution which to a very
+large section of the English people would be altogether repellant. Thus
+English love of freedom and English love of God combine to protect the
+prostitute. It has to be added that this result is by no means, as some
+have imagined, hostile to morality. It is the opinion of many foreign
+observers that in this matter London, for all its freedom, compares
+favourably with many other large cities where prostitution is severely
+regulated by the police and so far as possible concealed. For the police
+can never become the agents of any morality of the heart, and all the
+repression in the world can only touch the surface of life.
+
+The English attitude, again, is characteristically seen in the method of
+dealing with homosexual practices and other similar sexual aberrations.
+Here, legally, England is closer to Germany than to modern France. No
+country in the world, it is often said, has preserved by tradition and
+even maintained by recent accretion such severe penalties against
+homosexual offences as England. Yet, unlike the Germans, the English do
+not actively prosecute in these cases and are usually content to leave
+the law in abeyance, so long as public order and decency are reasonably
+maintained. English people, like the French people, are by no means
+impressed by the advantages of the German system by which purely private
+scandals are made public scandals, to be set forth day after day in all
+their details before the court, and discussed excitedly by the whole
+population. Yet the English law in this matter is still very widely
+upheld. There are very many English people who think that the fact that
+homosexuality is disgusting to most people is a reason for punishing it
+with extreme severity. Yet disgust is a matter of taste, we cannot
+properly impart it into our laws; a disgusting person is not necessarily
+a criminal person, or we shall have to enact that many inmates of our
+hospitals and lunatic asylums be hanged. There is thus a fundamental
+inconsistency in the English method of dealing with immorality; it is
+made up of opposite views, some of them extreme in contrary directions.
+But by virtue of the national tendency to compromise, these conflicting
+tendencies work in a fairly harmonious manner. The result is that the
+general state of English morality--notwithstanding, and perhaps partly
+by reason of, its prudish anxiety to leave unpleasant matters alone--is
+at least as satisfactory as that of countries where much more logical
+and thorough methods are in favour.
+
+In the United States we see yet another attitude towards immorality. It
+is, indeed, related to the English attitude, necessarily so, since the
+most ancient and fundamental element of it was carried over to America
+by the English Puritans, who cherished in the extreme form alike the
+English passion for individualism and the English fervour of religious
+idealism. These germs have been too potent for destruction even under
+all the new influences of American life. But they are not altogether in
+harmony with those influences, and the result has been that the American
+attitude towards immorality has sometimes looked rather like a
+caricature of the English method. The influx of a vast and racially
+confused population with the over-rapid development of urbanization
+which has necessarily followed, opens an immense field for idealistic
+individualism to attempt reforms. But this individualism has not been
+held in check by the English spirit of compromise, which is not a part
+of Puritanism, and it has thus tended alike to excess and to impotence.
+This result is brought about partly by facilities for individualistic
+legislation not voicing the tendencies of the whole population, and
+therefore fatally condemned to sterility, and partly by the fact that in
+a new and rapidly developed civilization it is impossible to secure an
+army of functionaries who may be trusted to deal with the regulation of
+delicate and complex moral questions in regard to which the community
+is not really agreed. The American police are generally admitted to be
+open with special frequency to the charge of ineffectiveness and
+venality. It is not so often realized that these defects are fostered by
+the impossible nature of the tasks which are imposed on the American
+police.
+
+This aspect of the matter has been very clearly set forth by Dr. Fuld,
+of Columbia University, in his able and thorough book on police
+administration.[202] He shows that, though the American police system as a
+system has defects which need to be remedied, it is not true that the
+individual members of the American police forces are inferior to those
+of other countries; on the contrary, they are, in some respects,
+superior; it is not a large proportion which sells the right to break
+the law.[203] Their most serious defects are due to the impracticable laws
+and regulations made by inexperienced legislators. These laws and
+ordinances in many cases cannot possibly be enforced, and the weak
+police officers accept money from the citizen for not enforcing rules
+which in any case they could not enforce. "The American police forces,"
+says Fuld, "have been corrupted almost solely by the statutes.... The
+real blame attaches not to the policeman who accepts a bribe temptingly
+offered him, nor to the bribe-giver who seeks by giving a bribe to make
+the best possible business arrangement, but rather to the law, which by
+giving the police a large and uncontrolled discretion in the enforcement
+of the law places a premium upon bribe-giving and bribe-taking." This
+state of things is rendered possible by the fact that the duties of the
+police are not confined to matters affecting crime and public
+order--matters which the whole community consider essential, and in
+regard to which any police negligence is counted a serious charge--but
+are extended to unessential matters which a considerable section of the
+community, including many of the police themselves, view with complete
+indifference. It is impossible to regard seriously a conspiracy to
+defeat laws which a large proportion of citizens regard as unnecessary
+or even foolish. It thus unfortunately comes about that the charge
+brought against the American police that "it sells the right to break
+the law" has not the same grave significance which it would have in most
+countries, for the rights purchased in America may in most countries be
+obtained without purchase. "An act ought to be made criminal," as Fuld
+rightly lays down, "only when it is socially expedient to punish its
+criminality.... The American people, or at least the American
+legislators, do not make this clear distinction between vice and crime.
+There seems to be a feeling in America that unless a vice is made a
+crime, the State countenances the vice and becomes a party to its
+commission. There are unfortunately a large number of men in the
+community who believe that they have satisfied the demands made upon
+them to lead a virtuous life by incorporating into some statute the
+condemnation of a particular vicious act as a crime."[204] This special
+characteristic of American laws, with its failure to distinguish between
+vice and crime, is clearly a legacy of the early Puritans. The Puritans
+carried over to New England independent autonomous laws of morality, and
+were contemptuous of external law. The sturdy pioneers of the first
+generation were faithful to that attitude, and were not even guilty of
+punishing witches. But, when the opportunity came, their descendants
+could not resist the temptation to erect an external law of morals, and,
+like the Calvinists of Geneva, they set up an inquisition backed by the
+secular arm. It was not until the days of Emerson that American
+Puritanism regained autonomous freedom and moved in the same air as
+Milton. But in the meantime the mischief had been done. Even to-day an
+inquisition of the mails has been established in the United States. It
+is said to be unconstitutional, and one can well believe that that is
+so, but none the less it flourishes under the protection of what a
+famous American has called "the never-ending audacity of elected
+persons." But to allow subordinate officials to masquerade in the Postal
+Department as familiars of the inquisition, in the supposed interests of
+public morals, is a dangerous policy.[205] Its deadening influence on
+national life cannot fail sooner or later to be realized by Americans.
+To moralize by statute is idle and unsatisfactory enough; but it is
+worse to attempt to moralize by the arbitrary dicta of minor government
+officials.
+
+It is interesting to observe the methods which find favour in some parts
+of the United States for dealing with the trade in alcoholic liquors.
+Alcohol is, on the one hand, a poison; on the other hand, it is the
+basis of the national drinks of every civilized country. Every state has
+felt called upon to regulate its sale to more or less extent, in such a
+way that (1) in the interests of public health alcohol may not be too
+easily or too cheaply obtainable, that (2) the restraints on its sale
+may be a source of revenue to the State, and that (3) at the same time
+this regulation of the sale may not be a vexatious and useless attempt
+to interfere unduly with national customs. States have sought to attain
+these ends in various ways. The sale of alcohol may be made a State
+monopoly, as in Russia, or, again, it may be carried on under
+disinterested municipal or other control, as by the Gothenburg system of
+Sweden or the Samlag system of Norway.[206] In England the easier and more
+usual plan is adopted of heavily taxing the sale, with, in addition,
+various minor methods for restraining the sale of alcoholic drinks and
+attempting to improve the conditions under which they are sold.
+
+In France an ingenious method of influencing the sale of alcohol has
+lately been adopted, in the interests of public health, which has proved
+completely successful. The French national drink is light wine, which
+may be procured in abundance, of excellent and wholesome quality and
+very cheaply, provided it is not heavily taxed. But of recent years
+there has been a tendency in France to consume in large quantity the
+heavy alcoholic spirits, often of a specially deleterious kind. The plan
+has been adopted of placing a very high duty on distilled beverages and
+reducing the duty on the light wines, as well as beer, so that a
+wholesome and genuine wine can be supplied to the consumer at as low a
+price as beer. As a result the French consumer has shown a preference
+for the cheap and wholesome wine which is really his national drink, and
+there is an enormous fall in the consumption of spirits. Whereas
+formerly the consumption of brandy in French towns amounted to seven or
+eight litres of absolute alcohol per head, it has now fallen in the
+large towns to 4.23 litres.[207]
+
+In America, however, there is a tendency to deal with the sale of
+alcohol totally opposed to that which nearly everywhere prevails in
+Europe. When in Europe a man abandons the use of alcohol he makes no
+demand on his fellow men to follow his example, or, if he does, he is
+usually content to employ moral suasion to gain this end. But in the
+United States, where there is no single national drink, a large number
+of people have abandoned the use of alcohol, and have persuaded
+themselves that its use by other people is a vice, for it is not
+universally recognized that--"Selfishness is not living as one wishes to
+live, it is asking others to live as one wishes to live." Moreover, as
+in the United States the medieval confusion between vice and crime still
+subsists among a section of the population, being a part of the national
+tradition, it became easy to regard the drinking of alcohol as a crime
+and to make it punishable. Hence we have "Prohibition," which has
+prevailed in various States of the Union and is especially associated
+with Maine, where it was established in a crude form so long ago as 1846
+and (except for a brief interval between 1856 and 1858) has prevailed
+until to-day. The law has never been effective. It has been made more
+and more stringent; the wildest excuses of arbitrary administration have
+been committed; scandals have constantly occurred; officials of iron
+will and determination have perished in the faith that if only they put
+enough energy into the task the law might, after all, be at last
+enforced. It was all in vain. It has always been easy in the cities of
+Maine for those to obtain alcohol who wished to obtain it. Finally, in
+1911, by a direct Referendum, the majority by which the people of Maine
+are maintaining Prohibition has been brought down to 700 in a total poll
+of 120,000, while all the large towns have voted for the repeal of
+Prohibition by enormous majorities. The people of Maine are evidently
+becoming dimly conscious that it is worse than useless to make laws
+which no human power can enforce. "The result of the vote," writes Mr.
+Arthur Sherwell, an English social Reformer, not himself opposed to
+temperance legislation, "from every point of view, and not least from
+the point of view of temperance, is eminently unsatisfactory, and it
+unquestionably creates a position of great difficulty and embarrassment
+for the authorities. A majority of 700 in a total poll of 120,000 is
+clearly not a sufficient mandate for a drastic law which previous
+experience has conclusively shown cannot be enforced successfully in the
+urban districts of the State." Successful enforcement of prohibition on
+a State basis would appear to be hopeless. The history of Prohibition in
+Maine will for ever form an eloquent proof of the mischief which comes
+when the ancient ecclesiastical failure to distinguish between the
+sphere of morals and the sphere of law is perpetuated under the
+conditions of modern life. The attempt to force men to render unto Caesar
+the things which are God's must always end thus.
+
+In these matters we witness in America the survival of an ancient
+tradition. The early Puritans were individualists, it is true, but their
+individualism took a theocratic form, and, in the name of God, they
+looked upon crimes and vices equally and indistinguishably as sins. We
+see exactly the same point of view in the Penitentials of the ninth
+century, which were ecclesiastical codes dealing, exactly in the same
+spirit and in the same way, with crime and with vice, recognizing
+nothing but a certain difference in degree between murder and
+masturbation. In the ninth century, and even much later, in Calvin's
+Geneva and Cotton Mather's New England, it was possible to carry into
+practice this theocratic conception of the unity of vices and crimes and
+the punishment as sins of both alike, for the community generally
+accepted that point of view. But that is very far from being the case in
+the United States of to-day. The result is that in America in this
+respect we find a condition of things analogous to that which existed in
+France, before the Revolution remoulded the laws in accordance with the
+temperament of the nation. Laws and regulations of the medieval kind,
+for the moral ordering of the smallest details of life, are still
+enacted in America, but they are regarded with growing contempt by the
+community and even by the administrators of the laws. It is realized
+that such minute inquisition into the citizen's private life can only be
+effectively carried out where the citizen himself recognizes the divine
+right of the inquisitor. But the theocratic conception of life no longer
+corresponds to American ideas or American customs; this minute moral
+legislation rests on a basis which in the course of centuries has become
+rotten. Thus it has come about that nowhere in the world is there so
+great an anxiety to place the moral regulation of social affairs in the
+hands of the police; nowhere are the police more incapable of carrying
+out such regulation.
+
+When we thus bear in mind the historical aspect of the matter we can
+understand how it has come about that the individualistic idealist in
+America has been much more resolute than in England to effect reforms,
+much more determined that they shall be very thorough and extreme
+reforms, and, especially, much more eager to embody his moral
+aspirations in legal statutes. But his tasks are bigger than in England,
+because of the vast, unstable, heterogeneous and crude population he has
+to deal with, and because, at the same time, he has no firmly
+established centralized and reliable police instrument whereby to effect
+his reforms. The fiery American moral idealist is determined to set out
+for the Kingdom of Heaven at once, but every steed he mounts proves
+broken-winded, and speedily drops down by the wayside. Don Quixote sets
+the lance at rest and digs his spurs into Rosinante's flanks, but he
+fails to realize that, in our modern world, he will never bear him
+anywhere near the foe.
+
+If we wish to see a totally different national method of regarding
+immorality we may turn to Russia. Here also we find idealism at work,
+but it is not the same kind of idealism, since, far from desiring to
+express itself by force, its essential basis is an absolute disbelief in
+force. Russia, like France, has inherited from an ancient ecclesiastical
+domination an extremely severe code of regulations against immorality
+and all sexual aberrations, but, unlike France, it has not cast them off
+in order to mould the laws in accordance with national temperament. The
+essence of the Russian attitude in these matters is a sympathy with the
+individual which is stronger than any antipathy aroused by his immoral
+acts; his act is a misfortune rather than a sin or a crime. We may
+observe this attitude in the kindly and helpful fashion in which the
+Russian assists along the streets his fellow-man who has drunk too much
+vodka, and, on a higher plane, we see the same spirit of forgiving human
+tenderness in the Russian novelists, most clearly in the greatest and
+most typically national, in Dostoieffsky and in Tolstoy. The harsh
+rigidity of the old Russian laws had not the slightest influence, either
+in changing this national attitude or in diminishing the prevalence, at
+the very least as great as elsewhere, of sexual laxity or sexual
+aberration. Nowadays, as Russia attains national self-consciousness,
+these laws against immorality are being slowly remoulded in accordance
+with the national temperament, and in some respects--as in its attitude
+towards homosexuality and the introduction in 1907 of what is
+practically divorce by mutual consent--they allow a freedom and latitude
+scarcely equalled in any other country.[208]
+
+Undoubtedly there is, within certain limits, mutual action and reaction
+in these matters among nations. Thus the influence of France has led to
+the abolition of the penalty against homosexual practices in many
+countries, notably Holland, Spain, Portugal, and, more recently, Italy,
+while even in Germany there is a strong and influential party, among
+legal as well as medical authorities, in favour of taking the same step.
+On the other hand, France has in some matters of detail departed from
+her general principle in these matters, and has, for instance--without
+doubt in an altogether justifiable manner--taken part in the
+international movement against what is called the white slave trade.
+This mutual reaction of nations is well recognized by the more alert and
+progressive minds in every country, jealous of any undue interference
+with liberty. When, for instance, a Bill is introduced in the English
+Parliament for promoting inquisitorial and vexatious interference with
+matters that are not within the sphere of legislation it is eagerly
+discussed in Germany before even its existence is known to most people
+in England, not so much out of interest in English Affairs as from a
+sensitive dread that English example may affect German legislation.[209]
+
+Not only, indeed, have we to recognize the existence of these clearly
+marked and profound differences in legislative reaction to immorality.
+We have also to realize that at different periods there are general
+movements, to some extent overpassing national bounds, of rise and of
+fall in this reaction.
+
+A sudden impulse seizes on a community, and spreads to other
+communities, to attempt to suppress some form of immorality by law. Such
+attempts, as we know, have always ended in failure or worse than
+failure, for laws against immorality are either not carried out, or, if
+they are carried out, it is at once realized that new evils are created
+worse than the original evils, and the laws speedily fall into abeyance
+or are repealed. That has been repeatedly seen, and is well illustrated
+by the history of prostitution, a sexual manifestation which for two
+thousand years all sorts of persons in authority have sought to suppress
+off-hand by law or by administrative fiat. From the time when
+Christianity gained full political power, prostitution has again and
+again been prohibited, under the severest penalties, but always in vain.
+The mightiest emperors--Theodosius, Valentinian, Justinian, Karl the
+Great, St. Louis, Frederick Barbarossa--all had occasion to discover
+that might was here in vain, and worse than in vain, that they could not
+always obey their own moral ordinances, still less coerce their subjects
+into doing so, and that even so far as, on the surface, they were
+successful they produced results more pernicious than the evils they
+sought to suppress. The best known and one of the most vigorous of these
+attempts was that of the Empress Maria Theresa in Vienna; but all the
+cruelty and injustice of that energetic effort, and all the stringent,
+ridiculous, and brutal regulations it involved--its prohibition of short
+dresses, its inspection of billiard-rooms, its handcuffing of
+waitresses, its whippings and its tortures--proved useless and worse
+than useless, and were soon quietly dropped.[210] No more fortunate were
+more recent municipal attempts in England and America (Portsmouth,
+Pittsburgh, New York, etc.) to suppress prostitution off-hand; for the
+most part they collapsed even in a few days.
+
+The history of the legal attempts to suppress homosexuality shows the
+same results. It may even be said to show more, for when the laws
+against homosexuality are relaxed or abolished, homosexuality becomes,
+not perhaps less prevalent (in so far as it is a congenital anomaly we
+cannot expect its prevalence to be influenced by law), but certainly
+less conspicuous and ostentatious. In France, under the Bourbons, the
+sexual invert was a sacrilegious criminal who could legally be burnt at
+the stake, but homosexuality flourished openly in the highest circles,
+and some of the kings were themselves notoriously inverted. Since the
+Code Napoleon was introduced homosexual acts, _per se_, have never been
+an offence, yet instead of flourishing more vigorously, homosexuality
+has so far receded into the background that some observers regard it as
+very rare in France. In Germany and England, on the other hand, where
+the antiquated laws against this perversion still prevail, homosexuality
+is extremely prominent, and its right to exist is vigorously championed.
+The law cannot suppress these impulses and passions; it can only sting
+them into active rebellion.[211]
+
+But although it has invariably been seen that all attempts to make men
+moral by law are doomed to disappointment, spasmodic attempts to do so
+are continually being made afresh. No doubt those who make these
+attempts are but a small minority, people whose good intentions are not
+accompanied by knowledge either of history or of the world. But though a
+minority they can often gain a free field for their activities. The
+reason is plain. No public man likes to take up a position which his
+enemies may interpret as favourable to vice and probably due to an
+anxiety to secure legal opportunities for his own enjoyment of vice.
+This consideration especially applies to professional politicians. A
+Member of Parliament, who must cultivate an immaculately pure
+reputation, feels that he is also bound to record by his vote how
+anxious he is to suppress other people's immorality. Thus the philistine
+and the hypocrite join hands with the simple-minded idealist. Very few
+are left to point out that, however desirable it is to prevent
+immorality, that end can never be attained by law.
+
+During the past ten years one of these waves of enthusiasm for the
+moralization of the public by law has been sweeping across Europe and
+America. Its energy is scarcely yet exhausted, and it may therefore be
+worthwhile to call attention to it. The movement has shown special
+activity in Germany, in Holland, in England, in the United States, and
+is traceable in a minor degree in many other countries. In Germany the
+Lex Heintze in 1900 was an indication of the appearance of this
+movement, while various scandals have had the result of attracting an
+exaggerated amount of attention to questions of immorality and of
+tightening the rigour of the law, though as Germany already holds moral
+matters in a very complex web of regulations it can scarcely be said
+that the new movement has here found any large field of activity. In
+Holland it is different. Holland is one of the traditional lands of
+freedom; it was the home of independent intellect, of free religion, of
+autonomous morals, when every other country in Europe was closed to
+these manifestations of the spirit, and something of the same tradition
+has always inspired its habits of thought, even when they have been
+largely Puritanic. So that there was here a clear field for the movement
+to work in, and it has found expression, of a very thorough character
+indeed, in the new so-called "Morals Law" which was passed in 1911 after
+several weeks' discussion. Undoubtedly this law contains excellent
+features; thus the agents of the "white slave trade," who have hitherto
+been especially active in Holland, are now threatened with five years'
+imprisonment. Here we are concerned with what may fairly be regarded as
+crime and rightly punishable as such. But excellent provisions like
+these are lost to sight in a great number of other paragraphs which are
+at best useless and ridiculous, and at worst vexatious and mischievous
+in their attempts to limit the free play of civilization. Thus we find
+that a year's imprisonment, or a heavy fine, threatens any one who
+exposes any object or writing which "offends decency," a provision which
+enabled a policeman to enter an art-pottery shop in Amsterdam and remove
+a piece of porcelain on which he detected an insufficiently clothed
+human figure. Yet this paragraph of the law had been passed with
+scarcely any opposition. Another provision of this law deals extensively
+with the difficult and complicated question of the "age of consent" for
+girls, which it raises to the age of twenty-one, making intercourse with
+a girl under twenty-one an offence punishable by four years'
+imprisonment. It is generally regarded as desirable that chastity should
+be preserved until adult age is well established. But as soon as sexual
+maturity is attained--which is long before what we conventionally regard
+as the adult age, and earlier in girls than in boys--it is impossible to
+dismiss the question of personal responsibility. A girl over sixteen,
+and still more when she is over twenty, is a developed human being on
+the sexual side; she is capable of seducing as well as of being seduced;
+she is often more mature than the youth of corresponding age; to
+instruct her in sexual hygiene, to train her to responsibility, is the
+proper task of morals. But to treat her as an irresponsible child, and
+to regard the act of interfering with her chastity when her consent has
+been given, as on a level with an assault on an innocent child merely
+introduces confusion. It must often be unjust to the male partner in the
+act; it is always demoralizing and degrading to the girl whom it aims at
+"protecting"; above all, it reduces what ought to be an extremely
+serious crime to the level of a merely nominal offence when it punishes
+one of two practically mature persons for engaging with full knowledge
+and deliberation in an act which, however undesirable, is altogether
+according to Nature. There is here a fatal confusion between a crime and
+an action which is at the worst morally reprehensible and only properly
+combated by moral methods.
+
+These objections are not of a purely abstract or theoretical character.
+They are based on the practical outcome of such enactments. Thus in the
+State of New York the "age of consent" was in former days thirteen
+years. It was advanced to fourteen and afterwards to sixteen. This is
+the extreme limit to which it may prudently be raised, and the New York
+Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which had taken the
+chief part in obtaining these changes in the law, was content to stop at
+this point. But without seeking the approval of this Society, another
+body, the White Cross and Social Purity League, took the matter in hand,
+and succeeded in passing an amendment to the law which raised the age of
+consent to eighteen. What has been the result? The Committee of
+Fourteen, who are not witnesses hostile to moral legislation, state that
+"since the amendment went into effect making the age of consent eighteen
+years there have been few successful prosecutions. The laws are
+practically inoperative so far as the age clause is concerned." Juries
+naturally require clear evidence that a rape has been committed when the
+case concerns a grown-up girl in the full possession of her faculties,
+possibly even a clandestine prostitute. Moreover, as rape in the first
+degree involves the punishment of imprisonment for twenty years, there
+is a disinclination to convict a man unless the case is a very bad one.
+One judge, indeed, has asserted that he will not give any man the full
+penalty under the present law, so long as he is on the bench. The
+natural result of stretching the law to undue limits is to weaken it.
+Instead of being, as it should be, an extremely serious crime, rape
+loses in a large proportion of cases the opprobrium which rightly
+belongs to it. It is, therefore, a matter for regret that in some
+English dominions there is a tendency to raise the "age of consent" to
+an unduly high limit. In New South Wales the Girls' Protection Act has
+placed the age of consent at sixteen, and in the case of offences by
+guardians, schoolmasters, or employers at seventeen years,
+notwithstanding the vigorous opposition of a distinguished medical
+member of the Legislative Council (the Hon. J.M. Creed), who presented
+the arguments against so high an age. Not a single prosecution has so
+far occurred under this Act.
+
+In England the force of the moral legislation wave has been felt, but it
+has been largely broken against the conservative traditions of the
+country, which make all legislation, good or bad, very difficult. A
+lengthy, elaborate and high-strung Prevention of Immorality Bill was
+introduced in the House of Commons by a group of Nonconformists mainly
+on the Liberal side. This Bill was very largely on the lines of the
+Dutch law already mentioned; it proposed to raise the age of consent to
+nineteen; making intercourse with a girl under that age felony,
+punishable by five years' penal servitude, and any attempt at such
+intercourse by two years' imprisonment. Such a measure would be, it may
+be noted, peculiarly illogical and inconsistent in England and Scotland,
+in both of which countries (though their laws in these matters are
+independent) even a girl of twelve is legally regarded as sufficiently
+mature and responsible to take to herself a husband. At one moment the
+Bill seemed to have a chance of becoming law, but a group of enlightened
+and independent Liberals, realizing that such a measure would introduce
+intolerable social conditions, organized resistance and prevented the
+acceptance of the Bill.
+
+The chief organization in England at the present time for the promotion
+of public morality is the National Council of Public Morals, which is a
+very influential body, with many able and distinguished supporters.
+Law-enforced morality, however, constitutes but a very small part of the
+reforms advocated by this organization, which is far more concerned with
+the home, the school, the Church, and the influences which operate in
+those spheres. It has lately to a considerable extent joined hands with
+the workers in the eugenic movement, advocating sexual hygiene and
+racial betterment, thus allying itself with one of the most hopeful
+movements of our day. Certainly there may be some amount of zeal not
+according to knowledge in the activities of the National Council of
+Public Morals, but there is also very much that is genuinely
+enlightened, and the very fact that the Council includes representatives
+from so many fields of action and so many schools of thought largely
+saves it from running into practical excesses. Its influence on the
+whole is beneficial, because, although it may not be altogether averse
+to moral legislation, it recognizes that the policeman is a very feeble
+guide in these matters, and that the fundamental and essential way of
+bettering the public morality is by enlightening the private conscience.
+
+In the United States conditions have been very favourable, as we have
+seen, for the attempt to achieve social reform by moral legislation, and
+nowhere else in the world has it been so clearly demonstrated that such
+attempts not only fail to cure the evils they are aimed at, but tend to
+further evils far worse than those aimed at. A famous example is
+furnished by the so-called "Raines Law" of New York. This Act was passed
+in 1896, and was intended to regulate the sale of alcoholic liquor in
+all its phases throughout the State. The grounds for bringing it forward
+were that the number of drinking saloons was excessive, that there was
+no fixed licensing fee, that too much discretionary power was allowed to
+the local commissioner; while, above all, the would-be Puritanic
+legislators wished so far as possible to suppress the drinking of
+alcoholic liquors on Sunday. To achieve these objects the licensing fee
+was raised to four times its usual amount previously to this enactment;
+heavy penalties, including the forfeiture of a large surety-bond, were
+established, and more surely to prevent Sunday drinking only hotels, not
+ordinary drinking bars, were allowed, with many stringent restrictions,
+to sell drink on that day. In order that there should be no mistake, it
+was set forth in the Act that the hotel must be a real hotel with at
+least ten properly furnished bedrooms. The legislators clearly thought
+that they had done a fine piece of work. "Seldom," wrote the Committee
+of Fourteen, who are by no means out of sympathy with the aims of this
+legislation, "has a law intended to regulate one evil resulted in so
+aggravated a phase of another evil directly traceable to its
+provisions."[212]
+
+In the first place, the passing of this law alarmed the saloon keepers;
+they realized that it had them in a very tight grip, and they suspected
+that it might be strictly enforced. They came to the conclusion,
+therefore, that their best policy would be to accept the law and to
+conform themselves to its provisions by converting their drinking bars
+into real hotels, with ten properly furnished bedrooms, kitchen, and
+dining-room. The immediate result was the preparation of ten thousand
+bedrooms, for which there was of course no real demand, and by 1905
+there were 1407 certificated hotels in Manhattan and the Bronx alone,
+about 1150 of these hotels having probably been created by the Raines
+Law.
+
+But something had to be done with all these bedrooms, properly furnished
+according to law, for it was necessary to meet the heavy expenses
+incurred under the new conditions created by the law. The remedy was
+fairly obvious. These bedrooms were excellently adapted to serve as
+places of assignation and houses of prostitution. Many hotel proprietors
+became practically brothel keepers, the women in some cases becoming
+boarders in the hotels; and saloons and hotels have entered into a kind
+of alliance for their mutual benefit, and are sometimes indeed under the
+same management. When a hotel is thus run in the interests of
+prostitution it has what may be regarded as a staff of women in the
+neighbouring streets. In some districts of New York it is found that
+practically all the prostitutes on the street are connected with some
+Raines Law hotel. These wise moral legislators of New York thought they
+were placing a penalty on Sunday drinking; what they have really done
+is to place a premium on prostitution[213].
+
+An attempt of a different kind to strike a blow at once at alcohol and
+at prostitution has been made in Chicago, with equally unsatisfactory
+results. Drink and prostitution are connected, so intimately connected,
+indeed, that no attempt to separate them can ever be more than
+superficially successful even with the most minute inquisition by the
+police, least of all by police officers, who, in Chicago, we are
+officially told, are themselves sometimes found, when in uniform and on
+duty, drinking among prostitutes in "saloons." On May 1, 1910, the
+Chicago General Superintendent of Police made a rule prohibiting the
+sale of liquor in houses of prostitution. On the surface this rule has
+in most cases been observed (though only on the surface, as the
+field-workers of the Chicago Vice Commission easily discovered), and a
+blow was thus dealt to those houses which derive a large profit from the
+sale of drinks on account of the high price at which they retail them.
+Yet even so far as the rule has been obeyed, and not evaded, has it
+effected any good? On this point we may trust the evidence of the Vice
+Commissioners of Chicago, a municipal body appointed by the Mayor and
+City Council, and not anxious to discredit the actions of their Police
+Superintendent. "As to the benefits derived from this order, either to
+the inmates or the public, opinions differ," they write. "It is
+undoubtedly true that the result of the order has been to scatter the
+prostitutes over a wide territory and to transfer the sale of liquor
+carried on heretofore in houses to the near-by saloon-keepers, and to
+flats and residential sections, but it is an open question whether it
+has resulted in the lessening of either of the two evils of prostitution
+and drink."[214] That is a mild statement of the results. It may be noted
+that there are over seven thousand drinking saloons in Chicago, so that
+the transfer is not difficult, while the migration to flats--of which an
+enormous number have been taken for purposes of prostitution (five
+hundred in one district alone) since this rule came into force--may
+indeed enable the prostitute to live a freer and more humanizing life,
+but in no faintest degree diminishes the prevalence of prostitution.
+From the narrow police standpoint, indeed, the change is a disadvantage,
+for it shelters the prostitute from observation, and involves an
+entirely new readjustment to new conditions.
+
+It cannot be said that either the State of New York or the city of
+Chicago has been in any degree more fortunate in its attempts at moral
+legislation against prostitution than against drinking. As we should
+expect, the laws of New York regard prostitution and the prostitute with
+an eye of extreme severity. Every prostitute in New York, by virtue of
+the mere fact that she is a prostitute, is technically termed a
+"vagrant." As such she is liable to be committed to the workhouse for a
+term not exceeding six months; the owner of houses where she lives may
+be heavily fined, as she herself may be for living in them, and the
+keeper of a disorderly house may be imprisoned and the disorderly house
+suppressed. It is not clear that the large number of prostitutes in New
+York have been diminished by so much as a single unit, but from time to
+time attempts are made in some district or another by an unusually
+energetic official to put the laws into execution, and it is then
+possible to study the results. When disorderly houses are suppressed on
+a large scale, there are naturally a great number of prostitutes who
+have to find homes elsewhere in order to carry on their business. On one
+occasion, under the auspices of District-Attorney Jerome, it is stated
+by the Committee of Fourteen that eight hundred women were reported to
+be turned out into the street in a single night. For many there are the
+Raines Law hotels. A great many others take refuge in tenement houses.
+Such houses in congested districts are crowded with families, and with
+these the prostitute is necessarily brought into close contact.
+Consequently the seeds of physical and mental disorder which she may
+bear about her are disseminated in a much more fruitful soil than they
+were before. Moreover, she is compelled by the laws to exert very great
+energy in the pursuit of her profession. As it is an offence to harbour
+her she has to pay twice as high a rent as other people would have to
+pay for the same rooms. She may have to pay the police to refrain from
+molesting her, as well as others to protect her from molestation. She is
+surrounded by people whom the law encourages to prey upon her. She is
+compelled to exert her energies at highest tension to earn the very
+large sums which are necessary, not to gain profits for herself, but to
+feed all the sharks who are eager to grab what is given to her. The
+blind or perverse zeal of the moral legislators not only intensifies the
+evils it aims at curing, but it introduces a whole crop of new evils.
+
+How large these sums are we may estimate by the investigation made by
+the Vice Commissioners of Chicago. They conclude after careful inquiry
+that the annual profits of prostitution in the city of Chicago alone
+amount to between fifteen to sixteen million dollars, and they regard
+this as "an ultra-conservative estimate." It is true that not all this
+actually passes through the women's hands and it includes the sales of
+drinks. If we confine ourselves strictly to the earnings of the girls
+themselves it is found to work out at an average for each girl of
+thirteen hundred dollars per annum. This is more than four times as much
+as the ordinary shop-girl can earn in Chicago by her brains, virtue, and
+other good qualities. But it is not too much for the prostitute's needs;
+she is compelled to earn so large an income because the active hostility
+of society, the law, and the police facilitates the task of all those
+persons--and they are many--who desire to prey upon her. Thus society,
+the law, and the police gain nothing for morals by their hostility to
+the prostitute. On the contrary, they give strength and stability to
+the very vice they nominally profess to fight against. This is shown in
+the vital matter of the high rents which it is possible to obtain where
+prostitution is concerned. These high rents are the direct result of
+legal and police enactments against the prostitute. Remove these
+enactments and the rents would automatically fall. The enactments
+maintain the high rents and so ensure that the mighty protection of
+capital is on the side of prostitution; the property brings in an
+exorbitant rate of interest on the capital invested, and all the forces
+of sound business are concerned in maintaining rents. So gross is the
+ignorance of the would-be moral legislators--or, some may think, so
+skilful their duplicity--that the methods by which they profess to fight
+against immorality are the surest methods for enabling immorality not
+merely to exist--which it would in any case--but to flourish. A vigorous
+campaign is initiated against immorality. On the surface it is
+successful. Morality triumphs. But, it may be, in the end we are
+reminded of the saying of M. Desmaisons in one of Remy de Gourmont's
+witty and profound _Dialogues des Amateurs_: "Quand la morale triomphe
+il se passe des choses tres vilaines."
+
+The reason why the "triumphs" of legislative and administrative morality
+are really such ignominious failures must now be clear, but may again be
+repeated. It is because on matters of morals there is no unanimity of
+opinion as there is in regard to crime. There is always a large section
+of the community which feels tolerant towards, and even practises, acts
+which another section, it may be quite reasonably, stigmatizes as
+"immoral." Such conditions are highly favourable for the exercise of
+moral influence; they are quite unsuitable for legislative action, which
+cannot possibly be brought to bear against a large minority, perhaps
+even majority, of otherwise law-abiding citizens. In the matter of
+prostitution, for instance, the Vice Commissioners of Chicago state
+emphatically the need for "constant and persistent repression" leading
+on to "absolute annihilation of prostitution." They recommend the
+appointment of a "Morals Commission" to suppress disorderly houses, and
+to prosecute their keepers, their inmates, and their patrons; they
+further recommend the establishment of a "Morals Court" of vaguely large
+scope. Among the other recommendations of the Commissioners--and there
+are ninety-seven such recommendations--we find the establishment of a
+municipal farm, to which prostitutes can be "committed on an
+indeterminate sentence"; a "special morals police squad"; instructions
+to the police to send home all unattended boys and girls under sixteen
+at 9 p.m.; no seats in the parks to be in shade; searchlights to be set
+up at night to enable the police to see what the public are doing, and
+so on. The scheme, it will be seen, combines the methods of Calvin in
+Geneva with those of Maria Theresa in Vienna.[215]
+
+The reason why any such high-handed repression of immorality by force is
+as impracticable in Chicago as elsewhere is revealed in the excellent
+picture of the conditions furnished by the Vice Commissioners
+themselves. They estimate that the prostitutes in disorderly houses
+known to the police--leaving out of account all prostitutes in flats,
+rooms, hotels and houses of assignation, and also taking no note of
+clandestine prostitutes--receive 15,180 visits from men daily, or
+5,540,700 per annum. They consider further that the men in question may
+be one-fourth of the adult male population (800,000 in the city itself,
+leaving the surrounding district out of the reckoning), and they rightly
+insist that this estimate cannot possibly cover all the facts. Yet it
+never occurs to the Vice Commissioners that in thus proposing to brand
+one-third or even only one quarter of the adult male population as
+criminals, and as such to prosecute them actively, is to propose an
+absurd impossibility.
+
+It is not by any means only in the United States that an object lesson
+in the foolishness of attempting to make people moral by force is set up
+before the world. It has often been set up before, and at the present
+day it is illustrated in exactly the same way in Germany. Unlike as are
+the police systems and the national temperaments of Germany and the
+United States, in this matter social reformers tell exactly the same
+story. They report that the German laws and ordinances against
+immorality increase and support the very evil they profess to attack.
+Thus by making it criminal to shelter, even though not for purposes of
+gain, unmarried lovers, even when they intend to marry, the respectable
+girl is forced into the position of the prostitute, and as such she
+becomes subject to an endless amount of police regulation and police
+control. Landlords are encouraged to live on her activities, charging
+very high rates to indemnify themselves for the risks they run by
+harbouring her. She, in her turn, to meet the exorbitant demands which
+the law and the police encourage the whole environment to make upon her,
+is forced to exercise her profession with the greatest activity, and to
+acquire the maximum of profit. Law and the police have forged the same
+vicious circle.[216]
+
+The illustrations thus furnished by Germany, Holland, England, and the
+United States, will probably suffice to show that there really is at the
+present time a wave of feeling in favour of the notion that it is
+possible to promote public morals by force of law. It only remains to
+observe that the recognition of the futility of such attempts by no
+means necessarily involves a pessimistic conservatism. To point out that
+prostitution never has been, and never can be, abolished by law, is by
+no means to affirm that it is an evil which must endure for ever and
+that no influence can affect it. But we have to realize, in the first
+place, that prostitution belongs to that sphere of human impulses in
+which mere external police ordinances count for comparatively little,
+and that, in the second place, even in the more potent field of true
+morals, which has nothing to do with moral legislation, prostitution is
+so subtly and deeply rooted that it can only be affected by influences
+which bear on all our methods of thought and feeling and all our social
+custom. It is far from being an isolated manifestation; it is, for
+instance, closely related to marriage; any reforms in prostitution,
+therefore, can only follow a reform in our marriage system. But
+prostitution is also related to economics, and when it is realized how
+much has to be altogether changed in our whole social system to secure
+even an approximate abolition of prostitution it becomes doubtful
+whether many people are willing to pay the price of removing the "social
+evil" they find it so easy to deplore. They are prepared to appoint
+Commissions; they have no objection to offer up a prayer; they are
+willing to pass laws and issue police regulations which are known to be
+useless. At that point their ardour ends.
+
+If it is impossible to guard the community by statute against the
+central evil of prostitution, still more hopeless is it to attempt the
+legal suppression of all the multitudinous minor provocations of the
+sexual impulse offered by civilization. Let it be assumed that only by
+such suppression, and not by frankly meeting and fighting temptations,
+can character be formed, yet it would be absolutely impossible to
+suppress more than a fraction of the things that would need to be
+suppressed. "There is almost no feature, article of dress, attitude,
+act," Dr. Stanley Hall has truly remarked, "or even animal, or perhaps
+object in nature, that may not have to some morbid soul specialized
+erogenic and erethic power." If, therefore, we wish to suppress the
+sexually suggestive and the possibly obscene we are bound to suppress
+the whole world, beginning with the human race, for if we once enter on
+that path there is no definite point at which we can logically stop. The
+truth is, as Mr. Theodore Schroeder has so repeatedly insisted,[217] that
+"obscenity" is subjective; it cannot reside in an object, but only in
+the impure mind which is influenced by the object. In this matter Mr.
+Schroeder is simply the follower, at an interval, of St. Paul. We must
+work not on the object, but on the impure mind affected by the object.
+If the impure heart is not suppressed it is useless to suppress the
+impure object, while if the heart is renewed the whole task is achieved.
+Certainly there are books, pictures, and other things in life so unclean
+that they can never be pure even to the purest, but these things by
+their loathsomeness are harmless to all healthy minds; they can only
+corrupt minds which are corrupt already. Unfortunately, when ignorant
+police officials and custom-house officers are entrusted with the task
+of searching for the obscene, it is not to these things that their
+attention is exclusively directed. Such persons, it seems, cannot
+distinguish between these things and the noblest productions of human
+art and intellect, and the law has proved powerless to set them right;
+in all civilized countries the list is indeed formidable of the splendid
+and inspiring productions, from the Bible downwards, which officials or
+the law courts have been pleased to declare "obscene." So that while the
+task of moralizing the community by force must absolutely fail of its
+object, it may at the same time suffice to effect much mischief.
+
+It is one of the ironies of history that the passion for extinguishing
+immorality by law and administration should have arisen in what used to
+be called Christendom. For Christianity is precisely the most brilliant
+proof the world has ever seen of the truth that immorality cannot so be
+suppressed. From the standpoint of classic Rome Christianity was an
+aggressive attack on Roman morality from every side. It was not so only
+in appearance, but in reality, as modern historians fully recognize.[218]
+Merely as a new religion Christianity would have been received with calm
+indifference, even with a certain welcome, as other new religions were
+received. But Christianity denied the supremacy of the State, carried on
+an anti-military propaganda in the army, openly flouted established
+social conventions, loosened family life, preached and practised
+asceticism to an age that was already painfully aware that, above all
+things, it needed men. The fatal though doubtless inevitable step was
+taken of attempting to suppress the potent poison of this manifold
+immorality by force. The triumph of Christianity was largely due to the
+fine qualities which were brought out by that annealing process, and the
+splendid prestige which the process itself assured. Yet the method of
+warfare which it had so brilliantly proved to be worthless was speedily
+adopted by Christianity itself, and is even yet, at intervals,
+spasmodically applied.
+
+That these attempts should have such results as we see is not surprising
+when we remember that even movements, at the outset, mainly inspired by
+moral energy, rather than by faith in moral legislation, when that
+energy becomes reckless, violent and intolerant, lead in the end to
+results altogether opposed to the aims of those who initiated them. It
+was thus that Luther has permanently fortified the position of the Popes
+whom he assailed, and that the Reformation produced the
+Counter-Reformation, a movement as formidable and as enduring as that
+which it countered. When Luther appeared all that was rigid and inhuman
+in the Church was slowly dissolving, certainly not without an inevitable
+sediment of immorality, yet the solution was in the highest degree
+favourable to the development of the freer and larger conceptions of
+life, the expansion of science and art and philosophy, which at that
+moment was pre-eminently necessary for the progress of civilisation,
+and, indirectly, therefore, for the progress of morals.[219] The violence
+of the Reformation not only resulted in a new tyranny for its own
+adherents--calling in turn for fresh reformations by Puritans, Quakers,
+Deists, and Freethinkers--but it re-established, and even to-day
+continues to support, that very tyranny of the old Church against which
+it was a protest.
+
+When we try to regulate the morals of men on the same uniform pattern we
+have to remember that we are touching the most subtle, intimate, and
+incalculable springs of action. It is useless to apply the crude methods
+of "suppression" and "annihilation" to these complex and indestructible
+forces. When Charles V retired in weariness from the greatest throne in
+the world to the solitude of the monastery at Yuste, he occupied his
+leisure for some weeks in trying to regulate two clocks. It proved very
+difficult. One day, it is recorded, he turned to his assistant and said:
+"To think that I attempted to force the reason and conscience of
+thousands of men into one mould, and I cannot make two clocks agree!"
+Wisdom comes to the rulers of men, sometimes, usually when they have
+ceased to be rulers. It comes to the moral legislators not otherwise
+than it comes to the immoral persons they legislate against. "I act
+first," the French thief said; "then I think."
+
+It seems to some people almost a paradox to assert that immorality
+should not be encountered by physical force. The same people would
+willingly admit that it is hopeless to rout a modern army with bows and
+arrows, even with the support of a fanfare of trumpets. Yet that
+metaphor, as we have seen, altogether fails to represent the inadequacy
+of law in the face of immorality. We are concerned with a method of
+fighting which is not merely inadequate, but, as has been demonstrated
+many times during the last two thousand years, actually fortifies and
+even dignifies the foe it professes to attack. But the failure of
+physical force to suppress the spiritual evil of immorality by no means
+indicates that a like failure would attend the more rational tactics of
+opposing a spiritual force by spiritual force. The virility of our
+morals is not proved by any weak attempt to call in the aid of the
+secular arm of law or the ecclesiastical arm of theology. If a morality
+cannot by its own proper virtue hold its opposing immorality in check
+then there is something wrong with that morality. It runs the risk of
+encountering a fresh and more vigorous movement of morality. Men begin
+to think that, if not the whole truth, there is yet a real element of
+truth in the assertion of Nietzsche: "We believe that severity,
+violence, slavery, danger in the street and in the heart, secrecy,
+stoicism, tempter's art and devilry of every kind, everything wicked,
+tyrannical, predatory and serpentine in man, serves as well for the
+elevation of the human species as its opposite."[220] To ignore altogether
+the affirmation of that opposing morality, it may be, would be to breed
+a race of weaklings, fatally doomed to succumb helplessly to the first
+breath of temptation.
+
+Although we are passing through a wave of moral legislation, there are
+yet indications that a sounder movement is coming into action. The
+demand for the teaching of sexual hygiene which parents, teachers, and
+physicians in Germany, the United States and elsewhere, are now striving
+to formulate and to supply will, if it is wisely carried out, effect far
+more for public morals than all the legislation in the world.
+Inconsistently enough, some of those who clamour for moral legislation
+also advocate the teaching of sexual hygiene. But there is no room for
+compromise or combination here. A training in sexual hygiene has no
+meaning if it is not a training, for men and women alike, in personal
+and social responsibility, in the right to know and to discriminate,
+and in so doing to attain self-conquest. A generation thus trained to
+self-respect and to respect for others has no use for a web of official
+regulations to protect its feeble and cloistered virtues from possible
+visions of evil, and an army of police to conduct it homewards at 9 p.m.
+Nor, on the other hand, can any reliable sense of social responsibility
+ever be developed in such an unwholesome atmosphere of petty moral
+officialdom. The two methods of moralization are radically antagonistic.
+There can be no doubt which of them we ought to pursue if we really
+desire to breed a firmly-fibred, clean-minded, and self-reliant race of
+manly men and womanly women.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[191] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, Vol. I, p.
+160; see also chapter on sexual morality in Havelock Ellis, _Studies in
+the Psychology of Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society," chap. IX.
+
+[192] It must be remembered that in medieval days not only adultery but
+the smallest infraction of what the Church regarded as morality could be
+punished in the Archdeacon's court; this continued to be the case in
+England even after the Reformation. See Archdeacon W.W. Hales'
+interesting work, _Precedents and Proceedings in Criminal Causes_
+(1847), which is, as the author states, "a History of the Moral Police
+of the Church."
+
+[193] _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 100.
+
+[194] This has been emphasized in an able and lucid discussion of this
+question by Dr. Hans Hagen, "Sittliche Werturteile," _Mutterschutz_,
+Heft I and II, 1906. Such recognition of popular morals, he justly
+remarks, is needed not only for the sake of the people, but for the sake
+of law itself.
+
+[195] Grabowsky, in criticizing Hiller's book, _Das Recht ueber sich Selbst_
+(_Archiv fuer Kriminalanthropologie und Kriminalistik_, Bd. 36, 1809),
+argues that in some cases immorality injures rights which need legal
+protection, but he admits it is difficult to decide when this is the
+case. He does not think that the law should interfere with homosexuality
+in adults, but he does consider it should interfere with incest, on the
+ground that in-breeding is not good for the race. But it is the view of
+most authorities nowadays that in-breeding is only injurious to the race
+in the case of an unsound stock, when the defect being in both partners
+of the same kind would probably be intensified by heredity.
+
+[196] The occurrence of, for instance, incestuous, bestial, and homosexual
+acts--which are generally abhorrent, but not necessarily
+anti-social--makes it necessary to exercise some caution here.
+
+[197] I quote from a valuable and interesting study by Dr. Eugen Wilhelm,
+"Die Volkspsychologischen Unterschiede in der franzoesischen und
+deustchen Sittlichkeits-Gesetzgebung und Rechtsprechung,"
+_Sexual-Probleme_, October, 1911. It may be added that in Switzerland,
+also, the tyranny of the police is carried to an extreme. Edith Sellers
+gives some extraordinary examples, _Cornhill_, August, 1910.
+
+[198] The absurdities and injustice of the German law, and its
+interference with purely private interests in these matters, have often
+been pointed out, as by Dr. Kurt Hiller ("Ist Kuppelei Strafwuerdig?"
+_Die Neue Generation_, November, 1910). As to what is possible under
+German law by judicial decision since 1882, Hagen takes the case of a
+widow who has living with her a daughter, aged twenty-five or thirty,
+engaged to marry an artisan now living at a distance for the sake of his
+work; he comes to see her when he can; she is already pregnant; they
+will marry soon; one evening, with the consent of the widow, who looks
+on the couple as practically married, he stays over-night, sharing his
+betrothed's room, the only room available. Result: the old woman becomes
+liable to four years' penal servitude, a fine of six thousand marks,
+loss of civil rights, and police supervision.
+
+[199] In another respect the French code carries private rights to an
+excess by forbidding the unmarried mother to make any claim on the
+father of her child. In most countries such a prohibition is regarded as
+unreasonable and unjust. There is even a tendency (as by a recent Dutch
+law) to compel the father to provide for his illegitimate child not on
+the scale of the mother's social position but on the scale of his own
+social position. This is, possibly, an undue assertion of the
+superiority of man.
+
+[200] The same point has lately been illustrated in Holland, where a
+recent modification in the law is held to press harshly on homosexual
+persons. At once a vigorous propaganda on behalf of the homosexual has
+sprung into existence. We see here the difference between moral
+enactments and criminal enactments. Supposing that a change in the law
+had placed, for instance, increased difficulties in the way of burglary.
+We should not witness any outburst of literary activity on behalf of
+burglars, because the community, as a whole, is thoroughly convinced
+that burglary ought to be penalized.
+
+[201] Apart from the attitude towards immorality, we have an illustration
+of the peculiarly English tendency to unite religious fervour with
+individualism in Quakerism. In no other European country has any similar
+movement--that is, a popular movement of individualistic mysticism--ever
+appeared on the same scale.
+
+[202] E.F. Fuld, Ph.D., _Police Administration_, 1909.
+
+[203] Ex-Police Commissioner Bingham, of New York, estimated (_Hampton's
+Magazine_, September, 1909) that "fifteen per cent. or from 1500 to 2000
+members of the police force are unscrupulous 'grafters' whose hands are
+always out for easy money." See also Report of the Committee of Fourteen
+on _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 34.
+
+[204] Fuld, _op. cit._, pp. 373 _et seq._ This last opinion by no means
+stands alone. Thus it is asserted by the Committee of Fourteen in their
+Report on The _Social Evil in New York City_ (1910, p. xxxiv) that "some
+laws exist to-day because an unintelligent, cowardly public puts
+unenforceable statutes on the book, being content with registering their
+hypocrisy."
+
+[205] It is also a blundering policy. Its blind anathema is as likely as
+not to fall on its own allies. Thus the Report of the municipally
+appointed and municipally financed Vice Commission of Chicago is not
+only an official but a highly moral document, advocating increased
+suppression of immoral literature, and erring, if it errs, on the side
+of over-severity. It has been suppressed by the United States Post
+Office!
+
+[206] This system applies only to spirits, not to beer and wine, but it
+has proved very effective in diminishing drunkenness, as is admitted by
+those who are opposed to the system. A somewhat similar system exists in
+England under the name of the Trust system, but its extension appears
+unfortunately to be much impeded by English laws and customs.
+
+[207] Jacques Bertillon, in a paper read to the Academie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques, 30th September, 1911.
+
+[208] During the present century a great wave of immorality and sexual
+crime has been passing over Russia. This is not attributable to the
+laws, old or new, but is due in part to the Russo-Japanese War, and in
+part to the relaxed tension consequent on the collapse of the movement
+for political reform. (See an article by Professor Asnurof, "La Crise
+Sexuelle en Russie," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, April,
+1911.)
+
+[209] It was by this indirect influence that I was induced to write the
+present chapter. The editor of a prominent German review wrote to me for
+my opinion regarding a Bill dealing with the prevention of immorality
+which had been introduced into the English Parliament and had aroused
+much interest and anxiety in Germany, where it had been discussed in all
+its details. But I had never so much as heard of the Bill, nor could I
+find any one else who had heard of it, until I consulted a Member of
+Parliament who happened to have been instrumental in causing its
+rejection.
+
+[210] J. Schrank, _Die Prostitution in Wien_, Bd. I, pp. 152-206.
+
+[211] The history of this movement in Germany may be followed in the
+_Vierteljahrsberichte des Wissenschaftlich-humanitaeren Komitees_, edited
+by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, a great authority on the matter.
+
+[212] Report on _The Social Evil in New York City_, p. 38; see also Rev
+Dr. J.P. Peters, "Suppression of the 'Raines Law Hotels,'" _American
+Academy of Political and Social Science_, November, 1908.
+
+[213] It is probably needless to add that the specific object of the
+Act--the Puritanic observance of Sunday--was by no means attained. On
+Sunday, the 8th December, 1907, the police made a desperate attempt to
+enforce the law; every place of amusement was shut up; lectures,
+religious concerts, even the social meetings of the Young Men's
+Christian Association, were rigorously put a stop to. There was, of
+course, great popular indignation and uproar, and the impromptu
+performances got up in the streets, while the police looked on
+sympathetically, are said to have been far more outrageous than any
+entertainment indoors could possibly have been.
+
+[214] _The Social Evil in Chicago_, p. 112.
+
+[215] The methods of Maria Theresa never had any success; the methods of
+Calvin at Geneva had, however, a certain superficial success, because
+the right conditions existed for their exercise. That is to say, that a
+theocratic basis of society was generally accepted, and that the
+suppression of immorality was regarded by the great mass of the
+population, including in most cases, no doubt, even the offenders
+themselves, as a religious duty. It is, however, interesting to note
+that, even at Geneva, these "triumphs of morality" have met the usual
+fate. At the present day, it appears (Edith Sellers, _Cornhill_, August,
+1910), there are more disorderly houses in Geneva, in proportion to the
+population, than in any other town in Europe.
+
+[216] See e.g. P. Hausmeister, "Zur Analyse der Prostitution," _Geschlect
+und Gesellschaft_, 1907, p. 294.
+
+[217] Theodore Schroeder, _"Obscene" Literature and Constitutional Law_,
+New York, 1911.
+
+[218] Thus Sir Samuel Dill (_Roman Society_, p. 11) calls attention to the
+letter of St. Paulinus who, when the Empire was threatened by
+barbarians, wrote to a Roman soldier that Christianity is incompatible
+with family life, with citizenship, with patriotism, and that soldiers
+are doomed to eternal torment. Christians frequently showed no respect
+for law or its representatives. "Many Christian confessors," says Sir
+W.M. Ramsay (_The Church in the Roman Empire_, chap. xv), "went to
+extremes in showing their contempt and hatred for their judges. Their
+answers to plain questions were evasive and indirect; they lectured
+Roman dignitaries as if the latter were the criminals and they
+themselves the judges; and they even used violent reproaches and coarse,
+insulting gestures." Bouche-Leclercq (_L'Intolerance Religieuse et le
+Politique_, 1911, especially chap. X) shows how the early Christians
+insisted on being persecuted. We see much the same attitude to-day among
+anarchists of the lower class (and also, it may be added, sometimes
+among suffragettes), who may be regarded as the modern analogues of the
+early Christians.
+
+[219] It may well be, indeed, that in all ages the actual sum of
+immorality, broadly considered--in public and in private, in thought and
+in act--undergoes but slight oscillations. But in the nature of its
+manifestations and in the nature of the manifestations that accompany
+it, there may be immense fluctuations. Tarde, the distinguished thinker,
+referring to the "delicious Catholicism" of the days before Luther,
+asks: "If that amiable Christian evolution had peacefully continued to
+our days, should we be still more immoral than we are? It is doubtful,
+but in all probability we should be enjoying the most aesthetic and the
+least vexatious religion in the world, in which all our science, all our
+civilization, would have been free to progress" (Tarde, _La Logique
+Sociale_, p. 198). As has often been pointed out, it was along the lines
+indicated by Erasmus, rather than along the lines pursued by Luther,
+that the progress of civilization lay.
+
+[220] Nietzsche, _Beyond Good and Evil_, chap. II. A century earlier
+Godwin had written in his _Political Justice_ (Book VII, chap. VIII):
+"Men are weak at present because they have always been told they are
+weak and must not be trusted with themselves. Take them out of their
+shackles, bid them enquire, reason, and judge, and you will soon find
+them very different beings. Tell them that they have passions, are
+occasionally hasty, intemperate, and injurious, but that they must be
+trusted with themselves. Tell them that the mountains of parchment in
+which they have been hitherto entrenched, are fit only to impose upon
+ages of superstition and ignorance, that henceforth we will have no
+dependence but upon their spontaneous justice; that, if their passions
+be gigantic, they must rise with gigantic energy to subdue them; that if
+their decrees be iniquitous, the iniquity shall be all their own."
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE WAR AGAINST WAR
+
+     Why the Problem of War is specially urgent To-day--The Beneficial
+     Effects of War in Barbarous Ages--Civilization renders the Ultimate
+     Disappearance of War Inevitable--The Introduction of Law in
+     disputes between Individuals involves the Introduction of Law in
+     disputes between Nations--But there must be Force behind Law--Henry
+     IV's Attempt to Confederate Europe--Every International Tribunal of
+     Arbitration must be able to enforce its Decisions--The Influences
+     making for the Abolition of Warfare--(1) Growth of International
+     Opinion--(2) International Financial Development--(3) The
+     Decreasing Pressure of Population--(4) The Natural Exhaustion of
+     the Warlike Spirit--(5) The Spread of Anti-military Doctrines--(6)
+     The overgrowth of Armaments--(7) The Dominance of Social
+     Reform--War Incompatible with an Advanced Civilization--Nations as
+     Trustees for Humanity--The Impossibility of Disarmament--The
+     Necessity of Force to ensure Peace--The Federated State of the
+     Future--The Decay of War still leaves the Possibilities of Daring
+     and Heroism.
+
+
+There are, no doubt, special reasons why at the present time war and the
+armaments of war should appear an intolerable burden which must be
+thrown off as soon as possible if the task of social hygiene is not to
+be seriously impeded. But the abolition of the ancient method of
+settling international disputes by warfare is not a problem which
+depends for its solution on the conditions of the moment. It is implicit
+in the natural development of the process of civilization. At one stage,
+no doubt, warfare plays an important part in constituting states and so,
+indirectly, in promoting civilization. But civilization tends slowly
+but surely to substitute for war in the later stages of this process the
+methods of law, or, in any case, methods which, while not always
+unobjectionable, avoid the necessity for any breach of the peace.[221] As
+soon, indeed, as in primitive society two individuals engage in a
+dispute which they are compelled to settle not by physical force but by
+a resort to an impartial tribunal, the thin end of the wedge is
+introduced, and the ultimate destruction of war becomes merely a matter
+of time. If it is unreasonable for two individuals to fight it is
+unreasonable for two groups of individuals to fight.[222]
+
+The difficulty has been that while it is quite easy for an ordered
+society to compel two individuals to settle their differences before a
+tribunal, in accordance with abstractly determined principles of law and
+reason, it is a vastly more difficult matter to compel two groups of
+individuals so to settle their differences. A large part of the history
+of all the great European countries has consisted in the progressive
+conquest and pacification of small but often bellicose states outside,
+and even inside, their own borders.[223] This is the case even within a
+community. Hobbes, writing in the midst of a civil war, went so far as
+to lay down that the "final cause" of a commonwealth is nothing else but
+the abolition of "that miserable condition of war which is necessarily
+consequent to the natural passions of men when there is no visible power
+to keep them in awe." Yet we see to-day that even within our highly
+civilized communities there is not always any adequately awful power to
+prevent employers and employed from engaging in what is little better
+than a civil war, nor even to bind them to accept the decision of an
+impartial tribunal they may have been persuaded to appeal to. The
+smallest state can compel its individual citizens to keep the peace; a
+large state can compel a small state to do so; but hitherto there has
+been no guarantee possible that large states, or even large compact
+groups within the state, should themselves keep the peace. They commit
+what injustice they please, for there is no visible power to keep them
+in awe. We have attained a condition in which a state is able to enforce
+a legal and peaceful attitude in its own individual citizens towards
+each other. The state is the guardian of its citizens' peace, but the
+old problem recurs: _Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?_
+
+It is obvious that this difficulty increases as the size of states
+increases. To compel a small state to keep the peace by absorbing it if
+it fails to do so is always an easy and even tempting process to a
+neighbouring larger state. This process was once carried out on a
+complete scale, when practically the whole known world was brought under
+the sway of Rome. "War has ceased," Plutarch was able to declare in the
+days of the Roman Empire, and, though himself an enthusiastic Greek, he
+was unbounded in his admiration of the beneficence of the majestic _Pax
+Romana_, and never tempted by any narrow spirit of patriotism to desire
+the restoration of his own country's glories. But the Roman organization
+broke up, and no single state will ever be strong enough to restore it.
+
+Any attempt to establish orderly legal relationships between states
+must, therefore, be carried out by the harmonious co-operation of those
+states. At the end of the sixteenth century a great French statesman,
+Sully, inspired Henry IV with a scheme of a Council of Confederated
+European Christian States; each of these states, fifteen in number, was
+to send four representatives to the Council, which was to sit at Metz or
+Cologne and regulate the differences between the constituent states of
+the Confederation. The army of the Confederation was to be maintained in
+common, and used chiefly to keep the peace, to prevent one sovereign
+from interfering with any other, and also, if necessary, to repel
+invasion of barbarians from without. The scheme was arranged in concert
+with Queen Elizabeth, and twelve of the fifteen Powers had already
+promised their active co-operation when the assassination of Henry
+destroyed the whole plan. Such a Confederation was easier to arrange
+then than it is now, but probably it was more difficult to maintain, and
+it can scarcely be said that at that date the times were ripe for so
+advanced a scheme.[224]
+
+To-day the interests of small states are so closely identified with
+peace that it is seldom difficult to exert pressure on them to maintain
+it. It is quite another matter with the large states. The fact that
+during the past half century so much has been done by the larger states
+to aid the cause of international arbitration, and to submit disputes to
+international tribunals, shows how powerful the motives for avoiding war
+are nowadays becoming. But the fact, also, that no country hitherto has
+abandoned its liberty of withdrawing from peaceful arbitration any
+question involving "national honour" shows that there is no constituted
+power strong enough to control large states. For the reservation of
+questions of national honour from the sphere of law is as absurd as
+would be any corresponding limitation by individuals of their liability
+for their acts before the law; it is as though a man were to say: "If I
+commit a theft I am willing to appear before the court, and will
+probably pay the penalty demanded; but if it is a question of murder,
+then my vital interests are at stake, and I deny altogether the right of
+the court to intervene." It is a reservation fatal to peace, and could
+not be accepted if pleaded at the bar of any international tribunal with
+the power to enforce its decisions. "Imagine," says Edward Jenks, in his
+_History of Politics_, "a modern judge 'persuading' Mr. William Sikes to
+'make it up' with the relatives of his victim, and, on his remaining
+obdurate, leaving the two families to fight the matter out." Yet that is
+what was in some degree done in England until medieval times as regards
+individual crimes, and it is what is still done as regards national
+crimes, in so far as the appeal to arbitration is limited and voluntary.
+The proposals, therefore--though not yet accepted by any
+Government--lately mooted in the United States, in England, and in
+France, to submit international disputes, without reservation, to an
+impartial tribunal represent an advance of peculiar significance.
+
+The abolition of collective fighting is so desirable an extension of the
+abolition of individual fighting, and its introduction has waited so
+long the establishment of some high compelling power--for the influence
+of the Religion of Peace has in this matter been less than nil--that it
+is evident that only the coincidence of very powerful and peculiar
+factors could have brought the question into the region of practical
+politics in our own time. There are several such factors, most of which
+have been developing during a long period, but none have been clearly
+recognized until recent years. It may be worth while to indicate the
+great forces now warring against war.
+
+(1) _Growth of International Opinion._ There can be no doubt whatever
+that during recent years, and especially in the more democratic
+countries, an international consensus of public opinion has gradually
+grown up, making itself the voice, like a Greek chorus, of an abstract
+justice. It is quite true that of this justice, as of justice generally,
+it may be said that it has wide limits. Renan declared once, in a famous
+allocution, that "what is called indulgence is, most often, only
+justice," and, at the other extreme, Remy de Gourmont has said that
+"injustice is sometimes a part of justice;" in other words, there are
+varying circumstances in which justice may properly be tempered either
+with mercy or with severity. In any case, and however it may be
+qualified; a popular international voice generously pronouncing itself
+in favour of justice, and resonantly condemning any Government which
+clashes against justice, is now a factor of the international situation.
+It is, moreover, tending to become a factor having a certain influence
+on affairs. This was the case during the South African War, when
+England, by offending this international sense of justice, fell into a
+discredit which had many actual unpleasant results and narrowly escaped,
+there is some reason to believe, proving still more serious. The same
+voice was heard with dramatically sudden and startling effect when
+Ferrer was shot at Barcelona. Ferrer was a person absolutely unknown to
+the man in the street; he was indeed little more than a name even to
+those who knew Spain; few could be sure, except by a kind of intuition,
+that he was the innocent victim of a judicial murder, for it is only now
+that the fact is being slowly placed beyond dispute. Yet immediately
+after Ferrer was shot within the walls of Monjuich a great shout of
+indignation was raised, with almost magical suddenness and harmony,
+throughout the civilized world, from Italy to Belgium, from England to
+Argentina. Moreover, this voice was so decisive and so loud that it
+acted like those legendary trumpet-blasts which shattered the walls of
+Jericho; in a few days the Spanish Government, with a powerful minister
+at its head, had fallen. The significance of this event we cannot easily
+overestimate. For the first time in history, the voice of international
+public opinion, unsupported by pressure, political, social, or
+diplomatic, proved potent enough to avenge an act of injustice by
+destroying a Government. A new force has appeared in the world, and it
+tends to operate against those countries which are guilty of injustice,
+whether that injustice is exerted against a State or even only against a
+single obscure individual. The modern developments of telegraphy and the
+Press--unfavourable as the Press is in many respects to the cause of
+international harmony--have placed in the hands of peace this new weapon
+against war.
+
+(2) _International Financial Development._ There is another
+international force which expresses itself in the same sense. The voice
+of abstract justice raised against war is fortified by the voice of
+concrete self-interest. The interests of the propertied classes, and
+therefore of the masses dependent upon them, are to-day so widely
+distributed throughout the world that whenever any country is plunged
+into a disastrous war there arises in every other country, especially in
+rich and prosperous lands with most at stake, a voice of self-interest
+in harmony with the voice of justice. It is sometimes said that wars are
+in the interest of capital, and of capital alone, and that they are
+engineered by capitalists masquerading under imposing humanitarian
+disguises. That is doubtless true to the extent that every war cannot
+fail to benefit some section of the capitalistic world, which will
+therefore favour it, but it is true to that extent only. The old notion
+that war and the acquisition of territories encouraged trade by opening
+up new markets has proved fallacious. The extension of trade is a matter
+of tariffs rather than of war, and in any case the trade of a country
+with its own acquisitions by conquest is a comparatively insignificant
+portion of its total trade. But even if the financial advantages of war
+were much greater than they are, they would be more than compensated by
+the disadvantages which nowadays attend war. International financial
+relationships have come to constitute a network of interests so vast, so
+complicated, so sensitive, that the whole thrills responsively to any
+disturbing touch, and no one can say beforehand what widespread damage
+may not be done by shock even at a single point. When a country is at
+war its commerce is at once disorganized, that is to say that its
+shipping, and the shipping of all the countries that carry its freights,
+is thrown out of gear to a degree that often cannot fail to be
+internationally disastrous. Foreign countries cannot send in the imports
+that lie on their wharves for the belligerent country, nor can they get
+out of it the exports they need for their own maintenance or luxury.
+Moreover, all the foreign money invested in the belligerent country is
+depreciated and imperilled. The international voice of trade and finance
+is, therefore, to-day mainly on the side of peace.
+
+It must be added that this voice is not, as it might seem, a selfish
+voice only. It is justifiable not only in immediate international
+interests, but even in the ultimate interests of the belligerent
+country, and not less so if that country should prove victorious. So far
+as business and money are concerned, a country gains nothing by a
+successful war, even though that war involves the acquisition of immense
+new provinces; after a great war a conquered country may possess more
+financial stability than its conqueror, and both may stand lower in this
+respect than some other country which is internationally guaranteed
+against war. Such points as these have of late been ably argued by
+Norman Angell in his remarkable book, _The Great Illusion_, and for the
+most part convincingly illustrated.[225] As was long since said, the
+ancients cried, _Vae victis_! We have learnt to cry, _Vae victoribus_!
+
+It may, indeed, be added that the general tendency of war--putting aside
+peoples altogether lacking in stamina--is to moralize the conquered and
+to demoralise the conquerors. This effect is seen alike on the material
+and the spiritual sides. Conquest brings self-conceit and intolerance,
+the reckless inflation and dissipation of energies. Defeat brings
+prudence and concentration; it ennobles and fortifies. All the glorious
+victories of the first Napoleon achieved less for France than the
+crushing defeat of the third Napoleon. The triumphs left enfeeblement;
+the defeat acted as a strong tonic which is still working beneficently
+to-day. The corresponding reverse process has been at work in Germany:
+the German soil that Napoleon ploughed yielded a Moltke and a
+Bismarck,[226] while to-day, however mistakenly, the German Press is
+crying out that only another war--it ought in honesty to say an
+unsuccessful war--can restore the nation's flaccid muscle. It is yet
+too early to see the results of the Russo-Japanese War, but already
+there are signs that by industrial overstrain and the repression of
+individual thought Japan is threatening to enfeeble the physique and to
+destroy the high spirit of the indomitable men to whom she owed her
+triumph.
+
+(3) _The Decreasing Pressure of Population._ It was at one time commonly
+said, and is still sometimes repeated, that the pressure of
+over-population is the chief cause of wars. That is a statement which
+requires a very great deal of qualification. It is, indeed, possible
+that the great hordes of warlike barbarians from the North and the East
+which invaded Europe in early times, sometimes more or less overwhelming
+the civilized world, were the result of a rise in the birth-rate and an
+excess of population beyond the means of subsistence. But this is far
+from certain, for we know absolutely nothing concerning the birth-rate
+of these invading peoples either before or during the period of their
+incursions. Again, it is certain that, in modern times, a high and
+rising birth-rate presents a favourable condition for war. A war
+distracts attention from the domestic disturbances and economic
+wretchedness which a too rapid growth of population necessarily
+produces, while at the same time tending to draw away and destroy the
+surplus population which causes this disturbance and wretchedness. Yet
+there are other ways of meeting this over-population beside the crude
+method of war. Social reform and emigration furnish equally effective
+and much more humane methods of counteracting such pressure. No doubt
+the over-population resulting from an excessively high birth-rate, when
+not met, as it tends to be, by a correspondingly high death-rate from
+disease, may be regarded as a predisposing cause of war, but to assert
+that it is the pre-eminent cause is to go far beyond the evidence at
+present available.
+
+To whatever degree, however, it may have been potent in causing war in
+the past, it is certain that the pressure of population as a cause of
+war will be eliminated in the future. The only nations nowadays that can
+afford to make war on the grand scale are the wealthy and civilized
+nations. But civilization excludes a high birth-rate: there has never
+been any exception to that law, nor can we conceive any exceptions, for
+it is more than a social law; it is a biological law. Russia, a still
+imperfectly civilized country, stands apart in having a very high
+birth-rate, but it also has a very high death-rate, and even should it
+happen that in Russia improved social conditions lower the death-rate
+before affecting the birth-rate, there is still ample room within
+Russian territory for the consequent increase of population. Among all
+the other nations which are considered to threaten the world's peace,
+the birth-rate is rapidly falling. This is so, for instance, as regards
+England and Germany. Germany, especially, it was once thought--though in
+actual fact Germany has not fought for over forty years--had an interest
+in going to war in order to find an outlet for her surplus population,
+compelled, in the absence of suitable German colonies, to sacrifice its
+patriotism and lose its nationality by emigrating to foreign countries.
+But the German birth-rate is falling, German emigration is decreasing,
+and the immense growth of German industry is easily able to absorb the
+new generation. Thus the declining birth-rate of civilized lands will
+alone largely serve in the end to eliminate warfare, partly by removing
+one of its causes, partly because the increased value of human life will
+make war too costly.
+
+(4) _The Natural Exhaustion of the Warlike Spirit._ It is a remarkable
+tendency of the warlike spirit--frequently emphasized in recent years by
+the distinguished zoologist, President D.S. Jordan, who here follows
+Novikov[227]--that it tends to exterminate itself. Fighting stocks, and
+peoples largely made up of fighting stocks, are naturally killed out,
+and the field is left to the unwarlike. It is only the prudent, those
+who fight and run away, who live to fight another day; and they transmit
+their prudence to their offspring. Great Britain is a conspicuous
+example of a land which, being an island, was necessarily peopled by
+predatory and piratical invaders. A long series of warlike and
+adventurous peoples--Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, Normans--built
+up England and imparted to it their spirit. The English were, it was
+said, "a people for whom pain and death are nothing, and who only fear
+hunger and boredom." But for over eight hundred years they have never
+been reinforced by new invaders, and the inevitable consequences have
+followed. There has been a gradual killing out of the warlike stocks, a
+process immensely accelerated during the nineteenth century by a vast
+emigration of the more adventurous elements in the population, pressed
+out of the overcrowded country by the reckless and unchecked increase of
+the population which occurred during the first three-quarters of that
+century. The result is that the English (except sometimes when they
+happen to be journalists) cannot now be described as a warlike people.
+Old legends tell of British heroes who, when their legs were hacked
+away, still fought upon the stumps. Modern poets feel that to picture a
+British warrior of to-day in this attitude would be somewhat
+far-fetched. The historian of the South African War points out, again
+and again, that the British leaders showed a singular lack of the
+fighting spirit. During that war English generals seldom cared to engage
+the enemy's forces except when their own forces greatly outnumbered
+them, and on many occasions they surrendered immediately they realized
+that they were themselves outnumbered. Those reckless Englishmen who
+boldly sailed out from their little island to face the Spanish Armada
+were long ago exterminated; an admirably prudent and cautious race has
+been left alive.
+
+It is the same story elsewhere. The French long cherished the tradition
+of military glory, and no country has fought so much. We see the result
+to-day. In no country is the attitude of the intellectual classes so
+calm and so reasonable on the subject of war, and nowhere is the popular
+hostility to war so strongly marked.[228] Spain furnishes another instance
+which is even still more decisive. The Spanish were of old a
+pre-eminently warlike people, capable of enduring all hardships, never
+fearing to face death. Their aggressively warlike and adventurous spirit
+sent them to death all over the world. It cannot be said, even to-day,
+that the Spaniards have lost their old tenacity and hardness of fibre,
+but their passion for war and adventure was killed out three centuries
+ago.
+
+In all these and the like cases there has been a process of selective
+breeding, eliminating the soldierly stocks and leaving the others to
+breed the race. The men who so loved fighting that they fought till they
+died had few chances of propagating their own warlike impulses. The men
+who fought and ran away, the men who never fought at all, were the men
+who created the new generation and transmitted to it their own
+traditions.
+
+This selective process, moreover, has not merely acted automatically; it
+has been furthered by social opinion and social pressure, sometimes very
+drastically expressed. Thus in the England of the Plantagenets there
+grew up a class called "gentlemen"--not, as has sometimes been
+supposed, a definitely defined class, though they were originally of
+good birth--whose chief characteristic was that they were good fighting
+men, and sought fortune by fighting. The "premier gentleman" of England,
+according to Sir George Sitwell, and an entirely typical representative
+of his class, was a certain glorious hero who fought with Talbot at
+Agincourt, and also, as the unearthing of obscure documents shows, at
+other times indulged in housebreaking, and in wounding with intent to
+kill, and in "procuring the murder of one Thomas Page, who was cut to
+pieces while on his knees begging for his life." There, evidently, was a
+state of society highly favourable to the warlike man, highly
+unfavourable to the unwarlike man whom he slew in his wrath. Nowadays,
+however, there has been a revaluation of these old values. The cowardly
+and no doubt plebeian Thomas Page, multiplied by the million, has
+succeeded in hoisting himself into the saddle, and he revenges himself
+by discrediting, hunting into the slums, and finally hanging, every
+descendant he can find of the premier gentleman of Agincourt.
+
+It must be added that the advocates of the advantages of war are not
+entitled to claim this process of selective breeding as one of the
+advantages of war. It is quite true that war is incompatible with a high
+civilization, and must in the end be superseded. But this method of
+suppressing it is too thorough. It involves not merely the extermination
+of the fighting spirit, but of many excellent qualities, physical and
+moral, which are associated with the fighting spirit. Benjamin Franklin
+seems to have been the first to point out that "a standing army
+diminishes the size and breed of the human species." Almost in
+Franklin's lifetime that was demonstrated on a wholesale scale, for
+there seems little reason to doubt that the size and stature of the
+French nation have been permanently diminished by the constant levies of
+young recruits, the flower of the population, whom Napoleon sent out to
+death in their first manhood and still childless. Fine physical breed
+involves also fine qualities of virility and daring which are needed for
+other purposes than fighting. In so far as the selective breeding of war
+kills these out, its results are imperfect, and could be better attained
+by less radical methods.
+
+(5) _The Growth of the Anti-Military Spirit._ The decay of the warlike
+spirit by the breeding out of fighting stocks has in recent years been
+reinforced by a more acute influence of which in the near future we
+shall certainly hear more. This is the spirit of anti-militarism. This
+spirit is an inevitable result of the decay of the fighting spirit. In a
+certain sense it is also complementary to it. The survival of
+non-fighting stocks by the destruction of the fighting stocks works most
+effectually in countries having a professional army. The anti-military
+spirit, on the contrary, works effectually in countries having a
+national army in which it is compulsory for all young citizens to serve,
+for it is only in such countries that the anti-militarist can, by
+refusing to serve, take an influential position as a martyr in the cause
+of peace.
+
+Among the leading nations, it is in France that the spirit of
+anti-militarism has taken the deepest hold of the people, though in
+some smaller lands, notably among the obstinately peaceable inhabitants
+of Holland, the same spirit also flourishes. Herve, who is a leader of
+the insurrectional socialists, as they are commonly called in opposition
+to the purely parliamentary socialists led by Jaures,--though the
+insurrectional socialists also use parliamentary methods,--may be
+regarded as the most conspicuous champion of anti-militarism, and many
+of his followers have suffered imprisonment as the penalty of their
+convictions. In France the peasant proprietors in the country and the
+organized workers in the town are alike sympathetic to anti-militarism.
+The syndicalists, or labour unionists with the Confederation Generale du
+Travail as their central organization, are not usually anxious to
+imitate what they consider the unduly timid methods of English trade
+unionists;[229] they tend to be revolutionary and anti-military. The
+Congress of delegates of French Trade Unions, held at Toulouse in 1910,
+passed the significant resolution that "a declaration of war should be
+followed by the declaration of a general revolutionary strike." The same
+tendency, though in a less radical form, is becoming international, and
+the great International Socialist Congress at Copenhagen has passed a
+resolution instructing the International Bureau to "take the opinion of
+the organized workers of the world on the utility of a general strike
+in preventing war."[230] Even the English working classes are slowly
+coming into line. At a Conference of Labour Delegates, held at Leicester
+in 1911, to consider the Copenhagen resolution, the policy of the
+anti-military general strike was defeated by only a narrow majority, on
+the ground that it required further consideration, and might be
+detrimental to political action; but as most of the leaders are in
+favour of the strike policy there can be no doubt that this method of
+combating war will shortly be the accepted policy of the English Labour
+movement. In carrying out such a policy the Labour Party expects much
+help from the growing social and political power of women. The most
+influential literary advocate of the Peace movement, and one of the
+earliest, has been a woman, the Baroness Bertha von Suttner, and it is
+held to be incredible that the wives and mothers of the people will use
+their power to support an institution which represents the most brutal
+method of destroying their husbands and sons. "The cause of woman," says
+Novikov, "is the cause of peace." "We pay the first cost on all human
+life," says Olive Schreiner.[231]
+
+The anti-militarist, as things are at present, exposes himself not only
+to the penalty of imprisonment, but also to obloquy. He has virtually
+refused to take up arms in defence of his country; he has sinned against
+patriotism. This accusation has led to a counter-accusation directed
+against the very idea of patriotism. Here the writings of Tolstoy, with
+their poignant and searching appeals for the cause of humanity as
+against the cause of patriotism, have undoubtedly served the
+anti-militarists well, and wherever the war against war is being urged,
+even so far as Japan, Tolstoy has furnished some of its keenest weapons.
+Moreover, in so far as anti-militarism is advocated by the workers, they
+claim that international interests have already effaced and superseded
+the narrower interests of patriotism. In refusing to fight, the workers
+of a country are simply declaring their loyalty to fellow-workers on the
+other side of the frontier, a loyalty which has stronger claims on them,
+they hold, than any patriotism which simply means loyalty to
+capitalists; geographical frontiers are giving place to economic
+frontiers, which now alone serve to separate enemies. And if, as seems
+probable, when the next attempt is made at a great European war, the
+order for mobilization is immediately followed in both countries by the
+declaration of a general strike, there will be nothing to say against
+such a declaration even from the standpoint of the narrowest patriotism,
+although there may be much to say on other grounds against the policy of
+the general strike.[232]
+
+If we realize what is going on around us, it is easy to see that the
+anti-militarist movement is rapidly reaching a stage when it will be
+easily able, even unaided, to paralyse any war immediately and
+automatically. The pioneers in the movement have played the same part as
+was played in the seventeenth century by the Quakers. In the name of the
+Bible and their own consciences, the Quakers refused to recognize the
+right of any secular authority to compel them to worship or to fight;
+they gained what they struggled for, and now all men honour their
+memories. In the name of justice and human fraternity, the
+anti-militarists are to-day taking the like course and suffering the
+like penalties. To-morrow, they also will be revered as heroes and
+martyrs.
+
+(6) _The Over-growth of Armaments._ The hostile forces so far enumerated
+have converged slowly on to war from such various directions that they
+may be said to have surrounded and isolated it; its ultimate surrender
+can only be a matter of time. Of late, however, a new factor has
+appeared, of so urgent a character that it is fast rendering the
+question of the abolition of war acute: the over-growth of armaments.
+This is, practically, a modern factor in the situation, and while it is,
+on the surface, a luxury due to the large surplus of wealth in great
+modern states, it is also, if we look a little deeper, intimately
+connected with that decay of the warlike spirit due to selective
+breeding. It is the weak and timid woman who looks nervously under the
+bed for the burglar who is the last person she really desires to meet,
+and it is old, rich, and unwarlike nations which take the lead in
+laboriously protecting themselves against enemies of whom there is no
+sign in any quarter. Within the last half-century only have the nations
+of the world begun to compete with each other in this timorous and
+costly rivalry. In the warlike days of old, armaments in time of peace
+consisted in little more than solid walls for defence, a supply of
+weapons stored away here and there, sometimes in a room attached to the
+parish church, and occasional martial exercises with the sword or the
+bow, which were little more than an amusement. The true fighting man
+trusted to his own strong right arm rather than to armaments, and
+considered that he was himself a match for any half-dozen of the enemy.
+Even in actual time of war it was often difficult to find either zeal or
+money to supply the munitions of war. The _Diary_ of the industrious
+Pepys, who achieved so much for the English navy, shows that the care of
+the country's ships mainly depended on a few unimportant officials who
+had the greatest trouble in the world to secure attention to the most
+urgent and immediate needs.
+
+A very difficult state of things prevails to-day. The existence of a
+party having for its watchword the cry for retrenchment and economy is
+scarcely possible in a modern state. All the leading political parties
+in every great state--if we leave aside the party of Labour--are equally
+eager to pile up the expenditure on armaments. It is the boast of each
+party, not that it spends less, but more, than its rivals on this source
+of expenditure, now the chief in every large state. Moreover, every new
+step in expenditure involves a still further step; each new improvement
+in attack or defence must immediately be answered by corresponding or
+better improvements on the part of rival powers, if they are not to be
+outclassed. Every year these moves and counter-moves necessarily become
+more extensive, more complex, more costly; while each counter-move
+involves the obsolescence of the improvements achieved by the previous
+move, so that the waste of energy and money keeps pace with the
+expenditure. It is well recognized that there is absolutely no possible
+limit to this process and its constantly increasing acceleration.
+
+There is no need to illustrate this point, for it is familiar to all.
+Any newspaper will furnish facts and figures vividly exemplifying some
+aspect of the matter. For while only a handful of persons in any country
+are sincerely anxious under present conditions to reduce the colossal
+sums every year wasted on the unproductive work of armament; an
+increasing interest in the matter testifies to a vague alarm and anxiety
+concerning the ultimate issue. For it is felt that an inevitable crisis
+lies at the end of the path down which the nations are now moving.
+
+Thus, from this point of view, the end of war is being attained by a
+process radically opposite to that by which in the social as well as in
+the physical organism ancient structures and functions are outgrown. The
+usual process is a gradual recession to a merely vestigial state. But
+here what may perhaps be the same ultimate result is being reached by
+the more alarming method of over-inflation and threatening collapse. It
+is an alarming process because those huge and heavily armed monsters of
+primeval days who furnish the zoological types corresponding to our
+modern over-armed states, themselves died out from the world when their
+unwieldy armament had reached its final point of expansion. Will our own
+modern states, one wonders, more fortunately succeed in escaping from
+the tough hides that ever more closely constrict them, and finally save
+their souls alive?
+
+(7) _The Dominance of Social Reform._ The final factor in the situation
+is the growing dominance of the process of social reform. On the one
+hand, the increasing complexity of social organisation renders necessary
+a correspondingly increasing expenditure of money in diminishing its
+friction and aiding its elaboration; on the other hand, the still more
+rapidly increasing demands of armament render it ever more difficult to
+devote money to such social purposes. Everywhere even the most
+elementary provision for the finer breeding and higher well-being of a
+country's citizens is postponed to the clamour for ever new armaments.
+The situation thus created is rapidly becoming intolerable.
+
+It is not alone the future of civilization which is for ever menaced by
+the possibility of war; the past of civilization, with all the precious
+embodiments of its traditions, is even more fatally imperilled. As the
+world grows older and the ages recede, the richer, the more precious,
+the more fragile, become the ancient heirlooms of humanity. They
+constitute the final symbols of human glory; they cannot be too
+carefully guarded, too highly valued. But all the other dangers that
+threaten their integrity and safety, if put together, do not equal war.
+No land that has ever been a cradle of civilization but bears witness to
+this sad truth. All the sacred citadels, the glories of
+humanity,--Jerusalem and Athens, Rome and Constantinople,--have been
+ravaged by war, and, in every case, their ruin has been a disaster that
+can never be repaired. If we turn to the minor glories of more modern
+ages, the special treasure of England has been its parish churches, a
+treasure of unique charm in the world and the embodiment of the
+people's spirit: to-day in their battered and irreparable condition they
+are the monuments of a Civil War waged all over the country with
+ruthless religious ferocity. Spain, again, was a land which had stored
+up, during long centuries, nearly the whole of its accumulated
+possessions in every art, sacred and secular, of fabulous value, within
+the walls of its great fortress-like cathedrals; Napoleon's soldiers
+over-ran the land, and brought with them rapine and destruction; so that
+in many a shrine, as at Montserrat, we still can see how in a few days
+they turned a Paradise into a desert. It is not only the West that has
+suffered. In China the rarest and loveliest wares and fabrics that the
+hand of man has wrought were stored in the Imperial Palace of Pekin; the
+savage military hordes of the West broke in less than a century ago and
+recklessly trampled down and fired all that they could not loot. In
+every such case the loss is final; the exquisite incarnation of some
+stage in the soul of man that is for ever gone is permanently
+diminished, deformed, or annihilated.
+
+At the present time all civilized countries are becoming keenly aware of
+the value of their embodied artistic possessions. This is shown, in the
+most decisive manner possible, by the enormous prices placed upon them.
+Their pecuniary value enables even the stupidest and most unimaginative
+to realize the crime that is committed when they are ruthlessly and
+wantonly destroyed. Nor is it only the products of ancient art which
+have to-day become so peculiarly valuable. The products of modern
+science are only less valuable. So highly complex and elaborate is the
+mechanism now required to ensure progress in some of the sciences that
+enormous sums of money, the most delicate skill, long periods of time,
+are necessary to produce it. Galileo could replace his telescope with
+but little trouble; the destruction of a single modern observatory would
+be almost a calamity to the human race.
+
+Such considerations as these are, indeed, at last recognized in all
+civilized countries. The engines of destruction now placed at the
+service of war are vastly more potent than any used in the wars of the
+past. On the other hand, the value of the products they can destroy is
+raised in a correspondingly high degree. But a third factor is now
+intervening. And if the museums of Paris or the laboratories of Berlin
+were threatened by a hostile army it would certainly be felt that an
+international power, if it existed, should be empowered to intervene, at
+whatever cost to national susceptibilities, in order to keep the peace.
+Civilization, we now realize, is wrought out of inspirations and
+discoveries which are for ever passed and repassed from land to land; it
+cannot be claimed by any individual land. A nation's art-products and
+its scientific activities are not mere national property; they are
+international possessions, for the joy and service of the whole world.
+The nations hold them in trust for humanity. The international force
+which will inspire respect for that truth it is our business to create.
+
+The only question that remains--and it is a question the future alone
+will solve--is the particular point at which this ancient and overgrown
+stronghold of war, now being invested so vigorously from so many sides,
+will finally be overthrown, whether from within or from without, whether
+by its own inherent weakness, by the persuasive reasonableness of
+developing civilization, by the self-interest of the commercial and
+financial classes, or by the ruthless indignation of the proletariat.
+That is a problem still insoluble, but it is not impossible that some
+already living may witness its solution.
+
+Two centuries ago the Abbe de Saint-Pierre set forth his scheme for a
+federation of the States of Europe, which meant, at that time, a
+federation of all the civilised states of the world. It was the age of
+great ideas, scattered abroad to germinate in more practical ages to
+come. The amiable Abbe enjoyed all the credit of his large and
+philanthropic conceptions. But no one dreamed of realizing them, and the
+forces which alone could realize them had not yet appeared above the
+horizon.[233] In this matter, at all events, the world has progressed,
+and a federation of the States of the world is no longer the mere
+conception of a philosophic dreamer. The first step will be taken when
+two of the leading countries of the world--and it would be most
+reasonable for the states having the closest community of origin and
+language to take the initiative--resolve to submit all their differences
+without reserve to arbitration. As soon as a third power of magnitude
+joined this federation the nucleus would be constituted of a world
+state. Such a state would be able to impose peace on even the most
+recalcitrant outside states, for it would furnish that "visible power to
+keep them in awe," which Hobbes rightly declared to be indispensable; it
+could even, in the last resort, if necessary, enforce peace by war. Thus
+there might still be war in the world. But there would be no wars that
+were not Holy Wars. There are other methods than war of enforcing peace,
+and these such a federation of great states would be easily able to
+bring to bear on even the most warlike of states, but the necessity of a
+mighty armed international force would remain for a long time to come.
+To suppose, as some seem to suppose, that the establishment of
+arbitration in place of war means immediate disarmament is an idle
+dream. At Conferences of the English Labour Party on this question, the
+most active opposition to the proposed strike method for rendering war
+impossible comes from the delegates representing the workers in arsenals
+and dockyards. But there is no likelihood of arsenals and dockyards
+closing in the lifetime of the present workers, and though the
+establishment of peaceful methods of settling international disputes
+cannot fail to diminish the number of the workers who live by armament,
+it will be long before they can be dispensed with altogether.
+
+[1] The Abbe de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), a churchman without vocation,
+was a Norman of noble family, and first published his _Memoires pour
+rendre la Paix Perpetuelle a l'Europe_ in 1722. As Siegler-Pascal well
+shows (_Les Projets de l'Abbe de Saint-Pierre_, 1900) he was not a mere
+visionary Utopian, but an acute and far-seeing thinker, practical in his
+methods, a close observer, an experimentalist, and one of the first to
+attempt the employment of statistics. He was secretary to the French
+plenipotentiaries who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht, and was thus
+probably put on the track of his scheme. He proposed that the various
+European states should name plenipotentiaries to form a permanent
+tribunal of compulsory arbitration for the settlement of all
+differences. If any state took up arms against one of the allies, the
+whole confederation would conjointly enter the field, at their conjoint
+expense, against the offending state. He was opposed to absolute
+disarmament, an army being necessary to ensure peace, but it must be a
+joint army composed of contingents from each Power in the confederation.
+Saint-Pierre, it will be seen, had clearly grasped the essential facts
+of the situation as we see them to-day. "The author of _The Project of
+Perpetual Peace_" concludes Prof. Pierre Robert in a sympathetic summary
+of his career (Petit de Julleville, _Histoire de la Langue et de la
+Litterature Francaise_, Vol. VI), "is the precursor of the twentieth
+century." His statue, we cannot doubt, will be a conspicuous object,
+beside Sully's, on the future Palace of any international tribunal.
+
+It is, indeed, so common to regard the person who points out the
+inevitable bankruptcy of war under highly civilized conditions as a mere
+Utopian dreamer, that it becomes necessary to repeat, with all the
+emphasis necessary, that the settlement of international disputes by law
+cannot be achieved by disarmament, or by any method not involving force.
+All law, even the law that settles the disputes of individuals, has
+force behind it, and the law that is to settle the disputes between
+nations cannot possibly be effective unless it has behind it a mighty
+force. I have assumed this from the outset in quoting the dictum of
+Hobbes, but the point seems to be so easily overlooked by the loose
+thinker that it is necessary to reiterate it. The necessity of force
+behind the law ordering international relations has, indeed, never been
+disputed by any sagacious person who has occupied himself with the
+matter. Even William Penn, who, though a Quaker, was a practical man of
+affairs, when in 1693 he put forward his _Essay Towards the Present and
+Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of a European Diet,
+Parliament or Estate_, proposed that if any imperial state refused to
+submit its pretensions to the sovereign assembly and to abide by its
+decisions, or took up arms on its own behalf, "all the other
+sovereignties, united as one strength, shall compel the submission and
+performance of the sentence, with damages to the suffering party, and
+charges to the sovereignties that obliged their submission." In
+repudiating some injudicious and hazardous pacificist considerations put
+forth by Novikov, the distinguished French philosopher, Jules de
+Gaultier, points out that law has no rights against war save in force,
+on which war itself bases its rights. "Force _in abstracto_ creates
+right. It is quite unimaginable that a right should exist which has not
+been affirmed at some moment as a reality, that is to say a force....
+What we glorify under the name of right is only a more intense and
+habitual state of force which we oppose to a less frequent form of
+force."[234] The old Quaker and the modern philosopher are thus at one
+with the practical man in rejecting any form of pacification which rests
+on a mere appeal to reason and justice.
+
+[1] Jules de Gaultier, "Comment Naissent les Dogmes," _Mercure de
+France_, 1st Sept., 1911. Jules de Gaultier also observes that "conflict
+is the law and condition of all existence." That may be admitted, but it
+ceases to be true if we assume, as the same thinker assumes, that
+"conflict" necessarily involves "war." The establishment of law to
+regulate the disputes between individuals by no means suppresses
+conflict, but it suppresses fighting, and it ensures that if any
+fighting occur the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression. In the
+same way the existence of a tribunal to regulate the disputes between
+national communities of individuals can by no means suppress conflict;
+but unless it suppresses fighting, and unless it ensures that if
+fighting occurs the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression, it
+will have effected nothing.
+
+It cannot be said that the progress of civilization has so far had any
+tendency to render unnecessary the point of view adopted by Penn and
+Jules de Gaultier. The acts of states to-day are apt to be just as
+wantonly aggressive as they ever were, as reckless of reason and of
+justice. There is no country, however high it may stand in the comity of
+nations, which is not sometimes carried away by the blind fever of war.
+France, the land of reason, echoed, only forty years ago, with the mad
+cry, "A Berlin!" England, the friend of the small nationalities,
+jubilantly, with even an air of heroism, crushed under foot the little
+South African Republics, and hounded down every Englishman who withstood
+the madness of the crowd. The great, free intelligent people of the
+United States went to war against Spain with a childlike faith in the
+preposterous legend of the blowing up of the _Maine_. There is no
+country which has not some such shameful page in its history, the record
+of some moment when its moral and intellectual prestige was besmirched
+in the eyes of the whole world. It pays for its momentary madness, it
+may valiantly strive to atone for its injustice, but the damaging record
+remains. The supersession of war is needed not merely in the interests
+of the victims of aggression; it is needed fully as much in the
+interests of the aggressors, driven by their own momentary passions, or
+by the ambitious follies of their rulers, towards crimes for which a
+terrible penalty is exacted. There has never been any country at every
+moment so virtuous and so wise that it has not sometimes needed to be
+saved from itself. For every country has sometimes gone mad, while
+every other country has looked on its madness with the mocking calm of
+clear-sighted intelligence, and perhaps with a pharisaical air of
+virtuous indignation.
+
+During the single year of 1911 the process was unrolled in its most
+complete form. The first bad move--though it was a relatively small and
+inoffensive move--was made by France. The Powers, after much
+deliberation, had come to certain conclusions concerning Morocco, and
+while giving France a predominant influence in that country, had
+carefully limited her power of action. But France, anxious to increase
+her hold on the land, sent out, with the usual pretexts, an unnecessary
+expedition to Fez. Had an international tribunal with an adequate force
+behind it been in existence, France would have been called upon to
+justify her action, and whether she succeeded or failed in such
+justification, no further evils would have occurred. But there was no
+force able or willing to call France to account, and the other Powers
+found it a simpler plan to follow her example than to check it. In
+pursuance of this policy, Germany sent a warship to the Moroccan port of
+Agadir, using the same pretext as the French, with even less
+justification. When the supreme military power of the world wags even a
+finger the whole world is thrown into a state of consternation. That
+happened on the present occasion, though, as a matter of fact, giants
+are not given to reckless violence, and Germany, far from intending to
+break the world's peace, merely used her power to take advantage of
+France's bad move. She agreed to condone France's mistake, and to resign
+to her the Moroccan rights to which neither country had the slightest
+legitimate claim, in return for an enormous tract of land in another
+part of Africa. Now, so far, the game had been played in accordance with
+rules which, though by no means those of abstract justice, were fairly
+in accordance with the recognized practices of nations. But now another
+Power was moved to far more openly unscrupulous action. It has long been
+recognized that if there must be a partition of North Africa, Italy's
+share is certainly Tripoli. The action of France and of Germany stirred
+up in Italy the feeling that now or never was the moment for action, and
+with brutal recklessness, and the usual pretexts, now flimsier than
+ever, Italy made war on Turkey, without offer of mediation, in flagrant
+violation of her own undertakings at the Hague Peace Convention of 1899.
+There was now only one Mohammedan country left to attack, and it was
+Russia's turn to make the attack. Northern Persia--the most civilized
+and fruitful half of Persia--had been placed under the protection of
+Russia, and Russia, after cynically doing her best to make good
+government in Persia impossible, seized on the pretext of the bad
+government to invade the country. If the Powers of Europe had wished to
+demonstrate the necessity for a great international tribunal, with a
+mighty force behind it to ensure the observance of its decisions, they
+could not have devised a more effective demonstration.
+
+Thus it is that there can be no question of disarmament at present, and
+that there can be no effective international tribunal unless it has
+behind it an effective army. A great army must continue to exist apart
+altogether from the question as to whether the army in itself is a
+school of virtue or of vice. Both these views of its influence have been
+held in extreme forms, and both seem to be without any great
+justification. On this point we may perhaps accept the conclusion of
+Professor Guerard, who can view the matter from a fairly impartial
+standpoint, having served in the French army, closely studied the life
+of the people in London, and occupied a professorial chair in
+California. He denies that an army is a school of all the vices, but he
+is also unable to see that it exercises an elevating influence on any
+but the lowest: "A regiment is not much worse than a big factory.
+Factory life in Europe is bad enough; military service extends its evils
+to agricultural labourers, and also to men who would otherwise have
+escaped these lowering influences. As for traces of moral uplift in the
+army, I have totally failed to notice any. War may be a stern school of
+virtue; barrack life is not. Honour, duty, patriotism, are feelings
+instilled at school; they do not develop, but often deteriorate, during
+the term of compulsory service."[235]
+
+But, as we have seen, and as Guerard admits, it is probable that wars
+will be abolished generations before armies are suppressed. The question
+arises what we are to do with our armies. There seem to be at least two
+ways in which armies may be utilized, as we may already see in France,
+and perhaps to some slight extent in England. In the first place, the
+army may be made a great educational agency, an academy of arts and
+sciences, a school of citizenship. In the second place, armies are
+tending to become, as William James pointed out, the reserve force of
+peace, great organized unemployed bodies of men which can be brought
+into use during sudden emergencies and national disasters. Thus the
+French army performed admirable service during the great Seine floods a
+few years ago, and both in France and in England the army has been
+called upon to help to carry on public duties indispensable to the
+welfare of the nation during great strikes, though here it would be
+unfortunate if the army came to be regarded as a mere strike-breaking
+corps. Along these main lines, however, there are, as Guerard has
+pointed out, signs of a transformation which, while preserving armies
+for international use, yet point to a compromise between the army and
+modern democracy.
+
+It is feared by some that the reign of universal peace will deprive them
+of the opportunity of exhibiting daring and heroism. Without inquiring
+too carefully what use has been made of their present opportunities by
+those who express this fear, it must be said that such a fear is
+altogether groundless. There are an infinite number of positions in life
+in which courage is needed, as much as on a battlefield, though, for the
+most part, with less risk of that total annihilation which in the past
+has done so much to breed out the courageous stocks. Moreover, the
+certain establishment of peace will immensely enlarge the scope for
+daring and adventure in the social sphere. There are departments in the
+higher breeding and social evolution of the race--some perhaps even
+involving questions of life and death--where the highest courage is
+needed. It would be premature to discuss them, for they can scarcely
+enter the field of practical politics until war has been abolished. But
+those persons who are burning to display heroism may rest assured that
+the course of social evolution will offer them every opportunity.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[221] The respective parts of war and law in the constitution of states
+are clearly and concisely set forth by Edward Jenks in his little
+primer, _A History of Politics_. Steinmetz, who argues in favour of the
+preservation of the method of war, in his book _Die Philosophie des
+Krieges_ (p. 303) states that "not a single element of the warlike
+spirit, not one of the psychic conditions of war, is lacking to the
+civilized European peoples of to-day." That may well be, although there
+is much reason to believe that they have all very considerably
+diminished. Such warlike spirit as exists to-day must be considerably
+discounted by the fact that those who manifest it are not usually the
+people who would actually have to do the fighting. It is more important
+to point out (as is done in a historical sketch of warfare by A.
+Sutherland, _Nineteenth Century_, April, 1899) that, as a matter of
+fact, war is becoming both less frequent and less ferocious. In England,
+for instance, where at one period the population spent a great part of
+their time in fighting, there has practically been no war for two and a
+half centuries. When the ancient Germans swept through Spain (as
+Procopius, who was an eye-witness, tells) they slew every human being
+they met, including women and children, until millions had perished. The
+laws of war, though not always observed, are constantly growing more
+humane, and Sutherland estimates that warfare is now less than
+one-hundredth part as destructive as it was in the early Middle Ages.
+
+[222] This inevitable extension of the sphere of law from the settlement
+of disputes between individuals to disputes between individual states
+has been pointed out before, and is fairly obvious. Thus
+Mougins-Roquefort, a French lawyer, in his book _De la Solution
+Juridique des Conflits Internationaux_ (1889), observes that in the
+days of the Roman Empire, when there was only one civilized state, any
+system of international relationships was impossible, but that as soon
+as we have a number of states forming units of international society
+there at once arises the necessity for a system of international
+relationships, just as some system of social order is necessary to
+regulate the relations of any community of individuals.
+
+[223] In England, a small and compact country, this process was completed
+at a comparatively early date. In France it was not until the days of
+Louis XV (in 1756) that the "last feudal brigand," as Taine calls the
+Marquis de Pleumartin in Poitou, was captured and beheaded.
+
+[224] France, notwithstanding her military aptitude, has always taken the
+pioneering part in the pacific movement of civilization. Even at the
+beginning of the fourteenth century France produced an advocate of
+international arbitration, Pierre Dubois (Petrus de Bosco), the Norman
+lawyer, a pupil of Thomas Aquinas. In the seventeenth century Emeric
+Cruce proposed, for the first time, to admit all peoples, without
+distinction of colour or religion, to be represented at some central
+city where every state would have its perpetual ambassador, these
+representatives forming an assembly to adjudicate on international
+differences (Dubois and Cruce have lately been studied by Prof.
+Vesnitch, _Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique_, January, 1911). The history
+of the various peace projects generally has been summarily related by
+Lagorgette in _Le Role de la Guerre_, 1906, Part IV, chap. VI.
+
+[225] The same points had previously been brought forward by others,
+although not so vigorously enforced. Thus the well-known Belgian
+economist and publicist, Emile de Laveleye, pointed out (_Pall Mall
+Gazette_, 4th August, 1888) that "the happiest countries are
+incontestably the smallest: Switzerland, Norway, Luxembourg, and still
+more the Republics of San Marino and Val d'Andorre"; and that "countries
+in general, even when victorious, do not profit by their conquests."
+
+[226] Bismarck himself declared that without the deep shame of the German
+defeat at Jena in 1806 the revival of German national feeling would have
+been impossible.
+
+[227] D. Starr Jordan, The Human Harvest, 1907; J. Novikov, La Guerre et
+ses Pretendus Bienfaits, 1894, chap. IV; Novikov here argued that the
+selection of war eliminates not the feeble but the strong, and tends to
+produce, therefore, a survival of the unfittest.
+
+[228] "The most demoralizing features in French military life," says
+Professor Guerard, a highly intelligent observer, "are due to an
+incontestable progress in the French mind--its gradual loss of faith and
+interest in military glory. Henceforth the army is considered as
+useless, dangerous, a burden without a compensation. Authors of school
+books may be censured for daring to print such opinions, but the great
+majority of the French hold them in their hearts. Nay, there is a
+prevailing suspicion among working men that the military establishment
+is kept up for the sole benefit of the capitalists, and the reckless use
+of troops in case of labour conflicts gives colour to the contention."
+It has often happened that what the French think to-day the world
+generally thinks to-morrow. There is probably a world-wide significance
+in the fact that French experience is held to show that progress in
+intelligence means the demoralization of the army.
+
+[229] The influence of Syndicalism has, however, already reached the
+English Labour Movement, and an ill-advised prosecution by the English
+Government must have immensely aided in extending and fortifying that
+influence.
+
+[230] Some small beginnings have already been made. "The greatest gain
+ever yet won for the cause of peace," writes Mr. H.W. Nevinson, the
+well-known war correspondent (_Peace and War in the Balance_, p. 47),
+"was the refusal of the Catalonian reservists to serve in the war
+against the Riff mountaineers of Morocco in July, 1909.... So Barcelona
+flared to heaven, and for nearly a week the people held the vast city. I
+have seen many noble, as well as many terrible, events, but none more
+noble or of finer promise than the sudden uprising of the Catalan
+working people against a dastardly and inglorious war, waged for the
+benefit of a few speculators in Paris and Madrid."
+
+[231] J. Novikov, _Le Federation de l'Europe_, chap. iv. Olive Schreiner,
+_Woman and Labour_, chap. IV. While this is the fundamental fact, we
+must remember that we cannot generalize about the ideas or the feelings
+of a whole sex, and that the biological traditions of women have been
+associated with a primitive period when they were the delighted
+spectators of combats. "Woman," thought Nietzsche, "is essentially
+unpeaceable, like the cat, however well she may have assumed the
+peaceable demeanour." Steinmetz (_Philosophie des Krieges_, p. 314),
+remarking that women are opposed to war in the abstract, adds: "In
+practice, however, it happens that women regard a particular war--and
+all wars are particular wars--with special favour"; he remarks that the
+majority of Englishwomen fully shared the war fever against the Boers,
+and that, on the other side, he knew Dutch ladies in Holland, very
+opposed to war, who would yet have danced with joy at that time on the
+news of a declaration of war against England.
+
+[232] The general strike, which has been especially developed by the
+syndicalist Labour movement, and is now tending to spread to various
+countries, is a highly powerful weapon, so powerful that its results are
+not less serious than those of war. To use it against war seems to be to
+cast out Beelzebub by Beelzebub. Even in Labour disputes the modern
+strike threatens to become as serious and, indeed, almost as sanguinary
+as the civil wars of ancient times. The tendency is, therefore, in
+progressive countries, as we see in Australia, to supersede strikes by
+conciliation and arbitration, just as war is tending to be superseded by
+international tribunals. These two aims are, however, absolutely
+distinct, and the introduction of law into the disputes between nations
+can have no direct effect on the disputes between social classes. It is
+quite possible, however, that it may have an indirect effect, and that
+when disputes between nations are settled in an orderly manner, social
+feeling will forbid disputes between classes to be settled in a
+disorderly manner.
+
+[233] The Abbe de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743), a churchman without vocation,
+was a Norman of noble family, and first published his Memoires pour
+rendre la Paix Perpetuelle a l'Europe in 1722. As Siegler-Pascal well
+shows (Les Projets de l'Abbe de Saint-Pierre, 1900) he was not a mere
+visionary Utopian, but an acute and far-seeing thinker, practical in his
+methods, a close observer, an experimentalist, and one of the first to
+attempt the employment of statistics. He was secretary to the French
+plenipotentiaries who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht, and was thus
+probably put on the track of his scheme. He proposed that the various
+European states should name plenipotentiaries to form a permanent
+tribunal of compulsory arbitration for the settlement of all
+differences. If any state took up arms against one of the allies, the
+whole confederation would conjointly enter the field, at their conjoint
+expense, against the offending state. He was opposed to absolute
+disarmament, an army being necessary to ensure peace, but it must be a
+joint army composed of contingents from each Power in the confederation.
+Saint-Pierre, it will be seen, had clearly grasped the essential facts
+of the situation as we see them to-day. "The author of The Project of
+Perpetual Peace" concludes Prof. Pierre Robert in a sympathetic summary
+of his career (Petit de Julleville, Histoire de la Langue et de la
+Litterature Francaise, Vol. VI), "is the precursor of the twentieth
+century." His statue, we cannot doubt, will be a conspicuous object,
+beside Sully's, on the future Palace of any international tribunal.
+
+[234] Jules de Gaultier, "Comment Naissent les Dogmes," Mercure de
+France, 1st Sept., 1911. Jules de Gaultier also observes that "conflict
+is the law and condition of all existence." That may be admitted, but it
+ceases to be true if we assume, as the same thinker assumes, that
+"conflict" necessarily involves "war." The establishment of law to
+regulate the disputes between individuals by no means suppresses
+conflict, but it suppresses fighting, and it ensures that if any
+fighting occur the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression. In the
+same way the existence of a tribunal to regulate the disputes between
+national communities of individuals can by no means suppress conflict;
+but unless it suppresses fighting, and unless it ensures that if
+fighting occurs the aggressor shall not profit by his aggression, it
+will have effected nothing.
+
+[235] A.L. Guerard, "Impressions of Military Life in France," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, April, 1911.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE PROBLEM OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
+
+     Early Attempts to Construct an International Language--The Urgent
+     Need of an Auxiliary Language To-day--Volapuek--The Claims of
+     Spanish--Latin--The Claims of English--Its Disadvantages--The
+     Claims of French--Its Disadvantages--The Modern Growth of National
+     Feeling opposed to Selection of a Natural Language--Advantages of
+     an Artificial Language--Demands it must fulfil--Esperanto--Its
+     Threatened Disruption--The International Association for the
+     adoption of an Auxiliary International Language--The First Step to
+     Take.
+
+
+Ever since the decay of Latin as the universal language of educated
+people, there have been attempts to replace it by some other medium of
+international communication. That decay was inevitable; it was the
+outward manifestation of a movement of individualism which developed
+national languages and national literatures, and burst through the
+restraining envelope of an authoritarian system expounded in an official
+language. This individualism has had the freest play, and we are not
+likely to lose all that it has given us. Yet as soon as it was achieved
+the more distinguished spirits in every country began to feel the need
+of counterbalancing it. The history of the movement may be said to begin
+with Descartes, who in 1629 wrote to his friend Mersenne that it would
+be possible to construct an artificial language which could be used as
+an international medium of communication. Leibnitz, though he had solved
+the question for himself, writing some of his works in Latin and others
+in French, was yet all his life more or less occupied with the question
+of a universal language. Other men of the highest distinction--Pascal,
+Condillac, Voltaire, Diderot, Ampere, Jacob Grimm--have sought or
+desired a solution to this problem.[236] None of these great men, however,
+succeeded even in beginning an attempt to solve the problem they were
+concerned with.
+
+Some forty years ago, however, the difficulty began again to be felt,
+this time much more keenly and more widely than before. The spread of
+commerce, the facility of travel, the ramifications of the postal
+service, the development of new nationalities and new literatures, have
+laid upon civilized peoples a sense of burden and restriction which
+could never have been felt by their forefathers in the previous century.
+Added to this, a new sense of solidarity had been growing up in the
+world; the financial and commercial solidarity, by which any disaster or
+disturbance in one country causes a wave of disaster or disturbance to
+pass over the whole civilized globe, was being supplemented by a sense
+of spiritual solidarity. Men began to realize that the tasks of
+civilization cannot be carried out except by mutual understanding and
+mutual sympathy among the more civilized nations, that every nation has
+something to learn from other nations, and that the bonds of
+international intercourse must thus be drawn closer. This feeling of the
+need of an international language led in America to several serious
+attempts to obtain a consensus of opinion among scientific men regarding
+an international language. Thus in 1888 the Philosophical Society of
+Philadelphia, the oldest of American learned societies, unanimously
+resolved, on the initiative of Brinton, to address a letter to learned
+societies throughout the world, asking for their co-operation in
+perfecting a language for commercial and learned purposes, based on the
+Aryan vocabulary and grammar in their simplest forms, and to that end
+proposing an international congress, the first meeting of which should
+be held in Paris or London. In the same year Horatio Hale read a paper
+on the same subject before the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science. A little later, in 1890, it was again proposed at a meeting
+of the same Association that, in order to consider the question of the
+construction and adoption of a symmetrical and scientific language, a
+congress should be held, delegates being in proportion to the number of
+persons speaking each language.
+
+These excellent proposals seem, however, to have borne little fruit. It
+is always an exceedingly difficult matter to produce combined action
+among scientific societies even of the same nation. Thus the way has
+been left open for individuals to adopt the easier but far less decisive
+or satisfactory method of inventing a new language by their own unaided
+exertions. Certainly over a hundred such languages have been proposed
+during the past century. The most famous of these was undoubtedly
+Volapuek, which was invented in 1880 by Schleyer, a German-Swiss priest
+who knew many languages and had long pondered over this problem, but who
+was not a scientific philologist; the actual inception of the language
+occurred in a dream. Volapuek was almost the first real attempt at an
+organic language capable of being used for the oral transmission of
+thought. On this account, no doubt, it met with great and widespread
+success; it was actively taken up by a professor at Paris, societies
+were formed for its propagation, journals and hundreds of books were
+published in it; its adherents were estimated at a million. But its
+success, though brilliant, was short-lived. In 1889, when the third
+Volapuek Congress was held, it was at the height of its success, but
+thereafter dissension arose, and its reputation suddenly collapsed. No
+one now speaks Volapuek; it is regarded as a hideous monstrosity, even by
+those who have the most lively faith in artificial languages. Its
+inventor has outlived his language, and, like it, has been forgotten by
+the world, though his achievement was a real step towards the solution
+of the problem.
+
+The collapse of Volapuek discouraged thoughtful persons from expecting
+any solution of the problem in an artificial language. It seemed
+extremely improbable that any invented language, least of all the
+unaided product of a single mind, could ever be generally accepted, or
+be worthy of general acceptance, as an international mode of
+communication. Such a language failed to carry the prestige necessary to
+overcome the immense inertia which any attempt to adopt it would meet
+with. Invented languages, the visionary schemes of idealists, apparently
+received no support from practical men of affairs. It seemed to be among
+actual languages, living or dead, that we might most reasonably expect
+to find a medium of communication likely to receive wide support. The
+difficulty then lay in deciding which language should be selected.
+
+Russian had sometimes been advocated as the universal language for
+international purposes, and it is possible to point to the enormous
+territory of Russia, its growing power and the fact that Russian is the
+real or official language of a larger number of people than any other
+language except English. But Russian is so unlike the Latin and Teutonic
+tongues, used by the majority of European peoples; it is so complicated,
+so difficult to acquire, and, moreover, so lacking in concision that it
+has never had many enthusiastic advocates.
+
+The virtues and defects of Spanish, which has found many enthusiastic
+supporters, are of an opposite character. It is an admirably vigorous
+and euphonious language, on a sound phonetic basis, every letter always
+standing for a definite sound; the grammar is simple and exceptionally
+free from irregularities, and it is the key to a great literature.
+Billroth, the distinguished Austrian surgeon, advocated the adoption of
+Spanish; he regarded English as really more suitable, but, he pointed
+out, it is so difficult for the Latin races to speak non-Latin tongues
+that a Romance language is essential, and Spanish is the simplest and
+most logical of the Romance tongues.[237] It is, moreover, spoken by a
+vast number of people in South America and elsewhere.
+
+A few enthusiasts have advocated Greek, and have supported their claim
+with the argument that it is still a living language. But although Greek
+is the key to a small but precious literature, and is one of the sources
+of latter-day speech and scientific terminology, it is difficult, it is
+without special adaptation to modern uses, and there are no adequate
+reasons why it should be made an international language.
+
+Latin cannot be dismissed quite so hastily. It has in its favour the
+powerful argument that it has once already been found adequate to serve
+as the universal language. There is a widespread opinion to-day among
+the medical profession--the profession most actively interested in the
+establishment of a universal language--that Latin should be adopted, and
+before the International Medical Congress at Rome in 1894, a petition to
+this effect was presented by some eight hundred doctors in India.[238] It
+is undoubtedly an admirable language, expressive, concentrated, precise.
+But the objections are serious. The relative importance of Latin to-day
+is very far from what it was a thousand years ago, for conditions have
+wholly changed. There is now no great influence, such as the Catholic
+Church was of old, to enforce Latin, even if it possessed greater
+advantages. And the advantages are very mixed. Latin is a wholly dead
+tongue, and except in a degenerate form not by any means an easy one to
+learn, for its genius is wholly opposed to the genius even of those
+modern languages which are most closely allied to it. The world never
+returns on its own path. Although the prestige of Latin is still
+enormous, a language could only be brought from death to life by some
+widespread motor force; such a force no longer exists behind Latin.
+
+There remain English and French, and these are undoubtedly the two
+natural languages most often put forward--even outside England and
+France--as possessing the best claims for adoption as auxiliary
+international mediums of communication.
+
+English, especially, was claimed by many, some twenty years ago, to be
+not merely the auxiliary language of the future, but the universal
+language which must spread all over the world and supersede and drive
+out all others by a kind of survival of the fittest. This notion of a
+universal language is now everywhere regarded as a delusion, but at that
+time there was still thought by many to be a kind of special procreative
+activity in the communities of Anglo-Saxon origin which would naturally
+tend to replace all other peoples, both the people and the language
+being regarded as the fittest to survive.[239] English was, however,
+rightly felt to be a language with very great force behind it, being
+spoken by vast communities possessing a peculiarly energetic and
+progressive temperament, and with much power of peaceful penetration in
+other lands. It is generally acknowledged also that English fully
+deserves to be ranked as one of the first of languages by its fine
+aptitude for powerful expression, while at the same time it is equally
+fitted for routine commercial purposes. The wide extension of English
+and its fine qualities have often been emphasized, and it is unnecessary
+to dwell on them here. The decision of the scientific societies of the
+world to use English for bibliographical purposes is not entirely a
+tribute to English energy in organization, but to the quality of the
+language. One finds, indeed, that these facts are widely recognized
+abroad, in France and elsewhere, though I have noted that those who
+foretell the conquest of English, even when they are men of intellectual
+distinction and able to read English, are often quite unable to speak it
+or to understand it when spoken.
+
+That brings us to a point which is overlooked by those who triumphantly
+pointed to the natural settlement of this question by the swamping of
+other tongues in the overflowing tide of English speech. English is the
+most concise and laconic of the great languages. Greek, French and
+German are all more expansive, more syllabically copious. Latin alone
+may be said to equal, or surpass English in concentration, because,
+although Latin words are longer on the average, by their greater
+inflection they cover a larger number of English words. This power of
+English to attain expression with a minimum expenditure of energy in
+written speech is one of its chief claims to succeed Latin as the
+auxiliary international language. But it furnishes no claim to
+preference for actual speaking, in which this economy of energy ceases
+to be a supreme virtue, since here we have also to admit the virtues of
+easy intelligibility and of persuasiveness. Greek largely owed its
+admirable fitness for speech to the natural richness and prolongation of
+its euphonious words, which allowed the speaker to attain the legitimate
+utterance of his thought without pauses or superfluous repetition.
+French, again, while by no means inapt for concentration, as the
+_pensee_ writers show, most easily lends itself to effects that are
+meant for speech, as in Bossuet, or that recall speech, as in Mme de
+Sevigne in one order of literature, or Renan in another. But at Rome, we
+feel, the spoken tongue had a difficulty to overcome, and the
+mellifluously prolonged rhetoric of Cicero, delightful as it may be,
+scarcely seems to reveal to us the genius of the Latin tongue. The
+inaptitude of English for the purposes of speech is even more
+conspicuous, and is again well illustrated in our oratory. Gladstone was
+an orator of acknowledged eloquence, but the extreme looseness and
+redundancy into which his language was apt to fall in the effort to
+attain the verbose richness required for the ends of spoken speech,
+reveals too clearly the poverty of English from this point of view. The
+same tendency is also illustrated by the vain re-iterations of ordinary
+speakers. The English intellect, with all its fine qualities, is not
+sufficiently nimble for either speaker or hearer to keep up with the
+swift brevity of the English tongue. It is a curious fact that Great
+Britain takes the lead in Europe in the prevalence of stuttering; the
+language is probably a factor in this evil pre-eminence, for it appears
+that the Chinese, whose language is powerfully rhythmic, never stutter.
+One authority has declared that "no nation in the civilized world speaks
+its language so abominably as the English." We can scarcely admit that
+this English difficulty of speech is the result of some organic defect
+in English nervous systems; the language itself must be a factor in the
+matter. I have found, when discussing the point with scientific men and
+others abroad, that the opinion prevails that it is usually difficult to
+follow a speaker in English. This experience may, indeed, be considered
+general. While an admirably strong and concise language, English is by
+no means so adequate in actual speech; it is not one of the languages
+which can be heard at a long distance, and, moreover, it lends itself in
+speaking to so many contractions that are not used in writing--so many
+"can'ts" and "won'ts" and "don'ts," which suit English taciturnity, but
+slur and ruin English speech--that English, as spoken, is almost a
+different language from that which excites admiration when written. So
+that the exclusive use of English for international purposes would not
+be the survival of the fittest so far as a language for speaking
+purposes is concerned.
+
+Moreover, it must be remembered that English is not a democratic
+language. It is not, like the chief Romance languages and the chief
+Teutonic languages, practically homogeneous, made out of one block. It
+is formed by the mixture of two utterly unlike elements, one
+aristocratic, the other plebeian. Ever since the Norman lord came over
+to England a profound social inequality has become rooted in the very
+language. In French, _boeuf_ and _mouton_ and _veau_ and _porc_ have
+always been the same for master and for man, in the field and on the
+table; the animal has never changed its plebeian name for an
+aristocratic name as it passed through the cook's hands. That example is
+typical of the curious mark which the Norman Conquest left on our
+speech, rendering it so much more difficult for us than for the French
+to attain equality of social intercourse. Inequality is stamped
+indelibly into our language as into no other great language. Of course,
+from the literary point of view, that is all gain, and has been of
+incomparable aid to our poets in helping them to reach their most
+magnificent effects, as we may see conspicuously in Shakespeare's
+enormous vocabulary. But from the point of view of equal social
+intercourse, this wealth of language is worse than lost, it is
+disastrous. The old feudal distinctions are still perpetuated; the "man"
+still speaks his "plain Anglo-Saxon," and the "gentleman" still speaks
+his refined Latinized speech. In every language, it is true, there are
+social distinctions in speech, and every language has its slang. But in
+English these distinctions are perpetuated in the very structure of the
+language. Elsewhere the working-class speak--with a little difference in
+the quality--a language needing no substantial transformation to become
+the language of society, which differs from it in quality rather than in
+kind. But the English working man feels the need to translate his common
+Anglo-Saxon speech into foreign words of Latin origin. It is difficult
+for the educated person in England to understand the struggle which the
+uneducated person goes through to speak the language of the educated,
+although the unsatisfactory result is sufficiently conspicuous. But we
+can trace the operation of a similar cause in the hesitancy of the
+educated man himself when he attempts to speak in public and is
+embarrassed by the search for the set of words most suited for dignified
+purposes.
+
+Most of those who regarded English as the coming world-language admitted
+that it would require improvement for general use. The extensive and
+fundamental character of the necessary changes is not, however,
+realized. The difficulties of English are of four kinds: (1) its special
+sounds, very troublesome for foreigners to learn to pronounce, and the
+uncertainty of its accentuation; (2) its illogical and chaotic spelling,
+inevitably leading to confusions in pronunciation; (3) the grammatical
+irregularities in its verbs and plural nouns; and (4) the great number
+of widely different words which are almost or quite similar in
+pronunciation. A vast number of absurd pitfalls are thus prepared for
+the unwary user of English. He must remember that the plural of "mouse"
+is "mice," but that the plural of "house" is not "hice," that he may
+speak of his two "sons," but not of his two "childs"; he will
+indistinguishably refer to "sheeps" and "ships"; and like the preacher a
+little unfamiliar with English who had chosen a well-known text to
+preach on, he will not remember whether "plough" is pronounced "pluff"
+or "plo,"[240] and even a phonetic spelling system would render still more
+confusing the confusion between such a series of words as "hair,"
+"hare," "heir," "are," "ere" and "eyre." Many of these irregularities
+are deeply rooted in the structure of the language; it would be an
+extremely difficult as well as extensive task to remove them, and when
+the task was achieved the language would have lost much of its character
+and savour; it would clash painfully with literary English.
+
+Thus even if we admitted that English ought to be the international
+language of the future, the result is not so satisfactory from a British
+point of view as is usually taken for granted. All other civilized
+nations would be bilingual; they would possess the key not only to their
+own literature, but to a great foreign literature with all the new
+horizons that a foreign literature opens out. The English-speaking
+countries alone would be furnished with only one language, and would
+have no stimulus to acquire any other language, for no other language
+would be of any practical use to them. All foreigners would be in a
+position to bring to the English-speaking man whatever information they
+considered good for him. At first sight this seems a gain for the
+English-speaking peoples, because they would thus be spared a certain
+expenditure of energy; but a very little reflection shows that such a
+saving of energy is like that effected by the intestinal parasitic worm
+who has digested food brought ready to his mouth. It leads to
+degeneracy. Not the people whose language is learnt, but the people who
+learn a language reap the benefit, spiritual and material. It is now
+admitted in the commercial world that the ardour of the Germans in
+learning English has brought more advantage to the Germans than to the
+English. Moreover, the high intellectual level of small nations at the
+present time is due largely to the fact that all their educated members
+must be familiar with one or two languages besides their own. The great
+defect of the English mind is insularity; the virtue of its boisterous
+energy is accompanied by lack of insight into the differing virtues of
+other peoples. If the natural course of events led to the exclusive use
+of English for international communication, this defect would be still
+more accentuated. The immense value of becoming acquainted with a
+foreign language is that we are thereby led into a new world of
+tradition and thought and feeling. Before we know a new language truly,
+we have to realize that the words which at first seem equivalent to
+words in our own language often have a totally different atmosphere, a
+different rank or dignity from that which they occupy in our own
+language. It is in learning this difference in the moral connotation of
+a language and its expression in literature that we reap the real
+benefit of knowing a foreign tongue. There is no other way--not even
+residence in a foreign land if we are ignorant of the language--to take
+us out of the customary circle of our own traditions. It imparts a
+mental flexibility and emotional sympathy which no other discipline can
+yield. To ordain that all non-English-speaking peoples should learn
+English in addition to their mother tongue, and to render it practically
+unnecessary for English-speakers (except the small class of students) to
+learn any other language, would be to confer an immense boon on the
+first group of peoples, doubling their mental and emotional capacity; it
+is to render the second group hidebound.
+
+When we take a broad and impartial survey of the question we thus see
+that there is reason to believe that, while English is an admirable
+literary language (this is the ground that its eulogists always take),
+and sufficiently concise for commercial purposes, it is by no means an
+adequate international tongue, especially for purposes of oral speech,
+and, moreover, its exclusive use for this purpose would be a misfortune
+for the nations already using it, since they would be deprived of that
+mental flexibility and emotional sympathy which no discipline can give
+so well as knowledge of a living foreign tongue.
+
+Many who realized these difficulties put forward French as the auxiliary
+international language. It is quite true that the power behind French is
+now relatively less than it was two centuries ago.[241] At that time
+France by its relatively large population, the tradition of its military
+greatness, and its influential political position, was able to exert an
+immense influence; French was the language of intellect and society in
+Germany, in England, in Russia, everywhere in fact. During the
+eighteenth century internal maladministration, the cataclysm of the
+Revolution, and finally the fatal influence of Napoleon alienated
+foreign sympathy, and France lost her commanding position. Yet it was
+reasonably felt that, if a natural language is to be used for
+international purposes, after English there is no practicable
+alternative to French.
+
+French is the language not indeed in any special sense of science or of
+commerce, but of the finest human culture. It is a well-organized
+tongue, capable of the finest shades of expression, and it is the key to
+a great literature. In most respects it is the best favoured child of
+Latin; it commends itself to all who speak Romance languages, and, as
+Alphonse de Candolle has remarked, a Spaniard and an Italian know
+three-quarters of French beforehand, and every one who has learnt Latin
+knows half of French already. It is more admirably adapted for speaking
+purposes than perhaps any other language which has any claim to be used
+for international purposes, as we should expect of the tongue spoken by
+a people who have excelled in oratory, who possess such widely diffused
+dramatic ability, and who have carried the arts of social intercourse to
+the highest point.
+
+Paris remains for most people the intellectual capital of Europe; French
+is still very generally used for purposes of intercommunication
+throughout Europe, while the difficulty experienced by all but Germans
+and Russians in learning English is well known. Li Hung Chang is
+reported to have said that, while for commercial reasons English is far
+more widely used in China than French, the Chinese find French a much
+easier language to learn to speak, and the preferences of the Chinese
+may one day count for a good deal--in one direction or another--in the
+world's progress. One frequently hears that the use of French for
+international purposes is decaying; this is a delusion probably due to
+the relatively slow growth of the French-speaking races and to various
+temporary political causes. It is only necessary to look at the large
+International Medical Congresses. Thus at one such Congress at Rome, at
+which I was present, over six thousand members came from forty-two
+countries of the globe, and over two thousand of them took part in the
+proceedings. Four languages (Italian, French, German and English) were
+used at this Congress. Going over the seven large volumes of
+Transactions, I find that fifty-nine communications were presented in
+English, one hundred and seventy-one in German, three hundred and one
+in French, the rest in Italian. The proportion of English communications
+to German is thus a little more than one to three, and the proportion of
+English to French less than one to six. Moreover, the English-speaking
+members invariably (I believe) used their own language, so that these
+fifty-nine communications represent the whole contribution of the
+English-speaking world. And they represent nothing more than that;
+notwithstanding the enormous spread of English, of which we hear so
+much, not a single non-English speaker seems to have used English. It
+might be supposed that this preponderance of French was due to a
+preponderance of the French element, but this was by no means the case;
+the members of English-speaking race greatly exceeded those of
+French-speaking race. But, while the English communications represented
+the English-speaking countries only, and the German communications were
+chiefly by German speakers, French was spoken not only by members
+belonging to the smaller nations of Europe, from the north and from the
+south, by the Russians, by most of the Turkish and Asiatic members, but
+also by all the Mexicans and South Americans. These figures may not be
+absolutely free from fallacy, due to temporary causes of fluctuation.
+But that they are fairly exact is shown by the results of the following
+Congress, held at Moscow. If I take up the programme for the department
+of psychiatry and nervous disease, in which I was myself chiefly
+interested, I find that of 131 communications, 80 were in French, 37 in
+German and 14 in English. This shows that French, German and English
+bear almost exactly the same relation to one another as at Rome. In
+other words, 61 per cent of the speakers used French, 28 per cent
+German, and only 11 per cent English.
+
+If we come down to one of the most recent International Medical
+Congresses, that of Lisbon in 1906, we find that the supremacy of
+French, far from weakening, is more emphatically affirmed. The language
+of the country in which the Congress was held was ruled out, and I find
+that of 666 contributions to the proceedings of the Congress, over 84
+per cent were in French, scarcely more than 8 per cent in English, and
+less than 7 per cent in German. At the subsequent Congress at Budapesth
+in 1909, the French contributions were to the English as three to one.
+Similar results are shown by other International Congresses. Thus at the
+third International Congress of Psychology, held at Munich, there were
+four official languages, and on grounds of locality the majority of
+communications were in German; French followed with 29, Italian with 12,
+and English brought up the rear with 11. Dr. Westermarck, who is the
+stock example of the spread of English for international purposes, spoke
+in German. It is clearly futile to point to figures showing the prolific
+qualities of English races; the moral quality of a race and its language
+counts, as well as mere physical capacity for breeding, and the moral
+influence of French to-day is immensely greater than that of English.
+That is, indeed, scarcely a fair statement of the matter in view of the
+typical cases just quoted; one should rather say that, as a means of
+spoken international communication for other than commercial purposes,
+English is nowhere.
+
+There is one other point which serves to give prestige to French: its
+literary supremacy in the modern world. While some would claim for the
+English the supreme poetic literature, there can be no doubt that the
+French own the supreme prose literature of modern Europe. It was felt by
+those who advocated the adoption of English or French that it would
+surely be a gain for human progress if the auxiliary international
+languages of the future should be one, if not both, of two that possess
+great literatures, and which embody cultures in some respects allied,
+but in most respects admirably supplementing each other.[242]
+
+The collapse of Volapuek stimulated the energy of those who believed that
+the solution of the question lay in the adoption of a natural language.
+To-day, however, there are few persons who, after carefully considering
+the matter, regard this solution as probable or practicable.[243]
+
+Considerations of two orders seem now to be decisive in rejecting the
+claims of English and French, or, indeed, any other natural language, to
+be accepted as an international language: (1) The vast number of
+peculiarities, difficulties, and irregularities, rendering necessary so
+revolutionary a change for international purposes that the language
+would be almost transformed into an artificial language, and perhaps not
+even then an entirely satisfactory one. (2) The extraordinary
+development during recent years of the minor national languages, and the
+jealousy of foreign languages which this revival has caused. This latter
+factor is probably alone fatal to the adoption of any living language.
+It can scarcely be disputed that neither English nor French occupies
+to-day so relatively influential a position as it once occupied. The
+movement against the use of French in Roumania, as detrimental to the
+national language, is significant of a widespread feeling, while, as
+regards English, the introduction by the Germans into commerce of the
+method of approaching customers in their own tongue, has rendered
+impossible the previous English custom of treating English as the
+general language of commerce.
+
+The natural languages, it became realized, fail to answer to the
+requirements which must be made of an auxiliary international language.
+The conditions which have to be fulfilled are thus formulated by Anna
+Roberts:[244]
+
+"_First_, a vocabulary having a maximum of internationality in its
+root-words for at least the Indo-European races, living or bordering on
+the confines of the old Roman Empire, whose vocabularies are already
+saturated with Greek and Latin roots, absorbed during the long centuries
+of contact with Greek and Roman civilization. As the centre of gravity
+of the world's civilization now stands, this seems the most rational
+beginning. Such a language shall then have:
+
+"_Second_, a grammatical structure stripped of all the irregularities
+found in every existing tongue, and that shall be simpler than any of
+them. It shall have:
+
+"_Third_, a single, unalterable sound for each letter, no silent
+letters, no difficult, complex, shaded sounds, but simple primary
+sounds, capable of being combined into harmonious words, which latter
+shall have but a single stress accent that never shifts.
+
+"_Fourth_, mobility of structure, aptness for the expression of complex
+ideas, but in ways that are grammatically simple, and by means of words
+that can easily be analysed without a dictionary.
+
+"_Fifth_, it must be capable of being, not merely a literary
+language,[245] but a spoken tongue, having a pronunciation that can be
+perfectly mastered by adults through the use of manuals, and in the
+absence of oral teachers.
+
+"_Finally_, and as a necessary corollary and complement to all of the
+above, this international auxiliary language must, to be of general
+utility, be exceedingly easy of acquisition by persons of but moderate
+education, and hitherto conversant with no language but their own."
+
+Thus the way was prepared for the favourable reception of a new
+artificial language, which had in the meanwhile been elaborated. Dr.
+Zamenhof, a Russian physician living at Warsaw, had been from youth
+occupied with the project of an international language, and in 1887 he
+put forth in French his scheme for a new language to be called
+Esperanto. The scheme attracted little notice; Volapuek was then at the
+zenith of its career, and when it fell, its fall discredited all
+attempts at an artificial language. But, like Volapuek, Esperanto found
+its great apostle in France. M. Louis de Beaufront brought his high
+ability and immense enthusiasm to the work of propaganda, and the
+success of Esperanto in the world is attributed in large measure to him.
+The extension of Esperanto is now threatening to rival that of Volapuek.
+Many years ago Max Mueller, and subsequently Skeat, notwithstanding the
+philologist's prejudice in favour of natural languages, expressed their
+approval of Esperanto, and many persons of distinction, moving in such
+widely remote spheres as Tolstoy and Sir William Ramsay, have since
+signified their acceptance and their sympathy. Esperanto Congresses are
+regularly held, Esperanto Societies and Esperanto Consulates are
+established in many parts of the world, a great number of books and
+journals are published in Esperanto, and some of the world's classics
+have been translated into it.
+
+It is generally recognized that Esperanto represents a great advance on
+Volapuek. Yet there are already signs that Esperanto is approaching the
+climax of its reputation, and that possibly its inventor may share the
+fate of the inventor of Volapuek and outlive his own language. The most
+serious attack on Esperanto has come from within. The most intelligent
+Esperantists have realized the weakness and defects of their language
+(in some measure due to the inevitable Slavonic prepossessions of its
+inventor) and demand radical reforms, which the conservative party
+resist. Even M. de Beaufront, to whom its success was largely due, has
+abandoned primitive Esperanto, and various scientific men of high
+distinction in several countries now advocate the supersession of
+Esperanto by an improved language based upon it and called Ido.
+Professor Lorenz, who is among the advocates of Ido, admits that
+Esperanto has shown the possibility of a synthetic language, but states
+definitely that "according to the concordant testimony of all unbiased
+opinions" Esperanto in no wise represents the final solution of the
+problem. This new movement is embodied in the Delegation pour l'Adoption
+d'une Langue Auxiliaire Internationale, founded in Paris during the
+International Exhibition in 1900 by various eminent literary and
+scientific men, and having its head-quarters in Paris. The Delegation
+consider that the problem demands a purely scientific and technical
+solution, and it is claimed that 40 per cent of the stems of Ido are
+common to six languages: German, English, French, Italian, Russian and
+Spanish. The Delegation appear to have approached the question with a
+fairly open mind, and it was only after study of the subject that they
+finally reached the conclusion that Esperanto contained a sufficient
+number of good qualities to furnish a basis on which to work.[246]
+
+The general programme of the Delegation is that (1) an auxiliary
+international language is required, adapted to written and oral language
+between persons of different mother tongues; (2) such language must be
+capable of serving the needs of science, daily life, commerce, and
+general intercourse, and must be of such a character that it may easily
+be learnt by persons of average elementary education, especially those
+of civilized European nationality; (3) the decision to rest with the
+International Association of Academies, and, in case of their refusal,
+with the Committee of the Delegation.[247]
+
+The Delegation is seeking to bring about an official international
+Congress which would either itself or through properly appointed experts
+establish an internationally and officially recognized auxiliary
+language. The chief step made in this direction has been the formation
+at Berne in 1911 of an international association whose object is to take
+immediate steps towards bringing the question before the Governments of
+Europe. The Association is pledged to observe a strict neutrality in
+regard to the language to be chosen.
+
+The whole question seems thus to have been placed on a sounder basis
+than hitherto. The international language of the future cannot be, and
+ought not to be, settled by a single individual seeking to impose his
+own invention on the world. This is not a matter for zealous propaganda
+of an almost religious character. The hasty and premature adoption of
+some privately invented language merely retards progress. No individual
+can settle the question by himself. What we need is calm study and
+deliberation between the nations and the classes chiefly concerned,
+acting through the accredited representatives of their Governments and
+other professional bodies. Nothing effective can be done until the
+pressure of popular opinion has awakened Governments and scientific
+societies to the need for action. The question of international
+arbitration has become practical; the question of the international
+language ought to go hand in hand with that of international
+arbitration. They are closely allied and both equally necessary.
+
+While the educational, commercial, and official advantages of an
+auxiliary international language are obvious, it seems to me that from
+the standpoint of social hygiene there are at least three interests
+which are especially and deeply concerned in the settlement of this
+question.
+
+The first and chief is that of international democracy in its efforts to
+attain an understanding on labour questions. There can be no solution of
+this question until a simpler mode of personal communication has become
+widely prevalent. This matter has from time to time already been brought
+before international labour congresses, and those who attend such
+congresses have doubtless had occasion to realize how essential it is.
+Perhaps it is a chief factor in the comparative failure of such
+congresses hitherto.
+
+Science represents the second great interest which has shown an active
+concern in the settlement of this question. To follow up any line of
+scientific research is already a sufficiently gigantic work, on account
+of the absence of proper bibliographical organization; it becomes almost
+overwhelming now that the search has to extend over at least half a
+dozen languages, and still leaves the searcher a stranger to the
+important investigations which are appearing in Russian and in Japanese,
+and will before long appear in other languages. Sir Michael Foster once
+drew a humorous picture of the woes of the physiologist owing to these
+causes. In other fields--especially in the numerous branches of
+anthropological research, as I can myself bear witness--the worker is
+even worse off than the physiologist. Just now science is concentrating
+its energies on the organization of bibliography, but much attention has
+been given to this question of an international language from time to
+time, and it is likely before long to come pressingly to the front.
+
+The medical profession is also practically concerned in this question;
+hitherto it has, indeed, taken a more lively interest in the effort to
+secure an international language than has pure science. It is of the
+first importance that new discoveries and methods in medicine and
+hygiene should be rendered immediately accessible; while the now
+enormously extended domain of medicine is full of great questions which
+can only be solved by international co-operation on an international
+basis. The responsibility of advocating a number of measures affecting
+the well-being of communities lies, in the first place, with the medical
+profession; but no general agreement is possible without full facilities
+for discussion in international session. This has been generally
+recognized; hence the numerous attempts to urge a single language on the
+organizers of the international medical congresses. I have already
+observed how large and active these congresses were. Yet it cannot be
+said that any results are achieved commensurate with the world-wide
+character of such congresses. Partly this is due to the fact that the
+organizers of international congresses have not yet learnt what should
+be the scope of such conferences, and what they may legitimately hope to
+perform; but very largely because there is no international method of
+communication; and, except for a few seasoned cosmopolitans, no truly
+international exchange of opinions takes place. This can only be
+possible when we have a really common and familiar method of
+intercommunication.
+
+These three interests--democratic, scientific, medical--seem at present
+those chiefly concerned in the task of putting this matter on a definite
+basis, and it is much to be desired that they should come to some common
+agreement. They represent three immensely important modes of social and
+intellectual activity, and the progress of every nation is bound up with
+an international progress of which they are now the natural pioneers. It
+cannot be too often repeated that the day has gone by when any progress
+worthy of the name can be purely national. All the most vital questions
+of national progress tend to merge themselves into international
+questions. But before any question of international progress can result
+in anything but noisy confusion, we need a recognized mode of
+international intelligence and communication. That is why the question
+of the auxiliary international language is of actual and vital interest
+to all who are concerned with the tasks of social hygiene.
+
+
+THE QUESTION ON INTERNATIONAL COINAGE
+
+It must be remembered that the international auxiliary language is an
+organic part of a larger internationalization which must inevitably be
+effected, and is indeed already coming into being. Two related measures
+of intercommunication are an international system of postage stamps, and
+an international coinage, to which may be added an international system
+of weights and measures, which seems to be already in course of
+settlement by the increasingly general adoption of the metric system.
+The introduction of the exchangeable international stamp coupon
+represents the beginning of a truly international postal system; but it
+is only a beginning. If a completely developed international postal
+system were incidentally to deliver some nations, and especially the
+English, from the depressingly ugly postage stamps they are now
+condemned to use, this reform would possess a further advantage almost
+as great as its practical utility. An international coinage is, again, a
+prime necessity, which would possess immense commercial advantages in
+addition to the great saving of trouble it would effect. The progress of
+civilization is already working towards an international coinage. In an
+interesting paper on this subject ("International Coinage," _Popular
+Science Monthly_, March, 1910) T.F. van Wagenen writes; "Each in its
+way, the great commercial nations of the day are unconsciously engaged
+in the task. The English shilling is working northwards from the Cape
+of Good Hope, has already come in touch with the German mark and the
+Portuguese peseta which have been introduced on both the east and west
+sides of the Continent, and will in due time meet the French franc and
+Italian lira coming south from the shores of the Mediterranean. In Asia,
+the Indian rupee, the Russian rouble, the Japanese yen, and the
+American-Philippine coins are already competing for the patronage of the
+Malay and the Chinaman. In South America neither American nor European
+coins have any foot-hold, the Latin-American nations being well supplied
+by systems of their own, all related more or less closely to the coinage
+of Mexico or Portugal. Thus the plainly evolutionary task of pushing
+civilization into the uneducated parts of the world through commerce is
+as badly hampered by the different coins offered to the barbarian as are
+the efforts of the evangelists to introduce Christianity by the
+existence of the various denominations and creeds. The Church is
+beginning to appreciate the wastage in its efforts, and is trying to
+minimize it by combinations among the denominations having for their
+object to standardize Christianity, so to speak, by reducing tenet and
+dogma to the lowest possible terms. Commerce must do the same. The white
+man's coins must be standardized and simplified.... The international
+coin will come in a comparatively short time, just as will arrive the
+international postage stamp, which, by the way, is very badly needed.
+For the upper classes of all countries, the people who travel, and have
+to stand the nuisance and loss of changing their money at every
+frontier, the bankers and international merchants who have to cumber
+their accounts with the fluctuating item of exchange between commercial
+centres will insist upon it. All the European nations, with the
+exception of Russia and Turkey, are ready for the change, and when these
+reach the stage of real constitutionalism in their progress upward,
+they will be compelled to follow, being already deeply in debt to the
+French, English, and Germans. Japan may be counted upon to acquiesce
+instantly in any unit agreed upon by the rest of the civilized world."
+
+This writer points out that the opening out of the uncivilized parts of
+the world to commerce will alone serve to make an international coinage
+absolutely indispensable.
+
+Without, however, introducing a really new system, an auxiliary
+international money system (corresponding to an auxiliary international
+language) could be introduced as a medium of exchange without
+interfering with the existing coinages of the various nations. Rene de
+Saussure (writing in the _Journal de Geneve_, in 1907) has insisted on
+the immense benefit such a system of "monnaie de compte" would be in
+removing the burden imposed upon all international financial relations
+by the diversity of money values. He argues that the best point of union
+would be a gold piece of eight grammes--almost exactly equivalent to one
+pound, twenty marks, five dollars, and twenty-five francs--being, in
+fact, but one-third of a penny different from the value of a pound
+sterling. For the subdivisions the point of union must be decimally
+divided, and M. de Saussure would give the name of speso to a
+ten-thousandth part of the gold coin.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236] The history of the efforts to attain a universal language has been
+written by Couturat and Leau, _Histoire de la Langue Universelle_, 1903.
+
+[237] The distinguished French physician, Dr. Sollier, also, in an address
+to the Lisbon International Medical Congress, on "La Question de la
+Langue Auxiliaire Internationale," in 1906, advocating the adoption of
+one of the existing Romance tongues, said: "Spanish is the simplest of
+all and the easiest, and if it were chosen for this purpose I should be
+the first to accept it."
+
+[238] It has even been stated by a distinguished English man of science
+that Latin is sometimes easier for the English to use than is their own
+language. "I have known Englishmen who could be trusted to write a more
+intelligible treatise, possibly even to make a more lucid speech, in
+Latin than in English," says Dr. Miers, the Principal of London
+University (_Lancet_, 7th October, 1911), and he adds: "Quite seriously,
+I think some part of the cause is to be sought in the difficulty of our
+language, and many educated persons get lost in its intricacies, just as
+they get lost in its spelling." Without questioning the fact, however, I
+would venture to question this explanation of it.
+
+[239] Thus in one article on the growing extension of the English language
+throughout the world (_Macmillan's Magazine_, March, 1892) we read:
+"English is practically certain to become the language of the world....
+The speech of Shakespeare and Milton, of Dryden and Swift, of Byron and
+Wordsworth, will be, in a sense in which no other language has been, the
+speech of the whole world." We do not nowadays meet with these wild
+statements.
+
+[240] The stumbling-stones for the foreigner presented by English words in
+"ough" have often been referred to, and are clearly set forth in the
+verses in which Mr. C.B. Loomis has sought to represent a French
+learner's experiences--and the same time to show the criminal impulses
+which these irregularities arouse in the pupil.
+
+    "I'm taught p-l-o-u-g-h
+      Shall be pronounced 'plow,'
+    'Zat's easy when you know,' I say,
+      'Mon Anglais I'll get through.'
+
+    "My teacher say zat in zat case
+      O-u-g-h is 'oo,'
+    And zen I laugh and say to him
+      'Zees Anglais make me cough.'
+
+    "He say, 'Not coo, but in zat word
+      O-u-g-h is "off,"'
+    Oh, _sacre bleu_! such varied sounds
+      Of words make me hiccough!
+
+    "He say, 'Again, mon friend ees wrong!
+      O-u-g-h is "up,"
+    In hiccough,' Zen I cry, 'No more,
+      You make my throat feel rough,'
+
+    "'Non! non!' he cry, 'you are not right--
+      O-u-g-h is "uff."'
+    I say, 'I try to speak your words,
+      I can't prononz zem though,'
+
+    "'In time you'll learn, but now you're wrong,
+      O-u-g-h is "owe."'
+    'I'll try no more. I sall go mad,
+      I'll drown me in ze lough!'
+
+    "'But ere you drown yourself,' said he,
+      'O-u-g-h is "ock."'
+    He taught no more! I held him fast,
+      And killed him wiz a rough!"
+
+[241] It is interesting to remember that at one period in European
+history, French seemed likely to absorb English, and thus to acquire, in
+addition to its own motor force, all the motor force which now lies
+behind English. When the Normans--a vigorous people of Scandinavian
+origin, speaking a Romance tongue, and therefore well fitted to
+accomplish a harmonizing task of this kind--occupied both sides of the
+English Channel, it seemed probable that they would dominate the speech
+of England as well as of France. "At that time," says Meray (_La Vie aux
+Temps des Cours d'Amour_, p. 367), who puts forward this view, "the
+people of the two coasts of the Channel were closer in customs and in
+speech than were for a long time the French on the opposite banks of the
+Loire.... The influential part of the English nation and all the people
+of its southern regions spoke the _Romance_ of the north of France. In
+the Crusades the Knights of the two peoples often mixed, and were
+greeted as Franks wherever their adventurous spirit led them. If Edward
+III, with the object of envenoming an antagonism which served his own
+ends, had not broken this link of language, the two peoples would
+perhaps have been united to-day in the same efforts of progress and of
+liberty.... Of what a fine instrument of culture and of progress has not
+that fatal decree of Edward III deprived civilization!"
+
+[242] I was at one time (_Progressive Review_, April, 1897) inclined to
+think that the adoption of both English and French, as joint auxiliary
+international languages--the first for writing and the second for
+speaking--might solve the problem. I have since recognized that such a
+solution, however advantageous it might be for human culture, would
+present many difficulties, and is quite impracticable.
+
+[243] I may refer to three able papers which have appeared in recent years
+in the _Popular Science Monthly_: Anna Monsch Roberts, "The Problem of
+International Speech" (February, 1908); Ivy Kellerman, "The Necessity
+for an International Language," (September, 1909); Albert Leon Guerard,
+"English as an International Language" (October, 1911). All these
+writers reject as impracticable the adoption of either English or French
+as the auxiliary international language, and view with more favour the
+adoption of an artificial language such as Esperanto.
+
+[244] A.M. Roberts, _op. cit._
+
+[245] It should be added, however, that the auxiliary language need not
+be used as a medium for literary art, and it is a mistake, as Pfaundler
+points out, to translate poems into such a language.
+
+[246] See _International Language and Science_, 1910, by Couturat,
+Jespersen, Lorenz, Ostwald, Pfaundler, and Donnan, five professors
+living in five different countries.
+
+[247] The progress of the movement is recorded in its official journal,
+_Progreso_, edited by Couturat, and in De Beaufront's journal, _La
+Langue Auxiliaire_.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+INDIVIDUALISM AND SOCIALISM
+
+     Social Hygiene in Relation to the Alleged Opposition between
+     Socialism and Individualism--The Two Parties in Politics--The
+     Relation of Conservatism and Radicalism to Socialism and
+     Individualism--The Basis of Socialism--The Basis of
+     Individualism--The seeming Opposition between Socialism and
+     Individualism merely a Division of Labour--Both Socialism and
+     Individualism equally Necessary--Not only Necessary but
+     Indispensable to each other--The Conflict between the Advocates of
+     Environment and Heredity--A New Embodiment of the supposed Conflict
+     between Socialism and Individualism--The Place of Eugenics--Social
+     Hygiene ultimately one with the Hygiene of the Soul--The Function
+     of Utopias.
+
+
+The controversy between Individualism and Socialism, the claim of the
+personal unit as against the claim of the collective community, is of
+ancient date. Yet it is ever new and constantly presented afresh. It
+even seems to become more acute as civilization progresses. Every scheme
+of social reform, every powerful manifestation of individual energy,
+raise anew a problem that is never out of date.
+
+It is inevitable, indeed, that with the development of social hygiene
+during the past hundred years there should also develop a radical
+opposition of opinion as to the methods by which such hygiene ought to
+be accomplished. There has always been this opposition in the political
+sphere; it is natural to find it also in the social sphere. The very
+fact that old-fashioned politics are becoming more and more transformed
+into questions of social hygiene itself ensures the continuance of such
+an opposition.
+
+In politics, and especially in the politics of constitutional countries
+of which England is the type, there are normally two parties. There is
+the party that holds by tradition, by established order and solidarity,
+the maintenance of the ancient hierarchical constitution of society, and
+in general distinguishes itself by a preference for the old over the
+new. There is, on the other side, the party that insists on progress, on
+freedom, on the reasonable demands of the individual, on the adaptation
+of the accepted order to changing conditions, and in general
+distinguishes itself by a preference for the new over the old. The first
+may be called the party of structure, and the second the party of
+function. In England we know the adherents of one party as Conservatives
+and those of the other party as Liberals or Radicals.
+
+In time, it is true, these normal distinctions between the party of
+structure and the party of function tend to become somewhat confused;
+and it is precisely the transition of politics into the social sphere
+which tends to introduce confusion. With a political system which
+proceeds ultimately out of a society with a feudalistic basis, the
+normal attitude of political parties is long maintained. The party of
+structure, the Conservative party, holds by the ancient feudalistic
+ideals which are really, in the large sense, socialistic, though a
+socialism based on a foundation of established inequality, and so
+altogether unlike the democratic socialism promulgated to-day. The
+party of function, the Liberal party, insists on the break-up of this
+structural socialism to meet the new needs of progressive civilization.
+But when feudalism has been left far behind, and many of the changes
+introduced by Liberalism have become part of the social structure, they
+fall under the protection of Conservatives who are fighting against new
+Liberal innovations. Thus the lines of delimitation tend to become
+indistinct.
+
+In the politics of social hygiene there are the same two factors: the
+party of structure and the party of function. In their nature and in
+their opposition to each other they correspond to the two parties in the
+old political field. But they have changed their character and their
+names: the party of structure is here Socialism or Collectivism,[248] the
+party of function is Individualism.[249] And while the Tory, the
+Conservative of early days, was allied to Collectivism, and the Whig,
+the Liberal of early days, to Individualism, that correspondence has
+ceased to be invariable owing to the confused manner in which the old
+political parties have nowadays shifted their ground. We may thus see a
+Liberal who is a Collectivist when a Collectivist measure may involve
+that innovation to secure adjustment to new needs which is of the
+essence of Liberalism, and we may see a Conservative who is an
+Individualist when Individualism involves that maintenance of the
+existing order which is of the essence of Conservatism. Whether a man is
+a Conservative or a Liberal, he may incline either to Socialism or to
+Individualism without breaking with his political tradition. It is,
+therefore, impossible to import any political animus into the
+fundamental antagonism between Individualism and Socialism, which
+prevails in the sphere of social hygiene.
+
+We cannot hope to see clearly the grave problems involved by the
+fundamental antagonism between Socialism and Individualism unless we
+understand what each is founded on and what it is aiming at.
+
+When we seek to inquire how it is that the Socialist ideal exerts so
+powerful an attraction on the human mind, and why it is ever seeking new
+modes of practical realization, we cannot fail to perceive that it
+ultimately proceeds from the primitive need of mutual help, a need which
+was felt long before the appearance of humanity.[250] If, however, we keep
+strictly to our immediate mammalian traditions it may be said that the
+earliest socialist community is the family, with its trinity of father,
+mother, and child. The primitive family constitutes a group which is
+conditioned by the needs of each member. Each individual is subordinated
+to the whole. The infant needs the mother and the mother needs the
+infant; they both need the father and the father needs both for the
+complete satisfaction of his own activities. Socially and economically
+this primitive group is a unit, and if broken up into its individual
+parts these would be liable to perish.
+
+However we may multiply our social unit, however we may enlarge and
+elaborate it, however we may juggle with the results, we cannot disguise
+the essential fact. At the centre of every social agglomeration, however
+vast, however small, lies the social unit of the family of which each
+individual is by himself either unable to live or unable to reproduce,
+unable, that is to say, to gratify the two fundamental needs of hunger
+and love.
+
+There are many people who, while willing to admit that the family is, in
+a sense, a composite social unit to which each part has need of the
+other parts, so that all are mutually bound together, seek to draw a
+firm line of distinction between the family and society. Family life,
+they declare, is not irreconcilable with individualism; it is merely _un
+egoisme a trois_. It is, however, difficult to see how such a
+distinction can be maintained, whether we look at the matter
+theoretically or practically. In a small country like Great Britain, for
+instance, every Englishman (excluding new immigrants) is related by
+blood to every other Englishman, as would become clearer if every man
+possessed his pedigree for a thousand years back. When we remember,
+further, also, that every nation has been overlaid by invasions, warlike
+or peaceful, from neighbouring lands, and has, indeed, been originally
+formed in this way since no people has sprung up out of the soil of its
+own land, we must further admit that the nations themselves form one
+family related by blood.
+
+Our genealogical relation to our fellows is too remote and extensive to
+concern us much practically and sentimentally, though it is well that we
+should realize it. If we put it aside, we have still to remember that
+our actual need of our fellows is not definitely to be distinguished
+from the mutual needs of the members of the smallest social unit, the
+family.
+
+In practice the individual is helpless. Of all animals, indeed, man is
+the most helpless when left to himself. He must be cared for by others
+at every moment during his long infancy. He is dependent on the
+exertions of others for shelter and clothes, while others are occupied
+in preparing his food and conveying it from the ends of the world. Even
+if we confine ourselves to the most elementary needs of a moderately
+civilized existence, or even if our requirements are only those of an
+idiot in an asylum, yet, for every one of us, there are literally
+millions of people spending the best of their lives from morning to
+night and perhaps receiving but little in return. The very elementary
+need of the individual in an urban civilization for pure water to drink
+can only be attained by organized social effort. The gigantic aqueducts
+constructed by the Romans are early monuments of social activity typical
+of all the rest. The primary needs of the individual can only be
+supplied by an immense and highly organized social effort. The more
+complex civilization becomes, and the more numerous individual needs
+become, so much the more elaborate and highly organized becomes the
+social response to those needs. The individual is so dependent on
+society that he needs not only the active work of others, but even their
+mere passive good opinion, and if he loses that he is a failure,
+bankrupt, a pauper, a lunatic, a criminal, and the social reaction
+against him may suffice to isolate him, even to put him out of life
+altogether. So dependent indeed on society is the individual that there
+has always been a certain plausibility in the old idea of the Stoics,
+countenanced by St. Paul, and so often revived in later days (as by
+Schaeffle, Lilienfeld, and Rene Worms), that society is an organism in
+which the individuals are merely cells depending for their significance
+on the whole to which they belong. Just as the animal is, as Hegel, the
+metaphysician, called it, a "nation," and Dareste, the physiologist, a
+"city," made up of cells which are individuals having a common ancestor,
+so the actual nation, the real city, is an animal made up of individuals
+which are cells having a common ancestor, or, as Oken long ago put it,
+individuals are the organs of the whole.[251] Man is a social animal in
+constant action and reaction with all his fellows of the same group--a
+group which becomes ever greater as civilization advances--and socialism
+is merely the formal statement of this ultimate social fact.[252]
+
+There is a divinity that hedges certain words. A sacred terror warns the
+profane off them as off something that might blast the beholder's sight.
+In fact it is so, and even a clear-sighted person may be blinded by such
+a word. Of these words none is more typical than the word "socialism."
+Not so very long ago a prominent public man, of high intelligence, but
+evidently susceptible to the terror-striking influence of words, went to
+Glasgow to deliver an address on Social Reform. He warned his hearers
+against Socialism, and told them that, though so much talked about, it
+had not made one inch of progress; of practical Socialism or
+Collectivism there were no signs at all. Yet, as some of his hearers
+pointed out, he gave his address in a municipally owned hall,
+illuminated by municipal lights, to an audience which had largely
+arrived in municipal tramcars travelling through streets owned,
+maintained, and guarded by the municipality. This audience was largely
+educated in State schools, in which their children nowadays can receive
+not only free education and free books, but, if necessary, free food and
+free medical inspection and treatment. Moreover, the members of this
+same audience thus assured of the non-existence of Socialism, are
+entitled to free treatment in the municipal hospital, should an
+infective disease overtake them; the municipality provides them freely
+with concerts and picture galleries, golf courses and swimming ponds;
+and in old age, finally, if duly qualified, they receive a State
+pension. Now all these measures are socialistic, and Socialism is
+nothing more or less than a complicated web of such measures; the
+socialistic State, as some have put it, is simply a great national
+co-operative association of which the Government is the board of
+managers.
+
+It is said by some who disclaim any tendency to Socialism, that what
+they desire is not the State-ownership of the means of production, but
+State-regulation. Let the State, in the interests of the community, keep
+a firm control over the individualistic exploitation of capital, let it
+tax capital as far as may be desirable in the interests of the
+community. But beyond this, capital, as well as land, is sacred. The
+distinction thus assumed is not, however, valid. The very people who
+make this distinction are often enthusiastic advocates of an enlarged
+navy and a more powerful army. Yet these can only be provided by
+taxation, and every tax in a democratic State is a socialistic measure,
+and involves collective ownership of the proceeds, whether they are
+applied to making guns or swimming-baths. Every step in the regulation
+of industry assumes the rights of society over individualistic
+production, and is therefore socialistic. It is a question of less or
+more, but except along those two lines, there is no socialism at all to
+be reckoned with in the practical affairs of the world. That
+revolutionary socialism of the dogmatically systematic school of Karl
+Marx which desired to transfer society at a single stroke by taking over
+and centralizing all the means of production may now be regarded as a
+dream. It never at any time took root in the English-speaking lands,
+though it was advocated with unwearying patience by men of such force of
+intellect and of character as Mr. Hyndman and William Morris. Even in
+Germany, the land of its origin, nearly all its old irreconcilable
+leaders are dead, and it is now slowly but steadily losing influence, to
+give place to a more modern and practical socialism.
+
+As we are concerned with it to-day and in the future, Socialism is not a
+rigid economic theory, nor is it the creed of a narrow sect. In its wide
+sense it is a name that covers all the activities--first instinctive,
+then organized--which arise out of the fundamental fact that man is a
+social animal. In its more precise sense it indicates the various
+orderly measures that are taken by groups of individuals--whether States
+or municipalities--to provide collectively for the definite needs of the
+individuals composing the group. So much for Socialism.
+
+The individualist has a very different story to tell. From the point of
+view of Individualism, however elaborate the structure of the society
+you erect, it can only, after all, be built up of individuals, and its
+whole worth must depend on the quality of those individuals. If they are
+not fully developed and finely tempered by high responsibilities and
+perpetual struggles, all social effort is fruitless, it will merely
+degrade the individual to the helpless position of a parasite. The
+individual is born alone; he must die alone; his deepest passions, his
+most exquisite tastes, are personal; in this world, or in any other
+world, all the activities of society cannot suffice to save his soul.
+Thus it is that the individual must bear his own burdens, for it is
+only in so doing that the muscles of his body grow strong and that the
+energies of his spirit become keen. It is by the qualities of the
+individual alone that work is sound and that initiative is possible. All
+trade and commerce, every practical affair of life, depend for success
+on the personal ability of individuals.[253] It is not only so in the
+everyday affairs of life, it is even more so on the highest planes of
+intellectual and spiritual life. The supreme great men of the race were
+termed by Carlyle its "heroes," by Emerson its "representative men,"
+but, equally by the less and by the more democratic term, they are
+always individuals standing apart from society, often in violent
+opposition to it, though they have always conquered in the end. When any
+great person has stood alone against the world it has always been the
+world that lost. The strongest man, as Ibsen argued in his _Enemy of the
+People_, is the man who stands most alone. "He will be the greatest,"
+says Nietzsche in _Beyond Good and Evil_, "who can be the most solitary,
+the most concealed, the most divergent." Every great and vitally
+organized person is hostile to the rigid and narrow routine of social
+conventions, whether established by law or by opinion; they must ever be
+broken to suit his vital needs. Therefore the more we multiply these
+social routines, the more strands we weave into the social web, the more
+closely we draw them, by so much the more we are discouraging the
+production of great and vitally organized persons, and by so much the
+more we are exposing society to destruction at the hands of such
+persons.
+
+Beneath Socialism lies the assertion that society came first and that
+individuals are indefinitely apt for education into their place in
+society. Socialism has inherited the maxim, which Rousseau, the
+uncompromising Individualist, placed at the front of his _Social
+Contract_: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." There is
+nothing to be done but to strike off the chains and organize society on
+a social basis. Men are not this or that; they are what they have been
+made. Make the social conditions right, says the thorough-going
+Socialist, and individuals will be all that we could desire them to be.
+Not poverty alone, but disease, lunacy, prostitution, criminality are
+all the results of bad social and economic conditions. Create the right
+environment and you have done all that is necessary. To some extent that
+is clearly true. But the individualist insists that there are definite
+limits to its truth. Even in the most favourable environment nearly
+every ill that the Socialist seeks to remove is found. Inevitably, the
+Individualist declares, because we do not spring out of our environment,
+but out of our ancestral stocks. Against the stress on environment, the
+Individualist lays the stress on the ascertained facts of heredity. It
+is the individual that counts, and for good or for ill the individual
+brought his fate with him at birth. Ensure the production of sound
+individuals, and you may set at naught the environment. You will,
+indeed, secure results incomparably better than even the most anxious
+care expended on environment alone can ever hope to secure.
+
+Such are the respective attitudes of Socialism and Individualism. So far
+as I can see, they are both absolutely right. Nor is it even clear that
+they are really opposed; for, as happens in every field, while the
+affirmations of each are sound, their denials are unsound. Certainly,
+along each line we may be carried to absurdity. The Individualism of Max
+Stirner is not far from the ultimate frontier of sanity, and possibly
+even on the other side of it;[254] while the Socialism of the Oneida
+Community involved a self-subordination which it would be idle to expect
+from the majority of men and women. But there is a perfect division of
+labour between Socialism and Individualism. We cannot have too much of
+either of them. We have only to remember that the field of each is
+distinct. No one needs Individualism in his water supply, and no one
+needs Socialism in his religion. All human affairs sort themselves out
+as coming within the province of Socialism or of Individualism, and each
+may be pushed to its furthest extreme.[255]
+
+It so happens, however, that the capacity of the human brain is limited,
+and a single brain is not made to hold together the idea of Socialism
+and the idea of Individualism. Ordinary people have, it is true, no
+practical difficulty whatever in acting concurrently in accordance with
+the ideas of Socialism and of Individualism. But it is different with
+the men of ideas; they must either be Socialists or Individualists; they
+cannot be both. The tendency in one or the other direction is probably
+inborn in these men of ideas.
+
+We need not regret this inevitable division of labour. On the contrary,
+it is difficult to see how the right result could otherwise be brought
+about. People without ideas experience no difficulty in harmonizing the
+two tendencies. But if the ideas of Socialism and Individualism tended
+to appear in the same brain they would neutralize each other or lead
+action into an unprofitable _via media_. The separate initiative and
+promulgation of the two tendencies encourages a much more effective
+action, and best promotes that final harmony of the two extremes which
+the finest human development needs.
+
+There is more to be said. Not only are both alike indispensable, and
+both too profoundly rooted in human nature to be abolished or abridged,
+but each is indispensable to the other. There can be no Socialism
+without Individualism; there can be no Individualism without Socialism.
+Only a very fine development of personal character and individual
+responsibility can bear up any highly elaborated social organization,
+which is why small Socialist communities have only attained success by
+enlisting finely selected persons; only a highly organized social
+structure can afford scope for the play of individuality. The
+enlightened Socialist nowadays often realizes something of the
+relationship of Socialism to Individualism, and the Individualist--if he
+were not in recent times, for all his excellent qualities, sometimes
+lacking in mental flexibility and alertness--would be prepared to admit
+his own relationship to Socialism. "The organization of the whole is
+dominated by the necessities of cellular life," as Dareste says. That
+truth is well recognized by the physiologists since the days of Claude
+Bernard. It is absolutely true of the physiology of society. Social
+organization is not for the purpose of subordinating the individual to
+society; it is as much for the purpose of subordinating society to the
+individual.
+
+Between individuals, even the greatest, and society there is perpetual
+action and reaction. While the individual powerfully acts on society, he
+can only so act in so far as he is himself the instrument and organ of
+society. The individual leads society, but only in that direction
+whither society wishes to go. Every man of science merely carries
+knowledge or invention one further step, a needed and desired step,
+beyond the stage reached by his immediate predecessors. Every poet and
+artist is only giving expression to the secret feelings and impulses of
+his fellows. He has the courage to utter for the first time the intimate
+emotion and aspiration which he finds in the depth of his own soul, and
+he has the skill to express them in forms of radiant beauty. But all
+these secret feelings and desires are in the hearts of other men, who
+have not the boldness to tell them nor the ability to embody them
+exquisitely. In the life of man, as in nature generally, there is a
+perpetual process of exfoliation, as Edward Carpenter calls it, whereby
+a latent but striving desire is revealed, and the man of genius is the
+stimulus and the incarnation of this exfoliating movement. That is why
+every great poet and artist when once his message becomes intelligible,
+is acclaimed and adored by the crowd for whom he would only have been an
+object of idle wonderment if he had not expressed and glorified
+themselves. When the man of genius is too far ahead of his time, he is
+rejected, however great his genius may be, because he represents the
+individual out of vital relation to his time. A Roger Bacon, for all his
+stupendous intellect, is deprived of pen and paper and shut up in a
+monastery, because he is undertaking to answer questions which will not
+be asked until five centuries after his death. Perhaps the supreme man
+of genius is he who, like Virgil, Leonardo, or Shakespeare, has a
+message for his own time and a message for all times, a message which is
+for ever renewed for every new generation.
+
+The need for insisting on the intimate relations between Socialism and
+Individualism has become the more urgent to-day because we are reaching
+a stage of civilization in which each tendency is inevitably so pushed
+to its full development that a clash is only prevented by the
+realization that here we have truly a harmony. Sometimes a matter that
+belongs to one sphere is so closely intertwined with a matter that
+belongs to the other that it is a very difficult problem how to hold
+them separate and allow each its due value.[256]
+
+At times, indeed, it is really very difficult to determine to which
+sphere a particular kind of human activity belongs. This is notably the
+case as regards education. "Render unto Caesar the things that be
+Caesar's, and unto God the things that be God's." But is education among
+the things that belong to Caesar, to social organization, or among the
+things that belong to God, to the province of the individual's soul?
+There is much to be said on both sides. Of late the Socialist tendency
+prevails here, and there is a disposition to standardize rigidly an
+education so superficial, so platitudinous, so uniform, so
+unprofitable--so fatally oblivious of what even the word _education_
+means[257]--that some day, perhaps, the revolted Individualist spirit will
+arise in irresistible might to sweep away the whole worthless structure
+from top to bottom, with even such possibilities of good as it may
+conceal. The educationalists of to-day may do well to remember that it
+is wise to be generous to your enemies even in the interests of your own
+preservation.
+
+In every age the question of Individualism and Socialism takes on a
+different form. In our own age it has become acute under the form of a
+conflict between the advocates of good heredity and the advocates of
+good environment. On the one hand there is the desire to breed the
+individual to a high degree of efficiency by eugenic selection,
+favouring good stocks and making the procreation of bad stocks more
+difficult. On the other hand there is the effort so to organize the
+environment by collectivist methods that life for all may become easy
+and wholesome. As usual, those who insist on the importance of good
+environment are inclined to consider that the question of heredity may
+be left to itself, and those who insist on the importance of good
+heredity are indifferent to environment. As usual, also, there is a real
+underlying harmony of those two demands. There is, however, here more
+than this. In this most modern of their embodiments, Socialism and
+Individualism are not merely harmonious, each is the key to the other,
+which remains unattainable without it. However carefully we improve our
+breed, however anxiously we guard the entrance to life, our labour will
+be in vain if we neglect to adapt the environment to the fine race we
+are breeding. The best individuals are not the toughest, any more than
+the highest species are the toughest, but rather, indeed, the reverse,
+and no creature needs so much and so prolonged an environing care as
+man, to ensure his survival. On the other hand, an elaborate attention
+to the environment, combined with a reckless inattention to the quality
+of the individuals born to live in that environment can only lead to an
+overburdened social organization which will speedily fall by its own
+weight.
+
+During the past century the Socialists of the school for bettering the
+environment have for the most part had the game in their own hands. They
+founded themselves on the very reasonable basis of sympathy, a basis
+which the eighteenth-century moralists had prepared, which Schopenhauer
+had formulated, which George Eliot had passionately preached, which had
+around its operations the immense prestige of the gospel of Jesus. The
+environmental Socialists--always quite reasonably--set themselves to
+improve the conditions of labour; they provided local relief for the
+poor; they built hospitals for the free treatment of the sick. They are
+proceeding to feed school children, to segregate and protect the
+feeble-minded, to insure the unemployed, to give State pensions to the
+aged, and they are even asked to guarantee work for all. Now these
+things, and the likes of them, are not only in accordance with natural
+human impulses, but for the most part they are reasonable, and in
+protecting the weak the strong are, in a certain sense, protecting
+themselves. No one nowadays wants the hungry to hunger or the suffering
+to suffer. Indeed, in that sense, there never has been any
+_laissez-faire_ school.[258]
+
+But as the movement of environmental Socialism realizes itself, it
+becomes increasingly clear that it is itself multiplying the work which
+it sets itself to do. In enabling the weak, the incompetent, and the
+defective to live and to live comfortably, it makes it easier for those
+on the borderland of these classes to fall into them, and it furnishes
+the conditions which enable them to propagate their like, and to do
+this, moreover, without that prudent limitation which is now becoming
+universal in all classes above those of the weak, the incompetent, and
+the defective. Thus unchecked environmental Socialism, obeying natural
+impulses and seeking legitimate ends, would be drawn into courses at the
+end of which only social enfeeblement, perhaps even dissolution, could
+be seen.
+
+The key to the situation, it is now beginning to be more and more widely
+felt, is to be found in the counterbalancing tendency of Individualism,
+and the eugenic guardianship of the race. Not, rightly understood, as a
+method of arresting environmental Socialism, nor even as a counterblast
+to its gospel of sympathy. Nietzsche, indeed, has made a famous assault
+on sympathy, as he has on conventional morality generally, but his
+"immoralism" in general and his "hardness" in particular are but new and
+finer manifestations of those faded virtues he was really seeking to
+revive. The superficially sympathetic man flings a coin to the beggar;
+the more deeply sympathetic man builds an almshouse for him so that he
+need no longer beg; but perhaps the most radically sympathetic of all is
+the man who arranges that the beggar shall not be born.
+
+So it is that the question of breed, the production of fine individuals,
+the elevation of the ideal of quality in human production over that of
+mere quantity, begins to be seen, not merely as a noble ideal in itself,
+but as the only method by which Socialism can be enabled to continue on
+its present path. If the entry into life is conceded more freely to the
+weak, the incompetent, and the defective than to the strong, the
+efficient, and the sane, then a Sisyphean task is imposed on society;
+for every burden lifted two more burdens appear. But as individual
+responsibility becomes developed, as we approach the time to which
+Galton looked forward, when the eugenic care for the race may become a
+religion, then social control over the facts of life becomes possible.
+Through the slow growth of knowledge concerning hereditary conditions,
+by voluntary self-restraint, by the final disappearance of the lingering
+prejudice against the control of procreation, by sterilization in
+special cases, by methods of pressure which need not amount to actual
+compulsion,[259] it will be possible to attain an increasingly firm grip
+on the evil elements of heredity. Not until such measures as these,
+under the controlling influence of a sense of personal responsibility
+extending to every member of the community, have long been put into
+practice, can we hope to see man on the earth risen to his full stature,
+healthy in body, noble in spirit, beautiful in both alike, moving
+spaciously and harmoniously among his fellows in the great world of
+Nature, to which he is so subtly adapted because he has himself sprung
+out of it and is its most exquisite flower. At this final point social
+hygiene becomes one with the hygiene of the soul.[260]
+
+Poets and prophets, from Jesus and Paul to Novalis and Whitman, have
+seen the divine possibilities of Man. There is no temple in the world,
+they seem to say, so great as the human body; he comes in contact with
+Heaven, they declare, who touches a human person. But these human
+things, made to be gods, have spawned like frogs over all the earth.
+Everywhere they have beslimed its purity and befouled its beauty,
+darkening the very sunshine. Heaped upon one another in evil masses,
+preying upon one another as no other creature has ever preyed upon its
+kind, they have become a festering heap which all the oceans in vain
+lave with their antiseptic waters, and all the winds of heaven cannot
+purify. It is only in the unextinguished spark of reason within him that
+salvation for man may ever be found, in the realization that he is his
+own star, and carries in his hands his own fate. The impulses of
+Individualism and of Socialism alike prompt us to gain self-control and
+to learn the vast extent of our responsibility. The whole of humanity is
+working for each of us; each of us must live worthy of that great
+responsibility to humanity. By how fine a flash of insight Jesus
+declared that few could enter the Kingdom of Heaven! Not until the earth
+is purified of untold millions of its population will it ever become the
+Heaven of old dreamers, in which the elect walk spaciously and nobly,
+loving one another. Only in such spacious and pure air is it possible
+for the individual to perfect himself, as a rose becomes perfect,
+according to Dante's beautiful simile,[261] in order that he may spread
+abroad for others the fragrance that has been generated within him. If
+one thinks of it, that seems a truism, yet, even in this twentieth
+century, how few, how very few, there are who know it!
+
+This is why we cannot have too much Individualism, we cannot have too
+much Socialism. They play into each other's hands. To strengthen one is
+to give force to the other. The greater the vigour of both, the more
+vitally a society is progressing. "I can no more call myself an
+Individualist or a Socialist," said Henry George, "than one who
+considers the forces by which the planets are held to their orbits could
+call himself a centrifugalist or a centripetalist." To attain a society
+in which Individualism and Socialism are each carried to its extreme
+point would be to attain to the society that lived in the Abbey of
+Thelema, in the City of the Sun, in Utopia, in the land of Zarathustra,
+in the Garden of Eden, in the Kingdom of Heaven. It is a kingdom, no
+doubt, that is, as Diderot expressed it, "diablement ideal." But to-day
+we hold in our hands more certainly than ever before the clues that were
+imperfectly foreshadowed by Plato, and what our fathers sought
+ignorantly we may attempt by methods according to knowledge. No Utopia
+was ever realized; and the ideal is a mirage that must ever elude us or
+it would cease to be ideal. Yet all our progress, if progress there be,
+can only lie in setting our faces towards that goal to which Utopias and
+ideals point.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[248] In the narrow sense Socialism is identical with the definite
+economic doctrine of the Collectivistic organization of the productive
+and distributive work of society. It also possesses, as Bosanquet
+remarks (in an essay on "Individualism and Socialism," in _The
+Civilization of Christendom_), "a deeper meaning as a name for a human
+tendency that is operative throughout history." Every Collectivist is a
+Socialist, but not every Socialist would admit that he is a
+Collectivist. "Moral Socialism," however, though not identical with
+"Economic Socialism," tends to involve it.
+
+[249] The term "Individualism," like the term "Socialism," is used in
+varying senses, and is not, therefore, satisfactory to everyone. Thus
+E.F.B. Fell (_The Foundations of Liberty_, 1908), regarding
+"Individualism," as a merely negative term, prefers the term
+"Personalism," to denote a more positive ideal. There is, however, by no
+means as any necessity to consider "Individualism," a more negative term
+than "Socialism."
+
+[250] The inspiring appeal of Socialism to ardent minds is no doubt
+ethical. "The ethics of Socialism," says Kirkup, "are closely akin to
+the ethics of Christianity, if not identical with them." That, perhaps,
+is why Socialism is so attractive to some minds, so repugnant to others.
+
+[251] This idea was elaborated by Eimer in an appendix to his _Organic
+Evolution_ on the idea of the individual in the animal kingdom.
+
+[252] The term "socialism" is said to date from about the year 1835.
+Leroux claimed that he invented it, in opposition to the term
+"individualism," but at that period it had become so necessary and so
+obvious a term that it is difficult to say positively by whom it was
+first used.
+
+[253] An important point which the Individualist may fairly bring forward
+in this connection is the tendency of Socialism to repress the energy of
+the best worker among its officials at the expense of the public. Alike
+in government offices at Whitehall and in municipal offices in the town
+halls there is a certain proportion of workers who find pleasure in
+putting forth their best energies at high pressure. But the majority
+take care that work shall be carried on at low pressure, and that the
+output shall not exceed a certain understood minimum. They ensure this
+by making things uncomfortable for the workers who exceed that minimum.
+The gravity of this evil is scarcely yet realized. It could probably be
+counteracted by so organizing promotion that the higher posts really
+went to the officials distinguished by the quantity and the quality of
+their work. Pensions should also be affected by the same consideration.
+In any case, the evil is serious, and is becoming more so since the
+number of public officials is constantly increasing. The Council of the
+Law Society found some years ago that the cost of civil administration
+in England had increased between the years 1894 and 1904 from 19
+millions to 25 millions, and, excluding the Revenue Departments, it is
+now said to have gone up to 42 millions. It is an evil that will have to
+be dealt with sooner or later.
+
+[254] Max Stirner wrote his work, _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_ (_The
+Ego and His Own_, in the English translation of Byington), in 1845. His
+life has been written by John Henry Mackay (_Max Stirner: Sein Leben und
+Sein Werk_), and an interesting study of Max Stirner (whose real name
+was Schmidt) will be found in James Huneker's _Egoists_.
+
+[255] In the introduction to my earliest book, _The New Spirit_ (1889), I
+set forth this position, from which I have never departed: "While we are
+socializing all those things of which all have equal common need, we are
+more and more tending to leave to the individual the control of those
+things which in our complex civilization constitute individuality. We
+socialize what we call our physical life in order that we may attain
+greater freedom for what we call our spiritual life." No doubt such a
+point of view was implicit in Ruskin and other previous writers, just as
+it has subsequently been set forth by Ellen Key and others, while from
+the economic side it has been well formulated by Mr. J.A. Hobson in his
+_Evolution of Capital_: "The _very raison d'etre_ of increased social
+cohesiveness is to economize and enrich the individual life, and to
+enable the play of individual energy to assume higher forms out of which
+more individual satisfaction may accrue." "Socialism will be of value,"
+thought Oscar Wilde in his _Soul of Man_, "simply because it will lead
+to Individualism." "Socialism denies economic Individualism for any,"
+says Karl Noetzel ("Zur Ethischen Begrundung des Sozialismus,"
+_Sozialistische Monatshefte_, 1910, Heft 23), "in order to make moral
+intellectual Individualism possible for all." And as it has been seen
+that Socialism leads to Individualism, so it has also been seen that
+Individualism, even on the ethical plane, leads to Socialism. "You must
+let the individual make his will a reality in the conduct of his life,"
+Bosanquet remarks in an essay already quoted, "in order that it may be
+possible for him consciously to entertain the social purpose as a
+constituent of his will. Without these conditions there is no social
+organism and no moral Socialism.... Each unit of the social organism has
+to embody his relations with the whole in his own particular work and
+will; and in order to do this the individual must have a strength and
+depth in himself proportional to and consisting of the relations which
+he has to embody." Grant Allen long since clearly set forth the harmony
+between Individualism and Socialism in an article published in the
+_Contemporary Review_ in 1879.
+
+[256] An instructive illustration is furnished by the question of the
+relation of the sexes, and elsewhere (_Studies in the Psychology of
+Sex_, Vol. VI, "Sex in Relation to Society") I have sought to show that
+we must distinguish between marriage, which is directly the affair of
+the individuals primarily concerned, and procreation, which is mainly
+the concern of society.
+
+[257] See, for instance, the opinion of the former Chief Inspector of
+Elementary Schools in England, Mr. Edmond Holmes, _What Is and What
+Might Be_ (1911). He points out that true education must be
+"self-realization," and that the present system of "education" is
+entirely opposed to self-realization. Sir John Gorst, again, has
+repeatedly attacked the errors of the English State system of
+education.
+
+[258] The phrase _Laissez faire_ is sometimes used as though it were the
+watchword of a party which graciously accorded a free hand to the Devil
+to do his worst. As a matter of fact, it was simply a phrase adopted by
+the French economists of the eighteenth century to summarize the
+conclusion of their arguments against the antiquated restrictions which
+were then stifling the trade and commerce of France (see G. Weuleresse,
+_Le Mouvement Physiocratique en France_, 1910, Vol. II, p. 17). Properly
+understood, it is not a maxim which any party need be ashamed to own.
+
+[259] I would again repeat that I do not regard legislation as a channel
+of true eugenic reform. As Bateson well says (_op. cit._ p. 15); "It is
+not the tyrannical and capricious interference of a half-informed
+majority which can safely mould or purify a population, but rather that
+simplification of instinct for which we ever hope, which fuller
+knowledge alone can make possible." Even the subsidising of
+unexceptionable parents, as the same writer remarks, cannot be viewed
+with enthusiasm. "If we picture to ourselves the kind of persons who
+would infallibly be chosen as examples of 'civic worth' the prospect is
+not very attractive."
+
+[260] "Aristotle, herein the organ and exponent of the Greek national
+mind," remarks Gomperz, "understood by the hygiene of the soul the
+avoidance of all extremes, the equilibrium of the powers, the harmonious
+development of aptitudes, none of which is allowed to starve or paralyse
+the others." Gomperz points out that this individual morality
+corresponded to the characteristics of the Greek national religion--its
+inclusiveness and spaciousness, its freedom and serenity, its
+ennoblement alike of energetic action and passive enjoyment (Gomperz,
+_Greek Thinkers_, Eng. Trans., Vol. III, p. 13).
+
+[261] _Convito_, IV, 27.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+(_Names of Authors quoted are italicized._)
+
+
+Abortion, facultative, 99
+
+Age of consent, 288 _et seq._
+
+Aggeneration, 24
+
+Alcohol, legislative control of, 277 _et seq._, 295 _et seq._
+
+Alcoholism, 33, 41
+
+_Allen, Grant_, 394
+
+_Allen, W.H._, 11
+
+Ancestry, the study of, 2
+
+_Angell, Norman_, 321
+
+_Anthony, Susan_, 111
+
+Antimachus of Colophon, 117
+
+Anti-militarism, 328
+
+_Aristotle_, 403
+
+_Ashby_, 33
+
+_Asnurof_, 283
+
+_Aubry_, 42
+
+_Augustine_, St., 5
+
+Australia, birth-rate in, 146 _et seq._, 162;
+  moral legislation in, 291
+
+_Azoulay_, 188
+
+
+Bachofen, 91
+
+_Baines, Sir J.A._, 153
+
+_Barnes, Earl_, 223
+
+_Basedow_, 244
+
+_Bateson_, 27, 194, 402
+
+Beatrice, Dante's, 122
+
+Beaufront, L. de, 372, 373
+
+Bebel, 71, 88
+
+_Becker, R._, 118
+
+_Belbeze_, 211
+
+_Benecke, E.F.M._, 117
+
+Bergsonian philosophy, 31
+
+_Bertillon, G._, 63
+
+_Bertillon, J._, 278
+
+_Beveridge_, 171
+
+Bible in religious education, 230, 240
+
+_Billroth_, 353
+
+_Bingham_, 274
+
+Birth-rate, in France, 17, 136, 188;
+  in England, 17, 137;
+  in Germany, 17, 138;
+  in Russia, 25;
+  in United States, 141;
+  in Canada, 144;
+  in Australasia, 146, 162;
+  in Japan, 155;
+  in China, 156;
+  among savages, 167;
+  significance of a falling, 134 _et seq._;
+  in relation to death-rate, 7, 150
+
+_Blease, W. Lyon_, 70
+
+_Bloch, Iwan_, 93
+
+_Boccaccio_, 119, 123
+
+_Bodey_, 43, 201
+
+_Boehmert_, 138
+
+_Bonhoeffer_, 38
+
+_Booth, C._, 177, 184
+
+_Bosanquet_, 18, 383, 394
+
+_Bouche-Leclercq_, 306
+
+_Branthwaite_, 41
+
+_Braun, Lily_, 139
+
+_Brinton_, 351
+
+Budin, 8
+
+Bund fuer Mutterschutz, 96
+
+_Burckhardt_, 123
+
+_Burnham_, 221
+
+_Bushee, F._, 11, 171
+
+_Byington_, 393
+
+
+Camp, Maxime du, 50
+
+Campanella, 27
+
+Campbell, Harry, 179
+
+Canada, birth-rate in, 144 _et seq._;
+  sexual hygiene in, 253
+
+_Cantlie_, 179
+
+_Carpenter, Edward_, 397
+
+_Casper_, 91
+
+Certificates, eugenic, 30, 44, 202
+
+_Chadwick, Sir E._, 4, 184
+
+_Chamfort_, 256
+
+Chastity of German women, 88
+
+_Cheetham_, 235
+
+Chicago Vice Commission, 277, 295, 300
+
+Child, psychology of, 218
+
+Children, religious education of, 217
+
+China, birth-rate in, 156
+
+Christianity in relation to romantic love, 117
+
+Chivalrous attitude towards women, 124
+
+Civilization, what it consists in, 18
+
+_Clayton_, 180
+
+_Cobbe, F.P._, 50
+
+Co-education, 58
+
+_Coghlan, T.A._, 147, 161, 165, 166
+
+Coinage, international, 378
+
+Concubinage, legalized, 104
+
+_Condorcet_, 50, 67
+
+Confirmation, rite of, 236
+
+Consent, age of, 288 _et seq._
+
+Courts of Love, 119
+
+_Couturat_, 350, 374
+
+_Creed, J.M._, 291
+
+Criminality and feeble-mindedness, 38
+
+Cruce, Emeric, 315
+
+
+_Dante_, 122, 132
+
+_Dareste_, 387, 396
+
+_Davenport_, 35, 36, 44, 198
+
+Death-rate in relation to birth-rate, 7, 150
+
+Degenerate families, 41 _et seq._
+
+Degeneration of race, alleged, 19 _et seq._, 37
+
+_De Quincey_, 219
+
+Descartes, 349
+
+_Dickens_, 129
+
+_Dill, Sir S._, 305
+
+Disinfection, origin of, 5
+
+Divorce, 62, 109
+
+_Donkin, Sir H.B._, 39
+
+_Donnan_, 374
+
+Drunkenness, decrease of, 18
+
+Dubois, P., 315
+
+_Dugdale_, 42
+
+_Dumont, Arsene_, 157, 160, 171
+
+
+Economic aspect of woman's movement, 52, 63 _et seq._
+
+Education, 6, 47, 57, 71, 201, 217 _et seq._, 398
+
+_Ehrenfels_, 25
+
+_Eichholz_, 36
+
+_Eimer_, 387
+
+_Ellis, Havelock_, 15, 31, 40, 44, 49, 88, 100, 108,
+  118, 130, 154, 161, 179, 186, 204, 206, 207, 220, 244,
+  259, 369, 394
+
+Enfantin, Prosper, 104
+
+_Engelmann_, 142, 160, 165
+
+English, characteristics of the, 2;
+  attitude towards immorality, 270;
+  language for international purposes, 355 _et seq._
+
+Esperanto, 372
+
+_Espinas_, 60
+
+Eugenics, 12, 26 _et seq._, 107, 195 _et seq._, 399 _et seq._
+
+Euthenics, 12
+
+_Ewart, R.J._, 26, 172
+
+
+Factory legislation, 5
+
+_Fahlbeck_, 22
+
+Fairy tales in education, 239
+
+Family, limitation of, 16, 26
+
+Family in relation to degeneracy, 41;
+  size of, 35
+
+Feeble-minded, problem of the, 31 _et seq._
+
+_Fell, E.F.B._, 383
+
+Ferrer, 318
+
+Fertility in relation to prosperity, 169 _et seq._
+
+_Fiedler_, 229
+
+_Finlay-Johnson, H._, 227, 242
+
+_Firenzuola_, 123
+
+"Fit," the term, 44
+
+_Flux_, 138
+
+_Forel_, 93
+
+France, birth-rate in, 17, 136, 188;
+  women and love in, 119;
+  legal attitude towards immorality in, 265;
+  regulation of alcohol in, 278
+
+_Franklin, B._, 142, 327
+
+_Fraser, Mrs._, 115
+
+French language for international purposes, 364 _et seq._
+
+Frenssen, 95
+
+_Freud_, S., 92
+
+_Fuld, E.F._, 274, 276
+
+_Fuerch, Henriette_, 252
+
+
+_Galton, Sir F._, 28, 29, 44, 45, 107, 195, 197, 198, 200, 203, 208, 402
+
+_Gaultier, J. de_, 342
+
+_Gautier, Leon_, 119
+
+_Gavin, H._, 184
+
+_Gayley, Julia_, 420
+
+Germany, sex questions in, 87 _et seq._;
+  illegitimacy in, 97;
+  sexual hygiene in, 94;
+  legal attitude towards immorality in, 265, 301
+
+_Giddings_, 46
+
+_Godden_, 35, 198
+
+_Godwin, W._, 309
+
+_Goethe_, 128, 131
+
+_Goldscheid_, 167, 173
+
+_Gomperz_, 403
+
+_Goncourt_, 120
+
+Gouges, Olympe de, 68
+
+_Gourmont, Remy de_, 122, 299, 317
+
+_Gournay, Marie de_, 110
+
+_Grabowsky_, 263
+
+_Grasset_, 209
+
+_Gruenspan_, 97
+
+_Guerard_, 325, 346, 369
+
+_Guthrie, L._, 239
+
+
+_Haddon, A.C._, 234, 245
+
+_Hagen_, 262
+
+_Hale, Horatio_, 351
+
+_Hales, W.W._, 260
+
+_Hall, G. Stanley_, 220, 224, 232, 233, 303
+
+_Hamburger, C._, 151
+
+_Hamill, Henry_, 213
+
+_Hausmeister, P._, 302
+
+_Hayllar, F._, 233
+
+Health, nationalization of, 15
+
+Health visitors, 7
+
+_Hearn, Lafcadio_, 191
+
+_Henry, W.O._, 252
+
+Heredity of feeble-mindedness, 34;
+  as the hope of the race, 44;
+  study of, 198
+
+_Heron_, 19, 166
+
+_Herve_, 329
+
+_Hiller_, 263, 267
+
+_Hinton, James_, 133
+
+_Hirschfeld, Magnus_, 92, 286
+
+_Hobbes_, 313
+
+Holland, moral legislation in, 291
+
+_Holmes, Edmond_, 227, 228
+
+Homosexuality and the law, 283, 286
+
+_Hookey, N.A._, 174
+
+_Hughes, R.E._, 242
+
+_Humboldt, W. von_, 61, 106
+
+_Huneker_, 393
+
+Hungary, birth-rate and death-rate in, 169
+
+_Hutchinson, Woods_, 186
+
+Hygiene, in medieval and modern times, 5;
+  of sex, 244 _et seq._
+
+
+Idiocy, 32 _et seq._
+
+Ido, 373
+
+Illegitimacy, and feeble-mindedness, 37;
+  in Germany, 97
+
+Imbecility, 32 _et seq._
+
+Individualism, 3, 381 _et seq._
+
+Industrialism, modern, 2
+
+Inebriety and feeble-mindedness, 41
+
+Infant consultations, 8
+
+Infantile mortality, 7, 13, 25, 138, 150 _et seq._
+
+Initiation of youth, 234
+
+Insurance, national, 15
+
+International language of the future, 349 _et seq._
+
+
+_James, E.C._, 123
+
+James, William, 195
+
+Japan, romantic love in, 115;
+  birth-rate and death-rate in, 155;
+  changed conditions in, 191, 322
+
+_Jenks, E._, 312, 316
+
+_Johannsen_, 152
+
+_Johnson, Roswell_, 207
+
+_Jordan, D.S._, 324
+
+_Joerger_, 42
+
+Jukes family, 41
+
+
+_Kaan_, 91
+
+_Kellerman, Ivy_, 369
+
+_Key, Ellen_, 100 _et seq._, 130, 229, 394
+
+_Kirkup_, 384
+
+_Krafft-Ebing_, 92
+
+_Krauss, F.S._, 92
+
+_Kuczynski_, 142
+
+
+Labour movement and war, 329
+
+_La Chapelle, E.P._, 145
+
+_Lacour, L._, 68
+
+_Lagorgette_, 315
+
+Laissez-faire, the maxim of, 3, 400
+
+_Lancaster_, 231
+
+Language, international, 349 _et seq._
+
+Latin as an international language, 354
+
+_Lavelege, E. de_, 321
+
+Law, in relation to eugenics, 30, 45;
+  to morals, 48;
+  the sphere of, 312
+
+_Lea_, 88
+
+_Leau_, 350
+
+_Leibnitz_, 350
+
+_Levy, Miriam_, 221
+
+_Lewis, C.J. and J.N._, 165
+
+Lichtenstein, Ulrich von, 118
+
+Life-history albums, 199, 212 _et seq._
+
+_Lischnewska, Maria_, 248
+
+_Lobsien_, 226
+
+_Loomis, C.B._, 361
+
+_Lorenz_, 21, 373
+
+Love, and the woman's question, 59, 101, 113 _et seq._;
+  and eugenics, 203 _et seq._
+
+Luther, 94, 228, 306
+
+
+Mackay, J.H., 393
+
+_Macnamara, N.C._, 179
+
+_Macquart_, 188
+
+Maine, prohibition in, 279
+
+_Mannhardt_, 204
+
+_Manouvrier_, 86
+
+_Marcuse, Max_, 94
+
+Marriage, certificates for, 30, 44, 45, 209;
+  economics and, 61;
+  natural selection and, 204;
+  State regulation of, 61 _et seq._;
+  the ideal of, 101;
+  in classic times, 114
+
+Marriage-rate, 139, 164, 173
+
+_Matignon_, 156
+
+Matriarchal theory, 49
+
+_Maurice, Sir F._, 180
+
+_McLean_, 161
+
+_Meisel-Hess, Grete_, 109, 130
+
+_Meray_, 119, 365
+
+_Mercier_, C., 20
+
+Meredith, George, 129
+
+Miele, 9
+
+_Miers_, 354
+
+Milk Depots, 8
+
+_Mill_, J.S., 52, 71
+
+_Moll_, 92, 93, 246
+
+_Montaigne_, 115
+
+_Montesquieu_, 37
+
+_Moore, B._, 15, 185
+
+Morals in relation to law, 48, 258 _et seq._
+
+More, Sir T., 29
+
+_Morgan, L._, 66
+
+_Morse, J._, 224
+
+Mortality of infants, 7, 13, 25, 138, 150 _et seq._
+
+Motherhood in relation to eugenics, 46
+
+Mothers, schools for, 9
+
+_Mougins-Roquefort_, 312
+
+Municipal authorities to instruct in limitation of offspring, duty of, 26
+
+_Muralt_, 2
+
+Mysteries, Pagan and Christian, 235
+
+
+_Naecke_, 186
+
+Napoleon, 69, 265
+
+_Nars, L._, 69
+
+National Insurance, 15
+
+Nationalization of health, 15
+
+Natural selection and social reform, 13
+
+_Nearing, Scott_, 194
+
+Neo-Malthusianism, 16, 26, 102, 159 _et seq._
+
+_Nevinson, H.W._, 330
+
+_Newsholme_, 7, 19, 137, 166, 172
+
+New Zealand, birth-rate in, 148
+
+_Nietzsche_, 190, 309, 334, 392
+
+_Niphus_, 123
+
+Norway, infantile mortality in, 14
+
+_Noetzel_, R., 394
+
+_Novikov_, 324, 330, 342
+
+Noys, H., 29
+
+_Nystroem_, 26
+
+
+Obscenity, 255, 304
+
+Oneida, 29
+
+Ovid, 114, 132
+
+Owen, Robert, 51
+
+
+Pankhurst, Mrs., 85
+
+_Partridge, G.L._, 219
+
+_Paul, Eden_, 208
+
+_Pearson, Karl_, 198
+
+_Penn, W._, 341
+
+_Perrycoste, F.H._, 212
+
+_Peters, J.P._, 293
+
+_Pfaundler_, 371
+
+Pinard, J., 252
+
+_Pinloche_, 244
+
+_Plate_, 185
+
+_Ploetz_, 210
+
+_Ploss_, 167, 176
+
+Police systems, 274
+
+Post Office, inquisition at the, 276
+
+Prohibition of alcohol in Maine, 279
+
+Prosperity in relation to fertility, 169 _et seq._
+
+Prostitution, and feeble-mindedness, 38;
+  and sexual selection, 60;
+  varying legal attitude towards, 285, 296
+
+Puberty, psychic influence of, 231 _et seq._
+
+Puericulture, 7
+
+
+Quakers, 270
+
+Quarantine, origin of, 5
+
+
+Race, alleged degeneration of, 19 _et seq._, 37
+
+Raines Law hotels, 293 _et seq._
+
+_Ramsay, Sir W.M._, 305
+
+_Ranke, Karl_, 169
+
+_Raschke, Marie_, 99
+
+Reform, Social hygiene as distinct from sexual, 1;
+  four stages of social, 4 _et seq._
+
+_Reibmayr_, 22
+
+Religion, and eugenics, 208;
+  and the child, 217 _et seq._
+
+Reproduction, control of, 17
+
+_Richards, Ellen_, 12
+
+_Richardson, Sir B.W._, 65
+
+_Robert, P._, 340
+
+_Roberts, A.M._, 369, 370
+
+Roman Catholics and Neo-Malthusianism, 161
+
+Roseville, 173
+
+_Ross, E.A._, 156
+
+_Rousseau_, 229
+
+_Rubin_, 153, 166
+
+_Ruediger_, 232
+
+Rural life, influence of, 177 _et seq._
+
+_Russell, Mrs. B._, 9
+
+Russia, infantile mortality in, 14, 154, 168;
+  moral legislation in, 282
+
+_Ryle, R.J._, 33
+
+
+Sacraments, origin of Christian, 235
+
+Saint-Pierre, Abbe de, 339
+
+Saint-Simon, 51, 104
+
+St. Valentine and eugenics, 203
+
+Sand, George, 50, 105
+
+Sanitation as an element of social reform, 4
+
+_Saussure, R. de_, 380
+
+_Sayer, E._, 35
+
+_Schallmayer_, 200
+
+_Schiff, M._, 110
+
+Schleyer, 352
+
+_Schooling, J.H._, 174
+
+Schools for mothers, 9
+
+_Schrader, O._, 88
+
+_Schreiner, Olive_, 130, 330
+
+_Schroeder, T._, 255, 304
+
+Science and social reform, 11
+
+_Sellers, E._, 266, 301
+
+Sex questions in Germany, 87 _et seq._
+
+Sexual hygiene, 244 _et seq._, 309
+
+Sexual selection, 59, 203 _et seq._
+
+Shaftesbury, Earl of, 6
+
+_Sherwell, A._, 280
+
+_Shrank, J._, 285
+
+_Siegler-Pascal_, 339
+
+_Sitwell, Sir G._, 327
+
+_Smith, Sir T._, 120
+
+_Smith, T.P._, 180
+
+Social reform as distinct from social hygiene, 1;
+  its four stages, 4 _et seq._
+
+Socialism, 18, 208, 381 _et seq._
+
+Society of the future, 55
+
+_Sollier_, 354
+
+_Solmi_, 28
+
+_Sombart_, 138
+
+Spain, legalized concubinage in, 104;
+  women in, 129
+
+Spanish as an international language, 353
+
+_Stanton, E.C._, 85
+
+_Starbuck_, 232
+
+_Steinmetz_, 312, 331
+
+_Steele_, 27
+
+Sterilization, 30, 44, 46
+
+Sterility and the birth-rate, 164
+
+_Stevenson_, 19
+
+_Stewart, A._, 237
+
+_Stewart, R.S._, 182
+
+_Stirner, Max_, 393
+
+Stirpiculture, 29
+
+_Stoecker, H._, 96
+
+_Streitberg, Countess von_, 99
+
+Suffrage, woman's, 50, 57, 71 _et seq._
+
+Sully, 315, 340
+
+Sun, City of the, 27
+
+_Sutherland, A._, 312
+
+_Sykes_, 9
+
+Syndicalism, 329
+
+Syphilis, 32
+
+
+_Taine_, 128, 313
+
+_Takano_, 155
+
+_Tarde_, 132, 307
+
+_Thompson, W._, 51
+
+_Toulouse_, 45, 186
+
+Tramps and feeble-mindedness, 41
+
+_Tredgold_, 34
+
+
+United States, birth-rate in, 140 _et seq._;
+  sexual hygiene in, 254;
+  attitude towards immorality in, 273 _et seq._
+
+Urban life, influence of, 177 _et seq._
+
+
+Vasectomy, 31
+
+Venereal disease and sexual hygiene, 254
+
+_Vesnitch_, 315
+
+Vineland, 34
+
+Volapuek, 352
+
+
+_Wagenen, W.F. van_, 378
+
+War against war, 311 _et seq._
+
+Ward, Mrs. Humphry, 76
+
+_Weale, B.L. Putnam_, 157
+
+_Weatherby_, 157
+
+_Webb, Sidney_, 156, 163
+
+_Weeks_, 35, 36
+
+_Weinberg, S._, 99
+
+_Wentworth, S._, 173
+
+_Westergaard_, 166
+
+_Westermarck_, 559
+
+_Weuleresse_, 400
+
+Wheeler, Mrs., 52
+
+White slave trade, 288
+
+_Whetham, W.C.D. and Mrs._, 199
+
+_Whitman, Walt_, 66, 403
+
+_Wilcox, W.F._, 141
+
+_Wilde, O._, 394
+
+_Wilhelm, C._, 266
+
+_Wollstonecraft, Mary_, 50, 69, 70, 111
+
+Woman, and eugenics, 46;
+  movement, 49 _et seq._;
+  economics, 63 _et seq._;
+  eighteenth century, 69, 128;
+  and the suffrage, 50, 57, 71 _et seq._;
+  of the Italian Renaissance, 123;
+  in Spanish literature, 129;
+  and war, 330
+
+
+_Yule, G. Udny_, 139, 174
+
+
+Zamenhof, 372
+
+Zero family, 42
+
+_Ziller_, 240
+
+
+  WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.
+  PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+   With the following exceptions spelling and punctuation of the
+   original text have been maintained:
+
+   1. Obvious typographical errors and punctuation inconsistencies.
+   2. Chapter V, Par 16 "high death-rate" has been changed to
+     "high birth-rate".
+   3. Chapter VII Par 16 "precocious sexual" has been changed to "precocious
+     scriptural".
+   4. Ligatured words "mytho-poeic", "OEuvres", and "boef" have been left
+     unligatured.
+   5. Italicized words have been surrounded with underline "_".
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE***
+
+
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